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THE JAMES MILLIKIN 
UNIVERSITY 


Ex iis Lux 
: _ - —  & 


ORVILLE B. GORIN LIBRARY 
of the 


Decatur College and Industrial 
School 


ceo 


e 
‘ 


os 


HAYDN’S 


DICTIONARY OF DATES 


UNIVERSAL INFORMATION 


RELATING TO ALL AGES AND NATIONS. 


EIGHTEENTH EDITION, 


CONTAINING THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD TO 
THE SUMMER OF 1885. 


By BENJAMIN VINCENT, 


LIBRARIAN OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, 
COR. MEM. HIST. SOC. NEW YORK. 


“* Indocti discant et ament meminisse periti.” 


NEW YORK 
meer te US EN AMS SONS 
27 AND 29 WEST 23D ST. 


18387 _ 


2 : . . 
Tre, 7 oe ? 


4 


“ere lg 


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PREFACE TO THE EIGHTEENTH EDITION. 


Tis book, when it first appeared in 1841, consisted of 568 pages of 
smaller size and larger type than those of later editions. It was favourably 
received, as it in some degree supplied a public want. In 1855, Mr. Joseph 
Haydn, the compiler, was compelled by failing health to relinquish his 
labours, and at the earnest request of the Publisher, Mr. Edward Moxon, 
the present Editor undertook the continuation of the work, and the superin- 
tendence of the SzeventH EpiTion, while passing through the press. This 
led eventually to his undertaking the thorough renovation of the book, 
which has been effected by long continued labour in revision and in selection 
from an abundance of valuable materials, and now little of the original work 
remains. ‘The new features include Chronological Tables at the beginning 
of the volume, innumerable literary, scientific, topographical, and geogra- 
phical facts inserted in the body of the work, and a Dated Index. To 
make room for these additions the size of the page has been enlarged, 
many articles have been condensed or printed in smaller type, and muck 


useless matter has been expunged. 


The E1gHTeENTH Epition has been thoroughly revised, and continues the 
general history of the world during the last three and a half years, under the 
heads of the respective countries ; the more important events being noticed 
in separate articles. Especial attention has been given to the affairs of the 
British Empire, political, ecclesiastical, social, commercial, and philanthropic. 
Details are given of our recent wars in Egypt and the Soudan, and of the 
French wars in Tonquin and China. Many small articles have been inserted 
relating to topics liable to arise in general conversation. ‘This edition con- 
tains fifty-five pages more than the last, published in 1881, and one hundred 
and three pages more than that published in 1878. 


i (hee ee 
‘ ya 4 
Ww & Gg re 


vi | PREFACE. 


The Editor has endeavoured to make the book a dated Cyclopeedia, a 
digested summary of every department of human history, brought down to 
the eve of publication ; acting under the influence of the old maxims, “ Homo 
sum; humani nihil a me ahenum puto,” and “Nulla dies sine lined.” The - 
kindness of those friends who have pointed out errors and omissions, 
which are almost unavoidable in a work of such scope and magnitude, is 
gratefully acknowledged. Much of the information in the book neces- 
sarily depends on varying statements often exceedingly difficult to _ 
verify. : 

The more important events that have occurred during the printing of this 


edition, including the insurrection in the North-West territory of Canada, are 


noticed in the ADDENDA, pages 941-2. 
A DIcTIONARY OF BIOGRAPHY, as a suitable companion to this Dicrion- 
ARY OF Dates, was published in 1877. 


BENJAMIN VINCENT. 


Roya. INSTITUTION, 
ALBEMARLE STREET, LONDON, W. 
June, 1885. 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 


——_—_ @-- 


THE design of the Author has been to attempt the compression of the 
greatest body of general information that has ever appeared in a single 
volume, and to produce a Book of Reference whose extensive usefulness may 
render its possession material to every individual—in the same manner 
that a London Directory is indispensable, on business affairs, to a London 
merchant. 


The Compiler persuades himself that the Dictionary or DarTEs will be 
received as a useful companion to all Biographical works, relating, as it does, 
to things as those do to persons, and affording information not included in the 
range or design of such publications. 


JOSEPH HAYDN. 
Lonpon, May, 1841. [Died Jan. 17, 1856.] 


TABLE OF CONTEMPORAR 


Great Britain. 


ENGLAND. 


1066. Will. I. 
1087. WilL IL. 


troo. Hen. I. 


£135. Steph. 


1154. Hen. 2. 


1172. (Ireld. 
annexed.) 
1189. Rich. I. 


1199. John. 


1216. Hen. 3. 


1272. Ed. I. 


France. 


SCOTLAND. 


1057. Male. 3. |1060. 


1093. Donald 
1094. Dune. 
1094. Donald 
again. 
1098. Edgar. 


1107. Alex,I,|1108. 


1124. Dav. I. 


1137. 


1153. Mal IV. 
1165. Will. 


1180. 


1214. Alex. 2. 
1223 


1226. 


1249. Alex. 3. 


1282. (Wales|Interregnui. 


annexed.) 


1377: 


1399- 


1413. 
1422. 


1461. 


1483. Ed.V. 


Rich. 3. 
1485. Hen.7. 


. Ed. IT. 


. Ed. III. 


Rich. 2. 


Hen. 4. 


Hen. 5. 
Hen. 6. 


Ed. IV. 


1292. John 
Baliol. 


1306. Robert 
(Bruce) I. 


1329. Dav. II. 

1332. Kd. Bal. 

1342. Dav. II. 
again. 


1350. 
1364. 


1371.Rob.TI. 
(Stuart). 
1390. Rob.3. 


1406. Jas. I. 


1422. 


1437. Jas. II. 
1460. Jas. III. 


1461. 


1483. 


1488. Jas. IV. 
1498. 


1314. 
1316. 


1321. 
1328. 


1380. 


Philip I. 


Louis VI. 


Louis VII. 


Philip II. 


. Louis VIII. 


Louis IX. 


. Philip III. 


s. Philip IV. 


Louis X, 
John I. 
PH ev. 
Chas. IV. 
Phil. VI. 


John IT, 
Chas. V. 


Chas. VI. 


Chas. VII. 


Louis XI, 


Chas. VIII. 


Louis XII. 


CASTILE AND 
LEON. 


Peninsula, 


ARRAGON. 


1066. Sancho II. 


1072. AlfonsoVI. 


110g. Urracaand|1104. Alfonso I. 


Alfonso VII. 


1126. Alfon. VII. 


1157. Sancho III. 
1158.Alfon. VIII. 


1188. Alfon. IX. 
(Leon.) 


1214. Henry I. 
1217. Ferdin. III, 


(Castile. ) 
1230. (Leon.) 


1252. Alfonso X. 


1284. Sancho IV.|1285. Alfons. ITT. 


1350. Peter. 
1369. Henry. 
1379. John I. 


1065. Sancho. 


1094. Peter. 


1134. Ramiro. 
1137. Petronella 


and Raymond. 


1163. Alfonso II. 


1196. Peter II. 


1213. James I. 


1276. Peter ITI. 


PORTUGAL. 


1065. Sancho of |1056. Hen. 4, 


Castile. 
1072. Alfonso VI. 


1093. Henry, 
count. 


1112. Alfonso, as 
count. 


1139. Alfonso I., 
as king. 


1185. Sancho I. 


1212. Alfonso II. 


1223. Sancho IT. 


1248, Alfon. III. 


1279. Dionysius 
or Denis. 


1406, John II. 


1474. Isabella. 


1295. Ferdin. IV. |129t. James II. 
1312. AlfonsoXI. 
1327. AlfonsoIV.|1325. AlfonsolV. 
1336. Peter IV. 
1357- Peter. 
1367. Ferdinand. 
1383. John I. 
1390. Henry II. |1387. John I. 
1395. Martin. 
1410. Interregnm. 
1412. Ferdinand 
of Sicily. 
1416. Alfonso V.|1433. Edward. 
1454. Henry IV. 1438. Alfonso V. 
1458. John IT. 
1479. Ferdin. IT. 
1481. John II. 
Spain. 
1479. Ferdinand and Isabella. |1495. Emanuel. 


Germany. | Hungary 
; 


emperor. 


1125. Loth.2. 


1138. Conr. 3. 
1152. Fred.1. 


1190. Hen.6. 
1198. Philip. 


1208. Otho 4. 
1215. Fred.2. 


1250. Con. 4. 


1254. Will. 
1257. Rich. 


1273. Ro- 
dolph. 


1292. Adolp. 


1298. Alb. 1. 


1314. Lou. 5. 


1347. Chas. 4. 


1378. Wen- 
ceslas, 


1106. Hen.s. 


1308. Hen. 7. 


 . 
ae 
1064. Sg 


1075. Goi 
1076. Lad 


1098. Colo-_ 
man, 
III4. Step 
a 


1131. Bela 
1141.Geisa3 
1161. ston 
1173. Bela 3 


1196. Emeri 


1204. Ladis- 
las IT. 

1205. An- — 
drew II. 


é 
1235. Bela 4. 


? 


1270. Ste. 
1272. Lad. { 


4 
i 


7200. And. 3 


~~ | 
1301. Chae 


bert. 


1342. Louis. 


i 


1382. Mary. 
1387. M 


1400. Rupert Siciane ad. 


\ 


1438° Albert. 


1440. Fred.3 


‘ 


1493. Max. 1. 
1499. Switz. 
independ. 


14:0. Sigismund. 4 


| 


1458. Mat- 
thias. 


7 


1440. lout 
i Lad. 5 


I go. 


-UROPEAN SOVEREIGNS. 


Scandinavia. Italy. 
Poland Eastern 
oland. | Empire. 
SWEDEN Norway. DENMARK, Popgs, NAPLES AND SICILY. 
6. Halstan. 1069. Olaf. ro47. Sweyn II, |r058. Boles- |1068, Rom. 4|1061- Alex. II. 
1076. Haro as. : 
a CanuteTV.| 1082. Ladis- |207!-Mich.7.}1073. Greg. VIT. 
1078. Nicep. 3/1086. Victor III. 
1086, Olaus IV. | las. 1081. Alexius| 7088. Urban II 
jo, Ingo. 1093. Magnus. 1095. Eric I. boca! Pascal EH. 
(2. Philip. 1103. Sigurd I, j1105. Eric II. 1102, Boles,3/1118. John |irr8, Gelas, IT. 
‘8. IngoII. _ | and others. Comnenus, |rr1g. Calixt. IT. 
299. Swerker, |1122. Sigurd [. 1124. Honor. II. 
1130. MagnusIV. 1130. Innoc, II. |1131. Roger I. 
and others. {1137. Eric III. {1138. Lad. 2.1143. Manuel/1143, Celest. II. 
Comnenus. |1144. Lucius IT. 
1147. Sweyn III.!1145. Boles.4 1145. Eugen. III. 
35. Eric I. Canute V. 1153. Anasta.IV.|/1154. William I. 
1157. Waldemar. 1154. Adrian IV. 
jx. Char. VII. | Civil war and 115g. Alex. III. |1166. William IT. 
57. Canute. anarchy. 1173. Miecis-|1180, Alex.2.|1181, Lucius III. 
las III. 1183. Andro-|1185. Urban III. 
1178. Ca- nicusC, {1187. Greg. VILL. 
simir IT, |1185. Isaace. Clem. III. |1189. Tancred. 
1186. Swerro. 1182, Canute VI. 1195. Alex.3.|1191. Celest. III.|1194. William III. 
99. Swerk, IT. 1194. Lesk.s. 1198. Innoc. III.|1197. Fred.I1. of Germany. 
co. Bric II. 1202. Hako III. |1202. Walde. II. |1200. Miec. 3, |1204. Theodo.};216, Honor. III. 
6. John I. and others, 1202. Lad, 3.|1222. John 1907, Greg. IX. 
22. Eric III, |1207. HakoIV. ’ 1227.Boles.5.| Ducas. 1241. Celest. IV. 
1241. Eric IV. 1243. Innoe. IV. |1250. Conrad. 
1250. Abel. 1255. Theo.2.}1254, Alex. IV. |1254. Conradin. 
: 1252. Christoph. 1258. John |y7261, Urban IV. |1258. Manfred. 
50. Birger Jarl 1259. Hric V. Lasearis. |r265.Clem. IV. |1266, Charles of Anjou, 
1259. Mich.8. | 1268-9. Vacant. 
1263. MagnusVI. 1271. Grégory X, 
56. Waldemar. 1276. Innoe. V. 
Adrian V. : 
1276. John XXI. Sicily. 
75. Magnus I. ; 1279. Lesk.6. oe Nichol. III. y 
1280, Eric, 1281. Martin IV. 1282. Peter 
1285. Honor. IV. of Arragon. 
j 1289. Anarch. |1282. Andro-|;588, Nich. IV. |1285. Chas.2, 1285. James. 
jo. Birger II, 1290.Premis-} nicusII. |y292-3. Vacant. 


las. 1294. Celest. V. 


1299. Hako V. 1296. Ladis. 4 Bonif. VIII. 1295. Fred.2. 
‘ 1300. Win- 1303. Bened. XI.|1309. Robt. 
19. Magn. II. |1319. United to |1320. Christo- ceslas, 1305. Clement V. 


Sweden. pher II. 


(Avignon). 
1314-15. Vacant. 


1334. Interregnin. 1316.John XXII. 


1333. Cas, 3. |1332. And. 3. 


A 


, 1334. Bene. XII. 1337. Peter 2. 
1350. Eric IV. 1340. Wald. III. 1341. Johns.|1342, Clem. VI. |1343.Joan2, 1342.Louis. 
1359. Magnus II. ! 1352. Innoc. VI. | & Andrew 1355. Fred. 3. 
1363. Albert. 1375. Interregnm.|1370. Louis. 1362. Urban V. of Hung. 
1376. Olaus V. oe (Rome). |1349.Louis 1376. Maria 
i 1302, Mary. 1370. Greg. XI. & Martin. 
89. Margaret. 380 aa 1387. Margaret. |1384. Hedw.|1391. Man- i mo VI. |1381.Chas, 3. 
1396. Lad. 5.| uel VI. 1389. Bonif. IX, |1385.Ladislas. 
. 1404. Innoc. VII. 1402. Mart. 1. 
1412. Eric XIII. 1425. John 6, a. Greg. XII. 1409. Mart. 2. 
1434. Lad. 6./1448. Con- |r409, Alex. V. 1414. Joan 2, (United to 
; stant. 13. |1410,JohnX XIII Arragon.) 
1440, Christopher III. 1417. Martin V. r4to. Ferd. 1. 
1445. Casi. 4. . Eugen. IV. 1416, Alfo. r. 
48. Chas, VIII. 1448. Christian I. Turkey ae Nicholas. 1435. Alfonso I. 
ety bee STARS OG. Tas 
1457. Christian I. 1433. Ma-__ |458. Pius II. 1458. Ferd.x. 1458. John. 
homet. Il (ta0ds Paul LL. Ferd 
fake . Sixtus IV. CAMO aa) ee 
1483. John of Denmark, 1481, John. st ea et ee Inno, VIII. et rec 
1492. Albert 1492. Alex. VI. |1496. Fred.2. 


Great Britain. 


ENGLAND. 


1509. 


1547- 
1553- 
11558. 


Hen. 8. 


1513. Jas. V. 


1542. Mary. 


Ed. VI. 
Mary. 
Eliz. 


1567. Jas. VI.) 


Jas. I. (VI. of Scot.) 


ScoTLaND. 


France. 


1515. Francis I. 


1547. Henry II. 


1559. Francis II. 
1560, Charles IX. 


1574. Henry III. 


1589. Henry IV. 


TABLE OF CONTEMPORARY 


Peninsula, 


CASTILE AND 
LEON. 


1504. Joanna & 
Philip I. 


Spain. 


ARRAGON. 


Ferdinand II. 


1512. Ferd. V.(Cast.) II. (Arragon). 
1516, Charles I. (V. of Germ. 1519). 


1556. Philip IL. Holland. 


1598. Philip III. 


1603. 1610. LouisXIII. 
1625. Charles I. 1621. Philip IV. 
1643. Louis XIV. 
1649. Commonwealth. 
1660. Charles IT. 1665. Charles II. 
1685. James II. 
1689. William and Mary. 
1694. William III. 1700. Philip V. 
1702. Anne. 
1714. George I. 1715. Louis XV. |1724. (abdicated). 
ie al Bushes: 
1727. George II. Philip V. 
again. 
1746. Ferd. VI. 
1759. Chas. ILI. 
1760. George III. 
1774. Louis XVI. 
1783. [United States in- 


r8rz. 


1820. 


1830, 
1837. 


dependent. | 


(George, Prince of 


Wales, regent.) 


George IV. 


William IV. 
Victoria. 


1793. Lou. XVII. 
Republic I. 


1802. Consulate. 
1804. Napoleon I. 
1814.Lou. XVIII. 


1824. Charles X. 


1830. Lou. Philip. 
1848. Republic LI. 


1852. Napol. III. 


1870. Republic 
Ill. 


1871. L. A. Thiers 
president. 

1873. Marshal 
Mac Mahon. 
1879.JulesGrévy. 


1788. Chas. IV. 
(abdicated). 


1808. Ferd. VII. 


(dethroned). 

Jos. Bonap 
1814. Ferd. VII. 

(restored). 


1833. Isabella II. 


1868. (dethroned). 
1870. Amadeus. 
(abdicated) 1873. 


1873. Republic. 


1874. Alfons. XII. 


PORTUGAL. 


1521. John III. 


1557. Sebastian. 


1579. William ofj1578. Henry. 
Orange, stadt-|1580. Annexed to 


holder. 


1587. Maurice. 


Spain. 


1625. Fred. Hen. 


1647. William IT. 
1650-72. No 
stadtholder. 


1672. Will. Hen. 
(Will. III. of 
England.) 


1702-47. No 
stadtholder. 


1747. Will. Hen. 
1757--WUL LY. 


1795. Annexed to 
France. 


1806. Louis, king. 
Netherlands. 


1814. Will. Fred, 
king.* 


I 
1840. William II. 


1849. Will. III. 


Kingdom restored 


1640. John of 
Braganza. 
Alfonso VI. 
Peter, 
regent. 
Peter II. 


1656. 
1667. 


1683. 


1706. John VY. 


1750. Joseph. 


Maria and 
Peter III. 
Maria, 
alone. 
John, regent 


1777: 
1786. 


1791. 


John VI. 
Peter IV. 
Maria II. 
Miguel. 


1816. 
1826. 


1828. 


833. Maria II. 


Peter V. 
Luis I. 


1853. 
1861. 


* Belgium,—183r. Leopold I. 


”? 


1865. Leopold II. 


—————| Germany. ie 


1519. Chas, V. |1526. Jn. Za- 


(1. of Sp.) 


(EMrERORS— KINGS onl 
HounGARY.) 


x558. Ferdinand. 


5 


1516. Lowi 


polski and 
Ferdin. IL, 


¥ 


1564. Maximilian Il. : 


1576. Rodolph II. 


1612. Mathias. i 
161g. Ferdinand II. — 


1637. Ferdinand III, — 


1658. Leopold I. 


1705. Joseph 
1711. Chas,6. 


1742. Chas.7. 
1745. Francis 


1765, JOS. 2. 


1790. Leop. 2. 


1.792. Fran.2. 


Austria. 


1806. Fran. I. 


1835. Ferd. 2. 


1848. Francis 
Joseph. 


; 
4 


Prussia. 


1701. Fred. 1. 

1713. Fred.- 
William 1. 

1740. Fred,2. 


1786. Fred.- 
William 2. 
1797. Fred.- | 
William 3. 


1840. Fred.- 
William 4. 


1860. Will. 1. 


y 


f 
r 


1871.emperor 
of GERMANY, 


EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS, continued. 


Scandinavia, 


Italy. 
Turkish an 


SWEDEN. Norway. 


1520. Christian IT. 


Gustavus 


Vasa. Russia.* 


1533. [van iva 


. Eric XIV. 


. John III. 
1584. Feodor I. 


. Sigismund!1598. Boris. 

1606. Basil. 

1613. Michael 
(Romanoff), 


. Chas. IX. 
. Gustavus 
lolphus. 


. Christina. 


Chast xX. 
. Chas, XI. 


1645. Alexis. 


1676. Feodor. 
1682. Ivan V. & 
Peter I. 


. Chas. XII. 


1725. Cather. I. 
1727. Peter II. 
1730. Anne. 


Uirica and 
ederick I. 


1740. Ivan VI. 
Fred. I. 1741. Elizabeth. 
Adolphus 


ederick. 
1762. Peter ITI. 


Cather. II. 
Gustav. IIT. 


Gustav. IV.|1796. Paul I. 


1801. Alexand., I. 
1828. Nicholas. 


Chas. XIII. 
Norway un- 
2a 


‘Chas. XIV. 


Oscar I. 


1855. Alex. II. 


1881. Alex. IIT. 


1689. Peter I. |1699. Fred. IV. 


Poland. Empire. 


PopsEs. NAPLES AND SICILY. 


DENMARK. 


1503. Pius III. 1501. United to Spain. 
Julius II. 
1513. Leo X. 
1522. Adrian VI. 
1523. Clem. VII. 
1534. Paul IIT. 
1550. Julius ITT. 
1555. Marcel. II. 
Paul IV. 
1559. Pius IV. 
1596. Pius V. 
1572. Greg. XIII. 
1585. Sixtus V. 
15go. Urban VII. 
Greg. XIV. 
1591. Innoe. 1X. 
+1592. Clem. VIII. 


1501. Alex.. 


1506. Sig. I. 1512. Selim. 


1513. Christn. II. 
1520. Soly- 


1523. Fredrick I. man II. 


and Norway. 


. Christ. III. 
ahi 1548. Sig. II. 


1559. Fred. II. 1566. Sel. 2. 
1574. Amu- 


1573. Henry. 
ef y rath III. 


1575. Steph. 


1588. Christn.IV.|1587. Sig. 3. 


1603. Ach, 1. 
1617. Mus. x. 
1618. Osm 2. 
1622. Musta- 
pha, again 
1623. A 
1640. 
1648. 
1687. 
1691. 
1695. 


1605. Leo. XI. 
Paul V. 
1621. Greg. XV. 
1623. UrbanVIII. 
1644. InnocentX. 
-|1655. Alex. VII. 
- |1667. Clem. IX. 
-}1670. Clem. X, 
1676. Innoe. XI. 
1689. Alex. VIII. 
- 2.11691. Innoc. XII. 


1632. Lad. 7. 


1648.John C. 
1669. Mich, 
1674. John 
Sobieski. 
1697. Fredk. 
August. 1. 


1648. Fred. III. 
1670. Christn. V. 


Clem. XI. 


Inno. XIII. 
Bene. XIII. 


1730. Clem. XII. 
1740. Bene. XIV. 


.1.] 1793: » 3-11700. 
Augustus, 
restored. 

1733. Fredk. 
August. 2. 


I72T. 


1730. +5-|1724. 


1730.Christn. VI. 


1713. Chas. 3. 
Naples. 1720. Victor 
Victor- Amadeus. 
Am. of §a-|1730. Charle 
voy, Sicily.| Emman.r. 

1720Annexed 

to Germany. |1773. Victor 


1746. Fred. V. Osm. 35 


Mus. 3. 


1754- 
1764. Stan.2. |1757- 

: 1758. Clem. XIII. 
1769. Clem. XIV. 


1775. F1u8, Vi. 


1766. Christ. VIT. 


1774. Abdul- 
Hamid I. 


1784. PrinceF red. eel 1738. Chas.4.| Amadeus. 
regent. - S 7. 4- Naples. 
1795. Parti- |77°9-Ceun. 3. : 1759. Fred.4.|1796.Charle 
tion. 1809. Pius VII. Sicily. 
1808. Fred. VI. | q 1807. Mns.4| | Naples, 
1814. Norway reece. |1808. Mah- |7823, Leo XII. 
tuken away. sith, mud 6, 1806. Joseph|#8osAnnexe 
Bonaparte ; 
1829. Pius VITTI. 
+; |1808. Joach. 
; 1832. Otho I. 1831. Greg. XVI.|* Murat, 
1839. Chris. VIII. 1821. Charle 
1839. Abdul Sel elie 
Medjid. Naples and] 7831. Charles 
1848, Fred. VII. 1846. Pius IX. Sicily. Albert. 
pe eee TO dor VALOIS 
181s. Ferd.1. sages 
1825. Fran. 1. 
1830. Ferd.2. 
1859. Fran.z2. 
1860 Annexed 
1861. Abdul to Italy. 
Aziz. 
1863. Chrisn. [X.|1863. Geo. I.}1876. Amu- Eo 
f rath V. May Italy. 


1876. Abdul- 1878. Leo XIII. 


Hamid II. 
Aug. 


1861. Victor-Emmanuel. 
1878. Humbert. 


* See Article Russta for preceding Rulers. 
t See Article Savoy. 


POPULATION AND GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 
(According to the Almanach de Gotha.) 


eC 


COUNTRIES—RELIGIO NS real RULERS. BIRTH. ACCESSION. 
Anhalt, E. Population in Dec. 1880 232,592 eerie uke tras 29 April, 1831 . | 22 May, 1871. 
Argentine Confederation, R.C. 1882 | 2,942,000 | Gen. J. A. Rocca, president |... . 12 Oct. 1880. 
Austrian Emp. R. os (after ces- 

sion 1866) . . Dec. 1880 | 37,882,712 | Francis-Joseph, emperor. .| 18 Aug, 1830 2 Dec. 1848. 
Baden, R.C.. . Dec. 1880] 1,570,254 | Frederick, grand-duke. 9 Sept. 1826 . 24 April, 1852. 
Bavaria, R.C. {after cessions 

1866) . 1880 | 5,284,778 | Louis II.,king. . 25 Aug. 1845 10 March, 1864. 
Belgium, R.C. " Dec, 1882 5,655,197 | Leopold IL., king. 9 April, 1835 10 Dec. 1865. 
BOlivinnii wamE to Seen ae wero 1050 Nene ST 000)" N- Jampero, president . | 1 June, 1880, 
Brazil, R.C. . . . « + « « 1883] 12,002,978 | Pedro II., emperor 2 Dec. 1825 | . .| 7 April, 1831. 
Brunswick, ine. . . 1880 349,307 uke . . 

AGIGATION. [c's Uap . 1881 | 2,007,919 | Alexander I., prince . | 5 April, 1857 29 April, 1879 
Chili, R.C. . 1883 | 2,271,959 | Domingo Santa Maria, sion oes : 18 Sept. 1881. 
Chinese Empire (estimated), B . 1884 | 350,000,000 Kwang: -su, emperor . 1871 Jan. 1875. 
Colombia, state, R.C. . 880 3,000,000 | R. Nufiez. president. 3° Gace .| x April, 1884. 
Costa Rica, R C.. 1880 185,000 ; president . i 
ee & colonies, L. (est. } 1880] 2,090,200 | Christian IX., kin 8 April, 1818 || 15 Nov. 1863 
Egypt, & . 1883 6,798,230 | Mehemed Tewfik, hedive 1862 54a) e .| 8 Aug. 1879. 
Equator, “R of (estimated) . 1877 1,040,400 | Jose Maria Placido Caamano 
president : .| 12 Feb. 1884. 
France alone, R.C. . 1881 | 37,672, vas Jules Grévy, president 15 ‘Aug. 1813 || 30 Jan, 1879. 
Germany, R.C.,L. and E. Dec. 1880 45,234,0 William I., emperor. 22 March, 1797. | 18 Jan. 1871. 
Gt. Britain & colonies,P.(estm.) 1881 | 252,821,562 | Victoria, queen. 24 May, 1819 .| 20 June, 1837. 
Greece & Ion. Is. G.C. ga e ) . 1879 | 1,979,147 | George I., king. 24 Dec. 1845 6 June, 1863. 
Guatemala, R.C.. . . 1880 1,190,754 | M. L. Barillas, president . oS ee April, 1885. 
Hayti estimated) SEE 572,000 | Gen. Salomon . . ee 
Hesse-Darmstadt, LD. : 1880 936,340 | Louis IV., gr and-duke. 12 Sept. 1837. . | 13 June, 1877. 
Holland, not colonies, C. 1883 | 4,225,005 | William Tll.,king . . 19 Feb. 1817. 17 March, 1849. 
Honduras, R.C. . . 1880 351,700 | Gen. Louis Bogran, presidnt 27 Nov. 1883, 
Italy, R. C (estimated) "Dec. 1882 | 28 5733,360 | Humbert [., king 14 March, 1844 9. - an. 1878," 
Japan (estimated). > 22) 5 8. 135 to 40 mil. one Hito, mikado . 7883. aa 867. 
Liberia, P. . . 1883 1,230,000 H. R. W. J ohnson, pr esidnt. ; ian: 1884. 
Liechtenstein, RC. . 1880 9,124 | John IL., prince 5; Oct, 1840 . .| 12 Nov, 1858, 
Lippe, C. . . Dec. 1880 120,240 | Waldemar, prince 8 April, 1824 . | 8 Dec. 1875, 
Mecklonbure-Schwerin, ne Dec. 1880 577,055 | Frederic Francis TTL: gr and- 
uke 19 Mar. 185r_ . | 15 April, 1883. 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz, L. 1880 109,269 Weederts William, “‘ornd- duke 17 Oct. 1819. 6 Sept. 1860. 
Mexico, R.C. (estimated) 1882 9,787,629 | Porfirio Diaz, president t Dec. 1884. 
Monaco, R.C. 1883 10,108 | Charles IIL., prince. 8 Dec. 1818 20 June, 1856, 
Montenegro, G. C. ‘(estim,) 1884 236,000 | Nicholas I. pr ince . 7 Oct. 1841 . 14 Aug. 1860, 
Morocco, M about 6,000,000 | Muley Hassan, sultan. oll Coe ae 25 Sept. 1873. 
Nicaragua, B.C 1880 275,815 | Dr. Adan Cardenas, presidt. = ate 
Uldenburg, P. (estirated . 1880 337,478 | Peter, grand-duke ; 8 July, 1827. .| 27 Sik. 1853. 
Papal States annexed to tal y. 1870 Leo XIII., pone , 2 Maren: 1810 . | 20 Feb. 1878, 
Paraguay, &.C, . 1879 346,048 | Gen. B. Cabal ero, president 25 Nov. 1882, 
Persia M. (estimated) 7,053,000 | Nassir-ed-Deen, sha 6 1830. so + yoi| SOMSEDE, 1848s 
Peru, #.C. (estimated) . _. . 1876 2,699,745 | Gen. Iglesias, president Se t. 1883. 
Portugal and sie aS Y. . Dec. 1878 | 8,031,831 } Luis I., king 31 Oct. 1838. Ov. 1861, 
Prussia, E. : . . . 1880] 27,279,111 | William [.,king. . . 22 March, 1799 . in 1863. 
Reuss, L. . : 1880 152,112 | Henry XXII., prince . - 28 March, 1846, | 8 Nov. 1850. 
Roumania(estimated). . 1884 424,961 | Chs. of Hohenzollern, king . | 20 April, 1839 . | 20 April, 1866 
Russia, G.C., Poland, &e. (est.) 1881 | 102 ,187,000 Alexander III., ezar. - | 10 Mare , 1845, 13 March, 1881, 
Sandwich Islands (Hawai, ae 1878 57,985 | Kalakaua L., king 16 Nov. 1836 12 Feb. 1874. 
San Marino, R.C. . 1874 7,816 | Capitanir eggenti. 
San Salvador, R.C. . 1880 600,000 | Figueroa, president . si Se May, 1885. 
Saxe-Altenburg, P. . 1880 155,036 | Ernest, duke . . . 16 Sept. 1826 3 Aug. 1853. 
Saxe- Coburg-Gotha, i 1880 194,716 | Ernest TL. ., duke 21 June, 1818 .| 29 Jan. 1844. 
Saxe-Meiningen, L. . 1880 207,075 | George II., duke . 2 April, 1826 20 Sept. 1866. 
Saxe-Weimar- Eisenach, L. 1880 309,577 | Chas. Alexander, grnd. -duke 24 June, 1818 .| 8 July, 1853. 
PAxkOny, ce + 1880 2,972,805 | Albert, king . 3 23 April, 1828 .| 29 Oct. 1873. 
Schaumburg-Lippe, i . 1880 35,374 Adolphus, prince. r Aug. 1817. 21 Novy. 1860, 
Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt, ee 1880 80,296 | George, prince . » «6 | eg eNove 1838 26 Nov. 1869. 
Schwartzburg-Sondershaus. L. 1880 71,107 Charles, PTUNCE..s 4.5 2h 8) | 7A On 17 July, 1880, 
Servia, G.C. (estimated) . 5 1883 1,865,683 | Milan IVocee ieee : EPS 10 June, 1868, 
Spain and colonies, R.C. (est.) . 1883 25,022,880 | Alfonso XII. . 28 Nov. 1857 2 July, 1874 
St. Domingo, R.C. (estimated) ee 136,500 } Gen. F. Bellini. oes le) bh eye's ail GE Aa Oa 
Sweden, Norway, L. (estimtd.) 1883 6,410,495 | Oscar II., king - «| 2x Jan. 1829. 18 Sept. 1872. 
Switzerland, R.C. and P. Dec. 1880 2,831,787 | M. Schenck, arepidertl ~ ol ae Dec. 1884. 
pavers a South African ; Ae pike ae 
epublic, ©, 1879 774,930 riiger, presiden og ee co. esa ME caren 
Turkish Empire, M. (estimtd. ) 1884 | 52,900,000 Ror be Hamid IL., sultan 22 Sept. 1842 ef pers 18008 
Uruguay, R.C. . 1880 438,245 | J. Maximo Santas, president) = ee 1 Mar. 1882, 
Venezuela, RC. . 1881 2,075,245 Gen. Joaquin Crespo, pres. os &. oe SHOUD Beeresae 
Wiirtemberg, LD. . 1880} 1,971,118 | Charles, king 6 March, 1823 . | 25 June, 1864. | 
United States of America, P.. 1880 50,445,330 | Grover Clev eland, president 1837. 4 Mar. 1885. f 


PREDOMINANT RELIGIONS.—R.C., Roman Catholic; G.C., Greek Church ; P., Protestant; Z., Lutheran; Z., 


Evangelical Church—a combination of Calvinists and Lutherans ; 


B., Buddhist, 


Gy Calvinist or Reformed ; M,, Mahometan ; 


a a ee ee 


he as 


DICTIONARY OF DATES. 


AARGAU. 


ABDICATIONS. 


AARGAU (Switzerland), formerly included in 


erne, was made an independent canton in 1803, 
nd settled as such in 1815. It was much disturbed 
y religious dissensions in 1841 ; and the expulsion 
f the Jesuits was demanded in 1844. 


ABACUS, the tile on the capital of a column. 
‘hat on the Corinthian column is ascribed to Calli- 
1achus, about 540 B.c.—This name is also given to 
frame traversed by stiff wires, on which beads were 
‘rung, used for calculating by the Greeks, Romans, 
nd Chinese. M,. Lalanne published an aBaccs 
t Paris in 1845.—The multiplication table has been 
alled the Pythagorean abacus. 


ABANCAY, a river in Peru, on the banks 
f which the Spanish marshal Almagro defeated 
nd took prisoner Alvarado, a partisan of Pizarro, 
2 July, 1537. 

ABATTOIRS, slaughter-houses for cattle. In 
810 Napoleon decreed that five should be erected 
ear Paris, which were opened in 1818. One was 
rected at Edinburgh in 1851. And they form part 
f the new London metropolitan cattle-market, 
pened on 13 June, 1855. 


ABBASSIDES, descendants of Mahomet’s 
nele, Abbas-Ben-Abdui-Motalleb. Merwan IL., 
ae last of the Ommiades, was defeated and slain by 
bul Abbas in 750, and became caliph. — Thirty- 
»ven Abbasside caliphs (including Haroun al Ras- 
hid, 786-809) reigned from 750 to 1258. They 
ttled at Bagdad, built by Al-Mansour about 762. 
heir colour was black ; that of the Fatimites being 
reen, and that of the Ommiades white. 


ABBAYE, a military prison near St. Germain 
23 Prés, Paris, where 164 prisoners were murdered 
y infuriated republicans hed by Maillard, 2 and 
‘Sept. 1792. 

ABBEVILLE, N. France. Here Henry III. 
et Louis IX. of France and made peace, renoun- 
ng his right to Normandy and other provinces, 
) May, 1259. 


ABBEYS, monasteries for men or women; see 
lonachism and Convents. 'The first abbey founded 
.England was at Bangor in 560; in France, at 
vitiers, about 360; in Ireland in the fifth century ; 
_ Scotland in the sixth century. 110 alien 
iories were suppressed in England, 2 Henry V. 
14. Salmon. The gross disorders in these esta- 
ishments occasioned their destruction in Britain. 
‘ter visitations of inquiry, king Henry VIII. com- 
encea the suppression of small monasteries to raise 


revenues for Wolsey’s colleges at Oxford and Ips- 
wich, 7 June, 1525; many small monasteries were 
suppressed in 1536; and all religious houses were 
suppressed throughout the realm by parliament, 
1539-40:—186 large monasteries (revenue 104,910/. 
138. 3¢.), 374 less monasteries (revenue 33,470/. 
13s. 73d.), and 48 houses of the knights hospitallers 
(revenue 2385/7. 128. 8d.; total, houses, 608; esti- 
mated revenue, 140,784/. 19s.63d.) Tanner. Abbeys 
were suppressed in Austria (by Joseph II.) in 1780, 
in France in 1790, in Portugal in 1834, in Sardinia 
in 1855, in Mexico in 1861, in Spain in 1837 and 
1868, and in Italy in July, 1866, and April, 1873. 

ABBOT (from 44, father), the head of an abbey. 
In England, mitred abbots were lords of parliament; 
twenty-seven abbots and two priors thus distin- 
guished, 1329; the number reduced to twenty-five, 
1396. Coke. The abbots of Reading, Glastonbury, 
and St. John’s, Colchester, were executed as traitors 
for denying the king’s supremacy, probably for not 
surrendering their abbeys, 1539; see Glastonbury. 

erie eta S RIPTON, see Railway Accidents, 
1876. 

ABC CLUB, a name adopted by certain 
republican enthusiasts in Paris, professing to re- 
lieve the abaissés, or depressed. Their insurrection 
5 June, 1832, wassuppressed with bloodshed, 6 June. 
These events are described by Victor Hugo in ‘‘ Les 
Misérables”? (1862). 

ABDICATIONS of sovereigns, 
compulsory, have been numerous :— 
Sylla, Roman dictator 


voluntary or 


4 4B.Cs 179 
Diocletian, ,, emperor . A. Din gO5 
Stephen II., of Hungary . ; 5 pa 
Albert, the Bear of Brandenburg. Hun L42 
Lescov V. of Poland . ; 7 : : . 1206 
Uladislaus III. of Poland - 1206 
John Balliol, of Scotland . cs - 1296 
Otho (of Bavaria), of Hungary . + 1309 
Eric 1X., of Denmark, &e. f - 1439 
Pope Felix V. F : : +» 1449 
Charles V., as emperor 25 Oct. 1555 
Ss as king of Spain ; 16 Jan. 1556 
Christina, of Sweden. - 16June, 1654 
John Casimir, of Poland : ‘ - - » 1669 
James II., of England : . fled rx Dec. 1688 
Frederick Augustus II., of Poland : sur zOd 
Philip V. of Spain (resumed) . 1724 
Victor Amadeus, of Sardinia . 1730 
Charles, of Naples - 1759 
Stanislaus, of Poland ; 3 F - erent FES 
Charles Emmanuel II., of Sardinia . . 4dune, 1802 
Francis II., of Germany, who became emperor of 
Austria 7 “ ; . .» rz Aug. 1804 


B 


ABECEDARIANS. 


Charles IV., of Spain, in favour of his son, 19 March ; 


in favour of Bonaparte ; see Spain t May, 1808 
Joseph Bonaparte, of Naples (for Spain). 1dune, 1808 
Gustavus IV., of Sweden : : i It: gsfora" 
Louis, of Holland rJuly, 1810 
Jerome, of Westphalia . . 20 Oct. 1813 
Napoleon I., of France y 5 April, 1814 
Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia 13 March, 1821 
Pedro IV., of Portugal 2 May, 1826 
Charles X., of France . . 2 Aug. 1830 
Pedro L, of Brazil . ; ‘ : . zg April, 1831 
Dom Miguel, of Portugal (by leaving it) 26 May, 1834 
William I., of Holland . : 2 8 Oct. 1840 
Louis-Philippe, of France 24 Feb. 1848 
Louis Charles, of Bavaria 2x March, 1848 
Ferdinand, of Austria ; 2 Dec. 1848 
Charles Albert, of Sardinia . 23 March, 1849 
Leopold II., of Tuscany July, 1859 
Bernhard, of Saxe-Meiningen 20 Sept. 1866 
Isabella II., of Spain . 25 June, 1870 
Amadeus, of Spain ; . .1r Feb. 1873 


ABECEDARIANS, followers of Storch, an 
Anabaptist in the sixteenth century, derive their 
name from their rejection of all worldly knowledge, 
even of the alphabet. 


ABECEDARIUM, a logical machine, con- 
structed by Mr. William Stanley Jevons, and 
described in his “Principles of Science,” 1874. 
He states that, by means of symbolic terms, it 
ean perform all the processes of analytic reason- 
ing with infallible accuracy. 

ABELARD, a celebrated teacher of theology 
and logic, in 1118 fell in love with Heloise, the 
niece of Fulbert, a canon of Paris, became her tutor, 
and seduced her. After a compulsory marriage, he 
placed her temporarily in a convent. Having been 
cruelly mutilated at the instigation of her relatives, 
he entered the abbey of St. Denis, from which he 
was compelled to depart, accused of heresy, on ac- 
count of his censuring the dissoluteness of the monks. 
He then built and lectured at the oratory of the 
Paraclete (or comforter) which eventually he made 
a convent, with Heloise for the abbess. He died 
under the charge of heresy, 21 April, 1142, and was 
buried in the Paraclete, where also Heloise was 
laid, 17 May, 1164. Their ashes were removed to 
the garden of the Muséum Frangais in 1800, and to 
the cemetery of Pére la Chaise in 1817. Their 
epistles, &c., were published in 1616. 


ABENCERRAGES, 2 powerful Moorish tribe 
of Granada, opposed to the Zegris. From 1480 to 
1492 their quarrels deluged Granada with blood and 
hastened the fall of the kingdom. They were ex- 
terminated by Boabdil (Abu Abdallah), the last 
king, who was dethroned by Ferdinand and Isabella 
in 1492; his dominions were annexed to Castile. 


ABENSBERG, Bavaria. The Austrians were 
here defeated by Napoleon I. 20 April, 1809. 


ABEOKUTA, see Dahomey. 
ABERDEEN (N. Scotland), said to have been 


founded in the third century after Christ, and erected 
into a city about 893. Old Aberdeen was made a 
royal burgh in 1154; 1t was burnt by the English in 
1336; and soon after New Aberdeen was built. A 
statue of the prince consort was inaugurated by the 
queen 13 Oct. 1863; and one of queen Victoria by 
the prince of Wales, 20 Sept. 1866. See Population. 
King’s college was founded by bishop William Elphin- 
stone, who had a bull from pope Alexander VI. in 1494. 
The University was erected in 1500-6. Marischal college 
was founded by George Keith, earl marischal of Scot- 
land, in 1593; rebuilt in 1837. In 1858 the university 
and colleges were united. By the reform act of 1868, 
the universities of Aberdeen and Glasgow send one 
member to parliament. Sir Erasmus Wilson gives 
Baar to endow a chair of pathological anatomy, 
1882. 


ABHORRERS. Y 


Above 30 persons drowned by overcrowding a boat, 
April, 1876. 4 
Aberdeen farmers agitate for change in land laws ; abate- 
ment of rent, &c., Sept. 188r. , 
Aberdeen market buildings destroyed by fire, 29 April, 
1882. 4 
Duthie-park, presented by Miss Duthie, opened by 
princess Beatrice, 27 Sept. 1883. 4 
Malcolm III. having gained a great victory over 
the Danes in the year Io10, resolved to found anew 
Bishopric, in token of-his gratitude for his success, 
and pitched upon Mortlach in Banffshire, where 
St. Beanus was first bishop, 1015. The see, re- 
moved to Aberdeen early in the twelfth century, 
was discontinued at the revolution, 1689, and is 
now a post-revolution bishopric, instituted in 1721; 
see Bishops in Scotland. 


ABERDEEN ACT, introduced by the earl ot 
Aberdeen, and passed, 1845, to enforce the obser- 
vance of a convention made with Brazil in 1826 to 
put down the slave trade. Repealed in April, 1869. 


ABERDEEN ADMINISTRATION, called 
the Coalition Ministry, as including Whigs, Radi- 
cals, and followers of sir R. Peel. Formed in con- 
sequence of the resignation of the first Derby ad- 
ministration; sworn in, 28 Dec. 1852; resigned 
30 Jan. 1855; succeeded by the Palmerston ad- 
ministration, which see. 

Earl of Aberdeen,* jirst lord of the treasury. 

Lord Cranworth, lord chancellor. 

Earl Granville, president of the council. 

Duke of Argyll, lord privy seal. 

Lord John Russell,t+ foreign secretary. S 
Viscount Palmerston, home secretary. 

Duke of Neweastle,t colonial and war secretary. 
William Ewart Gladstone, chancellor of exchequer. 

Sir James Graham, first lord of the admiralty. 

Sir Charles Wood, president of the India board. 

Edward Cardwell, president of board of trade. 

Hon. Sidney Herbert, secretary-at-war. 

Sir William Molesworth, chief commissioner of works. 
Marquess of Lansdowne (without office). 
Viscount Canning, lord Stanley of Alderley, right hon 

Edward Strutt, &e. . 

ABERDEEN PEERAGE CASE. George 
earl of Aberdeen, grandson of the premier, suc 
ceeded his father, 22 March, 1864. After travellin: 
in a yacht, he became a merchant seaman, and chie 
mate of the Hera ; he was drowned 27 Jan. 1870 
His brother John’s claim to the succession wa 
allowed by the house of lords, 3 May, 1872. 


ABER EDW, S. Radnorshire. Near her 
Llewelyn, the last independent prince of Wales 
was surprised, defeated, and slain by the lord 
marchers, 11 Dec. 1282. o 

ABERGELE (N. Wales), see Railway Ace 
dents, 20 Aug. 1868. } 


ABERRATION oF Licut; discovered b 
James Bradley, through his observation of an ap 
parent motion of the fixed stars, 1727. a 


t 
ABHORRERS, a name given in 1679, Sy 
of Charles II.) to the court-party in England, th 
opponents of the Addressers (afterwards Whigs) 
so called from their address to the king prayip 
for the immediate assembly of the parliament, vie 
was delayed on account of its being adverse to th 


* Born in 1784; engaged in foreign diplomacy, 1813 
became foreign secretary, Jan. 1828 ; joined the party 
sir R. Peel, 1846; died 14 Dee. 1860. fa 
+ Lord John Russell was succeeded as foreign vor 
tary by the earl of Clarendon (Feb. 1853), but conti 
a member of the cabinet, without office ; he afterwar 
became president of the council, in the room of ea 
Raye appointed to the duchy of Lancaster (Jt 
1854). 
t In June, 1854, the offices were separated ; the dw 
of Newcastle remained secretary of war, and sir Geor: 
Grey was made colonial secretary. ? 


‘ 


ABINGDON LAW. 


3 


ABYDOS. 


court. The former (afterwards Zovies) expressed 
their abhorrence of those who endeavoured to en- 
croach on the royal prerogative, 1680. Hwme. The 
commons expelled several members for being Ab- 
horrers, among them sir Francis Withens (whom 
they sent to the Tower), and prayed his majesty 
to remove others from places of trust. They also 
resolved, “that it is the undoubted right of the 
subject to petition for the calling of a parliament, 
and that to traduce such petitions as tumultuous 
and seditious, is to contribute to the design of 
altering the constitution.’’ Oct. 1680. 


ABINGDON LAW. In 1645, lord Essex 
and Waller held Abingdon, an ancient abbey town 
in Berks, against CharlesI. The town was unsuc- 
cessfully attacked by sir Stephen Hawkins in 1644, 
and by prince Rupert in 1645. On these occasions 
the defenders put every Irish prisoner to death 
without trial; hence the term ‘‘ Abingdon law.”’ 


_ABIOGENESIS (@, not, dios, life), a term 
given to spontaneous generation by professor Hux- 
ley in his British Association address, 1870. 


ABJURATION of the pope was enjoined by 
statute in the reigns of Henry VIII., Elizabeth, and 
James I., and of certain doctrines of the church 
of Rome by stat. 25 Charles II. 1673. The oath 
of abjuration of the house of Stuart was enjoined by 
stat. 13 & 14 Will. III. 1702; the form was changed 
in after reigns, By 21 & 22 Vict. c. 48 (1858) one 
sath for the three oaths of abjuration, allegiance, 
ad supremacy was substituted. See Oaths. 


ABKASTA, a province of the Caucasus, annexed 
oy Russia, the last prince Michael Shervashiji being 
leposed: an insurrection against the Russian au- 
thorities, 8 Aug. 1866, was quelled with much 
oloodshed. 

ABNEY PARK, see Cemeteries. 

ABO, a port of Russia, founded prior to 1157, 
was till 1809 capital of Swedish Finland. It has 
suffered much by fire, especially in 1775 and 1827; 
was seized by the Russians in Feb. 1808; ceded to 
them, 17 Sept. 1809; and rebuilt by them after the 
sreat fire in 1827. The university erected by Gus- 
avus Adolphus and Christina, 1640 et seg., was 


‘emoved to Helsingfors, 1827. The peace of Abo, | 


xy which Sweden ceded part of Finland to Russia, 
vas signed, 18 Aug. 1743. 


_ ABOLITIONISTS, the party in the northern 
art of the United States, opposed to slavery. They 
ormed a small society at Boston about 1832; which 
yecame the nucleus of a great political party, and 
‘Ultimately attained its object by the war of 1861-4. 
jee Slavery in United States. 


. ABORIGINES (without origin), a name given 
0 the earliest known inhabitants of Italy (whence 
ame the Latini) ; now applied to the original in- 
iabitants of any country.—The Aborigines Protec- 
ion Society was established in 1838. Reports on 
he condition of the aborigines in the British colo- 
les were presented to parliament in 1834 and 1837. 
‘he society continues active, 1885. 


_ ABOUKTR (Egypt), the ancient Canopus. In 
te bay Nelson defeated the French fleet, 1 Aug. 
798; see Nile. A Turkish army of 15,000 was 
efeated here by 5000 French under Bonaparte, 25 
uly, 1799. A British expedition to Egypt under 
eneral sir Ralph Abercromby landed here, and 
- boukir surrendered to them aiter an obstinate and 
mguinary conflict with the French, 8 March, 1801; 
te Alexandria. 


» ABRAHAM, Era of, used by Eusebius; so 
led from the patriarch Abraham, who died 1822 


B.c. The era began 1 Oct. 2016 B.c. To reduce 
this era to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and 
three months. Nicolas. 


ABRAHAM, HEIGHTS OF, near Quebec, 
Lower Canada. The French were defeated and 
Montcalm, their commander, killed here by general 
Wolfe, who fell in the moment of victory, 13 Sept. 
1759; see Quebec. 


ABRAHAMITES, a sect holding the errors of 
Paulus, was suppressed by Cyriacus, the patriarch 
of Antioch, early in the ninth century. A deistical 
sect of this name was banished from Bohemia by 
Joseph II. in 1783. 

ABRANTES (Portugal). Bya treaty between 
France and Portugal, signed here 29 Sept. r8or, 
the war was closed, and the French army withdrew; 
a money compensation having been agreed to, and 
territories in Guiana ceded to France. 


ABSALOMW’S REBELLION and death 


(1024—23 B. ©.) is described 2 Sam. xv.—xix. 


ABSCONDING DEBTORS ACT, passed 
g Aug. 1870. 


_ ABSENTEE TAX (4s. in the pound), levied 
in Ireland in 1715 on the incomes and pensions 
of absentees (long complained of), ceased in 1753. 
A tax of 2s. in the pound was proposed in vain 
by Mr. Flood in 1773 and by Mr. Molyneux in 
1783. 

ABSOLUTION. . Till the 3rd century, the 
consent of the congregation was necessary to abso- 
lution; but soon after the power was reserved to 
the bishop; and in the 12th century the form ‘ J 
absolve thee’? had become general. See Holy 
Cross. 

ABSTINENCE. It.is said that St. Anthony 
lived to the age of 105 on twelve ounces of bread 
and water daily, and James the hermit to the age 
of 104; that St. Epiphanius lived to 115; Simeon 
the Stylite to 112; and Kentigern, commonly called 
St. Mungo, to 185 years ofage. Spottiswood. 
Cicely de Ridgway, said to have fasted 40 days rather 

than plead when charged with the murder of her hus- 

band John ; discharged as miraculously saved, 1347. 
Ann Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire, 

was said to have lived twenty months without food ; 

but her imposture was detected by Dr. A. Henderson, 

Nov. 1808. 

A man named Cavanagh at Newry, in Ireland, was 
reported to have lived two years without meat or 
drink, Aug. 1840. His imposture was discovered in 
England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. 

Sarah Jacobs, the Welsh fasting girl, aged 13, said by her 
father to have lived for more than a year without food, 
after being closely watched for a week, died from ex- 
haustion 17 Dec. 1869. Her parents were sentenced at 
Carmarthen to imprisonment for fraudulent deception, 
13 July, 1870. 

Dr, Tanner, at New York, was stated to have fasted 40 
days and nights, drinking a little water occasionally ; 
losing 36 Ibs. from 1573 lbs. ; noon 28 June to noon 
7 Aug. 1880. 

Mr. Griscom, of Chicago, said to have fasted 36 days, 
5 July, r88r. 

Louise Lateau, Belgian fanatic, at Bois d’Haine, said to 
have lived twelve years without food, died aged 33. 
Aug. 1883. 

[She had remarkable wounds resembling the stigmata on 
the crucifix]. See Fasts, Teetotallers. : 
ABSTINENTS, an ascetic sect in Gaul and Spain: about 

288. 

ABU KLEA, about 120 miles from Khartoum. 
Here General Sir Herbert Stewart defeated the 
Mahdi’s troops, 17 Jan. 1885. See under Soudan. 

ABYDOS, see Hellespont. 'The tablet of Aby- 
dos, dedicated to the memory of his ancestors by 
Pharaoh Rameses II. (1311-1245 8.C.), was bought 
for the British Museum, 1837. 

B2 


ABYSSINIA. 
ABYSSINIA, the country of the Habese, 


N. E. Africa. Its ancient history is very uncer- 
tain. The kingdom of the Auxumite (its chief 
town Auxume) flourished in the Ist and 2nd 
centuries after Christ. The religion of the Abys- 
sinians is a corrupt form of the Christianity intro- 
duced about 329 by Frumentius. About 960, 
Judith, a Jewish princess, murdered a great part 
of the royal family, and reigned forty years. The 
young king escaped: and the royal house was 
restored in 1268 in the person of his descendant 
Icon Amlac. In the middle ages it was said to 
be ruled by Prester John or Prete Janni. The 
Portuguese missions, commenced in the 15th cen- 
tury, after much struggling against opposition, 
were expelled about 1633. ‘The encroachments of 
the Gallas and intestine disorders soon after broke 
up the empire into petty governments. From the 
visits of James Bruce, 1768-73; Henry Salt, 1809- 
10; Edward Riippell, 1834-7 ; major Harris, 1841 ; 
Mansfield Parkyns, 1844-7, much information 
respecting Abyssinia has been gained. Several 
expeditions into Abyssinia have been organised by 
the French government. ‘The brothers Antoine 
and Arnauld Abbadie visited the country 1837 -45- 
Abyssinia was divided into four provinces. In 
1847 Ras Ali was ruler of Amhara; Ras Ubie of 
Tigré and Samien; and Sahela Selassie of Shoa. 
Population between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000. 


Treaty of commerce with the king of Shoa con- 
cluded by captain Harris. ? . 16 Nov, 
Mr. Plowden (made British consul at Massowah, 
1848), concludes treaty with Ras Ali, ruler of 
Amhara . : : . : : » a2 INGVS 
Ras Ali deposed by his son-in-law Theodore, who 
is crowned, and takes the title of negus, or king 
of kings ; : 4 ; rz Feb. 
Protestant missionaries received, replacing Roman 
catholics : : 4 é E ; : : 
Mr. Plowden (who had joined the party of Theo- 
dore) killed by rebels, Feb. ; his friend Bell 
killed soon after, when avenging him ; Theodore 
overcomes the rebels and massacres about 150 
prisoners as a sacrifice to their manes aye 8 
Captain C. D. Cameron appointed to succeed con- 
sul Plowden . ; : : 3 : Noy. 
He arrived at Massowah 9 Feb., goes to Abys- 
sinia, May; received by Theodore, 7 Oct.; is 
sent away with a letter for the queen, desiring 
alliance against the Turks; which arrived 
12 Feb. 
It is decided that this letter is not to be answered ; 
Cameron, ordered by earl Russell to remain at 
Massowah, returns to Abyssinia ; (JN; ie, 
Rev. H. Stern, missionary, beaten and imprisoned 
for alleged intrusion upon Theodore - » Oct: 
Cameron, and all British subjects and missionaries, 
imprisoned for pretended insults, 3 Jan.; report 
of imprisonment reached London 7 May; pri- 
soners sent to Magdala, and chained like crimi- 
nals ; 2 : 4 ; ; Nov. 
Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, a Chaldee Christian, first 
_ assistant British political resident at Aden, sent 
on mission to Abyssinia ; arrives at Massowah, 24 
July ; lieut. Prideaux and Dr. Blaie appointed 
to accompany him : : ; ‘ 4 R 
Mr. Rassam having negotiated without effect for a 
year, Mr. Gifford Palgrave is appointed by earl 
Russell to go to Abyssinia, July ; but ts stopped 
on the intelligence that Theodore has invited 
Rassam to come to him : - 2 Aug. 
Mr. Rassam, lieut. Prideaux, and Dr. Blane arrive 
at Matemma from Massowah, 21 Noy. 1865; and 
are well received by Theodore . 28 Jan. 
Prisoners released, 12 March; all seized and im- 
prisoned ‘ i 5 . about 13 April, 
Mr. Flad sent to England by Theodore to obtain 
British workmen, April; arrives, July; intro- 
duced to queen Victoria, and receives from her 
an autograph letter, dated 6 AEE ig, 
Mr. Flad returned with workmen to Massowah, 
29 Oct.; Theodore received the queen’s letter 
about 19 Dec. ,, 


1841 


1849 


1855 


1863 


3) 


1864 


99 


ABYSSINIA. 


Lord Stanley’s ultimatum to Theodore, demand- — 
ing release of the captives in three months (not 
received), sent . , . A 16 April, 1867 

Mr. Flad received by the king ; and made to join 
his family in prison d é : 5 May, 

Preparations for war ; sir Robert Napier appointed 
commander of an expedition ; pioneer force sails 
from Bombay . ‘ : ; ‘ 14 Sept. 

A formal letter from the British government sent 
to Theodore (never arrived). : 9 Sept. 

Advanced brigade (3500) sail from Bombay, 7, 
8 Oct. ; land at Zoulla . 4 A . 21 Oct. 

Napier’s proclamation issued in Abyssinia, 26 Oct. 

Captives at Magdala reported well. tz Nov. 

Report that the Gallas have joined the revolt 
against Theodore. : i : 25 Nov. 

The British parliament meets ; the queen’s speech 
announces the war, 19 Nov. ; 2,000,oool. voted, 

26, 27 Nov. 

Third ultimatum sent by sir R. Napier; inter- ; 


cepted by a rebel chief and given to Mr. Rassam, 
who suppressed it as likely to endanger the lives 


of the captives . «% C i “ : . 1868 
Arrival of sir R. Napier at Annesley bay 4 Jan. Sym 
The captives relieved of their chains . 29 March, ,, 
Sir R. Napier arrives below Magdala 2 April, -iam 


Theodore massacres about 300 native prisoners 
9 April, 
Battle of Arogee ; Theodore’s troops attack the 
British first brigade; defeated with much 
slaughter (Good Friday) ‘ r to April, 
Theodore requests Mr. Rassam to mediate ; lieut. 
Prideaux sent to sir R. Napier returns with a 
letter; Theodore receives it indignantly, and ~~ 
sends an insulting reply i ‘ . 11 April, 
Theodore sends a letter of apology offering a present 
of cattle ; Mr. Rassam understanding this present 
to have been accepted, tells the king’s agents ; 
the European artisans and families sent to the 
British camp é * 4 : . 12 April, 
Part of the Abyssinian troops mutiny ; Magdala 
bombarded and stormed ; Theodore kills him- 
self . : 5 4 _ 2 : 13 April, 
[‘‘I fail to discover a single point of view from 
which it is possible to regard his removal with re- 
gret.”—Sir Rk. Napier 4 . 18 June,] 
Magdala burnt to the ground.  .ea7 April 
Death of Theodore’s queen - 4 - 10 May, 
Henry Dufton of the ‘‘ Intelligence department” 
shot by Shosho robbers . : . 28 May, 
Immediate return of the troops ;—all had embarked, 
2 June, 
Troops arrive at Plymouth, 21 June ; sir R. Napier 
at Dover . : A : . “2 Julyy 
[Cattle said to have been employed in the expedi- 
tion: 45 elephants, 7417 camels, 12,920 mules 
and ponies, 7033 bullocks, 827 donkeys. Natives 
largely employed in the transport service.] 
Theodore’s son Alamayou, aged 7, arrives at Ply- 
mouth, 14 July; presented to queen Victoria, 
16 July, 
Pension of 350/. to col. Cameron [he died 30 May, 
1870]; soool. given to Mr. Rassam ; 2oool. to Dr. 
Blane; 2000/1. to lieut. Prideaux ; announced 
23 Dec. 
Prince Alamayou sailed to India for education (re- 


: A s " Feb. 1880] 
Report of a commission on the expenses of the ex- 


urgency and divided authority . . Aug. 
War between Gobazye, king of Amhara, and Kassa, 
king of Tigré; Kassa victor . . 21 June, 
Gobazye beaten and taken prisoner 11 July, 
Kassa proposes to be crowned emperor and negus 
of all Abyssinia, 2x Nov. ; punishes the Catholic 
missionaries for partisanship; and forms alliance 
with Egypt... © |.) SNe 
Kassa crowned at Axum as Johanni II. 12 Jan. 187% 
Said to be ruling tyrannically. . . . 187354 
War with Egypt ; the Khedive’s troops enter Abys- 
sinia; the natives retire, but surprise and defeat 
the Egyptians at Kherad Iska(a massacre), and at 
Gonda Gouddi (a desperate fight) 16 Oct. 18; 
Abyssinians defeated in three days’ conflict, a 
17-19 Feb, 1876 


Or 


ABYSSINIAN ERA. 


ol. Gordon said to be negotiating peace for Egypt, 
June, 
ing Johanni totally defeats Menelek, king of Shoa, 
middle of June, 
‘enelek submits, permitted to rule ;—reported great 
battle ; Menelek said to be killed 17 Sept. 
ol. Gordon concludes peace ; Abyssinia to have a 
port . § é : 4 . Oct. 
rince Alamayou dies at Leeds, 14 Nov., buried at 
Windsor : : Z I : - . 
ing Johanni receives adm. Hewett from Souakim, 
and signs a treaty 4 3 about 26 May 
wo Abyssinian envoys arrive at Plymouth 19 Aug. 


1877 
” 
» 

1879 


9 


1884 


92 


eceived by the queen . ‘ F 20 Aug. 
fart on return . izxSept. ,, 


ABYSSINIAN ERA is reckoned from the 
eation, which the Abyssinians place in the 5493rd 
ear B.C., on 29 Aug. old style; their dates 
msequently exceed ours by 5492 years, 125 days. 
oreduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, sub- 
‘act 5492 years, 125 days. 
ACACIANS. 1. Followers of Acacius, bishop 
Cesarea, in the fourth century, who held pe- 
iliar doctrines respecting the nature of Christ. 
Partisans of Acacius, patriarch of Constanti- 
ple, promoter of the Henoticon (which see), 
2-4. 
ACADEMICAL STUDY, see Education, 
72. 


ACADEMIES. Academia was a shady grove 
ithout the walls of Athens (bequeathed by Acade- 


us for ete exercises), where Plato first 
ught philosophy, and his followers took the title 


' Academics, 378 B.c. Stanley.—Rome had no 
ademies.*—Ptolemy Soter is said to have founded 
1 academy at Alexandria, about 314 B.c. Ab- 
rahman I., caliph of Spain, founded academies 
out A.D. 773. Theodosius the Younger, Charle- 
agne, and Alfred are also named as founders of 
ademies. Italy is celebrated for its academies ; 
id Jarckius mentions 550, of which 25 were in 
ilan. In 1874 Girolamo Ponti, of Milan, be- 
ieathed about 35,000/. to the academies of science 
London, Paris, and Vienna. 


PRINCIPAL ACADEMIES, 
nerican Academy of Sciences, Boston, 1780. 
icona, of the Caliyinosi, 1642. 
sil, 1460. 
rlin, Royal, 1700; of Princes, 1703; Architecture, 


(799. 
logna, Ecclesiastical, 1687; Mathematics, 1690; 
sciences and Arts, 1712. 

escia, of the Erranti, 1626. 

est and Toulon, Military, 1682. 

ussels, Belles Lettres, 1773. 

en, Belles Lettres, 1705, 

penhagen, of Sciences, 1743. 

rtona, Antiquities, 1726. 

‘blin, Arts, 1742; Painting, Sculpture, &c., 1823. 

furt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. 

enza, the Philoponi, 1612. 

wrence, Belles Lettres, 1272 ; Della Crusca (now united | 
vith the Florentine, and merged under that name), 
582; Del Cimento, 1657 (by cardinal de’ Medici) ; 
\ntiquities, 1807. 

eva, Medical, 1715. 

aoa, Painting, &., 1751 ; Sciences, 1783. 

many, Nature Cwriosi, now Leopoldine, 1662. 

ttingen, 1734-7. 

arlem, the Sciences, 1760. 

sh Academy, Royal, Dublin, 1782. 

‘bon, History, 1720; Sciences, 1779. 

don ; see London and Societies. Royal Academy of 
‘ine Arts, 1768; of Music, 1734-43 and 1822. 

ms, Sciences, 1710; Physic and Mathematics added, 


758. 
dnrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713 ; History, 1730; Paint- 
‘ag and the Arts, 1753. 


' Cicero termed his villa ‘‘ Academia,” and here com- 
ed his ‘‘ Academic Questions.” 


ACCESSION. 


Manheim, Sciences, 1755 ; Sculpture, 1775. 

Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. 

Marseilles, Belles Lettres, 1726. 

Massachusetts, Arts and Sciences, 1780. 

Milan, Architecture, 1380 ; Sciences, 1719. 

Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759 ; Sciences, 1770. 

Naples, Rossanw, 1540; Mathematics, 1560; Sciences, 
1695; Herculanewm, 1755. 

New York, Literature and Philosophy, 1814. 

Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682. 

Padua, for Poetry, 1613 ; Sciences, 1792. 

Palermo, Medical, 1645. 

Paris, Sorbonne, 1253; Painting, 1391 ; Music, 1543 and 
1671; French (by Richelieu), 1635; Fine Arts, 1648 ; 
Inscriptions et Belles Lettres (by Colbert), 1663 ; Sciences 
(by Colbert), 1666 ; Architecture, 1671; Surgery, 17313 
Military, 1751 ; Natural Philosophy, 1796, see Institute. 

Parma, the Innominati, 1550. 

Perousa, Insensati, 1561 ; Filigirti, 1574. 

Philadelphia, Arts and Sciences, 1749. 

Portsmouth, Naval, 1722 ; enlarged, 1806. 

Rome, Umoristi, 1611 ; Fantascici, 1625 ; Infecondi, 1653 ; 
Painting, 1665; Arcadi, 1690; English, 1752; Lincei, 
about 1600 ; Nuovi Lincei, 1847. 

Sandhurst, Military, 1822. 

St. Petersburg, Sciences, 1725 ; Military, 1732; the School 
of Arts, 1764. 

Stockholm, of Science, 1741; Belles Lettres, 1753; Agri 
culture, 1781 ; Royal Swedish, 1786. 

Toulon, Military, 1682. 

Turin, Sciences, about 1759; Fine Arts, 1778. 

Turkey, Military School, 1775. 

Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. 

Venice, Medical, &e., 1701. 

Verona, Music, 1543 ; Sciences, 1780. 

Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705; Surgery, 1783; 
Oriental, 1810. 

Warsaw, Languages, and History, 1753. 

Washington, United States, America, 1863. 

Woolwich, Military, 1741. 

ACADIA, see Nova Scotia. 


ACANTHUS, the foliage forming the volutes 
of the Corinthian capital, ascribed to Callimachus, 
about 540 B.c. 


ACAPULCO, Mexico. A Spanish galleon, 
from Acapulco, laden with gold and precious wares 
(estimated at above 1,000,000/. sterling), taken by 
commodore Anson, who had previously acquired 
booty in his voyage amounting to 600,000/., June, 
1743. He arrived at Spithead in the Centurion, 
having circumnavigated the globe, 15 June, 1744. 


ACARNANITA, N. Greece. The people be- 
came prominent in the Peloponnesian war, having 
invited the help of the Athenians against the Am- 
bracians, 432 B.c. The Acarnanians were subdued 
by the Lacedemonians in 390; they took part 
with Macedon against the Romans in 200, by whom 
they were defeated in 197, and subjugated in 145. 


ACCADIANS,a name now given to the primi- 
tive inhabitants of Babylon. The rev. A. H. 
Sayce (1877) considers them to have been the earliest 
civilisers of Eastern Asia, and the source of the phi- 
losophy and arts of the Assyrians and Pheenicians, 
and hence of Greece. Their libraries are said to 
have existed seventeen centuries B.C. 


ACCENTS were first introduced in the Greek 
language by Aristophanes of Byzantium, a gram- 
marian and critic who taught at Alexandria about 
264 B.c. Accents were first used by the French in 
the reign of Louis XIII. (about 1610). 


ACCESSION. THE, #.e., that of the House of 
Hanover to the throne of Great Britain, in the 
erson of George I., elector of Hanover, son of 
Renta daughter of Elizabeth, daughter of James I. 
He succeeded, 1 Aug. 1714, by virtue of the act of 
settlement passed in the reign of William ITI., 
12 June, 1702, which limited the succession to his 
mother (as a Protestant) in the event of queen Anne 
dying without issue. 


& 


ACCESSORIES. 6 


ACHONRY. 


~ ACCESSORIES To CRIMES. The law re- | 


specting them consolidated and amended in 1861. 


ACCIDENTS, see under Coal, Fires, Railways, 
&e. For compensation for accidents, see Camp- 
bell’s Acts and Passengers. In 1869, it was com- 
puted that, in one year, about I9g2 persons are 
killed, and 1200 injured, in the streets of London ; 
231 were killed in 18753 237 killed, 3185 injured, 
1 Jan. 1878—31 Jan. 1879. 163 killed in 1879 ; 252 
in 1881. 

Accident Relief Society, London, established 1836. 
Society for Preventing Street Accidents and Dangerous 
Driving, formed in 1879; met at the Mansion House, 
London, 30 Jan. 1880; wound up, 1 July, 1881. 
ACCIDENTAL DEATHS IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 

1856, 9716 | 1863, 9952 | 1870, 10,906 | 1877, 11,194 

1857, 8930] 1864, 10,997 | 1871, 11,316"| 1878, 12,108 

1858, 8947 | 1865, 11,397 | 1872, 11,435 | 1879, 10,787 

1859, 9241 | 1866, 11,262 | 1873, 11,284 | 1880, 10,807 

1860, 9225 | 1867, 11,172 | 1874, 11,783 | 1881. 11,404 

1861, 9213 | 1868, 11,033 | 1875, 12,254 | 1882, 11,269 

1862, go05 | 1869, 10,725 | 1876, 11,681 | 1883, 11,539 

ACCLIMATISATION or Antmats. This 
has been prosecuted with great vigour since the 
establishment of the Zoological society of London 
in 1829, and of the Société d’ Acclimatation in Paris. 
Numbers of European animals have been naturalised 
in Australia; the camel has been conveyed to Brazil 
(1859) ; alpacas are bred at Paris; and ostriches in 
Italy (1859). On 6 Oct. 1860, the Bois de Boulogne, 
near Paris, was opened as a zoological garden, con- 
taining only acclimatised animals. An English ac- 
climatisation society was founded Io June, 1860, b 
hon. Grantley Berkeley, Mr. J. Crockford, Mr. F. 
Buckland, &c., and the prince of Wales became pre- 
sident in April, 1865. It was not successful. An 
acclimatising garden was established at Melbourne, 
Australia, in Feb. 1861, and efforts made to natu- 
ralise English birds, fishes, &c. 

ACCOLTELLATORI (gladiators), secret 
assassins, at Ravenna and other places in Italy, 1874. 

ACCORDION, a small free-reed wind-instru- 
ment with keys, invented at Vienna by Damian 
about 1829, and soon after introduced into England. 


ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL 1n CHAN- 
CERY, &c., an office instituted in 1726, and abolished 
by an act passed 6 Aug. 1872. In 1841, the office 
of accountant-general of the court of exchequer was 
abolished, and the duties transferred to the account- 
ant in chancery. 


ACCOUNTANTS’ INSTITUTE, established 
at a meeting, 30 July, 1870; the Accountants’ 
Society in 1872. Five societies were incorporated 
as ‘*The Chartered Institute of Accountants of 
England and Wales,” in 1880. 


ACCUSERS. By occult writers, such as 
Agrippa, accusers are the eighth order of devils, 
whose chief is called Asteroth, or Spy. In Revela- 
tion, ch. xii. 10, the devil is called ‘*the accuser of 
the brethren.’’— False accusers were to be hanged, 
by 24 Henry VI. 1446; and burnt in the face with 
an F, by 37 Henry VIII. 1545. Stow. 


ACELDAMA, 2 field said to have been the one 
bought with the thirty pieces of silver given to Judas 
Iscariot for betraying Christ, is still shown to 
travellers. Matthew xxvii. 8; Acts i. 19.—This 
name was given to an estate purchased by judge 
Jeffreys after the ‘‘ bloody assizes”’ in 1685. 


ACEPHALI (Greek a, no; cephalé, head), a 
term applied to certain sects who resisted their 
bishops and met privately, about 450; and also in 
canon law applied to such bishops, clerks, monks, 
&e., as claim or enjoy independence of the jurisdic- 
tion of the ordinary or metro olitan. 


founded by St. Finian, who erected the church of 


ACETYLENE, 2 luminous hydrocarbon gas 
resembling coal gas, discovered by Berthelot, and 
made known in 1862. 


ACHATA (N. Peloponnesus), Greece, said to 
have been settled by Achzus, the son of Xuthus, | 
about 1330 B.c. (?) The kingdom was united with 
Sicyon or subject to the Atolians until about 
284 B.c. The Achei, descendants of Achzus, origin- 
ally inhabited the neighbourhood of Argos; but 
when the Heraclide drove them thence, they re- 
tired among the Jonians, expelled the natives, and 
seized their thirteen cities, viz. Pellene, Agira, 
AXgium, Bura, Tritea, Leontium, Rhypes, Cerynea, 
Olenos, Helice, Patrae, Dyme, and Phare, forming 
the ACH#AN LEAGUE. 


Achaia invaded by Epaminondas . - a BG. hs SOG 
The ACHZAN LEAGUE revived by four cities about 

280, and by others : : : 275, 
Aratus made preetor . z s es p . p 
The league joined by Corinth (captured 243), Megara, 

&e 242—228 
229 


274 


24 


Supported by Athens and Antigonus Doson . ' 
The Acheans defeated at Ladocea, by the Spartans, 
under Cleomenes III., 226 ; totally defeat them at 
Sellasia 5 - é , 4 : 2 
The Social war begun ; battle of Caphyze in Arcadia ; 
Aratus defeated . 5 5 : : m - 
The Peloponnesus ravaged by the Aitolians . 
Peace of Naupactus. = 3 : 
Aratus poisoned at Hgium : : . 3 
Philopoemen, leader of the league, defeats the Spartan 
tyrant Machanidas  . : : A é vane 
Alliance of the league with the Romans . : 
Philopcemen defeated by Nabis in a naval battle . 
All the Peloponnesus joins the league. s : 
ba with Messene : Philopcemen made prisoner and 
slain : & : Fi F : : Ap 
The Acheeans overrun Messenia with fire and sword 
The Romans enter Achaia, and carry off numbers, } 
including Polybius the historian . : -. TOR 
War with Rome, 150; Metellus enters Greece . . - 
The Acheans defeated by Mummius at Leucopetra, 
147; the league dissolved ; Corinth taken ; Greece : 
subjected to Rome, and named the province of 
Achaia : “ ; : : : See 
Achaia made a Latin principality by William of 
Champlitte . i A = : : ae Hs 
Obtained by Geoffrey Villehardouin, r210 ; by Geof- 
frey II. . y - : - : - + 1218 
By his brother William, 1246; who conquers the 
Moors, 1248 ; makes war with the emperor Michael, 
1259 ; and gains three fortresses : ‘ - 1262 
Succeeded by Isabella, 1277; who marries Florenz of 
Hainault 3.) 00). io 
Their daughter Maud, princess, 1311 ; thrice married ; § 
forcibly married to John de Gravina, and dies in 4 
: 4 A - 13249 


22r 


220 


219 
217 


146 


1205 __ 


prison. : : 
Achaia, a fief of Naples 1246—1430 
Conquered by the Turks . about 1540 
; 


ACHEEN, capital of a kingdom N.W. off 
Sumatra, was visited by the Portuguese about 
1509. Factories were set up here by the Dutch, 
1596; by the English, 1602; by the French, 1621. 
For the war with the Dutch, see Swmatra. 


The Nisero of Sunderland, with sugar from Sourabaya, | 
stranded on territory of the chief of Pangah, a Malay 
dependent of Tuku Imam Muda, the rajah of Tenom, 
subject to the Sultan of Acheen, 16 Noy. 1883. } 

18 British and 6 foreign sailors made prisoners; the 
captain released to negotiate ; efforts to obtain their 
release, by war-like attacks and proffered ransom, 
ineffectual; the Dutch storm Tenom, but prisoners 
carried off, 7 Jan. 1884. 

H.M.S. Fegasus sent there. The rajah demands 
trade, and desires subjection to Great Britain. Harl 
Granville recommends conciliation to the Dutch 
eee announced May 1884. See under Mansion 

Ouse, q 
Eighteen prisoners released 11 Sept., arrived in the 
Thames, 26 Oct. 1884. 


ACHONRY, Strico_(N. Ireland), a bishopri , 


ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES. 7 


ACTIUM. 


Achad, or Achonry, about 520, and conferred it on 


his disciple Nathy (Dathy, or David), the first 
bishop. The see, held with Killala, since 1612, was 
united with Tuam in 1834. 


ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES, in which 
colour is got rid of, were invented by John Dollond, 
and described in Phil. Trans. of the Royal Society, 
London, 1753-8. 


ACIDS (now defined as salts of hydrogen) are 
generally soluble in water, redden organic blues, 
decompose carbonates, and destroy the properties of 
alkalies, forming alkaline salts. The number of 
acids was increased by the Arabs; Geber (8th cen- 
tury) knew nitric acid and sulphuric acid. Theories 
of the constitution of acids were put forth by Becher 
(1669), Lemery (1675), and Stahl (1723). After the 
discovery of oxygen by Priestley, 1 Aug. 1774, 
Lavoisier (1778), concluded that oxygen was a con- 
stituent of all acids; but about 1810 Davy, Gay- 
-Lussac, and others, proved the existence of acids 
free from oxygen. In 1816 Dulong proposed the 
binary or hydrogen theory of acids, and in 1837 
Liebig applied the theories of Davy and Dulong to 
explain the constitution of several organic acids. 
Oxygen acids were termed anhydrides by Gerhardt 
(died 1856). Many acids have been discovered 
through the advance of organic chemistry. Watts. 


ACOLYTES, an inferior order of clergy in the 
Latin church, unknown to the Greek church for 
four hundred years after Christ. 


ACOUSTICS (from akous, Greek, I hear), the 
science of sound, so named by Sauveur in the 17th 
century. The formation of sound in the air by the 
vibrations of the atmosphere, strings, &c., was ex- 
plained by Pythagoras about 500 B.c., and by Aris- 
pie 330 B.c. See Telephone, Microphone, Mega- 
phone. 


The speaking trumpet said to have been used by Alex- 
ander the Great, 335 B.C. 

Galileo’s discoveries, about A.D. 1600. 

His theorem of the harmonic curve demonstrated by Dr. 
Brook Taylor, in 1714 ; further perfected by D’Alembert, 
Kuler, Bernouilli, and La Grange, at various periods of 
the eighteenth century. 

Hooke calculated the vibration of sounds by the striking 
of the teeth of brass wheels, 1681. 

Sauveur determined the number of vibrations belonging 
to a given note, about 1700. 

Velocity of sound said to be 1473 feet in a second, by 
Gassendi; 1172 feet by Cassini, Romer, and others ; 
968 feet by Newton ; rogo feet, at the temperature of 
32° Fahrenheit, by Tyndall; the velocity increases with 
the rise of temperature. 

Chladni (who raised acoustics to an independent science) 
published his important discoveries on the figures pro- 
duced in layers of sand by harmonic chords, &c., in 
1787, and since. 

Cagniard-Latour invented the Sirene (which see), 1819. 

Savart determined the range of the perception of the 
human ear to be from 7 to 24,000 vibrations a second, 


1830. 

Biot, Savart, Wheatstone, Lissajous, Helmholtz, Tyndall, 
and others in the present century have greatly in- 
creased our knowledge of acoustics. 

Oyer-tones, harmonics, well investigated by Helmholtz ; 
under-tones by Auerbach, 1878. 

Tyndall’s experiments off the South Foreland on fog- 
signals and gun-cotton, demonstrated that the trans- 
mission of sound is checked by the non-homogeneity 
of the air, independently of fog and rain, July, 1873. 

The results of Tyndall’s experiments showed, that the 
parabolic-muzzle gun with gun-cotton, and that of 

_ sir Richard Collinson’s gun-cotton rocket, are very 
effective fog-signals. TF ine-grain gunpowder with 
howitzers is the best sound-producer; pebble powder 
the worst, 1874-7. 

Sound produced by electricity, light, and from radiant 
heat, see J'elephone and Photophone, 1881. 

Mr. A. Stroh exhibits the attraction and repulsion 
(resembling mugnetic) produced by sonorous vibra- 


a in tubes to the Telegraph Engineers, 27 April, 
fe 2. 

ACRE, a land measure, formerly of uncertain 
quantity, and differing in various parts of the 
country, was reduced to a standard by Edward I., 
about 1305. In 1824 the standard acre was ordered 
by statute to contain 4840 square yards. 


ACRH, Acca, anciently Ptolemais, in Syria, was 
taken by the Saracens in 638; by the crusaders 
under Baldwin I. in 1104; by Saladin in 1187; and 
again by Richard I. and other crusaders, 12 July, 
IIQI, after a siege of 2 years, with a loss of 6 arch- 
bishops, 12 bishops, 40 earls, 500 barons, and 300,000 
soldiers. It was then named St. Jean d’_Acre. It 
was retaken by the Saracens in 1291, when 60,000 
Christians perished, and the nuns, who had mangled 
their faces, to preserve their chastity, were put to 
death. Acre was gallantly defended by Djezzar 
Pacha against Bonaparte, till relieved by sir Sidney 
Smith, who resisted twelve attempts by the French, 
between 16 March and 20 May, 1799, when Bonaparte 
retreated. Acre, as a Turkish pachalic, was seized 
27 May, 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted. 
On 3 Nov. 1840, it was stormed by the allied fleet 
under sir Robert Stopford, and taken after a bom- 
bardment of a few hours, the Egyptians losing up- 
wards of 2000 in killed and wounded, and 3000 
prisoners, while the British had but 12 killed and 
42 wounded ; see Syria and Turkey. 

ACROPOLIS, the ancient citadel of Athens, 
built on a rock. Near it stood the temple of 
Minerva, the Parthenon, which see. Other cities 
had similar fortresses. 


ACROSTIC, a poem in which the first or last 
letters of each line, read downwards, form a word, 
is said to have been invented by Porphyrius Optali- 
anus in the 4th century. Double acrostics became 
very popular in 1867. 

ACS or Acz (Hungary). The Hungarians 
under Gorgey were defeated here by the Austrians 
and Russians, on 2 and Io July, 1849. 


ACT oF SETTLEMENT, &c.; see Accession, 

Succession, Supremacy, and Uniformity Acts. 

The Act of Settlement passed in 1662, which secured to 
various persons the possession of forfeited estates of 
Irish rebels, was repealed by acclamation by the Parlia- 
ment summoned by Jaines IT. in May, 1689, and much 
confiscation of the property of Protestants ensued. 
The act was restored by William III. 1690. 


ACTA DIURNA; see Newspapers. 
ACTA SANCTORUM (“acts of the saints’’), 


a work begun by the Jesuits. The first volume ap- 
peared in 1643: the publication was interrupted in 
1794, when 54 volumes, bringing the work down to 
15 October, had been published. The work was re- 
sumed by the Jesuits in 1837, and 6 more volumes 
had been published in I 867. The writers have 
been named Bollandists, from John Bolland, who 
published the first two volumes. 


ACTINOMETER, an instrument to measure 
the heating power of the solar rays, invented by 
sir John F. Herschel, and described by him in 1825. 
See Sun. ; 

ACTIUM, a promontory of Acarnania, W. 

reece, near which was fought, 2 or 3 Sept. 31 B.c., 
the battle between the fleet of Octavius Cesar, and 
that of Mare Antony and Cleopatra, which decided 
the fate of Antony; 300 of his galleys going over to 
Cesar. This victory made Octavius master of the 
world, and the Roman empire is commonly dated 
I Jan. 30 B.c. (the Actian Era). The conqueror 
built Nicopolis (the city of victory), and instituted 
the Actian games. 


ACTON BURNEL. 


8 ~ ADELPHI. 


ACTON BURNEL, or Shrewsbury. At the 
parliament held here by Edward I., Oct. 1283, the 
“*statute of merchants”’ against debtors was enacted. 


ACTON MURDER, see Zriais, 1880. 
ACTRESSES appear to have been unknown to 


the ancients; men or eunuchs performing the female 
parts. Charles II. is said to have first encouraged 
the public appearance of women on the stage in 
England, in 1662; but Anne, queen of James I., had 
previously performed in a theatre at court. Theat. 
Biog. Mrs. Colman was the first English public 
actress; she performed the part of Janthe in Dave- 
nant’s ‘‘Siege of Rhodes,” in 1656. Victor. 


ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, supposed to 
have been written by Luke in continuation of his 
Gospel. It terminates A.D. 63. 


ACTS OF PARLIAMENT, or STaturteEs, | 


see Parliament. The following are among the most 
celebrated early statutes :— 


Provisions of Merton, 1235-6. 
Statute of Marlborough, 1267. 
» Of Bigamy, 1275-6. 
», Of Gloucester, the earliest statute of which any re- 
cord exists, 6 Edw. I. 1278. 
», of Mortmain, 1279. 

Quo Warranto, Oct. 1280. 

Statute of Merchants or Acton-Burnel, 1283. 

Statutes of Wales, 1284. 

of Winchester, Oct. 1284. 

», Of Westminster, 1275, 1285, 1290. 
Statute forbidding the levying of taxes without the con- 
sent of parliament, 1297. 
3, Of Premunire, 1306. 

Statutes first printed in the reign of Richard III., 1483. 

Statutes of the Realm, from Magna Charta to George I., 
printed from the original records and MSS. in 12 vols. 
folio, under the direction of commissioners appointed 
in 1801, 1811-28. 

The statutes passed during each session were formerly 
printed annually in 4to and 8vo, now in 8vo only. 
Abstracts are given in the Cabinet Lawyer. 

Between 1823 and 1829, 1126 acts were wholly repealed, 
and 443 repealed in part, chiefly arising out of the con- 
solidation of the laws by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) 
Peel; of these acts, 1344 related to the kingdom at 
large, and 225 to Ireland solely ; and in 1856 many 
obsolete statutes (enacted between 1285 and 1777) were 
repealed. 

By the Statute Law Revision Act of 1861, 770 acts were 
wholly repealed, and a great many partially. By 
similar acts since passed, a great number of enactments 
have been repealed, commencing with the Provisions 
of Merton, 20 Henry III. (1235-6), and ending 1844. 

“Acts of parliament abbreviation bill” introduced by 
lord Brougham 12 Feb., passed 10 June, 1850. 

z410 acts (passed between 1689 and 1770) partially or 
wholly repealed, 1867. 

“* Chronological Table and Index to the Statutes to the 
end of 1869,” published 1870. Ninth Edition (1235- 
1883), published 1884. 

Publication of the revised edition of the statutes (1325- 
1868) ; 15 volumes published, 1870-8. 

Report of select committee on acts of parliament, pub- 
lished July, 1875. 

The greatest number of acts passed in any one year 
since 1800 was 570, in 1846 (the railway year); 402 
were local and personal, 51 private, and 117 public acts. 
In 1841, only 13 were passed (the lowest number), 
of which two were private. The average number 
of the first ten years of the present century was 132 
public acts. In the ten years ending 1850, the average 
number of acts, of public interest, was rr2. 

The number of public general acts passed in 1851 was 106; 
in 1852, 88 ; in 1853, 137; in 1854, 125 ; in 1855, 134; in 
1856, 120; in 1857, 86; in 1858, 10g; in 1859, ror; in 
1860, 154; in 1861, 134; in 1862, 114; in 1863, 125; in 
1864, 121; in 1865, 127; in 1866, 122; in 1867, 146; in 
1868, 130; in 1869, 117 ; in 1870, 112; in 1871, 117: in 
1872, 98; in 1873, 91; in 1874, 96; in 1875, 96; in 
1876, 81; in 1877, 69; in 1878, 79; in 1870, 78; in 1880, 
x9 and 48 (new parliament); 1881, 72; 1882, $2; 1883, 
62: 1884, 78. 


33 


ACTS, in dramatic poetry, first employed b: 
the Romans. ive acts are mentioned by Horae’ 
(Art of Poetry) as the rule (about 8 B.c.). + 


ACTUARY, Aotruartus, the Roman ae 
countant. ‘The Institute of Actuaries. founded h 
1848, publishes its proceedings in the ‘‘ Assurane 
Magazine.” 


ADAM Anp EVE, ERA of, in the Englis} 
Bible, 4004 B.c. ; see Creation. 


ADAMITES, a sect said to have existed abou 
130, and to have been quite naked in their r 
ligious assemblies, asserting that if Adam had noi 
sinned there would have been no marriages 
Their chief was named Prodicus; they defied the 
elements, rejected prayer, and said it was not ne- 
cessary to confess Christ. Husebius. A sect with 
this name arose at Antwerp in the 12th century 
under Tandemus or Tanchelin, whose followers 
3000 soldiers and others, committed many crimes 
It became extinct soon after the death of its chief. 
_ but another of the same kind, named Turlupins 
appeared shortly after in Sayoy and Dauphiny 
Picard, a Fleming, revived this sect in Bohemia 


about 1415; it was suppressed by Ziska, 1420. 


ADDA, ariver N. Italy, passed by Suwarroy 
after defeating the French, 27 April, 1799. 


ADDINGTON ADMINISTRATION. Mr 
Pitt, having engaged to procure Roman Catholi: 
emancipation to promote the union with Ireland 
and being unable to do so as a minister, resignec 
3 Feb. 1801. A new ministry was formed by Mr 
Addington, March-July, 1801 ; after various change: 
it terminated about 10 May, 1804. 

Henry Addington,” jirst lord of the treasury and chan 
cellor of the exchequer. 

Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Duke of Portland, lord president. 

Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal. 

Lord Pelham, home secretary. 

Mr. R. B. Jenkinson (lord Hawkesbury, 1803 ; and ear 
of Liverpool, 1808), foreign secretary. 

Lord Hobart, colonial secretary. 

Earl St. Vincent, first lord of admiralty. 

Earl of Chatham, ordnance. 

Charles Yorke, secretary-at-war. 

Viscount Lewisham, lord Auckland, &e. 


ADDISCOMBE COLLEGE, near Croydon, 
Surrey, purchased by the East India company in 
1809, for education of candidates for scientific 
branches of the Indian army, was closed in 1861. 


ADDISON'S DISEASE, a dangerous affee- 
tion of the renal capsules, described by its dis- 
coverer, Dr. Thomas Addison, in 1855. 


ADDITIONAL CURATES, the society for 
their employment in populous places was fourded 
1837 (High Church). 


ADDLED PARLIAMENT, see Parliament. 
ADDRESSERS, see Adhorvrers. 


ADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia, 
was founded in 1836. It contained 14,000 inha- 
bitants in 1850, and 18,259 in 1855; about 30,000 
in 1875. It was made a bishopric in 1847. Univer- 
sity founded, 1876. It was visited by the duke of 
Edinburgh, 1 March, 1869. - 


ADELPHI (Greek for brothers) several streets 
on the south side of the Strand, London, erected 
about 1768 by the brothers, John, Robert, James, 


* Born 1757 ; became viscount Sidmouth, Jan. 1805 ; held 
various offices afterwards, and diedin 1844. His cireular 
to the lords lieutenants, dated 27 March, 1817, directing 
them to adopt severe measures against the authors of 
blasphemous and seditious pamphlets, was greatly cen- 
sured, and not carried into effect. 


' 


ADEN. 


9 


ADMINISTRATIONS. 


and William Adam, after whom the streets are 
named. ADELPHI THEATRE, built 1806, rebuilt 
1858; see under Theatres. 


_ ADEN, a free port on the S. W. corner of 
Arabia, where in Dec. 1836 a British ship was 
wwrecked and plundered. ‘Lhe sultan promised 
compensation, and agreed to cede the place to the 
‘English. The sultan’s son refusing to fulfil this 
agreement to captain Haynes, a naval and military 
force, under captain H. Smith, of the Volage, was 
dispatched to Aden, which captured it, 19 Jan. 
1839. It is now a garrison and coal depdt for 
Indian steamers, &c. 


ADIAPHORISTS (from adiaphora,indifferent 
things), a term applied to Melanchthon and others, 
who were willing to give up certain things to the 
Romanists as indifferent, about 1548. 


ADIGH, a river in N. Italy, near which the 
Austrians defeated the French on 26, 30 March, 
and § April, 1799. 


ADJUTATORS, see Agitators. 


ADMINISTRATIONS oF ENGLAND AND 
OF GREAT BRITAIN. Untilthe Restoration, 1660, 
there was not any cabinet approaching to the modern 
sense. The sovereign was aided by privy councillors, 
varying in number, the men and offices being fre- 
quently changed. The separation of the cabinet from 
the privy council became greater during the reign of 
William III. His ministers included both Whigs 
and Tories, and their dissensions led to much mal- 
administration, civil, military, and naval, and con- 
sequent popular discontent ; the king was therefore 
compelled to have a united ministry, at first wholly 
composed of Whigs. The change was gradually 
effected, 1694-6. The control of the chief, now 
termed the ‘‘ premier,’ began in the reign of 
Anne. ‘‘ Theera of ministries may most properly be 
reckoned from the day of the meeting of the parlia- 
ment after the general election of 1698.’? JLacau- 
lay.* For a fuller-account of each administration, 


since 1700, see separate articles headed with the | 


name of the PREMIER, given below in italics. 


Henry VIII.—Abp. Warham; bps. Fisher and 
Fox ; earl of Surrey, &e. a " 3 - A.D. 1509 
Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, &e. ‘ A . F 
Karl of Surrey ; Tunstall, bishop of London, &c. . 1 523 
sir Thos. More; bps. Tunstall and Gardiner, and 
Cranmer (afterwards abp. of Canterbury) . 1529 
Abp. Cranmer ; lord Cromwell, aft. earl of Essex ; 
Thos. Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire, &c. . ; a 
Thomas, duke of Norfolk; Henry, earl of Surrey ; 
Thomas, lord Audley; bishop Gardiner; sir 
Ralph Sadler, &e. A “ , F - 1540 
Lord Wriothesley ; Thomas, duke of Norfolk ; lord 
Lisle ; sir William Petre ; sir William Paget, &c. 1544 


1532 


* Till 1850 the cabinet council usually consisted of the 
‘ollowing twelve members: First lord of the treasury ; 
ord chancellor; lord president of the council ; chan- 
sellor of the exchequer ; lord privy seal ; home, foreign, 
ind colonial secretaries ; first lord of the adiniralty ; pre- 
‘ident of the board of trade; president of the board of 
ontrol ; chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. 


var, the postmaster-general, and the chief secretary for 
reland. In the Palmerston-Russell cabinet (which see), 
he president of the poor-law-board replaced the secre- 
ary for Ireland. In 1868 the Gladstone cabinet con- 
isted of 15; that of Mr. Disraeli in Feb., 1874, of 12. 
“he average dwration of a ministry has been set down at 
our, five, and six years ; but instances have occurred of 
he duration of a ministry for much longer periods: sir 
tobert Walpole was minister from 1721 to 1742 (21 years); 
{r, Pitt, 1783 to 1801 (18 years) ; and lord Liverpool r812 
0 1827 (15 years). Several ministries have not lasted 
eyond a few months, as the Coalition M inistry in 1783, 
nd the ‘ Talents” Ministry in 1806. The “Short-lived” 
diinistration lasted 10 to 12 Feb. 1746. 


+ I5I4 | 


In 1850 | 
she number was fifteen, and included the secretary-at- | 


| Lionel, lord Cranfield, afterwards earl of Middle- 


Epwarp VI.— Lord Wriothesley, now earl of 
Southampton, lord chancellor (expelled) ; Edward, 
earl of Hertford, lord protector, created duke of 
Somerset ; John, lord Russell; Henry, earl of 
Arundel ; Thomas, lord Seymour ; sir Wm. Paget ; 
sir Wm. Petre, &. . ‘i : - 3 BR) EY 

John Dudley, late lord Lisle and earl of Warwick, 
created duke of Northumberland; John, earl 
rd Bedford ; bishop Goodrich, sir William Cecil, 
Cun 4 J ; é F s : , F : 

Mary.—Stephen Gardiner, bp. of Winchester ; Ed- 
mund Bonner, bp. of London ; William, marq. of 
Winchester ; sir Edwd. Hastings, &e. — . sath 

EvizasBetH.—Sir Nicholas Bacon; Edward lord 
Clinton; sir Robert Dudley, aftds. earl of Lei- 
cester ; sir William Cecil, aftds. lord Burleigh . 1558 

William, lord Burleigh (minister during nearly all 
the reign); sir N. Bacon, &e. - : ; : 

Lord Burleigh; sir Thomas Bromley; Robert 
Devereux, earl of Essex (a favourite); earl of 
Leicester ; earl of Lincoln ; sir Walter Mildmay ; 
sir Francis Walsingham, &e. : : 4 Pee 

Lord Burleigh ; Robert, earl of Essex; sir Chris- 
topher Hatton, &e. : : : ‘ : : 

Thomas Sackville, lord Buckhurst, afterwards earl 
of Dorset ; Sir Thomas Egerton, afterwards lord 
Ellesmere and viscount Brackley; sir Robert 
Cecil, &c.. : ; é ‘ iy : Sn 

JAMES I.—Thomas, earl of Dorset; Thomas, lord 
Ellesmere ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Thomas, 
earl of Suffolk; Edward, earl of Worcester ; 
Robert Cecil, afterwards earl of Salisbury, &c. 

Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury ; Thomas, lord 
Ellesmere ; Henry,'earl of Northampton ; Charles, 
earl of Nottingham ; Thomas, earl of Suffolk, &c. 

Henry, earl of Northampton; Thomas, lord Elles- 
mere ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; sir Ralph Win- 
wood; Charles, earl of Nottingham; Robert, 
viscount Rochester, aftds. earl of Somerset, &c. 

Thomas, lord Ellesmere ; Thomas, earl of Suffolk ; 
Charles, earl of Nottingham ; sir George Villiers 
(a favourite), afterwards viscount Villiers, and 
successively earl, marquis, and duke of Buck- 
ingham : : , : P : 5 Mi SuLORS 

Sir Henry Montagu, afterwards viscount Mande- 
ville and earl of Manchester . 


I55r 


1554 


1572 


1579 
1587 


1599 


1603 


1609 


1612 


1620 


sex ; Edward, earl of Worcester; John, earl of 
Bristol ; John Williams, dean of Westminster ; 
George Villiers, now marquis of Buckingham ; 
sir Edward Conway, &e. . : ‘ : hs 
CHARLES I.—Richard, lord Weston, afterwards earl 
of Portland; sir Thomas Coventry, afterwards 
lord Coventry ; Henry, earl of Manchester (suc- 
ceeded by James, earl of Marlborough, who, in 
turn, gave place to Edward, lord, afterwards 
viscount, Conway); William Laud, bp. of 
London ; sir Albert Morton, &e. . x i 
William Laud, now archbishop of Canterbury ; 
Francis, lord Cottington; James, marquis of 
Hamilton; Edward, earl of Dorset; sir John 
Coke ; sir Francis Windebank, &c. . 4 ate 
William Juxon, bishop of London; sir John Finch, 
afterwards lord Finch ; Francis, lord Cottington ; 
Wentworth, earl of Strafford; Algernon, earl of 
Northumberland ; James, marquis of Hamilton ; 
Laud, archbishop of Canterbury; sir Francis 
Windebank ; sir Henry Vane, &c. . 2 j - 1640 
[The king beheaded, 30 Jan. 1649.] 
COMMONWEALTH. — Oliver Cromwell, protector, 
named a council, the number not to exceed er 
members, or be less than 13 . : Hi : ‘ 
Richard Cromwell, son of Oliver, succeeded on the 
death of his father. A council of officers ruled at 
Wallingford house . ; : ‘ ‘ - 1658 


CHARLES II.—Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of 
Clarendon ; George Monk, created duke of Albe- 
marle; Edward Montagu, created earl of Sand- 
wich ; lord Saye and Sele ; earl of Manchester ; 
lord Seymour ; sir Robert Long, &e. - wake 

George Monk, duke of Albemarle, made first com- 
missioner of the treasury, &c. ; : F : 

“Cabal” Ministry ; Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, 
Arlington, Lauderdale (see Caba?)  . oth 

Thomas, lord Clifford ; Anthony, earl of Shaftesbury ; 
Henry, earl of Arlington ; Arthur, earl of Angle- 
sey; sir Thomas Osborne, created viscount 


162r 


1628 


1635 


1653 


1667 


1670 


ADMINISTRATIONS. 


10 


Latimer ; Henry Coventry ; sir George Carteret ; 

Edward Sey mour, &.  . sn tO72 
Thomas, viscount Latimer, after wards earl of Danby, 
made lord high treasurer . ae June 

Arthur, earl of Essex, (succeeded by Lawrence 
Hy de, aft. earl of Rochester) ; Robert, earl of 
Sunderland, &e.. a 

The king nominated a new council on : 21 Apr il, ¢ :on- 
sisting of 30 members only, of whom the princi- 
pal were the great officers of state and great 
officers of the household.] . : 

Sidney, lord Godolphin; Lawrence, earl of Ro- 
chester ; Daniel, earl of Nottingham ;. Robert, 
earl of Sunderland; sir Thomas _ Chicheley ; 
George, lord Dartmouth ; Henry, earl of Claren- 
don ; earls of Bath and Radnor : 3 

James IL. —Lawrence, earl of Rochester ; George, 
marquis of Halifax ; sir George Jeffreys, after- 
wards lord Jeffreys; Henry, earl of Clarendon ; 
sir John Ernley ; viscount Preston, &e. 

The earl of Rochester was displaced, and J ohn, lord 
Belasyse, made first commissioner of the treasury 
in his room, 4 Jan. ; the earl of Sunderland made 
president of the council ; viscount Preston, sec- 
retary of state, We. : - 1687-8 

[The king left Whitehall i in the night of 1 tr Dec,, and 
quitting the kingdom, landed at Ambleteuse, in 
France, Dec. 1688. ] 

WituiaM III. anp Mary.—Charles, viscount Mor- 
daunt ; Thomas Osborne, earl of Danby, created 
marquis of Carmarthen, afterwards duke of 
Leeds ; George, marquis of Halifax; Arthur 
Herbert, afterwards lord Torrington; earls of 
Shrewsbury, Nottingham, and Sunderland ; earl 
of Dorset and Middlesex ; , William, earl (after- 
wards duke) of Dey onshire ; lord Godolphin ; lord 
Montagu ; lord De la Mere, &e. 

Sidney, lord Godolphin ; Thomas, earl of ‘Danby ; 
Richard Hampden ; Thomas, earl of Pembroke ; 
Henry, viscount Sydney ; Daniel, earl of Notting- 
ham, Ge. 

Sir John Somers became lord Somers in " 1697, and 
lord chancellor; Charles Montagu, afterwards 
lord Halifax, was made first commissioner of the 
treasury, 1 May, 1698, succeeded by Ford, earl of 
Tankerville 

ANNE.—Sidney, lord (afterw ards earl of ) Godolphin 
Thomas, earl of Pembroke, &c. : May, 

Robert Harley, earl of Oxford ; sir Simon Harcourt, 
&e. .r June, 

Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, made lord treasurer 
three ‘day s before the queen’s death, &c. 30 July, 

GEORGE I.—Charles, earl of Halifax "(succeeded on 
his death by the earl of Carlisle), &e. é 

Robert Walpole, first lord of the tr ions , and chan- 
cellor of the exchequer, dc. 

James (afterwards earl) St anhope ; 
Cowper, &e. . 

Charles, earl of Sunderland, &e. 

Robert Walpole, afterwards sir Robert Walpole, and 
earl of Orford, &e. : L721 

Grorcr II.—Robert Walpole continued . 1727 

[Sir Robert reinained prime minister twenty- -one 
years ; numerous changes occurring in the time; 
see Walpole. | 

Earl of Wilmington ; lord Hardwicke, &e, ; 

Henry Pelham, in the room of earl of Wilmington, 
deceased : “Aug. 

. **Broad-bottom” administration—Henry Pelham 
lord Hardwicke, &c. 

“ Short-lived” administration—earl of Bath ; 
Winchilsea and Granville . 

Henry Pelham, W&e., again . 

Thos. H. Pelham, duke of New castle ; 
derness, We. 

Duke of Devonshire ; : William Pitt, &e. . : 
Duke of Newcastle, and Mr. Pitt, afterwards earl of 
Chatham, &e. . June, 
GxorceE III.—Duke of Neweastle, Mr. Pitt’s minis- 

try, continued d A 

Earl of Bute ; lord Henley, be “ May, 

George Grenville ; earls of Halifax and Sandwich, 
& ; Apr il, 

“earl of Winchilsea, &e. 

a uly, 

Aug. 
aeeG: 


1673 


1679 


- 1689 


1690 


- 1699 
1702 
1711 
1714 
» 
1715 


William lord 


1717 
_ 1718 


1742 
1743 


1744 
Tene 
- 10-12 Feb. 

. rz2 Feb. 
ear] of Hol- 


1746 
1746 


1754 
1756 


1757 


1760 
1762 


Gi m H ‘: 1763 
Marquis of Rockingham ; 
1765 
1766 
1767 


Earl of Chatham, duke of Grafton, &e. A 
Duke of Grafton ; lord North, &e. . 


| Viscount M elbourne, &. . - < £ 


. : ¥ 
4 ¥ 
ADMINISTRATIONS. 
Frederick, lord North ; earl Gower, &c, 4) San 177 
[Lord North was minister during the whole of 
the American war. ] 
Marquis of Rockingham; lord Camden; C. J. Fox ; 
Edmund Burke, &c. 5 March, 178 
Earl of Shelburne (afterwards marquis of Lans- 
downe); William Pitt, &e. » July, (ee 
** Coalition Ministry,’ ’ duke of Portland ; ‘lord North; 
C. J. Fox ; Edmund Burke, &e. . . April, 178 


William Pitt ; Henry Dundas, &e. : Dec. 
[During Mr. Pitt’s long administration, nu- 
merous changes in the ministry took place. } 
Henry Adding or ; duke of Portland ; lord Eldon, 
&e. : March, et seq. 180 
William Pitt ; ” Jord Eldon; “George Canning, &e. 
May, et seg. 180 


a 


[Mr. Pitt died 23 Jan. 1806.] 

“All the Toulents”—lord Grenville; lord Henry 
Petty ; lord Erskine; C. J. Fox; sir Charles 
Grey (afterwards earl Grey). z Feb. 180 

[Mr. Fox’s death, 13 Sept 1806, led to nu- 


merous changes. } 
Duke of Portland ; lord Eldon, &e.* . March,4180 
Spencer Perceval ; earl of Liverpool; viscount Pal- 
merston, &c. . Noy. and Dec. 180 
REGENCY.—Mr. Spencer Perceval faest by Belling- 
ham, 11 May, 1812), &c. 5 Feb. 181 


Earl of Liver “pool; lord Eldon; Mr. earch: lord 


Melville; viscounts Castlereagh, Palmerston, 
&e. . May, June, 181 
GrorcE IV.—Earl of Liverpool, &e. 2y Jan. 182 


{During lord Liverpool’s long administration 
numerous changes occurred. } 

George Canning; lord Lyndhurst; viscount Gode- 
rich ; William Huskisson ; viscount Palmerston ; 
duke of Clarence, &c. - April, 182 

{[Mr. Canning died 8 August, 1827. 7 . 

Viscount Goder ich ; viscount Palmerston; marquis 
of Lansdowne ; W. Huskisson, &. .. Aug. 

Duke of Wellington ; Robert Peel; Mr. ‘Huskisson ; : 
Sey 1 ‘ Jan. 182 

(The ministry reconstructed on the retirement 

of the earl of Dudley, lord Palmerston, Mr. Grant, 

Mr. Huskisson.] . ; May and June, 182 
Wiiuiam [V.—Duke of Wellington, &e. 26 June, 183 
Earl Grey ; marquis of Lansdowne ; lord Brougham; 

viscount Althorp; earl of Durham ; viscounts 

Melbourne, Palmerston, and Goderich ; sir James 

Graham ; lord John Russell, &e. . j . Nov. 

Earl Grey resigns, owing ‘to a majority against 
him in the lords, on the Reform Bill, ro May ; but 

resumes his post E ‘ ‘ a . 18 May, 183 
Viscount Melbourne; &e. July, 18: 

{Melbourne administration dissolved, Nov. 1834. 

The duke of Wellington held the seals of office till 

the return of sir Robert Peel from Italy, Dec. 

1834. } 

Sir Rober Peel ; 
ton ; 


> 


2? 


lord Lyndhurst ; duke of Welling- 
earl of Aberdeen ; &. .'. Nov. and Deca 
April, 183 
Vicrorta.—Viscount Melbourne, &e. . 20 June, 183 
Subsequent accessions, F. T. Baring; earl of 
Clarendon; T. B. Macaulay, &c. Viscount Mel- 
bourne resigned, and sir Robert Peel received 
the queen’s commands to form a new administra- 
tion, 8 May. This command was withdrawn, and 
lord Melbourne returned to power . . ro May, 183 
Sir Robert Peel; duke of Wellington ; lord Lynd- 
hurst ; sir James Graham ; earl of Aberdeen ; lord 
Stanley, &e. . Aug. and Sept. 184 
Spas aad Sidney “Herbert ; W. E. Gladstone, 


c.] 

Lord John Russell, viscount Palmerston; earl 

Grey, aes), ; July, 184 

[Accessions : earl Granville ; Mr. Fox Maule ; 
earl of Carlisle ; sir Thomas Wilde, created lord 
Truro, &e. ] 

Lord John Russell and the marquis of Lansdowne — 
on the 24 Feb. announced the resignation of — 
ministers, owing to their defeat on Mr. Locke 
King’s motion respecting the franchise ; they in- 
formed parliament, that it having been found im- 
possible to construct a coalition ministry, the 


+ 


Fab 


*The duel between lord Castlereagh and Mr. Canning 
22 Sept., 1809, led to the breaking up of this adminis 
tration. Ss 


— a 


ADMINISTRATIVE. 11 


queen, by the advice of the duke of Wellington, 
had called upon her late ministers to resume office. 
Lord Stanley (since earl of Derby), in the interval, 
had been unable to forma cabinet . 3 March, 
Harl of Derby (late lord Stanley); lord St. Leo- 
nards ; Benjamin Disraeli ; Spencer H. Walpole ; 
earl of Malmesbury ; sir John Pakington; duke 
of Northumberland, &e. 5 . 27F¥eb. 
Earl of Aberdeen ; lord John Russell ; viscount Pal- 
merston, &e. i A / é 28 Dec. 
Various changes of offices took place ; a fourth 
secretary of state was appointed, by the separa- 
tion of the war from the colonial department ; see 
Secretaries of State. The retirement of lord J. Rus- 
sell, 24 Jan. 1855, and a majority inthe commons 
against ministers of 157 (305 to 148), on Mr. Roe- 
buck’s motion respecting the conduct of the war, 
led to the resignation of lord Aberdeen and his 
colleagues, 30 Jan. ; the cabinet was reconstructed 


by 

Viscount Palmerston ; lord Cranworth; &c. 7 Feb. 1855 
Secession of sir J. Graham, Mr. Gladstone, and 

Mr. 8. Herbert. Accession of lord John Russell ; 


earl of Clarendon; sir G. Grey ; sir G. C. Lewis ; 


sir W. Molesworth, &c.] : : 24 Hebi: 53 
On the second reading of the Foreign Con- 


spiracy bill, the government (defeated by a vote 
of censure being passed by a majority of 19, on 
the motion of Mr. Milner Gibson) resigned imme- 
diately . 3 ; 4 : : : 19 Feb. 
Karl of Derby ; B. Disraeli ; Spencer Walpole ; lord 
Stanley ; sir F. Thesiger (lord Chelmsford), &e. 
26 Feb. 
[The Derby administration, in consequence of a 
vote of want of confidence in it being carried by a 
majority of 13, 10 June, 1859, resigned the next 
day. Harl Granville failed to form.an adminis- 
tration. ] 
Viscount Palmerston ; lord John (since earl) Russell, 
SE = : , 3 3 t 18 June, 
[Lord Palmerston died 18 Oct. 1865. ] 
Harl Russell ; W. E. Gladstone ; earl of Clarendon ; 
Gen": : & 2 ; ; : ; . Oct. 
[Resigned, in consequence of a minority on the 
Reform Bill, 19 June] i . 5 .26 June, 
darl of Derby, B. Disraeli, lord Stanley, &c. ; for 
changes see Derby Administrations. 6 July, 
[Earl of Derby resigned through ill health] 
Feb. 25, 
3. Disraeli reconstituted the administration 29 eb. 
Mr. Disraeli resigned in consequence of the 
elections in November giving a majority of about 
114tothe Liberals. .. . : : . 2 Dee. 
W. E. Gladstone ; earl of Clarendon ; Robert Lowe ; 
John Bright, and others, received seals —_g Dec. 
Lost their majority by the general election, 
Feb. ; resigned : ‘ q + 17 Feb. 
B. Disraeli (earl of Beaconsfield, 16 Aug. 1876), the 
earl of Derby, the marquis of Salisbury, and 
others, received seals. _ , 21 Feb. 
[For changes, see Disraeli Administrations. ] 
_Lost their majority by elections in April; re- 
Signed ., % : - p . 22 April, 
W. H. Gladstone ; earl Granville, marquis of Harting- 
ton, duke of Argyll, sir Wm. Harcourt, John 
Bright, and others, received seals 28 April, 
For changes, see separate articles under the 
Premier’s name. 


ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM ASSO- 
CIATION derived its origin from an opinion 
chat the disasters which occurred to the army in the 
Jrimea in 1854-5 were attributable to the inefticient 
wd irresponsible management of the various de- 
ent a _of enn eo, The association was 
rgamised in London, 5 May, 1855. <A meeting 
vas held in Drury-lane theatre, a 13 June, and 
Mir. Layard’s motion on the subject in parliament 
vas negatived 18 June following. The association 
vas reorganised in 1856, Mr. Roebuck, M.P., be- 
ming chairman, but soon became unimportant ; 
ee Civil Service. 


ADMIRAL, The title, derived from the Arabic, 
mir-al-bahr, ‘‘ Lord of the sea,’’ which occurs in the 
*hanson de Roland, 1ith century, does not appear 


ADMIRALTY OFFICE. 


to have been adopted in England until about 1300. 
Alfred, Athelstan, Edgar, Harold, and other kings, 
were commanders of their own fleets. The first 
French admiral is said to have been appointed 1284. 
The rank of admiral of the English seas was first 
given to William de Leybourne by Edward I. in 
1297. Spelman; Rymer. The first Lorp Hicu 
ADMIRAL in England was created by Richard IT. in 
1385: there had been previously high admirals of 
districts—the north, west, and south. The duties 
have generally been executed by lords commis- 
sioners; see Admiralty. A similar dignity existed 
in Scotland from the reign of Robert III. In 1673, 
Charles IT. bestowed it upon his natural son Charles 
Lennox, afterwards duke of Richmond, then an 
infant, who resigned the office to the crown in 
1703: after the union it was discontinued.—The 
dignity of lord high admiral of Ireland (of brief 
existence) was conferred upon James Butler by 
Henry VIII., in May, 1534. The Admiral of the 
Fleet is the highest rank in the Royal Navy, corre- 
sponding to that of field-marshalin the army. We 
have now 6 admiralsof the fleet, 15 admirals, 21 vice- 
admirals, 35 rear admirals, and 180 captains (Jan. 
1885). The first admiral of the United States of 
America, David G. Farragut, was nominated in 1860. 


ADMIRALTY, Court oF, a court for the 
trial of causes relating to maritime affairs, said to 
have been erected by Edward III., in 1357. It was 
enacted in the reign of Henry VIII., that criminal 
causes should be tried by witnesses and a jury, some 
of the judges at Westminster (or, as now, at the Old 
Bailey) assisting. The judgeship of the admiralty 
was constituted in 1514, and was filled by two or 
more functionaries until the Revolution, when it 
was restricted to one. Beatson. The judge has 
usually been an eminent doctor of the civil law. In 
1844 the criminal jurisdiction of this court was re- 
moved, and by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 77 (1857), the judge 
of the Probate court was to be also judge of the 
Admiralty court. The judge of the Admiralty 
court, Dr. Stephen Lushington (appointed 
in 1838), resigned 1 July, 1867, and was suc- 
ceeded by sir Robert Phillimore, who retired March, 
1883, succeeded by C. P. Butt, 3 April. The juris- 
diction of this court was extended in 1861. See 
Supreme Court. 


ADMIRALTY OFFICE dates from 1512, 
when Henry VIII. appointed commissioners to in- 
spect his ships of war. During the Commonwealth 
the admiralty affairs were managed by a committee 
of the parliament; and at the restoration in 1660, 
James, duke of York, became lord high admiral. In 
1662 the admiralty was first put into commission, 
the great officers of state being the commissioners ; 
see succeeding changes below. In 1688-9 the 
admiralty was put into commission, and the board 
appears to have assembled at admiral Herbert’s 
lodgings, in Channel-row, Westminster, he being 
at that time first lord. In 1830, 1832, and 1836 
various changes were made in the civil depart- 
ments, several offices being abolished or conso- 
lidated with others. In March, 1861, a royal com- 
mission recommended the abolition of the board of 
admiralty and the appointment of a minister of the 
navy department. ‘The board was reconstituted 14 
Jan. 1869, and 4 May, 1872. The collective action 
of the board was taken away, and concentrated in 
the person of the first lord. 


The office removed from Somerset House to Whitehall, 
1874-5. 

New buildings erected by virtue of the Public Offices 
Site Act passed 24 July, 1882. The designs of 


ADMIRALTY. 


12 


ADULTERATION. 


Messrs. Leeming & Leeming, of Halifax, selected for | built by Ripley about 1726; the screen was erecte 


approval by parliament, July, 1884. 


FIRST LORDS OF THE ADMIRALTY. 
JAMES, DUKE OF YORK, lord high admiral, 6 June. 
KinG CHARLES II., 14 June. 

PRINCE RUPERT, 9 July. 
Sir Henry Capel, 14 Feb. 
Daniel Finch, esq., 19 Feb. 
Daniel, lord Finch, 20 Jan. 
Daniel, earl of Nottingham, 17 April. 
KiInG CHARLES II. 
KinG JAMES II., 17 May. Office in commission. 
Arthur Herbert, esq., 8 March. 
Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, 20 Jan. 
Charles, lord Cornwallis, ro March. 
Anthony, viscount Falkland, 15 April. 
Edward Russel, esq., (aft. earl of Orford), 2 May. 
John, earl of Bridgewater, 2 June. 
Thomas, earl of Pembroke, 4 April. 
GEORGE, PRINCE OF DENMARK, lord high admiral, 
20 May. 
Thomas, earl of Pembroke, ditto, 29 Nov. 
Office i commission. 
Edward, earl of Orford, 8 Oct. 
Sir John Leake, a Oct. 
Thomas, earl of Strafford, 30 Sept. 
Edward, earl of Orford, 14 Oct. 
James, earl of Berkeley, 19 March. 
George, viscount Torrington, 2 Aug. 
Sir Charles Wager, knt., 25 June. 
Daniel, earl of Winchilsea, 19 March. 
John, duke of Bedford, 27 Dec. 
John, earl of Sandwich, ro Feb. 
George, lord Anson, 22 June. 
Richard, earl Temple, 19 Nov. 
Daniel, earl of Winchilsea, 6 April. 
+ George, lord Anson, 2 July. 
«762. George M. Dunk, earl of Halifax, rg June 
1763. George Grenville, esq., x Jan. 
>», John, earl of Sandwich, 23 April. 
John, earl of Egmont, ro Sept. 
Sir Charles Saunders, ro Sept. 
Sir Edward Hawke, ro Dee. 
John, earl of Sandwich, 12 Jan. 
Hon. Augustus Keppel, x April. 
Augustus, viscount Keppel, 18 July. 
Richard, viscount Howe, 28 Jan. 
John, earl of Chatham, 16 July. 
George John, earl Spencer, 20 Dec. 
John, earl St. Vincent, 19 Feb. 
Henry, viscount Melville, r5 May. 
Charles, lord Barham, 2 May. 
Hon. Charles Grey, ro Feb. 
Thomas Grenville, esq., 23 Oct. 
Henry, lord Mulgrave, 6 April. 
Charles Yorke, esq., 10 May. 
Robert, viscount Melville, 25 March. 
WILLIAM HENRY, DUKE OF CLARENCE, lord high 
admiral, 2 May, resigned r2 Aug. 1828. 
Robert, viscount Melville, 19 Sept. 
Sir James R. G. Graham, bart., 25 Nov. 
George, lord Auckland, rz June. 
s, Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, 23 Dee. 
1835. George, lord Auckland, 25 April. 
s, Gilbert, earl of Minto, 19 Sept. 
z841. Thomas, earl of Haddington, 8 Sept. 
2846. Edward, earl of Ellenborough, 13 Jan. 
George, earl of Auckland, 24 July. 
Sir Francis Thornhill Baring, 18 Jan. 
Algernon, duke of Northumberland, 28 Feb. 
Sir James Robert George Graham, 5 Jan. 
Sir Charles Wood, bart., 24 Feb. 
Sir John Pakington, bart., 26 Feb. 
Edward, duke of Somerset, June. 
Sir John Pakington, bart., 6 July. 
Henry Lowry Corry, 8 March. 
Hugh Culling Eardley Childers, 9 Dee. 
George Joachim Géschen, 9 March. 
George Ward Hunt, 21 Feb. ; died 29 July, 1877. 
Wm. Henry Smith, about 7 Aug. 
1880. Thos. Geo. Baring, earl of Northbrook, 28 April. 


ADMIRALTY, Whitehall. ‘At the south 
end of Duke-street, Westminster, was seated a large 
house made use of for the admiralty office, until the 
business was removed to Greenwich, and thence to 
Wallingford -house, against Whitehall.” It wasre- 


1660. 
£673. 


23 
1679. 
1680. 
1681. 
1683. 
2684. 
1685. 
1689. 
1690. 
1692. 
1693. 
£694. 
1699. 
£701. 
1702. 


1708. 


£700. 
r710. 
yess 
1714. 
1717. 
727 
1733: 
1742. 
=744- 
1748. 
1751. 
1750. 
1757- 


°9 
x766. 

99 
I771. 
782. 

39° 
1783. 
1788. 
1794- 
r8or. 
1804. 
1805. 
1806. 


33 
1807. 
x8og. 
1812. 
1827. 


1828. 
1830. 


1834. 


” 
18409. 
1852. 
1853. 
1855. 
1858. 
x859. 
1866. 
1867. 
1868. 
1871. 
1874. 
2877. 


to conceal the ugliness of the building, by ft 
brothers Adam, in 1776.—Lord Nelson lay in stat 
in one of the apartments on 8 Jan. 1806; and on th 
next day was buried at St. Paul’s. 


ADMIRALTY anp WAR OFFICE AC 
to facilitate improvements in the organisation . 
these offices, by the retirement of clerks from certaj 
of the civil departments by granting gratuities, w: 
passed 10 Aug. 1878. 


“ADMONITION To THE PARLIAMENT, 
condemning all religious ceremonies but those con 
manded by the New ‘Testament, was published b 
certain Puritans in 1571. Its presumed author 
Field and Wilcox, were imprisoned. A second A¢ 
monition by Thomas Cartwright was answered b 
archbishop Whitgift. 


ADORNO anp FREGOSO, two families, « 
which the doges were frequently members, di: 
turbed Genoa from the 14th to the 16th centurie 
the former favouring the emperor, the latter th 
French king. Their power was annihilated b 
Andrea Doria about 1528. 


ADRIAN’S WALL (to prevent the irry 
tions of the Scots and Picts into the northern cour 
ties of England, then under the Roman governmen: 
extended from the Tyne to Solway frith, and w: 
eighty miles long, twelve feet high, and eight fex 
in thickness, with watch-towers ; built 121. It w: 
repaired and strengthened by Severus, 207—2I0. 


ADRIANOPLE, in Turkey, so named aft. 
its restorer the emperor Adrian (who died 10 July 
138). Near here Constantine defeated Licinius ar 
gained the empire, 3 July, 323; also, near here th 
emperor Valens was defeated and slain by the Goth: 
g Aug. 378. Adrianople was taken by the Turk 
under Amurath in 1361, and was their capital ti 
the capture of Constantinoplein 1453. It was take 
by the Russians on 20 Aug. 1829; and restore 
14 Sept. same year ; occupied by the Russians, with 
out resistance, 20 Jan. 1878. Bee Turkey. 


ADRIATIC. The ceremony of the doge 
Venice wedding the Adriatic sea (instituted abov 
1173), took place annually on Ascension-day. Th 
doge dropped a ring into the sea from his bucentaw 
or state barge, being attended by his nobility an 
foreign ambassadors. The ceremony was fir: 
omitted in 1797. 


ADULLAM, a cave to which David fled fror 
the persecution of Saul about 1062 B.c. (1 San 
XRILOT, oe) 


Mr. Horsman, Mr. R. Lowe, earl Grosvenor, lord Elehc 
and other liberals who opposed the Franchise Bill i 
1866 were termed ‘‘ Adullamites.” During a debat 
on this bill on 13 March, 1866, Mr. Bright said of -M 
Horsman, that he “ had retired into what may be calle 
his political cave of Adullam, to which he invite 
every one who was in debt, and every one who wa 
discontented,” &c. On 19 April, lord Elcho said, “N 
improper motive has driven us into this cave, whey 
we are a most happy family, daily—I may say, hour] 
—increasing in nwnber and strength, where we sha! 
remain until we go forth to deliver Israel from oppres 
sion.” Although their opposition led to the defea 
and resignation of the Russell ministry, they decline: 
to take office under lord Derby in July, 1866. They di 
not vote together uniformly in 1867, and (lord Eleh 
and Mr. Wyld excepted) voted with Mr. Gladstone 
for the disestablishment of the Irish church, 1 May 
1868. , 


ADULTERATION. That of food was pro 
hibited in England in 1267, and punishments fo 
it enacted, 1581, 1604, 1836, 1851, &c. Mauel 
attention was drawn to it in 1822, through Mr. Ac 


{ 


nan ia tps mene tesla A Sa nn One ee ee 


ADULTERY. 1 


ZBNEID. 


-um’s book, called ‘‘ Death in the Pot,” and in 1855 
hrough Dr. Hassall’s book, ‘‘ Food and its Adulte- 
ations.”’ By an act for preventing the adulteration 
if food, passed in 1860, parochial chemical analysts 
nay be appointed. An act to prevent adulteration 
if seeds passed 16 Aug. 1869, amended 1878. An- 
ther to prevent adulteration of food and drugs 
yassed 10 Aug. 1872. Penalties for adulterating 
iquors were imposed by the new licensing act passed 
ametime. The report of a commission, issued in 
tuly, 1874, declared that the public ‘“ were cheated 
ather than poisoned.’’ All the anti-adulteration 
jets were repealed by the Sale of Food and Drugs 
Let, passed 11 Aug. 1875; which was amended in 
879; reported very effectual Dec. 1884. 


ADULTERY was punished with death by the 
aw of Moses (1490 B.c.; Lev. xx.10)—and by Ly- 
urgus (884 B.c.). The early Saxons burnt the 
idulteress, and erected a gibbet over her ashes, 
vhereon they hanged the adulterer.' The ears and 
lose were cut off under Canute, 1031. Adultery 
yas ordained to be punished capitally by the parlia- 
nent, May 14, 1650: but there is no record of this 
aw taking effect; and it was repealed at the re- 
toration. In New England the punishment for 
dultery was made capital to both parties and 
everal suffered for it, 1662. Hardie. Till 1857 the 
egal redress against the male offender was by civil 
ction for a money compensation; the female being 
iable to divorce. By 20 & 21 Vict. c. 85 (1857) 
he ‘action for criminal conversation’’ wasabolished, 
nd the Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes 
stablished with power to grant divorces for adultery 
nd ill usage; see Divorce. An act was passed in 
‘869 permitting parties to suits for adultery to give 
vidence. 


ADVENT (adventus, arrival). The season 
neludes four Sundays, previous to Christmas, the 
rst the nearest Sunday to St. Andrew’s day 
Noy. 30), before or after. Homilies respecting 
\dyent are mentioned prior to 378. Advent Sun- 
ay, 1884, 30 Nov. ; 1885, 29 Noy. ; 1886, 28 Nov. ; 
837, 27 Nov.; 1888, 2 Dec. 


ADVENTISTS, American fanatics, in Massa- 
husetts, U.S. One professing to imitate Abraham, 
acrificed a child, the mother iooking on, May, 


879. 
ADVENTURE BAY, S.E. end of Van Die- 


1en’s Land, discovered in 1773 by capt. Furneaux 
a his first voyage to the Pacific, and named from 
is ship Adventure. It was visited by capt. Cook 
777; by capt. Bligh in 1788 and 1792. 


ADVENTURERS, sce Mrercuanrts. 
ADVERTISEMENTS 1n Newspapers, 


§ now published, were not general in England till 
ae beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty 
£50/. was inflicted on persons advertising a reward 
rith ** No questions to be asked”? for the return of 
hings stolen, and on the printer, 1754. The ad- 
ertisement duty, (first enacted, 1712,) formerly 
harged according to the number of lines, was after- 
vards fixed, in England, at 3s. 6¢., and in Ireland 
{ 2s. 6d, each advertisement. The duty (further 
duced, in England to ts. 6d. and in Ireland to 1s. 
ach, in 1833), was abolished in 1853. 


orly advertisements are found in ‘ Perfect Occur- 
rences of every Daie,” 26 March to 2 April, 1647, 
and ‘* Mercurius Elencticus” —. as 64 Oct. 
~ Sampson’s ‘‘ History of Advertising,” pub- 
lished : : : 3 ‘ Noy. 
he whole libretto of Macfarren’s Opera, Robin 
Hood,inserted as an advertisement in the Times 
(43 columns) : 16 Oct. 1860 


1648 


1874 


A debate in the Portuguese parliament, translated, 
inserted as advertisement in the Daily News (8 
columns) = 3 May, 1877 

ADVERTISING VANS, a great nuisance, prohibited . 1853 


ADVOCATE, THE K1ne’s, (always a doctor 
of the civil law,) was empowered to prosecute at his 
own instance certain crimes about 1597. The Lorp 
ADVOCATE in Scotland is the same as the attorney - 
general in England with judicial powers.—It was 
decided in the parliament of Paris, in 1685, that 
the king’s advocate of France might at the same 
time be a judge; and in Scotland sir William Oli- 
phant (1612) and sir John Nesbit (1666) were lord 
advocates and lords of session at the same time. 
Beatson.—The powers were diminished in 1881 ‘ 
when John Blair Balfour was made Lord Adyo-~ 
cate. Mr. Geo. W.T. Omond published his work, 
** The Lord Advocates of Scotland,” early in 1884. 
The Advocates’ library in Edinburgh was established 
by sir G. Mackenzie about 1682; see Judge Advo- 
cate. 


ZEDILES. Roman city officers of three degrees, 
said to owe their name to having had charge of the 
edes or temple of Ceres. 1. Two plebeian sdiles 
were appointed with the tribunes, to assist them in 
looking after buildings, weights, and measures, the 
supply of provisions and water, &c., 494 B.c. 2. 
The ediles curules, at first patricians, were ap- 
pointed 365 B.c. 3. Julius Cesar appointed ediles 
cereales for watching over the supply of corn. The 
adiles became a kind of police under the emperors. 


ZEDUI or HEDUI, a Celtic people, N.E. 
France, who were delivered from subjection to the 
Sequani, by Julius Cesar, B.c. 58; but afterwards, 
opposing him, were subjugated by him, 52. ‘Their 
insurrection headed by Julius Sacrovir, a:b. 21, was 
quelled by C. Silius. 


ZEGATES ISLES, W. of Sicily: near these, 
during the first Punic war, the Roman consul, C. 
Lutatius Catulus, gained a decisive victory over the 
Carthaginian fleet under Hanno, 10 March, 241 B.c. 
Peace ensued, the Romans obtaining Sicily and a 
tribute of 32200 talents. 


AEGINA, a Greek island, a rival of Athens, was 
humbled by Themistocles, 485 B.c.; and taken and 
its works destroyed 455. Its inhabitants, expelled, 
431, were restored by the Spartans, 404; they re- 
newed war with Athens, 388, and made peace, 387. 


ZEGOSPOTAMI, (the Goat-rivers) in the 

ersonesus, where Lysander, the Lacedsemonian 
defeated the Athenian fleet, 405 B.c., and ended the 
Peloponnesian war. 


A. H. I. O. U., (for ‘Austrie est imperare 
orbi universi,” (German, alle Erde ist Oesterreichs 
unterthan) ‘ Austria is to rule all the world,’’) 
was the motto of the weak and unfortunate emperor, 
Frederick II1. 1440—1493. 


ZELFRIC SOCIETY ; founded 1842; closea 
1856; published ‘‘ Homilies of Alfric, archbishop 
of Canterbury” and other Anglo-Saxon works. 


ZELIA CAPITOLINA, built on the ruins of 
Jerusalem by the emperor Adrian, 130. 

AMILIA, the name given to the provinces of 
Parma, Modena, and the Romagna, united to Sar- 
dinia in 1860, and now part of the kingdom of 
Italy. 


ZENEID, the great Latin epic poem, relating 
the adventures of Aneas, written about 24 B.C. b 
Virgil, who died 22 Sept. 19 B.c., before he had 
finally corrected the poem. It was first printed in 
1469, at Rome, 


" ENIGMA. 


ASNIGMA. Samson’s riddle (about 1141 B.c. ; 
Judges xiv. 12) is the earliest on record. Gale at- 
tributes cenigmatical speeches to the Egyptians. 
The ancient oracles frequently gave responses ad- 
mitting of perfectly contrary Sr ean reneL one In 
Nero’s time, the Romans had recourse to this 
method of concealing truth. The following epitaph 
on Fair Rosamond (mistress of our Henry II. about 
173) is a medieval specimen :—‘ Hic jacet in 
tombaé Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda; Non redolet, 
sed olet, quee redolere solet.’’ 


AMOLIA, in Asia Minor, was colonised by a 
principal branch of the Hellenic race about 1124 B.c. 

The Adolians built several large cities both on the 
mainland and the neighbouring islands; Mitylene, 
in Lesbos, was considered the capital. 


JEOLIAN HARP. Its invention is ascribed 
to Kircher, 1650, who wrote onit, but it was known 
before. 

ABOLINA, 2 free-reed wind-instrument, in- 
vented by Wheatstone in 1829. 


ASOLOPILE, a hollow ball with an orifice in 
which a tube might be screwed, was used in the 
r7th century as a boiler. for experimental steam- 
engines; a similar apparatus is described by Vi- 
‘truvius, ‘first century, A.D. 

ABQUI, an ancient Italian race, were subdued 
by the Romans, and their lands annexed, after a 
severe struggle, 471-302 B.C. 

ADR AS, see Fras. 

AERATED WATERS. Apparatus for com- 
bining gases with water were patented by Thomson 
in 1807; F. C. Bakewell in 1832 and 1847; Tylor 
in 1840, and by others. AERATED BREAD is made 
by processes patented by Dr. Dauglish, 1856-7. 


AERIANS, followers of Aerius, a presbyter, in 
the 4th century, who held that there was no dis- 
tinction between a bishop and a presbyter; that 
there was no Pasch to be observed by Christians ; 
that the Lent and other fasts should not be observed ; 
and that prayers should not be offered for the dead. 
Epiphanius. 


AEROLITES, see IMeteors. 
AERONAUTICS anp AEROSTATICS, 


14 


| 


see Balloons and Flying. The Aeronautical Society | 


of Great Britain was established by the duke of 
Argyll and others, 12 Jan. 1866. 


AEROPHORE, an apparatus invented by M. 
Denayrouze, to enable persons to enter a noxious 
inflammable atmosphere. It comprises an air-pump, 
lamp, and flexible tubing. It was tried at Chat- 
ham, 12-14 Jan., 1870, and reported successful. 
A cold medal was awarded to the inventor at the 
Vienna Exhibition, 1873 

AERO-STEAM ENGINE, see under Air. 

ZESCULAPIUS, god of medicine: his wor- 


ship introduced at Rome, about 291 B.c. 


JBSOP’S FABUHS, see Fables. 
AESTHETICS (from the Greek aisthesis, per- 


ception), the science of the beautiful (especially in 
art); a term invented by Baumgarten, a German 
philosopher, whose work ‘‘ Aisthetica” was pub- 
lished in 1750. 


ABTHIOPIA, see Ethiopia. 
‘¢ AYTHIOPICA,’’ see Romances. 


AETIANS, followers of Aétius, an Arian heretic 
about 351. 


JETNA, see Lina. 
ARTOLIA, in Greece, a country named after 


AFGHANISTAN. 


ABtolus of Elis, who is said to have mee 

killed a son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, left th 

Peloponnesus, and settled here. After the ruin ¢ 

Athens and Sparta, the Attolians became the rival] 

of the Acheans, and were alternately allies an 

enemies of Rome. 

The /Etolians join Sparta against Athens 

The Atolian league of tribes opposes Macedon . 

Invaded by Antipater during the Lamian war. 

Aid in the expulsion of the Gauls 

Invade the Peloponnesus, and ravage Messenia (Social 

War), and defeat the Acheeans at Caphye . 22 

Philip V., of Macedon, invades /Mtolia, and takes” 
Thermum— Peace of Naupactus concluded .) a 

Alliance with Rome + QI 

Deserted by the Romans, the Zitolians make peace - 
with Philip 

War with Philip, 200 ; he is defeated at Cynoscephale i 

The Atolians invite the kings of Macedon, Syria, and 


B.C. 45 
om] 
Ne 


Sparta, to coalesce e against the Romans .. 193- 
Defeat of the allies near Thermopyle . - erg 
Conquered by the Romans under Fulvius 18 
Leading patriots massacred by the Roman capa 16 


Aitolia made a province of Rome ; 14 
AFFINITY. Marriage within certain depts 
of kindred was prohibited : in almost every age an 
country, but has yet taken place toa considerabl 
extent. The Jewish law is givenin Leviticus xviii 
(1490 B.c.) In the English prayer-book the tab) 
restricting marriage within certain degrees was sc 
forth by authority, 1563. Prohibited marriage 
were adjudged to be incestuous and unlawful by th 
ggth canon, in 1603. All marriages within the for 
bidden degrees are declared to be absolutely void b: 
& 6 Will. IV. c 54, 1835; see Marriage (0 
Wife's Sister). The prohibited degrees were se 
forth in 25 Hen. VIII. ¢. 22, 1533-4. 


AFFIRMATION; see Quakers. The affirma 
tion was altered in 1702, 1721, 1837, and in Apmil 
1859.—The indulgence was eranted to persons wh 
were formerly Quakers, but who had seceded fron 
that sect, 2 Vict. 1838; and extended to other dis 
senters by 9 Geo. IV. c. "30 (1828), and 18 & 19 Viet 
ce. 2 (1855). For Mr. Bradlaugh’s case, see Pay 
liament, 1880-1, 1883. 

‘Ameniathan Bill for M.P.’s introduced, 1883 ; rejected | 
the commons (292-289) 3—4 May, 1883. 
AFGHANISTAN (the Greek Ariana), a ta 
country in central Asia, successively part of th 
Persian and Greek empires. Chief cities, Cabul 
Herat, Candahar, Ghuznee. The tribes are rule 
by sirdars. 

Early Afghan conquests in India 


. ; 1200-129 
Conquests of Genghis Khan about z2er, 


and by | 


Tamerlane ! g 3 : : 
Baber conquered Cabul : . 
On his death Afghanistan divided between Persia 


) 


The Afghans revolt in 1720 ; invade Persia and take f 
Ispahan ; repulsed by Nadir Shah in ay who 
subdues the whole ofthe country . : 

On his assassination, one of his officers, Ahmed 
Shah, an Afghan, made Afghanistan indepen-— | 
dent, and reigned pr osperously 1747- 

Timur Shah (son), succeeds, 1773 3 rules cruelly 5 3a 
dies leaving 23 sons s I 

Zeman becomes ameer, 1793; cripples the power of | 
the sirdars ; blinded and dethroned 1 

Mahmud Shah, son, ameer 1800; deposed for ‘his m 
brother, Suja § Shak, 1803 ; Mahmud restored, 


and Hindostan. ‘, 
j 


Futtih Khan the vizier predominant, 1809; 
Futtih blinded; Mahmud flees from Cabul and A 
becomes ruler at Herat i 
Tmpotent rulers at Cabul ; Dost Mohammed Khan — 
becomes ameer . » 182 
He is dethroned by the British, and sent to Cal- 
cutta ; Suja Shah restored ri 
British occupation of Cabul causes great discon- ¥ 
tent; insurrection; sir Alexander Burnes bes os ! 
others killed . 18. 
Akbar Khan, son of Dost Mohammed, head “of P the. 


tolietoff, a Russian envoy, favourably received at 
Cabul, June; a treaty signed; Russia to be the 
guardian of the Ameer . 4 : Aug. 
he nawab Gholam Hussein Khan sent as envoy to 
the ameer with letters from the viceroy (16 and 
24 Aug.), 30 Aug.; dismissed with presents ; 
_ intercourse with the British declined ~ . Sept. 
mission with military escort under sir Neville B. 


9? 


Gen. Roberts arrives at Cabul, 28 Sept.; oceu- 
pies Dakka. é : : : 2 29 Sept. 
Attack on British camp at Shutargardan repulsed 
2 Oct. 

Battle of Charasiab ; severe conflict with Afghans 
before Cabul; captain Young, Dr. Duncan, lieut. 
Fergusson, and about 70 killed and A cepa j 

6 Oct. 


. ee : b ' ' ‘ \ : 
AFGHANISTAN. 16 AFGHANISTAN. 
‘ rebels ; invites sir Wm. Macnaghten to meet, and Chamberlain, commander of the Madras army, 
assassinates him and others 4 : 23 Dec. 1841 starts from Peshawur : . 2x Sept. 1878 
The British army retires from Cabul, and is de- At Ali Musjid, a fort in the Khyber pass, inajor 
_ stroyed by the Ghilzais in the Khyber pass ; of Cavagnari and an advance party are threatened 
3849 soldiers, and about 12,000 camp followers, with attack if they proceed, 22 Sept. ; they retire 
_ only Dr. Brydone and four or five natives escaped to Peshawur, 23, 24 Sept. ; Gholam Hussein sent 
massacre “ ; : : 7 - 6-13 Jan. 1842 with an ultimatum (answer required before 20 
sir George Pollock forces the Khyber pass ; defeats Nov.) : 7 : | ‘i . 28 Oct. ,, 
Akbar Khan at Tezeen; captures Cabul and re- British army formed in three divisions : at Quettah, 
. leases lady Sale and others, 16 Sept. ; destroys Peshawur, and Kuram (34,730 natives, 12,740 
the great bazaar ; retires c 4 eae, OGUaY Europeans) . ; ; ‘ about 16 Nov. ,, 
Jost Mohammed becomes ameer : : ap Os G5 Dispatch from lord Cranbrook supporting the 
dis treaty of friendship with lord Dalhousie (faith- viceroy . i i Y m " . SB Movies. 
SE 30 March 1855 | No answer received from the ameer; the army ad- 
de dies leaving 16 sons; appointing as his suc- vances ‘ ; j f i ‘ 2t Nov. ,, 
cessor Shere Ali, the third son, 9 June ; who is Ali Musjid shelled and occupied by the British ; 21 
much opposed by his brothers, especially by guns taken; major Birch and lieut.. Fitzgerald 
Ufzul, the eldest son (and his son Abdul-Rah-} and about 35 men killed ‘ 3 a) 20) Novy i 
man, or Abdur-Rahman), Azim, Ameen, and Shu- The viceroy’s proclamation to the Afghans, issued 
reef; yet is recognized by them . _ Sept. 1863 | 23 NOV. .55 
Jnsuccessful insurrection of Ufzul and Azim ; Azim Occupation of Dakka and Pisheen, 23 Nov. : of 
flees to British territories, 16 May ; Ufzul recon- Kuram fort ‘ : ; : 25 Nov. ,, 
—ciled to Shere Ali. . : Gu : 2Jdune 1864 | Kudduin burnt to punish marauding hillmen, 
nsurrection of Abdul-Rahman ; Ufzul imprisoned | r Dec. ,, 
] Aug. ,, | Gen. Roberts victorious at Peiwar pass (which see) 
there Ali enters Cabul f : . 14 Nov. ,, 2 Dec. ,, 
izim and his confederates defeated at Kujhboz, Evasive reply of the ameer dated 19 Nov., received 
near Khelat-i-Ghilzye, by Shere Ali (whose gal- | 3 Dec. ,, 
lant son is killed), 6 June; he enters Candahar, The British occupy Jellalabad . . 20 Dec. ,, 
| 14 June, 1865 Shere Ali flees from Cabul to Balkh, 13 Dec. ; 
izim joins his nephew Abdul-Rahman ; defection | Yakoob Khan assumes command; the Russian 
of Mahomed Rufeek from Ibrahim (Shere Ali’s | mission withdraws . F c ‘ . Dee. ,, 
son) weakly ruling Cabul; it surrenders to | Gen. Roberts proclaims annexation of Kuram 
He 2 March, 1866 district, &e. Ba Ae tee ts WACeerh e) BGOE A Me 
‘here Ali rouses himself from his grief; raises an _ He enters the Khoost territory 3 Jan. ; defeats the 
army; some of his treacherous friends return to | Mangals near Matoon ; : 7 Jan. 1879 
him; he is defeated at Sheikhabad, and flees to _ Candahar abandoned, 6 Jan.; entered by general 
Candahar | : A 4 to May, ,, | Stewart unopposed . . : } he SENS hey, 
Jfzal (sensual and easy), and Azim (cruel and | Wali Mahomed, a relative of Shere Ali, joins the 
tyrannical) rule at Cabul, May, . FU Cb SCH ©; British . ; : : 1 Canons 
\zim and Abdul-Rahman defeat Shere Ali at | The Alizais defeated in an attack . 16 Feb. , 
, Kujhbaz, 17 Jan. ; he flees to Candahar : shut out, | Death of Shere Ali, the ameer (announced) 20 Feb. ,, 
_ flees to Herat held by his son, Yakoob Jan. 1867 About 46 of the roth hussars drowned by current 
Tis army again defeated and his general and ___ while crossing the Cabul river, ro p.m. 31 March, _,, 
_ brother, Fyz Mahommed, killed . 17 Sept. ,, | Gen. Gough, with the 10th hussars and others, 
Jfzul dies ; Azim sole ruler at Cabul Oct. ,, | defeats about 5000 Khugianis near Futtehabad : 
Te quarrels with Abdul-Rahman ; who leaves him, gallant major Wigram Batty killed . 2 April, ,, 
and refuses to help him A March, 1868 Yakoob Khan, son of the late ameer, arrives at 
Takoob defeats Azim’s troops, and enters Canda- | Gandamak to negotiate, 8 May; recognised as 
har 5 Aled Ah : ss : April, ,, {| ameer : : ; ‘ 2 9 May ,, 
zim leaves Cabul, July ; his army dissolves by | Treaty of peace signed at Gandamak ; (the British 
desertion ; Shere Ali enters Cabul 8 Sept. ,, | to occupy. Khyber pass, and the Kuram and 
ir John Lawrence helps Shere. Ali with arms and |  Pisheen valleys; to have a resident at Cabul; and 
_ money ; the attempts of Abdul-Rahman repulsed, | to pay an annual subsidy of 60,00ol. to the ameer), 
Nov., Dec. ,, | 26 May; ratified 30 May ; the British troops retire 
here Ali totally defeats him and Azim (who dies 8 June, ,, 
| soonafter) . 2 : : ; : Jan. 1869 | Sir Louis Cavaguari and escort honourably re- 
here Ali honourably received at Umballah by the ceived in Cabul . A . A 24 July, ,, 
_ viceroy, the eari of Mayo, and receives a subsidy, Thanks of the house of lords voted to the viceroy, 
} 27 March, et seq. ,, | officers, and men : 4 : a) 4 Agee, 
‘he oe of his territories defined, about June 1870 Several regiments of Afghan soldiers arrive in 
is son, Yakoob, rebels; captures Herat 6 May, » |  Cabul from Herat; about 13 Aug. aided by the 
‘eramoz Khan, his father’s general, assassinated, | populace they besiege the British residents, who 
| . June, 1871, after a brave resistance are massacred (including 
‘akoob reconciled to his father through lord Mayo, sir L. Cavagnari, Mr. Jenkyns, his secretary, lieut. 
July ; made governor of Herat ; soon rebels, Sept. ,, | Hamilton, and Dr. Ambrose Kelly), with about 
{slum, murderer of Feramoz, killed in prison, | 26 native cavalry and 50 infantry; a few natives 
: OCR. Sa hs eaeapeit, ; ‘ ; ‘ é - 3,4 Sept. 1879 
here Ali agrees to new boundaries, and receives _ Gen. Roberts marches towards Cabul 6 Sept. et seq. ,, 
another British subsidy, Oct.; nominates his | Mutiny at Herat; military and civil governors killed 
| youngest son, Abdoola Jan, his successor, to the 5 Sepp. 
. great dissatisfaction of his older son Yakoob, | Repulse of an attack on Baker’s entrenchments at 
Dec. 1873 | Shutargardan ‘ ) : : - 19 Sept. ,, 
‘akoob Khan, imprisoned by his father | A British convoy attacked by Mongols, near 
about Dec, 1874 | Shutargardan ; 8 sepoys and x 5 muleteers killed ; 
here Ali refusing to allow a British resident, the | mules taken , : 4 A 22 Sept. ,, 
subsidy withheld; he raises an army, and is said | Gen. Baker reaches Kushi 24 Sept. ; receives the 
to promote disaffection to the British 1877-8 | ameer Yakoob and his son, his general Daoud, 
eath of the heir Abdoola Jan . 17 Aug. 1878 | and suite 27 Sept. ,, 


v, 


AFGHANISTAN. 


16- 


AFRICA. 


The enemy decamps ; about 98 guns abandoned ; 
pursued by cavalry ; small parties only ov ae 
iG 
Gen. Roberts visits the abandoned Bala ia ar II 
Oct. ; enters Cabul, 12 Oct. ; Jellalabad oceupied 
by Gough : - 4 Oct. 
Gen. Roberts’ pr oclamation ; heavy fine; martial 
law ; gen. Hills to be iuilitary governor, with 
Gholab Hussein Khan : 2 14 Oct. 
Great explosions (supposed tr eacherous) i in ihe Bala 
Hissar ; destruction of much arms and ammuni- 
tion ; capt. Shafto and about 20 others ee 
ec 
Abdication of Yakoob Khan announced 19 Oct. 


5 prisoners (mollahs and others) hanged as mur- 
derers of major Cavaguari and others 20- 24 Oct. 
Sahib Jan, a freebooter, with a strong force of 
Taraki Ghilzais, defeated and killed by general 


Hughes at Shahjui, near Candahar 24 Oct. 
Proclamation of gen. Roberts announcing Buitieh 
occupation of Cabul, Ce te z : 30 Oct. 


Junction of columns of generals Macpherson and 
Bright at Katasang s . 6 Noy. 
163 Afghan mutineers, &e., tried ; 87 executed as 
murderers ; trde) released . . Oct. Noy. 
Combination of tribes under Mohammed Jan 
Wardak . Dee. 
Continued severe ‘fighting, with heavy loss on both 


sides . 4 . 11-14 Dec. 
Gen. Roberts. concentrates his forces in the 
Sherpur cantonments 4 Dee. 


Musa Khan, son of Yakoob, said to be nGainttiae 
ameer : about 17 Dec. 

Gen. Gough at Jugdulluk attac ked ; retreats into 
the fort, 16 Dec. ; indecisive conflicts 18, 19 Dec. 


The Afghans (Se es} defeated with great loss near 


Sherpur cantonments, a gens. Roberts and 
Gough . . 23 Dec. 
Cabul “left by the enemy, 24 Dec. ; the ane and 


Bala Hissar reoccupied by the British 26 Dee. 
The enemy dispersed 5 28 Dec. 
Attack of Afghan chiefs on ‘col. Norman repulsed 

at J agdalak - - 2 29)We. 
Ghiznee seized and held for Musa Khan as the new 
ameer, by Mohammed Jan about 1o Jan, 
Gen. Roberts proclaims an amnesty with few 
exceptions ; the hill tribes generally subdued, 
about 6 Jan. 

Mohmands and other tribes defeated in an attack 


near Daka . . 15 Jan. 
Correspondence with Russia ; papers found in 
Cabul (to be kept secret) 3 6 Feb, 


Musa Khan and chiefs at Ghuzni ‘submit 
21 March, 

Mohammed Jan defeated and killed, fighting with 
Hazaris ‘about 3 ‘April, 
A camp at Duwai attacked by Pathans ; garrison 
killed : ° 16 April, 
Shere Ali, cousin of the late ameer, made wali or 
governor of Candahar by the British (see 
Candahar) . April, 
Gen. sir Donald Stewart defeats a furious attack of 
Ghilzais at Ahmad Khel, 19 April; again near 


Ghazni 23 April, 
Col. Jenkins, “at Char-asiab, attacked by 4000 
Logaris ; resists till reinforced by gen. Mac- 


pherson ; totally defeats them 25 April, 
Sir D. Stewart takes chief command at Cabul 
2 May, 
Alleged defeats of Safis and Ghazis near Jellalabad 
19, 22 May, 
Gen. Burrows (with about 2400 men) sent from 
Bombay towards Candahar ; r July, 
The troops of the inefficient wali of Candahar, 
Shere Ali, revolt and join Ayoob Khan, opie 
14 July, 
Gen. Burrows at Maiwand, near Kusck-i- Nakdhnd 
re Se0) » «« 7 July, 
Abdul-Rahman, or ‘Abdur-Rahman ay oar 
1863 et seq.), recognised as ameer at Cabul by the 
British, and proclaimed. 5 22 July, 
Ayoob Khan (son of the late ameer, Shere Ali), 
governor of Herat, marches upon Candahar with 
about 12,000 men and 20 guns ; defeats the attack 
of gen. Burrows after severe conflicts ; heavy loss 
on both sides; many officers of 66th regiment 
killed 27 July, 


° ° ° . . . ° 


1879 
| Ger. sir F. Roberts with about £0,006 ‘at &c., 


29 


2) 


>? 


”? 


>? 


| Alleged expenses ¢ of the war, 1878- 80, 23,404,480l., of 


| Slight insurrection of the Ghilzais under Mollah 


Candahar citadel held by British with about 4000 
men "7 ; : ee J feo 188, 
Ayoob eneamped at Kokaran. - g Aug. 


marches from Cabul to relieve Candahar 9 "Aug. 
Sir D. Stewart, with all the troops, after an inter- 
view with the ameer Abdur-Rahman, ected ' 
from Cabul_ . 1.Aug: am 
Attack of Pathans (hill tribes) on the post a Kaeh 
Amadan firmly beaten off by sepoys ; 80 Pathans ~ 
killed . < : 16 Aug. 2 
Ineffectual sortie from Candahar, under gen. 
Primrose, against Deh Kwajee village, with heavy 
loss on both sides ; ; gen. Brooke, col. N ewport, 
majors Vandaleur and French, capt. Cruickshank, 
lieut. Marsh, and rey. Mr. Gordon, and 180 men 
killed 95 - 16 Aug: 
Ayoob Khan’s ar my (str engthened by Ghilzais) 
about 20,coo; about 25 Aug. ; ; he retires from 
Candahar. 4 - about 30 Ang. 
Gen. Roberts arrives at Candahar, 31 Aug. ; de- 
clines Ayoob’s terms ; defeats and disperses his 
army at Mazra near the Argandab ; and captures 
his camp at Baba Wali Kotal (see Mazra) x Sept. 
Ayoob Khan arrives in Herat; reported 10 Oct. 
Tranquillity at Cabul, announced . | Nov. 
Shere Ali, wali of Candahar, resigns and retires to 
India Dec. 


which 5,000,000), paid by British exchequer, Aug. 1881 
Russian correspondence with the ameer Shere Ali 
in 1878, published ; explained by Russia as re- 
lating to probable war in the east 9, 10 Feb. ,, . 
Thanks of parliament voted to gen. Roberts and r; 
the army in both houses. 5 May, ja 


Prospect of war between Ayoob Khan of Bernt and 
Abdur-Rahman of Cabul ; . May, June, 3) 
Conflicts between partisans of the ameer and Ayoob i 
Khan; the latter defeated . : & rr June 
Ayoob Khan defeats the ameer’s army under 
Gholam-Hy der at Karez-i-atta, 26 July; enters 
Candahar . 30 July, 
Gholam Hyder holding Kelat-i-Ghilzai, 6 “Aug, 5 
receives reinforeements from Cabul 21 Aug. 
Ayoob prepares to march; the Ameer’s troops at 
Kelat-i-Ghilzai ; rejects Ayoob’s proposals, 1-4 
Sept.; marches to Candahar; about 8 Sept. 
Ay oob defeated at Old Candahar chiefly through 
desertion of his troops, flees to Herat. 22 Sept. 
The ameer enters Candahar . - 30 Sept. 
His army under Abdul-Kudus Khan rtbe defeats 


Ayoob’s adherents, Oct.; again . ‘ 2 Oct. 
Enters Herat. = : : . a OG 
Ayoob flees to Persia 4 Oct. 
Abdur-Rahman now virtual ruler of all Afghanistan /_ 

Oct. Ga 
Afzul Khan chosen by the Ameer as British resi- 
dent in Cabul . 3 Feb. 
The ameer defeats the Shinwarris about 27 April, - 
Peace made . - about 21 June, 
Indian gov ernment grants subs sidy to the ameer ; 
accepted i SL 2the uly, 


Mushki Alum, announced . - 24 Aug. 
The proposal of an Afghan frontier parniciasiae a 
accepted by the ameer Aug. 
Gen. Sir Peter Lumsden with staff proceeds, and 
successful progress reported . Oct., Dec. 


AFRICA, called Libya by the Greeks, one of 
the three parts of the ancient world, and the grea 
est peninsula of the globe; said to have been 
peopled by Ham. ‘For its history, see Ly 
Cape, Carthage, Cyrene, Abyssinia, Algiers, Mo 

rocco, Ashantee, South Africa, §c. > 


Carthage subdued by the Romans, 146 B.c. ; other pro 
vinces gained by Pompey, 82. 
ape subdued by Diocletian, A.D. 296 ; by Theodosius a 
x? TR trica conquered by the Vandals under Gense ic 
429-35 ; re-conquered by Belisarius, 533-55. an 
The Saracens subdue the north of Africa, 637—709. 
Portuguese settlements begun, 1450. be 
Cape of Good Hope discovered ty Diaz, 1487. 
Vasco de Gama doubles the Cape and deplones the coas 
19 Noy. 1497. 


AFRICA. 


inglish merchants visit Guinea in 1550; and Elizabeth 
granted a patent to an African company in 1588. 

dutch colony at the Cape founded, 1650. 

Japt. Stubbs sailed up the Gambia, 1723. 

3ruce commenced his travels in 1768. 

sierra Leone settled by the English, 1787. 

Mungo Park made his first voyage to Africa, 22 May, 
1795; his second, 30 January, 1804, and never returned 
(see Park). 

\frica visited by Salt, 1805 and 1809; Burckhardt, 1812 ; 
Campbell, 1813 ; Hornemann, 1816; Denham and Clap- 
perton, 1822; Laing, 1826; the brothers Lander, 
1830. 

‘he Seat Niger expedition to start a colony in Central 
Africa (for which parliament voted 60,000l.), consisting 
of the Albert, Wilberforce, and Soudan steamships, 
commenced the ascent of the Niger, 20 Aug. 1841 ; 
when they reached Iddah, fever broke out among the 
crews, and they were successively obliged to return, 
the Albert having ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles 
from the sea, 28 Sept. The expedition was relinquished 
owing to disease, heat, and hardships, and all the 
vessels had cast anchor at Clarence Cove, Fernando 
Po, 17 Oct. 1841. 

ames Richardson explored the great Sahara in 1845-6, 
and in 1849 (by direction of the Foreign Office) he left 
England to explore central Africa, accompanied by 
Drs. Barth and Overweg. Richardson died 4 March, 
1851; and Overweg died, 27 Sept. 1852. 

rv. Vogel sent out with reinforcements to Dr. Barth, 
20 Feb. 1853 ; in April, 1857, said to have been assas- 
sinated. 

ry. Barth returned to England, and received the Royal 
Geographical Society’s medal, 16 May, 1856. His 
travels were published in 5 vols. in 1858. 

r. David Livingstone, a missionary traveller, returned 
to England in Dec. 1856, after an absence of 16 years, 
during which he traversed a large part of the heart of 
8. Africa, and walked about 11,000 miles, principally 
over country hitherto unexplored. His book was pub- 

lished in Nov. 1857. In Feb. 1858, he was appointed 
British consul for the Portuguese possessions in Africa, 
and left England shortly after. 

tu Chaillu’s travels in central Africa, 1856-59, created 
much controversy, 186r. 

econd expedition of Dr. Livingstone, March, 1858. 

aptains Speke and Grant announce the discovery of 
a source of the Nile in Lake Nyanza Victoria, 23 Feb. 
1863. 

Sat Speke was accidentally shot by his own gun while 
alone near Bath, 15 Sept. 1864.] 

ome Dutch ladies unsuccessfully explore the White 
Nile, and undergo many privations, July, 1863—1864. 
(One Miss Tinne said to have been killed ; reported 5 
Sept. 1869.) 

he ** Universities Mission to east central Africa,” con- 
sisting of Charles F. Mackenzie, bishop of central 
Africa, and six clergymen and others, started Dec. 
1860, and arrived at the Zambesi, in Feb. 1861. All 
died from privations and disease except two, who 
returned in 1864. The bishop died 31 Jan. 1862; suc- 
ceeded by Dr. Tozer. 

u Chaillu starts on a fresh expedition, 6 Aug. 1863; 
after being robbed, and undergoing many privations, 
returned to London near the end of 1865. He gave an 
account of his journey at a meeting of the Royal 
Geographical Society, 8 Jan. 1866. 

r. Livingstone returns, 23 July, 1864. 

eath of Dr. W. B. Baikie, at Sierra Leone, 30 Nov. 1864. 
[He was sent as special envoy to the Negro tribes 
hear the Niger by the Foreign Office about 1854. He 
opened commercial relations with central Africa. ] 

ational African company, 1864. 

rv. (afterwards sir) Samuel Baker discovered a lake, 

supposed to be another source of the Nile, which he 

named Lake Nyanza Albert, 14 March, 1864. 

*. Livingstone appointed British consul forinner Africa, 

24 March, 186s. 

‘urative of Livingstone’s Zambesi expedition 18 58-64, 

_published 1866. 
vingstone left Zanzibar to continue his search for the 
sources of the Nile, March, 1866. 

[See his narrative below.] 
‘ports of the murder of Livingstone near Lake Nyassa, 
n Sept. 1866—March, 1867 ; doubted, July, 1867. 
‘pedition of E. D. Young in search of Livingstone, 
sailed g July, 1867, returned and reported to the Royal 


\) 


AFRICA. 


Geographical Society his conviction that Livingstone 
was alive, 27 Jan. 1868. 

Letter from Dr. Livingstone dated Bembo, 2 Mar. 1867 ; 
heard of down to Dec. 1867. 

His despatch to lord Clarendon, dated 7 July, 1868 ; read 
to the Royal Geographical Society, 8 Nov. 1869. 

Letter dated 30 May, 1869, published Dec. 1869. 


Uncredited reports of his murder by negroes, Jan. ; his 
probable safety reported by Dr. Kirk, 22 June ; said 
to be at Mozambique, Nov. 1870. 

Expedition of sir Samuel Baker to put down slave trade 
on the Upper Nile (see Egypt), Jan. 1870. 

Expedition in search of Livingstone under lieut. Dawson, 
organised by the Royal Geographical Society ; started 
9 Feb. 1872. 

{it Pees on hearing that Stanley had found Living- 
stone. ] 

Dutch Guinea settlements purchased and transferred (see 
Elmina), 6 April, 1872. 

Reports current that Livingstone is alive, May, June, 
1872. 

Expedition sent in search of Livingstone by Mr. James 
Gordon Bennett, proprietor of the New York Herald, 
at a cost of about 8,000l. :-— 

Mr. Henry M. Stanley, chief of the expedition, left 
Zanzibar, and, after much opposition from the native 
chiefs, accidentally fell in with Livingstone at Ujiji, 
near Unyanyembe, 1o Nov. 1871, and remained with 
him till 14 March, 1872, when he brought away his 
diary and other documents. Mr. Stanley reported that 
Livingstone had arrived at Ujiji in bad condition, 
having been robbed and deserted by his attendants. 

Much controversy ensued between Mr.’ Stanley, the 
members of lieut. Dawson’s expedition, Dr. Living- 
stone, Dr. Kirk, the Royal Geographical Society, and 
others, Aug.---Oct. 1872, 

Letter from Dr. Livingstone, at Ujiji, dated Nov. 
1871, to Mr. Bennett (printed in New York Herald, 26 
July, and reprinted in the Times 27 July, 1872). He 
describes his explorations and his painful journey to 
Ujiji; his meeting with Mr. Stanley ; and he speaks of 
the Nile springs being about 600 miles south of the 
most southerly part of Lake Victoria Nyanza ; and also 
of about 7oo miles of watershed in central Africa, of 
which he had explored about 600 ; and of the conver- 
gence of the watershed first into four, and then into 
two, mighty rivers in the great Nile valley (?) between 
to’ and 12° south latitude. Second letter (dated Feb. 
1872) describes the horrors of the slave trade in eastern 
Africa, printed in the Times 29 July, 1872. 


Livingstone’s despatches, dated Noy. 1 and 15, 1871, 
received by the Foreign Office, 1 Aug. ; letter dated 
1 July, received 2 Oct. 1872. 

Mr. Stanley described his discovery of Livingstone to the 
British Association at Brighton in presence of the 
ex-emperor and empress of the French, 16 Aug., and re- 
ceived a gold snuff-box from the queen about 30 Aug. 1872. 

Livingstone died of dysentery in Ilala, Central Africa ; 
his pupil, Jacob Wainwright, a young negro mission- 
ary, present, 1 May, 1873; his remains interred in 
Westminster Abbey, 18 April; his last journals pub- 
lished, Dec. 1874. 

New Expedition, under sir Bartle Frere, to Zanzibar, to 
suppress the east African slave trade; lieut. Verney. 
Lovett Cameron’s offer to aid in the furtherance of 
Livingstone’s expedition was accepted ; sailed 20 Noy. 
1872, see Zanzibar. 

Expedition to explore the upper part of the Congo 
(Mr. Young, of Kelly, to subscribe 2000]. Royal Geo- 
graphical Society to supplementit), proposed Nov. 1872. 

Lieut. Verney Cameron, after the finding of Livingstone, 
continued his explorations, 1872-3. 

Leaving Ujiji, 14 May, 1874, he followed Livingstone’s 
route ; explored 1200 miles of fertile country ; arriving 
at Portuguese settlements, 4 Nov. 1875. 

He was received by Royal Geographical Society, and 
gave account of his journey, 11 April, 1876. 

Expedition of Mr. H. M. Stanley (supported by Daily 
Telegraph and New York Herald); he surveyed Lake 
Victoria Nyanza (230 miles by 180), 1875 ; well andsuc- 
cessful, last letter dated 24 April, 1876. 

Stanley reports. survey of lake Tanganyika; and states 
that he left Ujiji and crossed Africa from east to west, 
and identified the Lualaba with the Congo river, which 
has an uninterrupted course of over 1400 miles, 24 Aug. 
1876—6 Aug. 1877. 


Arrives at Cape Town, 21 Oct. 1877; in London, 22 


Cc 


AFRICAN CONFEDERATION. 


18 


AGINCOURT. 4 


Jan.; published ‘‘ Through the Dark Continent,” May, 
1878. 

Thanian expedition under marchese Antinori, well re- 
ceived by king of Scida; announced 2 Dec. 1876; 
his death reported, Nov. 1877. 

Portuguese government grant 20,0001. for expedition 
into the interior, announced Dec. 1876. 

Dr. Giissfeld, a German, after his exploration into 8.W. 
Central Africa, 1873, declared the difficulties insuper- 
able, 1875. 

Mr. H. M. Stanley, with an international Belgian expedi- 
tion, explored the Congo, 1879-80. 

Trade route with 4 stations on the Congo reported to be 
established by Mr. Stanley (a great work) announced, 
14 Aug, 1882. 

THe Roya GxrocrRapHicaL Society grants 2,600/. 
for an expedition to Africa under Joseph Thom- 
son, which starts 13 Dec. 1882; after successful 
exploration arrives at Zanzibar in June; describes 
to the R. Geo. Soc. his exceedingly perilous adven- 
tures, in beautifully varied country, with vicious 
escort, among savage tribes of different manners, 
3 Nov. 1884. 

Death of Dr. Moffat, missionary and traveller, aged 87, 
g Aug. 1883. 

See under Congo. 

Mr. H. H. Johnston arrives at Kilimanjaro, June, 1884 ; 
builds village at height of 11,000 feet, Oct., ascends 
to 16,200 feet from summit of Kibé, Nov. 1884. 

R. GEoGRAPHICAL SocrEty’s successful expedition into 
Eastern Africa under Mr. A. Keith Johnston leaves 
England 14 Nov. 1878, starts from Zanzibar about 14 
May, 1879; Mr. Johnston dies, 28 June, succeeded 
by Joseph Thomson, who returns to England Aug. 
1880, 

Alleged massacre of col. Flatters’ party (American) by 
Touaregs, 16 Feb. 1881. 

AFRICAN ASSOCIATION, for promoting the exploration of 
central Africa, was formed in June, 1788, principally 
by sir Joseph Banks ; and underits auspices many addi- 
tions were made to African geography by Ledyard, 
Park, Burckhardt, Hornemann, &c. It merged into the 
Royal Geographical Society, July, 1831. 

AFRICAN CHURCH. In 1866 Robert Gray, bishop of Cape- 
town (in consequence of a decision of the privy council : 
see Church of England), established synods of the 
“Church of South Africa.” 

AFRICAN CoMPANY (merchants trading to Africa), arose 
out of an association in London, formed in 1588. <A 
charter was granted to a joint-stock company in 1618 ; 
asecond company was created in 1631 ; a3rd corporation 
in 1662 ; another was formed by letters-patent in 1672 ; 
remodelled in 1695. In 1821 the company was 
abolished. 

AFRICAN EXPLORATION Funp, founded by Royal Geo- 
graphical Society, May, 1877. 

AFRICAN INSTITUTION, founded in London in 1807, for the 
abolition of the slave trade, and the civilization of 
Africa. Many schools have been established with suc- 
cess, particularly at Sierra Leone. 


AFRICAN CONFEDERATION. 
South African Confederation. 


AGAPAS (agape, Greek for love, charity), 
‘¢ feasts of charity,’’ referred to Jude 12, and de- 
scribed by Tertullian, of which the first Christians 
of all ranks as one family partook, as Christ did with 
his disciples. Disorders creeping in, these feasts 
were forbidden to be celebrated in churches by the 
councils of Laodicea (366) and Carthage (390). They 
are still recognised by the Greek church, and are 
held in their original form weekly by the Glasites 
or Sandemanians, and in some degree by the Mora- 
vians, Wesleyans, and others. 


AGAPEMONE (Greek, ‘‘ the abode of love”’), 
an establishment at Charlinch, near Bridgwater, 
Somersetshire, founded in 1845, where Henry James 
Prince,* and his deluded followers, formerly per- 


See 


* Prince was born in 1811; educated for the medical 
profession and licensed to practise, 1832; gave it up for 
the church and entered St. David’s college, Lampeter, 
and there commenced ultra-revivalist movements in 1836 ; 


sons of property, lived in common, professing to 
devote themselves to innocent recreation and to 
maintain spiritual marriage. The Agapemone is 
described by Mr. Hepworth Dixon in his ‘* Spiritual 
Wives,” published in Jan. 1868. Meetings of the 
wes were held at Hamp, near Bridgwater, Dec., 
1872. 


AGAR-TOWN, the name given to a district 
in St. Pancras parish, N. London. It consisted of 
hovels, erected on the site of the grounds of coun-\ 
cillor Agar, after 1841, which, from their filthy and 
uncivilised condition, were termed by Charles 
Dickens, in 1851, the English Connemara. The 
entire district was cleared by the Midland Railway 
Company. 


AGE. Chronologers have divided the time 
between the creation and the birth of Christ into 
ages. Hesiod (about 850 B.c.) described the 
Golden, Silver, Brazen, and Iron Ages; see Dark 
Ages. 
eae i (from the Creation to the De- 

uge : ; ; : pre . 
Seconp AGE (to the coming cf Abraham into 

Canaan) . 3 , . 3 » « 2348—1922 
THIRD AGE (to the Exodus from Egypt) . 1921—z1491 
Fourty AGE (to the founding of Solomon’s 

Temple) 3 : : 4 : : 
FirtH AGE (to the capture of Jerusalem) 
SrxtH AGE (to the birth of Christ) . ie 
SEVENTH AGE (to the present time) 


AGE. In Greece and Rome twenty-five was 
full age for both sexes, but a greater age was. 
requisite for the holding certain offices: e.g. thirty 
for tribunes ; forty-three for consuls. In England 
the minority of a male terminates at twenty-one, 
and of a female in some cases, as that of a queen, 
at eighteen. In 1547, the majority of Edward VI. 
was, by the will of his father, fixed at eighteen 
years; previously to completing which age, his 
father, Henry VIII., had assumed the reins of 
government, in 1509.—A male of twelve may take 
the oath of allegiance ; at fourteen he may consent 
to a marriage, or choose a guardian ; at seventeen 
he may be an executor, and at twenty-one he is of 
age; but according to the statute of wills, 7 Will. 
IV. & 1 Vict. c. 26, 1837, no will made by any 
person under the age of twenty-one years shall be 
valid. <A female at twelve may consent to a mar- 
riage, at fourteen she may choose a guardian, and at 
twenty-one she is of age. 


AGED PILGRIMS’ FRIEND SOCIETY, 
founded 1807 ; asylums, 1826 and 1871. 


AGINCOURT, or Azrtncour (N. France), 
a village, where Henry V. of England, with about 
gooo men, defeated about 60,000 French on St. 
Crispin’s day, 25 Oct. 1415. Of the French, there 
were, according to some accounts, 10,000 killed, in- 
cluding the dukes of Alengon, Brabant, and Bar, 
the archbishop of Sens, one marshal, thirteen earls, 
ninety-two barons, and 1500 knights; and 14,000 


B.C. 
4004—2349 


I4Qo—I014 
Io14— 588 
588—- 4 


and finally claimed to be an incarnation of the Deity, 
with corresponding authority over his followers. On 22 
May, 1850, Thomas Robinson sought to recover the pos- 
session of his child from the care of its mother (from 
whom he had separated); the application was refused by. 
the vice-chancellor, to ‘‘ save the child from the pollution 
of the parent’s teaching.” —On 21 Aug. 1858, Miss Louisa 
Jane Nottidge died, having transferred her property to 
Mr. H. J. Prince. Her brother, Mr. Nottidge, by an 
action, recovered from Prince 5728l., as having been 
fraudulently obtained. Extraordinary disclosures were — 
made during the trial, 25 July, 1860. In the autumn of 
1860, the Rev. Mr. Price, after several vain attempts, 
succeeded in rescuing his wife from the Agapemone. — 
They had both been early supporters of it. ‘a 


j 


AGINCOURT. 


prisoners, among whom were the dukes of Orleans 
and Bourbon, and heed barons, knights, and gentle- 
men. The English lost the duke of York, the earl 
of Suffolk, and about 20 others. St. Rémy asserts 
with more probability that the English lost 1600 
men. Henry V. soon after obtained the kingdom 
of France. 


AGINCOURT iron-clad. See Navy, 1871. 


AGITATORS (or Adjutators), officers appointed 
by the Parliamentary army in 1647, to take care of 
its interests: each troop or company had two. The 
general Cromwell was eventually obliged to re- 
press their seditious power. Ata review he seized 
the ringleaders of a mutiny, shot one instantly, in 
the presence of his companions and the forces on the 
ground, and thus restored discipline. Hwme.— 
‘Daniel 0’ Connell, the agitator of Ireland, was born 
in 1775: He began to agitate at the elections in 
1826; was elected for Clare, 5 July, 1828; the 
election being declared void, he was re-elected 30 
July, 1829. After the passing of the Catholic 
emancipation bill, he agitated in vain for the repeal 
of the union, 1834 to 1843. He died 15 May, 1847. 
—Richard Cobden and John Bright were the chief 
Anti-corn-law agitators, 1841-45.—Mr. Bright be- 
came a Reform agitator in 1866. 


AGNADELLO (N. E. Italy). Here Louis XII. 
of France gained a great victory over the Venetians, 
some of whose troops were accused of cowardice and 
treachery; 14 May, 1509. The conflict is also 
termed the battle of the Rivolta. 


AGNOIT AS (from agnoia, Greek, ignorance). 
I. A sect founded by Theophronius of Cappadocia 
about 370: said to have doubted the omniscience of 
God. 11. The followers of Themistius of Alexandria, 
about 530, who held peculiar views as to the body 
of Christ, and doubted his divinity. 


AGNOSTICS, name given to philosophers who 
assert that we have no knowledge but what we 
acquire by means of our senses, about 1876. Mr. 
Herbert Spencer, Professor Huxley, and Mr. John 
Fiske are said to be agnostics. 


AGONISTICI (from agon, Greek, a con/ftict), 
also termed circutores, a branch of the Donatists 
(which see) in the 4th century. They preached 
with great boldness, and incurred severe persecu- 
tion. 


AGRA (N. W. India), founded by Akbar in 
1566, was the capital of the Great Mogul; see 
Mausoleums. In 1658 Aurungzebe removed to 
Delhi.—The fortress of Agra, ‘‘the key of Hindo- 
stan,” in the war with the Mahrattas surrendered 
to the British forces, under general Lake, 17 Oct. 
1803, after one day’s siege: 162 pieces of ordnance 
and 240,000/. were captured.—In June, 1857, the 
city was abandoned to the mutineers by the Euro- 
peans, who took refuge in the fort, from which they 
were rescued by major Montgomery and colonel 
Greathed. Visit of the prince of Wales, 25 Jan., 
1876.—Allahabad was made capital of the N.W. 
provinces of India, instead of Agra, in 1861. 


AGRAM (formerly Zagrab), a city of Croatia, 
Hungary, residence of the ban; suffered much by 
earthquakes, g—12 Noy. 1880. See Croatia. 


AGRARIAN LAW (Agraria lex), decreed 
an equal division among the Roman people of all 
the lands acquired by conquest, limiting the acres 
which each person should enjoy. It was first pro- 
posed by the consul Spurius Cassius, 486 b.c., and 
occasioned his judicial murder when he went out of 
office in 485.—An agrarian law was passed by the 


19 


AGRICULTURE. 


tribune Licinius Stolo, 376; and for proposing fur- 
ther amendments Tiberius Gracchus in 13 % and 
his brother Corneliusin 121, were murdered. Livius 
Drusus, a tribune, was murdered for the same cause, 
91. Julius Cesar propitiated the plebeians by pass- 
ing an agrarian law in 59.—In modern times 
the term has been misinterpreted to signify a divi- 
sion of the lands of the rich among the poor, fre- 
quently proposed by demagogues, such as Gracchus 
Babeuf, editor of the Zribun du Peuple, in 1794. 
In 1796 he conspired against the directory with the 
view of obtaining a division of property, was con- 
demned, and killed himself, 27 May, 1797. 


AGRICOLA’S WALL, see Roman Walls. 


AGRICULTURAL CHILDREN ACT, 
prohibits employment of children under eight years 
of age, and provides for the education of older 
children, 5 Aug. 1873. 


AGRICULTURAL HALL, Islington, N. 
London, chiefly for the meetings of the Smithfield 
Club. The foundation stone was laid by the presi- » 
dent, lord Berners, 5 Nov. 1861. The hall has 
been much used for industrial exhibitions, public 
meetings, equestrian and pedestrian performances, 
concerts, &e, 


It was opened for an exhibition of dogs, 24 June, 18623 
horses and donkeys exhibited, July, 1864, and annually 
since. 

First Smithfield annual cattle show here, 6 Dec. 1862. 

A great reform demonstration was made here, 30 July, 
1866. 

Grand ball to the Belgian visitors, volunteers and garde 
civique ; prince of Wales present, 18 July, 1867. 

Excellent horse-shows held here, May, 1868, et seq. 

Theatrical bull-fights here stopped, on account of cruelty, 
28 Mar. 1870. 

Workmen’s International exhibition opened by the 
Prince of Wales, 16 July, 1870. 

National Exhibition of maehinery, appliances, manufac- 
tures, and produce, opened 29 Sept. 1879. 

Exhibition by the building trades, opened 12 April, 1880. 

International food exhibition, opened 13 Oct. 1880. 

Milling exhibition (under direction of National Associ- 
ation of British and Irish Millers), 10-18 May, 1881. 


AGRICULTURAL HOLDINGS ACT, 
passed 13 Aug. 1875, relates to compensations of 
landlords and tenants, for improvements, &c. Two 
other important acts: for England 46 & 47 Vict. ¢. 
61, for Scotland, c. 62, were passed 25 Aug. 1883, 
to begin I Jan. 1884. : 


AGRICULTURE. ‘Abel was a keeper of 
sheep, but Cain was a tiller of the ground,” Genesis 
iv. 2. The Athenians asserted that the art of 
sowing corn began with them; and the Cretans, 
Sicilians, and Egyptians made the same claim. 


Cato the Censor (died 149 B.c.) and Varro (died 28 B.c. 
were eminent Roman writers on agriculture. 

Virgil’s Georgics, 30 B.c. Agriculture in England im- 
proved by the Romans after a.p. 44. 

Fitzherbert’s ‘‘ Book of Husbandry,” printed 1524. 

Tusser’s ‘“‘ Five Hundred Points of Husbandry,” 1562. 

Blythe’s “‘ Improver,” 1649. 

Hartlib’s “‘ Legacy,” 1650. 

Jethro Tull’s ‘‘ Horse-hoeing Husbandry,” 17or. 

About the end of the 18th century, fallowing was gradu- 
ally superseded by turnips and green crops. 

In Aug. 1855, a committee presented a report on the best 
mode of obtaining accurate Agricultural Statistics. 
There were, in 1831, 1,055,982 agricultural labourers 
in Great Britain, and in Ireland, 1,131,715. 

Acreage of crops, and number of cattle, sheep, and pigs 
in Great Britain and Ireland, beginning with 1866, 
published in the annual ‘‘ Statistical Abstract,” since 
1869. See p. 20. 

It was reckoned by the Agricultural Committee, that the 
cultivation of waste lands would yield above 20,000, 000l. 
a year. It was calculated in 1854 that there were in 
England 32,160,000 acres in cultivation, of the annual 


c 2 


AGRICULTURE. 


20 


AGRIGENTUM. ‘ 


value of 37,412,000l. Since that time, much land has 
been brought into cultivation ; see Wheat. 

“‘History of Agriculture and Prices in England (1259- 
1582),” by Professor James T. Rogers, published, June, 
1866-1882. 

AGRICULTURAL SocrETIES.—The earliest mentioned in 
the British Isles was the Society of Improvers of 
Agriculture in Scotland, instituted in 1723. A Dublin 
Agricultural Society (1749) gave a stimulus to agricul- 
ture in Ireland ; its origin is attributed to Mr. Prior of 
Rathdowney, Queen’s County, in 1731. The Bath and 
West of England Society established, 1777; and the 
Highiand Society of Scotland, 1784. County Agricul- 
tural Societies are now numerous. 

London Board of Agriculture established by act of par- 
liament, 1793. 

Francis, duke of Bedford, a great promoter of agricul- 
ture, died 2 March, 1802. 

Royal Agricultural Society of England established in 
1838, by noblemen and gentlemen, the chief landed 
proprietors in the kingdom, and incorporated by royal 
charter, 26 March, 1840. It holds two meetings 
annually, one in London the other in the country. It 
awards prizes, and publishes a valuable journal. 


1839. Oxford. 1855. Carlisle. 1871. Wolver- 
1840. Cambridge. 1856. Chelmsford. hampton. 
1841. Liverpool. 1857. Salisbury. 1872. Cardiff. 
1842. Bristol. 1858. Chester. 1873. Hull. 
1843. Derby. 1859. Warwick. 1874. Bedford. 
1844. Southamp- 1860. Canterbury. 1875. Taunton. 
ton. 1861. Leeds. 1876. Birming- 
1845. Shrewsbury. 1862. Battersea. ham 
1846. Newcastle. 1863. Worcester. 1877. Liverpool. 
1847. Northamp- 1864. Newcastle- 1878. Bristol. 
ton. on-Tyne. 1879. London. 
1848. York. 1865. Plymouth. 1880. Carlisle. 
1849. Norwich. 1866. Bury St. Ed- 1881. Derby. 
1850. Exeter. munds. 1882. Reading. 
1851. Windsor. 1867. No meeting. 1883. York. 
1852. Lewes. 1868. Leicester. 1884. Shrewsbury. 
1853. Gloucester. 1869. Manchester. 
1854. Lincoln. 1870. Oxford. 


Institute of Agriculture; South Kensington; courses 
of lectures given, Oct. 1883. 

International Agricultural Exhibition, promoted by the 
Society, and held at Kilburn, London, N.W. Occupied 
ro6 acres. It was opened by the Prince of Wales 30 
June, visited by the Queen in July, and closed finally, 
to July, 1879. 

Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, instituted 1841. 

“Chambers of Agriculture” were established in France in 
1851. In Great Britain, 1868, they had increased from 
36 to 70. A journal commenced early in 1868. 

Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester organised, 1842; 
chartered, 1845. 

Suffolk Agricultural College at Bury St. Edmunds 
opened 1874. Other colleges opened. 

British Dairy Farmers’ Association.—Inaugurated ; first 
show opened at Agricultural Hall, London, 24-28 Oct. 
1876. 

Royal Agricultural Benevolent Institution.—It relieves 
farmers and their widows and orphans ; founded chiefly 
by Mr. Mechi, 1860. 

The Associated Agriculturists of Great Britain, a limited 
company, proposed April, 1881. 


AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.—Sir Humphry Davy de- 
livered lectures on this subject (afterwards published), 
at the instance of the Board of Agriculture, in 1812; 
but it excited little attention till the publication of 
Liebig’s work in 1840, which made a powerful impres- 
sion. Boussingault’s ‘‘ Economie Rurale,” an equally 
important work, appeared in 1844. The immoderate 
expectations from this study having been somewhat 
disappointed, a partial reaction took place. Liebig’s 
«‘ Letters on Agriculture ” appeared in 1859. 


AGRICULTURAL GaNGS.—In the spring of 1867, most 
painful exposures were made of the prevalence of much 
cruelty and immorality in the gang system (in which 
boys and girls are employed) in several of the eastern 
and midland counties ; and in consequence an act was 
passed 20 Aug. for regulating these gangs, licensing 
gang-masters, &c. 

A Union of Agricultural Labourers, managed chiefly by 
Joseph Arch, formerly a labourer, afterwards a Metho- 
dist preacher, was inaugurated at Leamington, War- 
wickshire, 29 March, 1872. The movement spread, 


being countenanced by Auberon Herbert, M.P., and 
others. The Union met.in London, Arch re-elected 
president, 16, 17 May 1877; at Bedford, 16 Sept. 1881. 

Lock-out of agricultural labourers belonging to the 
Union (lasted 18 weeks, costing the Union much 
money), began at Alderton, Suffolk, March, 1872. 

Dispute between Lincolnshire farmers and labourers — 
settled, 18-20 May; Suffolk and Norfolk farmers 
refuse compromise about 25 May ; the Union ceased 
to support the locked-out labourers, leaving them to 
emigration, or to seek employment, 27 July, 1872. ; 

The agitation subsided ; the labourers were employed’ 
autumn, 1875; agricultural return for Great Britain, 
1873; reported steady increase in prosperity, 1875. 

A partial strike and lock-out of labourers in Kent and 
Sussex, Oct.—Dec. 1878. 

The delegates of the National Agricultural Labourers’ 
Union met, 26 Oct., 1875. 

Very great agricultural depression through bad seasons, 
and foreign importations ; many landlords remit large 
part of rents, 1877—9. 

Royal Commission of Inquiry appointed 4 July, 1879. 

Committee of Council on Agriculture appointed, Earl of 
Rosebery president, about 27 April, 1883. 

The Agricultural Returns of Great Britain were issued 
for the first time by the newly constituted Agricultu- 
ral Department, 1883. Second return presented, 
27 Oct. 1884. 

The following table, drawn up by Mr. William Couling, 
C.E., in 1827, is extracted from the Third Report of 
the Emigration Committee :— 


Wastes 
capable of 
improve- 
ment. 


Culti- 


Unpro- 
vated. 


Countries. fitable. 


Total. 


ACRES. 
England ./|25,632,000 
Wales 3,117,000 
Scotland .| 5,265,000 
Ireland .|12,125,280 
Brit. Isles} 383,690 


ACRES. 
32,342,400 
4,752,000 
19,738,930 
19,441,944 | 
I,I1Q,159} 


ACRES, 
3,454,000 
530,000 
5950,;000 
4,900,000 
166,000 


ACRES, 
3,256,400 
I, 105,000 
8,523,930 
2,416,664 

569,469 


15,871,463 177,394,433 


46,522,970 |15,000,000 


At that period it was computed that the soil of the 
United Kingdom was annually cropped m the following 
proportions : 


Wheat S ° x : : ° e . 7,000 aa 
Barley andrye . . ° . oi 1,9 50,000 
Potatoes, oats and beans . : i : . 6 500,000, 
Turnips, cabbages, and other vegetables . . 1.3 50,000 
Clover, rye-grass, &c. : A : . . 1,750,000 
Fallow : . 5 & ‘ = BE 2, 800,008) 
Hop-grounds’ .  . . <apes . * 60,000 
Nursery grounds . : ; : > -.  } 20}ogi 
Inclosed fruit, flower, kitchen and other gardens 1 10,000 
Pleasure grounds : 2 . 2. SOOGm 
Land depastured by cattle . 21,000,000 
Hedge-rows, copses, and woods . + es 2,000,008 
Ways, water, &c. ol wal lla . : 2,100,000 
Cultivated land . 46,540,000 

CROPS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND :— ‘ 

Corn Green Grasses, 

Crops. Crops. &c. 

anh, Acres. Acres. Acres. — 

1866. Great Britain . | 9,252,784 | 3,562,434 | 15,964,553 
Ireland. 2,174,033 | 1,481,525 | 12,006,191 
1870. Great Britain . | 9,548,041 | 3,586,730 | 16, 5772749 
Ireland. . | 2,173,109 | 1,498,719 on 
1876. Great Britain . | 9,194,669 | 3,571,874 18,056,217 
Ireland . 1,848,487 | 1,363,224 S shote f 

1879. Great Britain . | 8,985,234 | 3,554,318 18,640,097 
Ireland. . | 1,761,800 | 1,294,636 ee: | 

1883. Great Britain. | 8,618,675 | 3,454,579 19,461,295 

Ireland 1,678,125 | 1,230,253 oc cn 


AGRIGENTUM (now Girgenti), a cit 
Sicily, built about 582 s.c. It was governe 
tyrants from 7 to pie among these wer 
Phalaris (see Brazen Bull); Alcamanes; Theron 
who, with his step-father Gelon, defeated the 


AHMEDNUGGUR. 


Carthaginians at Himera, 480: and Thrasydzus, his 
son, expelled in 470; when a republic was estab- 
lished. It was taken by the Carthaginians in 40 

B.c., and held, except during short intervals, til 
gained by the Romans in 262 B.c. From a.p. 825 
till 1086 it was held by the Saracens, 


AHMEDNUGGUR (W. India), once capital 
of a state founded by Ahmed Shah, about 1493. 
After having fallen into the hands of the Moguls 
and the Mahrattas, it was taken from the latter by 
Arthur Wellesley, 12 Aug. 1803, and restored to the 
British dominions, June, 1817. 


AID, see Ayde. 


AID TO THE SICK AND WOUNDED, 
NATIONAL SOCIETY FoR. On 4 Aug. 1870, soon 
after the breaking out of the Franco-German war, 
a meeting was held in London, which established 
this society under the rules of the Geneva Conven- 
tion, which see. 


The Queen, patron ; the Prince of Wales, president ; 
col. Loyd-Lindsay, chairman of committees; ac- 
tive supporters, duke of Manchester, earl of Shaf- 
tesbury, lords Overstone and Bury, sir Harry Ver- 
ney, general sir John Burgoyne, surgeon-general 
Longmore, and captain Douglas Galton. The 
operations were chiefly directed by capt. Henry 
Brackenbury, at the seat of war, and by Mr. John 
Furley and general sir Vincent Eyre. 

A fruitless meeting to promote the incorporation of 

the society. It was then reported that 296,2981. 

had been received ; together with stores valued at 
45,0001, . : ; : : : 2 rAUg, 

Jol. Loyd Lindsay conveyed to Versailles and Paris 

. from the society 40,000l., equally divided between 

the Germans and French (gratefully acknow- 

' ledged) : 2 : 3 about rz Oct. 

Che crown-prince of Prussia wrote to colonel Loyd 

_ Lindsay :—‘‘In this, as on other occasions of 

_ distress, the help of the English public has been 

_ poured out with a liberal and an impartial hand. 
The gifts which have been offered in a truly 
Christian spirit have excited a feeling of heartfelt 
gratitude among those on whose behalf I speak.” 

2 Nov. 1870 


1871 


1870 


Subscription Lists published : 


3rd, 17 Aug. 2,377l. soth,11 Oct. . 243,444l. 
oth, 25 Aug. 33,339 6oth, 26 Oct. . 260,849 
oth, 6 Sept. 68,677 goth, 30 Noy. . 280,598 
oth, 17 Sept. . 153,214 78th, 7 Jan. (re- 

oth, 29 Sept. . 208,147 ceived to 31 Dec.) 289,674 


‘he society afforded much help during the Servian war, 
_Jduly—September, 1876, and the Russo-Turkish war, 
1877-8. 


AILANTINE, see Sik. 
AINADIN, see Ajnadin. 


_AIRor ATMOSPHERE. Anaximenes of Miletus 
530 B.C.) declared air to be a self-existent deity, 
nd the first cause of everything created. Posidonius 
about 79 B.C.) caleulated the height of the atmo- 
phere to be 800 stadia. The pressure of air, about 
5 Ibs. to the square inch, was discovered by Galileo, 
564, and demonstrated by Torricelli, (who invented 
1e barometer) about A.D. 1643, and was found by 
‘ascal, in 1647, to vary with the height. Halley, 
‘ewton, and others, up to the present time have 
lustrated the agency and influences of this great 
ywer by various experiments, and numerous inven- 
ons have followed; among others, the Air-GuN 
‘ Guter of Nuremberg about 1656; the Arr-PuMP, 
tvented by Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg about 
50; improved by Robert Boyle in 1657, by Robert 
ooke about 1659;* and the Arr-Prpx, invented by 
©. Sutton, a brewer of London, about 1756. The 
msity and elasticity of air were determined by 


'* Sprengel’s excellent air-pump, in which water or 
ercury is employed, was invented in 1863. 


21 


AIX ROADS. 


Boyle; and its relation to light and sound by Hooke, 
Newton, and Derham. The extension of our atmo- 
sphere above the surface of the earth, has been long 
considered as about 45 miles.—Its composition,t 
about 77 parts of nitrogen, 21 of oxygen, and 2 of 
other matters (such as carbonic acid, watery vapour, 
a trace of ammonia, &c.) was ascertained by Priestley 
(who discovered oxygen gas in 1774), Scheele 
(1775), Lavoisier, and Cavendish; and its laws of 
refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. 
The researches of Dr. Schénbein, a German chemist 
of Basel, between 1840 and 1859, led to his descrip- 
tion of two states of the oxygen in the air, which he 
calls ozone and antozone. Dr. Stenhouse’s Air-filters 
(in which powdered charcoal is used) were first set 
up at the Mansion-house, London, in 1854. In 1858, 
Dr. R. Angus Smith made kiown ‘a chemical 
method of ascertaining the amount of organic matter 
in the air, and published his ‘‘ Air and Rain” in 
1872. See Oxygen, Nitrogen, Ozone, Atmospheric 
Railway, Balloons, and Pneumatic Despatch. 


The Aero-steam Engine, the invention of George Warsop, 
a mechanic of Nottingham, who, by employing com- 
pressed air united with steam, is said to have effected 
the saving of 47 per cent. of fuel. The plan was re- 
ported to the British Association, at Exeter, in Aug. 
1869, and was said to act successfully in a tug steamer 
(for China) in the Thames, 26 March, 1870. 

Cul. Beaumont’s air-engine for propelling railway car- 
riages, tried at Woolwich, reported successful (a little 
steam is used), 6 Oct. 1880. 

Victor Popp applies compressed air as a motive power to 
clocks, 188r. 

An air-telegraph, in which the waves of air in a tube are 
employed instead of electricity, invented by sig. Guat- 
tari, was exhibited in London in 1870. It obtained a 
gold medal in Naples. 

Isaac Wilkinson patented a method of compressing air 
by a column of water in 1757, and William Mann pa- 
tented stage pumping by compressed air in 1829. The 
force of compressed air was employed in boring the 
Cenis tunnel (see under Alps). 

Tram-cars driven by compressed air in N. London, for 
a time, June, 1883. 


AIR-GAS-LicHtT-CoMPANy: proposed to use 
hydro-carburetted air as a source of light; estab- 
lished 1872. 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Aachen), a Roman 
city, nowin Rhenish Prussia. Several ecclesiastical 
councils held here (799-1165). Here Charlemagne 
was born, 742, and died, 814; having built the mins- 
ter (796-804), and conferred many privileges on the 
city, in which fifty-five emperors have since been 
crowned. The city was taken by the French in 
Dec. 1792; retaken by the.Austrians, March, 1793 ; 
by the French, Sept. 1794: ceded to Prussia, 1814. 


First Treaty of Peace signed here was between France and 
Spain, when France yielded: Franche Comté, but re- 
tained her conquests in the Netherlands, 2 May, 1668. 

The second celebrated treaty between Great Britain, 
France, Holland, Germany, Spain, and Genoa. (By it 
the treaties of Westphalia in 1648, of Nimeguen in 1678 
and 1679, of Ryswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, of 
Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alliance in 1717, of the 
Quadruple Alliance in 1718, and of Vienna in 1738, 
were renewed and confirmed.) Signed on the part of 
Fngland by John, earl of Sandwich, and sir Thomas 
Robinson, 7 Oct. 1748. 

Congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia and Prussia, 
assisted by ministers from England and France, met 
at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a convention signed, 9 Oct. 
1818, which led to the withdrawal of the army of occu- 
pation from France, 


AIX ROADS, sce Rochefort. 


¢ Air, as well as its gaseous components, has been 
compressed into the liquid state by means of great 
pressure and intense cold, 1877-8, by Raoul Pictet of 
Geneva, and Cailletet of Paris, Dec. 1877, Jan. 1878. 


AJACCIO. 


| AJACCIO, see Corsica. 
AJNADIN or AIZNADIN (Syria). Here 


the Mahometans defeated the army of the emperor 
Heraclius, 13 July, 633. They took Damascus in 634. 


AKERMAN (Bessarabia). After being several 
times taken, it was ceded to Russia in 1812. Here 
the celebrated treaty between Russia and Turkey 
was concluded, 4 Sept. 1826, which secured for the 
former the navigation of the Black Sea, recognised 
the Danubian principalities, &c. 

AKHALZIKH (Armenia). Near here prince 
Paskiewitch and the Russians defeated the Turks, 
24 Aug., and gained the city, 28 Aug. 1828. 


ALABAMA, a Southern state, originally part 
of Georgia, N. America; made a state in 1819: 
commercial metropolis, Mobile. It seceded from 
the union by an ordinance passed 11 Jan. 1861, was 
reunited in 1865; and readmitted to congress, 1868. 


ALABAMA, a steam vessel of 900 tons, with 
engines of 300 horse power, constructed by Messrs. 
Laird at Birkenhead, for the confederate service ; 
launched 15 May, 1862. During the judicial en- 
quiries after her character, she sailed from the 
Mersey, 28 July, the day before the British govern- 
ment telegraphed to detain her. Under the command 
of capt. Semmes, she did great damage to the 
American mercantile shipping, until her destruc- 
tion by the federal iron clad Kearsage, capt. Winslow, 
off Cherbourg, 19 June, 1864. Several of his crew 
were saved by Mr. John Lancaster, in his yacht. Ad- 
miral Semmes died Sept. 1877. 


Discussion between the two governments, respecting . 
claims for damage by the Alabama é ° 
A fruitless convention for their settlement, by a 
commission signed at London 10 Nov. 
Another convention, signed by the earl of Clarendon 
and Mr. Reverdy Johnson, signed 14 Jan. ; rejec- 
ted by the United States senate . 13 April, 
Joint commission (British, earl de Grey, sir Stafford 
Northcote and others ; American, secretary Fisk, 
general Schenk, and others,) to settle fishery dis- 
putes, Alabama claims, &c. Announced, 9g Feb., 
met at Washington, 27 Feb., signed a treaty at 
Washington . : 5 , - 8 May, 
Commission for Anglo-American claims, met at 
Washington i : x : ; 25 Sept. ,, 
Formal meeting of the arbitration commission at 
Geneva ; (adjourns to 15 June) 18 Dec. ,, 
The British and American cases, presented 20 Dec. 
Great excitement in England at the introduction 
of enormous claims for indirect losses into the 
American case, loss by transfer of trade from 
American to British ships, increased rates of 
marine insurance, and losses incident to the pro- 
longation of the war. . 4 . ; Jan. 
Correspondence between the governments ; British 
despatch, 3 Feb.; reply, 1 March; continued; 
counter cases presented at Geneva 2 AG ADTs 
Continued correspondence, draft for a supplemen- 
tary treaty ; by which both nations agree in future 
to abstain from claims for indirect losses pre- 
sented to American senate ; approved 25 May, ,, 
The British government object to certain modifica- 
tions ; further correspondence ; great excitement 
in parliament; proposed adjournment of the 
meeting of the arbitration commission ; differences 
about the mode of procedure ; congress adjourns, 
leaving the affair unsettled . roJune, ,, 
The Arbitration tribunal, consisting of count Fred- 
eric Sclopis for Italy, president, baron Staempfl 
for Switzerland ; vicomte d’Itajuba for Brazil ; Mr. 
G. F. Adams for United States, and sir Alexander 
E. Cockburn for Great Britain, meet at Geneva; 
The British government presents a note of the ex- 
isting differences; the conference adjourns, 15 June, 
Further adjournment, 17 June; the arbitrators 
voluntarily declare that the indirect claims are 
invalid, and contrary to international law, 19 
June; president Grant consents to their with- 
drawal ‘ 4 A , 25 June, ,, 


1872 


>»? 


22 


1865 


ALBANIA. 


The British government withdraw their application 
for adjournment of the conference . 27 June, 
The Arbitration commission records its decision 
against the indirect claims, and the proposed long 
adjournment, and adjourns to1s5 July 28June, ,, 
Final meeting ; all the arbitrators agree to award 
damages for the injuries done by the Alabama ; 
four, for those done by the Florida ; and three for 
those done by the Shenandoah. The judgment 
not signed by sir A. Cockburn, whose reasons 
were published ; the damages awarded (including 
interest), about 3,229,166l. 13s. 4d. ; those claimed 
9,476,166l. 138. 4d. (Decision based on the ad- 
mission of a new ex-post facto international law, 
by Great Britain by the treaty of vf ay eet 
14 Sept. 4, | 
The judgment of sir A. Cockburn (a powerful and 
indignant reply to unjust aspersions, admitting 
the award for the Alabama; opposing the other 
awards; yet counselling submission to the judg- 
ment), signed 14 Sept. and published in London 
Gazette with other documents 20 Sept. ,,; 
It is stated, that about 1,250,000. too much were 
awarded . : 4 : : x Feb. 1873 
3,200,000l, were voted ; the receipt of 3,196,874l. 
acknowledged by Mr. Secretary Fish g Sept. ,, 
All awards made ; about 8,000,000 dollars surplus, 
2r Dec. 1876 
The surplus increasing by interest . ° . - 1881 


ALADJA DAGH, near Kars, Armenia. Here 
the Turks, under Ahmed Mukhtar, after severe con 
flicts, were totally defeated by the Russians under 
the grandduke Michael, and generals Loris Meli- 
koff, Lazareff, and Heimann, 14, 15 Oct. 1877. 

The Turkish army was divided and broken up, the strong 
camp taken, with many prisoners, including 7 pashas 
and 38 guns. The Russian strategy was highly com- 
mended. This overwhelming disaster, which led to 
the investment of Kars, was attributed to Mukhtar’s 
maintaining too extended lines which were turned (20 
miles with only 40,ooo men; when 200,000 were re- 
quired). 


ALAND ISLES (Gulf of Bothnia), taken from 


Sweden by Russia, 1809; see Bomarsund. 


ALANI, 2 Tartar race, invaded Parthia, 75. 
They joined the Huns in invading the Roman 
empire, and were defeated by Theodosius, 379-382. 
They were subdued by the Visigoths, 452, and 
eventually incorporated with them. 


ALARCOS (Central Spain). Here the Spaniards 
under Alfonso IX., king of Castile, were totally 
defeated by the Moors, 19 July, 1195. 


ALASKA, the name given to the Russian pos- 
sessions in North America, purchased by the United 
States by treaty, 13 March, 1867, for 7,200,000 
dollars, received I Aug. 1868. Sitka is the prin- 
cipal station. 


ALBA LONGA, an ancient city of Italy, said 
to have been founded by Ascanius, son of Aineas, 
152 B.c. Its history is mythical. i 


Ascanius, son of Aineas, 1152 B.c.; Sylvius Post- 
humus, 1143; Aineas Sylvius . : : B.C. III4 

Reign of Latinus, 1048 ; Alba, 1038; Atys, or Cape- . 
tus, 1002; Capys, 976; Capetus ‘ : ‘ 916 

Reign of Tiberinus, 903; being defeated in battle — 
near the river Albula, he throws himself into the ’ 
stream, is drowned, and hence this river is : 


called the Tiber’... ge 
Agrippa: Romulus Silvius, 864; Aventinus, 845; ; 
Procas, 808 ; Numitor , . A * - 795 
Amulius, the brother of Numitor, seizes the throne, 
794; killed by Romulus, who restores his grand- 
father Numitor 754 


Romulus builds and fortifies Rome (see Rome) 
Alba conquered by Tullus Hostilius, and incor- 
porated with Rome (see Horatii) . : . 


665 
ALBANIA, a province in std Turkey, 
formerly part of the ancient Epirus. The Albanians 


ALBANS, ST. 


became independent during the decline of the Greek 
empire. They were successfully attacked by the 
Turks in 1388: About 1443, under George Castriot 
(Seanderbeg), they baffled the efforts of Mahomet 
II. to subdue them till the siege of Scutari in 1478, 
when they submitted. Ali Pacha, of Janina, in 
1812, defeated the Turkish pachas, and governed 
Albania ably, but cruelly and despotically, till Feb. 
1822, when he and his two sons were slain, after 
surrendering under a solemn promise of safety. A 
revolt in Albania was suppressed in 1843. 
An Albanian league (favoured by the Turks) formed 
to resist the cession of any part of the country to 
Austria and Montenegro in April, said to have 
caused the death of Mehemet Ali . 7 Sept. 1878 
The country semi-independent . “ April, 1879 
Army formed rebel against Turkey . April, 1880 
The league forces defeated in an attack on Dervish Pasha 
in Uskub between Pristma and Prisend 19 April; he 
reported the country settled, but asked for reinforce- 
ments ; more fighting ; Albanians said to be defeated, 
and struggle almost over, 12 May, 1881. 
Revolt of chiefs, severe fights, 2, 3, June, 1883. Turks 
defeated with loss; reported dispersion of the chiefs 
about 8 June. Continued fighting 12 June et seq. 
The Turks successful in fight ; the Albanians submit, 
announced 21 June. Unsettled 25 June. Insurrection 
subsiding about 19 July. Albanians appeal to the 
Powers for annexation to Greece, about 3 Nov. 
General disorder and much brigandage reported, Aug. 
1884. See Dulcigno. 


ALBANS, ST. (Hertfordshire), near the Roman 
Verulam, derived its name from Alban the British 
protomartyr, said to have been beheaded during the 
persecution by Diocletian, 23 June, 286. A stately 
monastery to his memory was erected about 795, 
by Offa, king of Mercia, who granted it many 
privileges. Its superior sat as premier abbot in 
parliament till the dissolution in 1539. A meeting 
was held 22 June, 1871, to raise a fund for the 
restoration of the abbey, the earl of Verulam, chair- 
man. The results were favourable, and the work 
was confided to Mr. G. Gilbert Scott, who issued a 
report in June, 1872. Verulam was built on the site 
of the capital of Cassivelaunus, taken by Julius 
Cesar, 54 B. c. It was retaken after much slaughter 
by Boadicea or Bunduica, queenofthe Iceni, A.D. 61. 
First Batile of St. Albans, when the Lancastrians were 

defeated, their leader, Edmund duke of Somerset 

slain, and king Henry VI. taken prisoner, by the 

duke of York and his partisans, 22 or 23 May, 1455. 
Second battle, queen Margaret totally defeated the Yorkists 

under the earl of Warwick, and rescued the king, 

Shrove Tuesday, 17 Feb. 1461. 

St. Albans incorporated by Edward VI. 1553. 

Disfranchised for bribery, 17 June, 1852. 

St, Albans Raid, see United States, Oct. 1864. 

St, Albans Murder, see Trials, 1880. 

Act passed to make arrangements for erecting a bishopric 
of St. Albans, 29 June 1875. See constituted, 30 April ; 
made a city, 28 Aug. 1877. 

BISHOP. 
1877. Thomas Legh Claughton (trans. from Rochester). 


ALBAN’S, ST., CHURCH, Holborn, see 
under Church of England, 1867. 


ALBANY or ALBAINN, the ancient name 
of the Scottish Highlands. Robert Stewart, the 
brother of King Robert III., was created the first 
duke of Albany in 1398, and the title has ever since 
been connected with the crown of Scotland. The 
young pretender, prince Charles Edward, and his 
wife took the title of count and countess of Albany. 
See York. 


DUKES OF ALBANY. 
1398. Robert; regent ; 1406; died 3 Sept. 1420. 
1420. Murdoch, son; regent ; executed for treason by 
| king James L., 1424. 
r452. Alexander, brother of king James II.; acted 


23 


ALBERT MEMORIALS. 


treasonably; exiled; killed accidentally at 
Paris, 1485. 

I514. J So a regent ; went abroad ; died at Paris, 

1526. 
See York and Albany, dukes. 

Prince Leopold, fourth son of queen Victoria, was 
created duke of Albany 24 May, 1881; died 
8 March, 1884. 

1884. Leopold Charles, son, born 19 July. 

See under England. 


ALBERT MEMORIALS. (See England, 
Queen.) The Prince Consort died on 14 Dee. 1861, 
deeply lamented by the whole civilised world. His 
remains were transferred to the mausoleum of 
Frogmore, 18 Dec. 1862. The sarcophagus is com- 
posed of the largest known block of granite without 
flaw. A meeting to organise a method of receiving 
contributions for a great national memorial was 
held at the Mansion-house, 14 Jan. 1862; and a 
large sum was quickly subscribed. 36,000/. had 
been received on 1 March; 50,2207. on 11 June, 
1862; and parliament voted 50,000/., in addition 
to the 60,000/. received by voluntary contributions, 
23 April, 1863. 
The nature of the memorial was referred to the queen 

herself. Ina letter to the lord mayor, dated 19 Feb. 
1862, sir Charles Grey says, on behalf of her majesty, ‘‘ It 
would be more in accordance with her own feelings, 
and she believes with those of the country in general, 
that the monument should be directly personal to its 
object. After giving the subject her maturest considera- 
tion, her majesty has come to the conclusion, that 
nothing would be more appropriate, provided itis ona 
scale of sufficient grandeur, than an obelisk to be erected 
in Hyde-park on the site of the Great Exhibition of 
1851, Or on some spot immediately contiguous to it. 
Nor would any proposal that could be made be more 
gratifying to the queen herself personally, for she can 
never forget that the prince himself had highly ap- 
proved of the idea of amemorial of this character being 
raised on the same spot in remembrance of the Great 
Exhibition.” Ina second letter the queen expressed 
her intention of personally contributing towards erect- 
ing the memorial, that ‘‘ it might be recorded in future 
ages as raised by the queen and people of a grateful 
country to the memory of its benefactor.” Shortly 
after a committee was appointed to fulfil her majesty’s 
desire. Asa suitable block of granite could not be 
obtained, the proposal for an obelisk was given up. 

The queen approved of the design of Mr. Gilbert G. Scott 
for an Eleanor Cross, with a spire rso feet high, ac- 
companied by statues, &c., 22 April, 1863 ; work begun, 
13 May, 1864. 

The sculptors employed were M‘Dowell, Foley, Theed, 
John Bell, and Armistead ; material, Sicilian marble. 
(Jan. 1865.) 

The memorial, complete, except the statue, by Foley 
(delayed through illness), was given up to her majesty 
privately, 1 July, 1872. The gilt statue by Foley un- 
covered 9 March, 1876. 

Doyne C. Bell’s Descriptive and Illustrated Account of 
this Monument, published by Mr. John Murray, 1873. 

Inscription on the ‘* Memorial Cairn” on a high mountain 
overlooking Balmoral Palace:—‘‘To the beloved 
memory of ALBERT the great and good Prince Consort, 
erected by his broken-hearted widow, VicToRIA R., 21 
Aug. 1862.” Upon another dressed slab, a few inches 
below the above, is this quotation :—‘‘ He being made 
perfect in a short time, fulfilled a long time: for his 
soul pleased the Lord, therefore hasted he to take him 
away from among the wicked.”—Wisdom of Solomon, 
chap. iv. 13, 14. 

A statue of the prince-consort (by Theed) inaugurated at 
Rosenau, his birth-place, in the presence of the queen: 
and the royal family, rg Aug. 1865. 

‘‘ Rarly years of the Prince Consort ;” edited by the Hon. 
Chas. Grey ; published 6 July, 1867. 

Another statue by Theed at Balmoral, inaugurated 15 
Oct. 1867. 

The Statue at the Holborn Circus, uncovered by the 
Prince of Wales, 9 Jan. 1874. 

The Albert Memorial Chapel at Windsor, opened to the 
public, 1 Dec. 1875. 

Life, by Theodore Martin ; 5 vols. published, 1875-80. 


1881. 


ALBIGENSES. 


24 


The Scottish National Memorial to the Prince, Edin- 
burgh, inaugurated by the Queen, 17 Aug. 1876. 

Statue at Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, uncovered 
by the Prince of Wales, 22 Jan. 1878. 

Many other memorials of the prince have been set up 
throughout the empire. 

RoyvaLt ALBERT Hatt or ARTS AND Scrences; The 
erection of a great building for congresses, concerts, 
&e., was proposed by the prince-consort at the close 
of the exhibition of 1851, and an estate at Kensington 
was purchased ; a committee, with the prince of Wales 
at the head, to erect the building, was appointed 6 
July, 1865; circulars soliciting subscriptions were 
issued April, 1866 ; and the first stone was laid by the 
queen, 20 May, 1867. 

The building was erected by col. Scott, chiefly after de- 
signs by capt. Fowke, and cost about 200,000l. The 
organ, by Willis, is said to be the largest in the world. 
An experimental concert was given to the workmen 


25 Feb., and the hall was opened by the queen 2g | 


March, 1871, when a grand concert was given. 

ALBERT BriIpDGE, Chelsea, opened 23 Ang. 1873; freed 
from toll 24 May 1879. 

ALBERT EMBANKMENT, Wc., see Thames, 1869 ; Docks. 

ALBERT INSTITUTE, Windsor, opened by the prince of 
Wales, ro Jan. 1880. 

ALBERT MEDALS, to be awarded to persons who endanger 
their lives by saving others from shipwreck, appointed 
by royal warrant, 3 March, 1866. The’ first was given 
to Samuel Popplestone on 14 May, 1866, for saving life 
on 23 March previous ; medals awarded to Pontypridd 
miners and others for saving men imprisoned in a 
mine through inundation (see Coal: Accidents,) April, 
1877. 

Ateunr MEDAL (Gold), awarded by the Society of Arts to 
sir Rowland Hill, 1864; Napoleon III. 1865; Michael 
Faraday, 1866; Charles Wheatstone and William 
Fothergill Cooke, 1867; Joseph Whitworth, 1868 ; 
Justus Liebig, 1869; Ferdinand de Lesseps, 1870; 
Henry Cole, C.B., 1871 ; Henry Bessemer, 1872; Michel 
Eugene Chevreul, 1873; C. William Siemens, 1874; 
Michel Chevallier, 1875; sir G. B. Airy, 1876; Jean 
Baptiste Dumas, 1877; sir Wm. G. Armstrong, 1878 ; 
sir William Thomson, 1879; James Prescott Joule, 1880}; 
Aug. Wm. Hofmann, 1881 ; Louis Pasteur, 1882; sir 
Joseph D. Hooker, 1883; capt. James Buchanan 
Eads, 1884. 

ALBERT EXHIBITION PALACE, BATTERSEA, to be opened 
early in May, 188s. 

Royal Albert Orphan Asylum, Bagshot ; founded 1864. 


ALBIGENSES, a name given to various per- 
sons who opposed the doctrines and corruptions of 
the church of Rome, living at Albi, in Languedoc, 
and at Toulouse in the 12th century. They were 
persecuted asalleged Manichzeans, 1163, andacrusade 
(proclaimed by pope Innocent III.) against them 
commenced in 1207. Simon de Montfort commanded 
Esslies men and at Beziers, 1209, he and the pope’s 
egate put friends and foes to the sword, saying, 
“*God will find his own!’ * At Minerba he burnt 
150 of the Albigenses alive; and at La Vaur he 
hanged the governor, and beheaded the chief people, 
drowning the governor’s wife, and murdering other 
women. He defeated Raymond, count of Toulouse, 
but was himself killed in 1218. Louis VIII. and 
IX., kings of France, patronised the crusade; 
count Raymond was subdued, and abdicated in 1229; 
and the heretics were given up to the Inquisition. 
They had little in common with the Waldenses, 
which see. 

ALBION. Britain is so called by Aristotle 
(died 322 B. c.). Julius Cesar and others, are said 
to have given it the name (from albus, white) on 
account of its chalky ciiffs. 


ALBUERA or ALBUHERA, Estremadura, 
Spain. Here a battle was fought between the 
French, commanded by marshal Soult, and the 


ALCOHOL. 


allies obtained a brilliant victory. _The French loss 


exceeded 8000 men previously to their retreat ; but 
the allies lost a large number. The chief brunt 
of the action fell on the British; colonel Inglis, 
22 officers, and more than 400 men, out of 570 who 
had mounted a hill, fell,—out of the 57th regiment 
alone; the other regiments were scarcely better off, 
not one-third being left standing; ‘1500 un- 
wounded men, the remnant of 6000 unconquerable. 
British soldiers, stood triumphant on this fatal 
hill.” Napier. 

ALBUFERA (Spain, East Central), a lagoon, 
near which the French marshal Suchet (afterwards 
duke of Albufera) defeated the Spaniards under 
Blake, 4 Jan. 1812: this led to his capture of — 
Valencia on 9 Jan. 


ALCALA DE HENARES, Spain, near the 
Roman Complutum. At the university here was 
printed the Complutensian Polyglott bible, at the 
expense of cardinal Ximenes, 1502-15. 


ALCANTARA, a town on the Tagus, W. Spain. 
A fine bridge was built here by Trajan about 104. 
The duke of Alva acquired Portugal for Spain by 
defeating the Portuguese army here, 24 June, 1580. 
The Spanish military order of knighthood of Alcan- 
tara was established in 1156. ‘The sovereign of 
Spain has been grand master since 1495. 


ALCAZAR-QUIVER, near Fez, N. W. 
Africa, where the Moors totally defeated the Portu- 
guese, whose gallant king Sebastian was slain, 4 
Aug. 1578. The Portuguese disbelieved his death 
and long expected his return ; this led to the ap- 
pearance of five impostors. 


ALCHEMY, the forerunner of chemistry ; its 
chief objects being the discovery of the philosopher’s 
stone (which was to effect the transmutation of 
metals into gold), an alkahest or universal men- 
struum, and the elixir of life.+ The alchemists 
assert that their founder was Hermes Trismegistus 
(thrice greatest), an ancient Egyptian king.— Plin 
says, the emperor Caligula was the first who pre- 
pared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, 
but left it off, because the charge exceeded the 
profit. 


ol 


Zosimus wrote on the subject about 4r1o. 

The Arabians cultivated alchemy and were followed (in 
the 13th century) by Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, - 
Aquinas, Raymond Lullius, Basil Valentine (born 1394), 
Paracelsus (died 1541), and others. 

In 1404 the craft of multiplying gold and silver was made 
felony by 5 Hen. IV. c. 4, which act was repealed in 1689. 

A licence for practising alchemy with all kinds of metals 
and minerals was granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. 
Rymer’s Fodera. ] 

Dr. Price, of Guildford, in 1782 published an account of 
his experiments and brought specimens of gold to 
the king, affirming that they were made by means of a — 
red and white powder. Being a fellow of the Royal — 
Society, he was required, under pain of expulsion, to — 
repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and — 
Wolfe (some say Higgins); but after much equivoca- 
tion and delay he took poison and died, Aug. 1783. 


ALCOHOL. Pure spirit of wine or hydrated 
alcohol is said to have been obtained by the dis- 
tillation of fermented liquors by Abucasis in the 
12th century; and the dehydration of this liquor — 
to have been partially effected by Raymond Lul- — 
lius in the 13th century by carbonate of potassium. — 
Alcohol has never been reduced to the solid state, 


“ 


+ M. Martin Ziegler patented a method of producing a 
‘‘vital fluid” by combining nitrogen and carbon in a 
porous cell containing ammonia, immersed in a vessel 
filled with molasses. The current was to flow through 
silk threads attached to the vessel; about 1868. 


British and Anglo-Spanish army, under marshal, 
afterwards lord Beresford, 16 May, 1811. The 


* Now contradicted. 


F 
. 


ALCOLEA. 


25 


ALEPPO. 


but becomes viscid at very low temperatures. In 
1820, Faraday and Heanell obtained traces of alco- 
hol by passing olefiant gas (bi-carburetted hydro- 
gen) through sulphuric acid; and in 1862 this 
process was examined and confirmed by Berthelot ; 
see Distillation, Spirits, Brandy, Gin, Rum. About 
250 medical men, including the president of the 
Royal College of Physicians, and many hospital 
officials, issued a cautionary declaration concerning 


the use of alcohol in medicine, Dec. 1871. See 
Temperance, 
ALCOLEA (Andalusia, 8. Spain). Near the 


bridge a sharp engagement took place between the 
royalists under general Pavia y Lacy, marquis de 
Novaliches, and the insurgents under marshal Ser- 
rano, 27 Sept. 1868. The former was defeated, and, 
being severely wounded, surrendered 28 Sept. About 
600 were killed on both sides. 


AL-CORAN orn AL-KoRAN, see Koran, Ma- 


hometanism, &c. 


ALDERMAN. The Saxon ealdorman was 
next to the king and frequently a viceroy; but 
after the settlement of the Danes the title was 
gradually displaced by that of ear. Aldermen in 
corporations are next in dignity to the mayor. 
They were appointed in London (where there are 
twenty-six) in 1242; and in Dublin (where there 
are twenty-four) in 1323. Aldermen chosen for life, 
instead of annually, 17 Rich. II. 1394. Present 
mode of election established, 11 Geo. I. 1725. Alder- 
men made justices of the peace, 15 Geo. Il. 1741. 
London aldermen are elected by the wards. In 1877 the 

court of aldermen exercised their ancient right of veto 

against Sir John Bennett (thrice chosen alderman for 
the ward of Cheap), and chose Mr. Edgar Breffitt, 

23 Oct. 1877. 


ALDERNEY (English Channel), with Jersey, 
&e., was acquired by William the Conqueror, 1066. 
The ‘‘ Race’’ is celebrated for two fatal occur- 
rences; William of Normandy, son of Henry I. of 
England, and many young nobles (140 youths of 
the principal families of France and Britain), were 
overtaken by a storm, and all lost, 25 Nov. 1120. 
Phe British man-of-war Victory, of 100 guns and 
[160 men, was wrecked here, 5 Oct. 1744; the 
admiral, sir John Balchen, and all his crew perished. 
Through this strait the French escaped after their 
lefeat at La Hogue by admirals Russell and Rooke, 
[9 May, 1692. ‘The construction of a breakwater, 
n order to make Alderney a naval station, was 
begun in 1852, and after having cost 1,337,100/., 
was suspended by parliament in 1871. In 1874 the 
harbour and lands weretransferred from the control 
of the board of trade to that of the admiralty and 
the war department. 


ALDERSHOT CAMP, ona moor near Farn- 
1am, about 35 miles from London. In April, 1854, 
the War office, having obtained a grant of 100,000/., 
yurchased 4000 acres of land for a permanent camp 
‘or 20,C00 men. 


\dditional land purchased in 1856. 

3arracks since erected for 4000 infantry, 1500 cavalry, 
and several batteries of artillery. Great improvements 
in military cookery introduced (see Cookery) under the 
superintendence of captain John Grant, 1857. 

Tisited by the queen, 18, r9 April, 1856. 

‘he troops returned from the Crimea, reviewed by her, 

7, 16 July, 1856. 

ibout 15,000 men were stationed here, 1859. 

tost of the camp, said to be 1,291,5311. up to Feb. 1860. 

.n industrial and fine-art exhibition, furnished by officers 
and men and their wives, opened, 29 June; closed 14 
July, 1864. 

‘amp set up for 40,000 men to execute military manceu- 


vres, Aug. Sept. 1871. Many horses broke away 
through a fright, 30 Aug. 1871. 
Review of 14,000, &c. by the queen, 5 July, 1872. 
Summer Manceuvres here, 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877. 
Review by the queen, 13 May, 1878. 


ALDINE PRESS, that of Aldo Manuzio 
(Aldus Manutius), at Venice, where were printed 
many of the first editions of the Greek, Latin, and 
Italian classics, commencing in 1494 with Museus. 


ALE, BEER, and Wine are said to have been 
invented by Bacchus. Ale was known as a beve- 
rage at least in 404 B.c. Herodotus ascribes the 
first discovery of the art of brewing barley-wine to 
Isis, the wife of Osiris, and a beverage of this kind 
is mentioned by Xenophon, 4or n.c. The Romans 
and Germans very early learned from the Egyptians 
the process of preparing a liquor from corn by means 
of fermentation. Tacitus. Ale-houses are men- 
tioned in the laws of Ina, king of Wessex. Booths 
were setup in England, 728, when laws were passed 
for their regulation. None but freemen were allowed 
to keep ale-houses in London, 13 Edw. I. 1285. 
They were further subjected to regulation by 5 & 6 
Edw. VI. c. 25 (1551). By 1 James I. ¢. 9 (1603), 
one full quart of the best, and two quarts of small 
ale were to be sold for one penny. Excise duty on ale 
and beer was imposed by the parliament in 1643, and 
continued by Charles II. (1660); repealed, 1 Will. 
IV. c. 51 (1830); see Porter, Wine, Victuallers. 
Michael Thomas Bass, the eminent brewer of 
Burton, died 28 April, 1884, aged 84. 


ALEMANNI, or Att MEN (?.e. men of all 
nations), hence Allemand, German. A body of 
Suevi, who took this name, were defeated by Cara- 
calla, 214. After several repulses, they invaded the 
empire under Aurelian, who subdued them in three 
battles, 271. They were again vanquished by Julian, 
356, 357; by Jovinus, 368. They were defeated and 
subjugated by Clovis at Tolbiac (or Zulpich), 496. 
The Suabians are their descendants. 


ALENCON (N. France) gave title to a count 
and duke. ” 
1268-82. Peter, made Count by his father king Louis IX. 


1293. Charles I. of Valois, made Count by his brother 
king Philip the Fair. 

1325. Charles II. his son, killed at Crecy. 

1346. Charles III. (his son), became a priest. 

1361. Peter, his brother. 

1404. John (his son), made DuKE in rar4, killed at 
Agincourt, 1415. 

1415. John II. (his son), prisoner in England, 1424-9; 
intrigued against the French king; died in 
prison, 1470. 

1476. Charles IV. fled after the battle of Pavia in 1525, 


and died shortly after of chagrin. The duchy 


was annexed by the crown. 


ALEPPO, North Syria, a large town named 
Bercea by Seleucus Nicator, about 299 B.c. The 
pachalic of Aleppo is one of the five governments of 
Syria. It was taken by the Saracens, A.D. 638, who 
restored its ancient name Haleb or Chaleb; by Sala- 
din, 1193; and sacked by Timour, Noy. 1400. Itsde- 
population by the plague has been frequent ; 60,000 
persons were computed to have perished by it in 
1797; many in 1827. The cholera raged here in 
1832. Aleppo suffered severely from the terrible 
earthquakes in 1822 and 1830; and has often been 
the scene of fanatical massacres. On 16 Oct. 1850, 
the Mahometans attacked the Christians, burning 
everything. Three churches were destroyed, five 
others plundered, and thousands of persons slain. 
The total loss of property amounted to about a mil- 
lion sterling; no interference was attempted by the 
pacha. 


/ 


ALESSANDRIA. 


26 


, 


ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS. — 


ALESSANDRIA, a city of Piedmont, built in 
1168 under the name of Czsar by the Milanese and 
Cremonese, to defend the Tanaro against the em- 

eror, and afterwards named after pope Alexander 

II. It has been frequently besieged and taken. 
The French took it in 1796, but were driven out by 
Suwarrow, 21 July, 1799. They recovered it after 
the battle of Marengo, 14 June, 1800, and held it 
till 1814, when the strong fortifications erected by 
Napoleon were destroyed. These have been restored 
since June, 1856. 


ALEUTIAN ISLES, in the North Pacitic 
cean, discovered by Behring, 1741, visited by 
Cook, 1778, and settled by Russians, 1785. 


ALEXANDER, Era of, dated from the 
death of Alexander the Great, 12 Nov. 323 B.c. In 
the computation of this era, the period of the Crea- 
tion was considered to be 5502 years before the 
birth of Christ, and, in consequence, the year I A.D. 
was equal to 5503. This computation continued to 
the year A.D. 284, which was called 5786. In the 
next year (A.D. 285), which should have been 5787, 
ten years were discarded, and the date became 5777. 
This is still used in the Abyssinian era (which see). 
The date is reduced to the Christian era by sub- 
tracting 5502 until the year 5786, and after that 
time by subtracting 5492. 


“ALEXANDRA CASH,” see Trials, 
1862-64. 


ALEXANDRA PARK, Muswell Hill, Lon- 
don, N. purchased by a company, and named after 
the princess of Wales, was opened with a flower 
show, 23 July, 1863. A portion of the Exhibition 
building of 1862 was erected here. The work 
proceeded rapidly in 1864, was suspended in 1865, 
recommenced in 1866, and completed in 1873. 


Horse-races first held here . 30June, 1 July, 1868 
The prospectus of a scheme to organise an institu- 
tion resembling the South Kensington Museum 
and the Crystal Palace, by means of a tontine (to 
cease 30 June, 1886), was issued 22 July 
The affairs were to be managed by ‘‘The Alexandra 
Palace and Muswell hill Estate Management Com- 
pany (limited).” Public lectures on the subject, 
Aug. 1871; the company’s affairs were wound up 
Feb. 
The purchase of the land and buildings for the 
public proposed by the lord mayor and others July 1872 
The palace was opened with a grand concert, &c. 
24 May; destroyed by fire : A - g June, 1873 
Two women, incautiously viewing the ruins, buried, 
25 June; bodies found ; 3 - 21 Aug. 
The new building (386 by 184 feet) ; opened 1 May, 
94,125 persons said to have entered the park, Whit- 
Monday. ‘ 17 May, ,, 
Balfe memorial festival . : - - 29 duly, 1876 
Petition for winding-up 24 Oct. 1876; carried out 
Jan. 1877 
The palace re-opened (annual subscription, ros. 6d.), 
1o May, 1877 
Arrival of Nubian hunters, with elephants, rhino- 
ceroses, camels, dromedaries, buffaloes, zebras, 
ostriches, &c. (imported by Carl Hagenbeck), 
7 Sept.—13 Oct. 1877 
Opened by new proprietors (Mr. Willing and others) 
with new attractions , ‘ ; 17 May, 1880 
107,852 visitors (bank holiday) -. - 2 Aug. 1880 


1871 


1872 


1873 
1875 


Taken by Jones and Barber . . Noy. 1880 
Put up for sale: unsold . ° ° - «1 Feb. 1881 
Varied entertainments 1881-2 


Act for relieving the London Financial Association 
from charge of the Palace (withdrawn March et 
seq.) 5 ‘ : 3 1883, again 

Proposals for purchasing the land for recreation 

June 

Put up for sale; no bidders . A - 20d uly, 

London Financial Association v. Sir John Kelk, 
Lueas & Co. (contractors), and others (directors, 


1884 
1883 


” 


| (390), and to vardinal Ximenes (1500). 


&c.,) 400,0001. claimed as misappropriated; about 

25 days’ trial ; Vice-Chancellor Bacon dismisses 

case with costs . 2 . ° E 8 Mar, 1884 
The Palace let to Mr. George Collins Leyy, for 

International Exhibition announced . 25 July, 1884 
Exhibition in March, 1885, proposed . - Nov. 1884 


ALEXANDRIA (Egypt), the walls whereof 
were six miles in circuit, was founded by Alexander 
the Great, 332 B.c. who was buried here, 322. It 
became the residence of the Greek sovereigns of ’ 
Egypt, the Ptolemies, 323; seventeen councils were 
held here, A.D. 231-633. Population, with its 
suburbs, in 1883, 208,775. 


Ptolemy Soter erects the Museum, the Serapeum, 
the Pharos, and other edifices, and begins the 


library about m * 3 ; ; . BC. 298 
These works completed by his son P. Philadelphus 
and his grandson P. Euergetes . 283-222 


Alexandria taken by Julius Cesar ; when a library 
is burnt . K é i . 3 ; : Pees) 
Which Antony replaces by one brought from Per- 


gamus < : - 2 : aan 2 
The city restored by Adrian . : 5 < ASD. ouioe 
Massacre of the youth by Caracalla, in revenge for 

an insult. i P , A " i . 215° 
Alexandria supporting the usurper Achilleus is 

taken by Diocletian after along siege . = eeOan 
Alexandria disturbed by the feuds between the 

Athanasians and Arians : 2 5 . . ~ 320 
George of Cappadocia was killed, 362, and Athan- 

asius finally restored 4 : A ° - s gOn 
50,000 persons perish by an earthquake . 4 .. 368 
Paganism suppressed by Theodosius, when asecond =—s_—™ 

library is burnt . i : F x + 0 308 
Alexandria captured by Chosroes II. of Persia - 6x6 
And by Amrou, the general of the caliph Omar,* who 

ordered the library to be burnt, whereby the baths d 

were supplied with fuel for six months 22 Dec. 640 
Recovered by the Greeks ; retaken by Amrou. - 644° 
Cairo founded by the Saracens ; which tends to the 

decay of Alexandria. : ; ° ° - 969 
Alexandria plundered by the Crusaders . oS TOR 
The French capture Alexandria : - July, 1798 
Battle of Alexandria or Canopus: the British under 

gen. sir Ralph Abercromby defeat the French ) 

under Menou ; i A 21 March, 1801 
Abercromby dies of his wounds, 28 March; Menou ‘ 

and 1xo,coo French surrender it to Hutchinson ; 

2 Sept. 180z 
Alexandria taken by the British under Fraser, ' 

20 March; evacuated by them 23 Sept. 1807 
By the convention of Alexandria, Egypt was guaran- 

teed to Mehemet Ali and his successors (and 

greatly favoured by them) . é : a - 1847 
Railway to Cairoformed . - : se - + 165mm 
New port, first stone laid by the khedive 15 May, 1871 
Fierce riots against Europeans (see Egypt) 11 June, 1882 
Panic and great emigration of Europeans . June, 1882 
Bombardment of the forts, conflagration and aban- . 

donment of the city (see Hgypt) 11-13 July, 1882 


ALEXANDRIAN CODEX, a MS. of the 
Septuagint translation of the Bible in Greek, said 
to have been transcribed by a lady named Thecla, 
in the 6th century, and to have belonged to the 
patriarch of Alexandria in 1098. It was presented 
to Charles I. of England in 1628 by Cyrillus Leucaris, 
patriarch of Constantinople, and was placed in the 
British Museum in 1753. It was printed in fac- 
simile, 1786-1821. i’ 


ALEXANDRIAN ERA, see Mundane. 
ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY, see under 


Alexandria. 


ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS or Pumo- 
sopHy. The first school arose soon after the 
foundation of Alexandria, 332 B.c. It flourished 


* The saying of Omar—*‘ That if the books agreed with 
the book of God, they were useless; if they disagreed, 
they were pernicious”—is denied by Mahometans. It is 
also attributed to Theophilus, archbishop of Alexandri 


ALEXANDRINES. 


under the patronage of the Ptolemies till about 100 
B.c. It included Euclid (300), Archimedes (287- 
212), Apollonius (250), Hipparchus (150), and Hero 
(150). Thesecond school arose about a.D. 140, and 
lasted till about goo. Its most eminent members 
were Ptolemy, the author of the Ptolemaic system 
(150), Diophantus the arithmetician (200), and 
Pappus the geometer (350). 


ALEXANDRINKHS, verses of twelve sylla- 
bles, first written by Alexander of Paris, about 1164, 
and since called after him. The last line of the 
Spenserian stanza is an Alexandrine. In Pope’s 
Hissay on Criticism, this verse is thus happily ex- 
emplified :— 

** A needless Alexandrine ends the song, 


That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length 
along.” 


The longest English poem wholly in Alexandrine 
verse is Drayton’s Polyolbion, published 1612-22. 


ALEXINATZ, a town in Servia. Severe fight- 
ing took place here between the Turks and Servians, 
Aug.-Sept. 1876. The town, head-quarters of the 
Servians, was captured 31 Oct. This led to an 
armistice and peace. See Turkey. 


ALFORD (N. Scotland), BATTLE OF. General 
Baillie, with a large body of covenanters, was de- 
feated by the marquis of Montrose, 2 July, 1645. 


ALGEBRA: Diophantus, said to be the in- 
ventor, wrote upon it probably between the 3rd and 
th centuries. It was cultivated in the 9th century 
y the Arabs, who brought it into Spain; and in 
Italy by Leonardo Bonaccio of Pisa, in 1220. In 
1494 Luca Paciolo published the first printed book 
on Algebra in Europe. Servet. Some of the alge- 
braic signs were introduced either by Christophe 
Rudolph (1522-26) or Michael Stifelins of Nurem- 
berg, 1544, and others by Francis Vieta, in 1590, 
whenalgebra came into general use. Morert. Jerome 
Cardan published his ‘‘ Ars Magna,”’ containing his 
rule, 1545. Thos. Harriot’s important discoveries 
appeared in his ‘‘ Artis Analytic Praxis,’’ 1631. 
Descartes applied algebra to geometry about 1637. 
The taste theorem of Newton, the basis of the 
doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. 
Dean Peacock’s ‘‘ Algebra”’ is a first-class work. 


ALGERIA, see Algiers. 


ALGESIRAS,orOLp GIBRALTAR (S. Spain). 
Here the Moors entered Spain in 711, and held it 
till taken by Alfonso XI. March, 1344.—Two en- 
gagements took place here between the English fleet 
under sir James Saumarez and the United French 
and Spanish fleets, 6 and 12 July, 1801. In the first 
the enemy was victorious; but the British honour 
was redeemed in the latter conflict, the San Antonio, 
74 guns, being captured. Two Spanish ships fired 
on each other by mistake, and took fire; of 2000 
ee on board, 250 were saved by the English. 

ison. 


ALGIERS, now ArgERIA, N.W. Africa; part 
of the ancient Mauritania, which was conquered by 
the Romans, 46 B.c.; by the Vandals, a.p. 439; 
recovered for the empire by Belisarius, 534; and 
subdued by the Arabs about 690. Population of 

Algeria in 1866, 2,921,146; 1872, 2,146,225; 1875, 
2,448,091. 
The town Algiers founded by the Arabs near the 
site of Icosium . 4 : : ; - about 
Becoming the seat of the Barbary pirates captured 
by Ferdinand of Spain, 1509; retaken by Horuc 
and Haydreddin Barbarossa, and made the capi- 
tal of a state ; governed by a dey, nominally sub- 
ject to Turkey . : : : : : + 1516-20 


935 


27 


ALGIERS. 


The emperor Charles V. loses a fine fleet and army 
in an expedition against Algiers. 4 Be 
Algiers terrified into pacific measures by Blake, 
1655; by Du Quesne . 3 é : ; 1683-4 
For continued piracy, the city successfully bom- 
barded by the British fleet, under lord Exmouth 
27 Aug. 1816 
A new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was 
abolished - . é : : : : ees 
Algiers surrendered to a French armament under 
Bourmont and Duperré, after severe conflicts ; 
the dey deposed, and the barbarian government 
wholly overthrown A : 9 . - 5duly, 1830 
The Arab chief Abd-el-Kader preaches a holy war, 
becomes powerful, and attacks the French, at first 
successfully ‘ : ; 4 : sete 
He is recognised as emir of Mascara, by treaty with 
the French és 4 : ‘ i : : 
The French ministry announce their intention to 
retain Algiers permanently 20 May, 1834 
War renewed . : : 2 : - 1835-6 
The French take Mascara : A a 5 Dec. 1835 
Marshal Clausel defeats the Arabs in two battles, 
and enters Mascara . : : ; -. 8 Dec. 1836 
Gen. Damremont killed in taking Constantina 
13 Oct. 1837 
Abd-el-Kader, thoroughly defeated, recognises the 
French supremacy . A A ‘ « ‘30. May; 55 
War renewed ; French defeated . : .'» Dec. 1839 
Algeria annexed to France, and the emir declared a 
rebel . i : 4 : : ° Feb. 
He is defeated by Bugeaud at Isly . -\) 24 Aug; 
500 Arabs ina cave at Khartani refuse to surren- 
der; suffocated by smoke; said to have been 


1833 
1834 


1842 
1844 


ordered by general Pelissier . ‘ . 18 June, 1845 
After a long struggle Abd-el-Kader surrenders to 
Lamoriciére . “ : 23 Dec. 1847* 


Fresh revolts, 1849 ; subdued , f : : 
An insurrection of the Kabyles subdued by the 
French, after several sharp engagements 
Another insurrection suppressed . : ; aes 
The government entrusted (for a short time) to 
prince Napoleon. i : : 7 eso 
The Arab tribes attack the French ; defeated, 
31 Oct. and 6 Nov. 1859 
Algiers visited by Napoleon III. : . Sept. 1860 
Marshal Pelissier, duke of Malakhoff, appointed 
governor-general of Algeria Theta che ‘ Nov. ",, 
The emperor promises a constitution securing the 
rights of the Arabs, saying: ‘‘I am as much 
emperor of the Arabs as of the French.” Feb. 1863 
Insurrection of the Arabs, May ; submission, June, 1864 
Death of marshal Pelissier, 22 May ; M‘Mahon, duke 
of Magenta, succeeds him ; ‘ . 8Sept. ,, 
Fresh revolts ; insurgents defeated by Jolivet 2 Oct. ,, 
The emperor well received during his visit, 
3 May—June, 1865 
More rights and privileges promised to the natives, 
July, 5, 
The emperor publishes his letter on the policy of 
France in Algeria (20 July) A ONOV a Ss 
4ocoo Arabs defeated by col. Sounis 2 Feb. 1869 
Algeria proclaimed in a state of siege 15 Aug. 1870 
State of siege raised ; s 2 - 24 June, 1871 
Gen. Chanzy accused of governing despotically ; his 
resignation not accepted by Marshal M‘Mahon, 
July ; replaced by Albert Grévy . s - . 1878 
An insurrection soon quelled ~ June, 1879 
Dispute with Tunis ; outrages of the savage tribes, 
Kroumirs, &c. (see Tunis) - April, 188z 
Arab insurrection, headed by Bou Ameema, June ; 
he is said to be defeated, and a fugitive 13 July, ,, 


1850 


1851 


* He, with his suite, embarked at Oran, and landed at 
Toulon on 28 Dec. following. He was removed to the 
castle of Amboise, near Tours, 2 Nov. 1848, and released 
from his confinement by Louis Napoleon, 16 Oct. 1852, 
after swearing on the Koran never to disturb, Africa 
again ; he was to reside henceforward at Broussa, in Asia 
Minor; but in consequence of the earthquake at that 
place, 28 Feb. 1855, he removed to Constantinople. In 
July, 1860, Abd-el-Kader held the citadel of Damascus, 
and there protected many of the Christians whom he 
had rescued from the massacres then in perpetration by 
the Turks. He receiyed honours from the English, 
French, and Sardinian sovereigns. He visited Paris and 
London in Aug. 1865. He offered to serve in the French 
army in July, 1870. He died May, 1883, aged 76. 


ALHAMA. 


Insurrection dreaded; troops sent from France 

about 26 Aug. 

Bou-Ameema defeated by the French, 13th July ; 

said to be preparing for a fresh revolt; three 

French columns advancing against him, Aug. ; 

indecisive skirmishes : x i eAUCS 
Resignation of the governor, A. Grévy, announced 

6 Nov. ,, 

M. Tirman appointed : : 5 ph MBean 

Topographical expedition attacked, 40 said to be 

killed Fi : ; , 5 April, 

The province Mzab annexed to Algeria, announced 
DGC. 455 

Submission of insurgents announced 13 June, 1883 


ALHAMA, a town of Granada, S. Spain, de- 
stroyed by an earthquake, 25 Dec. 1884; 5 churches, 
5 convents, and other buildings thrown down; re- 
ported deaths above 300. 


ALHAMBRA, a Moorish palace and fortress 
near Granada, S. Spain, founded by Mohammed I. 
of Granada about 1253. It was surrendered to the 
Christians about Nov. 1491. The remains have been 
described in a magnificent work by Owen Jones and 
Jules Goury, published 1842-5. A fac-simile of a 
part of this palace in the Crystal Palace at Syden- 
ham, was destroyed by the fire, 30 Dec. 1866.—The 
Panopticon (which see) was opened as a circus, &e., 
under the name of Alhambra, in March, 1858. The 
Alhambra Palace Company, incorporated in July 
1863, applied for dissolution in Jan. 1865. The 
Royal Alhambra Theatre was destroyed by fire, 7 
Dec. 1882: 2 firemen lost their lives; reopened, 3 
Dec. 1883. 


ALI, Srct oF (Shiites, or Fatimites). “Ali, born 
about 598,married Mahomet’s daughter Fatima,about 
619, and became vizier, 613; and caliph, 655. Ali was 
called by the prophet, ‘*the lion of God, always 
victorious ;’’ and the Persians follow the interpre- 
tation of the Koran according to Ali, while other 
Mahometans adhere to that of Abubekor and Omar. 
Ali was assassinated 23 Jan. 661.* 


ALIENS or FoREIGNERS, were banished in 
1155, being thought too numerous. In 1343 they 
were excluded from enjoying ecclesiastical benefices. 
By 2 Rich. II. st. 1, 1378, they were much relieved. 
When they were to be tried criminally, the juries 
were to be half foreigners, if they so desired, 1430. 
They were restrained from exercising any trade or 
handicraft by retail, 1483, a prohibition which was 
relaxed in 1663. 


Alien priories (cells and estates belonging to foreign per- 
sons) suppressed in England, 1414. 

The Alien Act passed, Jan. 1793. 

Act to register aliens, 1795. 

Baron Geramb, a fashionable foreigner, known at court, 
ordered out of England, 6 April, 1812. 

Bill to abolish naturalisation by the holding of stock in 
the banks of Scotland, June, 1820. 

New registration act, 7 George IV. 1826. This last act 
was repealed and another statute passed, 6 Will. IV. 
1836. 

The rigour of the alien laws was mitigated by acts passed 
in 1844 and 1847. 

** Foreigners have reclaimed our marshes, drained our 
fens, fished our seas, and built our bridges and har- 
bours.” Smiles, 1861. 

Their status defined by the Naturalisation Act, passed 
12 May, 1870. See under Law. 


ALIWAL, a village N. W. India, the site of a 
battle, 28 Jan. 1846, between the Sikh army under 
sirdar Runjoor Singh Majeethea, 19,000 strong, 


1881 


1882 


* The first four successors of Mahomet—Abubeker, 
Omar, Othman, and Ali, his chief agents in establishing 
his religion and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on 
that account he styled the ‘‘ cutting swords of God ”—all 
died violent deaths ; and his family was wholly extir- 
pated within thirty years after his own decease. 


28 


ALLEGORY. 


| supported by 68 pieces of cannon, and the British 


under sir Harry Smith, 12,000 men with 32 guns. 


The contest was obstinate, but ended in the defeat 


of the Sikhs, who lost nearly 6000 killed or 
drowned. 


ALIZARINH, a crystalline body, the colour- 
ing principle of madder, discovered in it by Robi- 
quet and Colin in 1831. 


combined with alkalies and fatty acids. 
and Liebermann obtained anthracene from alizarine 
in 1868, and alizarine from anthracene in 1869. 
The crystalline body anthracene was discovered in 
coal oils by Dumas and Laurent in 1832. See 
Madder. 


ALJUBARROTA, Portugal. Here John I. of 
Portugal defeated John I. of Castile, and secured 
his country’s independence, 14 Aug. 1385; see 
Batatha. 


ALKAHEST, see Alchemy. 


ALKALIKS (from sali, the Arabic name for 
the plant from which an alkaline substance was 
first procured) are ammonia, potash, soda, and 
lithia. Black discovered the nature of the differ- 
ence between caustic and mild alkalies in 1736. 


The fixed alkalies, potash and soda, decomposed, and the 
metals potassium and sodium formed, by Humphry 
Davy at the Royal Institution, London, 1807. 

Dr. Ure invented an alkalimeter, 1816. 


The manufacture of alkalies, very extensive in Lanca- — 
shire and Cheshire, is based on the decomposition of — 


common salt (chloride of sodium), by a process in- 
vented by a Frenchman named Le Blane, about 1792. 

Mr. Losh obtained crystals of soda from brine about 1814. 
Various modifications of these processes are now in 
use. 

“« Alkali works,” are defined as works for the manufacture 
of alkali, sulphates of soda, sulphate of potash, and in 
which muriatic gas is evolved. 


Schunck showed that all _ 
the finest madder colours contained only alizarine — 
Graebe 


A 


Mr. Wm. Gossage’s process for condensing muriatic acid 


gas patented in 1836. 


The ‘‘ammonia process” of making soda, invented by | 


Dyer and Hemming, in 1838; patents respecting it 
taken out by Solvay, 1863, 1867, 1872 ; Gossage, 1854 ; 


Schloesing, 1854, 1858; Young, 1871, 1872; Weldon, — 


1872, 1873; and by others. 

Mr. Walter Weldon received the French Lavoisier medal 
for his most important improvements in the alkali 
manufacture, July, 1877. 

In consequence of the injury to vegetation produced by 
the alkali works in Lancashire and Cheshire, the 
Alkali Works act ‘‘ for the more effectual condensation 
[of 95 per cent.] of muriatic acid gas” (or hydrochloric 
acid) was passed, 28 July, 1863. It came intu opera- 
tion x Jan. 1864, proved successful; was re-enacted 
1868 ; and amended, 1874 & 1881. See Chemical Works. 


ALKMARER, see Bergen. 


ALLAHABAD (N. W. Hindostan), the “holy 
city” of the Indian Mahometans, situated at the 
junction of the rivers Jumna and Ganges. The 
province of Allahabad was successively subject to 
the sovereigns of Delhi and Oude, but in 1801 was 
partially and in 1803 wholly incorporated with the 
British possessions. By treaty here, Bengal, &c., 
was ceded to the English in 1765.—During the 
Indian mutiny several sepoy regiments rose and 
massacred their officers, 4 June, 1857; colonel Neil 
marched promptly from Benares and suppressed the 
insurrection. In Nov. 1861, lord Canning made 
this city the capital of the N. W. provinces. Visit 
of the Prince of Wales, 7 March, 1874. 


ALLEGIANCE, see Oaths. 
ALLEGORY abounds in the Bible and in 


Homer: see Jacob’s blessing upon his sons, Genesis 
xlix. (1689 B.c.), Psalm lxxx., and all the prophets. 


Spenser’s Fuerte Queene (1590) and Bunyan’s Pil- 


grim’s Progress (1678) are allegories throughout. 


| 


ALLEYN. 


29 


ALMANACS. 


The Spectator (1711), by Addison, Steele, and others, 
abounds in allegories. The allegorical interpretation 
of the scriptures is said to have begun with Origen 
in the 3rd century ; but see Gal. iv. 24. 


ALLEYN, see Almshouses and Dulwich. 


ALLIA (Italy), a small river flowing into the 
Tiber, ons Dregs and the Gauls defeated the 
Romans, 16 July, 390 B.c. The Gauls sacked Rome 
and committed so much injury that the day was 
thereafter; held to} be unlucky (nefastws), and no 
public business was permitted to be done thereon. 


ALLIANCE, TREATIES OF, between the high 
European powers. The following are the principal : 
see Coalitions, Conventions, Treaties, United King- 
dom, §c. 


ALLIANCE. 
Of Leipsic * . A 
Of Vienna . - a . : A 
The Triple . F . . 5 

Of Warsaw = ; - e e 
The Grand e ° . ° ° 
The Hague . e ° . ° e 
The Quadruple ° ° Py ° 


- 9 April, 1633 
Of Vienna . ° ° : . = 


27 May. 1657 

28 Jan. 1668 

31 March, 1683 

12 May, 1689 

4 Jan. 1717 

2 Aug. 1718 

16 March, 1731 

xr May, 1756 

23 July, 1785 

16 May, 1795 

8 April, 1805 

14 March, 1812 
24 March, ,, 


Of Versailles . ° : ° . 
Germanic . < Al : - 5 
Of Paris . - ° . . ° 
Of St. Petersburg . e e e 
Austrian . : ° < e ° 
Of Sweden e * ° . ° 
OfToplitz . on We wie 9 Sept. 1813 
Holy Alliance . - : : 30 26 Sept. 1815 
Of England, France, and Turkey (at Constantinople) 

12 Mar. 1854 
Of England and France ratified . : 3 April, ,, 
Of Sardinia with the Western Powers (at Turin) 
26 Jan. 1855 
Of Sweden with the Western Powers . 19 Dec. 5, 
Of Prussia and Italy . S ar ine June, 1866 


ALL NIGHT SITTINGS, see Parliament, 
1877 and 1881. 


ALL SAINTS’ DAY (Nov. 1), or All-Hal- 
lows, a festival said to have been begun by pope 
Boniface IV. about 607, celebrated in the Pan- 
theon at Rome, and established by pope Gregory IV. 
(about 830) for the commemoration of all those 
saints and martyrs in whose honour no particular 
day is assigned. ‘The reformers of the English 
church, 1549, struck out of their calendar a great 
number of anniversaries, leaving only those which 
at their time were connected with popular feeling or 
tradition. 


ALL SOULS’ COLLEGE, Oxford; see 
Oxford. 
ALL SOULS’ DAY (2 Nov.), a festival of 


the Roman Catholic church to commemorate the 
souls of the faithful, instituted, it is said, at Cluny 
about 993 or 1000. . 


“ALL THE TALENTS” ADMINIS- 
TRATION, see Grenville Administrations. 


ALLOBROGES, Gauls, defeated by Q. Fabius 
Maximus, near the confluence of the Rhone and 
Saone, 12I B.c. 


ALLOTMENTS, see Land, note. 


ALMA, 2 river in the Crimea, near which was 
‘ought a great battle on 20 Sept. 1854. (See 
Russo-Turkish War and Crimea.) The English, 
French, and Turkish army (about 57,000 men) 
noved out of their first encampment in the Crimea 
m 19 Sept., and bivouacked for the night on the 
eft bank of the Bulganac. The Russians (com- 
nanded by prince Menschikoff), mustering 40,000 
nfantry, had 180 field-pieces on the heights, and on 


{ 


the morning of 20 Sept. were joined by 6000 cavalry 
from Theodosia (or Kaffa). The English forces 
under lord Raglan, consisted of 26,000 men; the 
French of 24,000, under marshal St. Arnaud. At 
12 o’clock the signal to advance was made; the 
river Alma was crossed, while prince Napoleon took 
possession of the village under the fire of thé 
Russian batteries ; and at 4, after a sanguinary fight, 
the allies were completely victorious. The enemy, 
utterly routed, threw away their arms and knap- 
sacks in their flight, having lost about 5000 men, of 
whom 900 were made prisoners, mostly wounded. 
The loss of the British was 26 officers and 327 men 
killed, and 73 officers and 1539 men wounded 
(chiefly from the 23rd, 7th, and 33rd regiments) ; 
that of the French, 3 officers and 233 men killed, 
and 54 officers and 1033 men wounded. ‘Total loss 
of the allies about 3400. 


ALMACK’S ASSEMBLY-ROOMS, King- 
street, St. James’s, London, at first very exclusive, 
were erected by a Scotchman named Almack, and 
opened 12 Feb. 1765. They are now termed 
Willis’s rooms from the name of the present pro- 
prietors. 


ALMANACS (from the Arabic al manah, to 
count; or better, the Coptic a/, computation, and 
men, memory). The Egyptians computed time by in- 
struments; the Alexandrians had almanacs, and log 
calendars are ancient. In the British Museum and 
universities are specimens of early almanacs. Mi- 
chael Nostradamus the astrologer, wrote an almanac 
in the style of Merlin, 1556. Dufresnoy. Profes- 
sor Augustus De Morgan’s valuable ‘‘ Book of 
Almanacs, with an index of reference, by which the 
almanac may be found for every year,’ was pub- 
lished in March, 1851.* Among the earlier and 
more remarkable almanacs were 


John Somer’s Calendar, written in Oxford % - 1380 
One in Lambeth Palace, writtenin . 5 - 1460 
First printed one, published at Buda - : “itt 


**Shepheard’s Kalendar,” (first printed in England) 
by Richard Pynson . ° 4 2 i oe L407, 


Tybalt’s Prognostications . ° ° : e sie A fee: 
Almanac Liégeois . A e . . - - 1636 
Lilly’s Ephemeris . e e ° : - 1644 
Poor Robin’s Almanac . e ; . . oh TORS 
British Merlin . 3 5 : . < K - 1658 
Connaissance des Temps (by Picard) - eee TOTe 
Edinburgh Almanac . - 2 6 ° “ . 1683 
Moore’s Almanac . ° ° - ~ - 1698 or 1713 
Lady’s Diary . “ e “ e ° é - 1705 
Season on the Seasons . e ° e s ee ae 


Gentleman’s Diary. . p ; : 2 2 ; 
Nautical Almanac, begun by Dr. Neville Maskelyne 

(materially improved, 1834) . Hil is Ba ayy 
British Imperial Kalendar e ‘ : + 1809 
Hone’s Every Day Book : - - : sil \e, £020 
British Almanac and Companion  . ; - - 1828 
Anniversary Calendar, published by W. Kidd . . 1832 
Chambers’ Book of Days . “ e : - 1862-63 
Whitaker’s Almanack ° . . ° wh 1p EG09 


The Stationers’ company claimed the exclusive right 
of publishing almanacs in virtue of letters patent from 
James I., granting the privilege to them and the two 
Universities; but the monopoly was broken up by a 
decision of the Court of Common Pleas in 1775. A bill 
to‘renew the privilege was lost in 1779. 

The Stamp Duty on English almanacs first imposed in 
1710, was abolished in August, 1834; since when alma- 
nacs have become innumerable, being issued by trades- 
men with their goods. 

Of Moore’s (under the management of Henry Andrews, 
the able computer of the Nautical Ephemeris) at one 


1741 


* Murphy’s Almanack for 1838 predicted correctly a 
frost on 7 Jan. ; thaw and frost 14th; severe frost erst, 
and then thaw. A great sale of the almanack ensued. 
Afterwards the predictions failed. 


ALMANZA. 30 ALPHONSINE TABLES. 
time upwards of 430,000 copies were annually sold. He | The London almshouses, in commemoration of the 
died in 1820. passing of the Reform Bill, built at Brixton - 1833 


Of Foreign Alinanacs, the principal are the ‘* Almanach 
de France,” first published in 1699, and the ‘‘ Almanach 
de Gotha,” 1764. 


ALMANZA (S. E. Spain). Here on 25 April 
(0.8. 14), 1707, the English, Dutch, and Portuguese 
forces under the earl of Galway, were totally de- 
feated by the French and Spanish commanded by 
James Fitzjames, duke of Berwick (illegitimate son 
of James II.). Most of the English were killed 
or made prisoners, having been abandoned by the 
Portuguese at the first charge. 


ALMEIDA (Portugal), a frontier town, cap- 
tured by Massena, 27 Aug. 1810. The French 
entered Spain, leaving a garrison at Almeida, 
blockaded by the English, 6 April, 1811. Almeida 
was retaken by Wellington (11 May), and Massena 
retired from Portugal. 


ALMENARA, 2 village N. E. Spain, where on 
28 July, 1710, an English and German army de- 
feated the Spanish army supporting Philip V., the 
grandson of Louis XIV. of France. Stanhope, the 
English general, killed the Spanish general, Ame- 
zaga, in single conflict; an act almost unexampled 
in modern warfare. 


ALMOHADES, Mahometan partisans, fol- 
lowers of Mohammed ben Abdalla, surnamed El- 
Mehedi, in Africa, about 1120. They subdued 
Morocco, 1145; entered Spain and took Seville, 
Cordova, and Granada, 1146-56; and founded a 
aed and ruled Spain till 1232, and Africa till 
1278. 


ALMONER, an office anciently allotted to a 
dignified clergyman who gave the first dish from the 
royal table to the poor, or an alms in money. By an 
ancient canon all bishops were required to keep 
almoners. The grand almoner of France was the 
highest ecclesiastical dignity in that kingdom before 
the revolution, 1789. Queen Victoria’s almoner 
(Very Rev. lord Alwyne Compton, dean of Worcester, 
appointed in 1882) or thesub-almoner distributes the 
queen’s gifts on Maundy Thursday (which see). 


ALMORAVIDES, Mahometan partisans in 
Africa, rose about 1050; entered Spain by invita- 
tion, 1086; were overcome by the Almohades in 
1147. : 


ALMSHOUSHS for. aged and infirm persons 
have been erected by many public companies and 
benevolent individuals, particularly since the 
abolition of religious houses at the Reformation in 
the 16th century. A list of them, with useful infor- 
mation, will be found in ‘‘ Low’s Charities of Lon- 
don,’’ 1862; frequently re-published. 


Armourers’ almshouses, Bishopsgate ‘ 
Cornelius Van Dun founded the Red Lion 
houses, Westminster . : A ; eer 
Emmanuel College, Westminster, founded by Lady 
Dacre. ° ° . : ’ : . - 1594 
Alleyn’s almshouses, near City road, founded by 
E. Alleyn : - é : -. « I620 
Whittington’s almshouses founded in 1621, were 
rebuilt near Highgate-hill by the Mercers’ com- 
pany . ; . ° < j ‘ a - « 1826 
The Fishmongers’ company founded almshouses 
in 1618, and rebuilt them on Wandsworth com- 
mon : : : 4 x i A : ‘ 
Haberdashers’ almshouses, Hoxton, founded by 
Robert Aske. . é f ‘ s Sune 
Dame Owen’s almshouses, Islington, built in 1613, 
(in gratitude for her escape from an arrow-shot), 
were rebuilt by the Brewers’ company . FE - 1839 
Bancroft’s almshouses, Mile End, were erected . . 1735 


js aLESG 
alms- 


1850 


1692 


7 


Numerous almshouses since erected for printers, 
bookbinders, &c. 


ALNEY, anisland in the Severn, near Glouces- 
ter. Here a eombatis asserted to have taken place 
between Edmund Ironside and Canute the Great, 
in sight of their armies, 1016. The latter was 
wounded, and proposed a division of the kingdom, 
the south part failing to Edmund. Edmund was 
murdered at Oxford shortly after, it is said by 
JEdric Streon ; and Canute obtained possession of 
the whole kingdom. 


ALNWICK (Saxon Ealnwiec), on the river 
Alne in Northumberland, was given at the conquest 
to Ivo de Vesci. It has long belonged tothe Percies. 
Malcolm, king of Scotland, besieged Alnwick, and 
he and his sons were killed 13 Nov. 1093. It was 
taken by David I. in 1136, and attempted in July, 
1174 by William the Lion, who was defeated and 
taken prisoner. It was burnt by king Johnin 1215, 
and by the Scots in 1448. Since 1854 the castle has 
been repaired and enlarged with great taste and at 
unsparing expense. 


ALPACA (or Paco), a species of the S. Ameri- 
can quadruped, the Llama, the soft hairy wool of 
which is now largely employed in the fabrication of 
cloths. It was introduced into this country about 
1836, by the earl of Derby. An alpaca factory 
(covering II acres), with a town, park, almshouses, 
&e., for the workpeople, was erected at Saltaire, 
near Shipley, Yorkshire, by Mr. (afterwards sir 
Titus Salt in 1852. A statue of him at Bradfor 
was unveiled 1 Aug. 1874. He died 29 Dec. 1876. 
Saltaire visited by the prince and princess of Wales 
22 June, 1882. 


ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, is said 
to have been the author of hieroglyphics, and to 
have written thus the history of the Egyptians, 
2122 B.c. Blair. But Josephus affirmsthat hehad 
seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam: this is 
deemed fabulous. Dr. Isaac Taylor’s learned work, 
“The Alphabet,’’ was published May, 1883. 


The Egyptian alphabet is ascribed to Memnon 1822 B.c. 

The first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet 
was aleph, called by the Greeks alpha, and abbreviated 
by the moderns to A. The Hebrew is supposed to be 
derived from the Pheenician. 

Cadmus the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B.C., is said to have 
brought the Pheenician letters (fifteen in number) into 
Greece, viz..—A, B, T, A, I, K, A, M, N, O, I, P, 3; 
T, T. These letters were originally either Hebrew, 
Pheenician, or Assyrian characters, and changed 
gradually in form till they became the ground of the 
Roman letters, now used all over Europe. Palamedes 
of Argos invented the double characters, @, X, %, &, 
about 1224 B.c.; and Simonides added, Z, ¥, H, 2, 
about 489 B.c. Arundelian Marbles.—When the E was 
introduced is not precisely known. The Greek alphabet 
consisted of 16 letters till 399 (or 403) B.c., when the 
Ionic of 24 characters was introduced. The small 
letters are of later invention. The alphabets of the 
Peck nations contain the following number of 
etters :— 


Arabie . : ‘ 


English. “ ° - 26 - 2& 
French . ~ os 25 | Persie ° an 
Italian . i 22 | Turkish F ‘ . 28) 
Spanish . 27|Sanscrit. . . . 2 
German. R 3 26 | Chinese radical charac- 
Slavonic . é oa ters. ‘ 4 : a 
Russian 5 é - 35] Chinese alphabet said 
Latin ‘ ° oa aa to be invented by 
Greek . ; ‘ ¢ | BA bishop Eligius Cosi 
Hebrew . - . 22| of Canton(1880) . 
ALPHONSINE TABLES, | astronomical 


tables, composed by Spanish and Arab astronomers, 
and collected in 1253 under the direction of Alphon 


ALUMINIUM. 


so X. of Castile, surnamed tie Wise, who is said 
to have expended upwards of 400,000 crowns in 
completing the work ; he himself wrote the preface. 
The Spanish government ordered the work of Al- 
phonso to be reprinted from the best MSS.; the 
publication begun in 1863. 


ALPS, European mountains. Those between 
France and Italy were passed by Hannibal, 218 
B.C., by the Romans, 154.B.c., and by Napoleon I. 
May, 1800. Roads over Mont Cenis and the 
Simplon, connecting France and Italy, were con- 
structed by order of Napoleon, between 1801-6; see 
Simplon. The ‘Alpine Club,’ which consists 
of British travellers in the Alps, was founded 
in 1858, and published its first work, ‘‘ Peaks, 
Passes, and Glaciers,’’ 1859; and a journal since. 
See Matterhorn. An International Alpine Con- 
gress opened at Salzburg 14 Aug. 1882. 

Mont Cenis or Col de Fréjus Tunnel.—A tunnel, 7} miles 
long through mont Cenis, connecting Savoy and 
_ Piedmont, was proposed by M. Medail, and, after long 
lying dormant, was discussed and plans drawn up in 
1848. The execution was prevented by the war of 


1849. 

Che work of excavation was begun by king Victor 
f£mmanuel, 31 Aug. 1857. 

the boring was at first effected by ordinary piercing 
machinery ; steam power was employed in 1860; and 
latterly compressed air. 

Ingineers—Grattoni, Grandis, and Sommeiller; the 
boring was completed, 25 Dec. 1870. 

the total cost was about 2,600,000l. As the Italians had 
executed the work within the given time, the French 

_ government bore the chief expense. 

the first experimental trip was made in 4o minutes, 13 
Sept., and the tunnel was solemnly inaugurated by the 
passage of 22 carriages in 20 minutes, 17 Sept. 1871; 

' regular trains pass through, 16 Oct. 1871. 

\ railway for locomotives over mont Cenis was con- 

structed upon Mr. Fell’s plan in 1867 (see Railways), 
and opened for traffic, r5 June, 1868. 

‘he overland mail first travels through the tunnel to 
Brindisi, saving 24 hours, 5 Jan. 1872. 

it. Gothard Tunnel (part of a railway system to connect 

_ the North Sea and the Mediterranean), about 9} miles, 
21} broad; compressed air employed in boring ; 
begun June, 1870; completed 29 Feb. 1880; through 
failure in vaulting, May, 1880, opening deferred. 

‘the first complete train, carrying one hundred passengers, 
passed through the St. Gothard Tunnel in 50 minutes, 

_ I Nov. 1881 ; partially opened x Jan. 1882 ; completely 
opened June, 1882. The total cost, 2,272,344 f. 


ALRESFORD, battle of, or Cheriton, which 


ce. 


ALSACE, Exsass, formerly part of the king- 
om of Austrasia, afterwards the French depart- 
aents of the Upper and Lower Rhine. It was 
neorporated with the German empire in the roth 
entury. A portion was restored to France, 1648, 
nd the whole, including Strasburg, in 1697. Alsace 
yas re-conquered by the Germans, Aug.-Sept. 1870; 
‘nd annexed to their empire, May, 1871; by law, 
_ June, 1871. The Alsatians were permitted to 
hoose their nationality, before 30 Sept. 1872. Many 
‘migrated into France, with much regret.—ALSACE- 
ORRAINE was constituted a province of the Ger- 
ian empire, having been ceded by France by the 
veaty of peace concluded 10 May, 1871, see Belfort. 
“he province sends 15 members to the German 
‘arliament. Administrators, prince Bismarck, 1871; 
eld-marshal Manteuffel, 1 Oct. 1879. Population 
f Alsace-Lorraine, 1875, 1,529,408. 


' ALSATTIA, a name given to the precinct of 
Thitefriars, London, is described in Scott’s ‘ For- 
ines of Nigel.” Its privilege of sanctuary was 


liter in 1697. 
| 
| 
| 


ALSEN (Denmark), besieged by the Prussians, 


arn heroically defended, 26 June; taken, 29 June, 
1864. 


ALTAR. One was built by Noah, 2348 B.c. 
(Gen. viii. 20) ; others by Abraham, 1921 (Gen. xii. 
8). Directions for making an altar are given, Exod. 
XX. 24, 1491 B.c. Altars were raised to Jupiter, in 
Greece, by Cecrops, 1556 B.c. He introduced among 
the Greeks the worship of the deities of Egypt. 
Herodotus. The term “altar” was applied to the 
Lord’s table for the first three centuries after Christ 
(Hebd. xiii. 10). Christian altars in churches were 
instituted by pope Sixtus I. a.p. 1 5; and were 
first consecrated by pope Sylvester. "The Church of 
England terms the table on which the elements are 
placed an altar. Since the time of Elizabeth there 
has been much controversy on the subject, and the 
Puritans in the civil war destroyed many of the 
ancient stone altars, substituting wooden tables. In 
Jan. 1845 it was decided in the Arches Court that 
stone altars were not to be erected in English 
churches. 


ALTENKIRCHEN (Prussia). The French, 
who had defeated the Austrians here, 4 June, 1796, 
were themselves defeated, and their general, Mar- 
ceau, killed, 19 Sept. following. 


ALTER EGO (another or second I), a term 
applied to Spanish viceroys when exercising regal 
power; used at Naples when the crown prince was 
appointed vicar-general during an insurrection in 
July, 1820. 


ALTONA (Holstein, N. Germany), acquired by 
the Danes, 1660, and made a city, 1664. It was 
occupied first by the German federal troops, 24 Dec. 
1863, and then by the Prussians (the federal diet 
protesting) 12 Feb. 1864. 


ALT-RANSTADT (Prussia), where the treaty 
of peace dictated by Charles XII. of Sweden, to Frede- 
rick Augustus of Poland, was signed, 24 Sept. 1706, 
0.8. Frederick, deposed in 1704, regained the throne 
of Poland after the defeat of Charles XII., in 1709. 


ALUM, a salt, is said to have been first dis- 
covered at Roccha, in Syria, about 1300; it was 
found in Tuscany about 1470; its manufacture was 
brought to perfection in England by sir T. Chal- 
loner, who established large alum works near Whitby 
in 1608; it was discovered in Jreland in 1757; and 
in Anglesey in 1790. Alum is used as a mordant in 
dyeing, to harden tallow, to whiten bread, and in 
the paper manufacture. 


ALUMBAGH, a palace with other buildings 
near Lucknow, Oude, India, taken during the mu- 
tiny from the rebels, 23 Sept. 1857, and heroically 
defended by the British under sir James Outram. 
He defeated an attack of 30,000 sepoys on 12 Jan, 
1858, and of 20,000 on 21 Feb., and was relieved by 
sir Colin Campbell in March. 


ALUMINIUM, a metal, the base of the earth 
alumina, which is combined with silica in clay, and 
which was shown to be a distinct earth by Marg- 
graff in 1754, having been previously confounded 
with lime. Oerstedt in 1826 obtained the chloride 
of aluminium; and in 1827 the metal itself was got 
from it by F. Wohler, but was long a scientific 
curiosity, the process being expensive. The mode 
of production was afterwards simplified by Bunsen 
and others, more especially by H. Ste. - Claire 
Deville, who in 1856 succeeded in procuring con- 
siderable quantities of this metal.* It is very light 


* A cheaper method of procuring this metal was pa- 
tented by Mr. Webster, of Hollywood, near Birmingham, 
in 1882, 


AMADIS. 


(sp. g. 2°25), malleable, and sonorous; when pure 
does not rust, and is not acted on by sulphur or 
any acid except hydrochloric. In March, 1856, it 
was 3/. the ounce; in June, 1857, IIs. or 12s., and 
it gradually became much cheaper. The eagles of 
the French colours have been made of it, and many 
otherornamentaland usefularticles. Deville’s work, 
“De Aluminium,” was published in 1859. An 
aluminium manufactory was established at New- 
castle in 1860, by Messrs. Bell. They obtain the 
metal from a French mineral, bauxite. Their alu- 
minium bronze, an alloy of copper and aluminium, 
invented by Dr. John Percy, F.R.S., was made into 
pe cases, &c., by Messrs. Reid of Newcastle, in 
1862. 


AMADIS or GAUL, 2 Spanish or Portuguese 
romance, stated to have been written about 1342 by 
Vasco de Lobeira. It was enlarged by De Mont- 
alvo, about 1485; and first printed (in Spanish) 
1519; in French, 1540-56. 


AMALEKITES (descendants of Aamlek, 
grandson of Ksau, brother of Jacob) attacked the 
Israelites, 1491 B.Cc., when perpetual war was de- 
nounced against them. They were subdued by Saul 
about 1079, by David, 1058 and 1056; and by the 
Simeonites about 715 B.C. 


AMALFI, a city on the gulfof Salerno, Naples, 
in the 8th century became the seat of a republic, 
and flourished by its commerce till 1075, when it 
was taken by Roger Guiscard, and eventually incor- 
- porated with Naples. The Pisans, in their sack of 
the town in 1135, are said to have found a copy of 
the Pandects of Justinian, and thus to have induced 
the revival of the study of Roman law in Western 
Europe; the story is now doubted. Flavio Gioia, 
a native of Amalfi, is the reputed discoverer of the 
mariner’s compass, about 1302. 


AMATEUR MECHANICAL SOCIETY 
(89, Stamford Street), issued its first prospectus, 
1 Jan. 1869. 


AMAZON, West India mail steam ship, left 
Southampton on her first voyage, Friday, 2 Jan. 
1852, and on Sunday morning, Jan. 4, was destroyed 
by fire at sea, about 110 miles W.S.W. of Scilly 
(ascribed to the spontaneous ignition of combustible 
matter placed near the engine-room). Out of 161 
persons on board, 102 persons must have perished 
by fire or drowning. 21 persons were saved by the 
life-boat of the ship; 25 more were carried into 
Brest harbour by a Dutch vessel passing by; and 
13 others were picked up in the bay of Biscay, also 
by a Dutch galliot. Eliot Warburton, a distin- 
guished writer in general literature, was among 
those lost. 


AMAZON, ariver (S. America), was discovered 
by Pinzon, in 1500, and explored by Francisco Orel- 
lana, in 1540. Comingfrom Peru, he sailed down the 
Amazon te the Atlantic, and observing companies 
of women in arms on its bank, he called the country 
Amazonia, and gave the name of Amazon to the 
river, previously called Maraiion. 


AMAZONS. Three nations of Amazons have 
been mentioned—the Asiatic, Scythian, and African. 
They are said to have been the descendants of 
Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where their hus- 
bands, having made incursions, were all slain, being 
surprised in ambuscades by their enemies. Their 
widows formed a female state, and decreed that 
matrimony was a shameful servitude. Quintus Cur- 
tius. They were said to have been .conquered by 
Theseus, about 1231 B.c. The Amazons were con- 


32 


—.._ 


AMBOYNA. 


stantly employed in wars; and that they migh 
throw the javelin with more force, their right breast 
were burned off, whence their name from the Greek 
a, no, mazos, breast. Others derive the name fro 
maza, the moon, which they are supposed to have 
worshipped. About 330 B.c. their queen, Thalestris, 
visited Alexander the Great, whilst he was pursuing 
his conquests in Asia, with three hundred females 
in her train. Herodotus. 


AMBASSADORS. Accredited agents, and 
representatives from one court to another, are re- 
ferred to in early ages. In most countries they have 
great privileges; and in England, they and their 
servants are secured against arrest. England usually 
has six ambassadors, twenty-seven ministers, and 
about thirty-six chief consuls, resident at foreign 
courts, exclusive of inferior agents; the ambassa- 
dors and other chief agents from abroad at the court 
of London in 1865, were 47; in 1868, 43; in 1872, 
42; in 1878, 39; in 1885, 31. 


The Russian ambassador being imprisoned for debt by 
a lace-merchant, 27 July, 1708, led to the passing the 
statute of 7 Anne, for the protection of ambassadors, 
1708. 

Two men, convicted of arresting the servant of an am- 
bassador, were sentenced to be conducted to the house 
of the ambassador, with a label on their breasts, to ask 
his pardon, and then one of them to be imprisoned 
three months, and the other fined, 12 May, 1780. 

The first ambassador from the United States of America 
to England, John Adams, presented to the king, 1 June, 
1785; the first from Great Britain to America was 
Mr. Hammond, in 1791. 

A Japanese minister received by the queen, 3 March, 
1875. 

The first accredited ambassador from China, Kus-ta-Jén, 
landed at Southampton, 21 Jan. 1877. 


AMBER, 2 carbonaceous mineral,* principally 
found in the northern parts of Europe, of great 
repute in the world from the earliest time; esteemed 
as a medicine before the Christian era : Theophrastus 
wrote upon it; 300 B.c. Upwards of 150 tons of 
amber have been found in one year on the sands of 
the shore near Pillau. Phillips. 


AMBLEF, near Cologne, Germany. Here 
Charles Martel defeated Chilperic II., and Ragen- 
froi, mayor of the Neustrians, 716. ; 


AMBOISE (Central France). A conspiracy 
of the Huguenots against Francis IT., Catherine de 
Medicis, and the Guises, was suppressed at this 
place in Jan. 1560. On 19 March, 1563, the Paci- 
fication of Amboise was published, granting tole- 
ration to the Huguenots. The civil war was 
however soon renewed. 


AMBOYNA, chief of the Molucca isles, digs 
covered about 1512 by the Portuguese, but not 
wholly occupied by them till 1580. It was taken 
by the Dutch in 1605. ‘lhe English factors at this 
settlement were cruelly tortured and put to death, 
17 Feb. 1623-4, by the Dutch, on an accusation of @ 
conspiracy to expel them from the island, where the 
two nations jointly shared in the pepper trade of 
Java. Cromwell compelled the Dutch to give a sum 
of money to the descendants of the sufferers. Am- 
boyna was seized by the English, 16 Feb. 1796, but 
was restored by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802. It 


* Much diversity of opinion still prevails among 
naturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber. 
It is considered by Berzelius to have been a resin dis 
solved in volatile oil. It often contains delicately-forme 
insects. Sir D. Brewster concludes it to be indurated 
vegetable juice. When rubbed it becomes electrical, and 
from its Greek name, élektron, the term Electricity is 
derived. ef 


AMBROSIAN CHANT. 


was again seized by the British, 17-19 Feb. 1810 ; 


and again restored at the peace of May, 1814. 


z AMBROSIAN CHANT, see Chant, Liturgy, 
Cs 
AMBULANCE ASSOCIATION, 


under John’s, St. 

First “‘ambulance ship” (for small-pox convalescents), 
Red Cross, constructed for Metropolitan Asylums Board, 
launched at Millwall, 8 Aug. 1883. 


AMEN, an ancient Hebrew word meanin g true, 
faithful, certain, is used in the Jewish and Chris- 
tian assemblies, at the conclusion of prayer: sce 
I Cor. xiv., 16 (A.D. 59). Itis translated “‘ verily” 
in the Gospels. 


AMENDE Hownoraste, in France, in the 
9th century, was a punishment inflicted on traitors 
and sacrilegious persons: the offender was delivered 
to the hangman: his shirt was stripped off, a rope 
put round his neck, and a taper in his hand; he 
was then led into court, and was obliged to beg 
pardon of God andthe country. Death or banish- 
ment sometimes followed. These words also denote 
a recantation in open court, or in presence of the 
injured person, 


AMERCEMENT, in Law, a fine assessed for 
an otfence done, or pecuniary punishment at the 
mercy cf the court: thus differing from a fine di- 
rected and fixed by a statute. By Magna Charta, 
[215, a freeman cannot be amerced for a small fault, 
out in proportion to the offence he has committed ; 
the mode was determined by 9 Hen. III., 1225. 


AMERICA,* the great Western Continent, is 
vbout 9000 miles long, with an area of about 
[3,668,000 square miles. It is now believed to have 
yeen visited by the Norsemen or Vikings in the roth 
md 1ith centuries; but the modern discovery is due 
o the sagacity and courage of the Genoese navigator, 
vhristopher Columbus.+ 
Jolumbus sailed on his first expedition from Palos 

in Andalusia on Friday, with vessels supplied by 

the sovereigns of Spain . ‘ F - 3Aug. 1492 
de lands on the island of Guanahani, one of the 
_ Bahamas ; takes possession of it in the name of 
_ Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile, and names it 

San Salvador . : k . #riday, 12 Oct. ,, 
Te discovers Cuba, 28 Oct. ; and Hispaniola (now 


see 


|,* The name is derived from Amerigo Vespucci, a Floren- 
‘ime merchant, who died in 1512. _He accompanied Ojeda 
‘a his voyage on the eastern coast in 1498 ; and described 
‘he country in letters sent to his friends in Italy. He is 
‘harged with presumptuously inserting ‘‘ Tierra de Ame- 
igo” in his maps, Irving discusses the question in the 

ippendix to the Life of Columbus, but comes to no con- 

lusion. Humboldt asserts that the name was given to 
‘he continent in the popular works of Waldseemiiller, a 
‘ierman geographer, without the knowledge of Vespucci. 

o America we are indebted, among other things, for 

iaize, the turkey, the potato, Peruvian bark, and 
ybacco. 

t Christophoro Columbo was born about 1445; first 
ent to sea about 1460 ; settled at Lisbon in 1470, where 
2 married Felipa, the daughter of Perestrello, an Italian 
-wigator ; whereby he obtained much geographical know- 
dge. He is said to have laid the plans ofthis voyage of 
| scovery before the republic of Genoa, in 1485, and 

‘her powers, and finally before the court of Spain, where 
‘length the queen Isabella became his patron. After 
idergoing much ingratitude and cruel persecution from 
fs own followers and the Spanish court, he died on 
) May, 1506 ; and was buried with much pomp at Valla- 
lid. His remains were transferred, in 1513, to Seville ; 

1536 to San Domingo ; and in Jan. 1796 to the Havanna, 
aba. The original inscription on his tomb is said to 

ve been: “A Castilla y 4 Leon Nuevo Mundo dié 
)olon.” ‘To Castile and Leon Colon gave a New World.” 
umboldt says beautifully, that the success of Columbus 
us “* aw conquest of reflection!” 


33 . AMERICA, 


Hayti), where he builds a fort, La Navidad 
Mg 6 Dec. .1492 
He returns to Spain. 4 . : + 15 March, 1493 
He sails from Cadiz on his second expedition, 
25 Sept. ; discovers the Caribbee Isles,—Dominica, 
3 Noy. ; Guadaloupe, 4 Nov. ; Antigua, 10 Nov. ; 
founds Isabella in Hispaniola, the first Christian 
city inthe New World . : : : Dees x 
He discovers Jamaica, 3 May; and Evangelista (now 
Isle of Pines), 13 June; war with the natives of 
Hispaniola... : : : - , : 
He visits the various isles, and explores their coasts 
1495-6 
Returns to Spain to meet the charges of his enemies 
ir June, 
Cabot (sent out by Henry VII. of England) discovers 
Labrador on the coast of North America {he is 
erroneously said to have discovered Florida, and 
also Newfoundland, and to have named it Prima 
Vista] 2 ; i “ r 24 June, 
Columbus sails on his third voyage, 30 May ; dis- 
covers Trinidad, 31 July ; lands on Terra Firma, 
without knowing it to be the new continent, 
naming it Isla Santa . ; : - zr Aug. 
Ojeda discovers Surinam, June; and the gulf of 
Venezuela : ; “ c é : ; 
Vicente Yaiiez Pinzon discovers Brazil, South Ame- 
rica, 26 Jan. ; and the river Marafion(the Amazon); 
Cabral the Portuguese lands in Brazil (see Brazil) 
3 May, 


1494 


1496 


1497, 


1498 
1499 


Gaspar Cortereal discovers Labrador . ; Ppa: 
Columbus 1s imprisoned in chains at San Domingo 
by Bobadilla, sent out to investigate into his con- 
duct, May ; conveyed to Spain, where he is honour- 
ably received , : : : : Pere mi SeTeeee eee. 
Columbus sails on his fowrth voyage, 9 May ; dis- ‘ 
covers various isles on the coast of Honduras, 
and explores the coast of the isthmus, July, - 
&c. ; discovers and names Porto Bello . 2 Nov. x 502 
Negro slaves imported into Hispaniola 1501-3 
Worried by the machinations of his enemies, he re- 
turns to Spain, 7 Noy. ; his friend, queen Isabella, 
dies . ‘ 4 : : _ 20 Noy. 1504 
He dies while treated with base ingratitude by the 


Spanish government : . - 20 May, 1506 
Solis and Pinzon discover Yucatan. b shod Vis 
Ojeda founds San Sebastian, the first colony on the 

mainland oh ae 4 ; - - I510 
Subjugation of Cuba by Velasquez 7" A Seige toner 
The coast of Florida discovered by Ponce de Leon . x 512 
Vasco de Balboa crosses the isthmus of Darien, and 

discovers the South Pacific Ocean. : - 1513 
Mexico discovered by Fernando de Cordova eb ih yy; 
Grijalva penetrates into Yucatan, and names it New 

Spain : : : 4 é < F ; . 1518 
Passage of Magellan’s Straits by him . x sn (4, 2520 
Conquest of Mexico by Fernando Cortes , e 1519-21 
Pizarro discovers the coast of Quito . e s Ls 1520 
He invades and conquers Peru . 1532-5 


Cartier, a Frenchman, enters the Gulf of St. Law- 
rence, and sails up to Montreal > tSss4-5 

Grijalva’s expedition, equipped by Cortes, discovers 
California : 3 : : : : ; . 1538 

Mendoza founds Buenos Ayres, and conquers the 
adjacent country 5 : 


2 . e Say ae ¥ iS 
Orellana sails down the Amazon to the sea . 1540-1 
Louisiana conquered by De Soto . 4 aid abies 


Chili conquered by Valdivia 


1541 
Rebellion in Peru—tranquillity 


established by 


Gasca. : ‘ E : : . A 1548 
Davis’s Straits discovered by him - , - 1585 
Raleigh establishes the first English settlement—at 

Roanoke, Virginia. : : i ‘ PE cy. 
Falkland isles discovered by Davis . : - 1592 
De Monts, a Frenchman, settles in Acadia, now 

Nova Scotia ‘ : : : : af eet OO: 
Jamestown, in Virginia, the first English settlement 

on the mainland, founded by lord dela Warr. _ 1607 
Quebec founded by the French . . . e. « 1608 
Hudson’s bay discovered by him. : 1610 


The Dutch build Manhattan, or New Amsterdam 
(now New York) on the Hudson - . Moped 
Settlement in New England begun by capt. Smith - 
New Plymouth built by the English nonconformist 
CXULGG aoe : . : : : ‘ : sed 
Nova Scotia settled by the Scotch under sir Wm. 
Alexander , ° : . 5 ‘ ‘ 


D 


34 


AMERICA, BRITISH, 
Delaware settled by the Swedes and Dutch , » 1627 
Massachusetts, by sir H. Boswell : * |p t025 
Maryland, by lord Baltimore » 1633 


Connecticut granted to lords Say ‘and Brooke in 
1630; but no English settlement was made here 


ide air ‘ 5 : 4 : : ‘ ie entOS 5 
Rhode Island settled by Roger Williams and his 

brethren, driven from Massachusetts . Z Bares 
New Jersey settled by the Dutch, 1614, and Swedes, 

1627 ; granted to the duke of York, who sells it to 

lord Berkeley . 3 A 5 : : een tO04 
New York captured by the English . ° areas 
South Carolina settled by the English . - Sa LOO 
Pennsylvania settled by William Penn, the cele- 

brated Quaker z ‘A 5 : ; - 1682 
Louisiana settled by the French . > = Ree aS 
The Mississippi explored . 7 ; : - 1699 
The Scotch settlement at Darien (1698-9) abandoned 1700 
New Orleans built. 5 : : F ; Sry ST 
Georgia settled by general Oglethorpe AG bBe 
Kentucky, by colonel Boon . : ; 4 - «= £754 
Canada conquered by the English, 1759-60 ; ceded to 

Great Britain . . 2 7 : : A - 1763 
American war—declaration of independerce by the 

United States, 1776; recognised by Great Britain 1783 
Louisiana ceded to Spain, 1763; transferred to 

France, 1800 ; sold to the United States . wee OOS 
Florida ceded to Great Britain, 1763; taken by 

Spain, 1781 ; to whom it is ceded, 1783 ; ceded to 

the United States . ‘ 5 : : : - 1820 
Revolution in Mexico—declaration of independence 1821 


Revolutions in Spanish America ; independence es- 
tablished by Chili, 1810; Paraguay, 1811; Buenos 
Ayres, and other provinces, 1816 ; Peru, 1826. 

[See United States, Mexico, and other states, through- 

out the volume. ] 


AMERICA, BririsH, see British America. 


AMERICA,CENTRAL, REPUBLIC OF, includes 
Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, 
and Costa Rica (which see). They declared their in- 
dependence, Sept. 21, 1821, and separated from the 
Mexican confederation, 21 July, 1823. The states 
made atreaty of union between themselves, 21 March, 
1847. There has been among them since much anarchy 
and bloodshed, aggravated greatly by the irruption of 
American filibusters under Kenny and Walker, 
1854-5. In Jan. 1863, a war began between Guate- 
mala (afterwards jomed by Nicaragua) and San 
Salvador (afterwards supported by Honduras). The 
latter were defeated at Santa Rosa, 16June, and San 
Salvador was taken, 26 Oct.; the president of San 
Salvador, Barrios, fled; and Carrera, the dictator 
of Guatemala, became predominant over the con- 
federacy. See Darien, and Panama. 


AMERICA, RuvssIANn, sold to the United 
States for about 400,000/., March, 1867. See Alaska. 


AMERICA, Sovutn, see Brazil, Argentine, 
Peru, Paraguay, Uruguay, §¢. 

‘““ AMERICA,” see Yacht. 

‘6 AMERICAN” steamer; see Wrecks, 1880. 


AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FoR THE 
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, resembling the 
British Association, held its first meeting at Phila- 
delphia 20 Sept. 1848, 28th Saratoga, 27 Aug. 1879; 
29th at Boston, 23-28 Aug. 1880; met at Cin- 
cinnati, 17 Aug. 1881; at Montreal, 26 Aug. 1882 ; 
at Minneapolis, Minnesota, 15 Aug. 1883; Phil- 
adelphia, 4 Sept. 1884. 

AMERICANISMS: a dictionary of these ex- 

ressions was compiled by John R. Bartlett, and 
first published in 1848; 4th edition, 1877. 

AMERICANINSTS, a name assumed by some 
persons devoted to the study of the archwology, 
ethnology, &c., of North and South America, who 
held their first international congress at Nancy in 
July 1875; one at Luxemburg, Sept. 1877; at 
Brussels, Sept. 1879; at Madrid, 27 Sept. 1881; 
Copenhagen, 21 Aug. 1883. © * © 


AMNESTY. 
AMERICAN ORGAN, a free-reed keyed wind 


instrument, resembling the harmonium, with im- 
portant differences; the principle was discovered 
about 1835 by a workman employed by Alexandre 
of Paris. The ,invention was taken to America, 
where instruments were made by Mason and Ham- 
lin, of Boston, about 1860. 


AMETHYST, the ninth stone upon the breast- 
plate of the Jewish high priest, 1491B.c. It is ofa 
rich violet colour. One worth 200 rix-dollars, having 
been rendered colourless, equalled a diamond in 
lustre, valued at 18,000 gold crowns. De Boot.— 
Amethysts discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1775. 


AMIENS, a city in Picardy (N. France) ; the 
cathedral was built in 1220. It was taken by the 
Spanish, 11 March, and retaken by the French, 
25 Sept. 1597. The preliminary articles of the 
peace between Great Britain, Holland, France, and 
Spain, were signed in London by lord Hawkesbury 
and M. Otto, on the part of England and France, 
I Oct. 1801; and the definitive treaty was subscribed 
at Amiens, on 27 March, 1802, by the marquis of 
Cornwallis for England, Joseph Bonaparte for 
France, Azara for Spain, and Schimmelpenninck 
for Holland. War was declared again in 1803.— 
After a conflict, in which the French were defeated, 
27 Nov. 1870, the German general, Yon Geeben 
entered Amiens, 28 Nov. 


AMMERGAU PAssIon PLAY, see Drama. 


AMMONTA, the volatile alkali, mainly pro- 
duced by the decomposition of organic substances. 
Its name is ascribed to its having been procured 
from heated camels’ dung near the temple of Jupiter 
Ammon in Libya. The discovery of its being a 
compound of nitrogen and hydrogen is ascribed to 
Joseph Priestley in 1774. By the recent labours of 
chemists both the oxide of the hypothetical metal 
ammonium, and ammonium amalgam, have been 
formed; and specimens of each were shown at the 
Royal Institution in 1856 by Dr. A. W. Hofmann, 
who has done very much for the chemical history of 
ammonia, 

Ammoniaphone. An apparatus for the improvement of 
the voice. and lungs, by inbaling combinations of 
ammonia, hydrogen, &c., invented by Dr. Carter 
Moffat, of Edinburgh, 1883. He asserted that this 
mixture resembles Italian air. The successful effects 
of inhaling the gas were shown at St. James’s Hall, 6 
Noy. 1884. 
AMMONITKES, descended from Ben-Ammi, 

the son of Lot (1897 B.c.), invaded Canaan and 

made the Israelites tributaries, but were defeated by 

Jephthah, 1143 B.c. They again invaded Canaan, 

intending to put out the right eye of all they sub- 

dued; but Saul overthrew them, 1095 B.c. They 
were afterwards many times vanquished; and 

Antiochus the Great took Rabbah their capital, 

and destroyed the walls, 198 B.c. Josephus. 


AMNESTY (a general pardon after political 
disturbances, &c.) was granted by Thrasybulus, the 
Athenian patriot, after expelling the thirty tyrants, 
403 B.c. Acts of amnesty were passed after the 
civil war in 1651, and after the two rebellions in 
England in 1715 and 1745.—After his victorious 
campaign in Italy, Napoleon III. of France granted 
an amnesty to all political offenders, 17 Aug. 1859. 
An amnesty, with certain exemptions, was granted 
to the vanquished southern states of N orth America 
by president Johnson, 29 May, 1865. An amnesty 
for political offences was granted by the emperor of 
Austria at his coronation as king of Hungary, 
8 June, 1867; arather sweeping amnesty bill was 
passed in the United States regarding the rebellion, 
10 April, 1871. An ammesty association on behalf 


i 


————___ 


AMOAFUL. 


of the Fenians was active in Britain, Oct. 1873. | 1883. Intern 


2245 French communists pardoned by decree, pub- 
lished 17 Jan. 1879; many others during the year: 
a general amnesty for political offences passed by the 
chamber (333-140) 21 June, 1880. 

AMOAFUL, near Coomassie, West Africa. 
After a severe conflict, 31 Jan. 1874, the Ashantees 
were defeated at this place by Sir Garnet Wolseley. 
Captain Buckle was killed, and about 20 officers 
and 200 men were wounded. The 42nd Highland 
Regiment was very energetic. 


AMCBSBA, see Protoplasm. 
AMOY, see China, 1853-5. 


AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, asserted 
traditionally to have been established at Ther- 
mopyle by Amphictyon, for the management of all 
affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council, 
composed of twelve of the wisest and most virtuous 
men of various cities of Greece, began 1498 [1113, 
Clinton] B.C., and existed 31 B.c. Its immediate 
office was to attend to the temples and oracles of 
Delphi. Its calling on the Greek States to punish 
the Phocians for ee Delphi caused the 
Sacred wars, 595-586, and 356-346. 


AMPHION, a British frigate, of 38 guns, blown 
ap while riding at anchor in Plymouth Sound, and 
the whole of her crew then on board, consisting of 
more than two hundred and fifty persons, officers 
and men, perished, 22 Sept. 1796. 


_ AMPHTPOLIS, Macedon (N. Greece). A city 
‘ounded here by the Athenians, 437 B.c.; was seized 
oy Brasidas the Spartan, 424; both he and the 
Athenian general, Olsen, were killed in a fruitless 
ittempt at the capture of the city by the Athenians, 
122. 


' AMPHITHEATRES, round or oval buildings 
aid to have been first constructed by Curio, 768.c., 
nd by Julius Cesar, 46B.c. In the Roman amphi- 
heatres, the people witnessed the combats of gladia- 
‘ors with wild beasts, &. They were generally 
uilt of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of 
tone, under Augustus Caesar; see Colisewm. The 
mphitheatre of Vespasian (capable of holding 
_7,000 persons) was built between a.p. 70 and 80; 
nd is said to have been a fortress in 1312. The 
_mphitheatre at Verona was next in size, and then 
aat of Nismes. 


AMPHITRITE, Tue Surp, see Wrecks, 
‘0 Aug. 1833. 


| AMPUTATION, in surgery was greatly aided 
| ythe invention of the tourniquet by Morel, a French 
;Irgeon in 1674, and of the flap-method by Lowd- 
‘am of Exeter in 1679. 


) AMSTERDAM (Holland). The castle of Am- 
el was commenced in 1100; the building of the 
\ ty im 1203. Its commerce was greatly increased 
)y the decay of that of Antwerp after 1609. The 
change was built in 1634; and the noble stadt- 
}ouse in 1648; the latter cost three millions of 
ilders, then a large sum. It was built upon 
p\,059 piles. Amsterdam surrendered to the king 
) Prussia, when that prince invaded Holland, in 
vour of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French 
}-re_admitted without resistance, 18 Jan. 1795. 
ie Dutch government was restored in Dec. 1813. 
_erystal palace for an industrial exhibition was 
-ened by prince Frederick of the Netherlands, 16 
igs 1864. ‘The canal, from Amsterdam to the 
orth Sea, was inaugurated by the king, 1 Nov. 
76. A new university was opened, Dec. 1877. 
ternational exhibition opened by the king, 1 May, 


35 


ANATHEMA. 


aS on 


ational Agricultural exhibition opened 
26 Aug. 1884. 


AMULETS or CHaArms, employed from the 
earliest times. Amulets were made of the wood of 
the true cross, about 328. 


AMYTL, achemical alcohol radical (first isolated 
by professor Edward Frankland in 1849.) 


AMYLENE, a colourless, yery mobile liquid, 
first procured by M. Balard of Paris in 1844, by 
distilling fusel oil (potato-spirit) with chloride of 
zinc. ‘lhe vapour was employed instead of chloro- 
form first by Dr. Snow in 1856. It has since been 
tried in many hospitals here and in France. The 
odour is more unpleasant than chloroform, and more 
vapour must be used. 


ANABAPTISTS, those who baptize at ful! 
age, and reject infant baptism ; see Baptists. The 
name was first given to Thomas Miinzer, Storck, 
and other fanatics who preached in Saxony in 1521, 
and excited a rebellion of the lower orders in Ger« 
many, which was quelled with bloodshed in 1525. 
A similar insurrection took place in Westphalia, 
headed by Matthias, 1533, and, after his assassina- 
tion, by John Boccold of Leyden, who was crowned 
“‘king of Sion” in Miinster, 24 June, 1534. Miin- 
ster was taken in June, 1535; and John was executed 
13 Feb. 1536. Several anabaptists were executed in. 
England in 1535, 1538, and 1540. On 6 Jan. 1661, 
about 80 anabaptists in London appeared in arms, 
headed by their preacher, Thomas Venner, a wine- 
cooper. They fought desperately, and killed many 
of the soldiers brought against them. Their leader 
and sixteen others were executed, 19 and 21 Jan. 
Annals of England. 


ANACHORETS, see Monachism., 
ANACREONTIC VERSE, of the baccha- 


nalian strain, named after Anacreon of Teos, the 
Greek lyric poet, whose odes are much prized. He 
is said to have been choked by a grape-stone in his 
eighty-fifth year, about 514 B.c. His odes have 
been frequently translated ; ‘Thomas Moore’s version 
was published in 1800. 


ANZESTHETICS, see Opium, Chloroform, 
Ether, Amylene, Kerosolene, Nitrous acid. Intense 
cold has been also employed in deadening pain. 


ANADOLIA (Asia Minor), comprises the an- 
cient Lycia, Caria, Lydia, Mysia, Bithynia, Paph- 
lagonia and Phrygia (which see). 


ANAGRAMS, formed by the transposition of 
the letters of a word or sentence (as army from 
Mary), are said to have been made by ancient 
Jews, Greeks, &c. On the question put by Pilate 
to Our Saviour, ‘‘ Quid est veritas?’ (what is 
truth ?) we have the anagram, ‘ Est vir qui adest’’ 
(‘‘ The man whois here’’) ; from ‘* Horatio Nelson,’’ 
is ‘‘ Honor est a Nilo’’ (Honour from the Nile’’). 


ANALYSTS, Society of Public, founded by 
Professor Redwood, Dr. Dupré, and others, 7 Aug. 
1874. See Adulteration. 

ANAM, see Annam. 

ANARCHISTS, see France, Oct. 1882. Many 
Anarchists tried and punished in Austria and other 
countries, 1883-5. 

SNe ene PRINTING, see Printing, 
1841. 

ANATHEMA, the sentence of excommunica- 
tion (1 Cor. xvi. 22), used by the early churches, 
365; see Excommunication. Pope Pius 1X. pro« 


pounded a series of anathemas, Feb. 1870. | 


p2 


ANATOMY. 


36 


ANDORRA. 


ANATOMY (Greek, cutting up). The human 
body was studied by Aristotle about 350 B.c., and 
became a branch of medical education under Hippo- 
crates, about 4208B.c. LErasistratus and Herophilus 
first dissected the human form, having been previ- 
ously confined to animals: it is said that they 
practised upon the bodies of living criminals, about 
300 and 293 B.c. Galen, who died A.D. 193, was a 
great anatomist. In England, the schools were long 
supplied with bodies unlawfully exhumed from 
graves; and until 1832, the bodies of executed 
murderers were ordered for dissection.* Pope Boni- 
face VIII, forbade the dissection of dead bodies, 
1297.—The first anatomical plates, designed by 
Titian, were employed by Vesalius, about 1538. 
Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michael Angelo, 
studied anatomy. The great discoveries of Harvey 
were made in 1616. William and John Hunter 
were great anatomists: William died 1783, and 
John, 1793. Quain’s and Wilson’s large anatomical 
plates were published 1842, and Bourgery’s great 
work by Jacob, 1830-55. Comparative anatomy has 
been treated systematically in the present century 
by Cuvier, Owen, Miiller, Huxley, and others.— 
The anatomy of plants has been studied since 1680; 
see Botany. 


ANCHORITES, see Monachism. 


ANCHORS were invented by the Tuscans. 
Pliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by 
Anacharsis the Scythian (592 B.c.). Strado. 
Anchors said to have been forged in England 
A.D. 578. The Admiralty anchor was introduced 
about 1841. Improved anchors were made by Pering 
and Rodgers about 1828; by Porter, 1838; by Costell, 
1848; by Trotman, 1853 ; and by several other per- 
sons. ‘l'rotman’s is attached to the Queen’s yacht 
the Fairy. The anchors of the Great Eastern are 
of enormous size. Acts for the proving and sale of 
chain cables and anchors were passed in 1864 and 


1871. 
ANCIENT BUILDINGS : a society for their 


protection from injudicious restoration, &c., was 
established in 1877; Lord Houghton, Professor 8. 
Colvin, Thomas Carlyle, and many eminent artists, 
members. 


ANCIENT CONCERTS, or ‘‘ King’s Con- 
certs,’ London. ‘‘The Concert of Antient Music”’ 
was established in 1776 by the earls of Sandwich 
and Exeter, and others. Sir Henry Bishop was 
sole conductor from 1843 to 1848, when the con- 
certs ceased. 


ANCIENT HISTORY commences in the 
Holy Scriptures 4004 B.c. and in the history of 
Herodotus about 1687 B.c., and is considered to end 
with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, 
A.D. 476. Modern history begins with Mahomet 
(A.D. 622), or with Charlemagne (768). 


* By 32 Hen. VIII. c. 42 (1540), surgeons were granted 
four bodies of executed malefactors for ‘‘ anathomyes,” 
which privilege was extended in following reigns : but in 
consequence of the crimes committed by resurrection- 
men in order to supply the surgical schools (robbing 
churchyards and even committing murder, see Burking), 
a new statute was passed in 1832, which abated the 
ignominy of dissection by prohibiting that of executed 
murderers, and made provision for the wants of surgeons 
by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection 
of persons dying in workhouses, &c. The act also ap- 
pointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the schools, 
and required persons practising anatomy to obtain a 
licence. It repealed the clauses of the act of 1828, 
which directed the dissection of the body of an executed 
anurderer. 


ANCIENT MONUMENTS i Britain. Bills 
for their preservation (especially of prehistoric) haye 
been brought into parliament in vain. One by sir 
John Lubbock, read 2nd time, 7 March, 1877, was 
withdrawn; again read 2nd time, 19 Feb. 18783: 
read 2nd time in the lords, 11 Mar. 1880. An 
act for their better preservation was passed 18 Aug. 
1882. 


ANCIENTS, see Councils, French. ‘ 


ANCONA, an ancient Roman port on the 
Adriatic. The mole was built by Trajan, 107. 
After many changes of rulers (Lombards, Saracens, 
Greeks, and Germans) Ancona was annexed to the 
papal states in 1532. It was taken by the French 
1797; retaken by the Austrians, 1799; reoceupied. 
by the French, 1801; restored to the pope, 1802. It 
was occupied by the French in 1832; evacuated in 
1838, and after an insurrection was bombarded and 
captured by the Austrians, 18 June, 1849. The 
Marches (comprising this city) rebelled against the. 
Papal government in Sept. 1860. Lamoriciére, the 
papal general, fled to Ancona after his defeat at 
Castelfidardo, but was compelled to surrender him- 
self, the city, and the garrison, on 29 Sept. The 
king of Sardinia entered soon after. 


ANCYRA, now Angora or Engour, a town in. 
ancient Galatia, Asia Minor. Councils were held 
here, 314, 358, 375. It was taken by the Persians, 
616; by the Saracens, 1085 ; by the crusaders, 1102. 
Near this city, on 28 July, 1402, Timour or Tamer- 
lane defeated and took prisoner the sultan Bajazet, 
and is said to have conveyed him to Samarcand in 
a cage. 


ANDALUSIA (S. Spain), a province once 
part of the ancient Lusitania and Betica. The 
name is a corruption of Vandalitia, it having been 
held by the Vandals from 419 to 429, when it was 
acquired by the Visigoths. ‘he latter were expelled 
by the Moors in 711, who established the kingdom 
of Cordova, and retained it till 1236. Andalusia 
suffered much by the earthquakes of Dec. 1884. 


ANDAMAN ISLANDS, inthe Bay of Bengal. 
The inhabitants are dwarts, and in the lowest state 
of barbarism. At Port Blair, on South Island, made 
a penal settlement for the Sepoy rebels in 1858, 
the earl of Mayo, viceroy of India, was assassinat 
by Shere Alee, a convict, 8 Feb. 1872, when going 
on board the Glasgow. 


ANDERNACH, Rhenish Prussia, once an im= 
perial city. Near here, the emperor Charles L., 
while attempting to deprive his nephews of their 
inheritance, was totally defeated by one of them, 
Louis of Saxony, 8 Oct. 876. 


ANDES, CoRDILLERA DE Los, the great 
mountain system of South America. 
Chimborazo, perpetually snowclad, was ascended by 

Alexander Von Humboldt to the height of 19,286 

feet, 23 June 1802; by Boussingault and Hall, 

19,695 teet, 16 Dec. 1831; by Edward Whymper, 


20,545 feet, 3 Jan. ; and 20,489 feet 3: July, 1880 
Cotopaxi, voleanic; ascended by Edward Whymper, a | 
19,600 feet 18 Keb. - jy 


He also first ascended Antisana, 19,260 feet, 10 08 
March ; and Cayambe, 19,200 feet. 4 April, 
[All these mountains are in Ecuador.] 


ANDORRA, 2 small republic in the Pyrenelle 
bearing the title of ‘tthe valleys and sovereignties 
of Andorra,’’ was made independent by Charlemagne 
about 778, certain rights being reserved to, the 
bishop of Urgel. The feudal sovereignty, which 
long appertained to the counts of Foix, reverted * 


4 
cP 7 


the French king, Henry IY., in 1589; but w 


ANDRE’S EXECUTION. 


given up in 1790. On 27 March, 1806, an imperial 
decree restored the old relations between Andorra 
and France. The republic is now governed by a 
council elected for four years; but the magistrates 
are appointed alternately by the French govern- 
ment and the Spanish bishop of Urgel, to both of 
whom tribute is paid. The population 1875 about 
5,800. Andorra, though neutral, was attacked by 
the Carlists in Sept. 1874. Disputes between the 
French government and the bishop, respecting 
arrests, &e. made by him, March; amicably settled, 
April, 1884. 


ANDRE'S EXECUTION, see United States, 
1780. 


ANDREW, ST., said to have been martyred 
by crucifixion, 30 Nov. 69, at Patra, in Achaia. 
His festival was instituted about 359. ‘The Royal 
Society’s anniversary is kept on St. Andrew’s day. 
‘The Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted in 
1698 by Peter I. For the British order, see Thistle. 


ANDREW’, ST. (E. Scotland), made a royal 
burgh in 1140. Here Robert Bruce held his first 
parliament in 1309; and here Wishart was burnt 
by archbishop Beaton, 1545, who himself was mur- 
dered here in 1546. The university was founded in 
1411 by bishop Wardlaw. The cathedral (built 
1159-1318), was destroyed by a mob, excited by a 
sermon of John Knox, June, 1559. Sir R. Sibbald’s 
list of the bishops commences with Killach, 872. 
The see became archiepiscopal in 1470, ceased soon 
after 1689; was re-instituted in 1844; see Bishops. 
Sir William Taylour Thomson bequeathed 30,000/. 
to the university, announced Oct. 1883. 


, ANDRUSSOV, PrEAcE oF (30 Jan. 1667), 
between Russia and Poland, for 13 years, with mutual 
Soncessions, although the latter had been generally 
victorious. 

~ ANEMOMETER (Greek, axemos, the wind), 


‘. measurer of the strength and velocity of the wind, 


vas invented by Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme | 


relocity was found by Dr. Lind to be 93 miles per 
tour. Qsler’s and Whewell’s anemometers were 
iighly approved of in 1844. ‘Robinson’s anemo- 
neter is the simplest and best,’’ Buchan, 1867. 


ANEROID, see Barometer. 


- ANGEL, 2 gold coin, impressed with an angel, 

veighing four pennyweights, valued at 6s. 8d. in 
he reign of Henry VI., and at ros. in the reign of 
ilizabeth, 1562. The Angelot, a gold coin, value 
.alf an angel, was struck at Paris when held by the 
Inglish, 1431. Wood. 


ANGELIC KNIGHTS or Sr. GEorGE. | 


‘his order is said to have been{instituted by Constan- 
ine, who died 337. The Angelici were instituted by 
‘he emperor Angelus Comnenus, 1191.—The Ange- 
‘e@, an order of nuns, founded at Milan by Louisa 
‘orelli, 1534. 


- ANGERS (W. Central France), the Roman 
uliomagus, possessing an amphitheatre ; afterwards 
| ndegavum, the capital of Anjou (which sec). It 
|as frequently besieged, and many councils were 
| eld in it between 453 and 1448, relating to ecclesi- 
| ‘tical discipline, 

| ANGERSTEIN GALLERY, see National 


allery. 


i 
ANGLESEY, called by the Romans Mona 
XN. Wales), the seat of the Druids, who were 
assacred in great numbers, when Suetonius 
vulinus ravaged the isle, 61. It was conquered 
’ Agricola in 78; occupied by the Normans, 1090; 


37 


ANHALT, HOUSE OF. 


and with the rest of Wales annexed by Edward I. 
in 1284. He built the fortress of Beaumaris in 
1295. The Menai suspension bridge was erected 
1818-25, and the Britannia tubular bridge 1849-50. 


: ANGLICAN CHURCH, see Church of Eng- 
and. 


ANGLING. Allusion is made to it in the 
Bible ; Amos iv. 2 (787 B.c.). 

Oppian wrote his ‘ Halieutics,” a Greek epic poem on 
Kishes and Fishing, about a.p. 198. 

In the book on “ Hawkynge and Huntynge,” by Juliana 
Berners or Barnes, prioress of Sopwell, near St. 
Albans, ‘‘emprinted at Westmestre by Wynkyn de 
Worde,” in 1496, is ‘‘ The treatise of Sysshyng with an 
Angle.” 

ee Walton’s “ Compleat Angler” was first published in 
1653. 

ANGLO-AMERICAN ASSOCIATION, 
to cultivate more cordial relations between Great 
aotie't and the United States, established 25 Jan. 
I67I. 


ANGLO-TURKISH CONVENTION, see 
Turkey, 4 June, 1878. 


ANGLO -CONTINENTAL SOCIETY 
founded in 1853 to diffuse the principles of the 
Church of England abroad: 20th anniversary kept 
at St. Paul’s, 27 Oct. 1874. 


ANGLO-SAXONS or ANGLES, derive their 
name from a village near Sleswick, called Anglen, 
whose population (called Angli by Tacitus) joined 
the first Saxon freebooters. East Anglia was a 
kingdom of the keptarchy, founded by the Angles, 
one of whose chiefs, Uffa, assumed the title of king, 
571; the kingdom ceased in 792. See Britain. 
yedmon paraphrased part of the Bible in Anglo- 
Saxon about 680; a translation of the gospels was 


| made by abbot Egbert, of Iona, 721; of Boethius, 


Orosius, &c., by Alfred, 888. The Anglo-Saxon 

laws were printed by order of government, in 1840. 

A professorship of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford was founded by 
Dr. Richard Rawlinson in 1795 ; one at Cambridge by 
Dr. Joseph Bosworth in 1867. 


ANGOLA (S. W. Africa), settled by the Portu- 
guese soon after the discovery, by Diego Cam, 
about 1484. Loando, their capital, was built 1578. 


ANGORA, see Ancyra. 
ANGOULEME, (the Roman Iculisma,) capi- 


tal of the province of Angoumois, Central France, 
W., was a bishopric in 260. Angouléme became 
an independent country about 856; was united to 
the French crown in 1308 ; was held by the Eng- 
lish, 1360 to 1372, in the reign of Edward III. 
The count of Angouléme became king of France as 
Francis I. in 1515. 


ANGRA PEQUENA; the German settle- 
ment here, north of the Orange river, South Africa, 
declared by prince Bismarck to be under the pro- 
tection of the empire, 24 April, 1884; after alleged 
vacillating British diplomacy, 1882-3. 


ANGRIA’S Fort, see India, 1756. 


ANGUILLA, Snake Island, West Indies, set- 
tled by the British, 1666. Valuable deposits of 
phosphate of lime were found here in 1859. 


ANHALT, Hovssk of, in Germany, deduces 
its origin from Berenthobaldus, who made war upon 
the Thuringians in the sixth century. In 1606, 
the principality was divided among the four sons of 
Joachim Ernest, by the eldest, John-George. Thus 
began the four branches— Anhalt-Dessau (de- 
scended from John-George) ; Zerbst, extinct, 1793; 


- , 5 


ANHOLT, ISLAND OF. 


Plotsgau or Coethen, extinct, 1847; and Bernburg, 
extinct, 1863; (the last duke died without issue, 
22 Aug. 1863.) The princes of Anhalt became 
dukes in 1809. Anhalt is an hereditary constitu- 
tional monarchy (by law Ig Feb. 1872) ; population 
in 1871, 203,437; in 1875, 213,565. 


Anhalt joined the North German Confederation, 18 Aug. 


1866. 

Leopold (born Oct. 1, 1794), became duke of Anhalt- 
Dessau, g Aug. 1817, and of Anhalt-Bernburg, 30 Aug. 
1863; died 22 May, 1871. 

Frederic, duke of Anhalt ; born 29 April, 1837. 

Heir: Leopold, born 18 July, 1855. 


ANHOLT, IsuAnp oF, Denmark, was taken 
possession of by England, 18 May, 1809, in the 
French war, on account of Danish cruisers injuring 
British commerce. The Danes made a fruitless 
attempt to regain it, 27 March, 1811. 


ANILINE, an oily alkaline body, discovered 
in 1826 by Unverdorben among the products of 
distillation of indigo. From benzole (which see) 
Bechamp, in 1856, obtained it by successive treat- 
ment with concentrated nitric acid and reducing 
agents. The scientific relations of aniline have 
been carefully examined by several chemists, 
especially by Dr. A. W. Hofmann. It was long 
known to yield a series of coloured compounds, but 
it was not till 1856 that Mr. W. H. Perkin showed 
how a violet oxidation-product (mauve) could be 
appliedin dyeing. Anilineis now manufactured on 
a large scale for the commercial production of 
‘*Mauve” and ‘‘ Magenta’ (rosaniline) (which 
see), and several other colouring matters, aniline 
blue, 1861; violet, 1863; ‘‘night”’ green, &e. 
After much litigation, the patent of Simpson, 
Maule, and Nicholson, for aniline colours, was an- 
nulled by the house of lords, 27 July, 1866. See 
Alizarine. 


ANIMALCULES, Leeuwenhock’s remarkable 
microscopical discoveries were published in the 
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 
for 1677, in his ‘‘ Arcana Nature,” at Leyden, 1696. 
The great works of Ehrenberg of Berlin on the 
Infusorial Animalcule, &c., were issued 1838-57. 
Pritchard’s Infusoria, ed. 1861, and Mr. W. Savile 
Kent’s Manual of Infusoria, 3 volumes, 1880-2, 
are valuable. The Rev. W. H. Dallinger and Dr. 
Drysdale, by their unwearied continuous micro- 
scopical observations of bacteria and other low 
forms of life, have greatly increased our knowledge : 


1873-8. 


ANIMAL MAGNETISM (to cure diseases 
by sympathetic affection) was introduced by father 

ehl, a Jesuit, at Vienna, about 1774, and had its 
dupes in France and England about 1788-89. 
Hehl for a short time associated with Mesmer, but 
they soon quarrelled.—Mr. Perkins (who died in 
1799) invented ‘‘ Metallic Tractors for collecting, 
condensing, and applying animal magnetism ;” 
but Drs. Falconer and Haygarth put an end to his 
pretensions by performing many wonders with a 
pair of wooden tractors. Brande. See Mesmerisin, 
Animal magnetism disproved by commissions of the 
French Academy of Sciences, 1837-8; investigation 
closed as of a ‘‘ dead letter,’’ 1840. . 


ANIMALS, CrvuELTY To. Mr. Martin, 
M.P., as a senator, zealously laboured to repress 
it; and in 1824, the Royal Society for the Preven- 
tion of Cruelty to Animals was instituted. Its 
new house in Jermyn-street, London, was founded 
4 May, 1869, It opposed vivisection in 1860, in 
unison with a French society, and in Oct. 1873, 
offered premiums for improved trucks for conveying 


38 


ANNAM. 


cattle. A jubilee congress of this and similar 
societies met in London 17 June, 1874. Convic- 
tions obtained by the society 1835 to June, 1876, 
28,209. See Vivisection. Mr. Martin’s act was 
passed 1822, and similar acts were passed in 1827, 
1835, 1837, 1849, and 1854. Dogs were forbidden 
to be used for draught in 1839. 


“ Fellowship of Animals’ Friends,’’ organised about 
10 July, 1879; earl of Shaftesbury, president. With) 
similar object Mr. Ruskin founded St. George’s Guild. 
The Dicky Birds Society in the northern counties 
numbered 8,000 members in 1883. 


ANIMISM, the doctrine that the soul is the 
only cause of life, and that the functions of animals 
and plants depend upon vitality, and not on mere 
chemical and mechanical action, was opposed by 
Descartes (died 1650) and others; see Materialism, 


ANJOU, aprovince, W. France, was taken by 
Henry II. of England from his brother Geoffrey, 
in 1156; their father Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of 
Anjou, having married the empress Matilda in 1127. 
It was taken from king John by Philip of France 
in 1205; was reconquered by Edward III. ; relin- 
quished by him at the peace of Brétigny in 1360, 
and given by Charles Y. to his brother Louis with 
the title of duke. The university was formed in 
1349. | 
1360. Louis I. duke, invested by the pope with the 

dominions of Joanna of Naples, 138£; his invading 

army destroyed by the plague, 1383; he dies, 1384. 
1384. Louis II., his son, receives the same grant, but is” 

also unsuccessful. 

Louis III., adopted by Joanna ; dies 1434. . 
1434. Regnier or René le bon (a prisoner) declared king 
of Naples, 1435; his daughter, Margaret, married 

Henry VI. of England, 1445; he was expelled from 

Anjou by Louis XI., 1474, and his estates confiscated. 
Francis, duke of Alenecon, brother to Henry III. of 

France, became duke of Anjou; at one time he 

favoured the Protestants, and vainly offered marriage to 

Elizabeth of England, 1581-82 ; died 1584. 


ANJOU or BEAUGE, BATTLE oF, between 
the English and French; the latter commanded by 
the dauphin of France, 22 March, 1421. The Eng- 
lish were defeated: the duke of Clarence was slain 
by sir Allan Swinton, a Scotch knight, and 1500 
men perished on the field; the earls of Somerset, 
Dorset, and Huntingdon were taken prisoners. 
Beaugé was the first battle that turned the tide of 
success against the English. . 


ANNAM or ANAM, az empire of Asia, to the 
east of India, nominally subject to China, com= 
prising Tonquin, Cochin China, part of Cambodia, 
and various islands in the Chinese Sea; said to. 
have been conquered by the Chinese, 234 B.C, 
and held by them till a.p. 263. In 1406 they 
reconquered it, but abandoned it in cae After | 
much anarchy, bishop Adran, a French missionary, 
obtained the friendship of Louis XVI. for his 
pupil Gia-long, the son of the nominally reign- 
ing monarch, and with the aid of a few of his 
countrymen established Gia-long on the throne, 
who reigned till his death in 1821, when his son 
became king. In consequence of the persecution of 
the Christians, war broke out with the French, 
who defeated the army of Annam, 10,000 strong, 
about 22 April, 1859, when 500 were killed. On3 
June, 1862, peace was made; three provinces were 
ceded to the French, and toleration of the Christians 
granted. An insurrection in these provinces agai 
the French, begun about 17 Dec. 1862, was sup= 
pressed in Feb. 1863. Ambassadors sent from Am- 
nam with the view of regaining the ceded proyine 
arrived at Paris in Sept. 1863, had no success. Cochin 


\ 


ANNAPOLIS. 


China and other provinces were annexed to the 
French empire by proclamation, 25 June, 1867. 
Several native Christians were massacred by order 
of a bonze, July, 1868. 


By a treaty concluded 15 March, 1874, at Saigon, the | 


independence of the king of Annam was recognised by 
France, the ports were opened to commerce, and toler- 
ation of the Christian religion was secured. 

Tu Due, emperor, 34 years, resists the French in Tonquin, 
(which see), 1883; dies aged 54, 17 July, 1883; 
Heiphma succeeds. 

The French protectorate recognized by treaty signed 
at Hue . f ‘ j ‘ : - 25 Aug. 1883 

The King assassinated by enemies of the French, 
Dec., succeeded by Yoe-Due about14 Dec. ,, 

The prince who promoted massacres of Christians 
in December and January executed about 26 Mar. 1884 

The king dies, succeeded by his brother Kienphuoc 

announced 2 Aug. ,, 


ANNAPOLIS, sce Port Royal. 


ANNATES, see First Fruits. 
ANNO DOMINI, A.D., the year of Our 


Lord, of Grace, of the Incarnation, of the Circum- 
cision, and of the Crucifixion (Trabeationis). The 
Christian era commencéd 1 Jan. in the middle of 
the 4th year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753rd year 
of the building of Rome, and in 4714 of the 
Julian period. This era was invented by a 
monk, Dionysius Exiguus, about 532. It was 
introduced into Italy in the 6th century, und 
ordered to be used by bishops by the council of 
Chelsea, in 816, but was not generally employed 
for several centuries. Charles III. of Germany was 
the first who added “tin the year of our Lord” to 
his reign, in 879. It was formerly held that Christ 
was born Friday, 5 April, 4 2.c. 


ANNO MUNDI, see Creation. 
“ANNOYANCE JURIES,” of Westmin- 


ster, chosen from the householders in conformity 
with 27 Eliz. c. 17 (1585), were abolished in 1861. 


ANNUAL REGISTER, a summary of the 
history of each year (beginning with 1758, and 
continued to the present time), was commenced by 
R. & J. Dodsley. (Edmund Burke at first wrote 
the whole work, but afterwards became only an 
occasional contributor. Prior.) A similar work, 
** Annuaire des Deux Mondes,”’ began in Paris 1850. 


ANNUALS, 2a name given to richly bound 
volumes, containing poetry, tales, and essays, by 
eminent authors, illustrated by engravings, pub- 
lished annually, at first in Germany, and also in 
London in 1823. The duration of the chief of these 
publications is here given: 


Forget-me-not (Ackerman’s) , ‘ 1823-48 
Friendship’s Offering . i : ; ‘ 1824-44 
Literary Souvenir (first as “the Graces”) . 1824-34 
Amulet . P . : : ; : Z 1827-34 
Keepsake . § 1828-56 
Hood’s Comie Annual . 1830-42 


| ; 

ANNUITIES or Penstons. In 1512, 20/7. a 
year were given to a lady of the court for services 
done; and 6/. 13s. 4d. for the maintenance of a 
gentleman, 1536. 13/. 6s. 8d. deemed competent 
to support a gentleman in the study of the law, 
1554. An act was passed empowering the govern- 
ment to borrow one million sterling upon an an- 
auity of fourteen per cent., 4-6 Will. & Mary, 1691-3. 
This mode of borrowing soon afterwards became 
general among governments. An annuity of 
1. 28, 11d. per annum, accumulating at 10 per cent., 
sompound interest, amounts in 100 years to 20,000/. 
The Government Annuities and Life Assurances 
Act was passed in 1864, for the benefit of the 


39 


ANTHOLOGY, GREEK. 


working classes; since it enables the government 
to grant deferred annuities for sums payable in 
small instalments. New system of government 
annuities came into operation 3 June, 1884. Works 
on annuities were published by De Witt, 1671; De 
Moivre, 1724; Simpson, 1742; ‘I'ables by Price, 
1792; Milne, 1815; Jones, 18434 Farre, 1864; In- 
stitute of Actuaries, 1872. 


ANNUITY TAX: a tax levied to provide 
stipends for ministers in Edinburgh and Montrose, 
and which caused much disaffection, was abolished 
in 1860, and other provisions made for the pur- 
pose. These, however, proved equally unpalatable, 
and its abolition was provided for by an act passed 
g Aug. 1870. 


ANNUNCIATION oF THE Vincin Mary, 


| 25th of March, Lady-day (which see), a festival 


commemorating the tidings brought to Mary by the 
angel Gabriel (Luke i. 26): its origin is referred 
to the 4th or Sth century. The religious order of 
the Annunciation was instituted in 1232, and the 
military order, in Savoy, by Amadeus, count of 
Savoy about 1362, in memory of Amadeus I., who 
had bravely defended Rhodes against the Turks, 
1355. New statutes, 1869. 


ANOINTING, an ancient ceremony observed 
at the inauguration of priests, kings, and bishops. 
Aaron was anointed as high priest, 1491 B.c.; and 
Saul, as king, 1095 B.c. Alfred the Great is said 
to have been the first English king anointed, A.D. 
871; and Edgar of Scotland, 1098.—The religious 
rite is derived from the epistle of James v. 14, about 
A.D. 60. Some authors assert that in 550, dying 
persons, and persons in extreme danger of death, 
were anointed with consecrated oil, and that this 
was the origin of Extreme Unction (one of the 
sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church). 


ANONYMOUS LETTERS, see Threatening 
Letters. 


ANORTHOSCOPE, a new optical apparatus, 
described by Dr. Carpenterin 1868. In it distorted 
figures lose their distortion when put into rapid 
motion. 


ANTALCIDAS, PrAcE or. In 387 B.c. 
Antalcidas the Lacedzemonian made peace with 
Artaxerxes of Persia, on behalf of Greece, but prin- 
cipally in favour of Sparta, giving up the cities of 
Tonia to the king. 

ANTARCTIC POLE, &c., the opposite to the 


north or arctic pole; see Southern Continent, 


ANTEDILUVIAN HISTORY, Genesis iv., 
v., vi. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, 
the number of people in the ancient world, previous 
to the Flood, reached to 549,755 millions in the year 
of the world 1482. 


ANTHEMS were originally antiphons—short 
pieces of plain-song sung before the psalms, Gene- 
rally responsive antiphonic music was used in jewish. 
and early christian worship. Hilary, bishop of 
Poictiers, and St. Ambrose composed such about the 
middle of the 4th century. Lenglet. The modern 
anthem, a passage of scripture set to music, was 
introduced into the Reformed churches in queen 
Elizabeth’s reign, about 1560. 

EnciisH ANTHEM WRITERS: 1520-1625, Tye, Tallis, 
Byrd, Gibbons ; 1650-1720, Humphrey, Blow, Purcell, 
Croft, Clarke ; 1720-1845, Greene, Boyce, Hayes, Kent, 
Battishill, Attwood, Walmisley. 


ANTHOLOGY, GREEK; «2 collection «of 


popular epigrams and small poems written by 


ANTHRACENE. 


40 


ANTI-PYROGENE. 


Archilochus, Sappho, Simonides, Meleager, Plato, 
and others, between 680 and 95 B.c. They were 
collected by Meleager, Philippus, Agathias, and 
others, especially by Maximus Planudes, a monk 
in the 14th century A.D., anda MS. collection by 
Constantine Cephalas was found at Heidelberg by 
Salmasius in 1606; and published by Brunck 
1772-6. ‘Translations have been made by Bland, 
Merivale, and others. 


ANTHRACENE, see Alizarine. 
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY (an- 


thropos, Greek for man), for promoting the science 
of man and mankind, held its first meeting on 24 
Feb. 1863; Dr. James Hunt, president, in the 
chair. The ‘ Anthropological Review ”’ first came 
out in May, 1863. The Anthropological and Ethno- 
logical Societies were amalgamated 17 Jan. 1871, 
and styled ‘‘The Anthropological Institute,’ Sir 
John Lubbock, president. The London Anthro- 
pological Society established 1873, ceased 1875. An 
‘Anthropological congress at Paris was opened 16 
Aug. 1878; others since. The Anthropometrical 
Committee reported to the British Association the 
results of measuring about 53,000 persons in the 
United Kingdom, Sept. 1883. 


ANTHROPOMORPHITES, a name given 


to the Audiani, which see. 


ANTHROPOPHAGI (eaters of human flesh), 


see Cannibals. 


ANTI-AGGRESSION LEAGUE (oppo- 
sing interference in foreign affairs) formed by Mr. 
John Morley and others, Feb. 1882. 


ANTIBURGHERS, sce Burghers. 


ANTICHRIST (opposed to Christ), 1 Johm ii. 
18, termed the ‘‘Man of sin,’ 2 Thess. ii. 3; of 
these passages many interpretations have been given, 
and many myths were current in the middle ages, 
respecting the incarnation of the devil, &c. The 
term is applied to each other by Roman Catholics 
and Protestants. 


ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE (for pro- 
curing the repeal of the laws charging duty on the 
importation of corn), sprung from various metro- 

olitan and provincial associations, was founded at 

anchester, 18 Sept. 1838, and supported by Messrs. 
Charles Villiers, Richard Cobden, John Bright, &c.; 
John Benjamin Smith, Ist chairman, d. 15 Sept. 
1879. See Corn Laws, and Protectionists. 


Meetings held in various places March & April, 1841 
Excited meeting at Manchester ea, LO MAY. 
A bazaar held at Manchester, at which the League 
realised 10,0001. F ke 5 : . 2Feb. 
About 6co deputies connected with provincial asso- 
ciations assemble in London. Feb.-Aug. ,, 
The League at Manchester proposed to raise 
50,0001,, to depute lecturers throughout the 
country, and to print pamphlets ‘ 20 Oct. 
‘First meeting at Drury-lane Theatre . 15 March, 
Monthly meetings at Covent-Garden, commenced 
28 Sept. ; great free-trade meetings at Manchester 
14 Nov. 1843, and 22 Jan. 
Bazaar at Covent-Garden opened coms Mayes, 
Great Manchester meeting, at which the League 
proposed to raise 250,000l. 23) DGG r is. 
The Corn Importation Bill having passed, 26 June, 
the League is formally dissolved ; Mr. Cobden was 
rewarded by a national subscription, nearly 
80,0001. Fi e ‘ ‘ ; : .2duly, 
On the accession of the Derby ministry, a revival of 
the Anti-Corn-Law League was proposed at Man- 
chester, and a subscription was opened, which 
produced within halfan hour 27,520l. (soon proved 
unnecessary) . . 2 Mar. 1852 


- ANTIETAM 


1842 


CREEK, near Sharpsburg, 


Maryland, U. 8. Here was fought a terrible battle 
on 17 Sept. 1862, between the Iederals under gene- 
ral M‘Clellan and the Confederates under Lee. 
After his victory at Bull Run or Manassas, 30 Aug., 
Lee invaded Maryland, and was immediately fol- 
lowed by M‘Clellan. On 16 Sept. Lee was joined 
by Jackson, and at five o’clock next morning the 
conflict began. About 100,000 men were engaged, 
and the battle raged till night. The Federals were 
repeatedly repulsed; but eventually the Con-' 
federates retreated and repassed the Potomac on 
18 and 19 Sept. The loss of the Federals was 
estimated at 12,469; of the Confederates, 14,000. 
ss pees cemetery here, was dedicated 17 Sept. 
1867. 


ANTIGUA, a West Indian Island, discovered 
by Columbus in Nov. 1493; settled by the English in 
1632; made a bishopric, 1842. Population in 1874, 
35,042. Governor, sir B. C. C. Pine, 1869; hon. 
H. T. Irving, 1873; hon. Geo. Berkeley, 1874-80; sir 
J. H. Glover, 1881; sir Charles Cameron Lees, 1883. 


ANTILLES, or CARIBBEE ISLANDS, an early 
name of the West Indies (which see). 


ANTIMONY, a white brittle metal, com- 
pounds of which were early known. It was, and 
is still, used to blacken both men’s and women’s 
eyes in the east (2 Kings ix. 30, and Jeremiah iv. 
30). Mixed with lead it forms printing type metal. 
Basil Valentine wrote on antimony about 1410, 
Priestley. See Bravo Case. 

ANTINOMIANS (from the Greek anti, 
against, and xomos, law), a name given by Luther 
(in 1538) to John Agricola, who is said to have 
held ‘that it mattered not how wicked a man was 
if he had but faith.’’ (Opposed to Rom. iii. 28, & 
v. I, 2.) He retracted these doctrines in 1540. The 
Antinomians were condemned by the British par- 
liament, 1648. 


ANTIOCH, now ANTAKIEH, Syria, built by 
Seleucus, 300 B.c. after the battle of Ipsus, 301, 
acquired the name *‘ Queen of the East.’’ Here the 
disciples were first called Christians, a.p. 42 (Acts 
xi. 26). Antioch was taken by the Persians, 540; 
by the Saracens about 638; recovered for the Eastern 
emperor, 966; lost again in 1086; retaken by the 
Crusaders in June, 1098, and made capital of a 
principality, 1099; and held by them till June, 
1268, when it was captured by the sultan of Egypt. 
It was taken from the Turks in the Syrian war, I 
Aug. 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, but restored at the 
peace. Antioch suffered much by an earthquake, 
and about 1600 persons were killed, 3 April, 1872. 
—The Era of Antioch is much used by the early 
Christian writers of -Antioch and Alexandria; it 
placed the Creation 5492 years B.C. 31 councils were 
held at Antioch, 252-1161. 


ANTIPHONS, see Anthems. 


ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first 
who thought it possible that antipodes existed 
(about 388 B.c.). Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, 
legate of pope Zachary, is said to have denounced 
a bishop as a heretic for maintaining this doc- 
trine, A.D. 741. The antipodes of England lie to the 
south-east of New Zealand, near Antipodes Island, 


ANTI-POPES, rival popes elected at various 
times, especially by the French and Italian factions, 
from 1305 to 1439. In the article Popes, the Anti- 
popes are printed in ¢tadics. 

ANTI-PYROGENE, or FIRE PREVEN- 
TIVE. <A chemical preparation tried at Berlin 30 
Dec. 1881. A company for its use has been formed. 


ANTIQUARIES. 


41 


APOLLINARISTS. 


 ANTIQUARIES. A college of antiquaries is 
said to have existed in Ireland, 700 B.c. ‘the annual 
International Congress of Prehistoric Archwxology, 
originated at La Spezzia in 1865; meetings have 
been held since at Paris, Norwich, &c. 


A society was founded by archbishop Parker, Camden, 
Stow, and others in 1572. Spelman. 

Application was made to Elizabeth for a charter, her 

_ death ensued, and her successor, James I., was far 
from favouring the design. 

The ‘‘ Antiquaries’ feast,” mentioned by Ashmole, 2 
July, 1659. 

The Society of Antiquaries revived, 1707; received its 
charter of incorporation from George II., 2 Nov. 1751; 
inet in Chancery Lane, 1753; apartments in Somerset- 
house (granted 1776 ;) occupied, 15 Feb., 1781; removed 
to Burlington House, 1874; first meeting 14 Jan., 
1875. Memoirs, entitled ‘‘ Archzeologia,” first pub- 
lished in 1770; President, earl Stanhope, elected, 1846; 
died 24 Dec., 1875; succeeded by Frederic Ouvry ; by 
the earl of Carnarvon, 1878. 

British Archeological Association founded Dec. 1843. 

Archeological Institute of Great Britain formed by a 
seceding part of the Association, 1845. 

society of Antiquaries of Edinburgh founded in 1780. 

since 1845 many county archeological: societies have 
been formed in the United Kingdom. 

"he Society of Antiquaries of France (1814) began in 1805 
as the Celtic Academy. 

‘The Antiquary,” a magazine, began 1880. 


ANTISANA, see Andes. 
ANTI-SLAVERY SOCIETY. See under 


Slave Trade. 

ANTI -TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of 
3yzantium, at the close of the 2nd century, is sup- 
sosed to have been the first who advocated the sim- 
le humanity of Jesus. See Arians, Socinians, 
Jnitarians. 


ANTIUM, maritime city of Latium, now Porto 
’ Anzio, near Rome, after a long struggle for inde- 
endence, became a Roman colony, at the end of the 
reat Latin war, 340-338 B.c. It is mentioned by 
forace, and was a favourite retreat of the emperors 
nd wealthy Romans, who erected many villas in 
8 vicinity. The treasures deposited in the temple 
{ Fortune here were taken by Octavius Casar during 
is war with Antony, 41 B.c. 


ANTIVARI, a seaport on the Adriatic, ceded 
) Montenegro by the Berlin treaty, 13 July, 1878. 
ANTONELLI CASE, see Italy, 1877-9. 


ANTONINUS’ WALL, see Roman Walls. 
ANTWERP (French, Anvers), the principal 


ort of Belgium, is mentioned in history in 517. It 
‘as a small republic in the 11th century, and was 
ie first commercial city in Europe till the wars of 
1e 16th and 17th centuries. 


8 fine exchange built . i 


° . . « I531 
uken after 14 months’ siege by the prince of Parma “4 
17 Aug. 1585 
tuce of Antwerp (between Spain and United Pro- 
vinces) for 12 years, concluded - 29 Mar. 1609 
‘uch injured by the imposition of a toll on the 
Scheldt by the treaty of Miinster ; Sed aap: 
fter Marlborough’s victory at Ramillies, Antwerp 
‘surrenders at once : 5 ; - 6June, 1706 
ie Barrier treaty concluded here, 16 Nov. 1715 
iken by marshal Saxe , . ‘ < 9 May, 1746 


2eupied by the French . + 1792-3, 1794-1814 
vil war between the Belgians and the House of 
Orange. (See Belgium.) ; : F 1830-31 
ce Belgian troops, having entered Antwerp, were 
opposed by the Dutch garrison, who, after a 
dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel, 
sannonaded the town with red-hot balls 27 Oct. 1830 
e citadel bombarded by the French, 4 Dec. ; sur- 
vendered by gen. Chassé . : ; - 23 Dec. 1832 
change burnt ; archives, &c., destroyed 2 Aug. 1858 
tine-art féte held . ARE BY toe aes 17-20 Aug. 1861 


Great Napoleon wharf destroyed by fire; loss 25 
lives and about 400,000l. . 2 Dec. 1861 


Great féte at the opening of the port by the aboli- 
tion of the Scheldt dues  .  . . 3 Aug. 1863 
Fortifications constructed . é ‘ : 1860-70 


Statue of Leopold I. uncovered : : 2 Aug. 1868 
Tercentenary of Rubens’ birth, celebrated . 18 Aug. 1877 
Plantin-Moretus Museum, containing collections of 
about 300 years, viz.: 12,000 old letters, printing 
types, povtraits, &c., made by the Plantins 
(descendants of Charles de Tiercelin, seigneur de 
la Roche du Maine), who were printers to the 
kings of Spain; opened . about 20 Aug. 1877 
International Exhibition in 1885, proposed. July, 1884 


ANVAR-I-SUHAILI, or the Lights of Cano- 
pus, the ancient Persian version of the ancient 
Fables of Pilpay, Bidpai, or Vishnu Sarma, made 
by Husain Vaiz, at the order of Nushirvan, king of 
Persia. The English translation by E. B. Eastwick, 
published 1854. See Fudles. 

ANZIN COAL MINES, near Valenciennes, 
N. France: first tapped 24 June, 1734. ‘Che com- 
pany formed has become immensely rich: cabinet 
ministers generally directors. Output, in 1790, 
300,000 tons: in 1872, 2,200,000 tons. 


APATITE, mineral phosphate of lime. About 
1856 it began to be largely employed asmanure. It 
is abundant in Norway, and in Sombrero, a small 
West India Island. 


APOCALYPSE or REVELATION, written by 


St. John in the isle of Patmos about A.D. 95.* 


APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apo- 
crypha it is said, ‘These books are neyther found in 
the Hebrue nor in the Chalde.” Buble, 1539. The 
history of the Apocrypha ends 135 .c. "The books 
were not in the Jewish canon, were rejected at the 
council of Laodicea about A.D. 366, but were re- 
ceived as canonical by the Roman Catholic church 
at the council of Trent on 8 April, 1546. Parts of 
the Apocrypha were admitted to be read as lessons 
by the church of England, by the 6th article, 1563. 
Many of these were excluded by the act passed 1871. 


i Esdras : é : ‘ from about B.c. 623-445 
2 Esdras . : F , F ie wei 
Tobit é 5 : ‘ ‘ 734-678 
Judith . : : ‘ ‘ oy 656 
Esther ; s Stan 510 
Wisdoin of Solomon . ‘ Pee rset 
Ecclesiasticus z : B.C. 300 or 180 
Baruch . : - ; : P y Rcnrh ies fies 
Song of the Three Children . “ ‘ aris tea 
History of Susannah Fi ; F : aor geacy pen 
Bel and the Dragon 4 : A 3 Slee es 
Prayer of Manasses . - s ‘ B.C. 676 
1 Maccabees P e é F about 323-135 


2 Maccabees ; : : é 
There are also Apocryphal writings 

the New Testament. 

APOLLINARISTS, followers of Apollinaris, 
a reader in the church of Laodicea, who taught 
(366) that the divinity of Christ was instead of a 
soul to him; that his flesh was pre-existent to his 
appearance upon earth, and was sent down from 
heaven, and conveyed through the Virgin; that 
there were two sons, one born of God, the other of 
the Virgin, &e. ‘These opinions were condemned 
by the council of Constantinople, 381. 


from about 187-161 
in connection with 


* Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the here- 
tic, and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In 
the first centuries many churches disowned it, and in the 
4th century it was excluded from the sacred canon by 
the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other 
councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held in 1545, 
et seq. Although the book had been rejected by Luther, 
Michaelis, and others, and its authority questioned in 
all ages, from the time of Justin Martyr (who wrote his 
first Apology for Christians in A.D. 139), yet its canonical 
authority is still almost universally acknowledged. 


APOLLO. 


APOLLO, the god of the fine arts, medicine, 
music, poetry, and eloquence, had many temples 
and statues, particularly in Greece and Italy. His 
most splendid temple at Delphi was built 1263 B.c. ; 
see Delphi. His temple at Daphne, built 434 B.c., 
during a period in which pestilence raged, was burnt 
A.D. 362, and the Christians were accused of the 
crime. Lenglet. ‘The statue of Apollo Belvedere, 
discovered at Antium, in Italy, in 1503, was purchased 
by pope Julius II., who placed it in the Vatican. 


APOLLONICON, an elaborate musical in- 
strument, constructed on the principle of the organ 
(keys and barrel), was invented by Messrs. Flight 
and Robson, of St. Martin’s lane, Westminster, and 
exhibited by them first in 1817. Timobs. 


APOLOGIES For CHRISTIANITY were ad- 
dressed by Justin Martyr to the emperor Antoninus 
Pius about 139, and to the Roman senate about 164. 
Other apologies were written by Quadratus, Aris- 
tides, and other early fathers of the Church. 


APOSTLES (Greek, apostolos, one sent forth). 
Twelve were appointed by Christ, a.D. 31; viz. 
Simon Peter and Andrew (brothers), James and 
John (sons of Zebedee), Philip, Nathanael (or Bar- 
tholomew), Matthew (or Levi), Thomas, James the 
Less (son of Alpheus), Simon the Canaanite and 
Jude or Thaddeus (brothers), and Judas Iscariot. 
Matthias was elected in the room of Judas Iscariot, 
A.D. 33 (Acts i.); and Paul and Barnabas were 
appointed by the Holy Spirit, A.p. 46 (ets xiii. 2). 


APOSTLES’ CREED, erroneously attributed 
to the apostles, is mentioned as the Roman creed by 
Rufinus, died about 410. Irenzeus, bishop of Lyons, 
died 202, gives a creedresemblingit. Itsrepetition 
in public worship was ordained in the Greek church 
at Antioch, and in the Roman church in the 11th 
century, whence it passed to the church of England. 


APOSTOLICAL, see Canons and Fathers, 
APOSTOLICTI, a sect, at the end of the 2nd 


century, which renounced marriage, wine, flesh, &e. 
A second sect, founded by Sagarelli about 1261, 
wandered about, clothed in white, with long beard, 
dishevelled hair, and bare heads, accompanied by 
women called spiritual sisters, preaching against 
the growing corruption of the church of Rome, and 
predicting its downfall. They renounced baptism, 
the mass, purgatory, &c., and by their enemies 
were accused of gross licentiousness. Sagarelli was 


burnt alive at Parma in 1300, and his followers | 


were dispersed in 1307, and extirpated about 1404. 


APOTHECARY (literally, a keeper of a store- 
house). On 10 Oct. 1345, Edward III. settled six- 
pence per diem for life on Coursus de Gangeland, 
Apothecarius London’, for taking care of him 
during his severe illness in Scotland. Rymer’s 
Federa; see Pharmacy and Medical Council. 


Apothecaries exempted from serving on juries or 
other civil offices 3 ; : Bish he 
London Apothecaries’ Company separated from the 
Grocers’ and incorporated, 1617 ; hall built - 1670 
Their practice regulated and their authority ex- 
tended over all England, by the Apothecaries act, 
55 Geo. III. c. 19 (1815), amended by 6 Geo. IV. 
C. 133, 1825; and by 37 & 38 Vict. c. 34 . s 
Botanical Garden at Chelsea left by sir Hans Sloane 
to the company, Jan. 1753, on condition of 
their introducing every year fifty new plants, 
until their number should amount to 2000 =~ Jan. 1755 
The Dublin guild incorporated . ° = Ca rons Oy 


APOTHEOSIS, a ceremony of the ancient 
nations of the world, by which they raised their 
kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The deify- 


1874 


42 


APPLES. f 


ing a deceased emperor was begun at Rome 
Augustus, in favour of Julius Cesar, 13B.c. Zil 
mont. 


APPEAL or AssIzE OF BATTLE. By t 
old law of England, a man charged with mur 
might fight with the appellant, thereby to ma 
proof of his guilt or innocence. In 1817, a you 
maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have be 
violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, wl 
on trial, was acquitted. In an appeal, he claim 
his right by wager of battle, which the co 
allowed; but the appellant (the *brother of t 
maid) refused the challenge, and the accused y 
discharged, 16 April, 1818. This law was stru 
off the statute-book, by 59 Geo. III. ce, 46 (1819) 


In 1631 lord Rea impeached Mr. David Ramsey 
treason, and offered battle in proof; a commiss: 
es appointed, but the duel was prohibited by k 

ames I, 


APPEALS. In the time of Alfred (869-90 
appeals lay from courts of justice to the king 
council; but being soon overwhelmed with appe 
from all parts of England, he framed the body 
laws which long served as the basis of Engl: 
jurisprudence. ‘The house of lords is the high 
court of appeal in civil causes. Courts of appeal 
the Exchequer Chamber, in error from the juc 
ments of the superior and criminal courts, wi 
regulated by statutes in 1830 and 1848. -Appe 
from English tribunals to the pope were first int 
duced about II he were long vainly opposed, a 
were abolished by Henry VIII. 1 5343 restored 
Mary, 1554; again abolished by Elizabeth, 1559. 
proposition for establishing an imperial court 
appeal submitted to the house of lords by the k 
chancellor Hatherley, 15 April; was referred t 
select committee, 30 April, 1872. A similar propo 
tion by lord chancellor Selborne, 13 Feb. 1873. § 
Privy Council, and Justices, Lord. 


The jurisdiction of the House of Lords as a court 
appeal was abolished by the Judicature Act, 18 
The abolition was suspended in 1875; and a pro 
sional court established, which first sat 8 Noy. 18: 
present the Lord Chancellor, Lord Coleridge, Ba 
Bramwell, and Justice Brett. 

The House of Lords was reconstructed as a court 
final appeal by the Appellate Jurisdiction Act int 
duced by Lord Cairns, 11 Feb., and passed it A 
1876. 

Two Lords of Appeal were to be appointed ; to be pe 
for life. Appeals may be heard during prorogation 
dissolution of Parliament. 

The new Supreme Court of Appeal first sat 2r Ni 
1876. 

A criminal appeal bill introduced ; withIrawn 21 A' 
1883. 


APPENZELL, a Swiss canton, threw off t 
supremacy of the abbots of St. Gall early in the I: 
century, and became the thirteenth member of 1 
Swiss confederation, 1513. 


APPIAN WAY, a Roman. road, made 
Appius Claudius Czecus, while censor, 312 B.C. 


APPLES. Several kinds are indigenous 
England; but those in general use have be 
brought at various times, from the contine! 
Richard Harris, fruiterer to Henry VIIL., is said 
have planted a great number of the orchards 
Kent, and lord Scudamore, ambassador to France 
the reign of Charles I., planted many of those 
Herefordshire. Ray reckons 78 varieties of app 
in his day (1688). In 1866 there were 1500 variet 
in the collection of the Royal Horticultural Socie 
many not worth cultivation, Grand Apple congr 
at Chiswick, 5-25 Oct. 1883. 


APPORTIONMENT ACT. 43 AQUILEIA. 


APPORTIONMENT ACT (for rents) passed | 


1 Aug. 1870. 
APPRAISERS. The valuation of goods for 


another was an early business in Mngland; and so 
early as 1283, by the statute of merchants, or of 
Acton Burnel, ‘‘it was enacted that if they valued 
the goods of parties too high, the appraisers should 
take them at such price as they have limited.’’ In 
1845 their annual licence was raised from Ios. to 40s. 


APPRENTICES. Those of London were 
obliged to wear blue cloaks in summer, and blue 
gowns in winter, in the reign of queen Elizabeth, 
I 558. Ten pounds was then a great apprentice fee. 
From twenty to one hundred pounds were given in 
the reign of JamesI. Stow’s Survey. ‘The appren- 
tice tax enacted 43 Geo. III. 1802. The term of 
seven years, not to expire till the apprentice was 
24 years old, required by the statute of Elizabeth 
(1563), was abolished in 1814. An act for the pro- 
tection of apprentices, &c., was passed in 1851. The 
apprentices of London have been at times very riot- 
ous; they rose into insurrection against foreigners 
on Hvil May-day (which see) 1 May, 1517. 


APPROPRIATION CLAUSE, of the Irish 
Tithe Bill of 1835, brought forward by lord John 
Russell, whereby any surplus revenue that might 
accrue by the working of the act was to be appro- 
priated for the education of all classes of the people. 
Ihe principle was adopted by the commons, but 
rejected by the lords in 1835 and 1836, and was 
abandoned. 


APPROPRIATIONS (property taken from 
the church), began in the time of William I. ‘The 
oarochial clergy, then commonly Saxons, were im- 
d0verished by the bishops and higher clergy (gene- 
‘ally Normans) to enrich the monasteries possessed 
dy the conqueror’s friends. Where the tithes were 
‘0 appropriated, the vicar had only such a compe- 
ency as the bishop or superior thought fit to allow. 
2ope Alexander IV. complained of this as the bane 
f religion, the destruction of the church, and a 
yoison that had infected the whole nation. Lay 
ippropriations began after the dissolution of the 
nonasteries, 1536. 


APRICOT (precoz, early ripe), Prunus Arme- 
waea, from Asia Minor, said to have been first 
ilanted in England about 1540, by the gardener of 
fenry VIII. 


APRIL, the fourth month of our year, the 
econd of the ancient Romans. 


APTERYX (wingless), a bird, a native of New 
iealand, first brought to this country in 1813, and 
eposited in the collection of the earl of Derby. 
‘ossil specimens of a gigantic species of this bird 
named Dinornis) were discovered in New Zealand 
y Mr. Walter Mantell in 1843 and since, and 
auch studied and many papers written on it by 
’rofessor Owen, 


APULIA, a province in §.E. Italy. The people 
avoured Hannibal, and were severely punished by 
ae Romans at his retreat, 207 B.c. Apulia was con- 
uered by the Normans, whose leader Guiscard re- 
oived the title of duke of Apulia from pope Nicho- 
is IL. in 1059. After many changes of masters, it 
as absorbed into the kingdom of Naples, in 1265. 


| AQUACULTURE, see under Fisheries. 


| AQUARIT, a sect said to have been founded by 

-atian in the 2nd century, who forebore the use of 

‘ime even in the sacrament; during persecution 

‘ey met secretly at night. For this they were 
usured by Cyprian (martyred, 258). 


| 


AQUARIUM or AQUAVIVARIUM, 2 vessel 
containing water (marine or ey in which animals 
and plants may co-exist, mutually supporting each 
other; snails being introduced as scavengers. In 
1849, Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded in growing sea~ 
weeds in artificial sea-water; in 1850, Mr. R. 
Warington demonstrated the conditions necessary 
for the growth of animals and plants in jars of 
water; and in 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological 
Gardens, Regent’s Park, were set up by Mr. D. 
Mitchell. In 1854, Mr. Gosse published ‘The 
Aquarium.”’ Mr. W. Alford Lloyd, late of Portland- 
road, London, who by his enterprise in collecting 
specimens did much to increase the value and inter= 
est of aquaria, has been much employed in erecting 
aquaria. ‘lhe great aquarium (50 yards long and 
I2 wide) at the Jardin d’Acclimatation at Paris, 
was constructed under his direction in 1860. He 
also constructed the aquarium at Hamburg and 
others. That at Brighton was inaugurated by prince 
Arthur, 30 March, and publicly opened by the 
mayor, 10 Aug. 1872. That at the Crystal Palace 
was opened, Jan. 1872. 

The Royat Aquarium and Summer and WINTER GARDEN 
Society was established 1874; the building at Westmin- 
ster, planned by Mr. Wybrow Robertson and Mr. A, 
Bedborough, was opened by the duke of Edinburgh, 
22 Jan. 1876. 

A woman surnamed ‘‘Zazel” permitted herself to be 
safely shot froma cannon (by a spring or other me- 
chanical contrivance); summer of 1877, et seq. 

Living whales shown here soon died ; see Whale ; Sept., 
1877; June, 1878. 

The Imperial theatre added, 1879. 


AQUATINT, see Engraving, 
AQUEDUCT, an artificial watercourse on an 


inclined plane. Appius Claudius advised and con- 
structed the first Roman aqueduct, as well as the 
Appian way, about 312 B.c.* There are now some 
remarkable aqueducts in Europe: that at Lisbon is 
of great extent and beauty; that at Segovia has 
129 arches; and that at Versailles is three miles 
long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in 
three stories. "The stupendous ‘aqueduct on the 
Ellesmere canal, in England (1007 feet in length, 


/and 126 feet high) was completed by T. Telford, 


and opened 26 Dec. 1805. The Lisbon aqueduct 
was completed in 1738, and the Croton aqueduct, 
near New York, was constructed between 1837 and 
1842. The aqueduct: to supply Marseilles with 
water was commenced in 1830. An aqueduct to 
supply London with water from the Welsh lakes 
was proposed by Mr. J. F. Bateman in 1865. 


AQUIDABAN, Paraguay. Here the war 
with Brazil was ended with the defeat and death of 
president Lopez, 1 March, 1870. 


AQUILA, S. Italy. Near here the Arragonese 
under the condottiere Braccio Forte-Braccio were 
defeated by the allied Papal, Neapolitan, and 
Milanese army under Jacob Caldora, 2 June, 1424. 
Braccio, a wounded prisoner, refused to take food, 
and died, 5 June. 


AQUILEIA (Istria), made a Roman colony 
about 180 B.C. and fortified a.p. 168. Constantine 
II, was slain in a battle with Constans, fought at 
Aquileia towards the close of March, 340. Maximus 
defeated and slain by Theodosius, near Aquileia, 28 
July, 388. Theodosius defeated Eugenins and 
Arbogastes, the Gaul, near Aquileia, and remained 
sole emperor, 6 Sept. 394. Kugenius was put to 


* Remains of these and other noble aqueducts, con- 
structed by emperors, still remain, and some supply 
water to the city. 


AQUITAINE. 


44 


death, and Arbogastes died by his own hand, mor- 
tified by his overthrow. St. Ambrose held a synod 
here in 381. In 452 Aquileia was almost totally 
destroyed by Attila the Hun, and near it in 489 
Theodoric and the Ostrogoths totally defeated 
Odoacer, the king of Italy. Aquileia was an early 
patriarchal see. 

AQUITAINE, the Roman province Aquitania 
(S. W. France), conquered by the Romans 28 B.c.; 
by the Visigoths, A.D. 418; taken from them by 
Clovis in 507. Henry II. of England obtained it 
with his wife Eleanor, 1152. It was erected into a 
principality for Edward the Black Prince in 1362; 

ut was annexed to France in 1370. The title of 
duke of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of 
England on the conquest of this duchy by Henry V. 
in 1418. The province was lost.in the reign of 
Henry VI. 


ARABIA (W. Asia). The terms Petrea (stony), 
Felix (happy), and Deserta are said to have been 
applied to its divisions by Ptolemy, about A. D. 140. 
The Arabs claim descent from Ishmael, the eldest 
son of Abraham, born I9IO B.c. Gen. xvi. Arabia 
was unsuccessfully invaded by Gallus, the Roman 
governor of Egypt, 24 B.c. In A.D. 622, the 
Arabians under the name of Saracens, followers of 
Mahomet (born at Mecca, 570), their general and 
prophet, commenced their course of conquest; see 
Mahometanism. Arabia was conquered by the 
Ottomans 1518-39. The Arabs greatly favoured 
literature and the sciences, especially mathematics, 
astronomy, and chemistry. The Koran was written 
in Arabic (622-632). The Bible was printed in 
Arabic in 1671. See Wahabees. 

The aggression of the Turks on the South Arabs 
excited jealousy in England, and was checked by 


the sultan : 2 = : pNOMeT O73 
Ausurrection in Yemen or Arabia Felix; 5 Jan.— 
7 Feb. 1882 


Egyptian commission for preservation of Arab 
monuments appointed : : : Janice 
Revults in Yemen, much fighting announced 
17 Mar. 1883 
Conflicts reported . . . Sept. 1884 


ARABIAN NIGHTS’ ENTERTAIN- 
MENTS (or roor Tales) were translated into 
French by Galland, and published in 1704; but 
their authenticity was not acknowledged till many 
years after. The best English translation from the 
Arabic is that of Mr. E. W. Lane, published in 
1839, with valuable notes and beautiful illustra- 
tions. 


ARABIC FIGURES (1, 2, 3, &e.), see Arith- 
metic. ARABIC NEWSPAPER, “ Jlar-dtu-’l- 
Ahwal” (“ Mirror of Passing Events’), published 
in London end of 1876. 


ARABICTI, a sect which sprung up in Arabia, 
about 207, whose distinguishing tenet was, that the 
soul dies with the body, and will rise again with it. 


ARAGON, part of the Roman Tarraconensis, a 
kingdom, N.E. Spain, was conquered by the Car- 
thaginians, who were expelled by the Romans about 
200 B.c. It became an independent monarchy in 
A.D. 1035; see Spain. 


ARAM, the ancient name of Syria (which see). 
ARANJUEZ (Central Spain), contains a fine 


royal palace, at which several important treaties 
were concluded. On 17 March, 1808, an insurrec- 
tion broke out here against Charles IV. and his 
favourite, Godoy, the prince of the peace, who re- 
ceived that title for concluding the treaty of Basle. 
‘The former was compelled to abdicate in favour of 
his son, Ferdinand VII., 19 March. 


ARCADIA. 1 
ARARAT, a mountain in Armenia (abo: 
17,112 feet above the sea-level), on which Noah 


ark is supposed to have rested, B.c. 2349, no 

termed by the Persians, Koh-i-Nuh (Noah’s moni 

tain); by the Armenians, Masis; by the Turk 

Agri-Dagh. 

It was ascended by Dr. Parrot, 27 Sept., 1829 ; by Maj 
Stuart, 1856, and by others since. Mr. James Bryc 
who ascended 11, 12 Sept., 1876, described the sumin 
as a little plain of snow, silent and desolate, with 
bright, green sky above; the view stern, green, at 
monotonous. 


ARAUCANTA, a province in 8. America. ] 
inhabitants maintained almost unceasing war wit 
the Spaniards from 1537 to 1773, when their ind 
pendence was recognised. They are now nominal 
subject to Chili. 


ARAUSIO (now Oranges), S. E. Franc 
Through the jealousy of the Roman _procons' 
Q. Servilius Capio, who would not wait for tl 
arrival of the army of the consul C. Manlius, bot 
were defeated here by the Cimbri with muc¢ 
slaughter, 105 B. C. 


ARBELA,. The third and decisive battle bi 
tween Alexander the Great and Darius Codomant 
decided the fate of Persia, I Oct. 331 B.c., on 
plain in Assyria, between Arbela and Gaugamel 
‘he army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 foot au 
40,000 horse; the Macedonian army amounted | 
only 40,000 foot and 7000 horse. Arrian. The go! 
and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepoli 
and Babylon, which fell to Alexander from th 
victory, amounted to thirty millions sterling; au 
the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging 1 
Darius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 50 
camels. Llutarch. 


ARBITRATION. Submission to arbitratio 
was authorised and made equivalent in force to th 
decision of a jury, by 9 & 10 Will. III. (1698 
Submissions to arbitration may be made rules | 
any court of law or equity, and arbitrators ma 
compel the attendance of witnesses, 3 & 4 Will. I\ 
c. 42 (1833); see Ouzel Galley. The Common Lai 
Procedure Act (1854) authorises the judges « 
superior courts to order compulsory arbitratind 
and, by an act passed in 1859, railway compani¢ 
may settle disputes with each other by arbitratior 
The Arbitration (Masters and Workmen) Act wa 
passed 6 Aug. 1872. See Prud’ hommes, 

For Arbitration between Nations, see unde 
Peace. . 
Codification of the Arbitration Acts and establishmen 

of Courts recommended by lord Bramwell at th 

London Chamber of Commerce, 21 Oct. 1884. 


ARBUTUS. The Arbutus Andrachne, orients 
strawberry-tree, was brought to England from th 
Levant about 1724. 


ARCADES, or walks arched over. The princi 
pal in London are the Burlington-areade, opene 
20 March, 1819; the Lowther-arcade, Strand 
opened 1831; between Old Bond-street and Albe 
marle-street, opened May, 1880; see Strand, ant 
Exeter Change. The Royal-arcade, Dublin, opene 
June, 1820, was burnt to the ground, 25 April, 1837 
The Great Western-arcade, Birmingham, openet 
28 Sept. 1876. 


ARCADIA, in the centre of the Peloponnesus 
Greece, named after Arcas, a king. The Arcadian 
regarded their nation as the most ancient of Greece 
and older than the moon (Proseleni, which wo 
Déderlein conjectures to mean Pre-Hellenic) 
Pelasgus is said to have taught them to feed of 
acorns, as being more nutritious than herbs, theil 


| 
at 


45 ° 


ARCHERY. 


fagna Grecia, in S. Italy, said to have been 
-eolonised by Arcadians under QCinotrus, about 
1710 B.c. ; and under Evander , B.C. 1240 
‘elasgus begins his reign i PIR Ts ire x52E 
upposed institution of the Lupercalia, in honour 
, of Jupiter by Lycaon, who reigned . F ie 
reas taught his subjects agriculture and to spin 
wool ; F Pt he . 5 4 ysl 514 
yeean games instituted, in honour of Pan _ - 1320 
gapenor appears at the head of the Arcadians at 
the siege of Troy (Homer) C : F f 
he Lacedzemonians invade Arcadia, and are beaten 
by the women of the country in the absence of 
their husbands (?)_.. 4 : 2 é halk 
ristocrates I. (of Orchomenus) put to death for 


I514 


1194 


1102 


offering violence to the priestess of Diana , ui 71S 
ristoerates II. stoned ; a republic founded 681 
apremacy of Sparta (acknowledged 560) abolished 
by the Thebans ; Megalopolis founded by Epami- 
nondas § A . : : - : aes7t 
ne Areadians make alliance with Athens, and are 
defeated by Archidamus 4 ; : : ee 30F 
rveadia, having joined the Achzan league, on its 
suppression is annexed by Rome . 4 - 146 


ARCADIANS, an ultra-conservative French 
plitical club, composed of a section of the majority 
\ the chambers, and opposed to liberal measures, 
ren when emanating from the emperor (such as 
ie new press law). It derived its name from Rue 
> Arcade, where its meetings were held: Feb. 
368. 


ARCH. It appears in early Egyptian and As- 
rian architecture. The oldest arch in Europe is 
‘obably in the Cloaca. Maxima, at Rome, con- 
ructed under the early kings, about 588 B.c. 
he Chinese bridges, which are very ancient, are of 
eat magnitude, and are built with stone arches 
milar to those that have been considered a Koman 
vention.*—The TRIUMPHAL arches of the Romans 
rmed a leading feature in their architecture. The 
ch of Titus (A.D. 80), that of Trajan (114), and 
at of Constantine (312), were magnificent. The 
ches in our parks in London were erected about 
28. ‘The Marble Arch, which formerly stood be- 
re Buckingham Palace (whence it was removed 

Cumberland-gate, Hyde Park, in 1851) was 
ne) from the arch of Constantine; sce Hyde 
wk. 


ARCH MOLOGY, the science of antiquities ; 


e Antiquaries. 


ARCHAIOPTERYX (ancient bird); the 

me given to the earliest known remains of a bird, 
und in the lithographic slate of Solenhofen, by 
erman von Meyer and Dr. Hiberlein in 1861. Its 
‘ucture approximated more to that of a reptile 
an that of modern birds does. It was described 
~ Owen in 1863. 


ARCHANGEL (N. Russia), a city, is thus 
med from a monastery founded here, and dedi- 
‘ted to St. Michael in 1 584. The passage to Arch- 
gel was discovered by the English navigator 
‘chard Chancellor in 1553, and it was the only 
-\port of Russia till the formation. of the docks at 
onstadt, and foundation of St. Petersburg in 1703. 
,e dreadful fire here, by which the cathedral and 


The bridge of Chester, whose span is 200 feet, was 
nmenced in 1829. The central arch of London Bridge 
52 feet ; and the three cast iron arches of Southwark 
‘dge, which rest on massive stone piers and abutments 
', the two side ones 210 feet each, and the centre 240 
thus the centre arch exceeds the admired 
vige of Sunderland by four feet in the span, and the 
'g-famed Rialto at Venice, by 167 feet ; see Bridges. 


= 
cr 
we 


upwards of 3000 houses were destroyed, occurred 
in June, 1793. 

ARCHBISHOP (Greek archiepiscopos), a title 
given in the 4th and 5th centuries to the bishops 
of chief cities, such as Rome, Alexandria, iMatiokh: 
and Constantinople, who presided over the other 


_Inetropolitans and bishops in the districts attached 


to those places. The word is first found in the 

Apology against the Arians by Athanasius, who 

died 373. Four archbishops of the Eastern church 

are styled patriarchs. Riddle. 

Before the Saxons came to England, there were three 
archbishops : London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk ; 
but soon after St. Augustin settled the metropolitan 
see at Canterbury, 602 ; see Canterbury. 

York continued archiepiscopal ; but London and Caerleorm 
lost the dignity ; see St. David’s.’ 

The bishoprics in Scotland were under the jurisdiction of 
the archbishop of York until the erection of the archi-~ 
episcopal sees of St. Andrew’s and Glasgow in 1470 and 
1491 ; these last were discontinued at the Revolution ; 
see Glasgow and St. Andrew’s, 

The bishop of Moray, &c., is now (1885) styled Primus, 
the title being conferred on one of the bishops by 
election. 

The rank of archbishop was early in Ireland ; see Ferns. 

Four archbishops were constituted, Armagh, Cashel, 
Dublin, and Tuam; (until then the archbishop of 
Canterbury had jurisdiction over the Irish as well as 
English bishops, in like manner as the archbishop of 
York had jurisdiction over those of Scotland), 1151. 

Of these four archbishoprics two were reduced to 
bishoprics (Cashel and Tuam) conformably with the 
stat. 3 & 4 Will. [V. by which also the number of sees in 
Ireland was to be reduced from twenty-two to twelve 
(see Bishops, Cashel, T'wam; Pallium, &c.), 1833. 


ARCH-CHAMBERLAIN. The elector of 
Brandenburg was appointed the hereditary arch- 
chamberlain of the German empire by the golden 
bull of Charles TV. in 1356, and in that quality he 
bore the sceptre before the emperor. 


ARCH-CHANCELLORS were appointed 
under the two first races of the kings of France 
(418-986), and when their territories were divided, 
the archbishops of Mentz, Cologne, and reves be~ 


came arch-chancellors of Germany, Italy, and 
Aries; 


ARCHDEACON, a name early given to the 
first or eldest deacon, who attended on the bishop 
without any power ; but since the council of Nice, 
his function has become a dignity above a priest. 
The appointment in these countries is referred to 
the eighth century. There are seventy-five arch- 
deacons. in England (1878). The archdeacon’s 
court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity; an 
appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, by 
24 Henry VIII. (1532). 


ARCHERY is ascribed to Apollo, who com- 
municated it,to the Cretans. ~ 


‘Ishmael “‘ became an archer” (Gen. xxi. 20), B.c. 1892 


The Philistine archers overcame Saul(1 Sam. xxxi. 3). 1056 
David commanded the use of tthe how to be taught 
(2 Sam. i. 18) . ; : : ; ; P . 10 
Aster of Amphipolis, having been slighted by Philip, 
king of Macedon, at the siege of Methone shot an 
arrow, on which was written ‘‘ Aimed at Philip’s 
right eye,” which put it out; Philip drew back 
the arrow with these words: ‘‘if Philip take the 
town, Aster shall be hanged,” and kept his word 353 
Archery introduced into England previous to A.D. 440 
Harold and his two brothers were killed by arrows 
shot from the cross-bows of the Norman soldiers 
at the battle of Hastings : : : : - 1066 
Richard I. revived archery in England in r1go, and 
was himself killed by an arrow 5 . - L199 
The victories of Crecy (1346), Poictiers (1356), and 
Agincourt (1415), were won chiefly by archers. 
Four thousand archers of the king surrounded the 


« 

ARCHES, COURT OFs 46 AREIOPAGUS. 4 

houses of Parliament ready to shoot ; pacified by George Edmund Street . 3 * + « 1824—1883 
the king, 2x Richard II. (Stow.) . . 1397 | E. Barry .« : ; - . ' -. + 1830—188y 


The citizens of London formed into companies of 
archers in the reign of Edward III. ; and into a 
corporate body by the style of ‘‘ The Fraternity of 
St. George.” 29 Henry VIII. . by 

Roger Ascham’s ‘‘ Toxophiius, the School of Shooting,” 
published ‘ 2 ‘ : 3 3 7 - 

Scorton Annual Arrow Meetings—a silver arrow 
shot for; articles agreed to . F pier May, 

Royal company of archers, instituted by the mar- 
quis of Athol, as the king’s body guard for Scot- 
land ; 3 : ; ‘ a = 

The long bow was six feet long, and the arrow three 
feet; the usual range from 300 to 500 yards. 
Robin Hood is said to have shot from 600 to 800 
yards. The cross-bow was fixed to a stock, and 
discharged with a trigger. 

See Artillery Company, Toxophilites, &c. 


ARCHES, Court oF, the most ancient con- 
sistory court, chiefly a court of appeal from inferior 
jurisdictions within the province of Canterbury ; it 
derives its name from the church of St. Mary-le- 
Bow (Sancta Maria de Arcubus), London, where it 
was formerly held, and whose top is raised on stone 
pillars built archwise. Cowell. Appeals from this 
court lie to the judicial committee of the privy 
council, by statute, 1832. The Dean and Official 
Principal, Dr. Stephen Lushington, (appointed in 
1828) resigned 1 July, 1867; succeeded by sir 
Robert J. Phillimore, who resigned, 1875. Lord 
Penzance succeeded him. 


ARCHITECTURE (from the Greek archi- 
tekton, chief artiticer). The five great orders are, 
—the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian (Greek) ;—the 
Tuscan and Composite (Roman). Gothic began to 
prevail in the gth century. See the Orders and 
Gothic. 

The Pyramids of Egypt, begun ¢ p 


1538 
1571 
1673 


1676 


about B.C. 1500 


Solomon’s Temple, begun . 2 - P . 1004 
Birs Nimroud, in Assyria . : 3 « about goo 
The Doric order begins. ‘ 3 - about 650 
Doric Temple at gina 550 


Temple of Jupiter and Cloaca Maxima, at Rome 


founded. : z : 2 616 
Babylon built . - : ‘ : . 600 
The Ionic order begins . ‘ - about 500-420 
The Corinthian order begins. : - 2 335 
Choragic Monument of Lysicrates 335 
Architecture flourishes at Athens . 480-320 
Erechtheum at Athens + 450-420 
The Parthenon finished : 438 
The Pantheon, &c., built at Rome A.D. _ 13 
The Colosseum (or Coliseum) ‘ , 5 > 6 
Hadrian builds temples at Rome, &e. . : P 117 
Diocletian’s palace at Spalutro . ; ¢ 284 
Basilicas at Rome A : t é + 330-900 
St. Sophia, at Constantinople, begun . . «08 ) S92 
Rock-cut temples in India—Caves of Ellora —. 500-800 
Canterbury cathedral, founded. os 002 


: ‘ = 637 
- about 1171 
. 1450-1626 


Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem . : 
York Minster (present building) begun 
St. Peter’s, Rome . P 


St. Paul’s, London ? - : - = « 1675-1710 
EMINENT ARCHITECTS. 
Born. Died 
Vitruvius, about Oc eas eo + BG 27 
A.D. 
William of Wickham... : 2 - 1324—1405 
Michael Angelo Buonarotti - 1474—1564 
A. Palladio - - 1518—1580 
Jnigo Jones : : - 1572—1652 
Bernini . “ A . - 1598—1680 
Christopher Wren. ‘ - 1632—1723 
J. Vanbrugh . - > ‘ , - 1670—1726 
James Gibbs 5 . - 1674—1754 
R. and J. Adam _s. ; - 1728—1794 
Sir William Chambers - 1726—1796 
Augustus W. Pugin - 1811—1852 
Sir Charles Barry - 1795—1860 
C. R. Cockerell ‘ - 1788—1863 
James Fergusson . T808— 


Sir Geo. Gilbert Scott 


- rp 


1811—1878 | there for the murder of Halirrhotius, who 


An Architectural Club was formed in 1791. An Archi: 
tectural Society existed in London in 1806. The Royaz 
INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS was founded in 1834— 
Earl de Grey, president, 1835-61. The Architectural 
Society, established in 1831, was united to the Institute 
in 1842. The ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION began about 
1846. The ARCHITECTURAL MUSEUM, Westminster, opened, 
21 July, 1869. 

Mr. James Fergusson’s “‘ History of Architecture,” 
(the best) 2nd ed., 1874-6. 


ARCHONS. When royalty was abolished at 
Athens, in memory of king Codrus, killed in battle 
1044 or 1068 B.c., the executive government was 
vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose 
office continued for life. Medon, eldest son of 
Codrus, was the first archon. The office was limited 
to ten years, 752 B.C., and to one year 683 B.C. 


ARCOLA (Lombardy), the site of battles he. 
tween the French under Bonaparte, and the Aus- 
trians under field-marshal Alvinzi, fought 14-1) 
Nov. 1796. The Austrians lost 18,000 men in 
killed, wounded, and prisoners, four flags and 
eighteen guns. The French lost about 15,000, and 
became masters of Italy. In one contest Bonaparte, 
in most imminent danger, was rescued by the 
impetuosity of his troops. 


ARCOT (East Indies). This city (founded 1716) 
was taken by colonel Clive, 31 Aug. 1751; wai 
retaken, 1758, but again surrendered to colonel 
Coote, 10 Feb. 1760; besieged and taken by Hyder 
Ali, when the British under colonel Baillie suffered 
severe defeat, 31 Oct. 1780. Arcot has been subject 
to Great Britain since 1801; see India. 


ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS, sce North Wesi 
Passage, and Franklin's Expedition. On the Get 
man Arctic society applying to the German govern- 
ment, a committee of 13 professors was appointed, 
who in their report recommended that no more 
expeditions should be sent out; but that stations 
ae be established for scientific observer 
1876, { 
London Central Arctic Committee; formed to promo 

another expedition, 7 July, 1879. } 


ARDAGH, an ancient bishopric in Ireland 
founded by St. Patrick, who made his nephey, 
Mell, the first bishop, 454. This see, held with 
Kilmore since 1742, was held iz commendam with 
Tuam (which see). It was united with Kilmore in 
1839, and with Elphin in 1841. ; 


ARDAHAN, a town in Turkish Armenia, 
ceded to Russia by the Berlin treaty, 13 July, 1878. 

ARDFERT anp AGHADOE, bishoprics it 
Ireland long united; the former was called the 
bishopric of Kerry; Ert presided in the 5th century; 
William Fuller, appointed in 1663, became bishoy 
of Limerick in 1667, since when Ardfert and Agha- 
doe have been united to that prelacy. Near the 
cathedral an anchorite tower, 120 feet high, the 
loftiest and finest in the kingdom, suddenly # 
1770. 


ARDOCH, see Grampian. 
ARDRES, see Field of Cloth of Gold. 


} 
AREIOPAGUS or AREOPAGUS, a ae 
tribunal, said to have heard causes in the dark, 
because the judges should be blind to all but facts 
instituted at Athens about 1507 B.c.; also aseri 
to Cecrops, 1556. The name is derived from tl 

Greek Aveios pagos, the hill of Mars, through 0 
tradition that Mars was the first who was > ( 


A 


i 


AREOMETER. 


47 


ARGYLL ROOMS. 


slated his daughter Alcippe. The powers of this 
urt were enlarged by Solon, about 594 B.c., and 
minished by Pericles, 461 B.c. Paul preached on 
ars’ hill A.D. 52. (dets xvii.) See Press. 


AREOMETER or ARXIOMETER, (from 
reek araios, thin), an instrument for measuring 
e density and specific gravity of fluids. Baumé 
seribed his areometer in 1768. Others have been 
ade by Nicholson and Mohr. 


AREQUIPA, Peru, founded by Pizarro, 1539; 
us destroyed by an earthquake, 13 Aug. 1868; 


rrendered to the Chilians 26 Oct. 1383. 
ARETHUSA, see Naval Battles, 1778, and 


wchester, 


AREZZO, near the ancient Arretium or Areti- 
m, an Ktrurian city, which made peace with 
me for 30 years, 308 B.c., was besieged by 
e Galli Senones, about 283 B.c., who defeated the 
‘man army Metellus sent to its relief—a disgrace 
enged signally by Dolabella. Arezzo was an 
cient bishopric: the cathedral founded in 1277. 

is renowned as the birthplace of Mecenas, 
trarch, Vasari, and other eminent men. Michael 
gelo was born in the vicinity. 


ARGANDAB, a river in Afghanistan. See 
‘ghanistan, 1880. 


ARGAUM, in the Deccan, India, where sir 
thur Wellesley, on 29th Nov. 1803, thoroughly 
‘eated and subjugated the rajah of Berar and the 
thratta chief Scindiah. 


ARGENTARTA, Alsace (now Cotmar, N. E. 
ance), where the Koman emperor Gratian totally 
‘eated the Alemanni, and secured the peace of 
ul, May, 378. 


ARGENTINE (or La Prata) CONFE- 
IRATION, S. America, 14 provinces (Buenos 
res, one). ‘The city Buenos Ayres is the 
ital. This country was discovered by the 
miards in 1515, settled by them in 1553, and 
ned part of the vice-royalty of Peru till 1778, 
nit became that of Rio de la Plata. It joined 
insurrection in 181 I, and became independent 
‘1816. It was at war with Brazil from 1826 to 
8, for the possession of Uruguay, which became 
ependent as Monte-Video; and at war with 
‘mee from 1838-40.— Population, in 1869, 
77,490; 1882, 1,812,490. See Buenos Ayres. 


“nos Ayres seceded in 1853 ; reunited . FS - 1859 
insurrection in San Juan in Nov. 1860; sup- 
cessed in - 5 5 Jan. 1862 
Urquiza, elected president, 20 Nov. 1853, Was 
\eceeded by Dr. S. Derqui : . 8 Feb. 
'. Bartholomew Mitre, elected for six years, as- 
med the president’s office . 12 Oct. 
2, president of Paraguay, declared war against 
_itre, and invaded the Argentine territories, 
ay. Mitre declared war against Paraguay, 16 
pril; and made alliance with Brazil and Uru- 
bebyer fi . ; 3 : : . 4 May, 
Buenos Ayres for the disputes with that state, 
id Brazil for the war with Paragua Yy. 

Dominique F. Sarmiento elected president for 


1860 
1862 


1865 


c years ; j 2 : : . 12 Oct. 1868 
/uppresses the insurrection of Corrientes, Nov. ,, 

-1iza murdered. . > - 12 April, 1870 
\ty with Brazil : . Jan., 1873 


| at of Lopez Jourdan, rebel, announced Dee. 
|’. Avellaneda inaugurated president (for 6 years) 
12 Oct. 
| rrection of Mitre at Buenos Ayres, Sept.-Nov. 
-ppressed ; he submits : s 2iDecs 
‘onal bank stops ; suspension of specie pay- 
jonts by government , " - 16 May, 1876 


2? 


1874 


End of rebellion; capture of J ourdan ; announced 
12 Dee. 1876 
Disputes with Buenos Ayres; settled June-J uly, 1880 
General Roca (opposed to supremacy of Buenos 
Ayres) nominated to become president in October, 
opposed by Dr. Tejedor - ¢ June-July, 
General Roca becomes president . Z - Oct. 
Tranquillity restored : Buenos Ayres to be definitive 
capital of the Republic . 2 - » 7 Dec. 
The Buenos Ayres Exhibition, under the patronage 
of the Government, opened ° ‘ 15 Feb. 1882 


ARGINUSA, isles between Lesbos and 
Asia Minor; near these Conon and the Athenian 
nar defeated the Spartan admiral Callicratidas, 
406 B.C. 


ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, 1263 z.c. 
(1225, Clinton), said to have been undertaken by 
Jason, to avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, 
and to recover the treasures seized by his murderer, 
/Kétes, king of Colchis. The ship in which Phryxus 
had sailed to Colchis having been adorned with the 
figure of a ram, led to the fiction that the journey 
was to recover the golden fleece. This is the first 
naval expedition on record. Many kings and 
heroes accompanied Jason, whose ship was called 
Argo, from its builder. 


ARGONAUTS OF ST. NICHOLAS, nili- 
tary knights; an order founded by Charles III. of 
Naples, 1382. 


ARGOS, the most ancient city of Greece, said 
to have been founded either by Inachus, 1856 B.C., 
or his son, Phoroneus, 1807, received its name from 
Argus, the fourth of the Inachide, 1711 B.c. 


Reign of Triopas ; Polycaon seizes part of the king- B.c. 
dom and calls it after his wife, Messenia - 1552 
Gelanor, last of the Inachide, deposed by Danaus, 
an Egyptian . : 2 . < 5 : : 
Feast of the Flambeauz, instituted in honour of 
Hypermnestra, who saved her husband, Lynceus, 
son of Aigyptus, on his nuptial night, while her 
forty-nine sisters sacrificed theirs, at the com- 
mand of their father, Danaus 2 ; - 1425 
Lynceus dethrones Danaus . . : . - + 1425 
The kingdom divided by the brothers Acrisius and 
Preetus : : p + 1344 (1313 Clinton.) 
Perseus, grandson of Acrisius, leaves Argos and 
founds Mycenee (which see). * : 5 AB 
The Heraclide retake the Peloponnesus, and Teme- 
nus seizes Argos. 3 : . ’ - 1102 
Pheidon’s prosperous rule r : + 770-730 
War with Sparta : combat of 300 on each side. ; 
The Argives fine Sicyon and Agina for helping their 
enemy, Cleomenes of Sparta . F i 


” 


1475 


. I 

Sparta becomes superior to Argos 4 Pst 
Themistocles an exile at Argos . : ae Py A: 
The Argives destroy Mycene and regain their 

superiority . : , : a : . - 468 
Peloponnesian war— Argos long neutral, joins 

Athens : : : i 2 - : - 420 
The aristocratical party makes peace with Sparta, 

and overthrows the democracy. ; ; a) A4EF 
A reaction—alliance with Athens resumed . + + 305 
Pyrrhus of Macedon besieging Argos, slain 272 


Argos governed by tyrants supported by Macedon ; 
freed ; joins the Achean league . cis22g. 
Subjugated by the Romans . : : : i SAG 
Argos taken from the Venetians : . - A.D. 1686 
Taken by the Turks 1716, who held it until - 1826 
United to Greece under king Otho (see Greece) 
25 Jan. 1833 

ARGYLE (W. Scotland), bishopric of, founded 
about 1200, Evaldus being the first bishop; the 
diocese, previously united with Dunkeld, ended 
1688. Argyle and the Isles is a post-revolution 
bishopric, 1847; see Bishoprics. “ 

ARGYLL ROOMS, Oxford-street, London, 
opened for musical and other entertainments early 
in the 19th century; re-erected by Nash, 1818; 
held by the Philharmonic Society, 1813-30. Here 


ARIAN. 


48 


appeared Spohr, 1820; Weber, 3 April, 1826; and 
Mendelssohn, 25 May, 1829. While held by M. 
Chabert, the fire-king, the building was burnt 
down, 5,6 Feb. 1830. The new building was even- 
tually converted into shops. 


ARIAN or ARYAN (in Sanskrit signifying 
noble, warlike), a term now frequently applied to 
the hypothetical Indo-Germanic family of nations, 
including the Greek, Roman, and Teutonic races. 


ARIANS, followers of Arius* of Alexandria, 
who preached against the doctrine of the 
Trinity, about 315, and died in 336. The con- 
troversy was taken up by Constantine, who pre- 
sided at the council of Nice, June to Aug. 325, 


when the Arians were condemned; but their | 


doctrine long prevailed. It was favoured by 
Constantius II. 341; and carried into Africa by 
the Vandals in the 5th century, and into Asia by 
the Goths. Servetus published his treatise against 
the Trinity, 1531, and was burnt, 1553. Leggatt, an 
Arian, was burnt at Smithfield in 1614; see Atha- 
nasian Creed, Socinians, and Unitarians, 


ARICA, Peru, destroyed by an earthquake, and 
inundated by waves of the sea, 13 Aug. 1868. 


ARIKERA, near Seringapatam. Here lord 
Cornwallis defeated 'Tippoo Sahib, 15 May, 1791. 


ARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY : the 
most comprehensive ever devised byman. Aristotle 
was born at Stageira (hence termed the Stageirite), 
354 B.c.; was a pupil of Plato from 364 to 347; 

ecame preceptor of Alexander, son of Philip of 
Macedon, in 342; and died in 322. He divided the 
circle of knowledge into metaphysics and _ logic, 
physics (including part of the science of mind), and 
ethics. His philosophy was too much exalted by 
the schoolmen during the middle ages, and too 
much depreciated after the Reformation. His works 
on natural science contain a vast collection of facts 
and an extraordinary mixture of sound and chi- 
merical opinions. ‘To him is attributed the asser- 
tion that nature abhors a vacuum, an opinion now 
maintained by eminent modern philosophers. 


An Aristotelian Society, for the systematic study of phil- 
osophy, was founded in the spring of 1880; Dr. Shad- 
worth H. Hodgson, president. 


ARITHMETIC is said to have been intro- 
duced from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 
600 B.c. The Chinese used the abacus, or swan- 
pan, at an early period. It is asserted that the 
ancient Hindus adopted a system having ten as a 
basis. 


The oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid 
(7th, 8th, and oth books of his lements), about 
B.C. 


The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used 
A.D. 
Diophantus, of Alexandria, was the author of thir- 
teen books of arithmetical questions (of which six 
are now extant) . : ; : ; about 
Notation by nine digits and zero (Arabic figures), 
known at least as early as the 6th century in Hin- 
dostan—introduced from thence into Arabia, 
about goo—into Spain, about 980—into France, 
by Gerbert, soon atter—into England, probably in 
r4th or 15th century. 
The date in Caxton’s Mirrowr of the World, Arabic 
characters, is . ; 2 A 4 2 
Arithmetic of decimals invented . : : 4 
John Sherwood, bishop of Durham ’s Ladus Arithmo- 


secondary God created by the Father, who raised Him 
far above all men, and consequently not equal with the 
Father. 


ARMADA. 


First work printed in England on arithmetic (de 
Arte Supputandi) was by Tonstall, bishop of 
Durham . A . - fe : ° ¢ & 

The theory of decimal fractions perfected by Napier 
in his Rhabdologia . g é , ee 

Cocker’s Arithmetic appearedin 


: - 16 

Nystrom’s Tonal system with 16 as a basis, pub- 
‘lished . P 3 ; 5 ° ‘ ‘ - ee 
Sawyer’s ‘‘ Automatic System,” published oe 


ARITHMOMETER, see Calculating M 


chines. . 


ARIZONA, a territory of the United Stat 
originally part of New Mexico, was organised | 
Feb. 1863; capital, Tucson. I1t was colonised | 
the Jesuits in the 17th century. 


ARK. Mount Ararat (which see) is venerat 
from a belief of its being the place on whi 
Noah’s Ark rested, after the universal deluge, 23 
B.c.; see Gen. vi. vii. Some assert Apamea, 
Phrygia, to be the spot; and medals have be 
struck there with a chest on the waters, and t 
letters NOE, and two doves; this place is 300 mil 
west of Ararat. The Ark of the Covenant, made | 
Moses to contain the two tables of the law, 14 
B.c. (Exod. xxv.), was placed in Solomon’s temp! 
1004 B.C. (I Kéngs viii). 

ARKADI, a Greek blockade-runner during fi 
Cretan insurrection, was destroyed by the Turki 
vessel Izeddin, off Crete, 19 Aug. 1867, after at le 
22 successful voyages. 


ARKANSAS, originally part of Louisian 
ceded by Spain to France, 1763; and purchased | 
the United States in 1803, was made a territor 
1819; and a state, 1836; seceded from the uni 
6 May, 1861; re-admitted, 1868. Several batt 
Lis fought in this state in 1862. Capital, Lit 

ock. 


ARKLOW (in Wicklow), where a battle w 
fought between the insurgent Irish, amounting 
31,000, and a small regular force of British, whi 
signally defeated them, Io June, 1798. ‘The tov 
was nearly destroyed by the insurgents in M 
previous.—Native gold was discovered in Arklo 
in Sept. 1795. Phil. Trans. vol. 86. 


ARLBERG, see under Tunnels. 


ARLES (Arelatum, from the Celtic Ar-/a 
near the waters), S. France (said to have be 
founded 2000 B.C.), a powerful Roman city, w 
made capital of the kingdom of Provence by Bos 
in 879 A.D. ; and of the kingdom of Arles or Tran 
jurane Burgundy by Rodolph II. in 933. Hew 
succeeded by Conrad I. 937; and by Rodolph II 
993; who-at his death, 1032, transmitted his kin 
dom to the emperor Conrad II. After yario 
changes it was annexed to France in 1486. Ma 
councils (314-1275) were held at Arles; the m« 
celebrated in 314, when British bishops we 
present. 


ARMADA, THE INVINCIBLE, collected a 
equipped by Philip II. king of Spain, for the subj 
gation of England. The following particulars 4 
taken from Morant’s historical account (accor 
panying Pine’s engravings of the tapestries former 
in the house of lords), printed 1739. 


It consisted of 132 ships (besides caravels), 3165 
cannon, 8766 sailors, 2088 galley-slaves, 21,855 
soldiers, 1355, volunteers (noblemen, gentlemen, 
and theirattendants), and 150 monks, with Martin 
Alarco, vicar of the Inquisition,—the whole under 
the command of the duke of Medina-Sidonia _. 15 

The English fleet under lord Charles Howard, sir 
Francis Drake, and sir John Hawkins, ready for 


sea, and three armies on land - Dee. ;, 
The Armada sailed from Lisbon; soon after dis- — 
persed by a storm F < . e. 19 May, 15 


7 ~ 


ARMAGH. 


Re-collected, entered the Channel off Cornwall, 
19 July, 1588 


Suffered in a series of engagements (the sharpest 
on25July) . f De . 21-27 July, 
Jispersed by fire-ships sent into the midst, 28 July, 
Many vessels sunk or taken by the English, 
29 July, 
‘he remainder retreat northward to Spain, suf- 
fering much loss by severe storms, Aug. and Sept. 
fomputed Spanish loss—35 ships; 13,000 men. 
‘he queen attended a most solemn thanksgiving 
at St. Paul’s . z ‘ : 24 Nov. 
m annual thanksgiving sermon was endowed by 
“Mr. Chapman, who died 1616 ; it was preached at 
St. Mary-le-Bow A é r2 Aug. 1877 
ARMAGH, N. Ireland, of which it was the 
\etropolis from the 5th to the 9th.century, the seat 
{ the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, founded 
y St. Patrick, its first bishop, about 444» and said 
) have built the first cathedral, 450. Six saints of 
ie Roman calendar have been bishops of this see. 
1 the king’s book, by an extent taken 15 James I., 
‘is valued at 400/. sterling ayear; and until lately 
as estimated at 15,000/. per annum. ‘The see was 
-constituted (see Palliwm) in 1151. Beatson. 
rmagh was ravaged by the Danes on Easter-day, 
\2, and by O’Neil in 1564. 
ARMAGNACS, a political party in France, 
llowers of the duke of Orleans, murdered by the 
argundians, 23 Noy. 1407, derived their name 
om his father-in-law, the count of Armagnac. 
sout 3500 of this party were massacred at Paris 
June, 1418, by their opponents, the followers of 
e duke of Burgundy. 


ARMED NEUTRALITY, the confederacy 
‘ainst England, formed by Russia, Sweden, and 
onmark, 1780; ended, 1781 ; renewed, and a treaty 
tified in order to cause their flags to be respected 
‘the belligerent powers, 16 Dec. 1800. .The prin- 
ole that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms being 
ntrary to the maritime system of England, the 
itish cabinet remonstrated, war ensued, and Nel- 
and Parker destroyed the fleet of Denmark before 
penhagen, 2 April, 1801. This event and the 
irder of the emperor Paul. of Russia led to the 
solution of the Armed Neutrality. 


ARMENTA, Asia Minor. Here Noah is said to 
‘ve resided when he left the ark, 23478.c. Arme- 
l, after forming part of the Assyrian, Median, and 
-rsian empires, became subject to the Greek kings 
Syria, after the defeat of Antiochus the Great, 
)8.c. The Romans established the kingdoms of 
menia Major and Minor, but their influence over 
‘ym was frequently interrupted by the aggressions 
‘the Parthians. In all their political troubles the 
menians have maintained the profession of Chris- 
nity, and their church is governed by patriarchs, 
; subjectto Rome. Since 1715 an Armenian con- 
it has existed at Venice, where books on all 
jects are printed in the Armenian language. 


>> 


'y of Artaxarta built 4 : * wb Ce'> 286 
oeies Epiphanes invades Armenia é 165 
ranes the Great reigns in Armenia Major 


95 
83 
66 


omes King of Syria, and assumes the title of 
King of Kings” . : ; : . : 5 
eated by Lucullus, 69 ; he lays his crown at the 
et of Pompey . : 2 : : : a 
_ son, Artavasdes, reigns, 54; he assists Pompey 
sainst Julius Cesar, 48; and the Parthians 
sainst Mare Antony : 4 : : 3 
.ony subdues, and sends him loaded with silver 
aains to Egypt . : : c mee cs 

\xias, his son, made king by the Parthians 
,osed by the Romans, who enthrone Tigranes IT. 


36 


34 
33 
20 


,enia subjected to Parthia . ; : AED at 5 
onquered by Germanicus, grandson of Augustus 18 

) rT many changes Tiridates is made king by the 
mans. " A : s x a0 50 


49 ARMOUR. 


The Parthian conquerors of Armenia are expelled 


by Trajan : ; ° x ; 2 : Pes 
Severus makes Volagarses king of part of Armenia. 199 
Christianity introduced, between . . A.D. 100-300 
Armenia added to the Persian empire. ; EERE 
Tiridates obtains the throne through Diocletian, 
286; is expelled by Narses, 294; restored by 
Galerius : i ; : : M ea COS 
On his death, Armenia becomes subject to Persia, 
342; is made neutral by Rome and Persia, 384 ; 
who divide it by treaty : : a 443 
Armenia conquered and reconquered by the Greek 
and Persian sovereigns : , ; - 577-687 
And by the Greek emperors and Mahommedans 
693-1065 
The Armenian church reconciled to Rome, about : 1330 
Leon VI., last king of Armenia, taken prisoner by 
the Saracens, 1375 ; released : he dies at Paris . 1393 
Overrun by the Mongols, 1235; by Timour, 1383; 
by the Turks, 1516; bythe Persians, 1534; by the 
Turks). : : A : 4 ‘ 5 . 1583 
Shah Abbas, of Persia, surrenders Armenia to the 
Turks, but transports 22,000 Armenian families 
into his own states : . 1604 
Armenia overrun by the Russians : : . 1828 
Surrender of Erzeroum : ‘ . gJuly, 1829 
(See Syria and Russo-Turkish Wars I. and II.) 
By the Berlin treaty, Kars, Ardahan, and Batoum 
were ceded to Russia, with otherchanges, July, 1878 


ARMENTAN ERA, commenced on g July, 
552; the ecclesiastical year on 11 Aug. To reduce 
this last to our time, add 551 years and 221 days; 
and in leap years subtract one day from 1 March to 
10 Aug. The Armenians used the old Julian style 
and months in their correspondence with Euro- 
peans. 


ARMILLARY SPHERE, an astronomical 
instrument composed of brass circles disposed in 
such a manner that the greater and lesser circles of 
the sphere may be seen in their natural position and 
motion. It is said to have been invented by Era- 
tosthenes, about 255 B.c.; and was employed by 
Tycho Brahe and others. 


ARMINIANS, or REMONSTRANTS, derive 
their former name from James Arminius (or Har- 
mensen), a Protestant divine of Leyden, Holland 
(died 19 Oct. 1609); the latter name from his fol- 
lowers haying presented a Remonstrance to the 
states-general in 1610. They separated from the 
Calvinists, objecting to their views respecting pre- 
destination, &c. Their doctrines were condemned 
in 1619, at the synod of Dort (which see); they were 
exiled till 1625. The Calvinists were sometimes 
styled Gomarists, from Gomar, the chief oppo- 
nent to Arminius. James I. and Charles I. favoured 
the Arminian doctrine. 


ARMORIAL BEARINGS became _here- 
ditary in families at the close of the 12th century. 
They were employed by the crusaders, 1100. The 
lines to denote colours in arms, by their direction or 
intersection, were invented by Columbiére in 1639. 
The armorial bearings of the English sovereigns are 
given under the article England. Armorial bearings 
were taxed in 1798, and again in 1808. The tax 
produced 64,5157. in the year ending 31 March, 
1868 ; 1872, 64,2281. ; 1876, 83,5277. ; 1878, 83,1042. ; 
1879, 81,8540. ; 1881, 79,014/. ; 1882, 79,1967, ; 1884, 
78,7667. The tax is now 2/. 2s.; if not on carriages, 
it is 17, Is. annually (1885). Sir Bernard Burke’s 
‘*General. Armory,’’ 1883, contains the arms of 
above 66,000-British families, &c. 


ARMORICA, now Brittany, N. France, was 
conquered by Julius Cesar, 56 B.c. Many Gauls 
are said to eae retired there and preserved the 
Celtic tongue, A.D. 584; see Brittany. 

ARMOUR. That of Goliath is described (about 
1063 B.C.) I Sam. xvii. 5. Skins and padded hides 

E 


ARMOUR PLATES. 


were early used, and brass and iron armour, in 

lates or scales, followed. The body armour of the 
Britons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after 
the Roman conquest, for the well-tanned leathern 
cuirass. Zacitus. Hengist is said to have had 
scale armour, A.D. 449. 


The Norman armour formed breeches and jacket 
The hauberk had its hood of the same piece ae 
John wore a surtout over a hauberk of rings set 
edgeways : 5 : ; 4 5 5 K 
The heavy cavalry covered with a coat of mail. 
Some horsemen had vizors and skull-caps, about. 
Armour exceedingly splendid, about . 4 aN 
Black armour, used not only for battle, but for 
mourning, Henry V. . . 2 - ; al 4es 
Armour of Henry VII. consisted of a cuirass of 
steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about « 1500 
Armour ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625 
In the reign of Charles II. officers wore no other 
armour than a large gorget, which is commemo- 
rated in the diminutive ornament known at the 
present day. Meyrick. 


ARMOUR PLATES, see Jron, and Navy of 
England. 


ARMS. The club was the first offensive wea- 
pon; then followed the mace, battle-axe, pike, 
spear, javelin, sword and dagger, bows and arrows. 
Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the 
Phoenicians; see articles on the various weapons 
throughout the volume. 


ARMS, see Armorial bearings, and Heraldry. 


ARMS BILLS, for the repression of crime and 
insurrection in Ireland, were passed 1807, 1810, 
1823, 1829, and 15 Oct. 1831. The guns registered 
under the last act at the close of the first year 
scarcely amounted to 3000, and the number was 
equally small of all other kinds of arms. The new 
Arms bill, passed 22 Aug. 1843, has been since re- 
newed, but was not rigidly enforced till 1867. An- 
other Arms bill brought into the Commons, ‘‘ An 
act to amend the law relating to the carrying and 
possession of arms, and for the preservation of public 
peace in Ireland,” to last till 1 June, 1886; Royal 
Assent, 21 March 1881. See Jreland. 


ARMSTRONG GUN, see under Cannon. 


ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies 
amounting to nearly two millions of fighting men, 
2017 B.c. The first guards and regular troops as a 
standing army were formed by Saul, 1093 B.c. 
Eusebius. The army of Xerxes invading Greece is 
said to have been 1,700,000 foot and 80,000 horse : 
480 8.c. One of the first standing armies of which 
we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. 
The army which Darius opposed to Alexander the 
Great (332 B.C.) is set down as between 750,000 and 
amillion. The first standing army which existed 
as such, in modern times, was maintained in France 
by Charles VII. in 1445. The chief European 
nations have had in their service the following 
armies: Spain, 150,000 men; Great Britain, 310,000; 
Prussia, 350,000; Turkey, 450,000; Austria, 500,000; 
Russia, 560,000; and France, 1,000,000. Estimated 
number in Europe in 1863, 6,000,000 soldiers, 
1,000,000 horses, 11,000 guns. The European 
powers are still increasing their armies. 


1066 
II0O 


ItQQ 


1216 
1350 


January, 1875—Germany ; Q > « 2,800,000 
" », France bi its : 1,750,000 
a Be Russia. - . 3,300,000 
¢ », Great Britain. ahh 225,931 
Mg By Reserves, Volunteers, &e. . 536,411 


ARMY, BRITISH, mainly arose in the reign of 
Charles II. in 1661, in consequence of the extinction 
of feudal tenures. The first five regiments of 
British infantry were established between 1633 and 


50 


Tm | 
ARMY. 
1680. James II. established several regiments 


dragoon guards (1685-8). In 1685 the army co 
sisted of 7000 foot and 1700 cavalry. The Mili 
then consisted of about 130,000 men, horse « 
foot. Standing armies were introduced by Char! 
I. in 1638; they were declared illegal in Englar 
1 Car. II. 1679; but one was then gradual 
orming, which was maintained by William 1 
1689, when the Mutiny Act was passed. Gros 
‘History of the British Army” was published 


1801. See Regiments, Militia, and Volunteers. 
BRITISH ARMY. 
Men. Sum vot 
1780, Time of war: troops of the 
line . A . : + I10,000 £7,847, 
1800, War B e ~ » 168,082 17,973; 
1810, War: army including foreign 
troops. . , + 300,000 26,748, 
1815, Last year of the war - 300,000 39,150, 
1820, Time of peace ; war incum- 
brances . a - 88,100 18,253, 
x830, Peace), 4 : ! 89,300 6,991, 
1840, Peace . 5 : 93,471 6,890, 
1850, Peace | . 3 : bee) TAOO TIO 6,763,. 
1852, Peace (except Kaffir war) . 101,937 7,018, 
1854, War with Russia . giv tenn MOT Y. 73875 
Sum vo 
Total In India* (includ 
men. men. ordnan 
&e.) 
1855-6,f War with Russia. 223,224 29,629 £32,006, 
1856-57, War with Persia. 265,466 26,363 20,811, 
1857-58, Indian Mutiny . 175,858 30,197 14,405, 
1858-59.  - . « » 222,874 92,739 13,204) 
1859-60, Chinese War + 220,551 91,897 14,915, 
1860-61 . : : - » 228,854 92,528 18,083} 
1861-62 . . ; - 212,773 60,041 16,854, 
1862-63 . ‘ : - 228,973 83,523  16;2mn 
1863-64 . . : a - 220,918 72,676 14,723, 
1864-65 . > - + + 219,450 72,684 14,382; 
1865-66 . . : F - 213,528 71,044 145500) 
1866-67 . : ‘ » +» 203,404 65,827 14,695) 
1867-68, Abyssinian War . 204,455 65,292 15,418, 
1868-69 . . ; A + 203,157 64,466 15,000, 
1869-70 . : ; - « 191,073 ‘63,907  “x355mp) 
1870-71, Franco - German 
War. - 178,000 62,963 13,430, 
1871-72 . > ~ e°. 197,911 62,864 15,50} 
1872-73. » A - 196,606 62,957 14,720; 
1873-74 .» ° : - 187,928 62,924 14,426; 
1874-75 + + - 224,835 62,840 14,591, 
1875-76 . : Z + 225,931 62,850 
T576+77 wate - ~ - 132,884 62,849 15,201) 
1877-78 . - : ¢ + 1333720 -62,652  Z5;0mD] 
1879-80. . > - 135,625 13,019, 


1880-81 . : - 131,859 62,588 12,797; 


Total home and colonial establishments, 632,649; ¢ 
16,641, 3001. 


Expended by army purchase commission :— 


1871-2 . . , . 2 , £340,000 

1872-3 “ ; 3 . : 683,500 

1873°4 0 ft a Ss 7135974 

1874-5 : . ‘ 4 . » © 579,145 

Regular troops for home service :— 

1853 1875 1878 
Cavalry . ; 7,606 12,945 15,09 
Artillery 8,710 18,853 30,69 
Engineers . - I,039 4,074 4527 
Infantry . . 5 53,651 63,371 110,57 
71,006 99,243 160,64. 

Average strength of the army. Cost, 
1879 . é - 191,290 $£17,045,15 
1880 5 ; 188,986 15,054,3 
TOOSLIMS ‘ 188,708 145773394 
1882 : 189,229 15)738,00 
1883 . 181,971 15,140,45 


Army estimate 1884-5, £15,975,300. 


* Supported by the Indian government. 
+ Ending March 3r. 
¢ Extra on account of Russo-Turkish war. 


a a 


A 
*~ 

oT a 
iy. 
ss 


ARMY. 


61 ARMY, 


‘olunteers in Great Britain, in 1862, 167,921 ; in 1872, 
172,891 ; iM 1875, 161,150; in 1878, 193,026, (with staff) 
245,048 ; 1879, 206,265; 1880, 206,537 ; 1881, 208,308 ; 
1882, 207,336; 1883, 209,365. 

Tilitia, 1872, 139,018; 1879, 127,749; 1880, 130,331 3 
1881,* 99,002 ; 1882,* 92,094 3 1883, 116,642. 

ecomanry, 1872, 15,4553; 1879, 12,010; 1880, 11,598; 
1881, 10,617 ; 1882, 11,173; 1883, 11,204. 

ecruits of all classes in 1871, 23,108. 

rmy Reserves, 1 Jan. 1860, 17,948; 1874, 31,046 ; 1879, 
37,512 ; 1881, 41,796; 1882,t 34,636; 1883,t 26,203. 


he Mutiny Act passed annually since 1689; al- 
terations made in this act and in the Articles of 
War. (See below, 1879.) . : ‘ : : - 1855 
rmy Service Acts: 12 & 13 Vict. ¢. 37 (21 June, 
1847), and 18 Vict.c.4  . é 4 . 27 Feb. 1855 
fficers in the service of the East India Company 

to have the same rank and precedence as those in 

the regulararmy . ; d A 7,25 April..,, 
1e office of Master-General of the Ordnance abol- 
ished, and the civil administration of the Army 

and Ordnance vested in the hands of lord 
Panmure, the Minister of War * . 25 May, 5; 
camination of staff officers previous to their ap- 
pointment ordered i : . 9 April, 1857 
ie army largely recruited for Indian war . 1857-8 
1e East India Company’s army was transferred to 
the Queen. : ‘ : 4 : : . 1859 
ach dissatisfaction arose in that army in conse- 
quence of no bounty being granted ; and threaten- 

ings of mutiny appeared, which subsided after an 
arrangement was made granting discharge to those 

who desired it . i ‘ F 3 Savery 
‘amination of candidates for the Military Aca- 
emy, previously confined to pupils from Sand- 
hurst, was thrown open, 1855; the principle of 
this measure was affirmed by the house of com- 
mons by vote . 3 : ¥ 3 . 26 April, 1858 
¢ 22 & 23 Vict. c. 42, provision made for a reserve 
force, not to exceed 20,000 men, who had been in 
er majesty’s service . = . cs P eis 
ogging virtually abolished in the army: First 
slass soldiers to be degraded to second class be- 
,ore being liable toit ; . eek NOV. is 
_teport of a commission in 1858 causes great sani- 

vary improvements in the army, barracks, &c., 
inder direction of Mr. Sidney Herbert - . 1859-60 
commission recommend the establishment of a 
ecruiting department, increase of pensions, &e. 

31 Oct. 1866 
gging restricted to insubordination (with vio- 
ence) and indecency : : ; March (?) 1867 
w Army Enlistment Act (limiting period of 
nlistment to r2 years, &c.) passed . 20 June, 
eased pay to all soldiers (except to life-guards) 
tom x April, 1867 ; by warrant, dated . 29 June, 
.t to form a reserve of men in the militia to join 
he army in the event of war, passed . 20 Aug. 
Var Department Stores” Act passed . 20 Aug. 

Henry Storks appointed Controller-in-Chief 

xr Jan. 1868 
, $ging abolished in time of peace, by an amend- 
ent in the Mutiny Act : : a MAT tgs 
ward Cardwell, secretary for war . «19 Dec: 
yal commission on military education appointed, 
3 June, 1868; report with recommendations 
ssued about. “ ; A ; s - Oct. 1869 
) ny Service Corps, to be composed of volunteers 
ommanded by regular officers, established by 
oyal warrant . é 5 z ee NOVEL! 4 
yal commission on the purchase system, &c., 
‘ppointed 5 April; report recognises the “over 
|-gulation payments” hitherto ignored . Aug. 1870 


1859 


Jct”*issued. .. ; ; 2 ; . 12 Aug 
: ay ee 
|,0,0001. voted to increase the army by 20,000 


ene : A 4 ‘ : : TRAM Les 
_ ths in the army reduced from 17 per 1000 to 935 
- consequence of sanitary improvements, &c. A 
| utof 175,460 men, 33,797 under 20, 18,614 under 
1); Lord Northbrook . : s ‘ - June, 1871 
iy Regulation bill (the abolition of the purchase 
‘stem, &c.) passed in the commons, 289-231, 
ps Se eS IGS RA ie ORR as ll a 
* Exclusive of Irish. 
+ Exclusive of army pensioners, 


= 


99999 


early 4 July; introduced in the lords, 13 July; 
able speech of the duke of Cambridge in its 
favour, 14 July ; rejected (155-130), 2a.m., 18 July, 
Purchase system abolished by royal warrant (in 
pursuance of acts 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 16, and 49 
Geo. III. ¢. 126) on and after 1 Nov. 1871. 
20 July, 
Regulation of the Forces Act passed . . 17 Aug. 
Autumn Campaign in Hampshire; about 40,000 
men engaged ; the duke of Cambridge and others 
umpires ; the prince of Wales and prince Arthur 
engaged ; foreign officers present. 
Manceuvres according to the Prussian system; 
field days, &e. . S ; ‘ . 8-12 Sept. 
Invading force of 24,000, under Staveley and Carey; 
marching towards London, opposed by sir Hope 


Grant : 3 A 3 : - 13 Sept. 
Series of battles near the Hog’s Back, Aldershot ; 
Grant declared victor . } - 16-19 Sept. 


Battle uf Fox’s-hill ; Carey defeats Staveley, 21 Sept. 

[Reported results: artillery magnificent; cavalry 
superb ; infantry very good; transport insuffi- 
cient; greater distribution of responsibility 
among Officers needed. } 

Sham fight; Chatham stormed . t - 24 Oct. 

Warrant published, 30 Oct., inaugurating the new 
system of promotion of officers (partly by senior- 
ity and partly by selection) on. . mit TUNOV. 

New organisation of the army proposed by Mr. 
Cardwell: brigade districts, England, 49 ; Scot- 
land, 8; Ireland8;=65 . 7 oe beb: 

The duke of Cambridge’s favourable report was 
laid before parliament earlyin . - March, 


Army estimates passed in commons (234-63) 12 Mar. 


Review of 14,000 men by the queen at Aldershot, 
5 July, 

Autumn Manewvres in Wiltshire : 50,000 men con- 
manded by sir John Mitchell supposed to land at 
Weymouth, and march towards London, opposed 
by sir R. Walpole; campaign begins; skirmishes 
near Blandford : x : ‘ . 2t Aug. 
Sir A. Horsford repulses gen. Brownrigg at Winch- 
ampton . = “ : : c . 27 Aug. 
Prince of Wales arrives at Salisbury . - 3 Sept. 
Battle of Wishford, 7 Sept. ; battle of the Avon, 10 
Sept. ; grand march past near Beacon Hill r2 Sept. 
The new drill and tactics for the army were pub- 
lished : : F f : ; - 23 Nov. 
Mr. Cardwell’s estimates ; proposes increasing pay 


of soldiers ; and establishment of a chief of the: 


staff . : : A ; : . 24 Feb. 
Review of troops at Windsor, before the Shah, 
24 June, 


Autwnn Manewvres at Dartinoor, Cannock Chase, 
and at the Curragh, Dublin. . duly, Aug. 
Royal Commission on compensation to officers for 
changes ; appointed : é : 1x Oct. 
Report issued (admits cause for compensation ; 
and considers that offivers will be satisfied with 
whatever the nation chooses to decide for them ;) 
June, 

Change of ministry; Mr. Gathorne Hardy (after- 
wards Lord Cranbrook), secretary for war 21 Feb. 
The victorious troops from Ashantee reviewed by 
the queen F : : ' i 30,March, 
Summer Maneuvres at Aldershot *. : June, 
New regulations respecting first applications for 


commissions ; issued . ; b - Sept. 
Royal commission on more rapid promotion; ga- 
zetted -. . ‘ ; : ; - 10 Noy. 
Manceuvres at Aldershot . - July, 


Royal warrant respecting regimental exchanges, 
dated 6 Aug.; issued . ; A : g Aug. 
Scheme completed for mobilisation of the army, 
announced : "4 , : ; : Dee. 
“Control” Department divided into ‘‘ commissariat 
and transport departments,” and ‘‘ ordnance 
store departments,” . 5 4 ; 1x Dee, 
Mobilisation of the army and the reserve;  experi- 
ment in Surrey reported successful . . duly, 
New cavalry regulations issued J . Aug. 
Report of commission on promotion issued ; recom- 
mends compulsory retirement in some cases, and 
other changes . A ; : F 20 pO 
New organisation of the artillery proposed about 


Manceuyres ona small scale . : . duly, 


1871 


a, 


ARMY. 


52 


ARSENAL. 


Review by the queen at Windsor - ro July 1877 
Army promotion and retiring scheme : royal war- 


rant published » : 28 July, ,, 
New army medical warrant issued . -- x Sept. ,, 
About 29,000 recruits in 1877 ; announced Mar. 1873 
Col. F. A. Stanley, war secretary 2 April, ,, 


Reserves (about 35,000) called out, 2 April; com- 
mended ; disbanded . P e . 31 July 
The report of the commission on the mutiny acts 
recommends consolidation of the mutiny acts and 
the articles of war, and simplification of martial 
law, &c. ‘ ¥ : 3 4 : . duly, 
Warrant establishing new warrant officers (“‘ con- 
ductors ”) agrade between commissioned and non- 
commissioned. ; “ 2 : - 24 Jan. 
Army Discipline and Regulation Acts, introduced 
27 Feb.; passed. 5 : : . 24 July, 
{They relate to discipline, enlistment, billeting, 
court-martials, military law, &c.] 
Army Medical Department; changes made by a 
new warrant issued 2 Dec. 1879; amended Jan. 
Mr. Hugh E. Childers, war secretary, 28 April, 
New system of Military Examination for officers ; 
introduced f : K : r Oct. 
Alterations in officers’ dress, by orders Noy. 
System of compulsory retirement of officers came 
into operation . ‘ : : 5 sen wali. 
Great army reform measures laid before the Com- 
mons by Mr. Childers : 3 March, 
Alterations made in the uniform and organisation 
of the infantry . = April et seq. 
New organization comes into effect . 1 July, 
Regulation of the Forces and the Army Discipline 
Act (amending the Acts of 1879) passed 27 Aug. 
See Flogging. 
Army Actamended , 4 28 April, 
Reserves called out (for Egypt) 25 July, 
Success of the changes in the army system demon- 
strated by the Egyptian campaign; within 7 
weeks a large well appointed army was conveyed 
3000 miles under most unfavourable conditions 
and achieved the object of the expedition 
July—Sept. 
Review of the return troops and Indian contingent 
by the queen in St. James’s Park. 18 Noy. 
Queen’s thanks published 21 Noy. ; she distributes 


” 


medals, &c., at Windsor 4 5 et NOV a aes 
Formation of an Army Telegraph Corps ordered 
Feb. 1883 


Army Medical Service: system, &c., censured by 
report of lord Morley’s committee May 

Great increase of recruits ; above 33,000 . in 

Report of committee on colour of mniform recom- 
mending change of red to grey, July, 1882: issued 
29 March " - : 


ARMY oF OccuPATION. By treaty, signed 
20 Nov. 1815, the allied powers established the 
boundaries of France, and stipulated for the occu- 
pation of certain fortresses by foreign troops for 
three years.—The departure of the German army of 
occupation began about 20 Sept. 1871; completed 
16 Sept. 1873. 


AROGERH, Abyssinia. Here sir Robert (after- 
wards lord) Napier defeated the Abyssinians, who 
lost about 700 killed and wounded, 10 April, 1868. 
The British had 20 wounded. 

AROMATICS. Acron of Agrigentum is said 
to have been the first who caused great fires to be 
made, and aromatics to be thrown into them, to 
purify the air, by which means he put a stop to the 
plague at Athens, 429 B.C. 


ARPAD DYNASTY, see Hungary. 


ARPINUM (now Arpino, S. Italy), the birth- 
place of Cicero, 3 Jan. 106 B.c.; many remains still 
bear his name. 


ARQUEBUS, see Fire Arms. 


ARQUHS (N. France). Near here the league 
army, commanded by the duc de Mayenne, was de- 
feated by Henry IV. 21 Sept. 1580. 


ARRACAN, a province of N.E. India. Arracan, 


>) 


the capital, captured by the Burmese, 1783, wi 
taken from them by general Morrison, 1 April, 182 
The subjugation of the province followed, 1826, 


ARRAIGNMENT consists in reading ] 
indictment by the officer of the court, and callir 
upon the prisoner to say whether he is guilty orn 
guilty. Formerly, persons who refused to plead j 
cases of felony were pressed to death by weigh 
placed upon the breast. A person standing mu 
was declared convicted by an act passed 1772; bi 
in 1827, the court was directed to enter a plea | 
‘not guilty’’ in such cases; see Mute. 


ARRAS (N. E. France), the country of 1] 
ancient Atrebates, the seat of a bishop since 39 
Here a treaty was concluded between the king | 
France and duke of Burgundy, when the latt 
abandoned his alliance with England, 21 Sept. 143 
Another treaty was concluded by Maximilian « 
Austria with Louis XI. of France, whereby Bu 
gundy and Artois were given to the dauphin as 
marriage portion, 23 Dec. 1482. Velly. Arras we 
held by the Austrians from 1493 till 1640, when : 
was taken by Louis XIII. 


ARRAY. On 23 Dec. 1324, Edward II. directe 
the bishop of Durham to make ‘‘ arraier’”’ his me 
of arms, horse and foot, and cause them to procee 
to Portsmouth; thence to proceed to the war i 
Gascony. Rymer’s Federa. Hallam says thé 
this was the earliest commission of array that hb 
could find, and that the latest was dated 1557. Th 
attempt of Charles I. to revive commissions of arra 
in 1642, founded on a statute of Henry IV., wa 
strenuously opposed as illegal. ! 


ARREARS OF RENT ACT, Ireland, May 
1882; 45 & 46 Vict. c. 47, passed 18 Aug. 1882. 


ARREST For DEBT. The persons of peer 
members of parliament, &c., are protected fror 
arrest ; see Ambassadors, Debt, Ferrars’ Arrest. 


Clergyman performing divine service privileged, 50 


Edw. III. : : : : 3 : , + 137 
Seamen privileged from debts under 20l., by 30 ~ 
Geo. IIT. 175 


Barristers are privileged from arrest while going to, _ 
attending upon, and returning from court, on the 
business of their clients. ‘ 

By stat. 29 Car. IL no arrest can be made, nor 
process served, upon a Sunday; this law was ex- 
tended by Will. IIT. 

Vexatious arrests prevented by act, May, 1733. 
Prohibited for less than rol. on process, 1779; and 
for less than 2ol. : 5 : . July, 

Arrests for less than rol. were prohibited on mesne 
process in Ireland, in June : 

Statute abolishing arrest for debt on mesne process, 
except in cases wherein there is ground to show 
that the defendant designs to leave the country, 
2 Vict. : 3 : ! 3 ; . Aug 

By 7 &8 Vict. c. 906, the power of imprisonment 
even upon final process that is judgment debts, 
is abolished if the swm does not exceed 2o/. ex- 
clusive of costs, 1844 ; and by 9 & ro Vict. ¢. 95, 
the judge has no power to punish, except in case 
of fraud or contempt of court ‘ 3 é a 

By the Absconding Debtors’ Arrest Act, absconding 
debtors owing 20/7. and upwards are liable to 
arrest . - : 5 : A Rs < . ars 

Arrest for debt practically abolished, with certain 
exceptions, by 32 & 33 Vict. c. 62. F 

See Debt. 


ARRETIUM, see Arezzo. . 

ARSACIDA, a Parthian dynasty, began witl 
Arsaces about 250 B.c., and ended with Artabanus 
killed in battle with Artaxerxes, the founder of t 
Sassanide, A.D. 226. ay 

ARSENAL, a great military or naval repos 
tory ; see Woolwich. a 


é 
4 
‘ 
j 
i 
; 


ARSENIANS. 
ARSEN TANS, partisans of Arsenius, patriarch 


‘Constantinople, who excommunicated the emperor | 


ichael Paleologus for blinding his colleague the 
ung John Lascaris, 1261, and was deposed 1264. 


ARSENIC, a steel-gray coloured brittle mine- 
1, extremely poisonous, known in early times. 
‘andt, in 1733, made the first accurate experiments 
‘its chemical nature. The heinous crimes com- 
itted by its means induced the legislature to enact 
rulations for its sale, 1851. In 1858 Dr. A. S. 
lor asserted that green paper-hangings and 
2sses prepared from arsenic are injurious to health. 


ARSON, punished with death by the Saxons, 
ll remained a capital crime on the consolidation 
the laws in 1827 and 1837. By the act of 1861 it 
punishable by penal servitude for life and minor 
zrees of imprisonment. William Anthony was 
ivicted of arson, having set many houses on fire, 
the sake of obtaining the reward for giving 
rm, 13 Dec. 1871. 
un. Nash was convicted of murder for setting fire 
o his house at Notting-hill, and causing six 
eaths, 30 May; sentenced to death (but reprieved) 
3, 4 Aug. 1881 
ARSOUF (Syria). Ata battle here Richard I. 
England, commanding the Christian forces, re- 
sed to 30,000, defeated Saladin’s army of 300,000 
-acens and other infidels, on 6 Sept. 1191. Ascalon 
rendered, and Richard marched towards Jeru- 
2m, 1192. 
(RT ACT, facilitating the public exhibition of 
rks of art, (lent to the president of the privy 
neil), passed April, 1866. See Arts, Exhibitions, 
1 National Portrait Gallery. 


ARTEMIS, a Greek goddess; 


nans, Diana, which see. 


ARTEMISIUM, a promontory in Eubea, 
r which indecisive conflicts took place between 
_ Greek and Persian fleets for three days; 480 
3. The former retired on hearing of the battle of 
srmopyle. 


ARTESIAN WELLS (from Artesia, now 
ois, in France, where they frequently occur) are 
ned by boring through the upper soil to strata 

taining water which has percolated from a 

her level, and which rises to that level through 

boring tube. The fountains in Trafalgar-square 

. government offices near have been supplied 
‘e 1844 by two of these wells (393 feet deep). 
Paris the Grenelle well (1798 feet deep), was 
pleted in 1841, after eight years of exertion, by 
Mulot at an expense of about 12,000/., and the 

Lat Passy, which it is said will supply sufficient 

er for nearly 500,000 persons, was begun in 1855, 
completed in 1860 by M. Kind. Messrs. Amos 
Easton completed an Artesian well for the 
‘ticultural Society’s garden in 1862, which 
ded 880,000 gallons of water, at the temperature 

| 1° Fahr., in twenty-four hours. The well at 

| ‘Ingen was completed in 1850. Artesian wells 

/aow common, 


RTHOUR, king of Britain, said, mythically, to 
|> lived A.D. 500—532. 


| events of his life and the conflicts of the 
ights of his round table, as sung by the Welsh 
ets Taliesin, Llywarch Hén, and Aneurin, 
re incorporated into his Latin history by 
) offrey of Monmouth, about rs, who died 
54; put into French verse by Geoffrey Gaisnar, 
"1 by Wace soon after; and set forth in an 
glish poem called Brut by Layamon, about. 1205 
er Map by incorporating in his version the 
‘end of the Holy Graal, introduced the re- 
‘couselementabout . . , + II7I 


called by the 


53 


ARTILLERY. | 


Sir Thomas Malory’s ‘‘ Morte d’Arthur,” printed . 1485 
Lord Lytton’s ‘‘ King Arthur,” published - 1848 
Tennyson’s “ Idylls of the King” - 1859-69 


ARTICHOKES are said to have been intro- 
duced from the East into Western Europe in the 
I hint century, and to have reached England in the 
16th. 


ARTICLES oF REtiaion. On 8 June, 1536, 
after much disputing, the English clergy in convo- 
cation published ‘‘Articles decreed by the king’s 
highness’” Henry VIII., who published in 1539 the 
‘Statute of Six Articles,’’ decreeing the acknow- 
ledgment of transubstantiation, communion in one 
kind, vows of chastity, private masses, celibacy of 
the clergy, and auricular confession. Offenders 
were punishable as heretics. In 1551 forty-two 
were prepared, and published in 1 $53: These were 
modified by the convocation, and reduced to THIRTY- - 
NINE in Jan. 1563; and they received the royal 
authority and the authority of parliament in 1571. 
The Lambeth Articles, of a more Calvinistic charac- 
ter, proposed by archbishop Whitgift, were with- 
drawn in consequence of the displeasure of queen 
Elizabeth, 1595. One hundred and four Articles 
were drawn up for Ireland by archbishop Usher in 
1614; but in 1635 the Irish church adopted the 
English articles. See Perth Articles. The 
Articles were ordered to be removed from the 
studies at Oxford in Nov. 1871. 


ARTICLES or Wr were decreed in the time 
of Richard I. and John. Those made by Richard 
IT. in 1385 appear in ‘‘ Grose’s Military Antiquities.’’ 


. The articles of war now in force are based upon an 


act, passed by William III. in 1689, to regulate the 
army about to engage in his continental warfare. 


ARTIFICERS AnD MANUFACTURERS. 
Their affairs were severely regulated by the statutes 
of labourers, 1349, 1350, 1360, 1549, and espe- 
cially of 1562. ‘They were prohibited from leaving 
England, and those abroad were outlawed, if they 
did not return within six months after the notice 
given them. A fine of 100/., and imprisonment for 
three months, were the penalties for seducing them 
from these realms, by 9 Geo. II. (1736) and other 
statutes. The law was modified in 1824; see Arti- 
sans, Workmen, &e. 


ARTILLERY, a term including properly all 
missiles, now restricted to cannon. A small piece 
was contrived by Schwartz, a German cordelier, 
soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. 
Artillery was used, it is said, by the Moors of 


| Algesiras, in Spain, in 1343; and according to some 


historians, at the battle of Crecy, in 1346, when 
Edward III. had four pieces of cannon. We had 
artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venetians 
employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377. 
Voltaire. Said to have been cast, with mortars for 
bomb-shells, by Flemish artists, in Sussex, 1543. 


Rymer’s Fadera. Made of brass 1635; improve- 
ments by Browne, 1728; see Cannon, Bombs; Car- 
ronades (under Carron), Mortars, Howitzers, 


Petard, Rockets, Fire-arms. The Royal Artillery- 
regiment was established in the reign of Anne. 


HoNOURABLE ARTILLERY CoMPANny of London, incor- 
porated 25 Aug. 1537, having ceased, was revived in 
r610. It met for military exercise at the Artillery 
ground, Finsbury, where the London archers had 
met since 1498 ; (see Archery).’ In the civil war, 
1642-8, the company, as a body, took no part, but 
most of the officers of the Trained Bands were 
also members of the company. The company 
numbered 1200 in 1803 and 800 in 186r. Since 
1842 the officers have been appointed by the 
gueen. On the decease of the duke of Sussex in 


ARTISANS. 


54 


ASAPH. 


1843, the prince consort became coloneland captain 
general. He died 14 Dec. 1861, and the prince 
of Wales was appointed his successor, 24 Aug. 1863. 

NATIONAL VOLUNTEER ARTILLERY ASSOCIATION 
held its first annual meeting for shooting for prizes 
given by the queen and others: at Shoeburyness, 
July, 1865. Meetings were held and prizes dis- 
tributed in July, 1866; July, 1867; Aug. 1868-78- 
79-80-83-84. 

Roya ARTILLERY INSTITUTION, established at Wool- 
wich, proposed by lieuts. F, Hardley-Wilmot, and 
J. H. Lefroy, Feb. 1838 ; approved June, 1838; 
building completed Sept. 1840. Proceedings, vol. 
I., published . P : L ; : 4 

The alleged great deficiency of artilleryin the British 
army, much discussed Sept. 1870; Artillery 
brought to the camp at Aldershot, reported to 
be very fine. . 5 : i y - Sept. 

New organisation of the artillery proposed about 

26 Feb. 1877 


ARTISANS’ AND LABOURERS’ 
DWELLINGS, Act “to provide better dwel- 
lings,” passed 31 July, 1868; another Act was 
passed 29 June, 1875, “to facilitate the improve- 
ment of the dwellings of the working classes in 
large towns ;’’ one for Scotland, 2 Aug. 1875 ; other 
‘acts passed in 1879; amended 1882. 


ARTISANS’, LABOURERS’, AND GENERAL DWELLINGS 
CoMPANY, registered 31 Dec. 1866; purchased 
estates in various parts of the country. The 
Shaftesbury estate (which see) was formally opened 

18 July, 

The director (Dr. John Baxter Langley), secretary 
(Mr. Wm. Swindiehurst), were sevtenced to be 
imprisoned 18 months; and Mr. Edwd. Saffery, 
estate agent, 12 months, for conspiring to defraud 
the company of about 24,312l.; trial 23-26 Oct. 

Royal commission to enquire into the condition of 
the housing of the working classes, appointed, 
consisting of sir Charles Dilke, chairman, the 
‘HENS of Wales, the marquis of Salisbury, arch- 
jishop Manning, sir R. A. Cross, Mr. Goschen, 
Mr. Samuel Morley, and ten others, gazetted 4 
March. First met 6 March, 1884. First Report 
issued 1885. 

ARTISANS’ Institute, for promoting general and 
technical knowledge; near St. Martin’s Lane: 
established by aid of the duke of Bedford, lord 
Lyttelton, Mr. 8. Morley, and others; opened 

14 Oct. 1874 


ARTISTS’ FUND, was established in 1810 to 
provide allowances for sick, and annuities for in- 
capacitated, members. -drtists’ General Benevolent 
Institution, established 1814. Artists’ tOrphan 
Fund, 1871. 


ARTOIS (N. France), a province once held b 
the Atrebates, conquered by the Franks in the fifth 
century, given by Charles the Bold, with Flanders, 
as a dowry to his daughter Judith, on her marriage 
with Baldwin Bras-de-fer in 863. Louis XV. created 
his grandson, Charles Philippe, count of Artois, who 
became king as Charles X., 16 Sept. 1824. 

Re-united to the crown by Philip Augustus - 1180 


Formed into a county for his brother Robert, by 
Louis IX. 


1870 


1874 


1877 


. . . . . . . . IZ 
Acquired, with Flanders, through marriage, by the “4s 
duke of Burgundy ; A ? : 4 ESOL 
Passed, by marriage of Mary of Burgundy to Maxi- 
milian, to the house of Austria c “ > 1477 
Restored to France 3 - 3 4 5 » beurase 
Reverted to Austria . “ & : : . - 1493 
Conquered for France... 1640 


Finally confirmed to it by the treaty of Nimeguen, 
to Aug. 1678 


ARTS. In the 8th century, the circle of sciences 
was composed of seven liberal arts—the trivium 
_ (grammar, rhetoric, logic), the gwadrivium (arith- 
metic, music, geometry, and astronomy). Harris. 
The Royal Society of England (which see) obtained 
its charter, 2 April, 1663. 


The Society of Arts, to promote the polite arts, com- 
merce, manufactures, and mechanics, originated 
in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Wm. Shipley, and its 
first president, lord Folkestone . - Marche 


FINE ARTS. 

First public exhibition by the artists of the British 
metropolis took place at the rooms of the Society 
of Arts : : ‘ F : . suk 

Repeated there for several years, till the Royal 
Academy was founded . e i - : \ 

Society of British Artists was instituted 21 May . 

Their first exhibition opened 19 April i { 

Pre-Raphaelites (which see) became prominent about 

Society for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts 
founded in Dee. . 3 Z t 3 y ott 

Art Unions began in France and Germany early in 
the present century. 

The first in Britain was established at Edinburgh. 

The Art Union of London, 112, Strand, was 
founded 14 Feb. 1837; and chartered 1 Dec. 1846. 
The Art Union indemnity act was passed 3 Aug. 
1844. Subscription for 1876, 20,932l.; 1877, 
15,5861. (depression of trade); 1884, 9,634. 

Burlington Fine Arts Club, for exhibition of works 
of art, &c., founded . A ¢ : : 2 

A memorial of a convention for promoting univer- 
sally reproductions of works of art for the bene- 
fit of museums of all countries, signed by the 
prince of Wales, and the crown princes of Prussia, 
Russia, Denmark, Sweden, Italy, Saxony, and 
others, was sent to the duke of Marlborough, 

12 March, 

Mr. Herkomer’s new School of Art, Bushey, Herts, 
opened . A 2 ‘ - - 26 Nov. 

See British Institution > National Gallery; Roya 
Academy ; Albert Hall. 
ARUNDEL CASTLE (Sussex), built by 

Saxons about 800. The duke of Norfolk enjoy 
earldom of Arundel, as a feudal honour, by in 
ance and possession of the castle, without any ¢ 
creation. Philip Howard, son of the attai 
duke of Norfolk, was made earl of Arundel 
summons, as possessor of this castle, 1580. It 
thoroughly repaired by a late duke at a vast 
pense. 


ARUNDEL SOCIETY, for the prom 
of the knowledge of art, was established in 184 
publishes fac-similes and photographs. 


ARUNDELIAN MARBLES, called 
Oxford Marbles ; one containing the chronolos 
ancient history from 1582 to 355 B.C., and sa 
have been sculptured 264 B.c. ‘They consist « 
statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and 
found in the isle of Paros, in the reign of Jam 
about 1610. They were collected by Mr. W. P 
purchased by lord Arundel, and given by his 9 
son Henry Howard, afterwards duke of Norfol 
the university of Oxford in 1667; and are ther 
called also OXFORD MARBLES. The characte 
the inscriptions are Greek. A variorum editic 
the inscriptions, by Maittaire, appeared in ° 
and a fine one by Chandler in 1763; and tra 
tions by Selden, 1628; by Prideaux, 1676: 
Kidd's Tracts; and Porson’s Treatise, 1789. 


ARUSPICES, see Haruspices. 
ARYAN, see Arian, and Language. 


AS, a Roman weight and coin: as a weigl 
was a pound; as a coin, it had different wei 
but the same value. In the reign of Servius, 
as weighed a pound of brass ; in the first Punic 
it weighed two ounces, 264 B.C.; in the second F 
war, one ounce, 218 B.c.; and afterwards ha! 
ounce ; its value about three farthings sterling 


ASAPH, St. (N. Wales), a bishopric sai 
have been founded by Kentigern, bishop of Glas 
On returning into Scotland about 560, he lef! 
Asaph his successor, from whom the see is ma! 


nS | 


‘ 


ASBESTOS. 


55 


ASHANTEES. 


is valued in the king’s books at 1877. 11s. 6d. 
he present cathedral was erected by bishop Red- 
an, 1472-95. By an order in council, 1838, the 
es of St, Asaph and Bangor were to have been 
nited on the next vacancy in either, and the 
shopric of Manchester created. ‘This order was 
mulled in 1846. Present income 4,200/.; see 
lanchester. 'The cathedral, restored by sir Gilbert 
s0tt, re-opened 2 Sept., 1875. 
BISHOPS OF ST. ASAPH. 

Samuel Horsley, died 4 Oct. 1806. 
William Cleaver, died 15 May, 181s. 
John Luxmoore, died 21 Jan. 1830. 
William Carey, died 13 Sept. 1846. 
Thomas Vowler Short, resigned Feb. 1870; died 

13 April, 1872. 
yo. Joshua Hughes. 

ASBESTOS, 2 native fossil stone, which may 
split into threads and filaments, and which is 
idued with the property of remaining unconsumed 
‘fire. Cloth was made of it by.the Egyptians 
Zerodotus), and napkins in the time of Pliny, 74; 
id also paper. The spinning of asbestos known at 
enice, about 1500. Porta. Asbestos non-inflamm- 
le paints tried in, and proposed for use in theatres, 
e., 23 Dec. 1881. Asbestos proposed as an insu- 
tor for electric wires by M. H. Geoffroy, Paris, 
pt. 1882. 


ASCALON (Syria), a city of the Philistines, 
ared the fate of Phoenicia and Judea. The 
syptian army was defeated here by the crusaders 
ider Godfrey of Bouillon, 12 Aug. 1099. Ascalon 
as besieged by the latter in 1148, taken in 1153; 
id again in 1191. Its fortifications were de- 
royed for fear of the crusaders by the sultan, 1270. 


ASCENSION, an island in the Atlantic ocean, 
0 miles N. W. of St. Helena, discovered by the 
ortuguese on Ascension day, 20 May, 1501; and 
ken possession of by the English, Oct. 1815. 


ASCENSION DAY, also called Holy Thurs- 
ly, when the church celebrates the ascension of 
w Saviour, the fortieth day after his resurrection 
om the dead, 14 May, 33; first commemorated, it 
said, 68. Ascension day, 1884, 22 May; 1885, 14 
ay; 1886, 3 June; 1887, 19 May; 1888, 10 May. 
ciety for the better observance of Ascension Day, 
formed June, 1869. 


ASCHAFFENBURG, onthe Maine, Bavaria, 
W.Germany. Here, on 14 July, 1866, the Prus- 
ms defeated the German Federal army, captured 
e town, and took 2000 prisoners. 


ASCHAM SOCIETY, formed to promote 
cial intercourse among gentlemen engaged in 
ucation, and improve educational methods, &c. 
80. First president, J. A. Froude; honorary 
2mbers, professors Huxley, Tyndall, Morley, &c., 
's F. Pollock, J. Lubbock, F', Leighton, and other 
linent men. 


ASCOT RACES, see Laces. 


ASCULUM, now Ascont, Apulia, S. Italy. 
var it, Pyrrhus of Epirus defeated the Romans, 
9 B.c. Asculum, a city of the Piceni, with all 
2ir country, was conquered by the consul Sem- 
onius, 268 B.c. Here Andrea, general of the em- 
vor Henry VI., endeavouring to wrest Naples 
om Tancred, was defeated and slain, a.p. 1190. 


ASH ANTEES, warlike negroes of West Africa. 
1807 they conquered Fantee, in which the 

‘itish settlement Cape Coast Castle is situated. 

. the death of their king, who had been friendly 

0 the English, hostilities began; the Ashantees 

lefeated about 1,000 British under sir Charles 


02. 
06. 
15. 
30. 
46. 


M’Carthy at Accra, and brought away his skull 


with others as trophies . : J . 21 Jan. 
They were totally defeated by col. Purdon, 7 Aug. 
Treaty of peace and commerce concluded by Mr. 
Maclean ; the independence of the Fantees re- 
cognised . ‘ . 3 : ‘ 29 April 
The governor of Cape Coast Castle begun war with 
Ashantees early in 1863; suspended through 
sickness of our troops . : 3 ‘ May 
Offended at the British occupation of Elmina, the 
Ashantees attacked the Fantees, our allies, with 
varying success. . i é a ADELE 
They were severely repulsed, 13 June; Elmina 
partially bombarded by the British for favouring 
them p J : ‘ 5 - m4June 
Commodore Commerell and his party, sailing up 
the Prah, attacked and wounded ; 4 men killed 
by people of Chamah, which is bombarded 

14 Aug. 

Sir Garnet Wolseley (see Hudson Bay) appointed 
governor of the colonies on West Coast of Africa, 
sails with troops, &c. : 4 a 12 Sept. 
He arrives at Cape Coast Castle, 2 Oct. ; addresses; 
an assembly of friendly chiefs, urging them to 
faithful action and promising rewards (the war 
to be defensive, if possible) F é 4 Oct. 
Ashantees defeated in a conflict in the bush, at 
Essaman, near Elmina; villages burnt, 14 Oct. ; 
again at Escabeo, near Dunquah, by col. Festing 
27 Oct. 

Despatch from sir Garnet Wolseley, declaring 
native allies worthless, and more British troops 
needed F : ; 3 ; ‘ t Oct. 
Indecisive conflict at Dunquah; lieut. EHardley 
Wilmot killed, 3 Nov.; Ashantees’ attack on 
Abrakampra totally defeated ; their camp taken ; 
disorderly retreat : H Fe 05. ON OMe 


Col. Wood’s indecisive attack at Faisorah 27 Nov. 


1824 
1826 


1831 


1864 


1873 


” 


The Ashantees said to be retreating in disorder, - 


15 Dec. 

Sir Garnet Wolseley marches towards the Prah, 
27 Dec. 

The King Koffee Kalealli pretends to accept the 
terms offered; releases captives; prepares for 
battle : é 3 : : oe) te) ADs 
Skirmish at Borborassie ; captain Nicol autos 
‘ 29 Jan. 

Ashantees defeated by sir Garnet Wolseley at 


Amoaful . : , : : . 31 Jan. 
Boequah captured by sir A. Alison rt Feb. 
Ashantee attack at Fommanah repulsed 2 Feb. 


The king takes command; defeated at Ordahsa, 
4 Feb. 

Sir Garnet Wolseley enters Coomassie 4 Feb. 

The king not acceding to proposals, his palace and 
city burnt i i 2 . ,6 Feb. 

Daring ride through Coomassie by capt. Sartorius, 

zz Feb. 

The British retreat; a treaty of peace (terms: 
perpetual peace ; indemnity of 50,000 02. of gold ; 
supremacy over Adansi and other tribes re- 
nounced ; free trade guaranteed ; human sacri- 
fices to be prohibited ;) signed 13 Feb. 

The king fearing attack from capt. Glover, sends 
first instalment of gold (z000 02.) 13 Feb. 

Sir Garnet Wolseley enters Cape Coast Castle, 
19 Feb. ; sails; arrives at Portsmouth 21 March 

The courage, skill, and discipline of the troops and 
sailors highly commended ; expedition cost about 
900, 0001. 

The troops reviewed by the Queen at Windsor: 
sir Garnet Wolseley, commodores Commerell and 
Hewett, col. Festing, capt. Fremantle, sir <A. 
Alison, and commander Glover thanked by par- 
liament. ‘ : ; : 5 . 30 March 

The deposed King Koffee Kalcalli, said to be 
defeated in his attack on his brother, king 
Wemsah % : x : j . Sept. 

The king demands surrender of a fugitive prince by 
the governor of Cape Coast castle, 18 Jan. ; no 
result ; professes desire of peace . April 

The king sends the golden axe to the queen, who 
receives it at Windsor Castle 30 June, 

Deposition of king Mensah, and desire of British 
protection announced . E : 28 June 

Fighting at Coomassie between partizans of king 
Mensah and the ex-king Koffee Kalcalli 3 and x5 

Aug. 


”»> 


ASHBURTON TREATY. 56 ASSAM. 
King Bugay requests British intervention Aug. 1883 | Lycia, Bithynia, Caria, Lydia, Cappadocia, Galati: 
Koffee Kalealli’s partizans totally defeated, an- &c., with the cities Troy, Ephesus, Smyrna (a 
eos tier ‘nilsanhes 11 EEA 3t Noo. » | which see). From the time of the rise of the A: 
ve . . . . g.— Te > om , 
Mxancre of Koliee’s adherontenee “Dec. 2? | Syrian monarchy, about 2000 B.C., to that of tl 


Death of the king, and Koffee Kalealli ; civil war 
reported . : 4 : ; Aug.—Dec. 1884 


ASHBURTON TREATY, concluded at 
Washington, ? Aug. 1842, by Alexander lord Ash- 
burton, and John Tyler, president of the United 
States: it defined the boundaries of the respective 
countries between Canada and the state of Maine, 
settled the extradition of criminals, &c. 


ASHDOD, or Azortvus, seat of the worship of 
the Pheenician god, Dagon, which fell down before 
the ark of the Lord, captured by the Philistines 
from the Israelites, about 1141 B.c. (1 Sam. v.) 
Ashdod was taken by the Egyptians after 29 years’ 
siege, the longest recorded. 


ASHDOWN, or ASSENDUNE, now thought 
to be Aston, Berks, where Ethelred and his brother 
Alfred defeated the Danes in 871. At Ashdown, 
near Saffron-Walden, Essex, Canute defeated Ed- 
mund Ironside with great slaughter, 1016. 

Tradition says that the day after the battle in 871 
Alfred caused his army to carve the figure of a white 
horse, the standard of Hengist, in the vale. Mr. 
Thomas Hughes (‘‘Tom Brown”’), in his book ‘* The 
Scouring of the White Horse” (1859), describes the 
work and festival on 17 and 18 Sept. 1857, a ceremony 
performed at intervals from time immemorial. Records 
are found of the ‘‘scouring” in 1755, 27 May, 1776, 15 
May, 1780, 1785, 1803, 1812 OY 1813, 1825, 19, 20 Nept., 
Sept. 1843. 


ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM (books, manu- 
seripts, coins, &c.), was presented to the university 
of Oxford by Elias Ashmole, the herald and anti- 
quary, and opened 1682. Itincluded the collections 
of the Tradescants, to whom he was executor. He 
died at Lambeth in 1692. The Ashmolean Society, 
Oxford (scientific), was established in 1828. 


ASHTAROTH, a Pheenician goddess, occa- 
sionally worshipped by the Israelites (see Judges 
ii.. 13) about 1406 B.c., and even by Solomon, about 
984. B.c. (I Kings xi. 5.) 


ASH-WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent, 
which in early times began on the Sunday now 
called the first in Lent. It is said that pope 
Felix III., in 487, first added the four days pre- 
ceding the old Lent Sunday, to raise the number of 
fasting days to forty; that Gregory the Great (pope, 
590) introduced the sprinkling of ashes on the first 
of the four additional days, and hence the names of 
Dies Cinerum, or Ash-Wednesday. At the Refor- 
mation this practice was abolished. ‘fas being a 
mére shadow, or vain show.”’ Ash-Wednesday, 
1884, 27 Feb. ; 1885, 18 Feb.; 1886, 10 Mar.; 1887, 
23 Feb.; 1888, 15 Feb. 


ASIA, the largest division of the globe, so called 
by the Greeks from the nymph Asia, daughter of 
Oceanus and Tethys, and wife of Japhet. Asia was 
the first quarter of the world peopled: here the law 
of God was first promulgated; here many of the 
greatest monarchies of the earth had their rise; and 
hence most of the arts and sciences have been de- 
rived. Its early history is derived from the Bible 
and from Herodotus, who relates the wars of Croesus, 
Cyrus, and others. See Jews, China, India, Persia, 
Lurkey, and the other countries. 


_ ASIA MINOR, now ANATOLIA, comprised 
the Ionian colonies on the coast, the early seats of 
Greek civilisation, and the countries Mysia, Phrygia, 


urks under Osman, Asia Minor was the battk 
field of the conquerors of the world. 

First settlement of the Ionian Greeks - about B.c. 10 

Asia Minor subdued by the Medes . - | about 7 

Conquered by Cyrus. ; : 2 - about 5. 

Contest between the Greeks and Persians begins 5, 

Asia Minor conquered by Alexander ». . - a 

Contended for by his successors ; separate king- 
doms established . 3 - . < -\ | gone 

Gradually acquired by the Romans, B.C. 188 to A.D. 

Possessed by the Persians . : . " ace 

Partially recovered by the emperor Basil. Ss . 

Invaded by Timour : : ; ee 

Taken from the Greek emperor, and established as 
an empire by the Turks under Mahomet I. . - 14 

See Turkey. 

The Asia Minor Exploration Fund established, 1882, a1 
thus enabled Mr. W. M. Ramsay to continue his 1 
searches. Valuable results were reported in 18 
from Lydia and the early home of the Greeks. 

Railway from Mersina on the coast to Adana, 42 mile 
constructing under sir T. Tancred, Aug. et seq. 1884. 


ASIATIC SOCIETIES. The “ Asiatic 8 
ciety of Bengal,’ at Calcutta, was established ] 
sir William Jones in 1784, ‘‘ the bounds of its i 
vestigation to be the geographical limits of Asia 
The ‘‘ Royal Asiatic Society,’”’ which has sever 
branches in India, was founded in 1823. It est 
blished the ‘‘ Oriental Translation Fund,’”’ in 182 
which had published Se of Eastern liter 
oe in 1865. The ‘ Literary Society of Madras 
1045. 

ASKESIAN SOCIETY (from the Greek ash 
sis, exercise), instituted in March, 1796, by sox 
young men for discussing philosophical subjects. ] 
founders were Wm. Allen, Wm. Phillips, Alex. Ti 
loch, Luke Howard, W. H. Pepys and others, | 
1806 it merged into the Geological Society. 


ASMONZEANS, the proper name of f 


family termed Maccabees (which see). | 
ASPERN, GREAT, 2 town, and Essling, 


village near the Danube and Vienna, where a seri 
of desperate conflicts took place between the Austri: 
army under the archduke Charles, and the Fren 
under Napoleon, Massena, &c., on 21-22 May, 18¢ 
ending in the retreat of Napoleon. The Austri: 
loss exceeded 20,000 men, and the French 30,0¢ 
Marshal Lannes, mortally wounded 22 May, di 
31 May. The bridge of the Danube was destroye 
and Napoleon’s retreat*endangered; but the succe 
of the Austrians was fruitless to them, 


ASPHALT, a solid bituminous substance, pr 
bably derived from decayed vegetable matter. 
was used as a building material in ancient Babylo 
Its application for this purpose was revived | 
Eirinus, a Greek physician, who discovered beds 
it near Neufchatel in 1712. Asphalt stone w 
found at Seyssel near Geneva in 1802; and aft 
several failures, count Bepey brought it into u 
for pavement about 1832. The artificial asphé 
obtained from gas-works began to be used as pay 
ment about 1838. Claridge’s patent asphalt w 
laid down in Trafalgar-square, Jan. 1864. Vario 
kinds of asphalt pavement have been since laid 
in London. 


ASPROMONTE, Naples. Here Garibaldiw 
defeated, wounded, and taken prisoner 29 Aug. 186 
having injudiciously risen against the French occ’ 
pation of Rome. 


ASSAM (N. E. India) acquired by the Briti 


"aed 5 ol 


ASSASSINATION PLOT. 


1 1825, and. surrendered by the king of Ava in 
826. The tea-plant was discovered here by Mr. 
ruce in 1823. A superintendent of the tea-forests 
‘as appointed in 1836, the cultivation of the plant 
aving been recommended by lord William Ben- 
nek in 1834. - The Assam Tea Company, by whom 
hinese labourers and coolies were introduced, 
ras established in 1839. After several years, the 
lantations suffered severely, it is said through over 
yeculation and neglect of the labourers; as a 
medy a labour act was passed at Calcutta, about 


uly, 1867. 
ASSASSINATION PLOT to kill William 


[I., formed by some of the Jacobites, simultane- 
asly with one for an insurrection to be aided by 
rench invaders, in 1696. James II. and several 
oblemen and others were said to be privy to it; 
eluding the earl of Ailesbury. About forty 
iffians undertook to kill William near Turnham 
reen, Middlesex, when returning from hunting, 
, Feb. 1696. Information was given to William 
y Mr. Prendergast, a Roman Catholic, through 
orror of the erime. The following were executed : 
-Charnock, King, and Keyes, 18 March; sir John 
riend and sir Wm. Parkyns, 3 April; Rookwood, 
owick, and Cranbourne, 29 April, 1696; sir 
yhn Fenwick (by attainder), 28 January, 1697. 
t George Barclay, a chief organiser of the plot, 
caped to France. 


ASSASSINS, or ASSASSINIANS, fanatical 
ahometans, collected by Hassan-ben-Sabah, and 
ttled in Persia about 1090. In Syria they pos- 
ssed a large tract of land among the mountains of 
ebanon. ‘They murdered the marquis of Mont- 
rrat in 1192, Lewis of Bavaria in 1213, and the 
ian of Tartary in 1254. They were extirpated in 
>rsia about 1258 and in Syria about 1272. The 
def of the corps was named ‘ Ancient of the 
‘ountain,”’ and ‘Old Man of the Mountain.” 
1ey trained up young people to assassinate such 
rsons as their chief had devoted to destruction. 
énault. From them came the word assassin. 
REMARKABLE ASSASSINATIONS AND ATTEMPTS, 
See Rome, Envperors, for many assassinations. 
dul Aziz, sultan (see Turkey, 1881) . 4 June, 1876 
bert I., emperor of Germany, by his nephew 
John . A ; x P ; é . 1 May 1308 
exander II. of Russia; attempts: by Karakozow at 
St. Petersburg, 16 April, 1866; by Berezowski 
at Paris, 6 June, 1867 ; by Alexander Solovieff, 14 
April, 1879; by undermining a railway train, 1 
Dec. 1879; by explosion of Winter palace, St. 
Petersburg, 17 Feb. 1880; killed by explosion of 
a bomb thrown by a man whe is hinself killed, 
St. Petersburg P i - 2p.m. 13 March 1881 
fonso XII. of Spain, attempts: by J. O. Moncasi, 
25 Oct. 1878 ; by Francisco Otero Gonzalez, 30 Dec. 1879 
nadeus, duke of Aosta, when king of Spain ; 
utempt . : i A y - . IgJuly 1872 
taxerxes III. of Persia; by Bagoas . about s.c. 338 
male, ducd’; attempt . : - 13 Sept. 1841 
aton, David, cardinal; by reformers . 29 May 1 546 
cket, Thomas a, abp. of Canterbury . 29 Dec. 1170 
tri, Charles duc de (father of the comte de Cham- 
ord) hake * = : 4 : - 13 Feb. 1820 
smarck, prince ; attempt, by Blind, 7 May, 1866; 
oy Kullmann . : : c 13 July 1874 
‘itiano, premier of Roumania; attempt, by J. 
jetraro 3 : ‘ ; ; - 14 Dec. 1880 
ckingham, George Villiers, duke of; by John 
elton. =. os Sh Pena: : - 23 Aug. 
‘gundy, John the Fearless, duke of ; by Orleanists, 
’ ‘ to Sept. 1419 
sar, Julius; by Brutusand others 15 March, B.c. 44 
0 d’'Istria, count ; Greek statesman . 9 Oct. 1831 
endish, lord Frederick, chief Secretary for Ire- 
nd, and T. H. Burke, under Secretary, in Phoenix 
ark, Dublin, by 4 men 5 ’ 3 . : 
iel, prince of Montenegro Ao De AUS, 1860 


- 


57 ASSAY. 


Darboy, Georges, abp. of Paris; by communists, 

24 May 1871 
Darius III. of Persia; by Bessus . . July, Bc.) 330 
Edmund the Elder, of England. . 26 March 946 
Edward the Martyr, _,, 5 § . x8 March 979 


Edward IT. 4 ne Pk: ‘ 27 Sept. 1327 
Edward V. Fre is Ke ‘ : . duly 1483 
Francis Joseph of Austria; attempt, by Libenyi, 

18 Feb. 1853; by Overdank . 1882 


Frederick William IV. of Prussia; attempt, by Sofe- 
lage . é : : . : . 22 May 1850 
Garfield (Gen.) president of the United States 
(oy Charles Jules Guiteau): Washington, 2 July, 
died). : é : ; ; . 19 Sept. 1884 
George ILI. of England, mad attempts, by Margaret 
Nicholson, 2 Aug. 1786; by James Hatfield, 15 May 1800 


George IV. (when regent), attempt . : 28 Jan. 1817 
Guise, Henry duke of; by order of Henry III. of 

France ‘ : 4 : : : 23 Dec. 1588 
Gustavus III. of Sweden; by Ankarstrém, 16 March, 

died : . 2 ; : F . 29 March 1792 
Henry III. of France ; by Jacques Clément, 1 Aug. 

died . . 2 Aug.. 1589 


Henry IV. of France; attempt, by Jean Chatel, 27 
Dec. 1594; killed by Ravaillac . . 14 May 1610 
Humbert I., king of Italy; attempt, by John 
Passananti, at Naples : = 17 Nov. 1878 
Hussein Avni and other Turkish ministers; by 
Hassan, a Circassian officer é 15 June 1876 
Isabella II. of Spain ; attempts, by La Riva, 4 May, 
1847; by Merino, 2 Feb. 1852; by Raymond 
Fuentes : x iu ; : 28 May 1856 
James I. of Scotland ; by nobles. é 21 Feb. 1437 
James III. of Scotland ; by nobles . . irJdune 1488 
Kotzebue, August, German dramatist, for political 
motives; by KarlSand . , . 23 March 1819 
Lincoln, Abraham, president of United States, N.A.; 
by Wilkes Booth, 14 April; died . . 5 April 1865 
Lorraine, Louis of Guise, cardinal of; by order of 
Henry III. of France ‘ " : 24 Dee. 1588 
Louis XV. of France; attempt, by Damiens, 5 Jan. 1757 
Louis Philippe of France ; many attempts; by Fieschi, 
28 July, 1835; by Alibaud, 25 June, 1836; by 
Meunier, 27 Dec. 1836 ; by Darmés, 15 Oct. 18403 
by Lecomte, 14 April, 1846; by Henry. 29 July 1846 
Lytton, lord, viceroy of India ; attempt, by Busa 
12 Dee. 1878 


Marat ; by Charlotte Corday - 13 July 1793 
Mayo, Richard, earl of, gov.-gen. of India ; by Shere 
Ali, a convict, in Andaman isles . . 8 Feb, 1872 


Mehemet Ali Pacha, by Albanians ; 7 Sept. 1878 
Melikotf, gen. Loris ; attempt (see Russia) 4 March 1880 
Michael, prince of Servia : F ro June 1868 
Milan IV. of Servia, attempt ‘ : . 23 Oct. 1882 
Murray, James, earl of, regent of Scotland, 23 Jan, 1570 
Napoleon I. ; attempt, by infernal machine, 24 Dee. 1800 
Napoleon IIL. ; attempts, by Pianori, 28 April, 1855 ; 
by Bellemarre, 8 Sept. 1855; by Orsini and 
others . : Z ‘ : : . «4Jan. 1858 
Orange, William, prince of ; by Balthasar Gerard 
10 July 1584 
Orleans, Louis Valois, duke of; by Burgundians 
23 Nov. 1407 
Parma, Ferdinand Charles III., duke of; 26 March, 
died . : : : ‘ ‘ , 27 March 1854 
Paul, czar of Russia; by nobles ; 24 March 18o0r 
Percival, Spencer, premier ; by Bellingham, rr May 1812 
Philip II. of Macedon ; by Pausanias . 6) BeO.9 3396 
Prim, marshal; 28 Dee. died . ; - 30 Déc. 1870 
Rossi, conte Pellegrino, Roman statesman, 15 Nov. 1848 
Sibour, M. W. A., abp. of Paris, by Jean Verger, a 
priest é d ° : 5 : - 3dan. 1857 
Victoria, queen, attempts (?). Edwd. Oxford, 10 
June, 1840; John Francis. 30 May, 1842; Bean, 
3 July, 1842; Wm. Hamilton, 19 May, 1840; R. 
Maclean, at Windsor Z : : 2 March 1882 
William I. of Prussia and Germany ; attenupts, by 
Oscar Becker, 14 July, 1861 ; by Hédel, 11 May, 
1878; by Dr. Nobiling . 4 . 2June 1878 
William III. of England : see Assussination-plot . 1695-6 


ASSAY oF GOLD AND SILVER, originated 
with the bishop of Salisbury, a royal treasurer in 
the reign of Henry I. Du Cange. But certainly 
some species of assay was practised as early as the 
Roman conquest. Assay early established in Eng- 


ASSAYE. 


land was regulated by statutes, 1238, 1700, and 


1705. Assay masters appointed at Newcastle, 1701 ; 
Sheffield and Birmingham, 1773. The laws re- 
specting assay were amended in 1854 and 1855. 
The alloy of gold is silver and copper, that of silver 
is copper. Standard goldis 2 carats of alloy to 22 of 
fine gold. Standard silver is 18 dwts. of copper 
to II ozs. 2 dwts. of fine silver; see Goldsmiths’ 
Company and Pyzx. 


ASSAYE (E. Indies). The British army, under 
general Arthur Wellesley (afterwards duke of Wel- 
lington), entered the Mahratta states on the south ; 
took the fort of Ahmednuggur, 12 Aug.; and de- 
feated Scindiah and the rajah of Berar at Assaye, 
23 Sept. 1803. This was Wellesley’s first great 
battle, in which he opposed 50,000 with only 4500 
men. The enemy fled, leaving their artillery, &c. 


ASSEMBLY oF (130) DrIvInss, held at 
Westminster, 1 July, 1643, convoked by order of 
arliament to consider the liturgy, government, and 
octrines of the church. ‘T'womembers were elected 
foreachcounty. The presbyterian majority adopted 
the Scottish covenant, and drew up the directory 
for public worship, a confession, and the eatechisms 
now used by the church of Scotland. The last 
(1163rd) meeting was on 22 Feb. 1649; see Church 
of Scotland. 


ASSENT, see Royal Assent. 


ASSESSED TAXES. By some the date is re- 
ferred to Ethelbert, in 991; to Henry VIII. 1522; 
and to William III. 1689, when a land-tax was im- 

osed; see Land Tax. ‘The assessed taxes yielded 
in 1815 (the last year of the war), exclusively of the 
land-tax, 6,524,766/., their highest amount. These 
imposts have varied in their nature and amount, 
according to the exigencies of the state. They were 
considerably advanced in 1797 and 1801, e¢ seq., but 
reduced in 1816, and in subsequent years. An act 
for the repeal of certain assessed taxes was passed 
16 & 17 Vict. c. 90, 20 Aug. 1853, explained and 
amended by 17 & 18 Vict. c. I, 17 Feb. 1854.—Acts 
for the better securing and accounting for the As- 
sessed and Income Taxes, 10 Aug. 1854; see Zazes, 
and Income Tax. Changes were made in the as- 
sessed taxes, their time of collection, &c., by the 
Revenue act, passed 24 June, 1869. Licences for 
servants, dogs, and armorial bearings were also in- 
troduced. An act to provide for uniformity in the 
assessment of rateable property in the metropolis 
was passed 9 Aug. 1869. 
Assessment” first met 19 May, 1870. Amount 
received in the year ending 31 March, 1870, about 
4,500,000/. Since then the assessed taxes include 
the land-tax and house duty only, Amount re- 
ceived, year 1871-2, about 2,330,000/.; 1874-5, 
2,440,000/.; 1875-6, 2 ASE OOO 1876-7, 2,532,000/.; 
1877-8, 2,670,000/.; 1878-9, 2,720,000/.; 1879-80, 
2,670,0001. ; 1882-3, 2,843,154/.; 1883-4, 2,899,223/. 

ASSIENTO, a contract between the king of 
Spain and other powers, for furnishing the Spanish 
dominions in America with negro slaves, began with 
the Flemings, By the treaty of Utrecht, 13 July, 
1713, the British government engaged to furnish 
4800 negroes annually to Spanish America for thirty 
years. The contract was renewed in 1748, but given 
up in 1750; see Guinea. 

ASSIGNATS, a forced paper currency, ordered 
by the National Assembly of France to support 
public credit during the revolution, April, 1790. 
At one period, eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions 
of pounds sterling, of this paper were in circulation 
in France and its dependencies. A/ison. Assignats 
were superseded by mandats in 1796. 


The ‘‘Court of General | 


58 


ASSYRIA. 


ASSIZE of BATTLE, see Appeal. . 
ASSIZE of BREAD, c., see Bread, and We 


ASSIZE of JERUSALEM, 2 valuable code 
laws compiled under the direction of Godfrey 
Bouillon, king of Jerusalem, in 1100. 


ASSIZE COURTS (from assideo, I sit) | 
very ancient in England, and in old law books 
defined to be an assembly of knights and other si 
stantial men, with the justice, to meet at a cert 
time and place: regulated by Magna Charta, 12 
The present justices of assize and Nisi Prius 
derived from the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw 
1234. Coke; Blackstone. ‘*The king doth y 
that no lord, or other of the country, shall sit uy 
the bench with the justices to take assize in th 
sessions in the counties of England, upon great f 
feiture to the king.’”’ 20 Rich. I1.1396. Statu 
Brough Act. Assizes are general or special; gene 
when the judges go their circuits, and special wl 
a commission is issued to take cognisance of one 
more causes ; see Bloody Assize. 


ASSOCIATIONS, see British, National A: 


ciations, Christian, §e. 


ASSUMPTION, FEAsT oF THE, 15 A 
It is observed by the church of Rome in honow 
the Virgin Mary, said to have been taken up 
heaven in her corporeal form, body and spirit, 
this day, A.D. 45, in her 75th year. The festi 
was instituted in the 7th century, and enjoined 
the council of Mentz, 813. 


ASSURANCE, see Insurance. 


ASSYRIA, an Asiatic country between Me 
potamia and Media, was the seat of the earl 
recorded monarchy. Its history is mainly deri 
from Ctesias, an early Greek historian of doubt 
authenticity, Herodotus, and the Holy Scriptu 
The discovery by Mr. (aft. sir) Austin Layard 
the Ninevite antiquities, now in the British Muset 
and the deciphering of many ancient cuneiform 
scriptions, by Grotefend, sir H. Rawlinson, : 
other scholars, have drawn much attention to 
Assyrians. The chronologers, Blair, Usher, Ha 
and Clinton, differ much in the dates they ass 
to events in Assyrian history. 


Nimrod or Belus reigns . - B.C. [2554 H. 2235 C.]% 
** Asshur builded Nineveh” (Gen. x. 11) about a 
Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, and names 
his capital Nineveh . oc 1 Wop 4 . (2182 C.] : 
Babylon taken by Ninus, who, having subdued the 
Armenians, Persians, Bactrians, and all Asia 
Minor, establishes what is properly the Assyrian 
monarchy, of which Nineveh was the seat of em- 
pire. Blair . ‘ : ‘ ‘ [2233 C.J: 
Ninyas, an infant, sueceeds Ninus . A 2 ta 
Semiramis, mother of Ninyas, usurps the govern- 
ment, enlarges and embellishes Babylon [2130 C.] : 
She invades Libya, Ethiopia, and India. —- Lenglet ; 
She is put to death by her son Ninyas ‘ ee 
Ninyas put to death, and Arius reigns . & & 
Reign of Aralius . ‘ 7 f 5 5 . a 
Belochus, the last king of the race of Ninus . i 
He makes his daughter Atossa, surnamed Semiramis 
II., his associate on the throne A in 
Atossa procures the death of her father, and marries 
Belatores (or Belaperes) who reigns : - 
* * * * * * * 
The prophet Jonah appears in Nineveh, and foretells 
its destruction. Blair  . r : ‘ B.C} 
Nineveh taken by Arbaces. [Sardanapalus, the king, 
is mythically said to have enclosed himself, his 
court, and women, in his palace, and to have 
perished in the fire kindled by himself] : P 
Phul raised to the throne. Blair . about 
He invades Israel, but departs without drawing a 
sword. Blair, 2 Kings xy. 19, 20 ‘ ‘ ‘ 
Tiglath-Pileser invades Syria, takes Damascus, and 
makes great conquests . . : - 744 


ee 


- 


‘ 


‘ny 


ASTEROIDS. 


halmaneser takes Samaria, transports the people, 
whom he replaces by a colony of Cutheans and 
others, and thus finishes the kingdom of Israel B.c. 
[fe retires from before Tyre, after a siege of five 
years. Blair 
ennacherib invades Judea, and his general, Rab- 
shakeh, besieges J erusalem, when the angel of the 
Lord in one night destroys sae of his ey: 
Isaiah xxxvii. : : : 
sar-haddon invades J udea . 
arac (Sardanapalus II.) besieged, kills his wife 
and children, and burns himself in his palace 
625 or 621 
ineveh razed to the ground, and Assyria becomes 
a Median province . 71. 605 
ssyria subdued by Alexander the Great . 332 
; subsequently formed part of the kingdoms of 
Syria, Parthia, and Persia. 
; Was conquered by the Turks - A.D. 1637 
xplored by col. Chesney and the Euphrates ex- 
ploring expedition . - 1835-37 
Sigel Discoveries published (see N ineveh) - 1848-53 
r. George Smith, of British Museum, began to 
study inscriptions, 1866 ; (received aid from pro- 
prietors of Daily Telegraph), and started to explore 
Assyrian remains, 20 June, 1873; worked in 1873- 
74; published ‘‘ Assyrian Discoveries” March 
tarted to renew his explorations, Oct. 1875; died 
at Aleppo . 1g Aug. 
he explorations resumed by Mr. Hormusd Rassam, 
see Nineveh. 
lasses for the study of Assyrian language formed ; 
Rey. A. H. Sayce publishes an Assyrian gram- 
mar . f ° ‘ : ‘ * a Los 
(See Nineveh.) 


ASTEROIDS, see under Planets. 
ASTLEY’S AMPHITHEATRE, see under 


heatres. 


ASTON RIOTS, see Birmingham, 1884. 


ASTORGA (N. W. Spain), the ancient Asturica 
ugusta, was taken by the French, 22 April, 1810, 
od treated with great severity. 


ASTRACAN (S. E. Russia), a province ac- 
uired from the Mogul’s empire in 1554; visited 
ad settled by Peter the Great in 1722. 


ASTROLABE, an instrument for observing 
1e stars, said to have been em loyed by Hipparchus 
pout 130 B.c.; and by Ptolemy about 140 A.D. 
he modern astrolabe was described by Fabricius in 
313. 

ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was culti- 
ated by the Chaldeans, and transmitted to the 
gyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in 
ogue in Italy and France in the time of Catherine 
2 Medicis (married to Francis I. of France, 1533). 
Ténault. It is said that Bede, 673-735, was a 
ieted to it; and Roger Bacon, 1214-1292. Lord 
urleigh is said to have calculated the nativity of 
lizabeth, and she, and other princes, were dupes of 
lee, the "astrologer. It is stated that Lilly was 
msulted by Charles I. respecting his projected 
scape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. Ferguson. 
strological almanacs are still published i in London. 
he pede a ane Society of Great Britain founded 19 

1879 


“ASTRON OMER-ROYAL, see Greenwich. 
ASTRONOMY. The earliest astronomical 


servations were made at Babylon it is said about 
:34.B.c. The study was much advanced in Chaldzea 
der Nabonassar ; was known to the Chinese about 
/00 B.C,; some "say many centuries before, see 
olipses, Planets, Comets, Sun, Moon, Jupiter, 
onus, Saturn, Neptune, Mars, ge. 

mar eclipses observed at Babylon, and recorded B.c. 


by Ptolemy c about 720 
herical form of the earth, and the true cause of 
lunar eclipses, taught by Thales - about 600 


721 


713 


710 
680 


1875 
1876 


59 


ASTURIAS. 


Further discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the 
doctrine of celestial motions, and believed in the 


plurality of habitable worlds; died . about B.c. 470 
Meton introduces the lunar-solar cycle 433 
Treatises of Aristotle ‘‘concerning the heav ens,’ 

and of Autolycus ‘‘ on the motion of the eee 

(earliest extant works on astronomy) about 350 
Aratus writes a poem on astronomy . iP eeeoe 
Archimedes observes solstices, &c. 212 
Hipparchus, greatest of Greek astronomers, deter- 

mines mean motion of sun and moon ; discovers 

precession of equinoxes, &c. . - 160-125 
The precession of the equinoxes confirmed, and the 

places and distances of the planets discoy ces by 

Ptolemy . D. 139-164 
Astronomy and geography cultivated by the ¥€ abs 

about 760 ; brought into Europe about 1200 
Alphonsine tables (wh ich see) composed . about 1253 
Clocks first used in astronomy - about 1500 
True doctrine of the motions of the planetary bodies 

revived by Copernicus, founder of modern astro- 

nomy ; his ‘‘ Revolution of the Heavenly Bodies” 

published 1543 
Astronomy advanced “by Tycho Brahe, who yet ad- 

heres to the Ptolemaic system . about 1582 
Galileo constructs a telescope, 1609 ; and discovers 

Jupiter’s satellites, &c. : 8 Jan. 1610 
True laws of the planetary motions announced by 

Kepler ; rst and 2nd, 1609 ; 3rd . 1618 
Various forms of telescopes and other instruments 

used in astronomy invented . ; 1608-40 
Cartesian system published by Des Cartes é oi TOS7, 
The transit of Venus over the sun’s dise first ob- 

served by Horrocks . 24 Nov. 1639 
Huyghens completes the discover 'V of Ps sring 1654 
Cassini draws his meridian line, after Dante ; see 

Belogna . 1655 
The abefration of the light of the fixed stars dis- 

covered by Horrebow A . 1659 
Gregory invents a reflecting telescope . - 1663 
Discoveries of Picard : - 1669 
Charts of the moon constructed by Scheiner,  Lan- 

grenus, Hevelius, Riccioli, &e. about 1670 
Discoveries of Romer on the velocity of light, and 

his observation of Jupiter’s satellites . 2 - 1675 
Greenwich Observatory founded . . ne 
Motion of the sun round its own axis prov ed by 

Halley . 1676 
Newton’s Principia published ; “and the system, as 

now taught, demonstrated +) a L0Om 
Catalogue ‘of the stars made by Flamsteed 2 - 1688 
Cassini’s chart of the full moon executed. ee a8 2) 
Satellites of Saturn, d&c., discovered by Cassini . 170r 
Halley predicts the return of the comet (of 1758) . 1705 
Flamsteed’s Historia Celestis published 1725 
Aberration of the light of the stars discovered and 

explained by Dr. Br adley . 1727 
John Harrison produces chr onometers for deter- 

mining the longitude, 1735 et seg., and obtains the 

reward 3 3 . 1764 
“ Nautical Almanac ” first published . a mL JOr 
Celestial inequalities found by La Grange - 1780 
Uranus and satellites discovered by Herschel ; see 

Georgium Sidus ; Hong’ March 1781 
Mécanique Celeste, by La Place, ‘published 1796 
Royal Astronomical society of London founded, 

1820; chartered . US gs 
Beer and Midler’s map of the moon published. . 1834 
Lord Rosse’s telescope constructed - 1828-45 


The planet Neptune discovered 23 Sept. 1846 

Bond photographs the moon (see Photography, 
celestial) . 185% 

Hansen’s table of the moon published ‘at expense of 
the British government . « LO57, 

Trustees of the rev. Richard Sheepshanks present 
to,oool. stock to Trinity College, Cambridge, for 
promotion of the study of astronomy, meteor ology } 
and magnetism . : . 2 Dee. 

Spectrum. analysis applied i in astronomy (see Spec- 
trum). 

Large photograph of the moon by Warren de la 
Rue. 

Royal Astronomical Society removed from Somer- 
set-house to Burlington-house . 

Two satellites of Mars discovered by prof. Asaph 
Hall, at Washington, U.S. rz, 18 Aug. 1877 


ASTURIAS (Oviedo, since 1833) N. W. Spain, 


1853 
1861 
1863 


ASYLUMS. : 60 ATHENS. 


velled to make proselytes, and his followers we 
called Conscienciaries, because they held that the 
is no other deity than conscience. ‘‘ Though a sma 
draught of philosophy may lead a man into atheisr 
a deep draught will certainly bring him back aga’ 
to the belief of a God.”’ Lord Bacon. Atheism w: 
the ruling doctrine of the French republic, 1794 ti 
1804; see. Materialism. Bill to prevent Athei 


an ancient principality. Here Pelayo collected the 
Gothic fugitives, about 713, founded anewkingdom, 
and by his victories checked Moorish conquest. For 
his successors, see Spain. The heir-apparent of the 
monarchy has borne the title ‘‘ prince of Asturias”’ 
since 1388, when it was assumed by Henry, son of 
John I. king of Leon, on his marriage with a de- 
scendant of Peter of Castile. In 1808, the junta of 
Asturias began the organised resistance to the French 
usurpation. 


ASYLUMS, or PRIVILEGED PLACES, at 
first were places of refuge for those who by acci- 
dent or necessity had done things that rendered 
them obnoxious to the law. God commanded the 
Jews to build cities of refuge, 1451 B.c., Numbers 
xxv.—The posterity of Hercules are said to have 
built one at Athens, to protect-themselves against 
such as their father had irritated. Cadmus is said 
to have built one at Thebes, 1490 B.c., and Romu- 
lus one at Mount Palatine, 751 B.c.; see Sanctu- 
aries. 


ATALANTA (formerly Juno), training-ship, 
left Bermuda on a trial voyage, under capt. Stirling, 
31 Jan. 1880. On board, 15 officers, and 265 petty 
officers, seamen, marines, and boys; never heard 
of again. Many merchant vessels were wrecked 
during a terrific gale, 12-16 Feb. 1880. See Jan- 
sion House Funds. 


ATELIERS NATIONAUX (National Work- 
shops), were established by the French provisional 
government in Feb. 1848. They interfered greatly 
with private trade, as about 100,000 workmen threw 
themselyes upon the government for labour and 
payment. The breaking-up of the system led to 
the fearful conflicts in June following; and the 
system was abolished in July. 


ATHANASIAN CREED. Athanasius, of 
Alexandria, was elected bishop, chat He firmly op- 
posed the doctrines of Arius (who denied Christ’s 
divinity), was several times exiled, and died in 
373: | 
Lumby, in“‘ History of the Creeds ” (1874), asserts that 

this creed, beginning “ Quicwnaue vult,” was not com- 

posed by Athanasius ; that it is made up of two dis- 
tinct parts, and was originally written in Latin and 

’ put into its present shape between 813 and 850; not 

_ connected with Athanasius’s name by any trustworthy 
authority before 809; set forth first in Gaul, about 
870; gradually extended into Italy, Britain, &e. ; ac- 
cepted by the Greek church about 1200. 

Vhis creed asserts the procession of the Holy Ghost 
from the Father and the Son, see Filioque. 

Dr. Waterland’s Critical History of this creed published 
1723. 

Much agitation against the general use of this creed has 
arisen in the Church of England among both clergy 

_ and laity, 1870-73. 

Modifications approved by several bishops were negatived 
by the lower house in convocation, (62-7) early in May, 
1872. The vote’ was rejected by the bishops, and the 
agitation continued. 

In a letter to the earl of Shaftesbury, 22 July, 1872, the 
archbishops of Canterbury and York expressed their 

_ hope of devising a way for rendering the reading of the 
creed during public worship not compulsory. 

Great meeting of laity at St. James’s Hall in defence of 
the creed, 31 Jan. 1873. 


ATHEISM (from the Greek a, without, 


Theos, God, see Psalm xiv. 1). It was professed by 
Hpicurus, Lucretius, and other philosophers. 


is 
sitting in Parliament introduced by lord Redesda] 
read first time, 7 March, 1882; dropped. 


ATHEN AAA were great festivals celebrated : 
Athens in honour of Minerva. One was call: 
Panathenea, the other Chalcea; they are said | 
have been instituted by Erechtheus or Orpheu 
1397 or 1495 B.C.; and revived by Theseus, wl 
caused them to be observed by all the Athenian 
the first every fifth year, 1234 B.c. Plutarch. 


ATHENZEUM, a place at Athens, sacred | 
Minerva, where the poets and philosophers reeite 
their compositions. That of Rome, of great beaut: 
was erected by the emperor Adrian, 125.—Ti: 
ATHENA:UM CLUB of London was formed 16 Feb. 182. 
for the association of persons of scientific and litera 
attainments, and artists, and noblemen and gentk 
men, patrons of learning, &¢., by the earls of Live: 
pool and Aberdeen, the marquis of Lansdowne, D 
TI. Young, Moore, Davy, Scott, Mackintosh, Far 
day, Croker, Chantrey, Lawrence, and seven futw 
premiers. The clubhouse was erected in 1829-30 o 
the site of the late Carlton palace; it is of Grecia 
architecture, and the frieze is an exact copy | 
the Panathenaic procession which formed the frie: 
of the Parthenon.—The Liverpool Atheneum w: 
opened I Jan. 1799.—At Manchester, Bristol, an 
many other places, buildings under this name, an 
for a like purpose, have been founded. — Th 
Atheneum, aweekly literary and scientific journa 
first appeared in 1828. John Francis, publishe 
1831-82, died 6 April, 1882. Rev. Henry Stel 
bing, first editor, died 22 Sept. 1883, aged 84. Th 
Atheneum became the property of Mr. C. W 
Dilke soon after its publication. See Zrials, 1875 


ATHENRY (Galway). Near here the Iris 
were totally defeated, and a gallant young chie 
Feidlim 0’Connor, slain Io Aug. 1316. 


ATHENS, the capital of ancient Attica, and 
modern Greece. The first sovereign mentioned i 
Ogyges, who reigned in Boeeotia, and was master ¢ 
Attica, then called Ionia. ‘Tradition states that i 
his reign (about 1764 B.C.) a deluge laid waste th 
country, which so remained till the arrival of th 
Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by whom the lan 
was re-peopled, and twelve cities founded, 15568.( 
The city, said to have been first called Cecropis 
was afterwards named Athens in honour of Minerv 
(Athené), her worship having been introduced b 
Erechtheus, 1383 B.c. Athens was ruled by sever 
teen successive kings (487 years), by thirtee! 
perpetual archons (316 years), seven decennial at 
chons (70 years), and lastly by annual archons (76 
years). It attained great power, and no other cit 
has had, in a short space of time, so great a numbe 
of illustrious citizens. The ancients called Athen 
Astu, the city, by eminence, and one of the eyes 6 
Greece; see Greece. 

Arrival of Cecrops [x558 Hales, 1433 Clinton] B.¢ 

Usher “ ‘, . » 155 


Spinoza was the defender of a similar doctrine ihe Atop established ae > ‘ . ed 
(1632-1677). Lucilio Vanini publicly taught athe- | Deucalion arrives in Attica =.  . .  . _. 1§9 
ism in France, and was condemned to be burnt at ea dea args 4 eh ee ae nm 4 
Toulouse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, | pychthoniusreions =. 3. St. 48 
openly professed atheism, and had upwards of a | krechtheus teaches husbandry . . 138 


thousand disciples in Germany about 1674; he tra- | Eleusinian mysteries introduced by Euiolpus ot 


‘a 
a 


ATHENS. 


-echtheus killed in battle with the Eleusinians B.c, 
igeus invades Attica, and ascends the throne . 
e throws himself into the sea, and is drowned ; 
hence the name of the Aigeau Sea. Husebius. . 
1eseus, his son, succeeds, and reigns 30 years 

» collects his subjects into one cily, and names it 


61 


ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAYS. 


1347 


. 1283 


1235 


9 


Athens . k K 5 : ae i f . 1234 
sign of Mnestheus, 1205 ; of Demophoon . AWS Bia gehs 
yurt of Ephetes established . “ - : - 1179 
ie Prianepsz instituted ; : : - - 1178 
slanthus conquers Xuthus in single combat and is 

chosen king P . 1128 


sign of Codrus, his son, the last king 2 heal 
a battle with the Heraclid, Codrus is killed : he 
had resolved to perish ; the oracle having declared 
that the victory should be with the side whose 
leader was killed . ‘ sf 4 < : 

yyalty abolished ;—Athens governed by archons, 
Medon the first . ‘ ; A , (1070 H.) 
emeon, last perpetual archon, dies . ; wi, 


tog2 


ierops, first decennial archon a ; “ + 752 
ppomenes deposed for his cruelty ee A) a a ae. 
ixias, 7th and last decennial archon, dies. 684 
eon, first annwal archon . : « : 4 atoll: 
aco, the r2th annual archon, publishes his laws, 
said “to have been written in blood” . 7 ee 0or 
lon supersedes them by his excellent code 504 
sistratus, the ‘“‘tyrant,” seizes the supreme 
power, 560; flight of Solon, 559. Pisistratus 
sstablishes his government, 537; collects a public 
ibrary, 531; dies . ; é A 2 - RIE Ly 
‘st tragedy acted at Athens, on a waggon, by 
Chespis q : F eink Le ee 
pparchus assassinated by Harmodius and Aristo- 
relton =. ; ‘ : ‘ P ‘ - - 514 
e law of ostracism established ; Hippias and the 
?isistratide banished ; A i . ea SIO 
mnos taken by Miltiades B ‘ : - 504 
e Persian invaders defeated at Marathon. see) 5490 
ath of Miltiades . ‘ c 2 2 4 - 489 
istides, surnamed the Just, banished = eae 3 
hens taken by the Persian Xerxes “ 480 
rnt to the ground by Mardonius . : TOG fe 
built and fortified by Themistocles; Pireus 

mult : 8 - F : 5 - : - 478 
emistocles banished . ‘ 4 ; F rs 471 
non, son of Miltiades, overruns all Thrace . 469 
‘icles takes part in public affairs, 469; he and 
timon adorn Athens, 464; the latter banished . 461 
1ens begins to tyrannise over Greece > aa ah ASO 
>long wall built . 2 : ; 4 : - 457 
erature, philosophy, and art flourish : saver AAS 
> first sacred (or social) war ; (which sec) : Pb as. 
midas conducts an expedition into Beeotia, and 

3 defeated and killed near Coronea . : 5 eee eh 
: thirty years’ truce between the Athenians and 
acedeemonians : ; : 3 ; e445 
todotus said to have read his history in the 
ouncilat Athens. é : . - Se Fn. KES 
icles obtains the government. - A 444 
icles subdues Samos ‘ 4 . BAe We, 
irical comedies prohibited at Athens . Pah ae 
ance between Athens and Corcyra, then at war 
‘ith Corinth, 433 ; leads to the Peloponnesian war 
asted 27 years) ; it began. ; : A ae AST 
lreadful plague, which had ravaged Ethiopia, 

ibya, Egypt, and Persia, extends to Athens, and 
ontinues for five years . ; : ; x a 3G 
th of Pericles of the plague : £ 5 eerie se" 
astrous expedition against Sicily ; death of the 
pmmanders, Demosthenes and Nicias ; Athenian 

2et destroyed by Gylippus . : s 415-413 
‘ernment of the ‘‘ four hundred ” z Bary es: 
ibiades defeats the Lacedeemonians at Cyzicus ; 

shich see) ; ; : ; ; A - 410 
biades, accused of aspiring to sovereign power, 
mished . s e : A é A « s 407 
ens victorious in a sea fight at Arginuse . - 406 
enian fleet destroyed by Lysander at gospo- 

mi . : c : : : : ae), 40 
»esieges Athens by land and sea; its walls are a3 
stroyed, and it capitulates, and the Pelopon- 

ssian war terminates . " : : A - 404 
» of the thirty tyrants, who are overthrown by 
irasybulus - : - 2 F Ms) 403 
ates (aged 7o)puttodeath, . . . . 309 
Corinthian war begins . . , : ee) 30S 


Conon rebuilds the long walls, and fortifies the 
Pireeus 


. ‘ 2 : ¢ HSH ORE Reyer: 
Plato founds the academy , - i pe Soe 
War against Sparta : < , é : Shey A: 
The Lacedemonian fleet defeated at Naxus by 
Chabrias 4 4 4 5 < - 376 
General peace . ; 371 


Philip. king of Macedon, opposes the Athenians ; 

see Macedon : e f : wae aee 
Second sacred (or social) war - : ¢ 357-355 
First Philippic of Demosthenes . - A Ase 


Peace with Macedon . 5 3 é z - » J34G 
Battle of Cheronwa (which see) ; the Athenians and 

Thebans defeated by Philip é : « 7 Aug. +338 
Philip assassinated by Pausanias : ; +330 
Athens submits to Alexander, who spares the orators 335 
Death of Alexander F : ; : ; ago 
The Lamian war; the Athenians and others rise 

against Macedon, 323; defeated at Cranon; 

Demosthenes poisons himself . ; : 2 Ui See 
Athens surrenders to Cassander, who governs well, 

318; execution of Phocion . 5 : 5 * SUF 
Demetrius Poliorcetes expels Demetrius Phalereus, 

and restores the Athenian democracy, 307; the 

latter takes the chair of philosophy . : 21 268 
A league between Athens, Sparta, and Egypt . + 297 
Athens taken by Antigonus Gonatas, king of Mace- 

don, 268 ; restored by Aratus d 256 
The Athenians join the Achzan league : . 22g 
They join the Aitolians against Macedon, and send 

for assistance to Rome : by ek: 215 
A Roman fleet arrives at Athens d 200 
The Romans proclaim liberty at Athens 196 
Subjugation of Greece F 5 ; “ - 144 
The Athenians implore assistance against the 

Romans from Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose 

general, Archelaus, makes himself master of 

Athens : : : : : : Maiev bits: 
Athens besieged by Sylla, the Roman general ; it is 

reduced to surrender by famine ; 86 
Cicero studies at Athens, 79 ; and Horace . 4 3a eae 
The Athenians desert Pompey, to follow the inte- 

rests of Cresar : . : ; eae) 
Athens visited by the apostle Paul ALD, (eo 
Many temples, &c., erected by Hadrian . + 122-135 
Athens taken by Alaric, and spared from slaughter 396 
Acquired by Otho de la Roche, and afterwards 

made a duchy ; - : : : . 1205 
Subjected by the Turks PF a F + » 1444 

By Mahomet II. . - 3 : . é - 1456 
By the Venetians . A - : att 40Gt 


Restored to the Turks 2 : : - 1479 
Athens suffered much during the War of Indepen- 
dence, 1821-7. Taken by the Turks (see Greece) 
17 May, 1827 
Becomes the capital of the kingdom of modern 
Greeceaar. ‘ : : - : : : + 1893 
Population, 41,298, 1861 ;—44,510, 1871; 68,677, 1879 


ATHLONE, Roscommon, Ireland, was burnt 
during the civil war in 1641. After the battle of 
the Boyne, colonel R. Grace held Athlone for 
James II. against a besieging army, but fell when 
it was taken by assault by Ginckel, 30 J une, 1691; 
see Aughrin. 


ATLANTA, see United States, 1864. 


ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH, see Electric 
Telegraph, under Llectricity, 


ATMOLYSIS, a method of separating the 
constituent gases of a compound gas (such as at- 
mospheric air) by causing it to pass through a vessel 
of porous material (such as graphite) ; first made 
known in Aug. 1863, by the discoverer, the late 
professor T. Graham, F.R.S., master of the mint. 


ATMOSPHERE, see Air. 
ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAYS. The idea 


of producing motion by atmospheric pressure was 
conceived by Papin, the French engineer, about 
1680. Experiments were made on a line of rail, _ 
laid down across Wormwood Scrubs, London, be- 
tween Shepherd’s Bush and the Great Western 


ATOMIC THEORY. 


railroad, to test the efficacy of atmospheric tubes, 
the working of the air-pump, and speed of carriages 
upon this new principle on railroads in June, 1840, 
and then tried for a short time on a line between 
Croydon and London, 1845. Atmospheric pressure 
was also tried and abandoned, in 1848, on the South 
Devon line. An atmospheric railway was com- 
menced between Dalkey and Killiney, in the vicinity 
of Dublin, in Sept. 1843; opened 29 March, 1844; 
discontinued in 1855. A similar railway was pro- 
posed to be laid down in the streets of London by Mr. 
‘T. W. Rammell, in 1857. Mr. Rammell’s Pneumatic 
Railway was put in action successfully at the Crystal 
Palace on 27 Aug. 1864, and following days. An 
act for a pneumatic railway between the Waterloo 
railway station and Whitehall was passed in July, 
1865. Atmospheric pressure was proposed for a 
submarine railway from Dover-to Calais, in 1869; see 
Pneumatic Despatch. 


ATOMIC THEORY, in chemistry, deals with 
the indivisible particles of all substances. The 
somewhat incoherent labours of his predecessors 
(such as Wenzel, in 1777) were reduced by John 
Dalton to four laws of combining proportion, which 
have received the name of ‘Atomic Theory.”’ His 
“Chemical Philosophy,” containing the exposition 
of his views, appeared in 1808. Dr. C. Daubeny’s 
work on the Atomic Theory was published in 1850. 
In his standard of Atomte weights Dalton takes 
hydrogenastI. Berzelius, who commenced hiselabo- 
rate researches on the subject in 1848, adopts oxygen 
as 100. The former standard is used in this country, 
the latter on the continent. ‘The theory is ac- 
cepted by some, and rejected by other chemists. In 
1855 Hinrichs propounded a new hypothetical 
science, Atomechanics, in which pantogen, composed 
of panatoms, is regarded as the primary chemical 
principle. 

ATOMS. Democritus (about 400 B.c.) held 
that the only existing things are innumerable in- 
destructible atoms, varying in form, and combined 
in obedience to mechanical laws, and that the soul 
consists of free, smooth, round atoms like those of 
fire; and that nothing happens by chance. His 
philosophy was adopted by Epicurus (about 306 
8.C.), whose doctrines are luminously expounded 
by Lucretius in his great poem, ‘‘ De Rerum Na- 
turd’’ (On the Nature of Things), 57 n.c. The 
atomic philosophy, in a modified form, was recog- 
nised by Gassendi, who died 1655 a.p, 


ATREBATES, 2a Belgic people, subdued by 
Cesar, 57 B.C.; see Artois. 


ATTAINDER, Acts oF, whereby a person 
not only forfeited his land, but his blood was at- 
tainted, have been numerous. Two witnesses in 
cases of high treason are necessary where corruption 
of blood is incurred, unless the party accused shall 
confess, or stand mute, 7 &8 Willi. ITI. 1694-5. Black- 
stone. The attainder of lord Wm. Russell, who was 
beheaded in Lincoln’s-inn-fields, 21 July, 1683, was 
reversed under William, in 1689. he rolls and re- 
cords of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of 
James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, 2 Oct. 
1695. Sir John Fenwick was the last person 
executed by act of attainder, 28 Jan. 1697. 
Amongst the last acts reversed was the attaint 
of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (who was 
implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), 
I July, 1819. In 1814 and 1833 the severity of at- 
tainders was mitigated. Several attainders reversed 
about 1827, and one in 1853 (the earl of Perth). 


ATTICA, see Athens. 


62 


/ nae 
” 
, F 


ATTORNEY-GENERAL. 


ATTILA, surnamed the “Scourge of God,” : 
thus distinguished for his conquests and his crix 
having ravaged the eastern empire from 445 to 4 
when he made peace with Theodosius. ne invai 
the western empire, 450, and was defeated by Aét 
at Chalons, 451; he then retired into Pannor 
where he died through the bursting of a blood ve: 
on his nuptials with Idico, a beautiful virgin, 4! 


ATTORNEY (from tow, turn), a person qu: 
fied to act for another at law. The number 
Edward III.’s reign was under 400 for the wh 
kingdom. In the 32nd of Henry VI., 1454, a1 
reduced the practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, « 
Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and restricted th 
increase. The number of attorneys practising 
the United Kingdom was said to be 13,824 (187 
The qualifications and practice of attorneys < 
solicitors are now regulated by acts passed in 18 
1860, 1870, and 1874. By the Supreme Judicat 
Act all attorneys styled solicitors since Nov. 18 
See Solicitors. 


ATTORNEY-GENERAL, a law officer 
the crown, appointed by letters patent. He has 
exhibit informations and prosecute for the king 
matters criminal, and to file bills in exchequer, 
any claims concerning the crown in inheritance 
profit. Others may bring bills against the kin 
attorney. The first attorney-general was Willi 
Bonneville, 1277. 
1660. 
1670. 
1673. 
1675. 
1679. 
1681. 
1687. 
1689. 


Sir Jeffrey Palmer. 

Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards earl of Nottingh: 

Sir Francis North, knt., afterwards lord Guildfc 

Sir William Jones. 

Sir Cresvel Levinz, or Levinge, knt. 

Sir Robert Sawyer, knt. 

Sir Thomas Powis, knt. 

Henry Pollexfen, esq. 

Sir George Treby, knt. 

Sir John Summers, knt., afterwards lord Somer 

Edward Ward, esq. 

Sir Thomas Trevor, knt., afterwards lord Trevo! 

Edward Northey, esq. 

Sir Simon Harcourt, knt. 

Sir James Montagu, knt. 

Sir Simon Harcourt, again; aft. lord Harcourt. 

Sir Edward Northey, knt. 

Nicholas Lechmere, esq., aft. lord Lechmere. 

Sir Robert Raymond, aft. lord Raymond. 

Sir Philip Yorke, after. earl of Hardwicke. 

Sir John Willes, knt. 

Sir Dudley Ryder, knt. 

Hon. William Murray, aft. earl of Mansfield. 

Sir Robert Henley, knt., aft. earl of Northingto 

Sir Charles Pratt, knt., afterwards lord Camdeu 

Hon. Charles Yorke. 

Sir Fletcher Norton, knt., aft. lord Grantley. 

Hon. Charles Yorke, again ; afterwardslord Mord 
and lord chancellor; see Chancellors. 

William de Grey, afterwards lord Walsingham. 

Edward Thurlow, esq., afterwards lord Thurlow 

Alex. Wedderburn, aft. lord Loughborough. 

James Wallace, esq. 

1782. Lloyd Kenyon, esq. 

1783. James Wallace, esq. 
3, John Lee, esq. 

Lloyd Kenyon, again; afterwards lord Kenyon. 

Sir Richard P. Arden, aft. lord Alvanley. 

Sir Archibald Macdonald. 

Sir John Scott, afterwards lord Eldon. 

Sir J. Mitford, afterwards lord Redesdale. 

Sir Edward Law, aft. lord Ellenborough, 14 Feb 

Hon. Spencer Percival (murdered by Bellingh 
11 May, 1812), r5 April. 

Sir Arthur Pigott, 12 Feb. 

Sir Vicary Gibbs, afterwards chief justice of 1 
common pleas, 7 April. | 

Sir Thomas Plumer, afterwards first vice-chanee 
of England, 26 June. 

1813. Sir William Garrow, 4 May. 

1817. Sir Samuel Shepherd, 7 May. 

18rg. Sir Robert Gifford, aft. lord Gifford, 24 July. 


+? 
1692. 
1693. 
1695. 
1701. 
1707. 
1708, 
1710. 
9? 
1718. 
1720. 
1724. 
1734: 
1737: 
1754. 
1756. 
1757: 
1762. 
1763. 
1765. 


1766. 


1771. 
1778. 
1780. 


9” 
1784. 
1788. 
1793- 
1799. 
r8or. 
1802. 


1806. 
1807. 


1812. 


ATTORNEYS’. 


4. Sir John Singleton Copley, afterwards lord_Lynd- 
hurst, 9 Jan. : 

6. Sir Charles Wetherell, 20 Sept. 

7, Sir James Scarlett, 27 April. 

3. Sir Charles Wetherell, again, 19 Feb. 

) 

>. 

2 

4 


. Sir Jas. Searlett, again ; aft. lord Abinger, 29 June. 
. Sir Thos. Denman, aft. lord Denman, 26 Nov. 
. Sir William Horne, 26 Nov. 
. Sir John Campbell, x March. 
_ Sir Frederick Pollock, 17 Dec. 
5s. Sir John Campbell, again, afterwards lord Camp- 
bell (and, 1859, lord chancellor), 30 April. 
r. Sir Thomas Wilde, 3 July. 
, Sir F. Pollock, again ; aft. chief baron, 6 Sept. 
4. Sir William W. Follett, 15 April. 
5. Sir Frederick Thesiger, 4 July. 
6. Sir Thomas Wilde, again ; afterwards lord Truro, 
and lord chancellor, 6 July. atek 3 
Sir John Jervis, afterwards chief justice of the 
common pleas, 13 July. 
o. Sir John Romilly, aft. master of the rolls, 11 July. 
r. Sir Alex. James Edmund Cockburn, 28 March. 
2, Sir Frederick Thesiger, again; afterwards lord 
Chelmsford, and lord chancellor, 2 March. 
Sir Alexander Cockburn, again ; aft. chief justice 
of common pleas and queen’s bench, 28 Dec. 
6. Sir Richard Bethell, 15 Nov. : 
8. Sir Fitzroy Kelly, 27 Feb., aft. chief baron, 1866 ; 


d. 1880. 
>. Sir R. Bethell (since lord Westbury, and lord chan- 
cellor), 18 June. 
r. Sir William Atherton, 27 July. 
3. Sir Roundell Palmer, aft. lord Selborne, and lord 
chancellor, 2 Oct. 
6. Sir Hugh M. Cairns, aft. lord Cairns, and lord chan- 
cellor, 13 July. 
Sir John Rolt (made justice of appeal), 28 Oct. 
7. Sir John Karslake, x July. 
8. Sir Robert Porrett Collier, 12 Dec. 
x. Sir John Duke Coleridge, aft. lord Coleridge, and 
lord chief justice, ro Nov. 
3. Sir Henry James, Nov. 
4. Sir John Karslake, Feb. | 
Sir Richard Baggallay, 22 April. 
5. Sir John Holker, 25 Nov. 
>. Sir Henry James, 13 May. 


\TTORNEYS’ AND SOLICITORS’ 
IT, passed 14 July, 1870. 


\TTRACTION, described by Copernicus, 
ut 1520, as an appetence or appetite which the 
ator impressed upon all parts of matter; by 
pleras a corporealaffection tending to union, 1605. 
1687, sir I. Newton published his ‘ Principia,” 
taining his important researches on this subject. 
re are the attractions of Gravitation, Magnetism, 
. Electricity (which see). Dr. C. William 
‘mens exhibited and described his attraction- 
ver at the Royal Society, 1876. 


LTWOOD’S MACHINE, for proving the 
‘sof accelerated motion by the faliing of weights 
ented by George danced ; described 1784: he 
Li July, 1807. 


LUBAINE, a right of the French kings, which 
| sted from the beginning of the monarchy, where- 
they claimed the property of every stranger who 
Lin their country, without having been na- 
lised, was abolished by the national assembly 
{790-91; re-established by Napoleon in 1804, 
finally annulled 14 July, 1819. 


UBEROCHE, Guienne, S. France. The 
of Derby defeated the French, besieging this 
,e, 19 Aug. 1344. 
| UCKLAND, capital of New Zealand (north 
1d), was founded Sept. 1840. The population 
Jie district, in 1857, was estimated at 15,000 
»peans, and 35,000 natives. Theseat of govern- 
py removed to Wellington on Cook’s Strait, 

1864. 


UCTION, akindof sale known to the Romans, 


63 


AUGMENTATIONS CO URT. 


mentioned by Cicero, Livy, and Petronius Arbiter 
(about A.D. 66). The firstin Britain was about 1700, 
vy Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George, now 

adras, in the Kast Indies, who thus sold the goods 
he had brought home. Auction and sales’ tax 
began, 1779. Various acts of parliament have 
regulated auctions and imposed duties, in some 
cases as high as five per cent. By 8 Vict. c. 15 
(1845), the duties were repealed, and a charge im- 
posed ‘‘on the licence to be taken out by all auc- 
tioneers in the United Kingdom, of 1o/.’” In 1858 
there were 4358 licences granted, producing 43,5800. 
The abuses at auctions, termed ‘knock-outs,’’ 
caused by combinations of brokers and others, ex- 
cited much attention in Sept. 1866. An act regu- 
lating sales of land by auction was passed 15 July, 
1867. Certain sales arenow exempt from being con- 
ducted by a licensed auctioneer, such as goods and 
chattels under a distress for rent, and sales under 
the provisions of the Small Debts’ acts for Scotland 
and Ireland. 


AUDIANT, followers of Audweus of Mesopo- 
tamia, who, having been expelled from the Syrian 
church on account of his severely reproving the 
vices of the clergy, about 338, formed a sect and 
became its bishop. He was banished to Scythia, 
where he is said to have made many converts. His 
followers celebrated Easter at the time of the Jewish 
passover, attributed the human figure to the Deity, 
and had other peculiar tenets. 


AUDIOMETER (from audio, I hear), an in- 
strument for the measurement of the faculty of 
hearing; invented by professor Hughes. It con- 
sists of a battery of two Leclanché’s cells connected 
with a simple microphone and telephone ; described 
to the Royal Society, 15 May, 1879. 


AUDIPHONE, an instrument to assist the 
partially deaf, invented by Mr. R. G. Rhodes of 
Chicago, and modified by M. Colladon of Geneva, 
in 1880. It consists of a thin sheet of hard ebonite 
rubber or card-board. This should be placed 
against the teeth, through which and other bones 
the vibrations are conveyed to the auditory nerve. 


AUDIT-OFFICE, Somerset House. Com- 
missioners for auditing the public accounts were 
appointed in 1785, and many statutes regulating 
their duties have since been enacted. 


AUDLEY’S REBELLION, see Rebellions, 
1497. 


AUERSTADT (Prussia). Here on 14 Oct. 1806, 
the French, under Davoust, signally defeated the 
Prussians, under Blucher; see Jena. 


AUGHRIM, near Athlone, in Ireland, where 
on 12 July, 1691, a battle was fought between the 
Irish, headed by the French general St. Ruth, and 
the English under general Ginckel. The former 
were defeated and lost 7000 men; the latter lost 
only 600 killed and 960 wounded. St. Ruth was 
slain. This engagement proved decisively fatal to 
the interest of James II., and Ginckel was created 
earl of Athlone. 


AUGMENTATION oF Poor Lrvrnas’ 
OFFICE, established in 1704. 5597 clerical livings, 
not exceeding Sol. per annum, were found by the 
commissioners under the act of Anne capable of 
augmentation, by means of the bounty then 
established. . 


AUGMENTATIONS COURT, established 
in 1535 by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 27, in relation to cap. 28 
same session, which gave the king the property of 
all monasteries haying 200/. a year. ‘The court was 


AUGSBURG. 


64 


-_AUSTERLITZ. 


abolished by Mary, 1553, and restored by Elizabeth, 

1558. 

AUGSBURG (Bavaria), originally a colony 
settled by Augustus, about 12 B.c.; became a free 
city, and flourished during the middle ages. Here 
many important diets of the empire have been held. 
In A.D. 952, a council confirmed the order for the 
celibacy of the priesthood. Augsburg has suffered 
much by war, having been frequently taken by 
siege,—in 788, 1703, 1704, and, last, by the French, 
10 Oct. 1805, who restored it to Bavaria in March, 
1806. 

Augsburg Diet, summoned by the emperor Charles 
V., to settle the religious disputes of Germany, 
met 20 June, and separated ; : . Nov. 

Confession of Augsburg, compiled by Melanchthon, 
Luther and others, signed by the Protestant 
princes, presented to the emperor Charles V., and 
read to the diet A : : 25 June, 

Interim of Augsburg, a document issued by 
Charles V. : an attempt to reconcile the Catholics 
and Protestants: (it was fruitless and was with 
drawn). fs ‘ - - read 15 May, 

‘* Peace of Religion” signed at Augsburg, 25 Sept. 

League of Augsburg, for maintenance of the treaties 
of Miinster, Nimeguen : a treaty between Holland 
and other powers against France, signed 9 July, 1686 


AUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated 
by the coming or going of birds, long before the 
time of Hesiod. Three augurs, at Rome, with ves- 
tals and several orders of the priesthood, were 
formally constituted by Numa, about 710 B.c. The 
number increased, and was fifteen at the time of 
Sylla, 81. The college of augurs was abolished by 
Theodosius about A.D. 390. 


AUGUST, the eighth Roman month of the 

ear (previously called Sextidis, or the sixth from 
March); by a decree of the senate received its pre- 
sent name in honour of Augustus Cesar, in the 
year 8 B.c., because in this month he was created 
consul, had thrice triumphed in Rome, added Egypt 
to the Roman empire, and made an end of the 
civil wars. He added one day to the month, making 
it 31 days. The appearance of shooting stars on 
the 10th of Aug. was observed in the middle ages, 
when they were termed ‘‘ St. Lawrence’s tears.” 
Their periodicity was noticed by Mr. Forster early 
in the present century. See under France, 10 
August, 1792. 

AUGUSTAN ERA began 14 Feb. 27 B.c., 


or 727 years after the foundation of Rome. 


AUGUSTIN or AUSTIN FRIARS, a religious 
order, which ascribes its origin to St. Augustin, 
bishop of Hippo, who died 430. They first appeared 
about the 11th century, and the order was consti- 
tuted by pope Alexander IV., 1256. The rule re- 

uires poverty, humility, and chastity. Martin 
aither was an Augustin monk. The Augustins 
held the doctrine of free grace, and were rivals of 
the Dominicans. The order appeared in England 
soon after the conquest, and had 32 houses at the 
suppression, 1536. One of their churches, at Austin 
Friars, London, erected 1354, and since the Re- 
formation used by Dutch protestants, was partially 
destroyed by fire, 22 Nov. 1862. It was restored, 
and reopened, 1 Oct. 1865. A religious house of 
the order, dedicated to St. Monica, mother of 
Augustin, was founded in Hoxton-square, London, 
1864. 

AULIC COUNCIL, 2 sovereign court in 
Germany, established by the emperor Maximilian I., 
being one of the two courts, the first called the 
Imperial Chamber civil and criminal, instituted at 
Worms, 1495, and afterwards held at Spires and 


1530 


1530 


1548 
1555 


Wetzler, and the other the Aulic council at Vie 
1506. These courts having concurrent jurisdic 
were instituted for appeals in particular cases - 
the courts of the Germanic states. 


AURAY (N. W. France). Here, on 29 § 
1364, the English, under John Chandos, defe 
the French and captured their leader Du Gues 
Charles of Blois, made duke of Brittany by 
king of France, was slain, and a peace was mat 
April, 1365. 


AURICULAR CONFESSION. The 
fession of sin at the ear (Latin, awris) of the 
was an early practice. It is incorrectly stated to! 
been forbidden in the 4th century by Nectarius, a 
bishop of Constantinople. It was enjoined by 
council of Lateran in 1215, and by the coune 
Trent in 1551. It was one of the six articl 
faith enacted by our Henry VIII. in 1539, but 
abolished in England at the Reformation. Its 
vival here has been attempted by the church p 
called Puseyites, Tractarians, or Ritualists. 


The rey. Alfred Poole, acurate of St. Barnabas, Kni; 
bridge, was suspended by his bishop from his offic 
practising auricular confession in June, 1858, anc 
suspension was confirmed in Jan. 1859. Much ex 
ment was created by a similar attempt by the 
Temple West at Boyne Hill, in Sept. 1858. 

In May, 1873, 483 clergymen of the Church of Eng 
presented a petition to convocation for the educa’ 
selection, and licensing of duly qualified confessor 
accordance with the provisions of canon law. Stro 
disapproved of by the bishops. 

Letter from the bishop of London asserting that co 
sion should be to God; that to the minister optic 
21 July, 1873. 

Archdeacon Denison (in a letter) declares war agains 
opposing auricular confession, 22 Aug. 1873. 

96 peers send an address against auricular confessio 
the archbishop of Canterbury about g Aug. 1 
See Holy Cross. 

AURIFLAMMA orOrIFLAMME, thenati 
banner mentioned in French history, belo 
ing to the abbey of St. Denis, and suspended « 
the tomb of that saint. Louis le Gros was the - 
king who took this standard from the abbe 
battle, 1124. Hénault. It appeared for the 
time at Agincourt, 25 Oct. 1415. TZvllet. OU 
say at Montlhery, 16 July, 1465. 


AURORA, FRIGATE, sailed from Britair 
1771, to the East Indies, and was never ag 
heard of.—AuRORA, daily papal newspaper, 
peared at Rome 1 June, 1880. 

Al 


AURORA BOREALES AnpD 
TRALES (Northern and Southern Polar Ligh 
though rarely seen in central Europe, are frequ 
in the arctic and antarctic regions. In March, 17 
an aurora borealis extended from the west of | 
land to the confines of Russia. The whole hori 
lat. 57° N. was overspread with continuous haz 
a dismal red during a whole night, Noy. 1765 
Mr. Foster, the companion of captain Cook, § 
the aurora in lat. 58°S. The aurora is now at 
buted to the passage of electric light through | 
rarefied air of the polar regions, In August ¢ 
September, 1859 (and about 24 Oct. 1870), wl 
brilliant aurore were very frequent, the elec 
telegraph wires were seriously affected, and 00 
municationsinterrupted. Aurore were seen at Ro 
and Basel, and also in Australia. 


AUSCULTATION, see Stethoscope. 


AUSTERLITZ, a town in Moravia, wher 
battle was fought between the French and | 
allied Austrian and Russian armies, 2 Dee. 1% 
Three emperors commanded: Alexander of Rus: 


| 


AUSTIN FRIARS. 


‘raneis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The 
illed and wounded exceeded 30,000 on the side of 
he allies, who lost forty standards, 150 pieces of 
annon, and thousands of prisoners. ‘The decisive 
ietory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, 
ihe 26 Dec. 1805 ; see Presburg. 


AUSTIN FRIARS, see Augustin Friars. 


AUSTRALASIA, the fifth great division of | 


1e world. This name, originally given it by De 
rosses, includes Australia, Van Diemen’s Land, 
ew Guinea, New Zealand, New Britain, New 
aledonia, &¢e., mostly discovered within two 
mturies. Accidental discoveries were made by the 
paniards as early as 1526; but the first accurate 
nowledge of these southern lands is due to the 
utch, who in 1606 explored a part of the coast of 
apua or New Guinea. Torres, a Spaniard, passed 
ough the straits which now bear hisname, between 
at island and Australia, and gave the first correct 
port of the latter, 1606. The Dutch continued 
\eir discoveries. Grant in 1800, and Flinders again 
801-5) completed the survey. Jf‘Culloch. Esti- 
ated population, 31 Dec. 1882, 2,936,409. 


AUSTRALIA (formerly New Holland), the 
rgest island and smallest continent; estimated 
ea about three million square miles, including 
e provinces—New South Wales, Victoria (formerly 
wt Phillip), South Australia, West Australia (or 
van Riven and Queensland (all which see). 
ypulation, with Tasmania and New Zealand, in 
71, about 1,958,650; 1874, 2,334,210; 1878, 
705,700 ; 1882, 2,936,409. 

. R. H. Major, in 1872, alleged that Australia was 


known to the French prior to : : sige Shes REBL 
leged discovery by Manoel Godinho de Eredia, a 
Portuguese . - - 1601 


e Dutch also discover Australia . March, 1606 
e coast surveyed by Dutch navigators ; north, by 
feachen, 1618 ; west, by Edels, 1619; south, by 
Nuyts, 1627 ; north, by Carpenter : , - 1627 
a, Dampier explores the W. and N. W. coasts, 
1684-90 

sman coasts §. Australia, and Van Diemen’s 

vand . i : : ‘ i : ‘ . 1642-4 
ra Australia (Western Australia) named New 
{olland by order of the States-General : - 1665 
liam Dampier lands in Australia . ° Jan. 1686 
ploraticns of Willis and Carteret iia a ENOS~O 
»t. Cook, sir Joseph Banks, and others, land at 
sotany Bay, and name the country ‘‘ New South 
Vales” . apt . “ é . 28 April, 1770 
dloration of Furneaux. : A ; ite ay 
rernor Phillip founds Sydney near Port Jackson, 
‘ith 1030 persons. : F : . 26 Jan. 1788 | 
¢ 82nd anniversary of this event was kept with | 
luch festivity, 26 Jan. 1870.] 

at distress in consequence of the loss of the / 
tore ship ‘‘ Guardian,” captain Riou . 

rages of Bligh . : - ° 

3t church erected . A 
‘ernment gazette first printed ‘ 3 i 
_s’s straits discovered by Bass and Flinders 
3t brick church built ~ . 
mny of Van Diemen’s land 
shed 2 ‘ese x : 4 : 3 - 1803 
nt, 1800, and Flinders survey the coasts of Aus- 
valia . - - 3 : : 3 - 1801-5 
rection of Irish convicts quelled A - 1804 | 
ernor Bligh for his tyranny deposed and sent 
yme = F . : = ‘ F - 1808 
_erseded by governor Macquarie. i - « 1809 
editions into the interior by Wentworth, Law- 


+ 1795 
- 1798 
- : 4 - + 1802 
(now Tasniania) estab- 


‘n, Bloxland, 1813; Oxley, &e. . , + 1817-1823 
ulation, 29,783 (three-fourths convicts) . - 1821 
| Australia formed into a province vie > ¢ B29 
slative council established . 4 ‘ ns ae 
t’s expeditions into South Australia , 1828-31 

_ Australia erected into a province Aug. 1834 


’. Mitchell’s expeditions into E. Australia. 1831-6 
+ Roman Catholic bishop (Polding) arrives, 


- 1790 
- ° - 1789-92 
. - Aug. 1793 

| 

Sept. 1835 


AUSTRALIA. 


Port Phillip (now Victoria) colonised . Nov. 1835 
First Church of England bishop of Australia 
(Broughton) arrives. K ; . June, 1836 
Colony of South Australia founded. . Dee. 
Kyre’s expedition overland from Adelaide to King 
George’s Sound . : A . 1836-7 
Melbourne founded . . : : Novy. 1837 
Capt. Grey explores N. W. Australia : - 1837-9 
Count Strzelecki explored New South Wales and 
Tasmania, 1838-43 ; discovered gold-tields in Bath- 
| urst, Wellington, &c. (kept secret by sir George 
Gipps) . : { : ; : : 
Suspension of transportation 3 E Ae 
Strzelecki explores the Australian Alps ; discovers 
Gipps’ land ; Eyre explores west Australia - 1840 
Great exertions of Mrs. Chisholm ; establishment 


a> 


- 1839 


of ‘‘ Home for Female Emigrants” . 1841-6 
Census—87,200 males ; 43,700 females - 1841 
Very numerous insolvencies : : 1841-2 
Incorporation of city of Sydney : : : - 1842 
Landor and Lefray explore Western Australia . . 1843 


Sturt proceeds from South Australia to the middle 
of the continent . : 3 : 2 : : 
Census (including Port Phillip}—z14,700 males; 
74,800 females F : : x 2 3 a 
Kennedy’s ist expedition 13 Aug. 1847; ae 
13 Nov. 
Dr. Leichart’s expedition leaves Moreton bay, 
Aug. 1844; arrives at Port Essington, 17 Dec. 
1845; starts again, not heard of after 3 April 
Great agitation against transportation, which had 
been revived by earl Grey . : ; SM 
Port Phillip erected into a separate province as 
Victoria A 3 : ; . : - 1850 
Gold discovered by Mr. Hargraves, d&e.* . - . 1851 
Census—males, 106,000 ; females, 81,000 (exclusive 
of Victoria, 80,000) : A 
Mints established . 
Transportation ceased i 
Gregory’s explorations of interior 


1845 
1846 
1848 


cP] 


1849 


Tonk eat ds March, 1853 
; 1848, 1855-8 


Death of archdeacon Cowper (aged 80), after about 

fifty years’ residence : 2 . July, 1858 
Queensland made a province : 4 Dec. 1859 
J. M‘Douall Stuart’s expeditions 1858-62 


Expedition into the interior under Mr. Landells 


organised = : x 4 . p . Aug. 1860 
Robert O’Hara Burke, Wm. John Wills, and others, 

start from Melbourne % : OOP A es 
Burke, Wills, and two others, cross the Australian 

continent to the gulf of Carpentaria; all perish 

on their return, except John King, who arrives 

at Melbourne , : ; ‘ - Nov. 1862 
Stuart, M‘Kinlay, and Landsborough cross Aus- 

tralia from sea to sea . ‘ * : 


- 1861-2 


* Gotp Discovery.—-Mr. Edward Hargraves went to 
California in search of gold, and was struck with the 
similarity between the rocks and strata of California and 
those of his own district of Conobolas, some thirty miles 
west of Bathurst. On his return home, he examined the 
soil, and after one or two months’ digging, found a 
quantity of gold, 12 Feb. 1851. He applied to the colonial 
government for a reward, which he readily obtained, 


| with an appointment as commissioner of crown lands. 
| The excitement became intense throughout the colony of 


New South Wales, rapidly spread to that of Victoria and 
other places; and in the first week of July, 1851, an 
aboriginal inhabitant, formerly attached to the Welling- 
ton mission, and then in the service of Dr. Kerr, of Wal- 
lawa, discovered, while tending his sheep, a mass of gold 
among a heap of quartz. Three blocks of quartz (from 
two to three hundred weight), found in the Murroo 
Creek, fifty miles to the north of Bathurst, contained 
112 lb. of pure gold, valued at goool. The “Victoria 
nugget,” a magnificent mass of virgin gold, weighing 340 
ounces, was brought to England from the Bendigo dig- 
gings ; and a piece of pure gold of 106 Ib weight was also 
found. From the gold fields of Mount Alexander and 
Ballarat, in the district of Victoria, up to Oct. 1852, there 
were found 2,532,422 ounces, or ro5 tons 10 ewt. of gold ; 
and the gold exported up to the same date represented 
8,863,4771. sterling. In Nov. 1856, the ‘“‘ James Baines ” 
and “‘ Lightning” brought gold from Melbourne valued 
4S 1,200,000l. The ‘‘ Welcome nugget” weighed 20193 
ounces ; value, 83761. ros. rod. ; found at Baker’s Hill, 
Ballarat, 11 June, 1858. Between May, 1851, and May- 
1861, gold to the value of 96,000,000l. had been brought 
to England from New South Wales and Victoria, 


F 


AUSTRASIA. 


Remains of Burke and Wills recovered ; public 
funeral . : : : 3 . . 21 Jan. 
Strong and general resistance throughout Australia 
to the reception of British convicts in West Aus- 
tralia . : 5 A 5 about June, 
Cessation of transportation to Australia in three 
years announced amid much rejoicing . 26 Jan. 
Morgan, a desperate bushranger and murderer, sur- 
rounded and shot’ . A x ; . April, 
Boundary disputes between New South Wales and 
Victoria, in summer of 1864; settled amicably 
1g April, 

Total population of Australia, exclusive of natives, 
1,298,667 - ; 3 4 : é . Jan. 

Royal Society of New South Wales (originally the 
Philosophical Society of Australia, founded 1821), 
established : : ; : = . May 

Meeting of ministers from the Australian colonies 
at Melbourne to arrange postal communication 
with Kurope . ; : ; ‘ . March, 

Exploration of South Australia; capt. Cadell dis- 
covers mouth of the river Roper, and fine pas- 
toral country, lat. 14°8. ; : . Nov. 

Despatch from lord Kimberley objecting to the 
complex tariffs between the Australian colonies, 

13 July, 

Meeting of delegates from New South Wales, Vic- 
toria, South Australia, and Tasmania ; they object 
to imperial interference with their mutual fiscal 
arrangements . ; : : ; . 27 Sept. 

Synod of the church of Australia and Tasmania 
held at Sydney ; : : 25 Oct. 

Mr. Ernest Morrisou walks across the continent 
from the Gulf of Carpentaria to Melbourne in 120 
days, starting : ; : about 18 Dec. 

Completion of the direct railway between Mel- 
bourne and Sydney . 3 : : June 

Gradual formation of a defensive Australian fleet 
and army. ‘ : “ : . 

The Intercolonial conference of delegates on pro- 
posed annexation of New Guinea, at Sydney, re- 
commended, 6 Dec.; and the formation of an 
Australasian federal council 7 Dec.; closes 8 Dec, 

Canon Barry consecrated bishop of Sydney and 
metropolitan of Australia . : 1 Jan. 

Mr. Charles Winnicke’s exploring party mapped 
40,000 niles of unknown country, announced Jan. 

Victoria, Tasmania, & Queensland accept the scheme 
of federation, Aug.; opposed by New South 
Wales. ; : : : about 1 Nov. 

Lord Derby’s dispatch deferring consideration of 
the federal scheme . : : 4 

Several states protest against the German annexa- 
tions in New Guinea, &e. . A ; =m Dec. 

British flag hoisted on Woodlark and other islands 

Jan. 

The Australian colonies proffer military contingents 

for the Soudan ; thanked by the queen Feb. 


GOVERNORS. 


Captain Arthur Phillip 
Captain Hunter E 
Captain Philip G. King 
Captain William Bligh . 
Colonel Lachlan Macquari 


e (able and successful 


administration) . i 
General sir Thomas Brisbane 
Sir Richard Bourke 4 : ; 


Sir George Gipps : 4 4 5 : s 
Sir Charles Fitzroy, governor-general of all the Aus- 
tralian colonies, with a certain jurisdiction over 
the lieutenant-governors of Van Diemen’s Land, 
Victoria, and South and Western Australia . 
Sir William T. Denison Z d - s 4 
Sir John Young, of New South Wales only . 
See New South Wales. 

Acts for the government of Australia, ro Geo. IV. 
c. 22, 14 May (1829), 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 68, 13 Aug. 
(1836), 13 & 14 Vict. c. 59, 5 Aug. (1850). Act for 
regulating the sale of waste lands in the Austra- 
lian colonies, 5 & 6 Vict. c. 36, 22 June (1842). 


11 Dec. 


66 


863 


al 


AUSTRASIA, Gsterreich (Eastern Kingdom), 
also called Metz. a French kingdom which lasted 


from the 6th to the 8theentury. Itbegan with the 


division of the territories of Clovis by his sons, 
and ended by Carloman becoming a monk and 


511, 
sur- 


, hay, 
P ; ” 
Q 


AUSTRIA. 


rendering his power to his brother Pepin, who tf 
became sole king of France, 747. 


AUSTRIA, a Hamburg company’s steamsh 
sailed from Southampton to New Fock 4 Sept. 18 
with 528 persons on board. On 13 Sept. in | 
45° N., long. 41° 30’ W., it caught fire through 
carelessness of some one in burning some tar 
fumigate the steerage. Only 67 persons were sa 
—upwards of 60 by the Maurice, a French barg 
the rest by a Norwegian barque. A heartrend 
account was given in the Times, 11 Oct. 1858, 
Mr. Charles Brews, an English survivor. 


AUSTRIA, Gsterreich (Eastern Kingdo: 
anciently Noricum and part of Pannonia, was 
nexed to the Roman empire about 33; was over 
by the Huns, Avars, &c., during the 5th and | 
centuries, and taken from them by Charlemag 
791-796. He divided the government of the count 
establishing margraves of Eastern Bavaria : 
Austria. Louis the German, son of Louis le Déb 
naire, about 817, subjugated Radbod, margrave 
Austria; but in 883 the descendants of the la 
raised a civil war in Bavaria against the empe 
Charles the Fat, and eventually the margrave 
Austria were declared immediate princes of 
empire. In 1156 the margraviate was made 
hereditary duchy by the emperor Frederic L; : 
in 1453 it was raised to an archduchy by the empe 
Frederic III. Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, elec 
emperor of Germany in 1273, acquired Austria 
1278; and from 1493 to 1804 his descendants ¥ 
emperors, On 11 Aug. 1804, the emperor Francis 
renounced the title of emperor of Rome and kin: 
Germany (popularly termed emperor of 6G 
many), and became hereditary emperor of Aust 
The condition of Austria is now greatly improv 
under the enlightened rule of the present empe: 
The political constitution of the empire is be 
upon—1. The pragmatic sanction of Charles | 
1734, which declares the indivisibility of the emy 
and rules the order of succession. 2. The pragm: 
sanction of Francis II., 1 Aug. 1804, when he beca 
emperor of Austria only. 3. The diploma of Fra 
Joseph, 20 Oct. 1860, whereby he imparted legi 
tive power to the provincial states and the cou 
of the empire (Reichsrath). 4. The law of 26} 
1861, on the national representation. Self-gove 
ment was granted to Hungary, 17 Feb. 1867. ' 
empire was ordered to be named henceforth 
Austro-Hungarian monarchy, by decree, 14 N 
1868. Population of the empire* in Oct. 1 
3p7018,9885 reduced to 32,530,000 by the los 
enetia, &c., in 1866 (about 16,000,000 Slay: 
different dialects). Population, Austria and ot 
Cis-Leithan provinces, 20,396,580 (31 Dec. 186 
Hungary and Trans-Leithan provinces, 15,509,4 
in 1880, 37,882,712. 
Frederic II., the last male of the house of Bamberg, 
killed in battle with the Hungarians . 15 June, | 
Disputed succession : the emperor Frederic II. se 
questered the provinces, appointing Otto, count 
of Eberstein, governor in the name of the em- 
peror ; they are seized by Ladislaus, margrave of 
Moravia, in right of his wife, Frederic’s niece, 
Gertrude : he died childless . : : : 
Herman, margrave of Baden, marries Gertrude, and 
holds the provinces till his death . =e 


; 


* The empire is now divided into two parts, separ 
by the river Leithe. The Cis-Leithan section comp! 
14 provincial diets : Galicia, Bohemia, Silesia, Mora 
lower and upper Austria, Styria, the Tyrol and V¢ 
burg, Salzburg, Carinthia, Carniola, Trieste, and Ist 
Dalinatia, and the Bukovina. The Trans-Leithan se¢ 
comprises Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia, 
the city of Fiume. = * 


SE Na UR maaan mre eee 


AUSTRIA. 


67 AUSTRIA. 


‘emislas Ottocar, of Bohemia, acquires the pro- 


vincés FE andy es 5 ; 
impelled to cede Styria to Hungary, he 
md recovers it, in consequence of a gr 


eror of Germany, 1272; and to render 


todolph of Hapsburg, elected emperor 


uw against Ottocar as a rebel : he is co 


‘ede Austria, Carinthia, and Styria to Rodolph . 1274 
& war renewed : Ottocar perishes in the battle of 


Marehfeld 


e emperor Rodolph establishes the 
\ustria, &e. 


vert I. assassinated by his nephew while attempt- 


ag to enslave the Swiss 
scessful revolt of the Swiss 


‘old, at Morgarten 
+ Tyrolacquired . é 


: duke Leopold imposes a toll on the Swiss ; 
‘hich they resist with violence: he makes war 
n them, and is defeated and slain at Sempach 


xe Albert V. obtains Bohemia and Hungary, and 


‘ elected emperor of Germany . ; 
_ emperor Frederic III, as head of th 


apsburg, creates the archduchy of Austria with 


~vereign power . P A ‘ P 
tria divided between him and his 
57 ; War ensues between them till . 


Low countries accrue to Austria by the mar- 
age of Maximilian with the heiress of Burgundy 1477 
)» Spain, by the marriage of Philip I. of Austria, 


ith the heiress of Arragon and Castile 


emia and Hungary united to Austria under 


ordinand I. d ‘ ; 2 
tria harassed by Turkish invasions 


tles V., reigning over Germany, Austria, Bo- 


inherits Carinthia, 1263; refuses to become em- 


»y totally defeat the Austrians under duke ‘Leo- 


[Italian provinces restored with additions—Lom- 
bardo-Venetian kingdom established, 7 April.] 
Francis I. dies ; Ferdinand I. succeeds - 2 March, 1835 
New treaty of commerce with England - 3duly, 1838 

Insurrection at Vienna; flight of Metternich, 
13 March, 1848 
Insurrection in Italy, see Milan, Venice, and Sar- 
dinia P : A 3 - 410 Marchi. 
Another insurrection at Vienna ; the emperor flees 
to Inspruck : : A 15-17 May, ,, 
Archduke John appointed vicar-general of the ~* 
empire . ; : ; é ; - 29 May, ,, 
A constituent assembly meet at Vienna . 20 J uly, 
Revolution in Hungary, see Hungary - rr Sept. 
Insurrection of Vienna ; murder of count Latour, 
6 OCt. 5 
The emperor abdicates in favour of his nephew, 
Francis-Joseph . : ; z - 2 Dec. 
Convention of Olmiitz : : : - 29 Nov. 1850 
The emperor revokes the constitution of 4 March, 
1849 . . f ; ; 3 ; 31 Dec. 1851 
Trial by jury abolished in the empire - 15 Jan. 1852 
Death of prince Schwartzenburg, prime minister, 
4 April es 
Attempted assassination of the emperor by Libenyi, 
18 Feb.; who was executed . : - 28 Feb. 1853 


; / - 1254 
makes war 
eat victory 1260 
homage to 


P MeL eT 
mpelled to 


- 26 Aug. 1278 
duchy of 
. 27 Dec. 1282 


- I May, 1308 
1307-9 


16 Noy. 1315 
«1 £303 


July, 1386 


: sat L437 
e house of 


9 
6 Jan. 1453 | Commercial treaty with Prussia . - zo Feb.”.,, 
relatives, Austrians enter Danubian principalities Aug. 1854 
1463 | Alliance with England and France relative to 
eastern question : j ; ‘ of e2 DeG base 
Great reduction of thearmy . : - 24 June, 1855 
By a concordat the pope acquires great power in the 


1496 empire : ; ; : : y - 18 Aug. 

Amnesty for political offenders of 1848-9, 12 July, 1856 

Austria remonstrates against the attacks of the free 
Sardinian press 4 10 Feb. 1857 


Firm reply of count Cavour ~ 


- 1526 
1529-45 


: - 20Feb. ,, 
‘mia, Hungary, Spain, the N etherlands, and Austrians quit the Danube principalities . March, Py 
eir dependencies, abdicates (see Spain) - + 1556 | Diplomatic relations between Austria and Sardinia 
destructive 30 years’ war . 2 1618-48 broken offin consequence . - 23-30 March, ,, 
‘of Spanish succession . é . - 1701-14 | Emperor and empress visit Hungary A May, ,, 
tua ceded to the emperor . F - 3 Jan. 1708 | Death of marshal Radetzky (aged 92) . - 5 Jan, 1858 
reaty of Utrecht he obtains part of the duchy 


“Milan 


'reaty of Rastadt he acquires the N eth 


les, &c., added to his dominions 


her additions on the east (Temeswar, &c.) by 


2 peace of Passarowitz . 
es and Sicily given up to Spain 


h of Charles VI., the last sovereign of the male 
e of the house of Hapsburg: his daughter, 


. ah 
Tia Theresa, becomes queen of 


‘an wars. 


Theresa is attacked by Prussia, France, Ba- 
1a, and Saxony ; but supported by Great Britain 1741 
tis, duke of Lorraine, who had married Maria 


2resa in 1736, elected emperor 


° - I 
2 of Aix-la-Chapelle : Parma, Milan, &. ceded 


Spain . : , 4 : : 

‘1 years’ war ; Silesia ceded to Prussia 
la, &., acquired from Poland . 
with France (see Battles) 


e treaty of Campo Formio, the emperor gives 
_ Lombardy (which see) and obtains Venice 


-y of Luneville (more losses) 


is II. , einperor of Germany, becomes Francis Y &e 
ustria: declared hereditary emperor of Austria 


eclaration against France 
uation of his army at Ulm 
Napoleon enters Vienna 


2 evacuated by the French 


jal abdication of the emperor . 
vench again take Vienna 
istore it at the peace ‘4 “ 5 
20 Inarries the archduchess Maria 
laughter of the emperor , 

vss at Vienna . d : 

_ of Vienna . 


. 


> + 1745-63 


ians and Russians defeated at Austerlitz, if, 


Iie of Presburg, Austria loses Venice and the 
Bae 


ution of the Germanic confederation, and 


- 1 April, 1810 


Excitement throughout Europe, caused by the 
address of the emperor Napoleon III. to the 
Austrian ambassador :—‘‘I regret that our rela- 
tions with your government are not as good as 
formerly, but I beg of you to tell the emperor 
that my personal sentiments for him have not 


rr April, 1713 
erlands . 1714 
15 Nov. 1715 


= - . 1718 


1735 changed ” : - : 2 : ‘ 1 Jan. 1859 
The emperor of Austria replied in almost the same 
words , 3 “ : : : 4 aN 5, 
Hungary Prince Napoleon Bonaparte marries princess 
20 Oct. 1740 | Clotilde of Sardinia’ 5 wt + | 1 30 Oeics oy 
1740-2 5 1744-5 | Austria prepares for war ; enlarges her armies in 
Italy ; and strongly fortifies the banks of the 
Ticino, the boundary of her Italian provinces, and 
Sardinia . : F : Feb. & March, ,, 
5 ; 745 |} Lord Cowley at Vienna on a “mission of peace,” 
‘ . 3748 27 Feb. ,, 


Intervention of Russia—proposal for a congress ; 
disputes respecting the admission of Sardinia 
—Sardinia and France prepare for war, 

March & April, 

Austria demands the disarmament of Sardinia and 
the dismissal of the volunteers from other states 
within three days - : 4 - 23 April, 

This demand rejected : : é - 26 April, ., 

The Austrians cross the Ticino. - 26 April, 

The French troops enter Piedmont . - 27 April, 

The French emperor declares war (to expel the 


. - 1772 
1792-7 ”? 
15 Oct. 1797 
1801 


ir Aug. 1804 
- 5 Aug. 1805 


: Austrians from Italy). : : : 7 3 Mayeies 
20 Oct. _,, Resignation of count Buol, foreign minister ; ap- 
14 Nov. pointment of count Rechberg ~. 13-18 May, ,, 


The Austrians defeated at Montebello, 20 May ; at 


2Dec. ,, Palestro, 30-31 May; at Magenta, 4 June: at 
J Malegnano (Marignano) . 2 - 8 June, ,, 

a Sane 1806 Prince Metternich dies, aged 86 (he had been 

Wate actively engaged in the wars and negotiations of 
6:Anr Napoleon I.) . é : : “ SM pe Riasye, 

13 May, 1809 Austrians defeated at Solferino (near the Mincio) ; 

24 Oct. , the emperors of Austria and France and king of 
Louisa, é Sardinia present . 4 - 24 June, ,, 


Armistice agreed upon, 6 July ; the emperors meet, 
11 July ; the preliminaries of peace signed at Villa 
Franca (Lombardy given up to Randinls and 

F 2 


2 Oct. 1814 
- 25 Feb, 1815 


AUSTRIA. 


an Italian confederation proposed to be ee 
12 July, 
Manifesto justifying the peace issued to the army, 
12 July; to the people “ . 15 July, 
Patent issued, granting greatly i increased privileges 
to the Protestants,—announced Sept. 
Conference between the envoys of Austria and 
France at Zurich 8 Aug. to Sept. 
Many national reforms proposed . Sept. 
Treaty of Zurich, confirming the pr tinisnsten cf 
Villa Franca, signed to Nov. 
Decrees removing “Jewish disabilities, 
6, ro Jan., 18 Feb. 
Patent issued for the summoning the great imperial 
council (Reichsrath), composed of representatives 
elected by the provincial diets . 5 March, 
Discovery of great corruptions inthe army financial 
arrangements, a deficiency of about 1,700,000l. dis- 
covered ; general Eynatten commits suicide ; 82 
persons arrested Mar ch, 
Austria protests against the ‘annexation of Tuscany, 
&e., by Sar dinia . March, 
Baron Briick, suspected of complicity in the army 
frauds, dismissed 20 April; commits suicide, 
23 April, 
The Reichsrath assembles, 30 May ; addressed by 


the emperor zr June, 
Liberty of the press further restrained. July, 
Unsettled state of Hungary (which see) . July-Oct. 


Friendly meeting of the emperor and the regent of 
Prussia at Téplitz : : 26 July, 
Free debates in the Reichsrath ; strictures on the 
concordat, the finances, &c. ; proposals for sepa- 
rate constitutions for the provinces, Aug. & Sept. 
The Reichsrath adjourned 29 Sept. 
Diploma conferring on the Reichsrath fentlatty e 
powers, the control of the finances, &c., a mani- 
festo issued to the populations of the empire (not 
well received) . 20 Oct. 
Meeting of the emperor with the emper or of Russia 
and prince regent of Prussia at Warsaw: no im- 
portant result 20-26 Oct. 
The government pr ofesses non-intervention in 


Italy, but increases the army in Venetia, 
Oct. & Nov. 
The empress goes to Madeira for health Nov. 


Sale of Venetia, publicly spoken of, is repudiated in 
Dee. 
Ministerial crisis: M. Schmerling becomes ere 
—more political concessions 3 Dec. 
The proscribed Hungarian, count Teleki, at see 
den, is given up to Austria, which causes general 
indignation, about 20 Dec. ; she i is released on 1 parole 
31 Dec. 

Amnesty for political offences in Hungary, Groatia, 
&c., published . . 7dan. 
Reactionary policy of the court leads to increased 


general disaffection Jan. & Feb. 
The statutes of the new constitution for the 
Austrian monarchy published . . 26 Feb. 


Civil and political rights granted to Protestants, 
throughout the empire except in Hungary and 
Venice . ‘ 8 April, 

Meeting of Reichsrath—no deputies present from 
Hungary, Croatia, Transylvania, Venetia, or Istria 

29 April, 

Ministry of marine created . Jan. 

Inundation of the Danube, causing great distress, 

Feb. 

Increased taxation proposed : ~ ee rch, 

At an imperial council, the emperor present, the 
Se aie of ministerial responsibility is resolved 

: 26 April, 

Denoeny: of 1,400, oso! “in financial statement— 
indignation of the Reichsrath . . June, 

Amnesty to condemned political offenders in Hun- 
gary proclaimed 18 Nov. 

Reduction in the army assented to; and a personal 
liberty law (resembling our habeas corpus act) 
passed . . Dec. 

Insurrection in Russian Poland, Jan. ; Austria j joins 
in the intercession of England and France April 


Meeting of the German sovereigns (except kings of 
Prussia, Holland, and Denmark) with the emperor 
of Austria at Frankfort, by his invitation ; the 
draft of a re of the federal constitution 
agreed to . s t 4 5 16-31 Aug. 


PP) 


Come cial tr eaty with Italy, signed. 


>” 


AUSTRIA. 


Transylvanian deputies accept the constitution, 


and take seats in the Reichsrath . 20 Oct. 
Austria joins Prussia in war with Denmark (see 

Denmark) Jan, 

Galicia and Cracow declared to be ina state of siege 
29 Feb. 
The Archduke Maximilian becomes emperor of 
Mexico (see Memico) April, 
The emperorand the king of Prussia meet at Carlsbad 
22 June, 
Resignation of count Rechberg, foreign minister, 
succeeded by count Mensdorfi- Pouilly 27 Oct. 
Peace with Denmark, signed at Vienna 30 Oct. 
Emperor opens Reichsrath, 14 Nov. ; great freedom 
of debate ; the state of siege in Galicia censured 
Dee. 
Austria supports the confederation in the dispute 
respecting the duchies . . Dee: 
Apparent reunion between Austria and Prussia 
an 
Great financial difficulty ; proposed reduction in the 
army by the chambers. ° Jan. 
Contest between the gov ernment and the chambers 
April, 

Reported failure of Mr. Hutt’s mission to Vienna, 
to promote free trade . June, 
New ministry formed ; count Mensdorff 2s nominal 
premier ; counts Beleredi and Esterhazy as minis- 
ters: conciliatory measures towards Hungary, 
proposed . 27 July, 
Convention of Gastein (see Gastein) signed 14 Aug. 
Emperor’s rescript suppressing the “constitu thea 
with the view of giving autonomy to Hungary 
(which see) . 20 Sept. 
Rejoicings in Hungary, but dissatisfaction i in Aus- 


tria, Croatia, &e. Nov., Dee., 
Treaty of commerce with Great Britain, “signed 
Dee. 

Amnesty for Italy issued . x Jan. 


Warm disputes with Prussia (aggressive), respecting 

the settlement of Holstein . Jan., Mar. 
Preparations for war begin. March, 
The archduke Albrecht made commander of the 


southern army, 6 May ; Benedek of the N ee 
12 May 

War declared by Prussia, 18 June ; by Italy (which 
see) 20 June, 


The ‘Austrians enter Silesia, ‘18 J une; and be Pras: 
sians Bohemia A 

The Italians defeated by the archduke Avoresne a 
Custozza . 24 June, 

Prussian victories at Nachod, &e. 27-29 June, 

Benedek totally defeated at Koniggriitz or Sadowa 


. Vip 3 July, 
(For details of the war see Prussia and Italy.) 


The emperor cedes Venetia to the emperor Nee 
and requests inter vention . 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Nikolsburg, ad J 4 

Treaty of peace with Prussia signed at ey 


Aug. 
Treaty of peace with Italy signed at Vienna, mf 
Venetia, 3 Oct. The iron crown given up 11 Oct, 
The Quadtilatersd and Venice surrendered to the 
Italians 11-19 Oct. 
Baron Ferdinand von Beust, late Saxon minister 
of foreign affairs, made Austrian foreign minister 
30 Oct 
Meeting of the Reichsrath . 19 Nov. 
Commercial tr eaty with France (to commensal 1 Jan. 
1867), signed . ae 
Great dissension among the nationalities of the em- 
pire. " Dee. 
Extraordinary diet convoked (for 2 5 Feb. ). 3 Jan. 
Establishment of autonomy for Hungary annow 
resignation of Belcredi, 4 Feb. ; Von Beust made 
president of the council . . 7 Feb. 
Rescript restoring a separ ate ministry for Hungary, 
count Andrassy president . 3 
Death of archduke Stephen (palatine of Hungary be 
1848) . : 
- 
Reichsrath opened at Vienna . Zola. 
The Czechs (of Bohemia and Moravia), Croats, lé 
vonians, Serbs, Roumans (of Transylvania), an 
Russinians (of Galicia), protest against a’ 
tion, and piece national legislative 


May ae 


AUSTRIA. 


nful death of the archduchess Matilda through 
urns . : : ; : : 
emperor and empress crowned king and queen 
f Hungary at Buda : : P 2 OO JUNE; © 5, 
| Beust made chancellor of the empire, 23 June, ,, 
‘sultan visits Vienna. A .27 July—1Aug. ,, 
emperors of Austria and France meet at Salzburg 
18-23 Aug. ,, 
angements for the dividing the financial affairs 
Austria and Hungary, signed SEIS Depth 5, 
Be eee votting marriage and education) in the 
necordat, proposed . s ; : SeSONas 5 
ishops demand the maintenance of the concordat 
28 Sept. ,, 
er from the emperor to cardinal Rausch, de- 
aring for complete liberty of conscience in oppo- 
tion to the concordat; the concordat almost 
inulled by the lower house . : ‘ ee CUt a ns 
veror of Austria and king of Prussia meet at 
8, near Baden-Baden é Woe OFT.L 5) 
veror arrives at Paris, 23 Oct. ; leaves BENOVS |). 55 
lism accepted by the Reichsrath at Vienna 


Wove 5, 
’ Austrian ministry under prince Auersperg 
nstituted . Z 1 SOC. 4 |, 


| marriages bill (annulling clerical jurisdiction 
er them) passed by the upper house, after sharp 
sistance, 21-23 March ; received the emperor's 


sent y “ é : 25 May, 1868 
nan sharp-shooting match, held at Vienna, 
26 July, ,, 
Beust justifies the maintenance of an army of 
9,000, rr Oct. ; is made a count i AR DT alae 
‘inued opposition of the clergy to the government 
Jan. 1869 
frigate Radetsky blown up, about 340 lives lost 
20 Feb. ,, 
crown prince of Prussia visits Vienna ge OC vy, ; 


emperor visits the East ;—at Jerusalem, 10 
Vv. ; present at the opening of the Suez canal 
17 Noy. _,, 
essful insurrection against the conscription in 
imatia, Oct. ; ceased r : ALAIN OWS a5 
Reichsrath opened by the emperor at Vienna 
173,Dec, , 
sterial crisis, Jan.: the Cis-Leithan jrinistyry ; 
igns ; count Potocki, prime minister 
4 April, 1870 
rality in the Franco-Prussian war announced 
18 July, ,, 
concordat with Rome declared to be sus- 
ided in consequence of the promulgation of 
doctrine of papal infallibility WOOO LY.) 
Xeichsrath opened by the emperor; no deputies 
m Bohemia. ’ : : EVE P Us «55 
nsion between the federal and national parties 
29 Sept., Oct. ,, 
teichsrath adjourned ‘ : + 22NOVe #55, 
ninistry support Great Britain in opposing the 
ssian repudiation of the treaty of Paris (see 
ssia) . 4 y 5 . : 2 MNO ess 
‘lan army, 864,869 regulars ; 187,527 landwehr 
Heine: Ge : : - é - ) Dée, 
1ew German empire recognised by the emperor 
Jan. 1871 
issal of Potocki; count Hohenwart, minister 
Feb. 
20 Web. - ,, 
7 April, 
at Vienna, 
4 ; 260July) ,, 
iene.) exhibition at Vienna in 1873, pro- 
ed . Z ; : 5 : = Sept. |, 
ug of emperor with emperor William 6-8 Sept, ; 
ug of x7 provincial diets ; struggle between 
(Slavonian) conservatives and the (German) 
stitutionalists renewed , : - 14 Sept. 
cal crisis: dissension between German and ” 
vonian parties, Oct. ; resignation of the Hohen- 
tministry . * : : 4 - 25 Oct. 
istry formed under baron Kellersperg 4 Noy. 
aation of count Beust, the arch-chancellor: ”” 
th excitement . : 4 ; .  6Nov. 
_Andrassy appointed minister of the imperial 
sehold and of foreign affairs ; Von Beust to be 
assador at London; Lonyay, premier of Hun- 
i ministry . ahaa 13-14 Noy. 


ng of the Reichsrath. : : ; 
1 of adm. Tegethoff, much lamented 
meeting of ‘Old Catholics” 


” 


69 AUSTRIA. 


6 June, 1867 


* 


New Austrian ministry formed by prince Auer- 
sperg . 4 A : i about 25 Nov. 1871 
The Reichsrath opened by the emperor with speech 
announcing political and educational reforms 
28 Dec; 45. 
New constitutional law promulgated, giving the 
emperor power to order new elections of the 
chambers : : : 2 . 13 March, 1872 
Meeting of the emperor with the emperor of Ger- 
many and other sovereigns at Berlin 6-12 Sept. _,, 
Reform bill passed changing the Reichsrath into a 
national representative assembly to March, 1873 
Great international exhibition at Vienna ; opening, 
1 May, ,, 
Financial crisis through overtrading in 1872; 
panic in : ; é 4 é , . May 
Visits to Vienna; the prince of Wales, 28 April; 
the ezar of Russia, 1 June; the shah of Persia, 
30 July ; the king of Italy, 17 Sept. ; the emperor 
of Germany : ; ‘ ; wet ToC, lee 
Elections for the Reichsrath ; 228 constitutional- 
ists ; 125 federals, 30 Oct. ; the Reichsrath opened 
by the emperor, 5 Nov. ; 25th anniversary of the 
emperor’s accession celebrated throughout the 
empire ; amnesty for political offenders . 2 Dec. ,, 
The emperor at St. Petersburg . : 13 Feb. 
Encyclical letter from the pope. condemning the 
new ecclesiastical laws, dated 7 aiareh iy, 
Protest of the Austrian bishops ; adoption by both 
parties of Cavour’s cry, ‘A free church in a free 
state” : i 4 : “ ¢ ATI We 
The empress at the Isle of Wight July-Aug. ,, 
Ofenheim, railway financier connected with Messrs. 
Brassey, after long trial for fraud, acquitted at 
Vienna é : ; : - 27 Feb. 1875 
The emperor warmly received at Venice by the 
king of Italy . z A f : Hes Aprilia. 
Inauguration of the new bed of the Danube by the 
emperor . - 2 ; : A -) 30) May a5 
The czar meets the emperor at Eger +} 28\J une! ¥, 
Death of the ex-emperor Ferdinand . 2g June ,, 
C. de Tisza, president of Hungarian ministry, 20 Oct. ,, 
Deficiency in the budget for 1876 ; revenue about 
37,800,000l. ; expenditure, 40, 300, 0001. <eN OVE es 
Death of cardinal Rauscher, prince bishop of 
Vienna . : : . : . . 24 Nov. 
The czar and the emperor meet at Reichstadt ; 
agree to neutrality in the Servio-Turkish war, 
8 July 1876 
New treaty of commerce with Great Britain, signed 
5 Dec. *: 
Declaration of neutrality in Russo-Turkish war by ; 
Austrian and Hungarian ministers; foreign 
policy to be for ‘‘the interest of the monarchy, 
to the exclusion of all antipathies and sym- 
pathies,” M. de Tisza (Hungarian) 26 June 1877 


Resignation of Austrian ministry, 26 Jan. ; with- 

drawn z : 5 : : = - 5 Feb. 1878 
Prince Auersperg announces disagreement with 
the proposed Russian conditions of peace, 19 Feb. 
Death of archduke Francis Charles, the emperor’s 
father 5 : 3 3 8 March ,, 

The Sphinx ,burnt at sea, near Cape St. Elie, 500 
perish = = : : 8 March ,, 
Resignation of ministry ; withdrawn 6,7 July ,, 

Count Andrassy at the Berlin conference 
13 June—13 July _,, 

Austria to occupy and administer Bosnia and 
Herzegovina, by treaty of Berlin . 13July ,, 

The Austrians enter, and war ensues (see Bosnia) 
2qJuly ,, 

Resignation of Auersperg ministry announced to 
the Reichsrath 3 22 Oct. 3; 


“ 
I 


3? 


Bosnia occupied (except Novi Bazar) Oct 
Baron de Pretis fails to form a ministry . 30 Oct. ,, 
New ministry under Dr. Stremayr 15 Feb. 1879 


Silver wedding of the emperor and empress kept, 
24 April ,, 
Liberal majority at elections - 2. Truly 
Resignation of count Andrassy, the premier; 
ministry formed by count Edw. Taafe, 12 Aug. ; 
baron von Haymerle, foreign minister 22 Aug. ,, 
Bismarck’s visit to Vienna ; warmly received 
_ 21-24 Sept. , 
Reichsrath opened ; the Czech deputies attend 


~ 


8 Oct. 
Andrassy formally resigns; succeeded by baron 


AUSTRIA. 7 


Haymerle as foreign minister and president of 

the council ‘ : A : H 8 Oct. 1879 
Opening of all the diets of the empire . 8 June 1880 
Sudden death of baron Haymerle . + ro OCU, 2881 
The king and queen of Italy warmly received at 


Vienna : , 4 : : i 2o-3T OCtr 8 ., 
Count Kalnoky becomes foreign minister, an- 

nounced . ‘ : ; : : PRET SAN OMe is 
Temporary rupture with Roumania respecting the 

Danube about . 27 DeCs ny 


Insurrection in Herzegovina, &c.; several small 
engagements with Austrians, 16-3: Jan. ; insur- 
gents defeated a : : : 3 4 . 1882 

Provisional government said to have been formed 
by insurgents . A . : about 9 Feb. ,, 

Alleged defeat of insurgents at Glavalicevo and in 
other small engagements : . 16 Feb. et seq. ,, 

Severe conflict at Cettinje; alleged great loss by 
Austrians ; small loss by insurgents . 25 Feb. ,, 

Mahometans sympathise with Christian insurgents 

Hehe. 

Suceessful advance of the Austrians ; capture of 
Dragali announced . : ; 14 Mareh ,, 

Insurgents adopting guerilla warfare about 12 May ,, 

‘New German People’s party” formed, manifesto 
published . : ; : about 29 May ,, 

Fall of a railway bridge over the Drave ; about 27 


soldiers in a train drowned . f conse SeDuse ss 
Insurrection suppressed, announced . 20 Ochi. is; 
Execution of Overdank, a soldier, for attempted 


assassination of emperor. ; “EZOWOGre ty 
6ooth anniversary of the establishment of the 
House of Hapsburg celebrated throughout the 
empire : : : : : A 27, DeG. te, 
Slavonic agitation against Germans and the Mag- 
yars and taxation, see Croatia, Aug.—Sept. ; con- 
ciliatory policy adopted by the government, Sept. 1883 
Marriage of the archduke Rodolph and the princess 
Stephanie of Belgium, 1o May. 1841; birth of 
Princess : : : ; Ae OHS EN 01 Fg, 
Much social disaffection at Vienna ; two detective 
policemen assassinated, Hlubek, Bloch . Jan. 1884 
(Corporal Hermann Stellmacher, assassin of Bloch, 
captured), 25 Jan.,; a great conspiracy sus- 
pected ; law decreed by count Taaffe repressing 
public meetings, the press, trials by jury, &c., 
30 Jan.; many arrested or expelled Jan. 


Another policeman murdered. : ag heros, 
Government measures adopted by the chambers 
Te OD 55 


7oo expelled at Vienna . : . about 15 March ,, 
The crown prince and princess visit Constantinople 
17 April, ef seq. ,, 
Hugo Schenk and Schlossarck executed for murder 
of several servant girls . : ‘ 2 UA DULL as 
Stellmacher executed : . Se ee 
Hans Makart, historical painter, died prow Gc <4 
Grand funeral at Vienna . A : - 6-Ock. 55 
For 1885; estimated revenue 504,800,000 fl. ; _ex- 
penditure 519,800,000 fl... : : : ‘ 
Heavy bank frauds ; suicide of culprits . Sbecaer: 
Prince Adolph Auersperg, statesman, died. 5 Jan. 1885 


(See Germany, Hungary, Vienna, &c.) 
MARGRAVES OF AUSTRIA. 
Leopold I., 928; Albert I, ror8; Ernest, 1056; Leo- 


pold II., 1075 ; Leopold III. , 1096 ; Albert IT. , 1136; Leo- 
pold IV., 1136; Henry IJ., 1142 (made a duke, 1156). 


DUKES. 

1156. Henry II. 

1177. Leopold V. He made prisoner Richard I. of Eng- 
land when returning incognito from the crusade, 
and was compelled to surrender him to the em- 
peror Henry VI. 

1194. Frederic I., the catholic. 

1198. Leopold VL., the glorious. Killed in battle. 

1230. Frederic II., the warlike. Killed in a battle with 
the Hungarians, 15 June, 1246. 

Interregnum. 

1276. Rodolph I. 

282. Albert I. and his brother Rodolph II. Albert 
becomes emperor of Germany, 1298. 

1308. Frederic I. and Leopold I. 

1326, Frederic I. 

1330. Albert II. and Otho, his brother. 

1339. Albert II. 

1358. Rodolph IV. 


AVA. 
1365. Albert III. and Leopold II. or IIL (kille 


Sempach). 
1395. William I. and brothers, and their cousin Alber 
z41r. The same. The provinces divided into the duc 
of Austria and Carinthia, and the count 


yrol. 

1411. Albert V., duke of Austria; obtains Bohemia 
Moravia ; elected king of Hungary and emp 
1437; dies, 1439 ; succeeded by his posthur 
son. 

1439. Ladislaus, who dies childless, 1457. 

1457. The emperor Frederic III. and Albert VI. 

1493. Maximilian I., son of Frederick III. (archd 
emperor ; see Germany. 

EMPERORS. 

1804. Francis I. (late Francis II. of Germany), st 
emperor of Austria only, 11 Aug. 1804 ; resi, 
empire of Germany, 6 Aug. 1806 ; died 2 Mar. - 

1835. Ferdinand, his son, 2 March ; abdicated in fa 
of his nephew (his brother Francis-Charles ha 
renounced his rights), 2 Dec. 1848 ; died 29 J 


1875. 

1848. Francis-Joseph (son of Francis-Charles), bor 
Aug. 1830; succeeded, 2 Dec. 1848; mai 
24 April, 1854, to Elizabeth of Bavaria ; cro} 
king of Hungary, 8 June, 1867. 

[Heir: their son, the archduke Rodolph, born ar . 
1858 ; married to princess Stephanie Clotil 
Belgium, ro May, 1881.] 


AUTHORS. See Copyrights. The Societ 
Authors to maintain copyrights established b 
W. F. Pollock, cardinal Manning, and others, 
Tennyson, president, met 18 Feb., incorpor 
May, 1884. 


AUTO DA FE (Act of faith), the term g 
to the punishment of a heretic, generally bum 
alive, inflicted by the Inquisition (which see). 


AUTOMATON FIGURES (or. 
DROIDES), made to imitate living actions, a 
early invention. Archytas’ flying dove was for 
about 400 B.c. Friar Bacon is said to have ma 
brazen head which spoke, a.p. 1264.  Albe 
Magnus spent thirty years in making another. 
coach and two horses, with a footman, a pag 
lady inside, were made by Camus for Louis } 
when a child; the horses and figures moved 
turally, variously, and perfectly, 1649. Vaucan 
in 1738, made an artificial duck, which perfor 
many functions of a real one—eating, drink 
and quacking; and he also made a flute-pla 
The writing automaton, exhibited in 1769, w 
pentagraph worked by a confederate out of si 
The automaton chess-player, exhibited the 
year, was also worked by a hidden person; 
was the ‘‘invisible girl,’”? 1800. Maelzel ma 
trumpeter about 1809. Early in this century, an 
tomaton was exhibited in London which pronow 
several sentences with tolerable distinctness. 
‘anthropoglossus,” an alleged talking-mach 
exhibited at St. James’s hall, London, July 1 
was proved to be a gross imposition. ‘The é: 
bition of the talking-machine of professor F: 
of Vienna, in London, began 27 Aug. 1870, at 
Palais Royal, Argyll-street, W. The autom 
chess-player at the Crystal Palace, 1873. Psy 
an automaton card-player, invented by J. N. J 
kelyne and John Algernon Clarke, exhibited 
London, Jan. 1875. Anautomaton hare was hut 
at Hendon, near London, 9 Sept. 1876. 


AUTOTYPOGRAPHY, a process of | 


ducing a metal plate from drawings, made kn 
by Mr. Wallis, in April, 1863; it resembled Vat: 
printing (which see). 


AUXERRE DECLARATION, see Hi 
May, 1866. 


" 
7 : 


AVA in 1822 became the capital of the Burn 


J 
fen 
ay sf 


AVARS. 71 AZTECS. 


npire, it is said, for the third time. A British 
nbassy was received here in Sept. 1855. 


AVARS, barbarians who ravaged Pannonia, 
id annoyed the eastern empire in the 6th and fs 
nturies, subdued by Charlemagne about 799, after 
| eight years’ war. 


AVEBURY, or AspurRyY (Wiltshire). Here 
e the remains of the largest so-called Druidical 
rk in this country. They have been surveyed 
Aubrey, 1648; Dr. Stukeley, 1720; and sir R. C. 
oare, in 1812, and by others. Much information 
ay be obtained from a Me ““ Abury ” (1743). 
d Hoare’s ‘‘ Ancient Wiltshire ’”’ fies - 21), 
any theories have been put forth, but the object 
these remains is still unknown. They are con- 
ered to have been set up during the “ stone age,”’ 
.. When weapons and implements were mainly 
med of that material. 


AVEIN, or AVAINE (Luxemburg, Belgium). 
re the French and Dutch defeated the Spaniards, 
May, 1635. 


“AVE MARIA!” the salutation of the 
gel Gabriel to the Virgin (Luke i. 28), was made 
ormula of devotion by pope John XXI. about 
26. In the beginning of the 15th century Vin- 
itius Ferrerius used it before his discourses. 
ngham. 


AVENIN. The stimulating qualities of this 
rogenous alkaloid in oats were discovered by Mr. 
nson in 1882, 


AVENUE THEATRE, Thames Embank- 
nt, opened 11 March, 1882. 


AVIGNON, a city, S. E. France, ceded by 
ilip III. to the pope in 1273. The papal seat 
s removed by Clement V. to Avignon, in 1309. 
1348 Clement VI. purchased the sovereignty from 
1e, countess of Provence and queen of Naples. 
a the French, wearied of the schism, ex- 
led Benedict XIII., and Avignon ceased to be 
Seat of the papacy. Here were held nine 
neils (1080-1457). Avignon was seized and re- 
red several times by the French kings; the last 
e restored, 1773. It was claimed by the national 
sembly, 1791, and was confirmed to France by 
congress of sovereigns in 1815. In Oct. 1791, 
rible massacres took place here. See Popes, 
9-94. 

\XE, WEDGE, LEVER, and various tools 
vommon use, are said to have been invented by 
dalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is 
‘ibed the invention of masts and sails for ships, 
0 B.C. Many tools are represented on the 
yptian monuments. } 


\XUM, or AUXUME, a town in Abyssinia 
| to have been the capital of a kingdom whose 
ple were converted to Christianity by Frumen- 
‘about 330, and were allies of J ustinian, 533. 


.YACUCHO (Peru). Here the Peruvians 
lly achieved their independence by defeating 
Spaniards, 9 Dec, 1824. 


-Y DE, or Arne, the tax paid by the vassal to 
chief lord upon urgent occasions. In France 
England an aide was due for knighting the 
’s eldest son. One was demanded by Philip 
Fair, 1313. The aide due upon the birth of a 
ce, ordained by the statute of Westminster 
ward I.) 1285, was not to be levied until he 
fifteen years of age, for the ease of the subject. 
aide for the marriage of the king’s eldest 
shter could not be demanded in this country 


until her seventh year. In feudal tenures there 
was an ade for ransoming the chief lord; so when 
our Richard I. was kept a prisoner by the emperor 
of Germany, an aide of 20s., to redeem him, was 
enforced upon every knight’s fee; see Benevolence. 


AYLESBURY, Buckinghamshire, was reduced 
by the West Saxons in 571. St. O’Syth, beheaded 
y the pagans in Essex, was buried there, 600. 

illiam the conqueror invested his favourites with 
some of its lands, under the tenure of providing 
‘* straw for his bed-chambers; three eels for his use 
in winter; and in summer, straw, rushes, and two 
green geese thrice every year.’’ Incorporated by 
charter in 1554. 


AYLESFORD (Kent). Here, it is said, the 


Britons were victorious over the Saxon invaders, 
455, and Horsa was killed. 


AYR, capital of Ayrshire, S. W. Scotland: char- 
tered and endowed by William the Lion, 12th 
century; fortified by Oliver Cromwell.—By a sud- 
den fire at Templeton’s carpet works, 29° persons 
perished, 16 June, 1876. 


AZINCOUR, see Agincourt. 
AZOFF, SEA orf, the Palus Meotis of the 


ancients, communicates by the strait of Yeni- 
kalé (the Bosporus Cimmerius) with the Black 
Sea, and is entirely surrounded by Russian terri- 
tory; Taganrog and Kertch being the principal 
places. An expedition, composed of British, French, 
and Turkish troops, commanded by sir G. Brown, 
arrived at Kertch, 24 May, 1855, when the Russians 
retired, after blowing up the fortifications. On the 
25th the allies marched upon Yenikalé, which also 
offered no resistance. On the same evening the 
allied fleet entered the Sea of Azoff, and in a few 
days completed their occupation of it, after captur- 
ing a large number of merchant vessels, &e. An 
immense amount of stores was destroyed by the 
Russians to prevent them falling into the hands of 
the allies. 


AZORKS, or WESTERN ISLEs (N. Atlantic), 
belonging to Portugal, the supposed site of the 
ancient Atlantis, are said to have been discovered 
in the 15th century by Vanderberg of Bruges, who 
was driven on their coasts by the weather. Cabral, 
sent by the Portuguese court, fellin with St. Mary’s 
in 1432, and in 1457 they were all discovered and 
named Azores from the number of goshawks found 
on them. They were given by Alfonso VY. to the 
duchess of Burgundy in 1466, and colonised by 
Flemings. They were subject to Spain 1580-160. 
The isle Terceira, during the usurpation of dom 
Miguel, declared for Donna Maria, 1829, and a 
government was established at the capital Angra, 
1830-33. A volcano at St. George’s destroyed the 
town of Ursulina, May, 1808; and in 1811 a volcano 
appeared near St. Michael’s, in the sea, where the 
water was eighty fathoms deep; an island then 
formed gradually disappeared. A destructive earth- 
quake lasting 12 days, happened in St. Michael’s, 
I5gI. 


AZOTE, the name given by French chemists 
to nitrogen (which see). 


AZOTUS, see Ashdod. 


AZTECS, the ruling tribe in Mexico at the time 
of the Spanish invasion (1519). In June, 1853, two 
pretended Aztec children were exhibited in London. 
They were considered by professor Owen to be 
merely South American dwarfs. They were married 
in London, 1 April, 1867, and exhibited for some 
time after. 


B. 


BAAL. 


BACH SOCIETY. 


BAAL (Lord), the male deity of the Phoenician 
nations, frequently worshipped by the Israelites, 
especially by Ahab, 918 B.c. His priests and 
votaries were massacred by Jehu, and his temple 
defiled, 884 B.c. 


BAALBEC, HELIoPoris (both meaning 
“City of the Sun’’), an ancient city of Syria, of 
which magnificent ruins remain, visited by Wood 
(in 1751), and others. Its origin is lost in antiquity. 
Here Septimius Severus built.a temple to the sun, 
200. The city was sacked by the Moslems, 748, and 
by Timour Beg, 1400. 


BABA WALI. 
1880; and Mazra. 


BABBAGE, see Calculating Machines. 


BABBICOMBE MURDER, see Trials, 
Feb. 1885. 


BABEL, Tower of, built by Noah’s posterity, 
2247 B.C. (Genesis, ch. xi.) The magnificent 
temple of Belus, asserted to have been originally 
this tower, is said to have had lofty spires, and 
many statues of gold, one of them forty feet high. 
In the upper part of this temple was the tomb of 
the founder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred scrip- 
tures), who was deified after death. Blair. The 
Birs Nimroud, examined by Rich, Layard, and 
others, is considered by some persons to be the 
remains of the tower of Babel. 


BABEUF’S CONSPIRACY, see Agrarian 

aw. 

BABY-FARMING, see Infanticide. 

BABY LONTIA,* an Asiatic empire (see Assy- 
rea), founded by Belus, supposed to be the Nimrod of 


Holy Writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 
2245 B.c. Lenglet.t Ninus of Assyria seized on 


See Afghanistan, 1 Sept. 


* The city of Babylon was at one time the most magni- 
ficent in the world. The Hanging Gardens are described 
as having been of a square form, and in terraces one 
above another until they rose as high as the walls of the 
city, the ascent being from terrace to terrace by steps. 
The whole pile was sustained by vast arches raised on 
other arches ; and on the top were flat stones closely 
cemented together with plaster of bitumen, and that 
covered with sheets of lead, upon which lay the mould 
of the garden, where there were large trees, shrubs, and 
flowers, with various sorts of vegetables. There were 
five of these gardens, each containing about four English 
acres, and disposed in the form of an amphitheatre. 
Strabo ; Diodorus. Pliny said that in his time it was 
but a desolate wilderness. Mr. Rich visited the ruins in 
1811, and sir R. Ker Porter in 1818. The laborious re- 
searches of Mr. Layard, sir H. Rawlinson, M. Botta, and 
others, and the interesting relics excavated and brought 
to this country between the years 1849 and 1855, have 
caused very much attention to be given to the history of 
Babylon. Many of the inscriptions in the cuneiform or 
wedge-like character have been translated, principally by 
col. (now sir Henry) Rawlinson, and published in the 
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. In the spring of 
1855, he returned to England, bringing with him many 
yalnable relics, drawings, &c., which are now in the 
- British Museum. He gave discourses on the subject at 
the Royal Institution, London, in 1851, 1855, and 1865. 
The Rey. A. Sayce lectured on Babylonian literature at 
the same place in 1877. 

t According to the earliest existing history the coun- 
try was divided between two races, the Sumir (Turanian), 
the probable inventors of cuneiform writing ; and the 
Accad (Semitic), which became predominant. 


Babylon, and established what was properly 
Assyrian empire, by uniting the two sovereign 
2059 B.C. 2233 Ci. The second empire of Bab: 
commenced about 747 B.C. 


Earliest astronomical observations at Babylon, 
B.C. 2234, [2230, H. 2233, 
Nabonassar governs . . . A 
Merodach Baladan king, 721 ; his embassy to Heze- 
kiah of Judah about 4 3 4 su 
Nebuchadnezzar invades Syria, 606; Judea, 605; 
defeats Pharaoh Necho, and annihilates the Egyp- 
tian power in Asia . : : : ; é F 
He returns to Babylon with the spoils of Jerusalem, 
Blair ; Lenglet . 5 2 f fF 4 - 
Daniel interprets the king’s dream of the golden- 
headed image. Daniel ii. j ; : 
Nebuchadnezzar goes a third time against Jerusa- 
lem, takes it and destroys the temple. Blair; 
Usher, 589 to 587; captures Tyre . ; . 
The golden image set up, and Shadrach, Meshach, 
and Abed-nego thrown into the furnace for refus- 
ing to worship it. Daniel iii. - ; +a 
Daniel interprets the king’s second dream, and 
Nebuchadnezzar is driven from among men. 
Daniel iv. - % : ; > $ E 
The king recovers his reason and his throne, 562; 
dies . , : . : 2 5 Pay 
Evil Merodach, 561; Neriglissar, king . : H 
Labynetus, 556; Nabonadius, 551 ; Belshazzar king 
Babylon taken by the Medes and Persians, under 
Cyrus, and Belshazzar slain . : : oes 
Daniel. thrown into the lions’ den. Daniel vi. ; 
Babylon revolts, and is taken by Darius . oa 
Taken by Alexander, 331 ; he dies here : F 
Seleucus Nicator, who died 280 B.c., transfers the 
seat of government to Seleucia, and Babylon is 
deserted. ; 


BABYNGTON’S CONSPIRACY, te 
sassinate queen Elizabeth, and make Man 
Scotland queen, was devised by John Sava 
soldier of Philip of Spain, and approved by 
Gifford and John Ballard, catholic priests. Antl 
Babyngton and others joined in the scheme. 1 
were betrayed by Pooley, a spy, and fourteen 1 
executed, 20, 21 Sept. 1586. 


BABYSM, 2a new sect in Persia, founde 
1843 by Mirza Ali Mahomed, an _ enthusiast 
Shiraz. He termed himself the ‘‘Bab,”’ or “‘ga 
of knowledge, and, giving a new exposition of 
Koran, claimed to be the incarnate Holy Sp 
The destruction of himself and the greater nun 
of his followers was due to Hossein, one of 
disciples, combining political and warlike prinei 
with their spiritual dogmas. The sect was toler 
by the shah Mohammed, but nearly extermin. 
by his successor in 1848-9. The Bab him 
was executed 15 July, 1849. The head of 
sect, still numerous, Beheyah Allah, was_ 
to be well conversant with the Bible, and 

ropound a doctrine based on it, termed ‘Bal 
uk,” gate of truth. 


BACCHANALIA (games in honou 
Bacchus) arose in Egypt, and were brought | 
Greece by Melampos, and called Dionysia, al 
1415 B.c. Diodorus. In Rome the Bacchan 
were suppressed, 186 B.c. The priests of Bacc 
were called Bacchanals. 


BACCON or BACON, see Orleans. 


BACH SOCIETY, instituted in London 
1849, for the collection of the works of J. 8. Ba 


“Bi 


: BACHELORS. 


73 BAHAMA ISLES. 


d the promotion of their public performance. 
ne original committee included W. Sterndale 
nnett, Sir G. Smart, J. Hullah, C. Potter, and 
her eminent musicians. The society was dis- 
lved, 21 March, 1870, and the music given up to 
e Royal Academy of Music. 


BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently 
posed fines on unmarried men; and men of full 
e were obliged to marry. ‘The Spartan women 
certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged 
*m round their altars, and inflicted on them 
rious marks of infamy and disgrace. Vossius. 
‘ax laid upon bachelors in England, twenty-five 
ars of age (varying from 12/. 10s. for a duke, to Is, 
‘a common person), lasted from 1695 to 1706. 
chelors (Romanist priests excepted) were sub- 
ted to an extra tax on their male and female 
vants in 1785. A grand bali given by 84 bache- 
s at Kensington House; the prince and princess 
Wales present, 22 July 1880. 


BACKGAMMON. Palamedes of Greece is the 
uted inventor of this game, about 1224 B.c. It 
said to have been invented in Wales before its 
quest. Henry. 


BACONIAN PHILOSOPHY, propounded 
Francis Bacon, specially in his “ Novum Orga- 
1,’ published in 1620. Its principles are Utility 
| Progress ; and its objects the alleviation of the 
ferings and promotion of the comforts of man- 
d, Macaulay, 1837. : 


3ACTERIA, see Animaleules. 


3ACTRIANA, a province in Asia, was subju- 
ed by Cyrus and formed part of the Persian 
pire, when conquered by Alexander, 330 B.c. 
yut 254 B.c., Theodotus or Diodotus, a Greek, 
ew off the yoke of the Seleucide, and became 
g. ueratides I. reigned prosperously about 
B.C., and Menander about 126 8.c. The Greek 
gdom appears to have been broken up by the 
iption of the Scythians shortly after. 


SADAJOZ (S.W. Spain). An important barrier 
ress, surrendered to the French, under Soult, 
March, 1811; invested by the British, under 
. Wellington, on 16 March, 1812, and stormed 
taken on 6 April following. The French re- 
tedin haste. A short military insurrection, 5 
6 Aug. 1883. 


\ADDESDOWN HILL, or Mount Badon, 
+ Bath, where Bede says the Britons defeated 
Saxons in 493; others say in 511 or 520. 


‘ADEN (S. W. Germany). The house of 
en is descended from Hermann, regarded as the 
_ Margrave (1052), son of Berthold I., duke of 
tingen; but Hermann II. assumed the title, 
. 1130. From Christopher, who died 1 527, pro- 
_ed the branches Baden-Baden and Baden-Dour- 
_» united in1771. Baden is a hereditary con- 
(tional monarchy by charter, 26 May, 1818; it 
od the German empire by treaty, 15 Nov. 1870. 
lation, 1 Dec. 1871, 1,461,562; Dec. 1875, 
7,179. 
5 William, margrave of Baden-Baden, a great 
reral, born 1665 ; sallied out from Vienna and 
eated the Turks, 1683 ; died 1707. 
les William, margrave of Baden-Dourlach, born 
9, died 1746 ; succeeded by his son, 
es Frederic, born 1728 ; margrave of Baden- 
-urlach, 1738; acquired Baden-Baden, 1771, 
de grand-duke by Napoleon, 1806. 
y of Baden :— Landau ceded to France, 7 Sept. 
a made a grand-duchy, with enlarged terri- 
LOS Meme ts : ak : {ee Nay <?, 
)resentative constitution granted by charter, 
18 Aug. 1818 


1714 
1806 


Republican agitation during 1848 
Insurrection ; joined by the free city Rastatt ; the 
grand-duke flees. ; : : vt 1) May, 2849 
The Prussians enter Baden, 15 June ; defeat the in- 
surgents commanded by Mierolawski; Rastatt 
surrenders, 23 July; the grand-duke re-enters 
Carlsruhe . y , 2 « 18 Aug. 4, 
Arrests for political offences . é : g July, 1857 
Concordat with the pope signed . .28 June, 1859 
Greatly opposed by the chambers ; annulled by the 
grand-duke by a manifesto, securing autonomy to 
the Catholic and Protestant churches ; signed 
7 April, 
Interview at Baden-Baden of the emperor Napo- 
leon III., the prince regent of Prussia, and the 
German kings and princes. : . 16 June, 
The new ecclesiastical law (adopted by the cham- 
bers) promulgated. : ; F «, LO. OC: 
Opposition of the archbishop of Friburg and the 
clerical party ; F : : ? - + 1860-65 
Disputes in the German diet; the grand-duke 
vainly endeavours to obtain a reconciliation ; and 
remains neutral A é : : June, 1866 
Baden joins the Zollverein (which see) . . July, 1867 
Meeting of the chambers ; liberal measures pro- 
mised, 24 Sept. ; universal suffrage adopted by 
the second chamber . : ‘ : . 29 Oct. 1869 
Civil marriage made obligatory ; 3 +27 NOV: 
Baden joins Prussia in the war with France, about 
20 July, 1870 
Gambling houses suppressed ; finally closed 31 Oct. 1872 


GRAND-DUKES. 


1860 


” 


” 


2» 


1806. Charles Frederic; dies 1811; succeeded by his 
grandson, 

1811. Charles Louis Frederic, who died without issue in 
1818 ; succeeded by his uncle, 

1818. Louis William, died without issue in 1830; suc- 
ceeded by his brother, 

1830. Leopold, died in 1852; succeeded by his second 
son (the first being imbecile), 

1852. Frederic (born 9 Sept. 1826), regent 24 April, 1852; 
declared grand-duke, 5 Sept. 1856; becomes ill, 
his son appointed regent, 11 Noy. 188r. 

Heir: his son Frederic William, born 9 July, 1857. 


BAFFIN’S BAY (N. America), discovered by 
William Baffin, an Englishman, 1616. The extent 
of this discovery was much doubted, until the 
expeditions of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin 
was substantially accurate in his statement. Parry 
entered Lancaster Sound, and discovered the islands 
known by his name, in 1818; see North-West 
Passage. 


BAGDAD, in Asiatic Turkey, built by Al 
Mansour, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, 
about 762. Taken by the Tartars, and a period 
put to the Saracen rule, 1258. Often taken by the 
Persians, and retaken by the Turks, with great 
slaughter: the latter have held it since 1638. 


BAGPIPEH, an ancient Greck and Roman in- 
strument. On a piece of ancient Grecian sculp- 
ture, now in Rome, a bagpiper is represented 
dressed like a modern highlander. Nero is said 
to have played upon a bagpipe, 51. Our highland 
regiments retain their pipers. Patrick Bohan, the 
celebrated Irish piper, died 9 April, 1884. 


BAHAMA ISLES (N. America) were the 
first points of discovery by Columbus. San Sal- 
vador was seen by him on the night of 11 Oct. 1492. 
New Providence was settled by the English in 1629. 
They were expelled by the Spaniards, 1641; re- 
turned, 1666; again expelled in 1703. The isles 
were formally ceded to the English in 1783. Popu- 
lation in 1861, 33;287 5 in 1867, about 38,000; in 
1871, 39,162; in 1881, 43,521. The Bahamas profited 
by blockade-running during the American civil war, 
1862-5. Governors, William Rawson, 1864; sir James 
Walker, 1868; John Pope Hennessy, 1871 : Wm. 
Robinson, 1874; Thos. F. Callaghan, 1879; Charles 
Cameron Lees, 5 Oct. 1881; H. A. Blake, Jan. 1884. 


: . 


BAHAR. 


BAHAR (N. India), a province (conquered by 
Baber in 1530), with Bengal and Orissa, a princely 
dominion, became subject to the English East India 
company in 1765 by the treaty of Allahabad for a 
quit-rent of about 300,000/. 


BAIL. By ancient common law, before and 
since the conquest, all felonies were bailable, till 
murder was excepted by statute; and by the 
3 Edward I. (1275) the power of bailing in trea- 
son, and in divers instances of felony, was taken 
away. Bail was further regulated in later reigns. 
It is now accepted in all cases, except felony ; and 
where a magistrate refuses bail, it may be granted 
by ajudge. Acts respecting bail passed 1826 and 
1652. 

BAILIFF, or SHERIFF, said to be of Saxon 
origin. London had its shire-reve prior to the con- 
quest, and this officer was generally appointed for 
counties in England in 1079. Hen. Cornehill and 
Rich. Reynere were appointed bailiffs or sheriffs in 
London in 1189. Stow. Sheriffs were appointed in 
Dublin under the name of bailiffs, in 1308; and the 
name was changed to sheriff in 1548. There are 
still places where the chief magistrate is called 
bailiff, as the high bailiff of Westminster. Bwm- 
bailiff is a corruption of bound- bailiff, every bailiff 
being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his 
good behaviour. Blackstone. 


BAIRAM, or BEIRAM, Mahometan festivals. 
The Little Bairam, follows the fast of Ramadan 
(which see); the Great Bairam in 1885, begins on 
14 July. 

BAIZE, a species of coarse woollen manufac- 
ture, was brought into England by some Flemish 
or Dutch emigrants who settled at Colchester, in 
Essex, and had privileges granted them by parlia- 
ment in 1660. The trade was under the control of 
a corporation called the governors of the Dutch 
baize-hall, who examined the cloth previous to sale. 
Anderson. 


BAKER AND BAKEHOUSES; see Bread. 


BAKERIAN LECTURES, Royal society, 
originated in a bequest of 100/. by Henry Baker, 
F.R.S., the interest of which was to be given to 
one of the fellows, for a scientific discourse to be 
delivered annually. Peter Woulfe gave the first 
lecture in 1765. Latterly it has been the custom 
to nominate as the lecture a paper written by one 
of the fellows. Davy, Faraday, Tyndall, and other 
eminent men have given the lecture. 


BAKU. See under Petroleum. 


BALAKLAVA, a small town in the Crimea, 
with a fine harbour, 10 miles S. E. from Sebastopol. 
After the battle of the Alma, the allies advanced 
upon this place, 26 Sept. 1854. 


Battle of Balaklava :—About 12,000 Russians, com- 
manded by general Liprandi, attacked and took 
some redoubts in the vicinity, which had been 
entrusted to about 250 Turks. They next as- 
saulted the English, by whom they were compel- 
led to retire, mainly through the charge of the 
heavy cavalry, led by brigadier Scarlett, under 
the orders of lord Lucan. After this, from an 
unfortunate misconception of lord Raglan’s order, 
lord Lucan ordered lord Cardigan, with the light 
cavalry, to charge the Russian army, which had 
reformed on its own ground with its artillery in 
front. The order was most gallantly obeyed, and 
great havoc was made on the enemy ; but of 670 
British horsemen, only 198 returned. (Termed 
by Tennyson ‘‘ The Charge of the Six Hundred.”) 
The infantry engaged were termed a “‘thin red 


line”. é : : ‘ ; : - 25 Oct. 1854 
A banquet was given to the survivors at the Alex- 
andra Palace ‘ . ° . ° 25 Oct. 1875 


74 


BALLARAT. 


A sortie from the garrison of Sebastopol led to 
desperate engagement here, in which the Russian 
were vigorously repulsed, with the loss of 200 
men killed and wounded ; the allies losing abou 
600 ‘ x A ; . A . 22 Mare} 

The electric telegraph between London and Bal: 
klava completed : : : F - Apri 

A railway between Balaklava and the trenche 
completed . . : - . Jun 


BALANCE oF Power, to assure the 
pendency and integrity of states, and contr 
ambition of sovereigns; a principle said te 
been first laid down by the Italian politia 
the 15th century, on the invasion of Charles 
of France, 1494. tobertson. It was recogni 
the treaty of Miinster, 24 Oct. 1648. The an 
ments for the balance of power in Europe m: 
1815, without the consent of the people « 
countries concerned, have been nearly all set 
since 1830. 


BALAWAT,’see Nineveh. 
BALDACHIN, or BALDACHINO, mor 


perly czborium (which see), a canopy placed oy 
altar in some ancient churches; the practic 
ginning about 1130, was introduced into En 
1279. The proposal to erect one in St. Bar 
church, Pimlico, was opposed in the con: 
court, Aug. 1873. The trial took place 23, 2 
Dr. Tristram decided against the erection \ 
baldachin, 15 Dec. 1873. 


BALEARIC ISLANDS, in the M 
ranean, called by the Greeks Balearides, a 
the Romans Baleares, from the dexterity « 
inhabitants at slinging: they include M:z 
Minorca, Ivica, Formentera, Cabrera, Cor 
and other islets. ‘They were conquered | 
Romans, 123 B.c.: by the Vandals, about a. 
and formed part of Charlemagne’s empi 
799. Conquered by the Moors about 1005 
held by them till about 1286, when they 
annexed by Arragon ; see Majorca and Minoi 


BALHAM MYSTERY, see Bravo. 
BALIZE, see Honduras. 
BALKANS, the ancient Hemus, a rai 


mountains extending from the Adriatic t 
Euxine. The passage, deemed impracticabl 
completed by the Russians under Diebitsch, ¢ 
the Russian and Turkish war, 26 July, 1829 
armistice was the consequence; and a tre: 
peace was signed at Adrianople, 14 Sept. follo 
The Balkans were crossed by the Russians 
Gourko, 13 July, 1877, see Russo- Turkish 
IT. By the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 187% 
Balkans became the frontiers of the Sultan’s. 
pean dominions. 


BALLADS may be traced in the Britishh 
to the Anglo-Saxons. Turner. Adhelme, wh 
709, is mentioned as the first who introduced b: 
into England. ‘‘The harp was sent round 
those might sing who could.”? Bede. Alfred 
ballads. Malmesbury. Canute composed 
Turner. Minstrels were protected by a char 
Edward IV.; but by a statute of Elizabeth 
were made punishable among rogues and 
bonds, and sturdy beggars. Viner. Fletch 
Saltoun (died 1716) in a letter to Montros 
pressed his opinion that making ballads was 
important than law-making. The sea-balla 
Dibdin were very popular in the French war; h 
20 Jan. 1833. Mr. John Boosey’s “ Ballad 
certs,’ St. James’s Hall, began 1866. 


BALLARAT, see Australia, 1851. 


BALLETS. 


BALLETS began through the meretricious taste 
the Italian courts. One performed at the inter- 
ew between our Henry VIII. and Francis I. of 
‘ance in the Field of the Cloth of Gold, at Ardres, 
20. Guicciardini. Ballets became popular in 
‘ance, and Louis XIV. bore a part in one, 1664. 
iey were introduced here with operas early in the 
th century. 
BALLINAMUCK, Longford. Here, on 8 Sept. 
98, the Irish rebels and their French auxiliaries 
ire defeated and captured. 


BALLOONS.* A just idea of the principle of 


e construction of balloons was formed by Albert 
Saxony, an Augustine monk in the 14th century, 
d adopted by a Portuguese Jesuit, Francesco 
mdoza, who died at Lyons in 1626. The idea is 
io attributed to Bartolomeo de Guzmao, who died 
1724. The principles of aéronautics include :— 
the power of a balloon to rise in the air; 2, the 
locity of its ascent; and 3, the stability of its 
spension at any given height. The application 
sails and rudders has been duly considered, and 
iged to be futile; but in 1872 Helmholtz thought 
»y might be steered, if moving slowly. 
adents to the voyagers have been estimated at 
T 3 per cent. 


preyll, Mr. James Glaisher, sir Charles Bright, 
1 others, 12 Jan. 1866. 


; . . . 

weis Lana, a Jesuit, proposed to navigate the 
ir by means of a boat raised by four hollow balls 
1ade of thin copper, from which the air had 
‘een exhausted . : , é ; f i 
‘eph Galien suggested the filling a bag with the 
ne diffuse air of the upper regions of the atmo- 


phere : . F 5 ; : ; Waesk £755 
ary Cavendish discovered that hydrogen gas is 
08 times lighter than common air 1766 


/l soon after Black of Edinburgh filled a bag 
‘ith hydrogen, which rose to the ceiling of the 
Jom . p é : : é . c ee 5707 
allo filled soap bubbles with hydrogen : 7 1782 
eph Montgolfier made a silken bag ascend with 
sated air (first fire balloon) . : : INOVA Lys: 
sph and Stephen Montgolfier ascend and descend 
.tfely by means of a fire balloon at Annonay, for 
hich they received many honours 5 June, 
t ascent in a balloon filled with hydrogen, at 
‘aris, by MM. Robert and Charles “27 Aug: '-,, 
ph Montgolfier ascends in a balloon inflated 
-ith smoke of burnt straw and wool 1g Sept. ,, 
_t aérial voyage in a fire balloon—Pilatre de 
ozier and the marquis d’Arlandes BrUNOVs 5; 
md ascent of Charles in a hydrogen balloon to 
“e height of 9770 feet. : : iTWec: 
' Tytler ascended in a Montgolfier balloon at 
‘linburgh =. $ : p ; . 27 Aug. 
»mts become numerous: Andreani, 25 Feb.; 
lanchard, 2 March; Guyton de Morveau, the 
emist, 25 April and 12 June; Fleurant and 
‘adame Thible (the first female aéronaut), 
) June; the duke of Chartres (Philip Egalite) 


’ to Sept. ,, 
first ascent in England, made by Vincent Lu- 
rdi, at Moorfields, London 5 mept. 5, 


entenary: three balloons ascend at same place, 
Japt. 1884.] 
chard and Jeffries ascend at Dover; cross the 
yannel; alight near Calais . : - 7dJan. 1785 
,irst ascent in Ireland, from Ranelagh gardens, 
-blin : : s H é ‘ MLE i etiv ol og 
2x and Romain killed in their descent near 
ulogne ; the balloon took fire . HS June, ,, 
chutes constructed and used by Blanchard, 
TNO Bae 
srin’s narrow escape when descending in one 
.uondon . s 2 ; s . 2S8ept. 1802 
Astra Castra ; Experiments and Adventures in the 
sphere ; by Hatton Turnor,” a copious work, ap- 
) din 1865. . ; ; 


75 


Fatal 


The Aéronautical Society of Great 
itain, founded with the object of fostering and 
reloping aéronautics and aérology, by the duke 


1670 


BALLOONS. 


Sadler, who made many previous expeditions in 
England, fell into the sea, near Holyhead, but 
was taken up ; / : : ; 9 Oct. 

Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night ; 
the balloon, being surrounded by fireworks, took 
fire, and she was precipitated to the ground and 
killed . 8 ; ; : ’ : . 6July, 

Mr. Charles Green’s first ascent ; (he introduced coal 


gas in ballooning) . . : : . IgJuly, 
Lieut. Harris killed in a balloon descent 25 May, 


Sadler, jun., killed, falling from a balloon s : 
The great Nassau balloon, which had for some time 
previously been exhibited to the inhabitants of 
London in repeated ascents from Vauxhall gar- 
dens, started from that place on an experimental 
voyage, having three individuals in the car, and 
after having been eighteen hours in the air 
descended at Weilburg, in the duchy of Nassau, 
7 Nov. 
Mr. Cocking ascended from Vauxhall to try his 
parachute; in its descent from the balloon it 
collapsed, and he was thrown out and killed, 
24 July, 
An Italian aéronaut ascended from Copenhagen, 
in Denmark ; his corpse was subsequently found 
on the sea-shore in a contiguous island, dashed to 
pieces p : , : : ; . 14 Sept. 
J. B. Lassie’s model of an “ aérial ship,” in which 
the screw was used, was submitted to the academy 
of sciences at Paris, 1859; and exhibited at Wash- 
ington, U.S. . ; : , ¢ ; F ; 
Mr. Wise and three others ascended from St. Louis 
(after travelling 1150 miles they descended in 
Jefferson county, New York, nearly dead) 
23 June, 
Nadar’s great balloon (largest ever made) when fully 
inflated contained 215,363 cubic feet of gas; the 
car, a cottage in wicker work, raised 35 soldiers 
at Paris; Nadar hoped by means of a screw to 
steer a balloon in the heavens; his first ascent, 
with 14 persons, successful 4 Oct. 
His second ascent; voyagers injured; saved by 
presence of mind of M. Jules Godard; descend 


at Nieuburg, Hanover é : ; 12 Oct. 
Nadar and his balloon at the Crystal Palace, 
‘ Sydenham : : Noy. 


Society for promoting aérial navigation formed 
at M. Nadar’s, at Paris; president, M. Barral, 
15 Jan. 
Godard’s great Montgolfier or fire balloon ascends, 
28 July and 3 Aug. 
Ascent of Nadar and others in his great balloon at 
Brussels ; ; 2 : p . 26 Sept. 
Mr. Coxwell ascends from Belfast in a new balloon; 
several persons are injured by the balloon be- 
coming uncontrollable; it escapes . 3July, 
Ascent of Nadar in his Géant balloon, Paris, 
June 23, 
Mr. Coxwell said to have made 550 successful 
ascents . F A ‘ 3 hs up to April, 
An aérial screw machine (helicopteric) suggested, 
in Paris, 1863; described by Dr. J. Bell Petti- 
grew, in London, at the Royal Institution, 
22 March, 
Mr. Hodsman crossed the Channel from Dublin, 
and descended in Westmoreland 22 April, 
A great balloon exhibited at Ashburnham-park, 
London, escaped, and was captured at Bouldon, 
Bucks. 2 F ‘ é a : 25 May, 
Charles Green, aéronaut, said to have made about 
600 ascents, died aged 84 : : .. 27. Mar. 
Dupuy de Lome at Vincennes ascended with his 
“navigable” balloon, with 13 persons; experi- 
ment reported to be successful 2 Feb. 
Professor Wise proposed to cross the Atlantie from 
New York to Liverpool in a balloon, roo feet in 
diameter, rro feet perpendicular, with a supple- 
mentary balloon 36 feet in diameter; the two 
giving a lifting power of 15,900lbs., a carrying 
power of o,500lbs., and disposable ballast 
7,500 lbs., July; the balloon was reported in- 
adequate, Sept. ; a smaller balloon started (with 
a life-boat) 9.19 A.M., 6 Oct., and descended dur- 
ing a storm over Connecticut ; the men narrowly 
escaped. ‘ f ‘ 3 , 7 Oct. 
Vincent de Groof, a Belgian (named the “flying 
man”), constructed a parachute to imitate the 


1812 


1819 


1821 
1824 
1825 


1836 


1837 


1851 


1859 


7 


1863 


3 


1869 


1870 


1871 


1873 


BALLOONS. 


flight of a bird; he brought it to London ; as- 
cended from Cremorne-gardens, and descended 
from a height between 300 and 400 feet in Essex, 
29 June; at his next attempt, the parachute, 
either detached by himself or by accident, was 
disarranged, and he was killed by falling, 9 July, 

Under the Government Balloon Committee, Mr. 
Coxwell ascended at Woolwich to try C. A. 
Bowdler’s apparatus (based on the screw-propel- 
ler) for steering balloons; failure reported, 

25 July, 

{It has been proved that a screw with a vertical 

axis can raise or depress a balloon, and thereby 
save gas and ballast. ] 

M. and Mad. Duruof (see below, 1870), ascend from 
Calais to cross the channel, 31 Aug. ; carried out 
to sea; the balloon fell into the water and 
drifted towards Norway; rescued by a smack 
(the Grand Charge); the aéronauts were landed 
at Grimsby . 4 Sept. 

Duruof and others ascend from the Cr ystal- eee: 

14 Sept. 

Menier’s new hot-air balloon fails on trial, 5 Sept. 

and 16 Oct. 

Ascent of capt. Burnaby at the Crystal-palace to 
try his machine for ascertaining the course of 
the wind above the clouds; reported successful, 

1o Nov. 

MM. Tissandier, Croce-Spinelli, and Sivel ascend 
in the ‘‘ Zenith” from La Villette, near Paris ; at 
26,160 feet Croce throws out ballast ; they ascend 
rapidly ; he and Sivel die through suffocation ; 
Tissandier recovered = 15 April, 

Washington J. Donaldson, eminent aéronaut, 
perishes in Lake Michigan during a_ storm, 

18 July, 

Reported failure of Carrol’s directing apparatus at 
Paris ; = sO MLLY 

Frequent ascents in a “e captive balloon” Aug. 

Mr. Giffard’s great captive balloon, Paris, burst. 

16 or 17 August, 

Five balloons start from various places near Lon- 
don, competing fora silver medal given by the 
Balloon Society; the ‘‘ Owl,” Mr. Wright and 
Commander Cheyne, travelled 48 miles in one 
hour 4 Sept. 

International balloon contest at the Cr ystal Patsoe: 
England (Eclipse), Mr. Wright; France, M. de 
Fonvielle; both alighted near “Portsmouth, 21 Oct. 

Giffard and De Léme’s aérial ship said to be success- 
ful for direction, speed, dc. . . Jan. 

Mr. Eugéne (who had ascended about 2,000 times) 
narrowly escapes” destruction by a storm at 
Vienna : 21 Aug. 

Mr. Walter Powell, MP.,. crossed the Bristol 
Channel in a balloon and descended at Dinges- 
ton, and afterwards went on to Hereford, 3 Nov. ; 
Mr. Walter Powell, M.P., capt. Templer, and Mr. 
Agg Gardner ascend at Bath in war-office balloon 
Saladin ; the balloon descends near Bridport ; 
two fell out ; the balloon ascends with Mr. Powell 
and drifts to sea ; not found : to Dec. 

Remains of the balloon said to haye been found on 
Sierra del Piedroza mountain, Spain about 20 Jan. 

Col. Brine and Mr. Simmons’ ‘attempt to cross the 
Channel, they and the balloon pled up half 
way . 4 Mar. 

Col. Burnaby crosses the Channel and tds at 
Wack >. iS a3 Mar. 

Mr. Simmons goes from Maldon Essex, to Arras (140 
miles) rh. 20 m. ro June 

Mr. Simmons and sir Clande C. de Crespigny crossed 
the Channel from Maldon, Essex, to Oudekerk, 
near Flushing (140 miles i in 6 hour 3) I-2 Aug. 

By Mr. Simmons and Mr. Smale from Hastings to 
Cape La Hague (6 hours 40 minutes) 13 f Se pt. 

Electrical balloon constructed by Gaston and dines: 
Tissandier, successful trial reported 8 Oct. 

By M. L’Hoste from Boulogne to Folkestone, 


9g Sept.; again from Boulogne to Romney, res 
hour > an Aug. 
Gen. Brine crosses from Hythe to “Hervelinghen 


Aug. 


15 
Balloon navigation said to be effected by M. Retard 


at Mendon, by an electrical machine 9g Aug. 
Another trial, result uncertain . s 12 Sept. 
Reported success by M Tissandier . 26 Sept. 
By Capt. Renard. . < . ° 8 Nov. 


1874 


>> 


> 


” 


76 


BALLOONS. 


MILITARY AND POSTAL APPLICATIONS, 


Guyton de Morveau ascended twice during the battle 
of Fleurus, and gave _—— information to 
Jourdain . %7 June 

The use of balloons for postal purposes invented by 
Mr. G. Shepherd, C.E. . | 

Balloons were used during the battle of Solferino, 
24 June, 1859; and by the Federal army near 
Washington . : - dby 

M. Duruot conveyed the mail bags from Paris +o 
Tours during the siege . - 23 Sept. 

Postal balloons from Metz and Paris . Sept.-Daal 

Postal balloon sent up from Crystal Palace, Syden- 
ham (successfully) 6 Oct. 

M. Gambetta escaped from Paris in‘a balloon, and 
arrived at Rouen - 8 Oct. 

Many balloons despatched from Parisand other places 

Oct. 1870— Feb, 

Military experiments; ascent of Univers ; very 
cold weather; valve burst; several hurt; near 
Vincennes ; no deaths - ’ Dec, 

Military ascents and balloon equipment for military 
purposes adopted at Woolwich, announced April, 

Captive balloon at the volunteer review, ee 

March, 

Royal Engineers’ Balloon Corps arrives at ‘Souakinn 

7 March, 


EQUESTRIAN ASCENTS. 


Mr. Green affirmed that he ascended from lo 
on a horse attached to a balloon ‘ May, 
He did so from Vauxhall gardens with a very 
diminutive pony . duly, 
Lieut. Gale, an Englishman, “made an ascent with 
a horse from the “Hippodrome of Vincennes, near 
Bordeaux. On descending and detaching the 
animal from the balloon, the people who held its 
ropes, from some misconception, prematurely let 
them go, and the unfortunate aéronaut was rapidly 
borne in the air before he was quite ready to 
resume his voyage. (He was discovered next 
morning dashed to pieces in a field a mile from 
where the balloon was found) : - 8 Sept. 
The ascent of Madame Poitevin from Cremorne 
gardens, near London, as “ Europa on a bull” 
(a feat she had often performed in France), and 
several ascents on horses, brought the parties 
concerned before the police-courts on a charge of 
cruelty to animals, and put an end to experiments 
that outraged public feeling. . Aug. 
M. Poitevin ascended on a horse in the vicinity of 
Paris, about the time just mentioned ; was nearly 
drowned in the sea, near Malaga, while descending 
from his balioon (and died soon after) . i 


SCIENTIFIC ASCENTS. 


Gay-Lussac and Biot at Paris, 23 Aug. ; ay 
(to the height of 22,977 fee t) : 5 Sept. 
Bixio and Barral at Paris (to the height be 19,000 
feet. They at through a cloud gooo feet 
thick) 
Mr. Welsh ascends, “P 26 “Aug. 2I 7 Oct., Io . Nov. 
Scientific balloon ascents having been recom- 
mended by the British Association and funds 
provided, Mr. James Glaisher commenced his 
series of ascents, provided with suitable appa- 
ratus, in Mr. Coxwell’s great balloon, at Wolver- 
hampton: he reached the height of 5 Ba 
,’ 
He ascended at the Crystal Palace 18 April, a a1 
July; at Wolverton, 26 June; at Newcastle, during 
the meeting of the British Association 31 Aug. 
He ascended to the height of about 7 miles at 
Wolverhampton; at 5st miles high he became 
insensible; Mr. Coxwell lost the use of his hands, 
but was able to open the valve with his teeth; 
they thus descended in safety . . 5 Sept. 
His 16th ascent; surveys London . : 7 
His 17th ascent at Woolwich; descends at Mr. 
Brandon’s, Suffolk (ist winter ascent this cen- 
tury) . r2dan. 
He ascends from Woolwich (24th time) + 30 m4 
His 25th ascent 27 Feb. 
Other ascents 2 Oct., 2 Dee. 1865; - and in May, 
Glaisher’s “ Travels in the Air” published Jan. 
Mr. Coxwell’s scientific ascent in the Nassau at 
Hornsey A ; 3 . A . 2258 


BALLOT. 


7 


BAMBERG. 


BALLOON SOCIETIES. 


» French Académie d’Aérostation de Météorolo- 
ique, authorised . A : ; 20 Sept. 
4LOON SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN, was formed 
in I uly, 1880, by some members of the Aeronau- 
eal, Geographical, Astronomical, Chemical, and 
{eteorological societies, and other scientific bo- 
ies, to promote aeronautics and record and uti- 


1872 


se observations made during ascents. Silver 
‘edals were awarded for ascents made 4 Sept. 1880 


man Aeronautical Soviety founded at Berlin 
| 5 Sept. 1881 


3ALLOT (French dallotie, a little ball). 
ret voting was practised by the ancient Greeks 
. Romans, and the modern Venetians, and is 
y employed in France, in the United States of 
‘th America, and, since 1872, in Great Britain, 
| Colonies. See Scrutin. 


allot-box used in the election of aldermen of 
ondon . : . “ Z E - 
use by the company of merchant adventurers, 
. electing an agent, prohibited by Charles I. 
| 17 Dec. 1637 
ballot-box used by the “ Rota,” a political club 
'Miles’s coffee-house, Westminster. : hk 
act entitled “‘The Benefit of the Ballot,” said 
have been written by Andrew Marvell, was pub- 
ihed in the ‘‘State Tracts ” A : Seria) 
dosed, in a pamphlet, to be used in the election 
members of parliament. : ; ‘ + 1705 
Ji authorising vote by ballot passed the com- 
ons, but rejected by the lords 4 aS 
tge Grote introduced into the commons a ballot 
ll six times . : ‘ , : + 1833-39 
ballot an open question in whig governments 
1835-72 
house of commons rejected the ballot—2 57 
ving against, and 189 for it : 30 June, 1851 
‘et voting existed in the chamber of deputies in 
vance from 1840 to 1845. It has been employed 
nee the coup d’étatin  . x i Dec. 
ballot adopted in Victoria, Australia : 
est-ballot was adopted at Manchester, and 
mest Jones was thus chosen as a candidate 
r representing the city in parliament. He died 
e next day : : é . og n22) 23. Jars 
many years it was annually proposed by Mr. 
enry Berkeley ; it was rejected (by 161 to 112, 
July, 1867). He died : : - 1o March, 
E. Leathain introduced a ballot bill into par- 
iment, March; and Mr. Gladstone spoke in 
vour of the ballot; bill withdrawn 27. SULY; vs, 
ballot was employed in electing the London 
hool board in g districts +. 29 NOV... 55 
ballot recommended in the queen's speech, 9 
+b. ; a bill for it introduced, passed by the com- 
ons ; rejected by the lords (97 to 48). 10 Aug. 
to amend the law relating to procedure at 
wliamentary and municipal elections, including 
e ballot, read in the commons, 2nd time, 109-51, 
Feb. ; passed the commons, 271-216, 30 May; 
ad second time in the lords (86-56), important 
nendments carried in committee, making secret 
ting optional (162-91) ; read a third time, and 
sed, 25 June; lords’ amendments mostly re- 
ited by the commons ; the optional clause given 
») by the lords, 8 July ; royal assent ; (to continue 
force till 31 Dec. 1880)" : - 13 July, 
| first election by ballot was at Pontefract, when 
ct, H. E. Childers was re-elected very peacefully, 


15 Aug. ,, 


“ALL'S BLUFF, Virginia, on the banks of 
Potomac, North America. On 21 Oct. 1861, by 
ction of the Federal general C. P. Stone the 
vic col. Baker crossed the river to reconnoitre, 
uttacked the Confederate-camp at Leesburg, and 
defeated with great loss. The disaster was 
buted to mismanagement, and in Feb. 1862, 
ral Stone was arrested on suspicion of treason. 


ALLYNAHINCH (Ireland), where a san- 
(ary engagement took place between a large 
of the insurgent Irish and the British troops, 


1526 


1856 


1872 


under gen. Nugent, 13 June, 1798. A large part 
of the town was destroyed, and the royal army suf- 
fered very severely. 


BALMORAL CASTLE, Deeside, Aberdeen- 
shire; visited by her majesty in 1848, 1849, 1850. 
The estate was purchased for 32,0007. by prince 
Albert in 1852. In 1853 the present building, in the 
Scotch baronial style, was commenced, from designs 
by Mr. W. Smith of Aberdeen, 


BALTIC SEA,* Osrszs, or EASTERN SEA, 
separates Sweden and the Danish isles from Russia, 
Prussia, and Germany. Declared neutral for com, 
merce by treaty between Russia and Sweden, 1759, 
and Denmark, 1760. It is often partially frozen, 
Charles X. of Sweden, with an army, crossed the 
Belts in 1658, and the Russians passed from Finland 
to Sweden on the ice in 1809. A ship canal between 
the Baltic and the North Seas proposed ; adopted 
Jan. 1884. 


BALTIC EXPEDITIONS. 
Against Denmark. See Armed Neutrality.—z. Under 
lord Nelson and admiral Parker, Copenhagen was 
bombarded, and twenty-eight sail of the Danish 
fleet taken or destroyed fi - 2 April, 
2. Under admiral Gambier and lord Catheart, 
eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, and thirty- 
one brigs and gunboats surrendered to the British, 
26 July, 
Against Russia.—1. The British fleet, commanded 
by sir Charles Napier, sailed from Spithead in 
presence of the queen, who led it out to sea in her 
yacht, the Fairy , : : - 1r March, 
It arrived in Wingo Sound, 15 March ; and in the 
Baltic : : : é - 20 March, 
The gulf of Finland blockaded - 12 April, 
t0,00co French troops embarked at Calais for the 
Baltic in English ships of war, in presence of the 
emperor ; i : , ‘ 15 July, 
Capture of Bomarsund, one of the Aland islands, 
and surrender of the garrison ; see Bomarsund, 
16 Aug. 
English and French fleets begin to return homeward 
to winter j ’ ‘ -f re @et: 
2. Expedition sailed - _ 20 March—, April, 
It consisted of 85 English ships (2098 guns), com- 
manded by admiral R. S. Dundas ; 16 French 
ships (408 guns), under admiral Pernand, joined it, 
June, 
Three vessels silenced the Russian batteries ati” 
Hogland island é : - + J2n July; 5, 
The fleet proceeded towards Cronstadt. Many in- 
fernal machinest were discovered. Sveaborg was 
attacked (see Sveaborg) : : , g Aug. 
Shortly after the fleet returned to England. 


BALTIMORE, a maritime city in Maryland, 
United States, founded in 1729. On 12 Sept. 1814, 
the British army under col. Ross advanced against 
this place. He was killed in a skirmish ; and the 
command was assumed by col. Brooke, who attacked 
and routed the American army, which lost 600 
killed and wounded and 300 prisoners. The pro- 
jected attack on the town was, however, abandoned. 
Alison. See United States, 1861. About 70 persons 
drowned while on an excursion on the Patapsco 
river, about 23 July, 1883. 


BAMBERG (Bavaria), said to have been 
founded by Saxons, in 804, and endowed with a 
church by Charlemagne. It was made a bishopric 
etter es 

* Baltic Provinces of Russia, a kind of provincial 
federation since 1800, were incorporated with the empire 
on the death of the governor-general Bagration, 29 Jan. 
1876. 

+ These were cones of galvanised iron, 16 inches in 
diameter, and 20 inches long. Each contained 9 or 10 Ib. 
of powder, with apparatus for firing by sulphuric acid. 
Little damage was done by them. They were said to be 
the invention of the philosopher J acobi. 


1801 


>? 


BAMBOROUGH. 7 


in 1007, and the bishop was a prince of the empire 
till the treaty of Luneville, 1801, when Bamberg 
was secularised. It was incorporated with Bavaria 
in 1803. The noble cathedral, rebuilt in 1110, has 
been recently repaired. Bamberg was taken and 
pillaged by the Prussians in 1759. 


BAMBOROUGH, or Bamburg, Northumber- 
land, according to the ‘Saxon Chronicle,’ was 
built by king Ida about 547, and named Bebban- 
burgh. The castle and estate, the property of the 
Forsters, and forfeited to the crown, through their 
taking part in the rebellion in 1715, were purchased 
by Nathaniel lord Crewe, bishop of Durham, and 
bequeathed by him for various charitable purposes. 
The valuable library was founded by the trustees 
in 1778. The books are lent to persons residing 
within 20 miles of the castle. 


BAMPTON LECTURHS (Theological), de- 
livered at Oxford annually, began in 1780, with a 
lecture by James Bandinel, D.D. The lecturer is 
paid out of the proceeds of an estate bequeathed for 
the purpose by the rev. John Bampton (died 1751) 
and the lectures are published. Among the more 
remarkable lectures were those by White (1784), 
Heber (1815), Whately (1822), Milman (1827), 
Hampden (1832), Mansel (1858), Liddon (1866). 


BANBURY, Oxfordshire, a Saxon town. The 
castle, erected by Alexander de Blois, bishop of 
Lincoln, 1125, has been frequently besieged. In 
1646 it was taken by the parliamentarians and de- 
molished. At Edgecot or Danesmore, near Ban- 
bury, during an insurrection, the army of Edward 
IV., under the earl of Pembroke was defeated 26 
July, 1469; their leader and his brother were soon 
after taken prisoners and executed. Banbury cakes 
were renowned in the time of Ben Jonson, and 
Banbury Cross was destroyed by the Puritans. 
Cakes were presented to the queen at Banbury 30 
Nov. 1866. 


BAND or GENTLEMEN PENSION- 
ERS, see Gentlemen-at-Arms. 


BANDA ISLES (ten), Eastern Archipelago, 
visited by the Portuguese in I » I, who settled on 
them, 1521, but were expelled by the Dutch about 
1600. Rohun island was ceded to the English in 
1616. The Bandas were taken by the latter in 1796; 
restored in 1801; retaken in 1811 ; andrestored in 
Aug. 1816. 


BANDA ORIENTAL (South America), a 
portion of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, one part 
of which, in 1828, was incorporated with Brazil, 
while another part became independent, as the 
republic of Uruguay. 

BANGALORE (S. India) was besieged by the 
British under lord Cornwallis, 6 March, and taken 
by storm, 21 March, 1791. Bangalore was restored 
to Tippoo in 1792, when he destroyed the strong fort, 
deemed the bulwark of Mysore. 


BANGOR (Banchor Iskoed, or Monachorum), 
Flintshire, the site of an ancient monastery, very 
populous, if it be true that 1200 monks were slain 
by Ethelfrid, king of the Angles, for praying for 
the Welsh in their conflict with him in 607. 
Tanner. 


BANGOR (N. Caernarvonshire). The church 
is dedicated to St. Daniel, who was a bishop, 516. 
Owen Glendower greatly defaced the cathedral; 
and the bishop Bulkeley alienated many of the 


lands, and even sold the bells of the church, 1553. - 


The see is valued in the king’s books at 131/. 16s. 4d. 
An order in council directing that the sees of Ban- 
gor and St. Asaph be united on the next vacancy in 


8 


BANK. 


either, was issued in 1838; but rescinded in 
Present income, 4200/7. Bangor was incorpo 
in 1883. North Wales University College op: 
18 Oct. 1884. 
BISHOPS OF BANGOR. 

1800. Wm. Cleaver, translated to St. Asaph, 1806. 
1806. John Randolph, translated to London, 1809. 
1809. Henry William Majendie, died 9 July, 1830. 
1830. Christopher Bethell, died 19 April, 1859. 
1859. James Colquhoun Campbell. 

ee cathedral was re-opened after restoration, 11 
1600. 


BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY wa 
casioned by Dr. Benjamin Hoadley, bishop of 
gor, preaching a sermon before George I., 31 M 
1717, upon the text, ‘‘ My kingdom is not of 
world’’ (John, xviii. 36), in which he demonst 
the spiritual nature of the church and kingdo 
Christ. He thereby drew upon himself the in 
nation of almost all the clergy, who published 
dreds of pamphlets. 


BANISHMENT, an ancient punishment. 
39 Eliz. c. 4 (1597) dangerous rogues were + 
banished out of the realm, and to be liable to ¢ 
if they returned ; see Transportation. 


BANK. The name is derived from dan 
bench, erected in the market-place for the exch 
of money. ‘The first was established in Italy, 
by the Lombard Jews, of whom some settle 
Lombard-street, London, where many bankers 
reside. The Mint in the Tower of London 
anciently the depository for merchants’ cash, 
Charles I. seized the money asa loan, and in 164 
traders lodged their money with the goldsmit 
Lombard-street. See Bank of England ; Ban 
Books ; Drafts ; Savings Banks. 

Egibe’s bank at Babylon, mentioned about B.c. 
Barcelona bank (earliest existing bank) founded 

about. é : : : : : ; . 
Samuel Lamb, a London banker, recommended the 

Protector Cromwell to establish a public bank, 

1656 and 

Francis Child, a goldsmith, established a bank 
about 1663 ; he died Z : - . (4/0en 
Run on the London bankers (said to be the first) . 
Charles II. arbitrarily suspends all payments to 
bankers out of the exchequer of monies deposited 

there by them ; they lost ultimately 393203130 

2 Jan. 


Hoare’s bank began about . c : R “a. 
Bank of England established (see next article). _. 
Wood’s bank at Gloucester, the oldest county bank, 
established . : : : ; A Bs 
A list of bankers given in the ‘‘ Royal Kalendar” . 
Forgeries of Henry Fauntleroy, banker; executed, 
o Nov. 

Act passed permitting establishment of joint-stock 
banks (which see) 2 4 2 A a A 
Rowland Stephenson, M.P., banker and treasurer 
of St. Bartholomew’s hospital, absconds ; defaulter 
to the amount of 200,000. ; 70,o00l. in exchequer 
bills ; (caused a great depression among bankers) 

27 Dec. 

Establishment of joint-stock banks (see p. ars . 
Rogers’s bank robbed of nearly 50,000l. (bank notes 
afterwards returned) . : ; . 24 Nov. 
Failure of Strahan, Paul, and Bates (securities 
unlawfully used) ; private banking much injured, 


11 June, 
Cheque Bank (which see), opened in Pall Mall, 
23 J uly ’ 

Banks in 1855. Notes allowed to be is 
Bank of England « ° A A I 14,00 
English private banks . . 5 - 196 4,99 
English joint-stock banks (see Banks, 

Joint Stock) . 5 “ 6 67 3,41 
Banksin Scotland . .. .. . . ==80NemEDS 
Banksin Ireland‘. . .-°. |) gas 

290 31,85 


79 


BANK, 


‘ 


‘unk of 


ice formed ol57 
eva - 1345 
velona 5 é . < : yar tee 
‘0a. a : : e : : ; fs . 1407 
iterdam . ais A : : ; bie L007 
burg . . 1619 
jerdam . eLOS5 
kholm . - 1688 
land. . 1694 
land - 1695 
omhagen . +, £730 
in. 4 ; : - L705 
se d’Escompte, France . - 1776 
ind = ‘ F 2 . 1783 
’etersburg . 1786 
1e Hast Indies . 1787 
‘orth America. 7 L7Oz 
cei* 3 - 1803 
i 1865 


orial Bank of Germany (formerly of Prussia) 
x Jan. 1876 


ANK oF ENGLAND was projected by William 
‘rson, a Scotch merchant (see Darien), to meet 
lifficulty experienced by William III. in raising 
supplies for the war against France. By the 
ence of Paterson and Michael Godfrey, 40 mer- 
is (aided by Charles Montague) subscribed 
00/7. towards the sum of 1,200,000/. to be lent 
te government at 8 per cent., in consideration 
1e subscribers being incorporated as a. bank. 
scheme was violently opposed in parliament, 
the bill (a tonnage act), obtained the royal 
at 25 April, 1694, and the charter was granted 
aly following, appointing sir John Houblon 
first governor, and Michael Godfrey the first 
ty-governor. ‘The bank commenced active 
ations on I Jan.1695, at Grocers’ Hall, Poultry, + 
ng notes for 20/. and upwards, and dis- 
ting bills for 4} to 6 per cent. The charter 
renewed in 1697, 1708, 1713, 1716, 1721, 1724, 
| 1749, 1764, 1781, 1800, 1808, 1816, 1833, 1844. 
son. 


ym the bank: its notes at 20 per cent. discount; 
ital raised to 2,201,171. ros. : ae, NOW 
ank monopoly established by the prohibition 
ny company exceeding six persons acting as 
kers (Scotland not included in the act) . . 
al raised to 5,559,9951. 10s. “ ; ; + 1710 
post bills issued (rst record) : 14 Dec. 1738 

‘or gold through rebellion in the North ; bank 
8 paidin silver ; the city support the bank, Sept. 
aughan hanged for forging notes rt May, 
otes issued . : : : : 4 rig a 
m riots ; since then the bank has been pro- 
ed by the military . : : : \ « 1780 
tes issued : ‘ < t : EME I703 
payments suspended, in conformity with an 
erin council . ; : : 26 Feb. 
d 2l. notes issued ‘ Z : - March, 
restriction act passed A z 3 May, 

a contribution of 200,000l. to the govern- 
it. : ‘ s 5 : = : s « I7OS 

oy Aslett’s frauds (see Exchequer) 342,6971. . 1803 
ation of Abraham Newland, 50 years cashier, 
18 Sept. 

ih’s machine for numbering notes adopted 


1696 


1708 


1745 
1758 
1759 


1797 
” 


>» 


1807 
+ 1809 
istituted by laws passed 14 April, 1803, and 22 
1806. The statutes were approved 16 Jan. 1808. 
_o Napoleon said that its duty was te provide money 
cimes at 4 per cent. interest. 
.e foundation of the building in Threadneedle-street 
id 1 Aug. 1732, by sir Edward Bellamy, governor, 
_¢ bank removed there 5 June, 1734 ; it was erected 
Sampson, architect. Great additions have been 
‘from time to time by successive architects: sir 
; Taylor, sir John Soane, and Mr. C. R. Cockerell. 
occupies the site of the church, and nearly all the 
of St. Christopher-le-Stocks. The eburchyard. is 
ermed “the garden.” Another entrance opened 
aces Street, 1882. 


| 1864, raised to 8, Jan. 20; reduced to 7 


The bank issues silver tokens for 38. and 1s. 6d. 
9g July, 18rr 
Peel’s act for the gradual resumption of cash pay- 
ments. : : A : . 2 wuly; 
Cash payments for notes to be in bullion at the mint 
price, 1 May, 182r ; in the current coin of the realm, 
xr May, 
Great commercial panic—many tl. notes (ancients 
tally found in a box) issued with most beneficial 
effects : ‘ : : : $ - Dec. 
The act for the establishment of joint-stock banks 
breaks up the monopoly ; : . ‘ ~ 
By the advice of the government, branch banks 
opened at Gloucester, 19 July ; Manchester, or 
Sept. ; Swansea, 23 Oct. F ; : ; 
And at Birmingham, x Jan. : Liverpool, 2 July: 
Bristol, 12 July ; Leeds, 23 Aug. ; Exeter, 17 Dec. 
The bank loses 360,0001. by Fauntleroy’s forgeries : 
estimated in . i “ ; 
Statements of the bank affairs 
terly : j : : i 2 : 3 Ihe 
Peel’s bank charter act, (7 & 8 Vict. c. 32); renews 
charter till 1 Aug. 1855, and longer, if the debt 
due from the public to the bank (11,015,001. ), 
with interest, &., be not paid after due notice ; 
established the issue department ; requires 
weekly returns to be published ; limited the issue 
of notes to 14,000,000/., &e. . - Ig July, 
Commercial panic: lord John Russell authorises 
relaxation of restriction of issuing notes (not acted 
on) ; bank discount 8 -per cent. Sunday, 24-25 Oct. 
Bank clerks establish a library and fidelity guaran- 
tee fund : : : : 5 - March, 1850 
Gold bullion in the bank (consequent on discovery 
of gold in Australia), 21,845, 3901. - tIoJuly, 
Branch _ bank, Burlington-gardens, London, W. 
opened . ; : : ‘ <7 Oct: 
Committee on the bank acts appointed ~. 12 May, 
Bank discount 9 per cent. ; lord Palmerston autho- 
rises addition to issue of notes [to the amount of 
2,000,000]. were issued] . ‘ r - 12 Nov. 
Committee on the bank acts re-appointed, 8 Feb. : 
report recommending continuance of present 
state of things , : : : - 1 July, 
Much alarm through the announcement of the bank 
solicitor that a quantity of bank paper had been 
stolen from the makers (forged notes soon ap- 
peared) . ; f é 5 - 16 Aug. 
The culprits, soon detected, were tried and con- 
victed (see Trials) é - 7—12 Jan. 1863 


1819 
1823 


1825 
1826 


published quar- 


1858 


1862 


See Bills, 1873. 


Bank Discount. 
1858, 3 per cent. Feb. x. 
1860, (Demand for gold in France), 6, Nov. x ie 
1861, 7, Jan.7; 8(demand for money in France, India, 
United States, &c.) Feb. 14; 3, Nov. 7 
ee 23, Jan. ; 3, April; 23, July; 2, July 24; 3, Oct.— 
ec. 


1863, raised to 4 per cent., Jan. 16; to 5, Jan. 28; re- 
duced to 4, Feb. ; to 34 and 3, April ; raised to 4, May; 
Atti to 5, 6, in Nov. ; to 7 and 8, and reduced to 7 in 

ec. 


Feb. 12; to 6, 

Feb. 25 ; raised to 7, April 16 ; to 8, May 2; to 9, May 
5; reduced to 8, May 19; to 7, May 26 ; to 6, June 16 : 
raised to 7, July 25; to 8, Aug. 4; to 9, Sept. 5; re- 
duced to 8, Nov. 10; to 7, Novy. 24. 

1865, reduced to 5%, Jan. 12; tos, Jan. 20; raised to 53, 

March 2; reduced to 4, March 30; raised to 41, May 
43 reduced to 33, June x; to 3, June rs; rwised to 3h, 
July 27; to 4, Aug. 3; to 43, Sept. 28; to 5, Oct. 2; 
to 6, Oct. 5; to 7, Oct. 7; (three times in one week) ; re- 
duced to 6, Nov. 23; raised to 7, Dec. 28. 

1866, raised to 8, Jan. 4; reduced to 7, Feb. 22; to 6, 
March 15; raised to 7, May 3; to 8, May 8; to 9, May 
11 (panic—suspension of Bank Act authorised by Go- 
vernment) ; to 10, May 12; reduced to 8, Aug. 16; to 
7, Aug. 23; to6, Aug. 30; to s, Sept. 6; to 43, Sept. 
27; to 4, Nov. 8; to 33, Dec. 20. 

1867, reduced to 3, Feb. 7; to 2k, May 30; to 2, July 25. 

1868, raised to 23 per cent. Noy. 19 ; to 3, Dec. 3. 

1869, raised to 4, April 1; to 42, May 6; reduced to 4, 
June ro; to 33, June 24; to 3, July 15; to2l, Aug. 19; 
raised to 3, Nov. 4. +f , 

1870, raised to 34, July 21; to 4, July 23; to-5 (Franco- 
Prussian War), July 28; to 6, Aug. 4; reduced to 53, 


tee < a. 15 
‘ at 


BANK. 


80 BANK. 


Aug. 11; to 43, Aug. 18; to 4, Aug. 25; to 33, Sept. 1; 
to 3, Sept. 15; to 24, Sept. 29. 

1871, raised to 3, March 2; reduced to 24, April 13; to 
21, June 15; to 2, July 13; raised to 3, Sept. 21; to 4, 
Sept. 28 ; to 5, Oct. 7; reduced to 4, Nov. 16; to 33, 
Nov. 30; to 3, Dec. 14. 

1872, raised to 3}, April 4; to 4, April ir; to 5, May 9; 
reduced to 4, May 30; to 33, June 13; to 3, June 20; 
raised to 34, July 18; to 4, Sept. 18; to 43, Sept. 26; 
to 5, Oct. 2; to 6, Oct. 10; to 7, Nov. 9; reduced to 6, 
Nov. 28; to 5, Dec. 12. 

1873, reduced to 43, Jan. 9; to 4, Jan, 23; to 33, Jan. 30; 
raised to.4, March 26; to 44, May 7; to 5, May 10; to 
6, May 17; to 7, June 4; reduced to 6, June 12; to 5, 
July 10; to 43, July 17; to 4, July 24; to 33, July 31; 
to 3, Aug. 21; raised to 4, Sept. 25; to 5 (panic in New 
York), Sept. 29; to 6, Oct. 14; to 7, Oct. 185; to 8, Nov. 
1; tog, Nov. 7; reduced to 8, Nov. 20; to 6, Nov. 27; 
to 5, Dec. 4; to 4%, Dec. rx. 

1874, reduced to 4, Jan. 8; to 3}, Jan. 153 raised to 4, 
April 30; reduced to 34, May 28; to 3, June 4; to 23, 
June 18; raised to 3, July 30; to 4, Aug. 6; reduced 
to 34, Aug. 20; to 3, Aug. 27; raised to 4, Oct. 15; to 
5, Nov. 16; to 6, Nov. 30. 

1875, reduced to 5, Jan. 7; to 4, Jan. 14; to 3, Jan. 27; 
raised to 33, Feb. 18; to 3, July 8 ; reduced to 23, July 
29; to 2, Aug. 12; raised to 23, Oct. 7; to 34, Oct. x4 ; 
to'4, Oct. 21 ; redweed to 3, Nov. 18 ; raised to 4, Dec. 30. 

1876, raised to 5, Jan. 6; reduced to 4, Jan. 27; to 32, 
March 23; to 3, April 6; to 2, April 20. 

1877, raised to 3, May 3; reduced to 23, July 5; to 2, 
July 123 raised to 3, Aug. 28; to 4, Oct. 4; to 5, Oct. 
11; reduced to 4, Nov. 29. 

1878, reduced to 3, Jan. 103; to 2, Jan. 313; raised to 3, 
March 28 ; reduced to 23, May 30; [minimum omitted 
in Bank notices, June]; raised to 3, June 27; to 33, 
July 4; to 4, Aug. 1; to 5, Aug. 12; to 6, Oct. 14; 
reduced to 5, Nov. 21. 


1879, reduced to 4, Jan. 16; to 3, Jan. 303 to 2k, 
13; to 2, April 103; raised to 3. Nov. 6. 

1880, reduced to 24, June 17; raised to 3, Dec. 9. 

1881, raised to 33, Jan.; reduced to 3, Feb. 17; 
April 27; raised to 3, Aug. 3; to 4, Aug. 25; 5 

1882 raised to 6, Jan. 30; reduced to 5, Feb. 23 
Mar. 9; to 3, Mar. 23; raised to 4, Aug. 17; 
Sept. 14 

1883, reduced to 4, Jan. 25 ; to 33, Feb. 15 ; to 3, Mz 
raised to 4, May 10; reduced to 34, Sept. 13; to 3,8 

1884, raised to 34, Feb. 7; reduced to 3, Mar. 13; 
April 3; to 2, June 19; raised to 3, Oct. 9; to 
30; to 5, Nov. 6. 

1885, reduced to 4, Jan. 293 to 33, March 19, 


AVERAGE AMOUNT OF BANK OF ENG. NOTES IN CIRCUL 


1718 . ; . £1,829,930 | 1835 . . te “Zora 
Nwiiouh o -«, °J;030,080)[ a400c. 2S ee 
1790. ; - 10,217,000 | 1845 .« ° ~) 
SOO) ins os | LS,450;000) N2GSO mans . 
18I0 . 3 « 23,904,000 | 1855 . - Ig, 
LOLS) ys . » 26,803,520 1/2057 aa. . ee 
1820 . = - 27,174,000 | 1859 - e o- 22, 
1330. | 6 e + 20,620,000 


DEC. 27, 1856. 


Assets—Securities ‘ . £20,484, 
291484000) py, 


36, 


Bullion _ Ho 10,105,000 
Liabilities . : 5 5 P 


Balance £3) 
Nov. 11, 1857 (Time of Panic). 
Assets—Securities : - £35,480,281 


Bullion A 3 + 7,170,508 


Liab ilities e e e ° e J 39; 


Balance £3, 


Assets.—Securities. Coin and Bullion. Liabilities. E 


Sept. 14, 1859 ; P +l t&30,090; 570 4 : : 


Aug. 30,1862 . : : - 30,106,295 . z 
Aug. 9g, 1865 z : a GE G2 3,000. : 
Mar. 14,1866 . : ‘ + 29,415,059 


Sept. 26, 1866 » : oo) ge Ra ARO QO te 
June 19, 1867 . - ‘ - 31,849,662 . 


March 5, 1868 < “ 3 337,286: 203n, 

Dec. 29,1869 . : : a B45040,04 2 vile 

June 2, 1870 A gindes S32,4 02200 ae : 3 
aM WEY IS7TT ls. > : >) 92,2745007 1s : * 
Junei29, 5, 4 5 vee Usa. Too, 74 he. ; ; 
OTe aT 57 21 vu. : : 2) 3053035709) i 

July 3, 1872 ‘ wi ee 135090, 2010 6 

Jan. 8, 1873 : : . - 32,138,990. . 

POLY Geiss fe ik je | a Pe eS OR e a say be 
Dee: 27,5 : A 3 ~' 30,922,266 . é 
July 1, 1874 . : : » 336,500,072) ; 


Jan. 6, 1875 é ‘ ‘ - 33,985,823 
JUNE 30} 55.) - : : <3 430,660,266 


Jan. 5, 1876 2 ; . . 1) 385308085) 

MY HSS AS ol as ; : woe | 322e HOLS 3 ‘ is 
Jan. 3, 1877 : : : - 35,998,482 . : “ 
Jul ora We ; : Les SS SOO Secu. 
Jan. 2, 1878 : : c tee Sd 935-0 7o0 ‘ 
June 26,,,  .- 5 : ote! SHGQOG a 72 A 


Jan. 2, 1879 ; 3 - 44,286,663 
July2, ,, - ° ° » + 34951,837 
Jan. 1, 1880 4 2 + 41,330,212 
HI 2 ite yt 3 39,398,901 
Jan. 5, 1881 e : “ ~ 801655, 274. 
June's. §,, %- E -/ | meee. SOO; 5 07 
JAN.) S; TO2).: - “ - 40,438,605 
‘June 28 ,, . 4 2 2) & E3740, COO 
Jan. 3, 1883. 4 - 41,688,522 
PULY, Sh) Sy acre oe eh Os, Meh Goer eae. 
Jan, 2,1884. . : : + 42,207,250 
JULY v2!) yy ile 5 A s,s BO, 323. Nor 
Jan. 1,2885 - G ‘ + 41,663,958 


qy 
j= 
— 
| 
a 
a Soe Fe 87 ar 9S 


of 6) e@ 


. 
. 
. 
. 
. ° 
. 


£17,120,822 . : £43,503,214 « 5 - BB; 


17,678,698 - + + 445453778 - + + 3, 
14,223,390 - - - (+ 42,528,577 - = | sam 
14,327,618 . . «+ 39,934,150 - + + 3 
16,929,262 - + + 47;039:390 - + = 
21,882,770 . K « §0,613,.3420"% . ee, 
21,136,192 . « (48,792,265. . - ne 
19,196,622 . : 3 750,394,202. ° ety 
20,494,392 - + + 49,799,528 - . « 3; 
22,382,934 - + + 51,512,339 - - 3s 
26,609,540 .« : 57>594133 - - ( vai 
25,291,760 - « # » 58,497,293 - + ‘2% 
24,005,094 . . - 57,894,815 . ot a 
24,051,412 . . + 52,772,403 - : “) 1 
22,374,582 - +. « 52,338,203 - . «3 
22,477,503.» + + §0,0ghs7y.) 2 |) ame 
23,929,601 . - 59s 3F% 010.) « F ae, 
22,085,311 . ; - 52;786,516) *. i - ie 
26,690,116 . : « ~O3s2Rotr array. B ot iy 
21,215,76t , - 56,362,426 . - 
30,190,692 . . - 60,186,939 . ‘ -/ 88, 
28,214,165 . A ; 61,092, 6200T. | <a, 
26,948,340 . : - 59,682,894 . F ded 
24,386,794 . - s 55,560,422. a, 
23,438,504 . : - 57,726,813. ‘ + 3) 
28,088,361 . : - 69,062,479 . ‘ ak 
35,286,269 . 3 - (67,067,079) 1. E ie 
27,601,562 . : . -65,866,659 . 5 Pr)’ a 
29,319,399 - + + 65,634,195 - + + 3 
24,269,276 . ‘ - 61,006,239). 5 : a 
25,902,159 . 5 > 58,721,008. . . 3) 
20,249,034 + . + 57,505,540 - : - 3 
24,390,941 . - +  (583772;270) 1 : aa) 
20,353,791 - + + 58,856,634 .  . ism, 
22,266,535 . . - 58,939,347 - ° mo 
21,437,305 - . + 59,531,153 - : a) 
25,075,083 . ‘ - 60,236,310 . 3 og, | 
20,695,496 - + + 59,243,143 + © « B 


PUBLIC DEBT TO THE BANK OF ENGLAND. 


1694. : . £1,200,000 | 1716 . : - £4,175,027 
1708.» si) 0 oe BET OST Te L ics + s , QyTOQ;G00 


1742. R . £10,700,000 | 1816 . ° £14, 
E740) + + 11,686,000 | 1844-1881 6 eo II; 


BANK oF IRELAND. On 9 Dec. 1721, the | banks occurred in 1727, 1733, and 17 


Irish house of commons rejected a bill for establish- 


gradually to the establishment of the Bank | 


ing a national bank. Important failures in Irish | land at St. Mary’s abbey, Dublin, 1 June, 


~ 


BANK OF SAVINGS. 


BANKRUPT. 


The business was removed to the late parliament 
‘house, in College-green, in May, 1808. Branch 
anks of this establishment have been formed in 
‘most of the provincial towns in Ireland, all since 


'828. Irish Banking Act passed, 21 July, 1845. 
_ BANK or Savrines, see Savings’ Banks. 


_ BANKERS’ BOOKS EVIDENCE ACT, 
j9 & 40 Vict. c. 48, passed 11 Aug. 1876; repealed 


vy a fresh act 23 May, 1879. 


BANKERS’ INSTITUTE, meeting to esta- 
lish it, 29 May, 1878; Sir John Lubbock elected 
resident 11 March, 1879, Ist general meeting 23 
lay, 1879. (1300 members.) 


BANKS or ScorLanpD. The old bank of Scot- 
id was set up in 1695, at Edinburgh, and began 
Nov., the second institution of the kind in the 
mpire: lending money to the crown was pro- 
‘ibited. 


ioyal bank of Scotland chartered 
ritish Linen company bank 


irst stone of present bank of Scotland laid 3 J une, 
ommercial bank . ; : 3 ; ae: 


. 8 July, 1727 
1746 
1801 
1810 


ational bank . 1825 
nion bank . . : . 1830 
ity of Glasgow bank * : A - 1839 
sotch banking act passed . : ar July, 1845 


, 


‘estern bank of Scotland and the Glasgow bank 
stopped, causing much distress . - Nov. 1857 


,BANKS, Joryt Srock. Since the act of 
326, a number of these banks have been estab- 
shed. In 1840, the amount of paper currency 
sued by joint-stock banks amounted to 4,138,618. ; 
1e amount in circulation by private banks, same 
sar, was 6,973,613/.—the total amount exceeding 
even millions.¢ In Jreland similar banks have 


* City or GLascow Bank (with unlimited liability) ; 
unded 1839, identified with Glasgow; held Free Church 
istentation Fund ; stopped for a few days during crisis, 
Ov. 1857. In 1878 paid dividend 12 per cent. (rool. stock, 
6l.) ; 1272 shareholders, very many in humble circum. 
ances. The bankstopped2Oct. Investigation showed 
eat fraud and false accounts. Estimated loss, 6,783,0001. 
using much calamity and ruin to many. The directors, 
Stewart, Lewis Potter, R. Salmond, Wm. Taylor, H. 
glis, and J. I. Wright, and the manager, R. 8. Stronach, 
sre Committed for trial, 30 Oct. Stronach and Potter 
sre convicted of falsifying and fabricating balance 
eets (18 months’ imprisonment; the others of uttering 
@ same (8 months’ imprisonment), 1 Feb. 1870. 
The liquidators reported that about 18 1g contributors 
d paid about 4,500, 000l. (13s. 4d. in the pound) x Dec. 
79; 20s. in the pound paid to depositors, 2 March, 1880. 
Mr. James N. Fleming was arrested 25 Jan. for em- 
zzlement, and sentenced to 8 months’ imprisonment, 
uly, 1882. 
Close of the liquidation ; 13,644,8561. paid, announced 
rv. 1882. 
' Tue Roya British Bank was established in 1849, 
Mr. John McGregor, M.P., and others, under sir R. 
el’s joint-stock banking-act, 7&8 Vict. c. 113 (1844) ; 
an attempt to introduce the Scotch banking system of 
ih credits into England. On 3 Sept. 1856, it stopped 
yment, occasioning much distress and ruin to many 
all tradesmen and others. In consequence of strong 
dence of the existence of fraud in the management of 
: bank, elicited during the examination before the 
it of bankruptcy, the government instructed the at- 
ney-general to file ex-officio informations against the 
nager, Mr. H. Innes Cameron, and several of the 
2ctors. They were convicted 27 Feb. 1858, after 13 
's’ trial, and sentenced to various degrees of imprison- 
at. Attempts to mitigate the punishment failed 
“Y, 1858) ; but all were released except Cameron and 
laile, in July, 1858. In April, 1860, dividends had 
n paid to the amount of rss. in the pound. The at- 
1ey-general brought in a bill called the Fraudulent 
stees’ Act, 20 & a1 Vict. ec. 54, to prevent the recur- 
2e of such transactions. 
19 April, 1860, adeficiency of 263,000l. was discovered 


been instituted, the first being the Hibernian bank, 
in 1825. The note-circulation of joint-stock banks, 
on I Oct. 1855, was, in England, 3,990,800/. ; in 
Scotland, 4,280,o00/.; and in Ireland, 6,785,000/. ; 
total, with English private banks, about 19,000,000. ; 
and with the bank of England, above 39,000,000/. 
By the new Companies Act, passed 1 Aug. 1879, 
unlimited companies may register as limited. 


Chief London Banks. Founded. 


London and Westminster (becomes limi ted, 1879) 1834 
London Joint-Stock ‘ F 2 : 1836 
Commercial Bank of London : : 1836 
London and County (becomes limited, 1879) oy 
Union Bank of London ; : - 1839 
City Bank (ditto, 1880) 1855 
Bank of London . , : 3 : 45 
Joint-Stock Banks, Jan. 1860: — 
England and Wales (including London) 94 
Scotland . : ; x ; , : : eerie: 
Treland ; : : 2 d Z : : et: 
British and foreign colonial banks with offices in 
London : 8 


BANK HOLIDAYS AOT passed 25 May, 
1871, chiefly by the instrumentality of sir John 
Lubbock. 


Bank Howmways.—England and Ireland: Easter Mon- 
day; Monday in Whitsun-week; first Monday in 
August; 26 December (if a week day).—Scotland : 
New Year's day ; Christmas day (if either falls on Sun- 
day, the following Monday to be a bank ‘holiday) ; Good 
Friday ; first Monday in May and August. 


BANKRUPT (signifying either bank or bench 
broken), a trader declared to be unable to pay his 
just debts. The laws on the subject (1543, 1571 et 
seq.) were consolidated and amended in 182 , 1849, 
1852, 1854, 1861, 1868, 1869, 1883. See Dedtors. 


Lord Chancellor Thurlow refused a bankrupt his 
certificate, because he had lost five pounds at one 
time in gaming . ; - : : 17 July, 

Enacted that members of the house of commons 
becoming bankrupt, and not paying their debts 
in full, should vacate their seats . ; , . 1812 

Lord Eldon’s Act appointing commissioners . 1825 

New Bankruptcy Court, (including a court ‘of 
review,” 3 judges) erected by 2 Will. IV. c. 56 
(Lord Brougham’s Act); official assignees ap- 
pointed, &e. 3 ~ : : ; : 2) ORE 

Bills for reforming bankruptcy law were in yain 
brought before parliament. ; ; - 1859, 1860 

Bill by the lord chancellor Westbury (formerly sir 
R. Bethell), 24 & 25 Vict. ec. 134, passed (1861); 
great changes made ; the court for relief of insol. 
vent debtors abolished, and increased powers 
given to the commissioners in bankruptcy, &c. ; 
the new orders issued. : 3 a pra, Oct 

By Lord Hatherley’s Bankruptcy Act passed 9 Aug. 
1869, @ new bankruptcy court was established in 
place of the commissioners’, which sat last time, 
when above 300 petitions of bankruptcy were 
received, 31 Dec. 1869. ‘‘ Paid trustee system,” 
clauses 125, 126, termed “a gentlemanly way of 
getting rid of debts.” The new J udge, the hon. 
James Bacon, sat. s A : hie Lie cul 

Justice Giffard, the judge of the Bankruptcy Appeal 
Court, decided (in the case of the duke of New- 
castle) that a peer can be made a bankrupt, Nov. 
1869, which decision was affirmed on appeal to 
the house of lords in the following year ; other 
petitions against peers have been filed. It was 
decided that bankrupts cannot sit in the house 
of peers . : : 5 : 3 to Feb. 1871 


1788 


1861 


1870 


in the Union Bank of London. Mr. George Pullinger, a 
cashier, confessed himself guilty of forgery and fraud, and 
was sentenced to 20 years’ imprisonment. 

On 18 Feb. 1861, it was discovered that John Durden, 
a clerk of the Commercial Bank of London, had robbed 
his employers of 67,000l., of which 46,oool. might be 
recovered. 

In Dec. 1864, J. W. Terry and Thomas Burch, manager 
and secretary of the Unity Bank, were committed on 
a charge of conspiracy for fabricating accounts ; but 
acquitted on their trial. ; 


G. 


BANNATYNE CLUB. 


82 


BAPTISM. 


Bankruptcy DIsQvaLiFIcATION Act disqualifies a 
peer from sitting or voting in parliament, passed 


13. July, 1871 
Irish bankruptcy laws consolidated in 1836, and 
further amended in ‘ ; : ; d Cer Oey 
Scotch bankruptcy laws consolidated in 1856, and 
further amended in P : : ; eh tibare 
New Bankruptey Act for Ireland, passed . 6 Aug. 1872 
Four Bankruptcy Bills introduced by Lord Chan- 
eellor Cairns, and withdrawn . : 1876—So 


Bankruptcies have diminished through great nuim- 
ber of liquidations by arranged compositions ; 
many said to be fraudulent; 3651 of these in 
1870 ; 11,976 in 1879; about 20,c00,000/. wasted. 

New bankruptcy bill brought in by Mr. Chamber- 
lain . 3 : : ; 8 April 1881 (dropped) 

New Bankruptcy Act passed 25 Aug.,1883, 46 & 47 
Vict. c. 52, places bankrupts assets in charge of 
Board of Trade, and makes other important 
changes. Reported to work well. ; : . 1885 

The courtin Portugal Street closed ; business trans- 
ferred to High Court of Justice, Jan.; new judge 


first sat . “ : 18 Feb. 1884 
NUMBER OF BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN. 
1700 38 | 1863 England . 8470 
1725 416] 1864 ditto . . 7224 
1750 432 | 1867 ditto . 8994 
1775 520] 1869 ~=ditto 10,396 
1800 2 . 1339 | 1873. dittot. O15 
1810 about 2000 | 1876 = ditto 976 
1820 : . 1358] 1877 ditto. 967 
1825* . 2683] 1878 ditto - 1084 
1830 . 1467] 1879 + ditto . - 1156 
1840 ; : - 1308] 1880 ditto 995 
1845 England - 1028 | 1881 ditto . 1005 
1850 ditto . - 1298] 1882 ditto 995 
1857 ditto . 1488 | 1883 ditto . 1046 
7860 ditto . . 1268 
In 1857 there were in Scotland 453 
ae = >»,  Jreland : 73 
ee 9 ,, United Kingdom 2014 
kal ofo Pe Mee » scotland. 445 
* aa »,  Lreland } 113 
an ‘5 », United Kingdom 1826 


BANNATYNE CLUB, named after George 
Bannatyne (the publisher), was established in 1823 
by sir Walter Scott and others, for printing works 
illustrative of the history, antiquities, and litera- 
ture of Scotland, of which about 113 volumes were 
issued: dissolved, 1860. 


aN ER CROSS MURDER. See Trials 
1879. 

BANNERET, KNIGHT, a dignity between 
baron and knight, anciently conferred by the king 
under the royal standard on the field ofbattle. Its 
origin is of uncertain time: Edmondson dates it 
736; but it was probably created by Edward I. 
John Chandos is said to have been made a banneret 
by the Black Prince and the king of Castile at Na- 
jara, 3 April, 1367. The dignity was conferred on 
John Smith, who rescued the royal standard at 
Edgehill fight, 23 Oct. 1642. It fell into disuse, 
but was revived by George III. for sir William 
Erskine, in 1764, and for admiral Pye and captains 
Knight, Bickerton, and Vernon, in 1773. 


BANNERS were common to all nations. The 
Jewish tribes had standards or banners—N20n. ii. 
(1491 B.c.) The standard of Constantine bore the in- 


* According to a return to parliament made at the 
close of Feb. 1826, there had become bankrupt in the 
Sour months preceding, 59 banking-houses, comprising 144 
partners ; and 20 other banking establishments had been 
declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued 
to add from seventy to a hundred merchants, traders, 
and manufacturers to the bankrupt list. This was the 
period of bubble speculation, and of unprecedented com- 
mercial embarrassment and ruin. 

+ Liquidations now preferred to bankruptcy. 


scription, In hoe signo vinces— By this sign : 
shalt conquer,”’ under the figure of the cross. 

Cross. The magical banner of the Danes (said to 
been a black raven on a red ground) was take 
Alfred when he defeated Hubba, 878. St. Mar 
cap, and afterwards the celebrated auritlamm 


| oriflamme, were the standards of France a 


1100; see Aurifiamma, Standards, &e. 


BANNOCKBURN (Stirlingshire), the si 
two battles: (1) between Robert Bruce of Scot 
and Edward Il. of England, 24 June, 1314. 
army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 ; that of Ed 
of 100,000 men, of whom 52,000 were archers. 


| English crossed a rivulet to the attack, and E 


having dug and covered pits, they fell into ft 
and were thrown into confusion. The rout 
complete: the English king narrowly escaped, 
50,000 were killed or taken prisoners. (2) 
Sauchieburn, near here, James III. was defe 
and slain on I1 June, 1488, by his rebel 
nobles. 


BANNS, in the feudal law, were a so 
proclamation of any kind: hence arose the pr 
custom of asking banns, or giving notice b 
marriage; said to have been introduced inte 
English church about 1200. The proper tin 
publishing banns in the church was the subje 
much discussion in 1867. 


BANQUETING-HOUSH, Whitehall, 
don, built by Inigo Jones, about 1619. 


BANTAM (Java). Here a British factory 
established by captain Lancaster, in 1603. 
English and Danes were driven from their fact 
by the Dutch in 1683. Bantam surrendered ti 
British in 1811, but was restored to the Dute 
the peace in 1814. 


BANTINGISM, see Corpulence. 
BANTRY BAY (S. Ireland), where a Fr 


fleet, bringing succour to the adherents of J: 
II., attacked the English under admiral Her 
1 May, 1689: the latter retired to form in line 
were not pursued. A French squadron of s 
sail of the line and two frigates, armed en j 
and seventeen transports, anchored here fora 
days, without effect, Dec. 1796. Mutiny of 
Bantry Bay squadron under admiral Mitchell 
in Dec. 1801. In Jan. 1802, twenty-two of 
mutineers were tried on board the Gladiato 
Portsmouth, when seventeen were condemne 
death, of whom eleven were executed; the ot 
were sentenced to receive each 200 lashes. 

executions took place on board the Majestic, 
taur, Formidable, Téméraire, and L’ Achille, 
18 Jan. 1802. 


BAPAUMH, N. FRANCE, the site of sx 
indecisive engagements between the French 
of the north under Faidherbe, and the Ger 
saat Manteuffel; the French retreated, 2, 3 | 
1871. 


BAPTISM, the ordinance of admission 
the church, practised by all Christian sects ex 
Quakers. John the Baptist baptized Christ, 
(Matt. iii.) Infant baptism is mentioned by 
nus about 97. In the reign of Constantine, 
baptisteries were built and baptism was perfor 
by dipping the person all over. Inthe westspr 
ling was adopted. Much controversy has a1 
since 1831 (particularly in 1849 and 1850), in 
church of England, respecting baptismal regen 
tion, which the Arches’ Court of Canter! 
decided to be a doctrine of the church of Engl 


af 


BAPTISTS. 


e Trials, 1849, and note. Demanding fees for 
tisms was made unlawful by an act passed 18 
y, 1872. 


BAPTISTS (see <Anabaptists). A sect dis- 
guished by their opinions respecting (1) the 
per selects, and (2) the proper mode of baptism : 
» former they affirm to be those who are able to 
ke a profession of faith; the latter to be total 
mersion. There are seven sections of Baptists— 
minian, Calvinistic (or Particular), &c. The 
t Baptist church formed in London was about 
8, They published their confession of faith in 
3; revised in 1689. In 1851 they had 130 
pels in London and 2789 (with sittings for 
9333 persons) in England and Wales. Rhode 
and, America, was settled by Baptists in 1635. 
ticular Baptist Fund =. < < 5 Set T7 
rtist College, Regent’s Park, founded p . 1810 
C. H. Spurgeon’s great Baptist tabernacle, New- 
igton Butts, opened . é A . 31 March, 1861 
saptist Pastors’ College near it, founded by Mr. 
purgeon ; < : : és - 14 Oct. 1873 
reat tabernacle at Shoreditch (rev. Wm. Cuff), 
pened , s ‘ : ; : 11 Nov. 1879 
Jnited Kingdom 3,738 chapels ; 304,802 baptised 
embers in . : 3 ? : ‘ 1883 
3AR suR AuBE, N. E. France. Here the 
neh, under Oudinot and Macdonald, were de- 
ed by the allies, 27 Feb. 1814. 


3ARBADOBES, a West India Island, one of the 
ndward isles discovered by the Portuguese about 
O, taken possession of by the English 1005» and 
led by sir Wm. Courteen, who founded James- 
n, 1625. As many royalists settled here, the 
nd was taken by the parliamentarians in 1652. 
ulation, 1876, 162,042: white, 16,560; co- 
ed, 145,482; 1881, 171,889. 


readful hurricane, more than 4ooo inhabitants 


rished . 10 Oct. .1780 


rge plantation with all its buildings destroyed, 
the land removing from its original site to 
other, and covering everything in its peregrina- 
em A ‘ ; : : t : 17 Oct. 1784 
inundation, Nov. 1795; and two great fires, 
May and Dee. 1796 
opric established . F F ; ; ay) ab 1824 
ul devastation, with the loss of thousands of 
es, and of immense property, by a hurricane 
to Aug. 1831 
ly 17,000 persons died of cholera. : - 1854 
verty to the amount of about 300,000l. destroyed 
a fire at Bridgetown ; : - 14 Feb. 1860 
t increase in growth of cotton, 1864-5. 


srnor, James Walker ; PATROL 
> Rawson W. Rawson ; ‘ : . 1868 
i John Pope Hennessy . 1875 


vosed confederation of the Windward Isles ; sup- 
rted by the governor in a speech, 3 March; op- 
sed by the planters . ; : - March, 1876 
coloured population ignorantly expecting ad- 
ntage from the confederation, rise, plundering 
d destroying much property and cattle ; negroes 
led and wounded by police 21, 22 April, 
t panic among the planters ; the governor and 
rgy said to have acted judiciously ; peace re- 
red ae : : 5 : : 24 April, 
;0vernor exonerated from serious blame July, 

of 450 rioters; 82 punished (17 penal servi- 
€; others light sentences) 12—21 Oct. 

Geo. C. Strahan appointed governor Nov. 
enry Bulwer, governor : a é as 
‘illiam Robinson, governor 


ARBARY, in N. Africa, considered to com- 
_ Algeria, Morocco, Fez, Tunis, and Tripoli, 
their dependencies. Piratical’ states (nomi- 


_ subject to Turkey) were founded on the coast 
wbarossa, about 1518. 


.RBERS lived in Greece in the 5th century, 


83 BAREBONE’S PARLIAMENT. 


| at Llanrwst, 1-3 Aug. ; at Menai Bridge, Aug. 1878 


and at Rome in the 3rd century B.c. In England, 
formerly, the business of a surgeon was united to 
the barber’s, and he was denominated a BARBER- 
SurGEoN. A London company was formed in 
1308, and incorporated, 1462. This union was 
partially dissolved in 1540, and wholly so in 1745, 
“No person using any shaving or barbery in Lon- 
don shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or 
other matter, except only drawing of teeth.” 32 
Hen. VIII. 1540. 


BARCA (N. Africa), the Greek Barce, a colony 
of Cyrene. It was successively subjugated by the 
Persians, Egyptians, and Saracens. In 1 550 the 
sultan Solyman combined Barca with the newly 
conquered pashalik of Tripoli. 


BARCELONA (N. E. Spain), an ancient 
maritime city, said to have been rebuilt by Hamil- 
car Barca, father of the great Hannibal, about 2 
B.C. It was held by the Romans, Goths, Moors, 
and Franks, and, with the province of which it is 
the capital, was made an independent country 
about A.D. 864, and incorporated with Aragon, 
1164, the last count becoming king. The city has 
suffered much by war. The siege by the French 
in 1694, was relieved by the approach of the Eng- 
lish fleet, commanded by admiral Russell; but the 
city was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1706. 
It was bombarded and taken by the duke of Ber- 
wick and the French in 1714, and was taken by 
Napoleon in 1808, and retained till 1814. It re- 
volted against the queen in 1841, and was bom- 
barded and taken in Dec. 1842, by Espartero. Fre- 
quent insurrections here; one suppressed Jan. 
1874. An exhibition opened by the king Alfonso 
XIE. 4 March 1877. Barcelona very prosperous, 
1879. Violent riots on account of French treaty 
Mar. ; Catalonia in a state of siege, 30 March, 
1882. Barcelona tranquil, 1 April, 1882. . 


BARCLAY, Capratn, see Pedestrianism. 
BARDESANISTS, followers of Bardesanes, 


of Mesopotamia, who embraced the errors of Valen. 
tinus, after refuting them, and added denial of the 
incarnation, resurrection, &c., about 175. 


BARDS. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard 
by Homer ; and we find bards, according to Strabo, 
among the Romans before the age of Augustus. 
The ]Velsh bards formed an hereditary order, regu- 
lated, it is said, by laws, enacted about 940 and 
1078. They lost their privileges at the conquest 
by Edward I. in 1284. The institution was revived 
by the Tudor sovereigns ; and their Eisteddfods (or 
meetings) have been and are still frequently held ; 
at Swansea, Aug. 1863; at Llandudno, Aug. 1864 5 
in the vale of Conway, 7 Aug. 1865 ; at Chester, 4 
Sept. 1866; at Carmarthen, 3 Sept. 1867 ; at Ruthin, 
5-7 Aug. 1868; at Rhyl, 8-12 Aug. 1870; at Port- 
madoc, Aug. 1872; at Mold, Aug. 1873; at various 
places in 1874-1876; at Carnarvon, 21 Aug. 1877 ; 
at Conway, 6 Aug. and at other places, 1879. The 
Cymmrodorion Society held an Eisteddfod + at 


| Carnarvon, 23 Aug. 1880. National Eisteddfod 


at Merthyr-Tydvill, 30 Aug. 1881; at Denbigh, 
22 Aug. 1882; at Cardiff, 6 Aug. 1883; Liverpool, 
16 Sept. 1884. The Gwyneddigion Society of Bards 
was founded in 1770. Turlogh O’Carolan, the last 
of the Irish bards, died in 1738. Chambers. 


BAREBONE’S PARLIAMENT. Crom- 
well, supreme in the three kingdoms, summoned 
122 persons, such as he thought he could manage, 
who, with six from Scotland and five from Ireland, 


G 2 


BAREILLY. 


met, as a parliament, 4 July, 1653. It obtained its 
appellation from a nickname given to one of its 
members, a leather-seller, named ‘ Praise-God 
Barbon.’”’ The majority evinced much sense and 
spirit, proposing to reform abuses, improve the ad- 
ministration of the law, &c. The parliament was 
suddenly dissolved, 13 Dec. 1653, and Cromwell 
made lord protector. 


BAREILLY, province of Delhi (N. W. India), 
ceded to the Kast India company by the ruier of 
Oude in 1801. A mutiny at Bareilly, the capital, 
was suppressed in April, 1816. On 7 May, 1858, 
it was taken from the cruel sepoy rebels. 


BARFLEUR (N. France), where William, 
duke of Normandy, equipped the fleet by which he 
conquered England, 1066. Near it, William, duke 
of Normandy, son of Henry I., in his passage from 
Normandy, was shipwrecked, 25 Nov. 1120, when 
the prince, his bride, and many others perished. Bar- 
fleur was destroyed by the English in the campaign 
in which they won the battle of Crecy, 1346. The 
French navy was destroyed near the cape by 
admiral Russell, after the victory of La Hogue, 19 
May, 1692. 


BARI (S. Italy), the Barium of Horace, was, 
in the 9th century, a stronghold of the Saracens, 
and was captured by the emperor Louis II., a 
descendant of Charlemagne, in 871. In the 10th 
century it became subject to the eastern empire, 
and remained so till it was taken by Robert Guis- 
card, the Norman, about 1060. A great ecclesiastical 
council was held here on I Oct. 1098, when the 
Jilioque article of the creed and the procession of the 
Holy Spirit were the subjects of discussion. 


BARING ISLAND, Arctic Sea, discovered 
by captain Penny in 1850-1, and so named by him 
after sir Francis Baring, first lord of the admiralty 
in 1849. 


BARIUM (Greek, darys, heavy), a metal found 
abundantly as carbonate and sulphate. The oxide 
baryta was first recognised as an earth distinct from 
lime by Scheele, in 1774; and the metal was first 
obtained by Humphry Davy, in 1808. Watts. 


BARK, see Jesuits’ Bark. 
BARLAAMITES, followers of Barlaam, a 


learned Calabrian monk of the order of St. Basil, 
who maintained various peculiar tenets, attacked 
the Greek monks, supported the Latin against the 
Greek church in a controversy at Constantinople, 
1337, and acted as the emperor’s envoy in an attempt 
to reconcile the churches in 1339. He died about 


1348. 
BARMECIDES, a powerful Persian family, 


celebrated for virtue and courage, were massacred 
through the jealousy of the caliph Haroun-al- 
Raschid, about 802. His visir Giafar was a Bar- 
mecide. The phrase Barmecide (or imaginary) 
feast originated in the story of the barber’s sixth 
brother, in the Arabian Nights’ Entertainments. 


BARNABITES, an order of monks, established 
in Milan about 1530, were much engaged in in- 
structing youth, relieving the sick and aged, and 
converting heretics. 


BARNARD’S, Srr Joann, Act (7 Geo. II., 
c. 8), entitled, ‘‘an act to prevent the infamous 
practice of stock-jobbing,”’ was passed in 1734, and 
repealed in 1860. Sir John Barnard (born 1685, 
died 1764) was an eminent lord mayor of London. 


84 


BARONETS. 
BARNARDO HOMES. Dr. T. J. Barr 


of German extraction, born in Ireland, ea 
London, and in 1866 began energetically tc 
mote the welfare of homeless children. 


His home for boys at Stepney, founded 1870, w; 
lowed by one for girls, at Barkingside, Essex, 
infirmary, schools, &c. ; all were reported succ 
in 1874. 

His disinterestedness and management having be 
pugned, he gave up the management to trustees 
invited investigation. The arbiters (Canon Mill 
Messrs. J. B. Maule and Wm. Graham) in theirr 
after commenting on the imperfect evidence, 
mended the charities, and generally exonerate 
Barnardo, 15 Oct. 1877. 

See Coffee Palaces and Kast End Juvenile Mission. 


BARNET, Hertfordshire. Here, at Glad: 
heath, Edward IY. gained a decisive victory 
the Lancastrians, on EKaster-day, 14 April, 
when the earl of Warwick and his brother the 
quis of Montacute, or Montague, and 10,000 
were slain. A column commemorative of this | 
has been erected at the meeting of the St. Al 
and Hatfield roads. 


BARODA. See India, 1874—5. 
BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florer 


knowing that water did not rise in a pump th 
what was supposed to be nature’s abhorrence 
vacuum, imitated the action of a pump with 
cury, and made the first barometer, about 

Pascal’s experiments (1646) enhanced the yal 
the discovery by applying it to the measurem« 
heights. Wheel barometers were contrived in 
pendent barometers in 1695; marine in 1700; 
many improvements have been made since. I 
aneroid barometer (from a, no, and neros, wa 
no liquid is employed; the atmospheric pre 
being exerted on a metallic spring. Its inve 
(attributed to Conté, in 1798, but due to Vidi, wh 
in April, 1866), excited much attention in 18 
Barometers were placed at N.E. coast statio 
1860, by the duke of Northumberland and oth 


Mr. James B. Jordan’s very delicate glycerine baror 
in which one inch is expanded to nearly eleven it 
was described to the Royal Society 22 Jan., 188 
was set up during the year at Kew and other p 
The publication of two-hourly variations of 0 
the office begun in the Times 25 Oct., 1880. 


BARON, formerly the only title in our pee 
now the lowest. Its original name in Eng 
Vavasour, was changed by the Saxons into 7’ 
and by the Normans into Baron. Many of 
rank had undoubtedly assisted in, or been | 
moned to parliament (in 1205); but the first 
cept found is of no higher date than the 49 
III. 1265. The first raised to this dignity bye 
was John de Beauchamp, created baron of Ki 
minster, by Richard II., 1387. The barons 
arms against king John, and compelled him tos 
the great charter of our liberties, and the chart 
our forests, at Runnymede, near Windsor, J 
1215. Charles II. granted a coronet to barot 
his restoration, 1660. 


BARONETS, the first in rank among the 
try, and the only knighthood that is heredi 
were instituted by James I., 1611. ‘The rebe 
in Ulster seems to have given rise to this ord 
having been required of a baronet, on his erea 
to pay into the exchequer as much as would 
tain ‘‘thirty soldiers three years at eightpen 
day in the province of Ulster in Ireland.” It 
further required that a baronet should be a ge 


‘ 
{ 


| 


BARONS. 


_ born, and have a clear estate of 1000/. per 
mm. The first baronet was sir Nicholas Bacon 
ose successor is therefore styled Primus Baronet- 
m Anglit), 22 May, 1611. The baronets of 
md were created in 1619; the first being sir 
icis Blundell.—Baronets of Nova Scotia were 
bed, 1625; sir Robert Gordon the first baronet. 
1 baronets created since the Irish union in 1801 
fthe United Kingdom. Betham’s ‘ Baronet- 
of England,”’ 5 vols. 4to. 1801-5. 


ARONS’ WAR, arose in consequence of the 
lessness of Henry III. and the oppression of his 
urites in 1258. The barons, headed by Simon de 
tfort, earl of Leicester, and Gilbert de Clare, earl 
loucester, met at Oxford in 1262, and enacted 
ites to which the king objected. In 1263 their 
ites were in vain referred to the decision of 
s 1X.of France. War broke out, and on 14 May, 
, the king’s party was totally defeated at Lewes; 
De Montfort became the virtual ruler of the 
dom. The war was renewed ; and at the battle 
vesham, 4 Aug. 1265, De Montfort was stain, 
the barons were defeated; but they did not 
er their final submission till 1268. A history 
lis war was published by Mr. W. H. Blaauw, 
44; 2nd ed., 1871. 


AROSSA, see Barvosa. 


ARRACKS (from ‘‘ Barague—Hutte que font 
idats en campagne pour se mettre a couvert,’’) 
not numerous in this country until about 
A superintendent-general was appointed in 
, since when commodious barracks have been 
_in the various garrison towns and central 
‘8 of the empire.—A report, censuring the con- 
n of many barracks, was presented to parlia- 
, in 1858; and great improvements were 
ed under the direction of Mr. Sidney (after- 
s lord) Herbert; see Aldershot. 


{RREL-ORGANS, see Organs. 


\RRATRY, isageneral term forthe stirring up 
and quarrels among the people. Maintenance 
officious intermeddling in a quarrel or suit; by 
ing either party with money or otherwise. It 
nishable by old statutes (of Richard II., and 
8), with fine and imprisonment. Champerty is 
egal bargain with either plaintiff or defendant 
we in the profits of the matter in dispute. 
radlaugh’s action against Mr. Newdegate for main- 
mee in the case of Clarke v. Bradlaugh (see Parlia- 
t, 1881) was dismissed, 20 Sept. 1881. 


|! 

.RRICADES, mounds formed of trees and 
| for military defence. During the wars of 
eague in France, in 1588, the people made 
‘ades by means of chains, casks, &c., and com- 
. the royal troops to retire. During the war 
| Fronde, a barricade was erected in Paris on 
g. 1648. Barricades composed of overturned 
es, &c., were erected in Paris in the insur- 
‘ns of 27-30 July, 1830, and 23-26 June, 1848, 
sanguinary conflicts took place. 


‘RRIER TREATY, by which the Low 
‘ries were ceded to the emperor Charles VI., 
signed by the British, Imperial, and Dutch 
ers, 15 Nov. 1715. 


RRISTERS are said to have been first 
ited by Edward I., about 1291, but there is 
‘mention of professional advocates. They are of 
_s ranks, as king’s or queen’s counsel, serjeants, 


hich see. Students for the bar must keep a 


5 BARTHOLOMEW. 


certain number of terms at the inns of court, pre- 
viously to being called; and by the regulations of 
1853 must pass a public examination. 


BARROSA, or Barossa (S. Spain). The 
British army, commanded by major-general sir 
Thomas Graham, afterwards lord Lynedoch, totally 
defeated the French under marshal Victor, 5 March, 
1811, the French leaving nearly 3000 dead, six 
pieces of cannon, and an eagle, the first that the 
British had taken ; the loss of the British was 1169 
men killed and wounded. 


BARROW ISLAND (Arctic Sea), discovered 
by Captain Penny in 1850-51, and named by him 
in honour of John Barrow, Esq., son of sir John. 


BARROW-IN-FURNESS (Lancashire), in 
1847, was a village with a population of about 330, 
which, in 1867, had increased to above 17,000, and in 
1874 to 35,000, in consequence of the large manu- 
facture of iron from the ore (hematite) found there. 
On 19 Sept. 1867, new docks were opened in the 
presence of the dukes of Devonshire and Buccleuch 
Sy eee, of the land), Mr, Gladstone, and 
others. 


BARROW’S STRAITS (N. Arctic Sea), ex- 
plored by Edwd. Parry, as far as Melville island, 
lat. 74° 26’N., and long. 113° 47’ W. The strait, 
named after sir John Barrow, was entered on 
2 Aug., 1819. The thermometer was 55° below 
zero of Fahrenheit. 


BARROWISTS, 


Brownists, which see. 


BARROWS, circular or oblong mounds, found 
in Britain and other countries, were ancient sepul- 
chres. Sir Richard Hoare caused several barrows 
near Stonehenge to be opened; in them were found 
Celtic ornaments, such as beads, buckles, and 
brooches, in amber, wood, and gold: Nov. 1808. 
230 barrows were opened and discoveries made, 
chiefly in Yorkshire, 1866 e¢ seg., under the super- 
intendence of the Rev. Canon Wm. Greenwell, who 
published his elaborate work, “ British Barrows,’’ 
in December, 1877. 

Barrows at Aldbourne, North Wilts, were opened by 
canon Greenwell and Rev. Walter Money, Sept.-Oct. 
1878. 

Caner Greenwell gave urns and other results of his ex- 
plorations to the British Museum in 1879. 


a name given to the 


BARS in music appear in Agricola’s “ Musica’ 
Instrumentalis,’”’ 1529; and in Morley’s “ Practical 
Music,” 1597, for score music. Henry Lawes used 
them in his ‘* Ayres and Dialogues,’”’ 1653. 


BARTHOLOMEW, ST., THE APosTLeE, 
martyred 71. The festival (24 Aug. 0. s., 3 Sept. 
N.S.) is said to have been instituted 1130. 


Monastery of St. Bartholomew (of Austin Friars) 
founded by Rahere, a minstrel of Henry I. + X10g 

The hospital founded by him . ‘ . about 1123 

Refounded after the dissolution of monasteries (it 
then contained 1oo beds, with x physician and 3 


surgeons), 1544 ; incorporated : ‘ - 1546 
William Harvey, physiologist, physician here 1609-43 
Earliest record of medical school : - 1662 
Hospital rebuilt by subscription & 1920 
Medical college founded : : ’ 4 wake ATy 
5803 in-patients; 160,520 out-patients treated, 653 

beds - 1878 


New buildings for Medical School, museum, &ce., 
opened by the prince of Wales 3 Nov. 1879 
Mr. Charles Kettlewell bequeaths 10,000. to erect a 
convalescent hospital, conditionally, announced 
Aug. 1881 


BARTHOLOMEW. 86 


BASTARN A. 


Bartholomew the Great, St., near Smithfield. The 
building of the church, said to have begun rro2, 
restored by subscription and reopened 29 March, 1868 

Bartholomew, Fair. The charter was granted by 
Henry I., 1133, and was long held in Smithfield, 
which see. The shows were discontinued in 1850, 
and the fair was proclaimed for the last time in 
1855. In 1858 Mr. H. Morley published his ‘‘ His- 
tory of Bartholomew Fair,” with many illustra- 
tions. 

The Massacre or St. BaRTHOLOMEW commenced 
at Paris on the night of the festival 24 AUg. 1572 

According to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, or French 
Protestants, including women and children, were 
murdered throughout the kingdom by secret orders 
from Charles IX., at the instigation of his mother, 
the queen dowager, Catherine de Medicis. 

La Popélionére calculates the victims at 20,000 ; 
Adriani, De Serres, and De Thou say 30,000 ; 
Davila states them at 40,000 ; and Péréfixe makes 
the number 100,000. Above soo persons of rank, 
and 10,000 of inferior condition, perished in Paris | 
alone, besides those slaughtered in the provinces. 
Pope Gregory XIII. ordered a Te Dewm to be per- 
formed, with other rejoicings. 


BARTHOLOMEW, ST., a West Indian 
island, held by Sweden. It was colonised by the 
French in 1648; and has been several times taken 
and restored ly the British. It was ceded to Sweden 
by France in i785; captured by the English and 
restored, 1801; ceded to France, 1877. 


BARTHOLOMITHS, a religious order ex- 
pelled from Armenia, settled at Genoa 1307, where 
1s preserved in the Bartholomite church the image 
which Christ is said to have sent to king Abgarus. 
The order suppressed by pope Innocent X. 1650. 


BARTON AQUEDUCT (near Manchester) 
was constructed by James Brindley, to carry the 
Bridgwater canal over the Irwell, at a height of 
39 feet above the river ; completed in 1761. 


BASEL (Basle, French Bale), a rich city in 
Switzerland. The 18th general council sat here 
from Dec. 1431 to May, 1443. Many important 
reforms in the church were proposed, but not 
carried into effect : among others the union of the 
Greek and Roman churches. The university was 
founded in 1460. Treaties of peace between France, 
Spain, and Prussia were concluded here in 1795. It 
was made a free imperial city 1392, but joined the 
Swiss confederation 1501. 


BASHI-BAZOUKS, irregular Turkish troops, 


employed partially in the Crimean war, 1854-6. 


BASIENTELLO (S. Naples). Here the army 
of Otho II., in an ambuscade, was nearly cut to 
pieces by the Grecks and Saracens 13 July, 982; 
the emperor barely escaped. 


BASILIANS, an order of monks, which ob- 
tained its name from St. Basil (who died 380) ; was 
reformed by pope Gregory, in 1569.—A sect, founded 
by Basil, a physician of Bulgaria, which rejected 
the books of Moses, the eucharist, and baptism, and 
are said to have had everything in common, IIIO. 
Basil was burnt alive in 1118. 


BASILICA, a body of law, in Greek, in- 
cluding the Institutes of Justinian, the Pandects 
&e., arranged by order of the emperor Basil the 
Macedonian, and his son Leo the Philosopher, 
875—911. The term basilica (palace) was applied to 
places of worship by the early Christian emperors. 


BASILIKON DORON (Royal Gift), pre- 
cepts on the art of government, composed by 
James I. of England for his son Henry, and first 


works of this monarch were published at Lon: 
1616-20, in one vol. fol. 


BASQUE PROVINCES, N. W. Spain ( 
cay, Guipuscoa, and Alava). The Basques, < 
sidered to be descendants of the ancient Iberi, y 
termed Vascones by the Romans, whom they; 
cessfully resisted. They were subdued with ¢ 
difficulty by the Goths about 580, and were un 
to Castile mn the 13th and 14th centuries. T 
language is conjectured to be of Tartar origin, 


BASQUE ROADS (W. France). Four 
French ships of the line, riding at anchor h 
were attacked by lords Gambier and Cochrane 
latter commanding the fireships), and all y 
destroyed, I11—29 April, 1809. Cochrane ae 
Gambier of neglecting to support him. Ata eo 
martial, 26 July—4 Aug., lord Gambier was 
quitted. 


BASSANO (N. Italy). Here the Austri 
under Wurmser, were defeated by the French w 
Massena, 8 Sept. 1796. 


BASSEIN, Bombay; a Mahratta town, ta 
by the British, 1774, 1780; finally annexed 
them, 1818. By treaty here, 31 Dec. 1802, t 
engaged to support the peishwa’s rights, 


BASSETERRE-ROADS, St. Christoph 
West Indies. Here the French admiral, the co 
de Grasse, was repulsed with loss in three despe 
attacks on the British fleet, commanded by 
Thomas Graves, 25, 26 Jan. 1782. 


BASSETT, or BASSETTE, or Pour et Co 
a game at cards, said to have been invented | 
noble Venetian, in the 15th century; introd 
into France, 1674. 


BASSOON, a wooden double-reed wind ins 
ment, said to have been invented by Afrani 
canon of Ferrara, early in the sixteenth centur 


BASSORAH, BussoraHu, or BASRAH (. 
Minor), a Turkish city, founded by the ea 
Omar, about 635. It has been several times ta 
and retaken by the Persians and Turks. 


BASS ROCK, an isle in the Frith of F 
(S. Scotland), was granted to the Lauders, 1: 
purchased for a state prison, 1671; taken by 
Jacobites, 1690; surrendered, 1694; granted to 
Dalrymples, 1706. 

BASS’S STRAIT, AvstrRaxiA. Mr. B 
surgeon of the Leliance, in au open boat from | 
Jackson, in 1796, penetrated as far as Wes 
Port, and affirmed that a strait existed betw 
New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land. Li 
tenant Flinders circumnavigated Van Diem 
Land, and named the strait after Mr. Bass, 179 


BASTARD, a child not born in lawful wedl 
An attempt in England, in 1236, to legitimate | 
tard children by the subsequent marriage of 

arents, failed. The barons assembled in the] 
iament of Merton answered : Wolwmus leges an 
mutari (** We will not have the laws of Engl 
changed’’). Women concealing their childr 
birth deemed guilty of murder, 21 James L, 1 
In Scotland bastard children could not dispos 
their movable estates by will until 1836. A1 
act, facilitating the claims of mothers, and mak 
several provisions for proceeding in bastardy ¢a 
was passed 1845. ‘The Bastardy Laws Amendm 
Act was passed 10 Aug. 1872. 


BASTARN A, a warlike tribe in Podolia. 
Moldavia, hired by Perseus, king of Macedon 
his wars with Rome, 168 B.c.; driven across 


published at Edinburgh in 1599. The collected | Danube by M. Crassus for their encroachments, ; 


e | 
ny 


BASTILLE. 


i BATHOMETER. 


BASTILLE, Paris, a castle built by Charles 
., king of France, in 1369, for the defence of Paris 
‘ainst the English ; completed in 1383, and after- 
fee used as a state prison. Henry IV. and his 
‘teran army assailed it in vain in the siege of 
aris, during the war (1587—1594). _‘‘ The man 
ith the iron mask,’’ the most mysterious prisoner 


own, died here, 19 Noy. 17033 see Iron Mask, On 
e was pulled down 


- “yessaelk 1789, the Bastil 
’ the populace; the governor and other officers 
ore conducted to the Place de Gréve ; their hands 
d heads were cut off, and the heads carried on 
<es through the streets. 


‘BASUTO LAND, near Orange River, South 
‘rica, including the Transkei territory, was an- 
xed to Cape Colony in 1871. Population, whites, 
8; natives, 127,223. 

iroso, a warlike chief, entrenches himself on a 
‘mountain and makes predatory sallies, Feb, et 

seq. ; his stronghold captured and himself killed 


during the fight 4 3 5 A 20 Noy. 1879 
e Basutos ordered to give up their arms ; many 
resist ; Letsi, Molappo, and others who _ sur- 

vender, attacked by Masupha, Lerothodi, and 

others, June, July; who make war on the colonist 
forces... : R ‘ 7 : - 13 Sept. 1880 
rothodi defeated in attack on Mafeteng by col. 

| Jarrington 3 ; : £ : 21 Sept.. ,, 
ifeteng, besieged, relieved by col. Clarke, after 

_v severe conflict : : f om rg Ott.) 5, 

rothodi’s village stormed and his forces dispersed 

, 22 OCh. 4; 
letsane’s stronghold stormed by colonel aaicon 
| 37 Oct..,, 

. Hope, magistrate, and others treacherously 
nurdered by Umhlonhlo, Oct. ; who is defeated 
yy Mr. Hawthorn ; announced . T2INOVS. 45, 

‘ihlonhlo totally defeated by Baker 2r Dec. \,, 
stories of col. Carrington about ro, 14 Jan. 1881 
mistice granted 4 : 18—24 Feb. ,, 

‘stilities resumed ; indecisive ; col. Carrington 

‘vounded . ; : ‘ : 26 March ,, 
sutos severely defeated about 16 April ,, 
vce concluded : : : May ,, 

> chief Masupha subinits E ‘ Sept. ,, 

‘uin troublesome 3 : < Oct. 1882 
1. Gordon appointed to settle difficulties, resigns 
-hrough disagreement with the Cape government, 
nnounced autunu F : 2 ; : nse 
ze restored =. ~ . \ un 8 
‘government granted . . . Feb. 1883 
ch fighting among chiefs ; subsides SPA 
> British agree to resume the government as a 
rown colony under conditions June ,, 

» Cape parliament assents . : en Ay ih a 
» Basuto chiefs accept conditions at a great meet- 

‘1g; Masupha stands aloof . announced 8 Dec. _,, 

athan defeats Joel with great slaughter 
15-16 March 1884 


itles between Khetisa, Masupha, and Lerothodi, 

23 March’ ,, 
3ATALHA, Portugal. The monastery here 
‘3 built by John I., of Portugal, as a token of gra- 


ubarrota, 14 Aug. 1385, securing the inde- 
dence of his kingdom. “The restoration of the 
-nastery began in 1839. 


BATAVIA AND BATAVIAN REPUBLIC, see 
tana. 


SATAVIA, the capital of Java, and of all the 
ich settlements in the Kast Indies, built by that 
ple about 1619. Taken from the French (who had 
\ed it) by sir Samuel Auchmuty, 26 Aug. 1811 ; 
ored to the Dutch in 1814. See Java. 


\}A TH (Somerset), named “‘Aque solis” by 
| Romans, being remarkable for its hot springs. 
‘1, a British king, is said to have given this city 
iarter, and the Saxon king Edgar was crowned 
|, 973. See Population, 


‘ide for his yictory over John I. of Castile, at 


CE ee Oe ie 


| 1845. Richard Bagot, died ; : 


Bath plundered and burnt in the reign of William 


Rufus, and again in 3 F f "| Bes yrlefy 
The abbey church commenced in 1405; finished . 1609 
Beau (Richard) Nash, ‘‘king of Bath,” who pro- 

moted fame of the waters, and amusements, died 

Feb. 1761 
Present assembly-rooms built X77 
Pump-room erected 1704 ; rebuilt “| 1707 
Theatre, Beaufort-square, opened - 1805 
Bath philosophical society formed . : . . 1817 
Bath royal literary and scientific institution estab- 

lished ; ; A A : ; 7 . 1825 
Victoria park opened by Princess Victoria ate | LOG 
Theatre burnt . : : : : 18 April, 1862 
Restoratiou of the abbey by Sir G. G. Scott 1863 et seq. 
British association met here 14 Sept. 1864 
Museum destroyed by fire 20 Jan. 1867 


Bath and West of England Society centenary cele- 
brated, 4 June; Fall of Widcombe bridge, 2 
persons killed and many injured . 6 June, 1877 

Remains of Roman baths discovered 1877, et seq. 


BATH and WELLS, Bisnorric or. The 
see of Wells, whose cathedral church was built by 
Ina, king of the West Saxons, in 704, was estab- 
lished in 905, Adelme first bishop. John de 
Villula, bishop, transferred his seat from Wells to 
Bath in tog1. YZanner. Disputes between the 
monks of Bath and the canons of Wells about the 
election of a bishop, were compromised in 1135. 
Henceforward the bishop was to be styled from both 
places ; the precedency to be given to Bath. The 
see is valued in the king’s books at 5310. Is. 3d. per 
annum. Present income, 5000/. 

Recent Bishops. 
1802. Richard Beadon, died 
1824. George Henry Law, died 


. 2r April, 1824 

22 Sept. 1845 
> @ § May,.1854 
1854. Robert John, baron Auckland, resigned 6 Sept. 1869 
1869. Lord Arthur Charles Hervey, elected 10 Nov. 1869 


BATH ADMINISTRATION. Mr. Pelham 
and his friends having tendered their resignation to 
king George II., 10 Feb. 1746, the formation of a 
new ministry was undertaken by William Pulteney, 
earl of Bath. This expired on 12 Feb., while yet 
incomplete, and received the name of the ‘‘ Short- 
lived”’ administration. The members of it were: 
the earl of Bath, jirst lord of the treasury ; lord 
Carlisle, lord privy seal; lord Winchilsea, first lord 


of the admiralty; and lord Granville, one of the 


secretaries of state, with the seals of the other in his 
pocket, ‘to be given to whom he might choose.” 
Mr. Pelham and his colleagues returned to power. 


BATH, ORDER OF THE, said to be of early 
origin, but formally constituted 11 Oct., 1399, by 
Henry IV., two days previous to his coronation in 


_the ‘Tower; when he conferred the order upon 
_ forty-six esquires, who had watched the night 


before, and bathed, After the coronation of Charles 
II. the order was neglected until 18 May, 1725, 
when it was revived by George I., who fixed the 
number of knights at 37. 


The prince regent (afterwards George IV.) created 
classes of knights grand crosses (72), knights com- 
manilers (280), with an unlimited number of com- 
panions Z : F : ‘ . 2 Jan. 

By an order, the existing statutes of this order 
were annulled; and by new statutes, the order, 
hitherto exclusively military, was opened to 
civilians : ‘ F : ‘ 25 May, 1847 

Dr. Lyon Playfair and other promoters of the Great 


1815 


Exhibition received this honour - 1851 
CONSTITUTION. Military. Civil. 
1st Class, Knights grand cross, 50 25 
2nd Class. Knights commanders, -t00 50 
3rd Class. Companions, 525 200 


BATHOMETER (Greek, dathus, deep), an 
apparatus invented by Dr. C. William Siemens to 


BATHS. 


88 


BATTLES. P 


measure the depth of water without submerging a 
sounding-line, 1861-76. 


Its action depends on the diminution of the effect of 
gravitation on the surface of the water as compared 
with its effect on the earth, owing to the mass of water 
(of less density) which replaces earth (of greater den- 
sity): which is duly registered. 


BATHS were early used in Asia and Greece, 
and introduced by Agrippa into Rome, where many 
were constructed by Augustus and his successors. 
The therme of the Romans and gymnasia of the 
Greeks (of which baths formed merely an appendage) 
were sumptuous. The marble group of Laocoon 
was found in 1506 in the baths of Titus, erected 
about 80, and the Farnese Hercules in those of 
Caracalla, erected, 211. 


In Lonnon, St. Agnes Le Clere, in Old-street-road, 
was a spring of great antiquity; baths said to 
have been formed in 1502. 
St. Chad’s-well, Gray’s-inn-road, derives its name 
from St. Chad, the fifth bishop of Lichfield 667. 
A bath opened in Bagnio-court, now Bath-street, 
Newgate-street, London, is said to have been the 
first bath in England for hot bathing . 1679 
Old Bath-house, Coldbath-square, in use . ee t097 
Peerless (Perilous) Pool, Baldwin-street, City-road, 
mentioned by Stow (died 1605); enclosed as a 
bathing place : : ? ; : : - 1743 
Turkish sweating baths became popular 41,5 100 
The Oriental baths in Victoria-street, Westminster, 


completed . . 1862 
PUBLIC BATHS AND WASH-HOUSES. 
The first established by Mr. Bowie in the neighbour- 
hood of the London docks 1844 


The public baths and wash-houses in Liverpool 
founded (through the instrumentality of Catherine 
Wilkinson, who in 1832 began to lend her room 
and appliances to poor people for washing) . . 

Acts passed to encourage the establishment of public 
baths and wash-houses, ‘‘ for the health, comfort, 
and welfare of the inhabitants of populous towns 
and districts,” in England and Ireland “Nae 

537,345 bathers availed themselves of the baths in 
London, and in this period there were 85,260 
washers in the quarter ending . Sept. 

Public baths and wash-houses have since been estab- 
lished throughout the empire. 

Baths and Washhouses Act authorises establish- 
iment of cheap swimming baths, &c. 27 May 1878, 

amended, 


1844 


1846 


1854 


1882 
See Laundry. 


BATHYBIUS HACKELII (Greek, dathus, 
deep ; bios, life), the name given by Huxley to a sup- 
posed low form of animal life, a gelatinous sub- 
stance found on stones at the bottom of the sea, in 
Deep Sea Soundings (which see). Its existence 
doubted by many naturalists, 1879. 


BATON, a truncheon borne by generals in the 
French army, and afterwards by the marshals of 
other nations. Henry III. of France, before he 
ascended the throne, was made generalissimo of the 
army of his brother Charles IX., and received the 
baton as the mark of the high command, 1569. 
Henault. The baton used by conductors of con- 
certs is said to have been introduced into England 
by Spohr, in 1820. 


BATON ROUGH, Louisiana, United States, 
was captured by the Federals, 5 Aug. 1862, after a 
fierce conflict; see United States, 1862. 


BATOUM, or BATUM, a seaport in Lazistan, 
on the Black Sea. After having repulsed the Rus- 
sians in the war, 4 May, 1877, the place was ceded 
to Russia by the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 1878, 
to become a free commercial port. 

The inhabitants at first resisted, but were persuaded 
to submit; many emigrating, July-Sept. The Russians 
entered, 6 Sept. 1878. 


BATTERIES along the coasts were constru 
by Henry VIII. (who reigned 1509-47). The 
floating batteries with which Gibraltar was attae 
in the siege of that fortress, were invented 
D’Arcon, a French engineer. They resisted 
heavy shells and 32-pound shot, but ultima 
yielded to red-hot shot, 13 Sept. 1782; 
Gibraltar. Formidable floating batteries are 
erected. See Navy. 


BATTERING-RAM, Testudo Arietaria, 
other military implements, are said to have | 
invented by Artemon, a Lacedemonian, and 
pres by Pericles, about 441 B.c. Sir Christo: 

ren employed a battering-ram in demolishing 
walls of old St. Paul’s cathedral, 1675. 


BATTERSEA PARK;; an act of parliar 
passed in 1846, empowered her majesty’s ¢ 
missioners of woods to form a royal park in Batter 
fields. Acts to enlarge their powers were pa 
in 1848, 1851, and 1853. The park and the 
bridge connecting it with Chelsea were opene 
April, 1858; the bridge freed from toll, 24 . 
1879. Albert Exhibition Palace to be opened h 
Spring 1885. 

Battersea Training College, founded 1840. 


BATTLE, TRIAL BY, or WAGER OF, 2 | 
by combat formerly allowed by our laws, where 
defendant in an appeal of murder might fight 1 
the appellant, and make proof thereby of his g 
or innocence; see Appeal. 


BATTLE-ABBEY, Sussex, founded 
William I., 1067, on the plain where the battl 
Hastings was fought, 14 Oct. 1066. It was ded 
ted to St. Martin, and given to Benedictine mo: 
who were to pray for the souls of the slain. — 
original name of the plain was Hetheland; 
Hastings. After the battle of Hastings, a list 
taken of William’s chiefs, amounting to 6209, 
called the BATTEL-ROLL; and among these ch 
the lands and titles of the followers of the defe: 
Harold were distributed. 


BATTLE-AXH, a weapon of the Celts. | 
Irish were constantly armed with an axe. Bu 
At the battle of Bannockburn king Robert Bi 
clove an English champion down to the chin 
one blow with a battle-axe, 1314. The battle- 
guards, or beaufetiers, vulgarly called beef-eat 
and whose arms are a sword and lance, were | 
raised by Henry VII. in 1485. They were origin: 
attendants upon the king’s buffet; see Yeoma 
the Guard. 


; BATTLEFIELD, BATTLE of, see Sire 
ury. 

BATTLES. Palamedes of Argos is said 
have been the first who ranged an army in aregt 
line of battle, placed sentinels round a camp, : 
excited the soldier’s vigilance by giving him a wat 
word. See Naval Battles, British. The follow 
are the most memorable battles, arranged in chro 
logical order; further details of the greater } 
are given in separate articles; 2. signifies naval. 


The following are the battles described by Profes 
Creasy in his ‘‘ Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World’ 


B.C. ! 
Marathon 490 | Hastings . 14 Oct. 1 
Syracuse . » .4ba)|Oricana 29 April, 1 
Arbela 1 Oct. 331 | Spanish Armada July 1 
Metaurus 207| Blenheim . 13 Aug. 7 

A.D. | Pultowa 8 July 1 
Teutoburg 7 : 9 | Saratoga 17 Oct. 1 
Chalons . : . . 45x | Valmy 20 Sept. 1 
Tours to Oct. 732 | Waterloo 18 June 1 


a 
Laaeeey 


. 


BATTLES. 


BATTLES. — 
B.C. 
am defeats kings of Canaan ((en. xiv.) 1913 
a subdues five kings of Canaan (Josh. x.) 1451 
n defeats the Midianites oten vii. ) 1245 
1 war commenced 1193 
vaken and destroyed 1184 
hah defeats Ammonites . 1143 
pians defeated by Asa (2 Chron. xiv. ) 941 
ii vanquish Curiatii . 669 
(Medes and Lydians stopped b) ye ecli pst) 584 0 or 585 
bra (Cyrus defeats Cresus) 548 
Regillus (Romans defeat Latins) — - 499 
hon (Greeks defeat Persians) 28 or 29 ‘Sept. 490 
Lopyle (heroism of Leonidas) 7-9 Aug. 480 
is n. (Greeks defeat Persians) 20 Oct. 55 
ca (Gelon defeats Carthaginians) 8 
e (Greeks defeat Persians) 22 ‘Sept. 479 
a (ditto: Pausanias) 22Sept. ,, 
nedon n. (ditto : Cimon) 5 ‘ 2S 
ra (Spartans defeat Athenians) . 457 
hyta (Athenians defeat Beotians). 456 
ea (Beotians defeat Athenians). 447 
ns totally defeat Veientes 437 
ra (Athenians defeat Spartans) . 426 
n (Beotians defeat Athenians) 424 
ipolis (Spartans repulse Athenians : Cleon and 
sidas killed) . : 5 Wee 
nea (Spartans defeat Athenians) . 418 
ians defeated before Syracuse . 413 
is 0. (Alcibiades defeats Spartans) 410 
sxe 2. (Conon defeats Spartan fleet) . 406 
votamos 2. (Athenian fleet destroyed) . 405 
a (Cyrus defeated and killed ‘ha Artarer ves) 401 
hian War . 395° 387 
tus (Lysander killed). ; 395 
sn. (Conon defeats Spartans)  . 304 
2a (Argesilaus defeats Athenians and a i ies) A 
Brennus and the Gauls defeat Romans) 16 J ey 390 
defeated by Camillus ; : 381 
defeat the Romans 379 
‘(Chabrias defeats Lacedcemonians) . 376 or 377 
, (Thebans defeat Spartans) ; 375 
‘a (Thebans defeat Spartans). 371 
less Victory ” of Archidamus over ‘Ar aiy es, 
: , : 1, 0307 
us defeats the Gauls . 4 
ephale (Thebans defeat Thessalians) 364 
tea (Thebans victors: Epaminondas slain) . 362 
x (4ischines there) ; 358 
us (Timoleon defeats Carthaginia ms) . Se Pee) 
aea (Philip defeats Athenians, &e. iu BAN. 1338 
destroyed by Alexander : el eae et 
us al pune ect ag 22 vee 334 
ditto) . Oct. 333 
(ditto) . : TH OCtss 331 
sia (Alexander of Epirus defeated and ae 326 
\(Antipater defeats Greeks) . ; * 322 
e Forks (Roman army captured). 321 
Ptolemy defeats Demetrius) é 312 
us or Himera (Carthaginians defeat Ag gothocles) 311 
defeats the Tuscans - BLO 
ynian Lake (Etruscans defeated) . c 309 
Seleucus defeats Antigonus, who is slain) 301 
am (Romans defeat Sammites) 205 
lefeat Romans at Arretium, 284 ; defeated by 
bella 283 
ynian Lake (Etruscans defeated) . ny 
Lysimachus defeated and killed). 281 
via (Pyrrhus defeats Romans) 280 
m (ditto) . 279 
untum (Romans defeat Pyrr h us) . 275 
unie War begins. 264 
. (Romans defect Car thaginians) 260 
pas defeats Regulus. 255 
‘ius (Asdrubal defeated by Metellus) 250 
‘um n. (Carthaginians defeat ge cg 249 
uma taken by Romans 241 
n. (Romans defeat Carthaginians) . * 
‘v(Acheans defeated) . 226 
Lor Piswe (Gauls defeated) . 225 
(Macedonians defeat Spartans) . 201 
(Acheans defeat Aftolians) 220 
im (taken by Hannibal) . 219 
| thy oi War. — Ticinus (Hannibal defeats 
10 : 21 
and Trebia (ditto) . oe 
rene (ditto) 217 


‘Antiochus defeated by Ptol. Philopater) © : 


3? 


89 
Canne (Victory of Hannibal) . Bc. 2 Aug. 216 
Munda (Scipio defeats Hasdrubal) . . ey) 
Marcellus and Hannibal (former killed) - 209 
Metaurus (Nero defeats Hasdrubal, who is killed) - 207 
Zama (Scipio defeats Hannibal) : : +) 202 
Abydos (siege of) 200 
Paneas (Antiochus defeats Eqyptians, "Le. ) C 198 
Cynoscephale (Romans defeat, Macedonians) 197 
Boii defeated at the Vadimonian lake . 4 re Siniteee hep © 
Thermopyle (Greeks defeated) ‘ : Ab 
Magnesia (Scipio defeats Antiochus) i AS tOG 
Pydna (Romans defeat Perseus) . 22 June, 168 
Eleasa (Judas Maccabeeus killed) . Ub oae kan 
Third Punic War. 149 
Leucopetra (Mummius defeats Achwans) 147 
Carthage taken by Publius Scipio 146 
Mummius takes Corinth ‘ Ae 
Allobroges defeated by Q. Fabius “Maximus. I2r 
Metellus defeats J ugurtha : : 10g 
Arausio (Cimbri defeat Romans) c 105 
Aquee Sextiz (Aix ; Marius defeats the Teutones) . 1oz 
Cimbri and Romans (defeated by Marius) . Ior 
Cheeronea (Sylla defeats Mithridates’ army) . 86 
Sacriportus (Marius defeated by Sylla) 82 
Cabeira (Lucullus defeats Mithridates) . 7t 
Petelia (Spartacus defeated by Crassus) we 
Tigranocerta (Lucullus defeats Tigranes) 69 
Pistoria (Catiline defeated) . 62 
Cesar defeats Cassivelaunus in Britain at: SA. 
Carrhee (Crassus defeated by Parthians) gJune, 53 
Pharsalia (Cesar defeats Ponvpey) . : SIG -AURS . 4S 
Zela (Cesar defeats Pharnaces ; writes, * Me vidi, 
VIGL#:) ae as . ay 
Thapsus (Cesar defeats Pompey’ 8 Sr iends) witha AG 
Munda (ditto) . : 17 March, 45 
Mutina (Hirtius defeats Antony) ; 27 April, 43 
Philippi (Brutus and Cassius defeated) 42 
Myle, n. (Agrippa defeats Pompey the Younger) . 36 
Actium 7. (Octavius defeats Antony) . 2 Sept. 3z 
Teutoburg (Varus defeated by Herman) A.D. 9 
Shropshire (Caractacus taken) 50 
Sunbury (Romans defeat Boadicea) 61 
Jerusalem taken by Titus . 70 
Agricola conquers Mona or Anglesea : 78 
Ardoch (he defeats Galgacus and Caledonians) . 84. 
Dacians defeated and Decebalus slain . 106 
Issus (Niger slain) : 194 
Lyons (Severus defeats Albinus) 2 197 
Verona (emperor Philip defeated and killed) . 249 
Decius defeated and slain by Goths . 251 
Valerian defeated and captured by Sapor 260 
Naissus (Claudius defeats Goths, many slain) 269 
Chaions (Awrelian victor over rivals). 274 
Allectus defeated in Britain . ; e200 
Constantine def. Maxentius (see Cross) 27 Oct. 312 
Adrianople (Constantine defeats Licinius) . 3 July, 323 
Aquileia (Constantine IT. sluin). March, 340 
Julian defeats Alemanni 7135050357 
Thyatira and Nacolea (Procopius defeated). ; 360 
Argentaria (Gratian defeats Alenuvini) May, 378 
Adrianople (Gauls defeat cated orAugs 
Aquileia (Maximus slaia) .28 July, 388 
Aquileia (Hugenius slain). ; 6 Sept. 304 
Pollentia (Stilicho defeats Alar ae . 29 Mar. 403 
Rome taken by Alaric 24 Aug. 410 
Ravenna taken by Aspar wales 425 
Franks defeated by Aétius 428 
Genseric takes Carthage 439 
Chalons-sur-Marne (Attila defeated by Aétius) . 451 
Aylesford (Britons defeat Saxons ; Horsa Ne 455 
Crayford, Kent (Hengist defeats Br itons) . 457 
Soissons (Clovis defeats Syagrius and Romans) 486 
Verona (Theodoric defeats Odoacer) 27 Sept. 489 
Tolbiach or Zulpich (Clovis defeats crit 496 
Vougleé (Clovis defeats Visigoths). : : . 507 
Baddesdown hill (Britons defeat Saxons) ? 493» 51L 
Veseronce (Gondemar defeats Clodomir) : 524 
Victories of Belisarius in Africa, &e. 833° 4 
Narses defeats Totila, 552 ; and Teias 553 
Heraclius defeats the Persians (Chosroes) 622 
Beder ( first victory of Mahomet). 623 
Muta (Mahometans defeat Christians) 629 
Hatfield (Heathfield ; Penda defeats Edwin) sal S 
Ajnadin (Saracens defeat Heraclius) 13)d uly 
Yermuk (Saracens victors) 23 Aug. 634 
Yermuk (Saracens defeat Her aclius) Nov. 636 
Saracens subdue Syria : : - 636-8 
Kadseah (Arabs ajo Persians) . - 4 ae O So 


90 


“BATTLES, | | 


BATTLES. 
Saracens take Alexandria . A.D. 640 
Near Oswestry (Penda defeats Oswald of Northum- 
berland) » 5 AUS. 642 
Leeds (Oswy defeats P. mitt, who ts ‘slain) « ‘ . 655 
Day of the Camel (Ali victor) 4 Nov. 656 
Saracens defeated by Wamba, in Spain 675 
Testri (Pepin defeats Thierr y/) , 687 
Xeres (Saracens defeat Roderic) : 19 -26 July, 7il 
Amblef and Viney (Chas. Martel def. Rent is) 716-17 
Tours (Charles Martel defeats the Saracens) 10 Oct. 732 
Victories of Charlemagne STE 
Roncesvalles (death of “Roland) . : 778 
Hengestdown (Danes defeated by Eghbe) ). 835 
Charmouth (Ethelwolf defeated by the D: ines) 840 
Fontenaille or Fontaneta aioe re defeated by 
Charles and Lowis) 5 25 June 841 
Clavijo (Moors defeated). ; 844 
Albaida (Musa and Moors defected) : 852 
Danes defeat King Edmund of East Anglia 870 
Assendon or Ashdown (Danes defeated) 871 
Basing and Merton (Danes victor’ ious) : ” 
Hafsfiord (Harold Harfager’s final victory) 872 
Wilton (Danes victorious over Alfie?) Avery ers 
Andernach (Charles the Bald defeatel) 8 Oct. 876 
Ethandun (Alfred defeats Danes) . : Bs ReyAs' 
Farnham (Danes defeated) . ; 894 
Zamora (Alfonso defeats Moors) . gol 
Bury (Edward defeats Ethelwald and ‘Danes s) ei het BOOS 
Tettenhall (Danes defeated) : 6 Aug. g10 
Soissons (king Robert, victor, killed?) 923 
Merseburg (Germans defeat Hungarians) . 934 
Brunanburg (Northmen defeated) . ‘ A 037 
Simincas (Spaniards defeat Moors) 6 Aug. 938 
Nicephorus Phocas defeats Saracens . 4 sit} s002 
. Basientello (Otho II. defeated by Greeks) . 13 July, 982 
Clontarf (Danes defeated in Ireland) 23 April, 1014 
Zetunium (Bulgarians defeated) 20) JULY. Tey 
Brentford (Edinwid defeats Danes) . May, 1016 
Assingdon, Ashdon (Canute defeats Edin nd) FA 
Sticklestadt (Olaf defeated by Sw ele a J uly, 1030 
Civitella (Normans defeat Leo IX.) 1053 
Dunsinane (Macbeth defeated) 1054 
Fulford (Norwegians defeat E nglish) 20 ‘Sept. 1066 
Stamford Bridge (Harold defeats Tostig) 25 Sept. ,, 
Hastings (Willia m I. defeats Harold) 64 OCb.n es 
Fladenheim (emperor Henry defeated) : - 108> 
Crusades commence r ‘ ol ee OOO: 
Alnwick (Scots defeated, Malcolm slain) 13 Nov. 1093 
Doryleum (Crusaders defeat Turks) . 1 July, 1097 
Ascalon (Crusaders victorious) . 12 Aug. 1099 
Tinchebray (Robert of Normandy defeated) A bee & elo 
Brenneville (Henry I. defeated French) . Aug. 1119 
Fraga (Moors defeat Spaniards) . 7 July, 1134 
Northallerton, or Battle of the Standard (David if 
and Scots defeated) . . 22 Aug. 1138 
Ourique (Portuguese defeat Moors) 25 July, 1139 
Lincoln (Stephen defeated) 2 Feb. 1141 
Jaen (Moors defeated by Spaniar ds) : Se NB Ate 
Carcano (Frederic I. defeated by Italians) 9 Aug. 1160 
Alnwick (JVilliam the Lion defeated) 12 July, 1174 
Legnano (Italians defeat emperor) 29 May, 1176 
Tiberias (Saladin defeats Crusaders) 3, 4 July, 1187 
Ascoli(Tancred defeats emperor Henry VI.’s urmy) . 1190 
Acre taken by Crusaders . 12 July, r191 
Arsouf (Richard I. defeats Sar acen s) JO DeDineas 
Fréteville (Richard I. defeats Philip IL.). 15 July, 1194 
Arcadiopolis (Bulgarians defeat enperor Isace) caass 
Alarcos (Moors defeat Spaniards) : . 19 July, 1195 
Gisors (Richard I. defeats French ) 20 Sept. 1198 
Tolosa (Moors defeated) . ; 16 July, 1212 
Muret (Albigenses defeated) 12 Sept. 1213 
Bouvines (French defeat Germais) .27 July, 1214 
Lincoln (french defeated) . : 20 May, 1217 
Corte Nuova (Frederick II. defeats Milanese) 2 27 Nov. 1237 
Taillebourg (french defeat Henry ITI. 2 20 July, 1242 
Carizmians defeated twice 1247 
Fossalta (Ghibelines defeated) ‘ ee May, » 1249 
Mansourah (Lowis LX. and Crusaders defeated) . 1250 
Largs (Scots defeat Northmen) 3 Oct. 1263 
Lewes (English barons victorious) 4 May, 1264 
Evesham (Barons defeated; De Montfort ‘i. ilied) 
4 Aug. 1265 
Benevento (Chas. of Anjow defeats Manfred) on Keb. ra66 
Tagliacozzo (Charles defeats Conradiin) . 23 Aug. 1268 
Marchfeld (Austrians defeat Bohemians). 26 Aug. 1278 


5 I TS RE a ESN a SY II eg PTE Cag pees | 
Se EE EIDE SSE EIISEEREEEE IIE EREIE EERE 


Aber Edw (Llewellyn of Wales defeated) a.p. 11 De 
Zagrab (defeat of Charles Martel) 4 


Dunbar (Scots defeated) . Apri 
Cambuskenneth (Wallace defeats Engltahy © a Sep 
Geelheim (Adolphus of Nassaw defeated) . 2ahil 
Falkirk (IVallace defeated) : 22 Jul 
Courtray (Flemings defeat cownt of Ar tois) rr Jul 
Roslin, Scotland (Comyn defeats English) 24 Fe! 
Cephisus (Brienne, duke of Athens defeated) Mare 
Bannockburn (Bruce defeats English) . 24 Jun 
Morgarten (Swiss defeat Austrians) . 15 No 
Athenry (Irish defeated) - to Au 
Foughard or Dundalk (Zd. Bruce defeated) 5 Oc 
Boroughbridge (Lid: ward II, defts. Barons) 16 Ma 
Miihldorf (Ba: varians defeat Austrians) 28 Sep 
Duplin (Edward Baliol defeats Mar) rr Au 
Halidon Hill (Edward III, defts. Scots) 19 Jul 
Tarifa (Moors defeated) . . 28 or 3¢ Or 
Auberoche (earl of Derby defeats Fren ch). 1 ¢AD 
Crecy (English defeat French) . 26 Au 
Durham, Nevil’s Cross (Scots defeated) 17 Oc 
La Roche Darien (Charles of Blois defeated) . 

Poitiers (Znglish defeat French) 2 - 19 Sep 
Cocherel (Du Guesclin defeats Navarre) r a Se 


Auray (Du Guesclin defeated). 
Najara (Navarrete, Logrono) (Black Prine 9 


Henry of Trastamare) . 3 Apr 
Montiel (Peter of Castile defeated) 14 Mare 
Rosbecque (French defeat Flemings) 27 No 
Aljubarrota (Portuguese defeat Spaniards) . 14 Au 
Sempach (Swiss defeat Austrians) - gdul 
Otterburn (Chevy Chase; Scots victors) . . to Au 
Nafels (Swiss defeat Austrians) 

Cossova (Turks defeat Albanians, and Anurath 
killed) ; Sey 
cei aae (Turks defeat Christians) . 5 "28 Sey 

Nesbit (Scots defeated) . ‘ * - 7Ma 
Ancyra (Timour defeats “Bajazet) . ; . 28 duh 
Homeldon Hill (English defeat Scots) . 14 Sey 
Shrewsbury (Percies, &c. defeated) . . 23d 
Bramham moor (Henry IV. defeats rebels) . 19 Fe 
Tannenberg (Poles defeat Teuton knights). 15 Jul 
Harlaw (Lord of the Isles defeated) 24 Jul 
Agincourt (English defeat French) 25 0c 
Prague (Hussites under Ziska victors) . 14 Jul 
Anjou, Beaugé (English deft. by Scots) 22 Mare 
Crevant (English deft. French and Scots) .11 Jum 
Aquila (Arragonese defeated by Italians) . 2 Jun 
Verneuil (English defeat French and Scots) . 17 Au 
Herrings (English defeat French). 12 Fe 
Orleans (siege relieved). 29 Apr 

Patay (English defeated by Joan of Arc) 18 Jun 
Lippau, or BOhmischbrod (Hussites deftd.) 28 Ma 
Kunobitza (Hunniades defeats the he 24 De 
St. Jacob (French defeat Swiss) . 26 Au 
Varna (Turks defeat Hungarians) to No 
Cossova (Turks defeat Hunniades) . 17 O 
Formigni (inglish defeated by French) 15 Apr 
Sevenoaks (Jack Cade defeats Stafford) ae Jun 


Aibar (Agramonts defeat Beawmonts) . 2 
Brechin, Scotland (Huntley defts. Crawford) 8 Ma 

Castillon, Chatillon (French defeat Talbot) 
17 or 23 Jul 


WAR OF THE ROSES—YORKISTS AND LANCASTRI 
St. Alban’s (Yorkists victorious) . . 22-0F a Ma 


Bloreheath (Yorkists victors) . Sey 
Northampton (ditto, Henry VI. taken) . ro Jul 
Wakefield (Lancastrians victors) . . Sie 
Mortimer’s Cross (Yerkists victorious) 2 Fe 
St. Alban’s (Lancastrians victors) , . 17 Fe 
Towton (Yorkists victorious) 29 Mare 
Hexham (Yorkists victors) 15 Ma 
Edgecote or Banbury (Yorkists defeated) 26 Jul 
Stamford( Laneastrians a ieee) 13 Mare 
Barnet (ditto). 14 . 
Tewkesbury (ditto) . 4M 
Belgrade (Mahomet IT. repulsed) 4 Se 
Montlhery (Lowis XI. and nobles ; indec.) 16 Ju 
Granson (Swiss defeat Charles the Bold) 3 Mare 
Rey (ditto) . z 22 Jun 
Nancy (Charles the Bold killed) s a5 
Bosworth (Richard IIT. defeated) 22 


Stoke (Lambert Simmel taken) 

St. Aubin (Orleans defeated) 

Sauchieburn, near Bannockburn James ine 
by rebels). ; ; 


ak 


91 


/ 
BATTLES. 

vo (French defeat Italians) 6 July, 
vara (French defeat Spaniards) : ais 
heath (Cornish rebels defeated) . 22 June, 
iara (Gonsalvo defeats French) ar April, 
nola (Gonsalvo defeats French) . . 28 April, 
liano (Gonsalvo defeats French) . 27 Dec. 
lello (French defeat Venetiuns) . . 14 May, 
ina (Gaston de Foix, victor, killed) rz April, 
ca (Papal Swiss defeat Fr ench) . 6 June, 
gate (Spurs) (French de, cated) . 16 Aug. 
en (English defeat Scots . 9 Sept. 
nano (French defeat Swiss) 13-15 Sept. 
ca, near Milan (Lautree defeated). 29 April, 
(Francis I. defeated). 24 Feb. 
‘enhausen (Anabaptists defeated) . 15 May, 
ez (Turks defeat Hungarians) 29 Aug. 
1(Zwinglius slain). . 1x Oct. 
an (Hessians defeat ‘Austrians) . 13 May, 
is (Christian IIT. defeats Danish ? bets) : 
cay (Almagro defeated Alvarado) . 12 July, 
iy Moss (Hnglish defeat Scots) 25 Nov. 
uola (French defeat Inperialists) 14 April, 
berg (Chas. V. defeats Protestants) . 24 April, 
»y (English defeat Scots) . ro Sept. 
rebellion suppressed by War wviek Aug. 
ano (Florentines defeat French) i3 Aug. 
nentin (Span. & Hng. deft. French) to Aug. 
3 (taken) . . 7 Jan. 
lines 2. (Span. & Eng. doft. Fr ench) . 13 July, 
<, in France (Huguenots defeated), . 19 Dec. 
ry Hill (Mary of Scotland defeated) 15 June, 
enis (Huguenots defeated) . to Noy. 
side (Mary of Scotland defeated) 13 May, 
ic (Huguenots defeated) 13 March, 
ontour (Coligny defeated) . 3 Oct. 
ato, n. (Don John defeats Turls) 7 Oct. 
ians (Guise defeats Huguenots) . to Oct. 
‘ar-quiver (Moors defeat Portuguese) . 4 Aug. 
itara (Spaniards defeat Portuguese) . 24 June, 
hen (Dutch & English def. Spaniards), 22 Sept. 
‘as (Henry IV. defeats League) . 20 Oct. 
ish Armada defeated, 2. ; July, Aug. 
2s (Henry IV. defeats "Lecugue) 21 Sept. 
or Yvres (ditto) . . 14 March, 
aay taken by Henry IV. of France . 26J uly, 


sine Frangaise (Henry IV. beats Spaniards) 


5 June, 
‘wale (Tyrone and rebels def. sean), 5 Aug. 
rort (Maurice defeats Austrians) . 
le (Tyrone reduced by Mowntjoy) : 2 : 
holm (Poles defeat Swedes) 6 z nee 
Itar (Dutch defeat Spaniards) - ‘ 
e (king of Bohemia defeated). : . 8 Nov. 
u(Wallenstein defeats one -2 5 coe 
sie (taken) . " r Oct. 
a (Gustavus defeats Poles) . 
ic or Breitenfeld (Gustavus def. Tih, ), 7 ‘Sept. 
‘(Umperialists defeated ; Tilly killed) 5 April, 
tadt, Lutzingen, or Lutzen (Swedes poker ious ; 
tavus slain) (N.S.) 16 Nov. 
‘ingen (Swedes defeated) ; - 27 Aug. 
(taken by the French) to Aug. 
‘ie (Swedes defeat Austr ians) — 23 Oct. 
vy (French defeat Spaniards) . 19 May, 
| burg (Conde victor) . . 3-5 Aug. 
ingen (Turenne defeats Austr ians) ay 
' CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND. 
»ster (prince Rupert victor). . 23 Sept. 
ill fight (isswe doubtful) . 23 Oct. 
ick-down (Parliamentarians defeated) Jan. 


ham Moor (Fairfax defeated) 


29 March, 
on (Royalists victorious) 


16 May, 


rove (Hampden killed) . 18 June, 
ton Moor (Royalists victorious) 30 June, 
‘down (Royalists victorious) 5 July, 
»s or Roundway-down Saad 13 July, 
vorough (Cromwell victor). 27 July, 
lary (fav. to Royalists) 20 Sept. 
on or Alresford (ditto) —. 29 March, 
} dy Bridge (Charles I. victor) 29 June, 
| on Moor (prince Rupert defeated) - 2July, 
mnuir (Montrose defeats Covenunters) . 1 Sept. 
‘iry (indecisive) ‘ : 27 Oct. 
ly (Charles I. totally defeated) 14 June, 
| (Montrose defeats Covenanters) . 2 July, 
} h (ditto) . 15 Aug. 


| haugh (Covenanters defeat Montr ose) 13 Sept. 


BATTLES. 

Benburb (O'Neill defeats English) 5 June, 
Dungan-hill (rish defeated) : 8 Aug. 
Preston (Cromwell. victor) : E : 17 Aug. 
Rathmines (Jrish Royalists defeated) . . 2 Aug. 
Drogheda (taken by storm) : r2 Sept. 
Corbiesdale (Montrose defeated) . . 27 April, 
Dunbar (Cromwell defeats Scots) 3 Sept. 
Worcester (Cromwell defeats Charles II, y 3 Sept. 
Galway (surrendered) 


Daventry (Lanvbert defeated bj by Monk: ) . at April, 


Arras, France (Twrenne defeats Conde) . 


Dunkirk (ditto) 14 June, 
Estremoz (Don Johar def. by Schomberg) . 8 June, 
St. Gotthard (Montecuculi defeats Turk s) . 1 Aug. 
Villa Viciosa (Portuguese defeat Span iards) 4 ; 
Pentland hills (Covenanters earn . 28 Nov. 
Candia (taken by Turks) 6 Sept. 
Choezim (Sobieski defeats Turk s) ir Nov. 
Seneffe (French and Dutch, indecisive) rr Aug. 
Ensisheim (Twrenne defeats Imperialists) . 4 Oct. 
Mulhausen (ditto) ; . : 31 Dec. 
Turckheim (ditto) . . 5 Jan. 
Salzbach (Twrenne killed) . . 27 July, 
Drumnclog (Covenanters defeat Claverhouse) rt June, 
Bothwell. Brigg (Monmouth defeats Covenanters) 
22 June, 
Vienna (Turks defeated by Sobiesht) 12 Sept. 
Sedgemoor (Monmouth defextect). 6 July, 
Mohacz (Turks defeated) ; 12 Aug. 
Killiecrankie (Highlanders def. M ache y) 27 July, 
Newtown-butler (Jacobites defected) 30 July, 
Boyne (William ITT. defeats Jumes IT.) 1 July, 
Fleurus (Charleroi, Luxembourg itt: 1 July 
Athlone taken by Ginckel. 30 June, 
Aughrim (James II.’s cause ruined). 12 July, 
Salenckemen (Lowis of Baden def. Turks) 19 Aug. 
Enghein or Steenkirk (William III. defeated) 
24 July, 
Landen (William ITI. defeated) 19 July, 
Marsaglia (Pignerol) (Freneh victors) 4. OG. 
Zenta (prince Hugene defeats Twrls) rz Sept. 
Narva (Charles XII. defeats Russians) 30 Noy. 
Carpi, Modena (Allies defeat Frenci) g July, 
Chiari (Austrians defeat French) 1 Sept. 
Clissau (Charles XIT. defeats Poles) 20 July, 
Santa Vittoria (French victors) 26 July, 
Friedlingen (French defeat Germans) 14 Oct. 
Pultusk (Swedes defeat Poles) , . r May, 
Hochstadt (French defeat Austrians) 20 Sept. 
Donauwerth (Marlborough victor) . 2Jduly, 
Gibraltar (taken by Rooke) 24 July, 


Blenheim or Hochstadt (Mar Iborow gh Guten), (0. 8.) 


2 Aug. 
Tirlemont (Mar [borough successful) . 8 J uly, 
Cassano (prince Lugene ; indecisive) . 16 Aug. 
Mittau (taken by Russians). 14 Sept. 
Ramillies (Marlborough defeats French) — . 23 May, 
Turin (French defeated by Eugene) 7 Sept. 
Kalitsch (Russians defeat Swedes) . 19 Nov. 


Almanza (French defeat Allies) 14 (0. 8. .) or 25 April, 


Oudenarde (Marlborough victor) . 11 July, 

Liesna, Lenzo (Russians defeat Swedes) . autumn, 
Lisle (taken by the Allies) . : Dec 

Pultowa (Peter defeats Charles XT I. ) 8 July, 
Malplaquet (Marlborough victor) 11 Sept 

Dobro (Russians defeat Swedes) 20 Sept 

Almenara (Austrians defeat aad 28 July, 
Saragossa (ditto)  . 20 Aug: 
Villa Viciosa (Austrians defeated) to Dee 

Arleux (Marlborough forces French lines) 5 Aug. 
Bouchain (taken by Marlborough) 13 Sept 

Denain (Villars defeats Allies) 24 July, 
Friburg (taken by French) . 7 Novy. 
Preston (rebels defeated) . : 7, 12, 13 Nov: 
Dumblane or Sheriff-Muir (indec isive) 13 Nov. 
Peterwardein (Hugene defeats Turk uk 5 Aug. 
Belgrade (ditto) . 16 Aug 
Bitonto (Spaniards defeat Germans) 27 May, 
Parma (Austrians and French, indecisive). 29 June, 
Guastalla (Austrians defeated) 19 Sept. 
Krivan (Nadir Shah defeats Turks) June, 
Krotzka (Turks defeat Austrians) . 22 July, 
Molwitz (Prussians defeat Austr ius) . to April, 
Dettingen (George IT. defeats French) 16 June, 
Fontenoy (Sawe defeats Cumberland) . 30 April, 


Hohenfreiburg (Prussians defeat Austrians) 4 June, 


BATTLES. 
SCOTS’ REBELLION. 
Preston Pans (rebels defeat Cope) 21 Sept. 1745 
Clifton Moor (rebels defeated) LOMUCC at. 
Falkirk (rebels defeat Hawley) . 27 Jan. 1746 
Culloden (Cumberland defeats rebels) TO April;.”,; 
St. Lazaro (Sardinians.defeat French) 4 June, 1746 
Placentia (Austrians defeat French) ro June, 3, 
Raucoux (Saxe defeats Allies) Tx OCiuer ss 
Laffeldt (Saxe defeats Cumberland) 2 July, 1747 
Wxilles (Sardinians defeat French) LO GUL, | 5 
Bergen-op-Zoom (taken) : 15 Sept. ,, 
Fort du Quesne (Braddock killed) g July, 1755 
Calcutta (taken by Surajah Dowlah) 20 June, 1756 
SEVEN YEARS’ WAR, 1756-63. 

Prague (Frederick defeats Allies) 6 May, 1757 
Kollin (Frederick defeated) 18 June, ,, 
Norkitten (Russians defeated) fie Aughes. 
Rosbach (frederick defeats French) . BNOV. ats 
Breslau (Austrians victors) 22 NOY.0s; 
Lissa (Frederick defeats Austr ians) oDeC.S,, 
Creveldt (Ferdinand defeats French) 23 June, 1758 
Zorndorft (Frederick defeats Russians) 25, 26 Aug. ,, 
Hochkirchen (Austrians defeat Prussians) 14 Oct. ,, 
Bergen (French defeat Allies) 13 April, 1759 
Zullichau (Russians defeat Prussians) 23 July, -,, 
Minden (Ferdinand defeats Frenci) TRATO aes 
Cunnersdorf (Russians defeat Prussians) 12 Aug. ,, 
Wandewash (Coote defeats Lally) 22 Jan. 1760 
Sandshut, Silesia (Prussians defeated) . 23 June, ,, 
Warburg (Ferdinand defeats French) TULL Yes 
Pfaffendorf (Frederick defeats Austrians) . 15 Aug. ,, 
Kloster Campen (English and Germans with French, 

indecisive) T5. OOCU IS, 
Torgau (Frederick defeats Au strians) . BUI OW ses 
Kir chdenkern (Allies defeat French) 15 July, 1761 
Schweidnitz (Frederick IT. def. Austrians) 16 May, 1762 
Johannisberg (French defeat Prussians) 30: Ang. i. 
Freiberg (Prussians defeat Austrians) SoLWCt. mss 
Plassey (Clive’s victory) 23 June, 1757 
Niagara (English take Fort) 24 July, 1759 
Quebec (Wolfe, victor, killed) “LESINGD Dae, 
Buxar (Munro defeats army of Oude) . 23 Oct. 1764 
Choczim (Russians defeat Turks) 30 at & 13 “July, 1769 
Galatz (Russians defeat Turks) ” 
Bender taken by Russians 28 Sone 1770 
Brailow (Russians defeat Turks) 19 June, 1773 
Silistria (taken) . : : : - 1774 

AMERICAN WAR. 

Lexington (Gage victor, with great loss) 1g April, 1775 
Bunker’s Hill (Americans repulsed) 274) LUG s iis 
Long Island (Americans defeated) 27 Aug. 17476 
White Plains (Howe defeats Americans) . 28 Oct.~,; 
Rhode Island (taken by Royalists) 8 Dec. ,, 
Princeton (Washington defeats British) 3 Jah. 1777 
Brandywine (Howe defeats Washington) . x11 Sept. ,, 
Germanstown (Burgoyne’s victory) Ss AsOCUN gas 
Saratoga (he is compelled to surrender) 7 Oct. |; 
Briar’s Creek (Americans defeated) 3 March, 1779 
Camden (Cornwallis defeats Gates) . 16 Aug. 1780 
Guildford (Cornwallis defeats Gates) . 15 March, 1781 
Camden (Americans defeated) 25 April, ,, 


Eutaw Springs (Arnold defeats Americans). 8 Sept. 
York Town (Cornwallis surrenders) 1g Oct. 
[Many inferior actions with various aiuraes ] 


Arcot (Hyder defeats British) ar Oct. 
Porto Novo (Coote defeats Hyder) 1 July, 
Rodney’s victory over De Grasse, 7. 12 April, 
Arnee (Coote defeats Hyder) 2 June, 
Attack on Gibraltar fails 13 Sept. 
Bednore (taken by Tippoo Sahib) 30 April, 
Martinesti (Austrians defeat Turks) . 22 Sept. 
Ismail (taken by storm by Suwarrow) 22 Dec. 
Bangalore (taken by storm) . 21 March, 
Arikera (Tippoo defeated) . 15 May, 
Seringapatam (ditto) . 6 Feb. 


FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WAR BEGINS. 


Quiévrain (French repulsed) ; . 28 April, 
Valmy (French defeat Prussians) 20 Sept. 
Jemappes (French victorious) 6 Nov. 


Neerwinden (French beaten by Austr ians) 18 March, 


St. Amand (french defeated by English). .8 May, 
Valenciennes (ditto) : . 23 May, 26 J uly, 
Lincelles (Lake defeats French) . . 18 Aug. 


2 BATTLES. 
Dunkirk (duke of York defeated) . - 7, 8 Sept 
Quesnoy (reduced by Austrians) 11 Sept 
Pirmasens (Prussians defeat French) 14 Sept 
Wattignies (French defeat Coburg) . 14, 15, 16 Oct 
Toulon (retaken by British) . : ‘ 19 Dec 
Cambray (French defeated) ¢ . 24 April 
Troisville, Landrecy (taken by Allies): . 30 April 
Tourcoing (Moreau defeats Allies) 18-22 May 
Espierres s (taken by Allies) 22 Mey 


Howe’s naval victory 1 Jun 

Charleroi or Fleurus (French defeut Allies) 26 J Bo 
Misdon (Vendeans defeated) _. : uly 
Bois-le-Due (duke of York defeated) a Sept 
Boxtel (ditto) : 7 Sept 
Maciejowice (Poles defeated) . o Oct 
Nimeguen (French victorious) 28 ‘Oct., , (def. ys 4 1 ae 


Praga (W arsaw taken by Suwarrow) 4 Noy 
Eridport’s victory off l’Orient, 1. 22 June 
Quiberon (Emigrants defeated) 21 July 
Mannheim (taken by Pichegru) 20 Sept 
Loano (French defeat Austrians) . 23, 24 Noy 
Montenotte (Bonar victorious) . 12 April 
Mondovi (ditto) . F 22 April 
Lodi (ditto). to May 
Altenkirchen (Austrians defeated) — 4 June 
Radstadt (Moreaw defeats Austrians) 5 July 
Altenkirchen (Austrians victors) 16 Sept 
Roveredo (French defeat Austrians) 4 Sept 
Bassano (ditto) % ; 8 Sept 
| Biberach (ditto) . 2 Oct 
Lonato and Castiglione (ditto) 3-5 Aug 
Neresheim (Moreau def. wrehduke Char les) to Aug 
Arcola aden meiner 14-17 Nov 
Castelnuovo (ditto) . 21 Nov 
Rivoli (ditto) 4, 15 Jan 
Cape St. Vincent, 7. (Spaniar ds defeated) Fy Feb 
Tagliamento (Bonaparte def. Austrians) 16 March 
Camperdown, n. (Duncan defeats Dutch) 11 Oct 
IRISH REBELLION BEGINS . May 
Kilcullen (rebels successful) 23 May 
Naas (rebeis defeated) 24 May 
| Tara (rebels defeated) . 26 May 
| Oulart (rebels successful) 27 May 
Gorey or New Ross (rebels defeated) . 4 June 
Antrim (rebels defeated) . 7 June 
Arklow (rebels beaten). ro June 
| Ballynahinch (Nugent defeats rebels) 13 June 
Vinegar Hill (Lake defeats rebels) . 21 June 
Castlebar (French auxiliaries defeated) . 27 Aug 
Ballinamuck (French and rebels defeated) . g Sept 
Pyramids (Bonaparte def. Mamelukes) 13, 21 July 
Nile, ». (Nelson defeats French fleet) . rt Aug 
El Arisch (French defeat Turks) 18 Fek 
Jaffa (stormed by Bonaparte) . ; . 7-10 March 
Stokach (Austrians defeat French) 25 March 
Verona (Austrians defeat French) . 28-30 March 
Magnano (Kray defeats French). ; 5 April 
Mount Thabor (Bonaparte defeats Turks) 16 April 
Cassano (Suwarrow defeats Moreau) . . 27 April 


Adda (Swwarrow defeats French) . . Py 


Seringapatam (Tippoo killed) . 4 May 
Acre (relieved by sir Sydney Smith) 20 Mas 
Zurich (French defeated) . E June 
Trebia (Swwarrow defeats French) ; 17- 1g June 
Alessandria (taken from French). . 21 July 
Aboukir (Turks defeated by Bonaparte) 25 July 


Novi (Suwarrow defeats French) 
Zuyper Sluys (French defeated) 
Bergen and Alkmaer (Allies dofeated) . 


Zurich (Massena defeats Russians) * 
Heliopolis (Kleber defeats Turks) 
Engen (Moreau defeats Austr ans) 
Meeskirch (ditto) 

Biberach (ditto) . 

Montebello ( Austrians “defeated)- 
Marengo (Bonaparte defeats Austrians) — 
Hochstadt (Moreau defeats Austrians) 
Hohenlinden (ditto) 

Mincio (French defeat Austrians) 
Aboukir (French defeated) . 

Alexandria (A bercrombie’s victory) 
Copenhagen (bombarded by Nelson) 
Ahmednuggur (Wellesley victorious) 
Assaye (ditto, his first great victory) . 
Argaum (Wellesley victor) . : 


BATTLES. 
uckabad (Lake defeats Holkar) . 17 Noy. 
tpore (taken by Lake) . ; 2 April, 
ingen (Ney defeats Austrians) 14 Oct. 
surrenders (Ney defeats Austrians) 17-20 Oct 


gar (Nelson destroys Fren. fleet ; killed) 21 Oct. 
srlitz( Napoleon defeats Austrians & Russ.) 2 Dec. 


os Ayres (taken by Popham) 27 June, 
a (Stuart defeats French) . 4duly, 
eld (French defeat Prussians) to Oct. 
stadt (French defeat Prussians) 14 Oct 
: stormed by French . F 17 Oct 
isk (French and Allies, indecisive) 26 Dec 
‘ungen (French def. Russ. & Pruss.). 25 Jan 
ievideo (taken)  . : : : 3 Feb 
1 (indecisive) . 2 , ; 7, 8 Feb. 
enka (French defeat Prussians) . 16 Feb 
land (French defeat Russians) 14 June, 
os Ayres (Whitelock defeated) 5 July, 
nhagen (bombarded by Cathcart) 2-5 Sept. 


na de Rio Seco (French defeat Spaniards) 


15 July, 

»n (Spaniards defeat French) . 20 duly, 
PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN BEGINS. 

ora (Wellesley defeats Junot) 2r Aug. 
ia or Ebro (French defeat Spaniards) 23 Nov. 
ana (Moore defeats French) 16 Jan. 
berg (Austrians defeated) . . 20 April, 
shut (ditto) . : ; ‘ 21 April, 
vithl (Davoust defeats Austrians) . 22 April, 
sberg (French defeat Austrians) . 4 May, 


to (taken), : : 
tis \ (Napoleon defeated) . 


29 March, 12 May, 
21, 22 May, 


am (Austrians defeated) 5,6 July, 
era (Wellesley defeats Victor) 27, 28 July, 
ria (Turks defeat Russians) 26 Sept. 
a (Mortier defeats Spaniards) tg Nov. 
20 (Wellington repulses Massena) . 27 Sept. 


sa (Graham defeats Victor) 
joz (taken by the French) Z . 11 March, 
tes de Onoro (Wellington defeats Massenm) 


3, 5 May, 
ora (Beresford defeats Soult) 16 May, 
na (Spaniards defeat French) to Sept. 
la (Hill defeats French) . . 28 Oct. 
‘era (Suchet defeats Spaniards) . 4 Jan. 
d Rodrigo (stormed by English) 1g Jan. 
02 (taken by Wellington) . 6 April, 
1a (Cotton defeats Soult) . eet April} 
\anca (Wellington defts. Marmont) 22 July, 
ow (French defeat Russians) 23 July, 


zk (French and Russians) . 7 30, 31 July, 
10y, Smolensko (French defeat Russians) 

15, 19 Aug. 
wa 


lino (ditto) 7 Sept. 
rw (burnt by Russians) . : 15 Sept. 
istown (Americans defeated) . 13 Oct. 
2k (retaken by Russians) 19, 20 Oct. 
Jaroslawatz (French victors) . 24 Oct. 
isk (French defeated) . : 14 Nov. 
.0i (ditto) ‘ , 16-18 Noy. 
ina (ditto) . f ; ; : 25-29 Nov. 
h Town (taken by Americans) 22 Jan. 
ich iris defeated) . : i 13 Feb. 
an (Lugene defeats Russians) 5 April, 
Ua (sir J. Murray defeats Suchet) . 13 April, 
n (Napoleon checks Allies) . 2 May, 
en (Nap. and Allies ; indecisive) 20 May, 


shen (ditto) . : : : . 21, 22 May, 
‘kirehen (French deft. Aust. and Russ.), 22 May, 
‘ia (Wellington defts. king Joseph) . 21 June, 
ees (Wellington defeats Soult) 28 July, 2 Aug. 


ach (Bliicher defeats Ney) . : 26 Aug. 
en (Napoleon checks Allies) . . 26, 27 Aug. 
bastian (stormed by Graham) 31 Aug. 
witz (Ney defeated) 4 6 Sept. 
orm (French defeated) . - 16 Oct. 
ce (Napoleon defeated) 16-18 Oct. 
1 (Napoleon defeats Bavarians) . 30 Oct. 


an de Luz (IVellington defts. Soult) 10 Noy. 
‘se of the Nive, 9 Dec. ; several engagements 
yeen the Allies and French . to to 13 Dec. 


ier, France (French victors) 26 Jan, 
ie (Allies defeated) . ‘ ‘ : 29 Jan. 
thiere (Napoleon defeats Allies). 1 Feb. 


1804 
1805 
>”? 
a”) 
”» 


806 


I 


1808 


” 


1810 


- 5 March, 1811 


> 


>” 
1814 
” 


” 


93 


BATTLES. 
Bar-sur-Aube (Allies victors) : ; . 7 Feb. 
Mincio (pr. Eugene defeats Austrians) 8 Feb. 
Champ Aubert (French defeat Ailies) . 10-12 Feb. 
Montiirail (ditto) 2 : i ir Feb. 
Vauchamp (ditto) . 14 Feb. 
Fontainebleau (ditto) . 17 Feb. 
Montereau (ditto) . ; 3 18 Feb. 
Orthez (Wellington defeats Soult) 27 Feb. 


Craonne (French victors) : 3 

Bergen-op-Zoom (Graham defeated) . 
Laon (French defeated) : , 
Rheims (Napoleon defeats St. Priest) . 
Tarbes (Wellington defeats Soult) . : 
Fére Champenoise (French defeated) . 

St. Dizier (french victors) ‘ . 28 March, 
Paris, Montmartre, Romainville (ditto) 30 March, 
Battle of the Barriers, 30 March ; (Marmont evacuates 


7 March, 

. 8 March, 

- g-to March, 
13 March, 
20 March, 
25 March, 


Paris, and the Allies enter it) . 31 March, 
Toulouse (Wellington defeats Soult) to April, 
Tolentino (Murat defeated) . 3 May, 
Ligny (Bliicher repulsed) . 16 June, 
Quatre Bras (Ney repulsed). : - 16 June, 
Waterloo (Napoleon finally beaten). 18 June, 


AMERICAN WAR. 


Fort George (taken by Americans) . - 27 May, 
Burlington Heights (Americans routed) . 6 June, 
Chrystler’s Point, Canada . : 11 Noy. 
Black-rock, America. F 28 Dec. 
Longwood LPN ete 4 May, 

: British defeated) July, 
Chippawa (Americans defeated) fe J aot 
Fort Erie (British repulsed) ; 15 Aug. 
Bladensburg (Americans defeated) 24 Aug. 
Bellair (British repulsed) 30 Aug. 
Baltimore (British victors) . : : - 12 Sept. 
New Orleans (British repulsed) 8, 12, & 13 Jan. 
Algiers (bombarded by Exmouth). : 27 Aug 
Chacabuco (Chilians defeat Spaniards) . 12 Feb 
Kirkee (Hastings defeats Pindarrees) . 5 Nov 
Mehadpore (Hislop defeats Holkar). 21 Dec 
Valtezza (Turks defeated). ‘ 27 May, 
Dragaschan ([psilanti defeated) . I9 June, 
Tripolitza (stormed by Greeks) 5 Oct 
Thermopyle (Greeks defeat Turks) . 13 July, 
Corinth (taken) : : 3 ; 16 Sept 
Accra (Ashantees defeat sir C. Macarthy) 21 Jan 
Ayacucho (Peruvians defeat Spaniards) 9 Dec 
Bhurtpore (taken by Combermere) 18 Jan 
Accra (Ashantees defeated) 7 Aug. 
Athens (taken) . : : : : 17 May, 
Navarino (Allies destroy Turkish fleet) . 20 Oct 
Brahilow (Russians and Turks) . , . 18 June, 
Akhalzikh (ditto) . : ; : 24 Aug. 
Varna (surrenders to Russians) . rr Oct. 
Silistria (ditto) : . : : 30 June, 
Kainly (Russians defeat Turks) . =) Luly. 
Balkan (passed by Russians) . : 26 July, 
Adrianople (Russians enter) 20 Aug. 
Algiers (captured by French) . 5 July, 
Paris (Days of July). : : 27, 28, 29 July, 
Grochow (Poles defeat Russians) - 19, 20 Feb. 
Praga (Poles defeat Russians) : 25 Feb. 
Wawz (Skrzynecki defeats Russians) 31 March, 
Seidlice (Poles defeat Russians) . - Io April, 
Ostrolenka (ditto) a 5 26 May, 
Wilna (Poles and Russians) - 18 June, 
Warsaw (taken by Russians) . 7 Sept. 
Homs (Egyptians defeat Turks) . 8 July, 
Beylan (lbrahim defeats Turks) 29 July, 
Konieh (Zgyptians defeat Turks) 21 Dec. 
Antwerp citadel taken by Allies 23) Dec: 
Hernani (Carlists defeated) . 5 May, 
St. Sebastian (ditto) : : : nO 
Bilboa (siege raised ; British Legion) . - 24 Dec. 
Hernani (Carlists repulsed). ? - 16 March, 
Trun (British Legion defeats Carlists) . 17 May, 
Valentia (Carlists attacked) : : 15 July, 
Herera (Don Carlos defeats Buereno) . 24 Aug. 
Constantina (Algiers ; taken by French) 13 Oct. 
St. Eustace (Canadian rebels defeated) . - 14 Dec. 
Pennecerrada (Carlists defeated) : - 22 June, 
Prescott (Canadian rebels defeated) 17 Noy. 
Aden (taken)  . : ; i 1g Jan. 
Ghiznee (taken by Keane) 23 July, 
Sidon (taken by Napier) 27 Sept. 


BATTLES. 


Beyrout (Allies defeat Egyptians) . F . to Oct. 


Afghan War. (See India.) “ 

‘Acre (stormed by Allies). : SN Oe 
Kotriah (Scinde; English v ictors). : = feel Det 
Chuen-pe (Lnglish victors) ; : 7 Jan. 
Canton (English take Bog he for is). ; . 26 Feb. 
Amoy (taken) . ; . 27 Aug. 


Chin-hae, &e. (taken) : 
Candahar (Afghans defeated) 
Ningpo (Chinese defeated) 
Jellalabad (Khyber Pass forced) . 


Chin-keang (taken) : 21 July, 
Ghiznee (Afghans defeated by Nott) . ; 6 Sept. 
Meeanee (Nupier defeats Ameers) . . 17 Feb. 
Maharajpoor (Gough defeats Muhr atts) - , 29 Dec. 
Isly (French defeat Abd-el-Kader) . ; . 14 Aug. 
Moodkee (Gough defeats S penis ; eae LoRDec: 
Ferozeshah (ditto) . ; . 21, 22 Dec. 
Aliwal (Smith defeats S ikhs) ‘ ‘ . 28 Jan. 
Sobraon (Gough defeats Sikhs) : ; 10 Feb. 
Palo Alto (Taylor defeats Mexicans) . c 8, 9 May, 


Montery (Mewicans def. by Americans) 21-23 Sept. 


Bueno Vista (Americans defeat Mexicans) . 22 Feb. 


St. Ubes (Portugal) . ; 9 May, 
Ozontero (Americans defeat Mexican s). 19, 20 Aug. 
Flensborg (Danes defeat rebels) : . 9g April, 
Dannawerke (Prussians defeat Danes) . 23 April, 
Curtatone (Austrians defeat shy dussees -. 29 May, 
Custazza (ditto) . . 23 July, 
Veleneze (Croats and Hungaria n s) . . 29 Sept. 
Mooltan (Sikhs repulsed) . : iT ANOV: 
Chilianwallah (Gough defeats Sikh ue 5 13 Jan. 
Goojerat (ditto) . : : . 21 Feb. 
Gran (Hungarians victors) ; + 2 27 beb. 


Novara (Radetzky defeats Sardinian s) . 


Pered (Russians defeat Hungarian s) . 21r June, 
Acs (Hungarians repulsed) : . 2810 July, 
Waitzen (taken by Russians) . ‘ - 17 duly, 
Schissberg (Russians defeat Bem) ; . 31 July, 
‘Temeswar (Haynau defeats Hungarians). 10 Aug. 
Idstedt (Danes defeat Holsteiners) 2 . 25 July, 
Nankin taken by lnperialists . : - IgJuly, 
RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 
Oltenitza (Turks repulse Russians) F . 4 Nov. 
Sinope, n. (Turkish fleet destroyed) . . 30 Nov. 
Citate (Turks defeat Russian at : : . 6Jan. 
Silistria (ditto) . 13-15 June, 
Giurgevo (ditto) . : . 7 July, 
Bayazid (Russians defeat Turks) 29, 30 July, 
Kuruk-Derek (ditto). 5 Aug. 
Alma (English and French defeat Russians) 20 Sept. 
Balaklava (ditto) . : : ; 25 Oct. 
Inkermann (ditto) : - ” § Nov. 
Bupatoria (Turks defeat Russians) . ; 17 Feb. 
Malakhoff tower (Allies and Russians ; indec. night 
combats) : . 22, 23, 24 May, 
Capture of the Mamelon, &e. 7 June, 
Unsuccessful attempt on Malakhoff tower, and 
Redan (Allies and Ltussians) 2 SES: ‘June, 
Tchernaya or Bridge of Traktir (Allies def. Russians) 
16 Aug. 
Malakhoff taken by the French . . 8 Sept. 
Ingour (Turks defeat Russians) A Se OUNO Ye 
Baidar (French defeat Russians) . : . 8 Dec. 
PERSIAN WAR. 
Bushire (English elle Pei Mgt : - ro Dec. 
Kooshab (ditto) : : . 8 Feb. 


Mohammerah (ditto) . 


INDIAN MUTINY. (See India.) 


Conflicts before Delhi. 30, 31 May; 8 June; 
g, 18, 23 July, 


4 
Victories of General Havelock, near Futtehpore, 
11 July, Cawnpore, &e. 


Assault and capture of Delhi 


Victories of Col. Gr eathed 


Cawnpore (victory of Sake ea 4 6 Dec. 
Futteghur (ditto). ; - 2 Jan. 
Calpi (victory of Inglis) . 4 Feb. 


Alumbagh (victories of Outram) 1 12 Jan. and pes Feb. 


to, 13 Oct. 
. ro March, 
to March, 
5, 6 April, 


23 March, 
Velletri (Roman Republicans defeat Neapolitans) 
19 May, 


26 March, 


12 July to 16 Aug. 
Pandoo Nuddee (victory of Neill) , ite Aug. 
Nujuffghur (death of Nicholson, victor) . 25 Aug. 
14-20 Sept. 
Conflicts before Lucknow, 25, 26 Sept.; 18, 25 Nov. 
27 Silk 3; 10 Oct: 


BATTLES. hi. 


Comittee at Lucknow (taken) . 14-19 Marc 
Jhansi (Rose victorious) d ; : ~4 An 
Kooneh (ditto) . 4 ; : : ~ ats 
Gwalior (ditto) . 17 Jw 


Bajghur (Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee) . 15 Sey 
Dhoodea Khera (Clyde defeats Beni Mahdo) 24 Ne 
Gen. Horsford defeats the Begum of Oude a: 

Nana Sahib ‘ : : , - rok 


ITALIAN WAR. (See Jtaly.) 
Austrians cross the Ticino : = » 2980p) 
French troops enter Piedmont . : ik 
Montebello (Allies victorious) . ; . | 2omM: 


Palestro (ditto) . : : ; + 30) Gam: 
Magenta (ditto). : i : - » eae 
Malegnano (ditto) : , : : - §Ju 
Solferino (ditto) : Ju 
(Armistice agreed to, 63 ‘uly, oa 


Taku, at the mouth of the Peiho or Tien-Tsin- 
(English attack on the Chinese Forts defeat 


25 Ju 

Taku forts taken (see China) : . 27 AN 
Chang-kia-wan, 18 ia and Pa-li- chiau (Chin 
defeated) p ‘ : -) 2rie 


Castillejo (Spaniards defeat Moors)  . aig 
Tetuan (ditto) . : : c : 3 4F 
Guad-el-Ras (ditto) 4 ‘ : - 23 Mar 


Calatifimi (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) 15 M: 
Melazzo (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) 20, 21 Ju 
Castel Fidardo (Sardinians defeat Papal . troo; 

18 Se 
Volturno (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) . 10 
Isernia (Sardinians defeat Neapolitans) . 170 
Garigliano (Sardinians defeat Neapolitans) 3 TN ( 
Sardinians defeat Neapolitan re-actionists 22 J: 
Gaeta taken by the Sardinians . - : 33m 


Insurrection in New Zealand ; English repuls 
14, 28 March ; 27 June; 10, 19 Sept. 5 ; 9 12 O 
Maohetia (Maories defeated) ; 6N 


CIVIL WAR IN UNITED STATES*—WAR IN ME’ 


Big Bethel (Federals repulsed) 3 . to Ju 
Boonev ille (Lyon defeats Confederates) . 18Ju 
Carthage (Federal victory) . . : . 5 Ju 


Rich Mountain (ditto) mr Ju 
Bull Run or Manassas (Federal defeat and pan 
21 Ju 


Springfield or Wilson’s Creek (Feds. victors) ro A) 
Carnifex ferry (Rosencrans defeats Floyd, Confedere 


to Se 
Lexington (taken by Confederates) P . 20 Se 
Pavon, South America (Mitra def. Urquiza) 17 Se 
| Turks defeat Montenegrins  . 19 Uct., “i a 


Ball’s Bluff (Federals defeated) Z 
Mill Springs, Kentucky (Confederates "defeated a 
their general Zollicoffer killed) 3 . Ig di 


| Roanoke Island, N.C. (Federals victors) 7,8 F 
Sugar Creek, ” Arkansas (Confederates ie 
8 Fk 


Fort Donnelson (taken by Federals) —, 16 Fe 
Pea Ridge, Arkansas (Federals victors) _ 6-8 Mar 
Hampton yoads 2. (Merrimac repulsed by Monit 


9 Mar 

Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh ( fuvouratle to CO 
federates) : : Os ot Api 
Williamsburg (7 ederals repulsed) ¢ - 5 Mi 


Puebla (Mexicans defeat French) 5 M: 
Richmond (successful sorties of Con federates) 14 M: 
Orizaba (Mexicans defeat French) 3 . 18 Mi 
Winchester (Federals repulsed) 3 . 8M: 


Near Orizaba (French defeat Mexicans) . 13 JW 
Fairoaks (before Richmond, indecisive) . 3 it 
1 Jw 


Chickahominy (severe conflicts before Richmon 

Confederates retreat) . 25 June to 1 Ju 
Baton Rouge (taken by Federals)  . 5 Al 
Cedar Mountain (favourable to Confederates) 9 Al 
Severe conflicts on the Rappahannock 23-29 At 
Bull Run (defeat of Federals) . . 29,30 Al 


* There were many smaller conflicts, of wl 
accounts were very uncertain. _. 


ka 
~ 
| a 


; ef H i 4 ‘4 { 2 
BATTLES. 


po EE ee a! ol 


95 


‘BATTLES. 


jonte (Garibaldi and his volunteers captured 


yal Italian Troops) . . 29g Aug. 
um (severe ; Confederates retreat) 17 Sept. 
le (Confederates worsted) . . 8, 9 Oct. 
cksburg (Federals defeated by Lee) 13 Dee. 
»sburgh (indecisive) 29 Dec. 1862—3 Jan. 
lle (Confederates defeated) : 2 Jan. 
lorsville (Confederates victors) . 2-4 May, 
ister (Hwell defeats Federals) . 14 June, 
surg (severe but indecisive) 1-3 J uly, 
auga (Confederates victorious) 19-20 Sept. 
ooga (Confederates defeated) 23-26 Nov. 
rlvania, &c., in the Wilderness, near Chan- 
‘sville (indecisive) . : - _ _to-r2 May, 
yurg, near Richmond (indecisive, but Grant 
wees) . f : : 5 15-18 June, 
sster (Confederates defeated) 19 Sept. 
Jreek (ditto) 4 ; : . r9 Oct. 
in (ditto) . : : : : . 30 Nov. 
lle (Thomas, Federal, defeats Hood) 14-16 Dec. 
orks (Lee totally defeated) r April, 
bes (Lee finally defeated) 6 April, 
ee (Danes and Allies) 6 Feb. 
| (taken by the Prussians) . 18 April, 
ditto) . ‘: é 2 29 June, 
yurg (ditto) . 21 July, 


SOUTH AMERICAN WAR. (See Brazil.) 
una (Allies defeat Paraguayans ; Uruguyana 
} : 18 Sept. 

. 25 Feb. 
16 April, 
. 2 May, 

16, 18 July, 

17, 19, 22 Sept. 
30 Oct. 
13 June, 


2 la Patria (indecisive) . 

(Allies victors) : 
Velhaco (ditto) 

' (Allies defeated) . 

uti (ditto) . : : 

r (Allies victors) . : 
ba (taken by Brazilians) 


SEVEN WEEKS’ war (Austria and Prussia). 
za (Austrians defeat Italians) 24 June, 
ditto, naval battle) . : 20 July, 
stan victories (as inscribed on shield exhi- 
ed at Berlin, 20 Sept. 1866, see Prussia). 

‘au, Turnau, Podoll . 26 June, 
1, Langensalza (which see), Oswiecin, Hiihner- 
er : “ A : p ; 27 June, 

engratz, Soor, Trautenau, Skalitz, 28 June, 

in, Koniginhof, Jaromier, Schweinschidel, 


2g June, 
raitz or Sadowa 3 July, 
ach, 4 July ; Hiinfeld . 5 July, 


schach, Hausen, Hammelburg, Friederics- 
Kissingen , ; d to July, 
h, 13 July ; Aschaffenburg : 14 July, 
*hau, 15 July; Blumenau, 22 July; Hof, 


23 July, 
'- Bischofsheim, Werbach, Hochhausen, 

24 July, 
inn, Helmstadt, Gerchsheim 25 July, 
‘unn, Wurzburg, Baireuth . 28 July, 
Rotondo (Garibaldians victors) . 27 Oct. 
1a (Garibaldi defeated) : - 3 Nov. 
or Fahla (Abyssinians defeated) . 10 April, 
la stormed. ; : : : 13 April, 
us defeat Bokharians and occupy Samarcand, 
: 25 May, 
(Spanish royalists defeated) 27, 28 Sept. 
(Lopez defeated by Brazilians), &e. 1x Dee. 
defeated : : : 12, 16, 18, 2t Aug. 
tban (Lopez defeated and killed) t March, 


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR (which see). 
‘lick, taken by the French, and Prussians re- 
sd 


, c ; : i 2 Aug. 
‘bourg (French defeated) 4 Aug. 
(ditto) : : ; : 6 Aug. 
ick or Forbach (ditto) °. 6 Aug. 
Hes or Pange (ditto) . . 14 Aug. 
rg (ditto) ‘ é 2) LEO AUS. 
le or Mars-la-Tour (ditto). - 16 Aug. 
tte or Rézonville (ditto) 18 Aug. 
‘ont (ditto) . raat a eet do. Aue, 
am (ditto) ‘31 Aug, 
Jitto) . : : BA Bots : - 31 Aug. 
ditto).  . ws 3 Aug., 2 Sept. 


1862 


be) 
> 


1863 | 


“ 
v 


“ 


| Russo-Turkisa War (which see), 


| Lovatz or Luftch 


Before Paris (French defeated) 


Thoury (Germans surprised aid repulsed) 5 Oct 


St. Remy (French defeated) 6 Oct. 
Before Metz (ditto) : - 7 Oct. 
Artenay (ditto) , to Oct. 
Cherizy (Germans repulsed) ro Oct. 
Orleans (French defeated) 11,Oct. 
Kcouis (indecisive) . : : 14 Oct. 
Chateaudun (French defeated) 18 Oct. 


Coulmiers, near Orleans (Germans defeated), 
9g, ro Nov. 


Near Amiens (French defeated) . 27 Nov. 
Villiers, before Paris (rench retreat) 30 Nov. 

2 Dec. 
Before Orleans (French defeated) 4 Dee. 
Beaugency (ditto) . : f 7,8 Dec. 
Nuits (ditto)  . 5 - ‘ . 18 Dec. 
Pont & Noyelles (French cluim a victory) 23 Dec. 
Bapaume (indecisive) : e 2,3 Jan. 
Le Mans (indecisive) - : : : . 6Jan. 
Le Mans (Chanzy def. by pr. Fred. Chas.), to-12 Jan. 
Belfort (Bourbaki defeated) . 15-17 Jan. 
St. Quentin (Faidherbe defeated) 1g Jan. 
Paris (Trochw’s grand sortie repulsed) Ig Jan. 


Oroquieta (Curlists defeated) . : . 
Elmina (Ashuntees defeated by British) . 1 3 June, 
Elgueta (Carlists said to be victorious). . 5, 6 Aug. 
Maieru (Carlists and Republicans: indecisive) 6 Oct. 


4 May, 


Abrakampra (Ashantees defeated) . 5, 6 Nov. 
Borborassie (ditto) . : 4 29 Jan. 
Amoaful (ditto) 31 Jan. 
Bocquah (ditto) x Feb. 
Fommanah (ditto) . . 2 Feb. 
Ordahsa (ditto) . ; ' ; ty A Bed, 
Before Bilbao (several days ; Curlists retreat ; Concha 

enters Bilbao) : ; : ; . 2 May, 
Estella (sharp conflicts; Carlists retreat 3 Concha 

killed) . zl : : : 25, 27 June, 
Trun (Laserna defeats Carlists) . to Nov. 


Sorota, Peru (Pierota and insurgents defeated) 3 Dee. 


Near Tolosa (Carlists repulse Lonu) 7, 8 Dec. 
Khokand (Russians wnder Kaufman defeat the Khan’s 
troops, dc.) : ; : 2 - 4, 21 Sept. 
Abyssinians defeat Egyptians . ; ; a Oct: 
Assake (Khokand chiefs defeated) . 30 Jan. 
Servian war begins. : : : . «duly, 
Saitschar (severe conflicts ; Servians retreat) 2, 3 July, 
Urbitza (Montenegrins defeat Turks) . 28 July, 
TURKISH WaRs with Servia, and M ontenegro, de- 
clared . ; : A ; : . 2duly, 
Zaicar or Saitschar (Turks and Servians, indecisive) 
3 July, 

| Novi Bazar (Turks said to be victors) 6 July, 
Urbitza (Montenegrins victors) 28 July, 
Gurgusovatz (Turks victors) - 5—7 Aug. 


Medun (Montenegrins victors) ie? Ol) TA uA tp 
Morava valley near Alexinatz (severe conflicts, fa- 

vowrable to Turks) ; : P 19—27 Aug. 
Podgoritza (Montenegrins vi ctors) . 26 Aug, 
Alexinatz (Turks victors), 1, 2, 28, 29 Sept., captured 
31 Oct. 
Peace between Turkey and Servia 1 March, 


began . 24 April, 
Tahir (Turks defeated) : . : . 16 June, 
Nicopolis (stormed by Russians, severe Jights) 
15, 16 July, 


Plevna (Russians defeated) 19, 20, & 30, 31 July, 


Kurukdara or Kizil Tepe (ditto) 24, 25 Aug. 
Valley of Lom (ditto) . : j . 22—24 Aug. 
Schipka Pass (dreadful conflicts, Turks under Sulei- 

man repulsed) . 2 . 20—27 Aug. 
Karahassankoi, &., on the Lom (severe ; Russians 

retreat) . ; . 30 Aug. 
3 Sept. 
severe conflicts, 


(taken by Russians) . 
Plevna (held by Osman I -ausha, 
Russians defeated) ; : a 
Schipka Pass (Suleiman defeated). 
Near Kars (Russians defeated) . . - 2—4 Oct. 
Aladja Dagh, near Kars ('urks under Mukhtar totally 
defeated) . A : : : wy E4ears Oot. 
Deve-Boyun, Armenia (Turks wader Mukhtar de- 
Seated after 9 howrs’ fighting) : 4 Nov. 
Azizi, near Erzeroum (Russians defeated) . 9 Nov. 
Kars taken by storm by Russians . 17, 18 Noy. 
Elena (taken by Turks after sharp conflict) 4 Dee. 


. 30 Sept. 1870 
ct. 


” 


7 


BATUM. 


BAVARIA, 


Plevna (Osman Pasha endeavours to break out ; 
totally defeated; surrenders wicond itionally) 

9, 10 Dec. 

g-Io Jan. 


Senova in the Balkans (Turks defeated) 
é TA wey ale Ms, 


Near Philippopolis (ditto) 
AFGHAN War (see Afghanistan). 


Ali Musjid captured by British 22 Nov. 1878 
Peiwar Pass (victory of gen. Roberts) 2 Dec. 5, 
Futtehabad (victory of gen. Gough) . 2 April, 1879 
-Char-aseab (Afghans defeated) . 6 Oct. 


Severe fighting near Cabul Dec. 1879—April, 1880 
Ahmed Khel (Stewart defeats Afghans) 19—23 April, _,, 
Kuschki-Nakhud or Maiwand (Ayoob Khan defeats 
Burrows) ; 4 - : - v2 Oly, 
Mazra or Baba Wali (Roberts totally defeats. Ayoob 
Khan) . 4 5 : . ; 1 Sept. ;, 
ZuLu WAR (see Zululand). 
Tsandula (British surprised and defeated) 22 Jan. 
Rorke’s Drift (successfully defended by British) ,, * 
Ulundi (Cetewayo totally defeated by lord Chelms- 


ford) . , ; : 4Jduly 5, 
CHILIAN AND PERUVIAN WAR (see Chili). 
Iquique (Chilians defeat Perwvians) . Nov. 1879 
Choukos and Miraflores (ditto) 17 Jan. 1881 


RUSSIAN WAR. 
Geok or Denghli Tepé (Russians and Turkomans, in- 


decisive) F ities ; ; 9 Sept. 1879 
Geok Tepé (besieged by Russians, severe conflicts), 24 

Dec. 1880, 4, 9, 10, Jan., taken. - 24Jan, 1881 

oT TRANSVAAL WAR. 

Laing’s Nek (British defeated) . 28 Jan. 1881 
Ingogo River _ (ditto) ‘ 8 Hevea, 
Majuba Hill (ditto) 26. eDous. 

War In Ecypt (see gypt). } . 
Bombardment of forts at Alexandria . ir July 1882 


defeated by 

2 '245'25 AUS as, 
. 28 Aug. and g Sept. ,, 
TZ SEPb 55 


1883 


Tel-el-Mahuta and Masameh (rebels 
British). : : . 
Kassasin (ditto) f é 
Tel-el-Kebir (ditto—decisive) 
See Soudan. 
Rebels in the Soudan defeated by Hicks 29 April, 
El Obeid or Kashgal (Hicks and his army destroyed) 
Shee, Nov. ” 
Tokar (Egyptians defeated) . 4 ; 51 GINOV.see ss 
Near Teb, Baker with Egyptians was defeated by 
rebels : : - . : ; 4 Feb. 
_Teb (Graham totally defeats rebels) . 29 Feb. ,, 
For Chinese and French war see under China 
and Tonquin. 
Abu Klea (Stewart defeats rebels) . 
Gubat (rebels defeated). ; : 
Kerkeban (ditto, gen. Earle killed) 
Hasheen (revels defeated) : 20 March ,, 
Rebel attack near Souakim repulsed fe2 March ,, 
(For numerous small conflicts and skirmishes, see Franco- 
Prussian War, Herzegovina, Russo-Turkish Wars, Spain, 
Sumatra, Turkey, United States, Kafirs, Egypt, Zulu- 
land, Basutoland, Chili, Soudan, Tonquin, &c., and for 
details of important engagements see separate articles.) 


BATUM, see Batoum. 


BAUGH, see Anjou. 


BAUTZEN, a town in Saxony, near which 
desperate battles were fought 20, 21, and 22 May, 
1813, between the French, commanded by Napoleon, 
and the allies under the emperor of Russia and the 
king of Prussia. The struggle commenced on the 
19th, with a contest on the outposts, which cost 
each army a loss of above 2000 men. On the 20th 
(at Bautzen) the French were more successful; and 
on the 21st (at Wurschen) the allies were com- 
pelled to retire; but Napoleon obtained no perma- 
nent advantage. Duroc was killed at Reichenbach 
by a cannon-ball, on 22 May. 


BAVARIA (part of ancient Noricum and Vin- 
delicia), a kingdom in South Germany, conquered 
from the Celtic Gauls (Boii) by the Franks between 
630 and 660. The country was afterwards governed 
by dukes subject to the French monarchs. Tasil- 


- 17 Jan. 1885 
rg Jan: ,, 


lon II. was deposed by Charlemagne, who est: 
margraves in 788. The margrave Leopo! 
father of Arnulph the Bad, is styled the fir 
Bavaria made a kingdom from 1 Jan. 18% 
made a constitutional monarchy, 26 May 
It joined the German empire, 22 Noy 
Population, 1 Dec. 1871, 4,863,450; De 
5,022,390. See Munich. 


Bavaria supports Austria in the contest w 
Prussia : : : 2 : . Ju 
Took part in the war, and made peace with Prus 
22 A 
Population (after cessions, 1866), 4,824,421 . I 
An international exhibition in a crystal pal 
opened . : " ‘ re - 20N 
The chambers dissolved, as, through a party strug. 
no president was elected. ‘ : . 6¢ 
Resignation of the ministry, 25 Nov. ; only parti: 
accepted by the king : n 3 he 
Vote of want of confidence in prince Hohenlo 
the president, r2 Feb. ; he resigns 14k 
The king announces his intention of joining Pru: 
in the war with France . about 20N 
The Bavarian contingent highly distinguishes it 
in the war; Otho, duke of Bavaria, killed x 
Beglie : * 5 : : . | 259 
President of council, and foreign minister, A. 
Pfretzschner . . ‘ F 22A 
[See Franco-Prussian War.] 


The king, in a letter to the king of Saxony, prope 
that the king of Prussia should be made empx 
of Germany . : : : about s I 

Dr. Dollinger excommunicated for opposing pi 
infallibility, 18 April; elected rector of the 1 
versity of Munich : : : - 2941 

Government protests against papal infaliibility 
Germany) . ; : 3 : : - oe 

‘Old Catholic” church opened at Munich, 

end of S 

The king charges Von Gasser to form an Ultram 
tane ministry, opposed to German unity, 3 Se 
he fails . : , ? 3 : : . Se 

Queen dowager, Mary of Prussia, received into 
Catholic Church . P 2 : - ima 

New Ultramontane party (‘‘popular Catholi 
formed : p c : : . 6 Mai 

International exhibition at Munich opened 19 J) 

Seventh centenary of foundation of the dyna 
(Otto of Wittelsbach made duke by Freder 


Barbarossa) 25 A 
DUKES. 
1071. Guelf I., an illustrious warrior. 
1101. Guelf II. ; son; married the countess 


1089. 

Henry the Black ; brother. 

Henry the Proud ; son. (He competed wit! 
of Hohenstaufen for the empire, failed, 
deprived of Bavaria.) 

Leopold, margrave of Austria ; d. 1142. 

Henry of Austria ; brother ; d. 1177. 

Henry the Lion (son of Henry the Pro 
cestor of the Brunswick family, restore 
emperor Frederick Barbarossa, but ex] 
him 1180; (see Brunswick) ; d. 1195. 

Otho, count of Wittelsbach, made du 
1183. 

Louis ; son. 

Otho II.,. the Illustrious ; son ; gained t 
nate ; assassinated 1231. 

Louis II., the Severe ; son; d. 1294. 

Louis III. ; son (without the palatinate) e 
dl. 1347. 

Stephen I. ; son; d. 1375. 

John ; brother ; d. 1397. 

Ernest ; brother ; d. 1438. 

Albert I. ; son; d. 1460. 

John II. and Sigismund ; sons; resigned | 

Albert II. ; brother ; d. 1508. 

William I. ; son; opposed the reformatioc 
d. 1550. 

Albert III. ; son; d. 1573. 

William II. ; son; abdicated, 1596 ; d. 16: 

Maximilian the Great ; son; the first EL 
Bavaria, 25 Feb. 1623 ; the palatinate : 
1648 ; d. 27 Sept. 1651. ; 


1120. 
1126. 


1138. 
1142. 
1154. 


1180. 


1183. 
1231. 


1253. 
1294. 


1347- 
1375: 
1397- 
1438. 
1460. 
1465. 
1508. 


1550. 


1579- 
1596. 


* 


% 


BAVENO. 


. Ferdinand-Mary ; d. 26 May, 1670. 

. Maximilian Emanuel; son ; allies with France, 
1702 ; defeated at Blenheim, 1704; restored to 
his dominions, 1714 ; d. 26 Feb. 1726. 

.. Charles Albert; son; elected emperor, 1742; de- 
feated, 1744; d. 20 Jan. 1745. 

. Maximilian-Joseph I. ; son ; as elector ; d. 30 Dec. 
1777 ; end of younger line of Wittelsbach. 

. Charles Theodore (the elector palatine of the Rhine 
since 1743). The French take Munich ; he treats 
with them, 1796 ; d. 1799. 

. Maximilian-Joseph IL. ; elector ; territories changed 

by treaty of Luneville, 1801; enlarged when 

made king, by treaty of Presburg. Dec. 1805. 


KINGS OF BAVARIA. 

. Maximilian-Joseph I. He deserted Napoleon, and 
had his enlarged territories confirmed to him, 
Oct. 1813; grants a constitutional charter, 22 

| Aug. 1818; d. 13 Oct. 1825. 

. Louis L., 13 Oct. ; abdicated 21 March, 1848 ;* died 

| 29 Feb. 1868. 

. Maximilian-Joseph IT. ; son; born 28 Nov. 1811; 
died 10 March, 1864. 

. Louis II. (son); born 25 Aug. 1845. 

Heir: his brother Otho, born 27 April, 1848. 
AVENO, a village of Piedmont, on the Lago 
sgiore. Ata villa here queen Victoria resided 
1 28 March to 23 April 1879. 


‘AY ISLANDS (the chief, Ruatan), in the 

of Honduras, central America, belonged to 
in till 1821; then to Great britain, which 
1ed them into a colony in 1852, but ceded 
n to Honduras, 28 Nov. 1859: see Honduras. 


\AYEUX TAPESTRY, said to have been 
ught by Matilda, queen of William I.(?) It is 
mches wide, 214 feet long, and is divided into 
partments showing the events from the visit 
Harold to the Norman court to his death 
Hastings; it is now preserved in the public 
ary of Bayeux near Caen. A copy, drawn by 
Stothard, and coloured after the original, was 
lished by the Society of Antiquaries in 1821-3. 
yas reproduced by autotype process by F. R. 
‘ke, with notes, 1875. 


AYLEN (S. Spain), where on 20 July, 1808, 
French, commanded by generals Dupont and 
lel, were defeated by the Spaniards under Red- 
Coupigny, and other generals. 


AYONET, the short dagger fixed at the end 
re-arms, said to have been invented at Bayonne, 
rance, about 1647, 1670, or 1690. It was used 
Ulliecrankie in 1689, and at Marsaglia by the 
ich, in 1693, ‘‘ with great success, against the 
ny unprepared for the encounter with so for- 
ble a novelty.”” The ring-bayonet was adopted 
he British, 24 Sept. 1693. 


AYONNE (8S. France), an ancient city. It 
held by the English from 1295 till it was taken 
tharles VII. The queens of Spain and France 
the cruel duke of Alva here, June, 1556, it 
apposed to arrange the massacre of St. Bar- 
omew. Charles IV. of Spain abdicated here in 
ur of ‘‘his friend and ally ’’ the emperor Napo- 
, 4 May, and his sons, Ferdinand prince of 
rias, don Carlos, and don Antonio renounced 
‘ rights to the Spanish throne, 6 May, 1808. 
he neighbourhood of Bayonne was much des- 


‘he abdication of Charles-Louis was mainly caused 
‘is attachment to an intriguing woman, known 
ighout Europe by the assumed name of Lola Montes, 
in the end, was expelled the kingdom for her inter- 
ce in state affairs, and afterwards led a wandering 
She delivered lectures in London, in 1859; thence 
eded to the United States ; and died at New York, 
n. 1861. 


O77 BEADS. 


perate fighting between the French and British 
armies, 9-13 Dec. 1813. Bayonne was invested by 
the British, 14 Jan. 1814; on 14 April, the French 
made a sally, and attacked the English with suc- 
cess, but were at length driven back. The loss of 
the British was considerable, and’ lieut.-gen. sir 
John Hope was wounded and taken prisoner.—A 
Franco-Spanish industrial and fine arts exhibition 
was opened at Bayonne in July 1864. 


BAYREUTH (N. Germany), a margraviate, 
held formerly by a branch of the Brandenburg 
family,’ was with that of Anspach abdicated by the 
reigning prince in favour of the king of Prussia, 
1790. ‘The archives were brought (in 1783) from 
Plassenburg to the city of Bayreuth, which was 
incorporated with Bavaria by Napoleon in 1806. 


BAZAAR, or covered market, a word of Arabic 
origin. The magnificent bazaar of Ispahan was ex- 
celled by that of Tauris, which has held 30,000 
men in order of battle, In London the Soho-square 
bazaar was opened by Mr. Trotter in 1816 to relieve 
the relatives of persons killed in the war. The 
Queen’s Bazaar, Oxford-street, a very extensive 
one, was (with the Diorama) burnt down, and the 
loss estimated at 50,000/., 27 May, 1829. It was 
rebuilt, and converted into the Princess’s Theatre, 
opened 30 Sept. 1841. The St. James’s bazaar (built 
by Mr. Crockford) in 1832. The Pantheon, made a 
bazaar in 1834; see Pantheon. The London Crystal- 
palace bazaar, 1858. The most imposing sale termed 
a bazaar was opened for the benefit of the Anti- 
Corn-Law League, in Covent-garden theatre, 5 May, 
1845; in six weeks 25,000/. were obtained, mostly 
by admission money. The Corinthian bazaar, 
Argyll-street, Oxford-street (to replace the bazaar 
ae Pantheon) opened 30 July, 1867; closed in 
I . 


BAZAINE, MARSHAL, trial, &c., Dec. 1873, 
and Aug, 1874. See Metz and France. 


BAZEILLEHES, a village in the Ardennes, N.E. 
France. During the dreadful battle of Sedan, 
I Sept. 1870, Bazeilles was burnt by the Bavarians, 
and atrocious outrages were said to have been com- 
mitted. Of nearly 2000 inhabitants it was asserted 
searcely fifty remained alive, and these indignantly 
denied having given provocation. Muchcontroversy 
ensued, and in July, 1871, gen. Von der Tann as- 
serted correctly that the number of deaths had been 
grossly exaggerated, that there had been much 
provocation, and denied the alleged cruelties. 


BAZOCHE-DES-HAUTHS, near Orleans, 
central France. Here a part of the army of the 
Loire, under gen. D’Aurelle de Paladines, was 
defeated after a severe action, by the Germans 
under the grand-duke of Mecklenburg, 2 Dec. 1870. 
See Orleans. 


BEACHY HEAD, 2promontory, S. E. Sussex, 
near which the British and Dutch fleet, commanded 
by the earl of Torrington, was defeated by a supe- 
rior French force under admiral Tourville, 30 June, 
1690; the allies suffered very severely. The Dutch 
lost two admirals, 500 men, and several ships— 
sunk to prevent them from falling into the hands 
of the enemy; the English lost two ships and 400 
men. ‘The admirals on both sides were blamed; 
ours, for not fighting; the French for not pursuing 
the victory. 


BEACONS, see Lighthouses. 


BEACONSFIELD ADMINISTRATION, see 
Disraeli and People’s Tribute. 


BEADS were early used in the east for reckon- 
H 


BEAM. 


ing prayers. St. Augustin mentions them 366. 
About 1090, Peter the Hermit is said to have made 
a series of 55 beads. To Dominic de Guzman is 
ascribed the invention of the Rosary (a series of 
15 large and 150 small beads), in honour of the 
Blessed Virgin, about 1202. Beads soon after were 
in general use. The Bead-roll was a list of de- 
eeased persons, for the repose of whose souls a 
certain number of prayers was recited. Beads have 
been found in British barrows. 


BEAM AnpD SCALES. The apparatus for 
weighing goods was so called, ‘‘as it weighs so 
much at the king’s deam.’’? A public beam was set 
up in London, and all commodities ordered to be 
weighed by the city officer, called the weigh- 
master, who was to do justice between buyer and 
seller, stat. 3 Edw. II. 1309. Stow. Beams and 
scales, with weights and measures, were ordered to 
be examined by the justices at quarter sessions, 
35 Geo. III. 1794; see Weights and Measures. 


BEANS, BLack AND WHITE, were used by 
the ancients in gathering the votes of the people for 
the election of magistrates. A white bean signified 
absolution, and a black one condemnation. The 
precept of Pythagoras to abstain from beans, abstine 
a fabis, has been variously interpreted. ‘“* Beans 
do not favour mental tranquillity.” Cicero. The 
finer kinds of beans were brought here with other 
vegetables, in Henry VIII.’s reign. 


BEAR-BAITING, an ancient popular English 
sport, prohibited by parliament in 1835. 

BEARDS.* The Egyptians did not wear 
beards; the Assyrians did. They have been worn 
for centuries by the Jews, who were forbidden to 
mar their beards, 1490 B.c. cv. xix. 27. The 
‘Yartars waged a long war with the Persians, de- 
claring them infidels, because they would not cut 
their beards, after the custom of Tartary. The 
Greeks wore their beards till the time of Alexander, 
who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved, lest 
the beard should give a handle to their enemies, 
3308.c. Beards were worn by the Romans, 390 3.c. 
‘he emperor Julian wrote a diatribe (entitled 
“ Misopogon’’) against wearing beards, A.D. 362.— 
In England, they were not fashionable after the 
conquest, 1066, until the 13th century, and were 
discontinued at the Restoration. Peter the Great 
enjoined the Russians, even of rank, to shave, but 
was obliged to keep officers on foot to cut off the 
beard by force. Since 1851 the custom of wearing 
he beard gradually increased in Great Britain. 


BEARN, S. France, the ancient Benecharnum, 
was held successively by the Romans, Franks, Goths, 
and Gascons, and became a hereditary viscounty in 
819, under Centule I., son of Loup, duke of Gas- 
cony. From his family it passed to the houses—of 
Gabaret, 1134; of Moncade, 1170; of Foix, 1290; 
and of Bourbon, 1550. Its annexation to France 
was decreed by Henry IY., 1594; affirmed by Louis 
XIII., 1620. 


* A bearded woman was taken by the Russians at the 
Dattle of Pultowa, and presented to the Czar, Peter L., 
1724: her beard measured 13 yard. A woman is said to 
have been seen at Paris with a bushy beard, and her 
whole body covered with hair. Dict. de Trévoux. The 
great Margaret, governess of the Netherlands, had avery 
long stiff beard. In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a 
virgin had along black beard. Mdlle. Bois de Chéne, 
born at Geneva (it was said) in 1834, was exhibited in 
London, in 1852-3, when, consequently, eighteen years 
of age; she had a profuse head of hair, a strong black 
beard, large whiskers, and thick hair on her arms and 
down from her neck on her back, and masculine features. 


98 


BECKETS MURDER. 


BEARS and BULLS, see Stocks. 
BEAUGH, see Anjou. 


BEAULIEU, ABBEY OF, (reformed I 
dictines) founded by king John, in the New Fi 
Hampshire, in 1204, and dedicated to the Bl 
Virgin, had the privilege of sanctuary. It aff 
an asylum to Margaret, queen of Henry VL, 
the defeat of the earl of Warwick at Ba 
14 April, 1471; and to Perkin Warbeck, | 
1497. 

BEAUMONT, a village near Sedan, de 
ment of Ardennes, N.E. France. Near here a 
of the army of marshal MacMahon under Def: 
which, after vainly endeavouring to reach ] 
was retreating before the Germans under the c 
prince of Prussia, was surprised, defeated, 
driven across the Meuse at Mouzon, 30 Aug, 
The French loss included about 7000 priso 
many guns, and much camp equipage. Theyi 
was chiefly gained by the Bavarians. 


BEAUNE-LA-ROLLANDE, a villa: 
the Loiret, France. Here the French army o 
Loire, under general D’Aurelle de Paladines 
defeated by the Germans, under prince Fred 
Charles, in an attempt to march in the directi 
Fontainebleau to relieve Paris, 28 Nov. 1870. 
French loss was reported by the Germans ¢ 
1000 dead, 4000 wounded; above 1700 priso 
Their own loss was heavy. 


BEAUVAIS (N. France), the ancient E 
vacum, or Cesaroniagus, formerly capital of Pic. 
When besieged by Charles the Bold, duke of 
gundy, with 80,000 men, the women under Je 
Fourquet or Lainé, also de la Hachette, from 
using that weapon, particularly distinguished t! 
selves, and the duke raised the siege, 10 July, 
In memory of this the women of Beauvais walk 
in the procession on the anniversary of ' 
deliverance. 


BECHUANA LAND, South Africa, u 


British protection, see Zransvaal. 


Mr. Mackenzie appointed British resident, 13 
March ; compelled to resign by the Dutch party, 
replaced by Mr. Rhodes ._. : 8 Aug. 

Sir Charles Warren made special commissioner Oct. 

The Boer filibusters seize and annex the territory 
of Montsioa, under British protection ; compelled 
to retire : i 5 - ¢ Sept., Oct. 

Military expedition against Dutch freebooters Noy. 

(Stellaland and Goshen republics) who accept allot- 
ments of land, announced, 27 Nov. ; this policy of 
the Cape Government strongly disapproved by 
colony . 4 ‘ A 3 : .) ee. 

Sir Charles Warren meets president Kriiger, 24 Jan. 
and comes to an agreement : . 29 Jan. 

Military government established by sir C. Warren, 
announced . : : 24 Feb. 


BECKET’S MURDER.* Thomas Be 
archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at 
altar, 29 Dec. 1170. The king was absolve 


* Thomas Becket was borninrrz9. His father Gi 
was a London trader, and his mother is stated to 
been a convert from Mahomedanism. He was edut 
at Oxford, and made archdeacon by Theobald, areh)i 
of Canterbury, who introduced him to the king, Hem 
He became chancellor in 1155, but on being elected: 
bishop of Canterbury in 1162, he resigned the chance 
ship, to the great offence of the king. He opr 
strenuously the constitutions of Clarendon in 1164, 
fled the country ; and in 1166, excommunicated al 
clergy who agreed to abide by them. He and the 
met at Fretville, in Touraine, on 22 July, 1170, and 
formally reconciled. On his return he re-comme 
his simgele with the king, which led to-his tra 

eath, 


al 


BECKFORD. 


99 


BEGUINES. 


ty knowledge of the crime in 1172, and did 
ince at the tomb in 1174. The bones of Becket 
» enshrined in gold and jewels in 1220; but 
+ burned in the reign of Henry VIII. 1539. 
Merchant Adventurers were at one time termed 
2 Brotherhood of St. Thomas a Becket.” <A 
an catholic church at Canterbury, dedicated to 
‘was opened by cardinal Manning, 13th April, 


ECKFORD, see under Libraries. 


ED. ‘The ancients slept on skins. Beds were 
wards made of loose rushes, heather, or straw. 
Romans are said to have first used feathers. 
ir-cushion is said to have been used by Helio-~ 
lus, 218-222; adr-beds were in use in the 16th 
iry. Feather-beds were in use in England in 
reign of Henry VIII. The bedsteads of the 
tians and later Greeks, like modern couches, 
ne common among the Roman upper classes. 
‘ncient great bed at Ware, Herts, capable of hold- 
twelve persons, was sold, it is said, to Charles 
kens, 6 Sept. 1864. 
stead of gold was presented to the queen on 2 Noy. 
9, by the Maharajah of Cashmere. 
eds and water-beds have been made since the manu- 
ture of india-rubber cloth by Clark in 1813 ; and by 
‘cintosh in 1823. 
rnott’s hydrostatic bed invented in 1830. 
iD oF JUSTICE, a French court presided 
by the king, whose seat was termed a ‘‘ bed.”’ 
mtrolled the ordinances of the parliament. 
last was held by Louis XVI. at Versailles, 
ov. 1787, to raise a loan. 


HDER (Arabia). Here Mahomet gained his 
victory (over the Koreish of Mecca), 623. It 
onsidered to be miraculous. 


JDFORD, a town, N.N.W. of London, re- 
ed for its many free educational establish- 
s, endowed in 1561 by sir Wm. Harpur, a 
on alderman. Here John Bunyan preached, 
tmprisoned, and wrote ‘‘'The Pilgrim’s Pro- 


tue of Bunyan, the gift of the duke of Bedford, 
uncovered here, ro June, 1874. Bronze gates for 
Bunyan church, given by the duke, were inaugu- 
d by him 5 July, 1876. 


FORD LEVEL, 2 portion of the great 
Stricts in the eastern counties, drained in the 
part of the 17th century by the earl of Bed- 
aided by the celebrated Dutch engineer, sir 
lius Vermuyden, amid great opposition ; see 
s 


IDLAM, see Bethichem. 


IDOUINS, wandering tribes of Arabs, living 
e plunder of travellers, &c. They profess a 
of Mahomedanism, and are governed b 
as. ‘They are said to be descendants of Ish- 

and appear to fulfil the prophecy respecting 

Gen. xvi. 12, IQII B.C. 


\EF-EATERS, see Battle-axe. 


jJEEF STEAKS, the Sublime Society eit 
tablished in 1735 by Rich, an actor at Covent 
a Theatre, in the painting-room of which the 
‘ers dined upon beef-steaks. The society 
'e fashionable, and long included among its 
ers the prince of Wales, royal dukes, and 
‘eminent persons, who submitted to its some- 
ludicrous regulations. It became extinct in 
‘its last place of meeting being a room in the 
‘m theatre. Its history was published by 
or Arnold in 1871, 


BEER, see Ale, Brewers, Porter, Victuallers. 
Condensed beer patented by P. E. Lockwood, 1875. 
Condensed wort patented by Hermann Mertens, of 
Margate, in 1853. 


BEER-HOUSES. | Law respecting (11 Geo. 
Be and r Will. LV., c. 64, 1830), &c., amended in 
I Q. 


BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odori- 
ferous flowers, thyme, and abundance of honey, has 
been poetically called the ‘‘empire of bees.” Hy- 
mettus, in Attica, was also famous for its bees and 
honey. ‘The economy of bees was admired in the 
earliest ages; and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a 
poem on bees, 741 B.c. Bees were introduced 
into Boston, New England, in 1670, and have 
since spread over the continent. Mandeville’s 
satirical ‘‘ Fable of the Bees ’’ appeared in 1723. 
Huber published his observatidns on bees in 1792. 
The Apiarian Society had an establishment at Mus- 
well Hill, near London (1860-2). The Ligurian 
variety of the honey-bee was successfully introduced 


| into England in 1860. 


A British Beekeepers’ Association founded 16 May (sir 
John Lubbock became first president) ; first exhibition, 
in the Crystal Palace, 8 Sept. 1874 ; at other places 
since. 

Spelling bees, of American origin, introduced into London 
in autumn of 1875; first at Holloway. Geographical, 


“ 


musical, and other bees began early in 1876, 


BEES’, ST., Cumberland. A monastery was 
founded here by St. Bega, 650; a grammar school 
by abp. Grindal, 1583 ; a clerical training college 
by bp. Law, 1817. 


BEET-ROOT is of recent cultivation in Eng- 
land. Beta vulgaris, red beet, is used for the table 
asasalad. Margraff first produced sugar from the 
white beet-root in 1747. M. Achard produced ex- 
cellent sugar from it im 1799; and the chemists of 
France, at the instance of Bonaparte, largely ex- 
tracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. 000 
tons of sugar, about half the consumption, are now 
manufactured in France from beet. It is also 
largely manufactured in other countries. A refinery 
of sugar from beet-root has been erected at the 
Thames bank, Chelsea. The cultivation of bect- 
root in England and Ireland much advocated, 1871, 
and again, in 1884, when great improvements were 
proposed, especially at Lavenham, Suffolk, by 
Messrs. Bolton, of Westminster, 


BEGGARS were tolerated in ancient times, 
being often musicians and ballad-singers. In 
modern times severe laws have been passed against 
them. In 1572, by 14 Eliz., c. 5, sturdy beggars 
were ordered to be “ grievously whipped and burnt 
through the right ear;’’ punished capitally for the 
third offence. By the Vagrant Act (1824), 5 Geo. IV. 
c. 83, all public beggars are liable to a month’s im- 
prisonment. About 30,000 tramps in England and 
Wales. Judicial Statistics, 1865. See Poor Laws 
and Mendicity Society. The “Bracar’s OPERA,”’ 
by John Gay, a satire against the government of 
sir Robert Walpole, was produced at the Lincoln’s- 
inn-fields theatre, 29 Jan. 1727-8, and had a run of 
63 nights; see Gueuu. 


BEGUINES, a congregation of nuns first 
established at Liége, and afterwards at Nivelle, in 
1207, some say 1226. The “Grand Beguinage” 
of Bruges was the most extensive. Some of these 
nuns imagined that they could become sinless, The 
council of Vienne condemned this error, and 
abolished a branch of the order in 1 311. They still 
exist in Germany and Belgium, acting as nurses to 
the sick and wounded, &e. 


HD 


BEHEADING. 


BEHEADING, the Decollatio of the Romans, 
introduced into England from Normandy (as a less 
ignominious mode of putting high criminals to 
death), by William the Conqueror, 1076, when 
Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, Northampton, and 
Northumberland, was first so executed. Since then 
this mode of execution became frequent, particu- 
larly in the reigns of Henry VIII., Mary, and 
Elizabeth, when even women of the noblest blood 
thus perished; the aged countess of Salisbury, 27 
May, 1541; lady Jane Grey, 12 Feb. 1554. 


BEHISTUN, in Persia. At this place is a 
rock containing important inscriptions in three 
languages, in cuneiform (or wedge-shaped) cha- 
racters, which were deciphered and translated by 
sir H. Rawlinson in 1844-6, and published in the 
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Each para- 
graph commences with ‘“‘I am Darius the Great 
King.” 

BEHRING’S STRAIT, discovered by captain 
Vitus Behring, a Danish navigator in the service of 
Russia. He thus proved that the continents of 
Asia and America are distant from each other about 
thirty-nine miles, 1728. He died at Behring’s 
island in 1741. In 1778 captain James Cook sur- 
veyed the coasts of both continents. 


BELFAST, capital of Ulster, N. Ireland. Its 
castle, supposed to have been built by John de 
Courcy, was destroyed by the Scots under Edward 
Bruce, 1315 ; see Orange. 


Belfast granted by James I. to sir Arthur Chichester, 
lord deputy, 1612; and erected into a corpo- 
ration . & . 5 : , ; ‘ + £013 
The long bridge (21 arches, 2562 feet long) built. 1682-6 
The first edition of the Bible in Ireland, printed here 1704 


The castle burnt ° = . 4April, 1708 
The bank built. : “ - : : oi. 787 
The mechanics’ institute established 3 : 1825 


The Queen’s bridge (5 arches) built on site of the 
long bridge : 


: 4 : ; - Sey he 
Of three colleges established in Ireland in 1845, one 


inaugurated in Belfast (see Colleges) . - Oct. 1849 
British Association met here . ; : : . 1852 
Much rioting at Belfast through Mr. Hanna’s open- 

air preaching . ; : : . Jduly—Sept. 1857 
“Victoria chambers” burnt down; the loss esti- 

mated at 100,000l. . ‘ 3 . rJuly, 1859 
Exciting religious revivals Sept. ,, 


Fierce conflicts between Roman Catholics and Pro- 
testants on account of the foundation of the 
O’Connell monument at Dublin—g lives lost and 


rs5o persons injured . 10-27 Aug. 1864 
Rioting again 30 April, 1865 
Election riots : July, ,, 


Visit of the lord lieutenant the marquis of peas 
2-4 Oct. 

Severe rioting ; much destruction of property and 
many persons injured. Civil war raging between 


1867 


Catholics and Protestants, 15-21 Aug. Peace re- 

stored. . 5 : ‘ ; = 22 Aug. 1872 
British Association here (2nd time) 1g Aug. 1874 
End of strike of linen manufacturers . 26 Aug. ,, 


BELFORT, or BEFORT, a fortified town in 
Alsace, E. France, was invested by the Germans 3 
Noy. 1870; capitulated 16 Feb. 1871; reserved to 
France when Aisace was ceded 26 Feb. ; quitted by 


the Germans Aug. 1873. 


BELGIUM, the southern portion of the Nether- 
lands, and anciently the territory of the Belge, who 
were finally conquered by Julius Cesar, 51 B.c. Its 
size is about one-eighth of Great Britain. Its 
government is a liberal constitutional monarchy, 
founded in 1831. For previous history, see Flanders, 
Netherlands,and Holland. The population (31 Dec.) 
1862, 4,836,500; 1865, 4,984,451; 1866, 4,829,320 ; 
1870, 5,087,105; 1879, 5,530,146. 


100 


BELGIUM. 


The revolution commences at Brussels 25 Aug. 
The provisional government declares Belgium inde- 
pendent (M. Van de Weyer, active) . 4 Oct 
Antwerp taken (except the citadel). - 23 Dec. 
Belgian independence acknowledged by the allied 
powers : . ae ; : 26 Dee. 
Duc de Nemours elected king (his father, the 
French king, refused his consent) 
Surlet de Chokier is elected regent . 24 Feb. 
Leopold, prince of Saxe-Coburg, accepted th» 
crown, 12 July; enters Brussels 
War with the Netherlands commences - 3 Aug. 
France sends 50,000 troops to assist Belgium, and 
an armistice ensues. A F ; . Aug. 
Conference of ministers of the five great powers held 
in London: acceptance of 24 articles of pacification 
15 Noy. 
Convention between England and France against 
Holland : : 4 : ; . 22 Ost. 
Antwerp besieged, 30 Nov. ; the citadel taken by the 
French . : ; , : Z 23 Dec. 
The French army returns to France . 27 Dec. 
Preliminary convention with Holland signed 21 May 
Riot at Brussels (see Brussels) . : . 6 April, 
Treaty* between Holland and Belgium signed in 


London : - : 5 1g April, 
Clerical education bill passed . - _ # 
Queen of England visits Belgium . Aug. 
The king and his son visit England Oct. 
Increase of army to 100,000 men voted ro May, 
Opposition to religious charities’ bill - June, 
A new ministry under M. Charles Rogier 9g Noy. 
The chambers dissolved ; re-assembled . 10 Dee. 
The king proclaims Belgium neutral in the Italian 

war .. Z 3 : ~ : May, 
Birth of prince Leopold Ferdinand 12 June, 
Death of M. Potter . - é A . 22 July, 
The king visits England . : 3 % . dune, 
Vague rumours of annexation to France produce 

warm loyal addresses to the king . . 13 June, 
The octrois abolished . ; - ar July, 
Successful military volunteer movement . Aug. 
Commercial treaty with France signed . . t May, 


Continued illness of the king, with occasional 
amendment. : : : . May, June, 
Commercial treaty with Great Britain adopted by 
the chamber. ; ‘ R - - 22 Aug. 
Great distress through decay of trade Aug. 
Fierce dissensions through Roman Catholics, Jan. ; 


the ministry resigns, but resumes office, 4 Feb. ; 
dissolution of the chambers, 17 July; the Pro- 
testants superior in the election . . Aug. 
Death of Leopold I. . . . ; . ) ro Wee! 
The new king and queen visit England, 5 July; and 
Ghent and other Belgian cities . . : Nf 
National rifle meeting (¢ir) 12-16 Oct. 


Mr. Phillips, lord mayor of London, and 1100 English 
volunteers visit Belgium under col. Loyd Lind- 
say ; other foreigners attend ; grand banquet given 
by the king at Brussels . * . 20 Oct. 

Opening of the chambers, with a re-assuring speech 
from the king. : : 3 : . 13 Nov, 

Violent rioting in mining districts (Marchienne-au- 
Pont) on account of reduction in wages; sup- 
pressed by the military . : 3 1-2 Feb. 

About 2400 Belgians (of the garde civique and yolun- 
teers) visit England ; arrive, ro July ; received by 
lord mayor, 12 July ; by prince of Wales at Wim- 
bledon, 13 July ; dine at Windsor, 16 July; ata 
ball at Agricultural Hall, 18 July ; received by 
Miss Burdett-Coutts, 19 July ; attend the review 
at Wimbledon, 20 July ;leave London 22 July, 

New ministry (under M. Frére-Orban) ; i 

3 Jan. 


* This treaty arose out of the conference held in 1.0 
on the Belgian question; by the decision of whi¢l 
treaty of 15 Nov. 1831, was maintained, and the | 
niary compensation of sixty millions of franes offer 
Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland 
declared inadmissible. 

+ At the revolution in 1830, the Roman Catholic ¢ 
lost the administration of the public charities, ¥ 
they have struggled to recover ever since, In / 
1857, M. Decker, the head of the ministry, brough' 
bill for this purpose, but was compelled to withdr 

{ and eventually to resign. be 


r 


ee BELGIUM. 


f 
‘us riots in the mining districts ; put down by 
military ; ro lives lost . 25-29 March, 
‘ment to Charlemagne at Lidge, inaugurated 
i 26 July, 
Brussels 
} 6-13 Nov. 
“rown prince Leopold Ferdinand, duke of Bra- 
sit, died. 3 , : ! 22 Jan. 
ession of a Luxembourg railway to a French 
, way company, without the assent of the state, 
hibited by the assembly, 13 Feb. ; dispute with 
_ French government arranged May, 
ational rifle meeting held at Li¢ge —_19 Sept. 
nation of Frére-Orban ministry, about 19 June, 
Anethan’s ministry announced 3 July, 
1 gratitude to Great Britain expressed by the 
igand people. ‘ : r é 8 Aug. 
_y for the neutrality of Belgium between Great 
tain and Prussia, signed 9 Aug. ; and France, 
1ed A A ; ‘ ; : ir Aug. 
surrender of Sedan many French soldiers enter 
'zium ; disarmed and interned 1-2 Sept. 
g opposition to the ministry by M. Barra and 
ars ; riots at Brussels . ; . 22-25 Nov. 
‘nation of D’Anethan ; M. Malou (a moderate) 
ns a ministry : , : : 7 Dec. 
somte de Chambord arrives at Antwerp, 
‘eb. ; compelled to quit Belgium through popu- 
lemonstrations : - : . 27 Feb. 
‘french government denounce the treaty of 
merce with Belgium =. ; . 29 March, 
r of commerce with France signed . 5 Feb. 
zar at Brussels F 4 d 22 May, 
im de Weyer, statesinan; active during the 
lution of 1830; ambassador to England 1831- 
i diadey & i - : : . 23 May, 
1ational conference at Brussels respecting 
‘ts of neutrals during war—no results, 
27 July-28 Aug. 
from the German government, complaining 
»ublications favouring the censured German 
jesiastics, Feb. ; respecting the Duchesne’s 
»osal to the archbishop of Paris to assassi- 
» Bismarck : ; ~ I15,April; 
ied Belgian replies . March and May, 
ourt at Liege cannot interfere, May ; modi- 
‘ion of the criminal law proposed June, 
popular opposition to religious processions : 
; r : ; . May, June, 
ng visits England . c e - 29 May, 
‘ic successes in the elections ; riots against 
aat Brussels and Antwerp about 16, 17 June, 
_ of Van de Weyer, at Louvain, inaugurated 
he king . e : - F ee OCG 
ational congress respecting hygiene, &c., 
at Brussels z - 27 Sept.—2 Oct. 
ic minority in elections ; the Malou ministry 
m, 13, 14 June, M. Freére-Orban forms a 
val ministry . ; : : . 20 June, 
ic weir for water-distribution at La Gileppe, 
_ Verviers, inaugurated by the king, 28 July, 
ing’s silver wedding enthusiastically cele- 
jad . % : : - 22-95 Aug, 
& T’Kindt de Rooden Veke, a clerk, convicted 
‘nbezzlement of 20,000,000 franes of the Bank 
elgium (149 thefts); the governor Fortamps, 
audulently repurchasing shares, &e. 3 Dec. 
‘ng sanctions the new law of public instrue- 
; ‘ Fe F A é ord July, 
al of the R. C. hierarchy against the govern- 
5 plan of mixed education (sacraments to be 
ved to teachers and parents, &c.) published 
prmany . a : : : a Sept. 
uke Rodolph of Austria betrothed to the 
ess Stephanie 3 A coe March: 
1ent international exhibition opened at 
‘sels . : : : ° : - xzdune, 
ns for parliament ; severe struggle between 
us and clerical party respecting education ; 
us retain moderate majority . - June, 
al exhibition at Brussels opened by the king 


7 


‘national congress of workmen at 


(Meemmar s,s - . ‘ - 16 June, 
‘ontative at the Vatican recalled through 
siastical disputes ; suspension of diplomatic 
_gements 3 : : 28 June, 
_to celebrate national independence 18 July, 
of Leopold I. unveiled at Laeken or July, 


101 


1868 


1870 


BELGRADE. 


Patriotic féte in the Brussels exhibition 16 Aug. 1880 
Trial of Armand and Leon Peltzer, for the murder 

of Wilhelm Bernays: (an injured husband, a 

faithless wife and her accomplices) .« 27 Noy. 1882 
Sentenced to death (commuted) - e225 D6CR: 
Dynamite explosion at Ganshorten, near Brussels ; 

r death (arrests made) 2 : 23 Feb. 1883 
Parliamentary reform bill passed by representatives , 

17, AUCs te 
Henri Conscience, eminent national Flemish poet 

and novelist, died, aged 73. 3 s O.Sept.. 5, 
Death of cardinal Deschamps, abp. of Mechlin, the 

primate 3 : : f i : 29 Sept. ., 
The king and queen warmly received at Amsterdam 

18 Oct., et seq. ,; 
King and queen of Holland warmly received at 

Brussels . : 3 s 3 20-22 May, 
Elections ; majority of clericals through dissension 

of moderate liberals and reformers, about 

to June ; resignation of M. Frére-Orban 11 June, ws 
M. Jules Malou forms a conservative catholie 

ministry - : . - 12), 73 JUNG. 
Senate dissolved, June ; new senate clerical July, F 
Great meeting of burgomasters at Brussels to op- 

pose M. Jacobs’ new reactionary education bill, 

gAug., which is accepted by the deputies (80-49), 

30 Aug. ; by the senate (40-25) - IoNept. ,, 
Liberal riots at Brussels and Antwerp . 7, Sept. j, 
Royal assent to the bill : : Sets Sopher es 
Communal elections ; great liberal majority 19 Oct. ,, 
MM. Malou, Jacobs, and Weeste (catholics) resign, ,, 

M. Bernaert becomes premier 24 Oct. 5, 
Parliament meets . : : F a Lt NOVA; 


KINGS. 
1831. Leopold,* first king of the Belgians ; born 16 Dee. 
1790; inaugurated 21r July, 1831, at Brussels; 
married, 9 Aug. 1832, Louise, eldest daughter of 
Louis Philippe, king of the French (she died 
iz Oct. 1850). He died 10 Dec. 1865. 
1865. Leopold II., son; born g April, 1835; married 
archduchess Maria Henrietta of Austria, 22 Aug. 


1853. 

Daughter. Princess Louise, born 18 Feb. 1858; married 
duke Philip of Saxony, 4 Feb. 1875. 

Brother, Philip, count of Flanders ; born 24 March, 18373 
married Mary, princess of Hohenzollern-Sig- 
maringen, 25 April, 1867 ; heir, Baldwin, born 3 
June, 1869. 


BELGRADE, an ancient city in Servia, on 
the right bank of the Danube. It was taken from 
the Greek emperor by Solomon, king of Hungary, 


, 22 1072; gallantly defended by John Huniades 


against the Turks, under Mahomet II., July to 
Sept. 1456, when the latter was defeated, with the 
loss of 40,000 men. Belgrade was taken by sultan 
Solyman, Aug. 1521, and retaken by the Im- 
perialists in 1688, from whom it was again taken by 
the Turks, 1690, It was besieged in May, 1716, by 
prince Eugene. In that year the Turkish army, 
200,000 strong, approached to relieve it, and on 5 
Aug. a sanguinary battle was fought at Peterwara- 
dein, in which the Turks lost 20,000 men. Eugene 
defeated the Turks here, 16 Aug. 1717, and Bel- 
grade surrendered 18 Aug. In 1739 it was ceded to 
the Turks, after its fine fortifications had been de- 
molished. It was retaken in 1789, and restored at 
the peace of Reichenbach, in 1790. The Servian 
insurgents had possession of it, 1806-13. In 1815 
it was placed under prince Milosch, subject to 
Turkey. The fortifications were restored in 1820. 
On 19 June, 1862, the Turkish pasha was dismissed 
for firing on the town during ariot. The university 
was established by private munificence, 1863. The 
fortress was surrendered by the Turks to the Ser- 
vians, 18 April, 1867. The independence of Servia 
proclaimed here, 22 Aug. 1878. The mayor of 


* Leopold married, in May, 1816, the princess Char- 
lotte of Wales, daughter of the prince regent, afterwards 
George IV. of England ; she died in childbed, 6 Nov. 1817. 


BELGRAVIA. 10 


Bit BELLS. 


Belgrade received by the lord mayor of London, 
19 Dec. 1884. See Servia. 


BELGRAVIA, a south-western district of the 
metropolis, built between 1826 and 1852 upon land 
belonging to the marquis of Westminster, who is 
also viscount Belgrave. 


BELIZH, see Honduras. 


BELL, Book, AND CANDLE: in the Romish 
ceremony of excommunication (which see), the 
bell is rung, the book is closed, and candle extin- 
guished; the effect being to exclude the excom- 
municated from the society of the faithful, divine 
service, and the sacraments. Its origin is ascribed 
to the 8th century. 


BELL ROCK LIGHTHOUSE, nearly in 
front of the Frith of Tay, one of the finest in Great 
Britain ; itis 115 feet high, is built upon a rock 
that measures 427 feet in length, and 200 feet in 
breadth, and is about 12 feet under water.* It was 
erected in 1806-10. It has two bells for hazy weather. 


BELLAIR, North America. The town was 
attacked by the British forces under sir Peter 
Parker, who, after an obstinate engagement, was 
killed, 30 Aug. 1814. 


BELLEISLE, an isle on the south coast of 
Brittany, France, erected into a duchy for marshal 
Belleisle, in 1742, in reward of his military and 
diplomatic services, by Louis XV. Belleisle was 
taken by the British forces under commodore 
Keppel and general Hodgson, after a desperate 
resistance, 7 June, 1761, but was restored to France 


in 1763. 
BELLES-LETTRES, or PorirE LEARN- 


ING, see Academies, and Literature. 


BELLEVILLE, the red republican stronghold 
of Paris, defended by seven barricades, was cap- 
tured by L’Admirault and Vinoy, 27, 28 May, 
1871, when the insurrection was suppressed. 


BELLMEN, appointed in London to proclaim 
the hour of the night before public clocks became 
general, were numerous about 1556. ‘Chey were to 
ring a bell at night, and ery, ‘‘'l'ake care of your 
fire and candle, be charitable to the poor, and pray 
for the dead.” 


BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is 
said to have been the inventor of them, about 569 
B.C. ; and to him is ascribed the invention of tinder, 
the potter’s wheel, anchors for ships, &e. Bellows 
were not used in the furnaces of the Romans. The 
great bellows of our foundries must have been early 
used; see Blowing Machines. 


BELLS were used among the Jews, Greeks, and 
Romans. The responses of the Dodonzan oracle 
were in part conveyed by bells. Strabo. ‘The 
monument of Porsenna was decorated with pin- 
nacles, each surmounted by bells. Pliny. Said to 
have been introduced by Paulinus, bishop of Nola, 
in Campagna, about 400; and first known in France 
in 550, ‘lhe army of Clothaire II., king of France, 
was frightened from the siege of Sens by the ringing 
of the bells of St. Stephen’s church. The second 
excerption of our king Egbert commands every 
priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his 
church. Bells were used in churches by order of 


* Upon this rock, it is said, the abbots of Aberbro- 
thock fixed the Incheape bell, so that it was rung by the 
impulse of the sea, thus warning mariners. It is also 
said that a Dutchman, who took the apparatus away, 
was here lost with his ship and crew. 


pope John IX., about 900, as a defence, by rir 
them, against thunder and lightning. bell 
mythically said to have been cast by Turk 
abbot of England, about 941. The cele 
‘Song of the Bell,’”’ by Schiller (died 1805), 
been frequently translated. The following h 
that given by Mr. E. Beckett Denison (aftery 
sir Edmund Beckett) in his discourse on bells ai 
Royal Institution, 6 March, 1857. The lectu 
the Rev. H. R. Haweis, at the same place, 71] 
1879, was well illustrated. 


Weight. Wei 

Tons Cwt. Tons 

Moscow, 1736;* York, 1845. 4) 
broken, 1737. . 250 ? | Bruges, 1680 Fath 3 
Another, 1817. tro ? | St. Peter’s, Rome 
Three others. 16 to 31 Oxford, 1680 | 


Lucerne, 1636. % 
Halberstadt, 1457 
Antwerp. F 
Brussels. Pe) 
Dantzic; 1453. ae 
Lincoln, 1834 >a. 
St. Paul’s, 1716$. 
Ghent . 4 r 
Boulogne, new 
Exeter, 1675 é 
Old Lincoln, 1610 
Fourth quarter- 


Novgorod tise eS ERO 
Olmiitz : a) ETE ES. 
Vienna, 1711 . . 
Westminster,1856,t 
‘* Big Bent aie 
Erfurt, 14974 2 nunca 
Westminster, 1858,f 
““St. Stephen ” 13 
Sens . é Reeriee hue V4 
Paris, 1680 . 2 Sr 6 
Montreal, 1847 . 12 15 
Colognes 24485) 9.5 rz 
Breslatl,, 1507) .) <r He bell, Westmin- 
Gorlitz. ‘ IO 17 ster, 1857 oe 


London, 1882 (St. Paul’s). Great Paull] abouts 


Baptism OF BELLS.—They were anointed and bay 
in churches, it is said, from the roth century. 
Fresnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dunmo 
Essex, were baptized by the names of St. Michae. 
John, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity, &c., in 1501. W 
The great bell of Notre Dame, of Paris, was baptiz 
the name of duke of Angouléme; 1816. On the conti 
in Roman Catholic states, they baptize bells as v 
ships, but with religious solemnity. Ashe. 

RinacinG oF Brxs, in changes of regular pea’ 
almost peculiar to the English. Stow. 
“*Companie of the Schollers of Chepeside,” 1603 ; 

ciety of College Youths,” 1637; ‘‘ Society of Cur 

lands,” 1683; the ‘‘ Society of Union Scholars,” : 
the ‘‘Society of Eastern Scholars,” 1733; ‘*Lo 

Youths,” 1753; ‘‘ Westminster Youths,” 1776. 
Fabian Stedman, about 1650, invented a system ki 

as ‘‘Stedman’s principle.” Benjamin Anable 

after invented ‘‘ Grandsire Triples.” 
7zo changes can be rung in an hour upon 7z2 } 

479,001,600 changes rung upon them, require 75 y 

ro months, and ro days. 


* The metal has been valued at the lowest estima 
66,5652. Gold and silver are said to have been thro! 
as votive offerings. 

+ The largest bell in England (named Big Ben, 
sir Benjamin Hall, the then chief commissioner of we 
cast at Houghton-le-Spring, Durham, by Messrs. 4 
under the superintendence of Mr. E. Beckett Deniso 
the Rev. W. Taylor, at an expense of 33431. 148. gd. 
composition was 22 parts copper and 7tin. The dial 
was oft. s}in.; the height, 7 ft. ro}in. The cl 
weighed r2cwt. Rev. W. Taylor. . 

t The bell ‘‘ Big Ben” having been found to be er 
on 24 Oct. 1857, it was broken up and another bell 
with the same metal, in May, 1858, by Messrs. M 
Whitechapel. It is rather different in shape fra 
predecessor, ‘‘ Big Ben,” and about 2 tons lighter. 
diameter is 9 ft. 6in.; the height 7 ft. roin. It 
struck for the first time, 18 Nov. 1858. The cla 
weighs 6 cwt.—half that of the former bell. The 16 
the bell is E natural; the quarter-bells being G, B, | 
On x Oct. 1859, this bell was also found to be erack 

§ The clapper of St. Paul’s bell weighs 180 lbs. 
diameter of the bell is ro feet (Mr. Walesby says 
gkin.), and its thickness roin. The hour strikes 
this bell, the quarters upon two smaller ones ; see G 

|| Height, 8 feet 10 in.; diameter, 9 feet 6} m.} 
Ep; materials tin and copper; cost about 3000. ; 
by Mr. Taylor, at Loughborough ; raised to 18 p a 


May, dedicated 3 June, 1882. i | 


BELOOCHISTAN. 


103 BENEVOLENCES. 


‘1Gwynne left the ringers of the bells of St. Martin’s-in- 
he-fields money for a weekly entertainment, 1687, and 
iany others have done the same. J A 

3ILLONS, a collection of bells, arranged in two or three 
hromatic scales, played by pedals or keyboards, or 
‘y machinery. The first set is said to have been made 
¢ Alost in Flanders, in 1487, and that country and 
folland are renowned for carillons. Matthias van den 
theyn was an eminent maker (1721-85). Excellent 
arillon machines are now made by Messrs. Gillet, 
‘land & Co., Croydon. One at Manchester was started 
Jan. 1879. It plays 35 tunes on 2o bells. 


3ELOOCHISTAN, the ancient Gedrosia 
Asia). Khelat, the capital, was taken by the 
tish in the Afghan war, 1839; abandoned, July, 
0; taken and held a short time, Nov. 1840. 
: khan was subsidised in 1854, under certain con- 
itions, which were not observed ; the arrangement 
‘as broken up in 1873; the negotiations of major 
ifter. sir Robert) Sandeman in 1875 were successful, 
ad Quettah was occupied by the British in 1877, and 
as since become a prosperous station. The khan 
roffered assistance after the defeat of gen. Burrows 
i duly, 1880. 


3ELT CASE, see Trials, 1882-4. 
SELVEDERE EXPLOSION, see Gun- 


rder (note). 


S,ENARHES, in India, a holy city of the Hin- 
s, abounding in temples. It was ceded by the 
ob of Oude, Asoph-ud-Dowlah, to the English 
(775. An insurrection took place here, which 
| nearly proved fatal to the British interests in 
idostan, 1781. The rajah, Cheyt Sing, was de- 
ed in consequence of it, in 1783. Mr. Cherry, 
t. Conway, and others, were assassinated at 
uares, by vizier Aly, 14 Jan. 1799. In June, 
7, col. Neil succeeded in suppressing attempts 
the native infantry to join the mutiny; see 
ha. Visit of prince of Wales, 5 Jan. 1876. 


3ENBURB, near Armagh (N. Ireland). Here 
feill totally defeated the English under Monroe, 
une, 1646. Moore says that it was ‘‘ the only 
it victory since the days of Brian Boru, achieved 
im Irish chieftain in the cause of Ireland.” 


,ENCOOLEN (Sumatra). The English East 
ia company made a settlement here which pre- 
‘ed to them the pepper trade after the Dutch had 
iossessed them of Bantam, 1682. Anderson. York 
was erected by the East India company, 1690. 
‘693 a dreadful mortality raged here, occasioned 
the town being built on a pestilent morass; 
mg others the governor and council perished. 
' French, under count D’Estaign, destroyed the 
lish settlement, 1760. Bencoolen was reduced 
residency under the government of Bengal, in 
I, and was ceded to the Dutch, in 1824, in ex- 
age for their possessions in Malacca; see India. 


‘ENDER, Bessarabia, European Russia. Near 
‘as the asylum of Charles XII. of Sweden, after 
defeat at Pultowa by the czar Peter the Great, 
ily, 1709. The peace of Bender was concluded 
711. Bender was taken by storm, by the Russians, 
fept. 1770; was taken by Potemkin in 1789, and 
n in 1809. It was restored at the peace of 
y, but retained at the peace of 1812. 


ENEDICTINES, an order of monks founded 
't. Benedict (lived 480-543), who introduced the 
astic life into Western Europe, in 529, when he 
ided the monastery on Monte Casino in Uam- 
a, and eleven others afterwards. His Regula 
achorum (rule of the monks) soon became the 
mon rule of western monachism. No religious 
r has been so remarkable for extent, wealth, 


and men of note and learning, as the Benedictine. 
Among its branches the chief were the Cluniacs, 
founded in 912; the Cistercians, founded in 1093, 
and reformed by St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, in 
1116; and the Carthusians, from the Chartreux 
(hence Charter-house), founded by Bruno about 
1080. The Benedictine order was introduced into 
England by Augustin, in 596; and William I. built 


an abbey for it on the plain where the battle of 


Hastings was fought, 1066; see Battle-Abbey. 
William de Warrenne, earl of Warrenne, built a 
convent at Lewes, in Sussex, in. 1077. Of this 
order it is reckoned that there have been 40 popes, 
200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archbishops, 4600 
bishops, 4 emperors, I2 empresses, 46 kings, 41 
queens, and 3600 saints. Their founder was canon- 
ised. Baronius. The Benedictines have taken 
little part in politics, but have produced many 
valuable literary works. The congregation of St. 
Maur published the celebrated ‘‘]’ Art de Vérifier les 
Dates,’’ in 1750, and edited many ancient authors. 
The Benedictines with other orders were expelled 
from France by decree . Z : 29 March, 1880 
The 14th centenary of the birth of St. Benedict was. 
kept at Monte Casino and other places April, ,, 


BENEFICH (literally a good deed or favour), 
or Fier, Clerical benefices originated in the 12th 
century, when the priesthood began to imitate the 
feudal lay system of holding lands for performing 
certain duties: till then the priests were supported 
by alms and oblationsat mass. Vicarages, rectories, 
perpetual curacies, and chaplaincies, are termed 
benefices, in contradistinction to dignities, such as 
bishoprics, &c. A rector is entitled to all the tithes ; 
a vicar, to asmall part or to none.—All benefices that 
should become vacant in the space of six months, 
were given by pope Clement VII. to his nephew, in 
1534. Notitea Monastica. An act for the aug- 
mentation of poor benefices by the sale of some of 
those in the presentation of the lord chancellor, was 
passed in 1863, and an act respecting the seques- 
tration of benefices and their union passed, 1871. 
The Commission on Ecclesiastical Benefices reported, 

recommending amendments in sales of adyvow- 

sons, discontinuance of sale by auction, &e. 


about 3 Nov. 1879 


BENEFIT OF CLERGY, see Clergy. 
BENEFIT SOCIETIES, see Friendly 


Societies. 


BENEVENTUM (now Benevento), an ancient 
city in South Italy, said to have been founded by 
Diomedes the Greek, after the fall of Troy. Pyr- 
rhus of Macedon, during his invasion of Italy, was 
totally defeated near Beneventum, 275 B.c. Near 
it was erected the triumphal arch of Trajan, A.p. 
114. Benevento was formed into a duchy by the 
Lombards, 571. At a battle fought here, 26 Feb. 
1266, Manfred, king of Sicily, was defeated andslain 
by Charles ofAnjou, whothus became virtually master 
of Italy. The castle was built 1323; the town was 


nearly destroyed by an earthquake, 1688, when the - 


archbishop, afterwards pope Benedict XIII., was 
dug out of the ruins alive, and contributed to its sub- 
sequent rebuilding, 1703. It was seized by the 


king of Naples, but restored to the pope on the - 


suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Talleyrand de 
Périgord, Bonaparte’s arch-chancellor, was made 
prince of Benevento, 1806. Benevento was taken 
y the French, 1798, and restored to the pope in 
815. 


BENEVOLENCHS (Aids, Free Gifts, actually 
Forced Loans) appear to have been claimed by our 
Anglo-Saxon sovereigns. Special ones were levied 


BENEVOLENT. 


by Edward IV., 1473, by Richard III., 1485 (al- 
though a statute forbidding them was enacted 
in 1484), by Henry VII., 1492; and by James 
I., in 1613, on occasion of the marriage of the 
princess Klizabeth with Frederick, the elector 
palatine, afterwards king of Bohemia. In 1615 
Oliver St. John, M.P., was fined 5ooo/., and chief 
justice Coke disgraced, for severely censuring such 
modes of raising money. Benevolences were de- 
clared illegal by the bill of rights, Feb. 1689. 


BENEVOLENT, or Strangers’ Friend So- 
ciety, established 1785; Loan Society, 1817; So- 
ciety of Blues, 18243; Society of St. Patrick, 1784. 


BENGAL, chief presidency of British India, 
containing Calcutta, the capital. Its governors 
were appointed by the sovereigns of Delhi, till 
1340, when it became independent. It was added 
to the Mogul empire by Baber, about 1529; see 
India and Calcutta. 


The English first permitted to trade to Bengal. » 1534 
They establish a settlement at Hooghly . about 1652 
Factories of the French and Danes set up - 1664 
Bengal made a distinct agency . : 5 s . 1680 
The English settlement removed to Fort William . 1698 


Imperial grant vesting the revenues of Bengal in the 
company, by which it gained the sovereignty of 
the country Z : : : . 12 Aug. 1765 
India Bill ; Bengal made chief presidency ; supreme 
court of judicature established 16 June, 1773 
Bishop of Calcutta appointed 21 July, 1813 
Railway opened . : : 15 Aug. 1854 


Awful famine in Orissa (which see) - 1865-66 
Lieut.-governor, hon. Wm. Grey . - 1867 
Geo. Campbell . -  LOFE 


99 ‘=< . 
Deficiency in rainfall; consequent famine (see 
India) . : : : : : : - Octr2878 
Cyclone : Mednapore destroyed ; about 2,000 perish 
Oct. 1874 
Lieut.-governor, sir RichardTemple ‘ 
35 3 hon. sir Ashley Eden ew SOT 
March, 1882 


RS - Mr. Rivers Thompson . 

BEN NEVIS, a mountain in Inverness-shire, 
the loftiest in Britain, 4,406 feet above the sea; 
see Meteorology, 1883-4. 

BENWELL TOWER, about two miles W. 
of Newcastle [value above 12,000/.], was presented 
by Mr. John Wm. Pease to be the palace of the 
proposed new bishopric of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 
Noy. 1881. 


BENZOLE, or BENZINE, a compound of 
hydrogen and carbon, discovered by Faraday in oils 
(1825), and by C. B. Mansfield in coal tar (1849) 
the latter of whom unfortunately died in con- 
sequence of being severely burnt while experi- 
menting on it (25 Feb. 1855). Benzole has become 
useful in the arts. Chemical research has pro- 
duced from it aniline (which see), the source of the 
celebrated modern dyes, mauye, magenta, and many 
others; see Alizarine. 


BEOWULF, an ancient Anglo-Saxon epic 
poem, describing events which probably occurred 
in the middle of the 5th century, supposed to have 
been written subsequent to 597. An edition by 
Kemble was published in 1833. It has been trans- 
lated by Kemble, Thorpe, and Wackerbarth. 


BERBICH (S. America), settled by the Dutch, 
1626, who surrendered it to the British, 23 April, 
1796, and 22 Sept. 1803; and finally in 1814. It 
Ving united to Demerara and named British Guiana, 
1831. 


BERDITSCHEFF, Kiev, S. Russia. At the 
burning of a circus here about 300 persuns perish, 


13 Jan. 1883. 
BERENGARIANS, followers of Berengarius, 


” 


104 


BERLIN. 


archdeacon of Angers, who, about 1049, opposed 
Romish doctrine of transubstantiation, or the r 
presence in the Lord’s supper. Several coun: 


| of the church condemned his doctrine, 1050- 


After much controversy he recanted about 1079, : 
died grieved and wearied in 6 Jan. 1088. 


BERESINA, 2 river in Russia, crossed by 
French main army after its defeat by the Russia 
25-29 Nov. 1812. The French lost upwards 
20,000 men, and their retreat was attended 
great calamity and suffering. 


BERG (W. Germany), on the extinction of 
line of counts, in 1348, was incorporated w 
Juliers. Napoleon I. made Murat grand-duke 
1806. The principal part is now held by Prussi: 


BERGAMO (N. Italy), a Lombard duchy, 1 
annexed to Venice, 1428; which chiefly held it: 
it revolted, and was joined to the Cisalpine repub 
1797. It was awarded to Austria in 1814, ¢ 
ceded to Sardinia, 1859. 


BERGEN (Norway), founded 1070; was 
royal residence during the 12th and 13th centur 


BERGEN (in Germany), BATTLE OF, 
tween the French and allies, the latter defeat 
13 April, 1752.—(In Hotuanp) I. The allies un 
the duke of York were defeated by the Fren 
under gen. Brune, with great loss, 19 Sept. 17 
2. In another battle, fought 2 Oct. same year, 1 
duke gained a victory over Brune; but on | 
6th, the duke was defeated before Alkmaer, and 
the 20th entered into a convention, by which 
army was exchanged for 6000 French and Du 
prisoners in England. 


BERGEN - OP- ZOOM, in Holland. T 
place, whose works were deemed impregnable, \ 
taken by the French, 16 Sept. 1747, and again 
1795. An attempt, made by the British un 
general sir T. Graham (afterwards lord Lynedoe 
to carry the fortress by storm, was defeated; af 
forcing an entrance, their retreat was cut off, a 
a dreadful slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut 
pieces or made prisoners, 8 March, 1814. 

BERGERAC, France. Here John of Gau 
then earl of Derby, defeated the French, in 13 
and here a temporary treaty of peace between 1 
Catholics and Protestants, establishing liberty 
conscience, was signed 17 Sept. 1577. 


BERKELEY CASTLE, Gloucestershire, y 
begun by Henry I. in 1108, and finished in then 
reign. Here Edward II. was cruelly murdered 
the contrivance of his queen Isabella (a princes: 
France), and her paramour, Mortimer, earl 
March, 21 Sept. 1327. Mortimer was hanged att 
Elms, near London, 29 Nov. 1330; and EdwardI 
confined his mother in her own house at Cas 
Rising, near Lynn, in Norfolk, til] her death, 13 


BERLIN (capital of Prussia, in the provi 
of Brandenburg), alleged to have been founded 
the margrave Albert the Bear, about 1163. Its? 
districts were united under one magistracy, in 17] 
and it was subsequently made the capital of Prus 
and greatly improved by the sovereigns. It y 
taken and held by the Russians and Austrians, 9- 
Oct. 1760. Establishment of the Academy 
Sciences, 1702; of the university, 1810. On 
Oct. 1806, after the battle of Jena (14 Oct.), 1 
French entered Berlin; and from this place Na 
leon issued the famous Berlin decree, an inte 
against the commerce of England, 20 Noy. It ¢ 
clared the British islands to be in a state of bloc 
ade, and ordered all Englishmen found in countr 


a 


BERLIN. 


105 


BERSAGLIERI. 


apied by French troops to be treated as prisoners 


var. 


On 5 


Noy. 1808, Napoleon entered into a 


vention with Prussia, by which he remitted to 
ssia the sum due on the war-debt, and withdrew 
iy of his troops to reinforce his armies in Spain. 


Prussia, 1866, 1871. 


railway to Magdeburg opened . - 10 Sept. 
first constituent assembly held here 21 June, 
nsurrection commenced here March, 
in was declared in a state of siege . 12 Nov. 


continuation of this state was declared to be 
egal without its concurrence by the lower 
iamber . ‘ : - ; . 25 April, 
eaty of peace between Prussia and Saxony was 
zed E : : Fi : : 2t Oct. 
victorious army entered Berlin, 20 Sept. 1866 ; 

and 16 June, 
monument of Victory, in memory of the wars 
ith Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), and France 
870-1), solemnly uncovered 2 Sept. 
ting of chancellors of Germany, Austria, and 
ussia, 11, 12 May; they agree to an urgent note 
Turkey on the eastern policy ; expressed in a 
ite dated 13 May ; accepted by Italy and France ; 
ceived in London, 15 May; its acceptance by 
e earl of Derby declined, as her majesty’s 
vernment had not been consulted, 19 May; 
is note not presented through the revolution 
Turkey .~. A : : : - 30 May, 
‘* Berlin note” printed in the Times . 4 July, 
rnational fish and fishing exhibition opened by 
e crown prince. : : : 20 April, 
rnational Hygienic exhibition burnt ; great loss 
May, 1882; opened 12 May, closed 15 Oct. 
onal theatre burnt . : : é 4 April, 
ues of Wilhelm and Alexander von Humboldt 
covered in presence of the emperor. 28 May, 
ndation of New German parliament-house laid 
- the emperor in the presence of a grand as- 
mbly . A A > 5 g June, 


BERLIN CONGRESS ON THE EASTERN QUESTION, 


resentatives (with resident ambassadors) : Ger- 
uny, prince Bismarck, president; Russia, 
ince Gortschakoff; Twrkey, Alexander Cara- 
éodori; Great Britain, lord Beaconsfield and 
quis of Salisbury (lord Odo Russell ambas- 
lor); Austria, count Andrassy; Franee, 
Waddington ; Italy, count Corti. 

; meeting, 13 June; 2oth and last meeting ; 
aty signed . : J ; : - 13 July, 
elest—12. Bulgaria constituted an autonomous 
principality, tributary to the sultan; the 
Balkans southern limit; the prince, to be 
elected by the population, approved by the 
sultan and other powers; public laws, and 
other details. 

13—22. New province of Eastern Roumelia 
constituted ; partially autonomous; boun- 
daries defined ; Christian governor-general to 
be appointed by the sultan; to be organised 
by an Austrian commission ; a Russian army 
of occupation, to remain nine months. 

23. Bosnia and Herzegovina to be occupied 
and administered by Austria-Hungary. 

24—30. Montenegro to be independent; new 
frontiers ; Antivari annexed. 

31—39. Servia to be independent, with new 
frontiers, 

$o—49. Roumania to be independent, losing 
part of Bessarabia to Russia, with compensa- 
tion. 

so—54. Regulation of navigation of the 
Danube, &c. 

55—57. Legal reforms in Crete, &c. 

58. The Porte cedes to Russia Ardahan, 
Kars, and Batoum, and settles boundaries. 

s9. Batoum to be a free commercial] port. 

99. Alasgird and Bayazid restored to Turkey. 
s1—62z. The Porte engages to realise legal 
‘eforms, and to grant religious liberty, &c. 

93. The treaty of Paris (30 March, 1856), and 
if London (13 March, 1871), maintained when 
10t modified by this treaty, 

14. Treaty to be ratified in three 
Ratified be : 


weeks’ time. 
i - 3 Aug. 


1841 
1842 
1848 


> 


1849 
1866 


1871 


1873 


1878 


1878 


Circular respecting delay in fulfilling the treaty 
from earl Granville, the British foreign secretary, 
to the foreign powers. . f May, 

BERLIN CONFERENCE (16 June—x July, 1880). 

The ambassadors : for Great Britain, lord Odo 
Russell (after. lord Ampthill) ; France, comte 
de St. Vallier, etc. president, prince Hohenlohe, 
German foreign minister. 

They agree to a collective note presented to the 
sultan of Turkey (urging the surrender of Dul- 
cigno and cession of provinces to Greece), which 
is presented x F ; : : Tore UL Vous 

Another conference, see West African. 


See Dulcigno, Turkey, and Greece, 1880-1. 
BERLIN WORK, see Eimbroidery. : 
BERMUDAS or SumMMERs’ ISLEs, a group 


in the North Atlantic ocean, discovered by Juan 
Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1522, but not inhabited 
until 1609, when sir George Summers was cast 
away upon them. They were settled by stat. 9 
James I., 1612. Among the exiles from England 
during the civil war was Waller, the poet, who 
wrote, while resident here, a poetical description of 
the islands. There was an awful hurricane here, 
31 Oct. 1780, and by another, a third ofthe houses was 
destroyed, and the shipping driven ashore, 20 July, 
1813. <A large iron dry dock here, which cost 
250,000/., was towed from the Medway to the Ber- 
mudas, in June and July, 1869. Governors, sir Fred. 
FE. Chapman, 1867; gen. J. H. Lefroy, March, 
1871; Sir Robert Michael Laffan, Feb. 1877; died 
22 March, 1882; Lieut.-gen. T. L. J. Gallwey, 1882. 
Visited by the princess Louise, Jan. 1883. 


BERNAL COLLECTION of articles of 
taste and virtu, formed by Ralph Bernal, Esq., many 
years chairman of committees of ways and means 
in the house of commons. He died 26 Aug. 1854. 
The sale in March, 1856, lasted 31 days, and enor- 
mous prices were given. The total sum realised was 
62,680/. 6s. 8d. 


BERNARD, MOUNT ST.,, so called from a 
monastery founded on it by Bernardine Menthon in 
962. Velan, its highest peak, is about 8000 feet 
high, covered with perpetual snow. Hannibal, it is 
said, conducted the Carthaginians by this pass into 
Italy (218 B.c.); and by the same route, in May, 
1800, Bonaparte led his troops to Italy before the 
battle of Marengo, 14 June. On the summit of 
Great St. Bernard is the ancient monastery still 
held by a community of monks, who entertain 
travellers. 


BERNARDINHES, or WuitE Monks, a 
strict order of Cistercian monks, established by St. 
Bernard of Clairvaux, about 1115. He founded 
many monasteries. . 


BERNE, the sovereign canton of Switzerland, 
joined the Swiss League, 1352; the town Berne was 
made a free city by the emperor Frederick, May, 
1218; it successfully resisted Rudolph of Hapsburg, 
1288. It surrendered to the French under general 
Brune, 12 April, 1798. The town has bears for its 
arms, and some of these animals are still maintained 
on funds specially provided for the purpose. It was 
made capital of Switzerland, 1848. 


BERRY (the ancient Biturigum regis), central 
France, held by the Romans since the conquest by 
Cwesar (58-50 B.C.) till it was subdued by the Visi- 
goths ; from whom it was taken by Clovis in a.p. 
507. It was erected into a duchy by John II. in 
1360, and was not incorporated into the royal do- 
mains till 1601. 


BERSAGLIERI, the sharpshooters of the 
Sardinian army, first employed about 1848. 


1880 


BERWICK-ON-TWEED. 


106 


BIBLE. 


BERWICK-ON-TWEED, 2 fortified town 
on the north-east extremity of England, the theatre 
of many bloody contests while England and Scot- 
land were two kingdoms; it was claimed by the 
Scots because it stood on their side of the river. Here 
John Baliol did homage for Scotland, 30 Nov. 1292. 
It was annexed to England in 1333; and after hav- 
ing been taken and retaken many times, was finally 
ceded to England in 1482. 
independent of both kingdoms. ‘The town sur- 
rendered to Cromwell in 1648, and to general Monk 
in 1659. Since the union of the crowns (James I. 
1603), the strong fortifications have been neglected. 


BESSARABLIA, afrontier province of European 
Russia, part of the ancient Dacia. After being 
possessed by the Goths, Huns, &c., it was conquered 
by the Turks, 1474, seized by the Russians, 1770, 
and ceded to them in 1812. The part annexed to 
Roumania in 1856, was restored to Russia at the 
close of the war in 1878, in exchange for the 
Dobrudscha, by the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, and 
given up, 21 Oct. 1878. 


BESSEMER, see Steel and Steam Navigation. 
BETHELL’S ACT, see Fraudulent. 
BETHLEHEM now contains a large convent, 


enclosing, as is said, the very birthplace of Christ; 
a church erected by the empress Helena in the form 
of a cross, about 325; a chapel, called the Chapel of 
the Nativity, where they pretend to show the manger 
in which Christ was laid ; another, called the Chapel 
of Joseph; and a third, of the Holy Innocents. 
Bethlehem is much visited by pilgrims.—The Beth- 
lehemite monks existed in England in 1257. 


BETHLEHEM HOSPITAL (socalled from 
having been originally the hospital of St. Mary of 
Bethlehem), a royal foundation for the reception of 
lunatics, incorporated by Henry VIII. in 1547. The 
old Bethlehem Hospital, Moorfields, erected in 1676, 
pulled down in 1814, was built in imitation of the 
Tuileries at Paris. The present hospital in St. 
George’s-fields was begun April, 1812, and opened 
in 1815. In 1856 extensive improvements were 
completed under the direction of Mr. Sydney Smirke. 
Income 1876, 25,184/. 


BETHNAL GREEN, E. London, a_poor, 
populous parish ; said to have been the seat of Henry 
de Montfort, hero of the ‘‘ Blind Beggar of Bethnal 
Green” (Percy Ballads). Many churches have been 
recently erected by the instrumentality of bishop 
Blomfield and others, and the district has been much 
favoured by the baroness Burdett-Coutts. The East 
London Museum here, a branch of that at South 
Kensington, was opened by the prince of Wales, 24 
June, 1872. Sir Richard Wallace lent to it for a 
year a collection of fine pictures and valuable curio- 
sities. ‘The gardens opened 19 May, 1875. 


BETHUNEH, France, an independent lordship 
since the 11th century, was annexed to the monarchy 
by the treaty of Utrecht, 1713, after several changes, 


BETTING-HOUSES, affording much tempta- 
tion to gaming, and consequent dishonesty, in the 
lower classes, were suppressed by an act passed in 
1853 (16 & 17 Vict. c. 119). A Pari-mutuel, or 
mutual betting machine, in Aug., and the ‘‘ Knights- 
bridge Exchange,”’ a betting company, 2 Nov. 1870, 
were declared illegal, see Races. New Betting Act 
passed 8 June, 1874. 

In 1874 this Act was applied to betting stations at races ; 
legal proceedings against Mr. H. Chaplin, as steward 
of the Jockey Club, were quashed by the magistrates 
at Newmarket, 


In 1551 it was made’ 


BEVERLEY, E. Yorkshire, the Saxon 3 
lac, or Beverlega. St. John of Beverley, | 
bishop of York, founded a stately monastery 
and died 721 ; and on his account the town rec 
honours from Athelstane, William I., and _ 
sovereigns. It was disfranchised tor corrupti 
1870, after a long investigation. 


BEYROUT (the ancient Berytus), a seap 
Syria, colonised from Sidon. It was destroy« 
an earthquake, 566; was rebuilt, and was ; 
nately possessed by the Christians and Sara 
and after many changes, fell into the power of . 
rath IV. It was taken during the Egyptian 1 
by Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832. ‘The total defeat ; 
Egyptian army by the allied British, Turkish 
Austrian forces, and evacuation of Beyrout 
Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, an: 
soners, and twenty pieces of cannon), took pla 
Oct. 1840. Sir C. Napier was the English ad 
engaged. Beyrout suffered greatly in conseq 
of the massacres in Syria in May, 1860. In 
1860 above 27,000 persons were said to be in d 
of starving ; see Syria. 


BHOOTAN, a country north of Lower Be 
with whom a treaty was made 25 April, 774 
fruitless negotiations, Bhootan was invaded b 
British in Dec. 1864, in consequence of inju 
treatment of an envoy. See India, 1864-5. 


BHURTPORE Carer capital of Bhurt 
was besieged by the British, 3 Jan. 1805, an 
tacked five times up to 21 March, without su 
After a desperate engagement with Holkar 
Mahratta chief, 2 April, 1805, the fortress was 
rendered to general Lake. By a treaty, the 
of Bhurtpore agreed to pay twenty lacs of n 
ceded territories that had been granted to him 
delivered his son as hostage, 17 April, 1805. 
the rajah’s death, during a revolt against his 
Bhurtpore was taken by storm, by lord Comber. 
18 Jan. 1826; see India. 


BIANCHI (Whites), a political party at 
rence, in 1300, in favour of the Ghibelines ori 
rial party, headed by Vieri de’ Cerchi, oppose: 
Neri (or Blacks), headed by Corso de’ Donati. 
latter banished their opponents, among whor 
the poet Dante, in 1302. ‘‘ Bianchi’ wer 
male and female penitents, clothed in white 
travelled through Italy in Aug. 1399; and 
suppressed by pope Boniface IX., 1400. 


BIARCHY. When Aristodemus, king of §) 
died, he left two sons, twins, Eurysthenes 
Procles; and the people, not knowing to whon 
cedence should be given, placed both upot 
throne, and thus established the first biarchy, 
B.c. The descendants of each reigned for ; 
800 years. Herodotus. 


BIARRITZ, a bathing-place near Bay 
Here resided the comtesse de Montijo an 
daughter Eugénie, empress of the French, ti! 
marriage, 29 Jan. 1853. It was frequently v 
by the emperor and empress. 


BIBERACH (Wiirtemberg). Here M 
twice defeated the Austrians,—under Latour, : 
1796, and under Kray, 9 May, 1800. 


BIBLE (from the Greek b¢blos, a book) 
name especially given to the Holy Scriptures. 
Old Testament is said to have been collecte 
arranged by Ezra between 458 and 450 B.C. 
Apocrypha-are considered as inspired writin 


re | 


‘ 
' 


107 


; BIBLE. / 


- 


‘ 


BIBLE. 


‘Roman Catholics, but not by the Jews and Pro- 
cants; * see Apocrypha. 


OLD TESTAMENT. f 
.esis contains the history of the world 


from B.C. 4004—1635 
)dus ‘ . » 1635—1490 
iticus . y - 1490 
mbers: . : " + I14QO—I451 
iteronomyf . < . 4 - 1451 
ce : 3 - A : . about 1520 
hua . : from 1451—1420 
ges. . « « £425—1120 
ib : . - « 1322—1312 
and 2nd Samuel . + 117I—1017 
and end Kings . : - - IoI5— 562 
and end Chronicles s : + +» I1004— 536 
Ik of Psalms (principally by David) . - 1063—1015 
verbs written i . about B.C. 1rocoo— 700 
gof Solomon . about ror4 
‘lesiastes. about 977 
alin, about 862 
l - about 800B.¢. 
sea, about 785— 725 
OS . : “ : “ : - about 787 
aby 5 A : : epee s about 760— 698 
ah . A a é : - - about 750— 710 
lum . 7 : 4 ‘ : about 713 
hhaniah . : é B - about 630 
emiah. x : A . about 629— 588 
nentations . : : 4 e about 588 
pakkuk : é : i about 626 
viel . : 3 si : é - from 607— 534 
kiel . . from 595— 574 
idiah ° A about © 587 
a. ; A “ : 3 . about. 536— 456 
her. x : 5 ‘ : - about 521— 495 
geal. s ‘ 2 s 4 about 520 
hariah . E ; é - about 520— 518 
1emiah : - . ° é about 446— 434 
lachi )), . about 397 


NEW TESTAMENT. 
‘PELS by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, 
B.C. 5—A.D. 33 
s ofthe Apostles . ‘ A e . A.D. 33—65 
STLES—ist and 2nd of Paul to Thessalonians abt. 54 
Galatians . ‘ . a : F ; = Re 
zst Corinthians. 3 : F ; : fee SO 
2nd Corinthians . . ‘ : , : =i 60 
Romans . : ‘ S 5 3 ; ae es OO 
f James . : - 3 z 4 2 4 7 000 
st of Peter . 3 : . : ‘ , OO 
o Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Hebrews, 
Philemon . A i 2 2 P Hy Pop! 
Titus, and rst to Timothy . ‘ x 3 Os 
2nd to Timothy x ‘ * : ee 
nd of Peter . : . 2 : 3 : BaOO 
f Jude ° : : : : E er LOO 
st, end, and 3rd of John after . ‘ : «= 190 
velation : A : E : 


In April, 1865, was published a proposal for raising 

ind for exploring Palestine in order to illustrate the 
le by antiquarian and scientific investigation. The 
t meeting was held 22 June, 1865, the archbishop of 
rk in the chair ; see Palestine. 

The division of the Bible into chapters has been 
ribed to archbishop Lanfranc in the rrth, and toarch- 
hop Langton in the 13th century; but T. Hartwell 
rne considers the real author to have been cardinal 
go, de Sancto Caro, about the middle of the 13th cen- 
y. The division into sections was commenced by 
»bi Nathan (author of a Concordance), about 1445, and 
rpleted by Athras, a Jew, in 1661. The present divi- 
1 into verses was introduced by the celebrated printer, 
bert Stephens, in his Greek Testament (1551) and in 
Latin Bible (1556-7), 

Fragments of portions of this book, on leather, as- 
ted to have been written about the 8th century B.C., 
ained from Arabs in Jerusalem by M. Shapira, were 
ibited in the British Museum, Aug. 1883, and after a 
tical examination by Dr. Ginsburg and others, de- 
red to be forged. M. Shapira, probably insane, com- 
ted suicide at Rotterdam, 9 March, 1884. Dr. 
rkavy, of St. Petersburg, published a report, about 
5.1884, describing some apparently ancient Hebrew 
- rolls of Lamentations and other books, said to 
e been found by Jews in Rhodes about 1850, 


The most ancient copy of the Hebrew Scriptures existed 
at Toledo, called the Codex of Hillel ; it was of very 
early date, probably of the 4th century after Christ ; 
some say about 60 years before Christ. The copy of 
Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made about 1100. 

The reputed oldest copy of the Old and New Testament 
in Greek, is that in the Vatican, which was written in 
the 4th or s5thcentury. Mai’s edition appeared in 1857. 
The next in age is the Alexandrian Codex (referred to 
the sth century) in the British Museum, presented by 
the Greek patriarch to Charles I. in 1628. It has been 
printed in England, edited by Woide and Baber, 1786— 
1821.—Codex Ephraenvi, or Codex Regius, ascribed to 
the 5th century, in the Royal Library, Paris: published 
by Tischendorf in 1843. 

The Codex Sinaiticus, probably written in the 4th cen- 
tury, was discovered by M. Constantine Tischendorf, 
at St. Katherine’s monastery in 1844 and 1859, and pre- 
sented to the czar of Russia, at whose cost a splendid 
edition was published in 1862. 

The Hebrew Psalter was printed at Bologna in 1477. The 
complete Hebrew Bible was first printed by Soncino in 
Italy in 1488, and the Greek Testament (edited by 
Erasmus) at Rotterdam, in 1516. Aldus’s edition was 
printed in 1518 ; Stephens’ in 1546 ; and the textus re- 
ceptus (or received text) by the Elzevirs in 1624. 


TRANSLATIONS. 


The Old Testament, in Greek, termed the Septuagint 
(which see), generally considered to have been made by 
order of Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, about 
286 or 285 B.c.; of this many fabulous accounts are 
given. 

Origen, after spending twenty-eight years in collating 
MSS., commenced his polyglot Bible at Ceesarea in A.D. 
231 ; it contained the Greek versions of Aquila, Sym- 
machus, and Theodotion, all made in or about the 2nd 
century after Christ. 

The following are ancient versions :—Syriac, 1st or 2nd 
century ; the old Latin version, early in the 2nd cen- 
tury, revised by Jerome, in 384; who, however, com- 
pleted a new version in 4os, now called the VULGATE 
(which see); the first edition was printed (without date) 
about 1456; the first dated 1462 ;—Coptic, 2nd or 3ra 
eentury ; Ethiopic; Armenian, 4th or sth century ; 
Slavonic, oth century ;and the Mceso-Gothic, by Ulfilas, 
the apostle of the Goths, about 360, a manuscript copy 
of which, called the Codex Argenteus, is at Upsal. 
The Psalms were translated into Savon by bishop 
Aldhelm, about 706 ; Cedmon’s metrical paraphrase 
of a portion of the Bible, about 680; and the Gospels 
by bishop Egbert, about 721; parts of the Bible by 
Bede, in the 8th century. 

Bible Translation Society, founded 1840. 


ENGLISH VERSIONS AND EDITIONS. 


MS. paraphrase of the whole Bible at the Bodleian 
Library, Oxford, dated by Usher . c c omy 

Versions (from the Vulgate) by Wickliffe and his 
followers (above 170 MS. copies extant) . 1356-84 

[Part published by Lewis,'1731 ; by Baber, 1810; 
the whole by Madden and Forshall, at Oxford 1850. ] 

William Tyndale’s version of Matthew and Mark 
from the Greek printed, 1524 ; of the whole New 
Testament, 1525 ; 6 editions “ { » 1525-30 

Miles Coverdale’s version of the whole Bible ; print- 
ing finished : : : ; “ « 4 Oct. 1835 

[Ordered by Henry VIII. to be laid in the choir of 
every church, ‘‘for every man that will to look 
and read therein.” 

T. Matthews’ (said to be fictitious name for John 
Rogers) version (partly by Tyndale* and Cover- 
dale) . 3 E s : : ° 2 at 1537 

Cranmer’s Great Bible (Matthews’ revised), the first 
printed by authority : : ; - 1539 

[Bible reading prohibited] : : 5 - 1542-57 

Geneva version, ‘‘ Breeches Bible,” (the first with 
figured verses), 1540-1557 ; published : Miter 

Archbishop Parker’s, called ‘‘ The Bishops’ Bible ” 
(eight of the fourteen persons employed being 
bishops) . , i $ , s - 1568 


290 


1560 


* He was strangled at Antwerp, 6 Oct. 1536, at the 
instigation of Henry VIII. and his council. His last 
words were, ‘‘ Lord, open the king of England’s eyes!” 
14 editions of his Testament had then been published. 
His statue on the Thames embankment was uncovered 
7 May, 1884. 


BIBLE CHRISTIANS. 


King James’s Bible, the present authorised version 
—vrevision began 1604; published . | PerOLE 

[Dr. Benjamin Blayney’s revised edition, 1769. ] 

Roman Catholic authorised version: New Testa- 
ment, at Rheims, 1582 ; Old Testament, at Douay, 

1609-10 

Authorised Jewish English version 1851-61 

The revision of the English version now in use was_ re- 
commended by the bishops in convocation, ro Feb. 
1870. The committee, including eminent scholars of 
various denominations, appointed in May, held their 
first meeting at Westminster Abbey 22 June, 1870. 

Revision of the New Testament completed (103 sessions, 
or 407 days), 11 Novy. 1880; various editions published 
17 May, 1881. Revision of the Old Testament com- 
pleted, July, 1884. To be published in 1885. 

Paragraph Bibles published in England by John Reeve, 
1808 ; by the Tract Society, 1848; at Cambridge, Mas- 
sachusetts, by Dr. Coit, 1834. 

Smallest Bible known (44x2x% inches: weight under 
3x 0Z.), issued from Oxford University press, Oct. 

1875. 


MODERN TRANSLATIONS.* 


N. TEST. BIBLE. 
Flemish . : 1477 
Spanish (Valencian) . 1478 
German , 4 5 1522 1530 
English 1520 1535 
French 1487 
Swedish 1526 I541 
Danish 1524 1550 
Dutch. 1475 
Italian 1471 
Spanish : : 1543 1569 
Russian (parts) I519 1822 
Welsh . 1567 1588 
Hungarian 1574 1589 
Bohemian . 1488 
Polish : E552 15601 
Virginian Indians 1661 1663 
Trish. £ 1602 1686 
Georgian 1743 
Portuguese 1712 1748 
Manks. 1748 1767 
Turkish 1666 1814 
Sanscrit ' 1808 1822 
Modern Greek . 1638 1821 
Chinese 1814 1823 


The British and Foreign Bible Society continue to 
make and print translations of the Bible in all the 
dialects of the world; see Polyglot. 


BIBLE CHRISTIANS, see Shakers. 
BIBLE DICTIONARIES. The most re- 


markable are Calmet’s ‘‘ Dictionary of the Bible,”’ 
1722-8 ; Kitto’s ‘* Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature,’’ 
1843 and 1851; and Smith’s elaborate ‘“ Dictionary 
of the Bible,” 1860-3 ; see Concordances.t 


BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal 
and oldest societies which have made the dissemina- 
tion of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive 
object, are the following :— 

Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge - 1698 
Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign 

Parts . 3 . : : : : : of Mie 
ieee in Scotland, for Promoting Christian Know- 

edge ‘ ‘ : : ‘ ; 4 : : 
Society for Promoting Religious Knowledge among 

the poor. : , : 


1701 


A729 


7, mee 7 . - 1750 
Naval and Military Bible Society . 1780 
Sunday School Society . ; ; - 1785 
French Bible Society. 1792 


British and Foreign Bible Society,} begun 1803 ; or- 
ganised : : - : ‘ Se teloyl 


* “The Bible of Every Land,” ed. 1860, published by 
Messrs. Bagsters, London, is full of information respect- 
ing ancient and modern versions of the Bible. 


+ An ‘‘ Index to the Persons, Places, and Subjects oe- . 


curring in the Holy Scriptures,” compiled by B. Vincent, 
editor of the present work, was published by the queen’s 
printers in 1848 ; others published since. 

t This society had issued 24,247,667 copies of the 
Bible or parts of it up to Jan. 1851 ; in May, 1863, the 


. 


108 


BIGAMY. e 


Hibernian Bible Society . ; . 3 : 

City of London Auxiliary Bible Society . im: 

A bull from the pope, Pius VIL, against Bible 
Societies appearedin . : é I 


BIBLIA PAUPERUM (the Bible for 
poor), consisting of engravings illustrating script 
history, with texts, carved in wood, a ‘‘ block boo 
printed early in the 15th century, was compiled 
Bonaventura, general of the Franciscans, about 12 
A fac-simile was published by J. Russell Smith 


1859. 


BIBLICAL ARCHA OLOGY, Soot 
FOR, established by Dr. Samuel Birch, and oth 
1871. Besides a journal, it has published, ‘| 
cords of the Past,” translations from the Assyri 
Egyptian, and other languages, 1873-80. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY, the Science of Books, 


Gesner’s ‘‘ Bibliotheca Universale” appeared . 1 
De Bure’s ‘‘ Bibliographie Instructive”  . ae 
Peignot, Manuel. 4 : 4 : 5 3 . 1 
Horne, Introduction to the Study of Bibliography . ; 
Brunet’s Manuel du Libraire, rst edit. 1810 ; 5th ed., 
with supplements . : f > : «186 
Scriptural, Orme, Bibliotheca Biblica, 1824 ; Dar- 
ling, Bibliographica . ; : é : Ae 
Classical, the works of Fabricius, Clarke, and 
Dibdin. 
English, Watt’s Bibliotheca Britannica . >: a 
Lowndes, Bibliographer’s Manual, 1834 ; new ed. by 
Bohn é ; - : 
British Catalogues, by Sampson Low 
French, Querard . : 


8 


title was published ; see Boccaccio, and Printi 
1450-5. 

BICOCCA, N. Italy. Lautrec and the Fre 
were here defeated by Colonna and the Imperiali 
29 April, 1522, and Francis thereby lost his 
quests in Milan. 


BICYCLH, see Velocipede. 


BIDASSOA. The allied army under lord W 
lington, having driven the French from Spa 
effected the passage of this river 8 Oct. 1813, : 
entered France. 


BIDDENDEN MAIDS. A distribution 
bread and cheese to the poor takes place at Bidd 
den, Kent, on Easter Mondays, the expense be: 
defrayed from the rental of twenty acres of la 
in 1875 yielding about 20/. a year, the repu 
bequest of the Biddenden maids, two sisters nan 
Chulkhurst, said to have been joined together | 
the Siamese twins, and to have died in the 1 
century. In 1656, Wm. Horner, the rector, \ 
non-suited in an attempt to add the ‘ Bread « 
Cheese lands’’ to his glebe. 


BIGAMY. The Romans branded the gui 
party with an infamous mark ; and in England 1 
punishment, formerly, was death. An act respe 
ing it was passed 5 Edw. I. 1276. Viner’s Statui 
Declared to be felony, without benefit of clergy 
James I. 1603. Punishable, by imprisonment 
transportation, 35 Geo. III.j1794; by imprisonme 
24 & 25 Vict. c. 100 (1861). 


number had risen to 43,044,334; in 1867 to 52,669,089 ; 
1875 to 76,432,723; in March, 1881, to 91,014,448} 
1884 to 100,035,933. The income of the year 1876 ¥ 
£206,978; inthe year 1880-1, £209,519 ; in 1883-4, 4233)3 
In 1857 the society published a catalogue of th 
library, which contains a large number of remarka 
editions of the Bible. The foundation-stone of their D 
Central hall, Queen Victoria-street, London, was laid 
the prince of Wales, 11 June, 1866. The society } 
promoted translations of the Bible into 225 langua: 
or dialects. 
3 


an 


ia 


BIG BETHEL. 


109 


IG BETHEL (Virginia, U.S.). On roJune, 


the Federals were defeated in an attack on 
» Confederate batteries at this place. 


ILBAO (N.E. Spain), founded about 1300; 
taken by the French and held a few days, J uly, 
It was delivered from the Carlists by Espar- 
assisted by the British, 24 Dec. 1836. It was 
ed by Carlists from Feb. to May,’ 1874, when 
Jege was raised by marshal Concha, who entered 
20 2 May. 


ILL OF EXCEPTIONS. The right of 
ering such a bill toa judge, either to his charge, 
s definition of the law, or to other errors of the 
t, at a trial between parties, provided by the 
statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 1284, was 
ished by the Judicature Act, 1875. 


ILL OF PAINS, &c.; see Queen Caroline. 
ILL OF RIGHTS, &c.; see Rights. 


ILLIARDS. The French ascribe their inven- 
to Henrique Devigne, an artist, about 157I. 
» billiard tables were introduced in England in 


ILLINGSGATH, the fish-marketin London, 
id to have derived its name from Belinus Mag- 
a British prince, the father of king Lud, 400B.c., 
Stow thinks from a former owner. 1t was the 
sort of London, and the customs were paid here 
ar Ethelred II., a.p. 979. Stow. Billingsgate 
made a free market, 1699. Chamberlain. Fish 
and-carriage, as well as sea-borne, now arrives 
yhere. In 1849, the market was extended and 
roved, and a new one was erected in 1852, Mr. 
ning, architect. Another new one, erected by 
ace Jones, founded 27 Oct. 1874; completed 
. 1876; lit by electric light, 25 Nov. 1878. Bil- 
sgate market was declared to be insufficient for 
fish supply of the metropolis in the report of 
commission appointed by the city corporation, 
anted to the common council, 11 Aug. 1881. 


ILLS OF EXCHANGE were invented by 
Jews as a means of removing their property from 
ms where they were persecuted, 1160. Anderson. 
;are said to have been used in England, 1307. 
only legal mode of sending money from England, 
chard II. 1381. Regulated, 1698 ; first stamped, 
:; duty advanced, 1797; again, June 1801 ; and 
e. It was made capital to counterfeit bills of 
lange in 1734. In 1825, the year of disastrous 
ulations in bubbles, it was computed that there 
2400 millions of pounds sterling represented by 
‘of exchange and promissory notes. ‘lhe present 
unt is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The 
y statutes regarding bills of exchange were con- 
lated by act 9 Geo. IV. 1828. An act regulating 
i of exchange passed 3 Vict. July, 1839. Great 
-ations were made in the law on the subject by 
¢ 18 Vict. c. 83 (1854), and 18 & Ig Vict. c. 67 
(5). Days of grace were abolished in the case of 
\of exchange payable on sight in Aug. 1871. 
zery of bills to obtain discount was detected by 
bank of England, 28 Feb., after 102,217/. had 
| paid. The culprits (Americans) were tried 
condemned to penal servitude for life, 26 Aug. 
\. See Trials, Aug. 1873. 

‘lls of Exchange Act, declaring the law relating to 
veptance, passed 16 April 1878 ; new Act passed 18 


_g. 1882. 


ILLS OF MORTALITY For Lonvon. 
se bills were first compiled by order of Cromwell, 
t 1538, 30 Hen. VIII., but in a more formal and 
mised manner in 1603, after the great plague 


BILLS OF SALE. 


of that year. No complete series of them has been 
preserved. They have been superseded by the 
weekly returns of the registrar-general, since 1837. 
See Public Health. The following show the 
numbers for London at decennial periods :— 


Christenings. Burials. 
1780 . - 16,634 20,507 
1790 18,980 . 18,038 
1800 . 19,176 23,068 
1810 19,930 .- 19,892 
1820 . 26,158 19,348 
1830. 27,028 . 23,524 
1840 . 30,387 26,774 
1850 39,973 - 36,947 
IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 
Births. Deaths. 
1840 . + 502,303 - 356,634 
1845 - - 543,52 . - 349,366 
1849 - - 578,159 - 440,839 
TO5seres a OLz, 300. - 421,097 
1856 . 657,453 - 390,506 
1858 - 655,481 . - 449,656 
1859 . - 689,881 - 441,790 
1860 - 684,048 . . 422,721 
1861 . - 696,406 - 436,114 
TOS ees SUEZ ,004% - 436,573 
1863 . : - ! Gh 8 yf +. 4735937 
L804 SUS aE e's) 740,275 - » 495,532 
1865 . - c ; - 748,069 - 490,909 
ENGLAND AND WALES. SCOTLAND, IRELAND.* 
Births. Deaths. Births. Deaths. Births. Deaths. 
1865, 748,069 soa itteng 70,822 | 144,970 93,154 
1866, 753,870 500,689 | 113,639 71,273 | 146,237 93,598 
1867, 768,349 471,073 | 114,115 69,024 | 144,318 93,911 
1868, 786,858 480,622 | 115,673 69,386 | 146,108 86,803 
1869, 773,381 494,828 | 113,395 75,789 | 145,659 89,573 
1870, 792,787 515,329 | 115,423 74,067 | 150,151 90,695 
1871, 797,428 514,879 | 116,127 74,644 | 151,665 88,720 
1872, 825,907 492,265 | 118,873 75,741 | 149,292 97,577 
1873, 829,778 492,520] 119,738 76,857 | 144,377 97,537 
1874, 854,956 526,632 | 123,795 80,676 | 141,288 91,961 
1875, 850,607 546,453 | 123,693 81,785 | 138,320 98,114 
1876, 887,968 510,315 | 126,749 74,122] 140,469 92,324 
1877, 888,200 500,496 | 126,824 73,946 | 139,659 93,543 
1878, 891,906 539,872 | 126,707 76,775 | 134,117 99,629 
1879, 880,389 526,255 | 125,736 73,329 | 135,328 105,089 
1880, 881,643 528,624 | 124,652 75,795 | 128,086 102,906 
1881, 883,642 491,935 | 120,214 72,301 | 125,847 90,035 
1882, 889,018 516,654 | 126,182 72,966 | 122,648 28,500 
1883, 889,815 522,662 | 124,462 76,867 | 118,224 96,388 
1884, 908,584 531,951 
IN LONDON AND SUBURBS (52 OR 53 WEEKS). 
Be pees Deaths. 
5 . . ° . 4, 4. ° ° . 
1856 F ; : 59 503533 4. ‘ ae BOS: 
1858 (Females, 43,400) . 88,620 (Females, 31,319) 63,882 
1862 A : ekiy face NA : - « 66,950 
1864 . 7 ‘ aj. LO2s EOF. 775723 
1867 (Females, 54,862) . 112,264 . 70,588 
1868 (53 weeks) . bits; 74dee 74,908 
1869 . > < ee h roctole | - 773933 
1870 . . - 113,449. 77,278 
187r . + 112,535 80, 332 
1872 2 = « 117,200 . 70,893 
1873 (53 weeks) + I2I,100 76,334 
1874 P “ ° «(E235 304). A 76,606 
1875 . : : eee Lee. Lim. ; 81,513 
1876 (Females, 62,095) . 127,015 . 77,412 
1897 C255, p O28, 2395) 4 227,957) « 77,002 
1878 ° ° . - 129,184 . 83,695 
187y . ° = spe 34,0000)... : - + 85,540 
1880 (Females, 64,659) - 132,173 (Females, 39,426) 81,128 
1881 a ° A CERN Pls OF é : 1,071 
1882 . A pane 193/200 ° 82,905 
1883. - 133,656. 80,578 


BILLS OF SALE, an act to consolidate and 
amend the law for preventing frauds upon creditors 
by secret bills of sale of personal chattels (41 & 42 
pees c. 31) was passed 22 July, 1878, amended, 
1882. 


* Approximative : registration defective. 


, j * 


BI-METALLISM. 


110 


BIRMINGHAM. © 


BI-METALLISM, the system of having two 
standard metallic currencies in a country, gold and 
silver, much advocated by MM. H. Cernuschi and 
E. Lavellye, and others since 1867. By 56 Geo. 
IIT. c. 68 (1816), it was enacted that “ gold coins 
only should be legal tender in all payments of 
more than 40s.”’ in this country. <A bi-metallic 
currency was established in France in 1803. It 
was recommended for Germany in 1879, and was 
discussed at the Monetary Conference at Paris, 
April, 1881. 


BINARY ARITHMETIC, that which counts 
by twos, for expeditiously ascertaining the property 
of numbers, and constructing tables, was invented 
by Leibnitz of Leipsic, about 1703. For the Binary 
theory in chemistry, see Compound Radical. 


BINOMIAL ROOT, in.Algebra, composed of 
only two parts connected with the signs plus or 
minus; a term first used by Recorda, about 1550, 
when he published his Algebra. The celebrated 
binomial theorem of Newton is said to have been 
discovered in 1663. 

BIOGRAPHY (from the Greek dios, life, and 
graph, I write), defined as “history teaching by 
example.’ The book of Genesis contains the bio- 
eraphy of the patriarchs; and the Gospels that of 
Christ. Plutarch wrote the Lives of Lllustrious 
Men; Cornelius Nepos, Lives of Military Com- 
manders; and Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve 
Czesars (all three in the first century after Christ) ; 
Diogenes Laértius, Lives of the Philosophers (about 
205):—Boswell’s Life of Johnson (published in 
1790) is the most remarkable English biography. 
A magnificent edition, edited by Rev. Alex. Napier, 
published by Messrs. Bell, Feb. 1834. 

Important Dictionaries.—Biographie Universelle, 85 vols., 
1811-62 ; Nouvelle Biographie Generale, 46 vols., 
1852-66; General Biographical Dictionary, by Alex. 
Chalmers, 32 vols., 1812-17; New General Biographi- 
cal Dictionary, by H. J. Rose, 12 vols., 1848; Bio- 
graphia Britannica, 7 vols., 1747 5 Dictionary of 
National Biography, by Leslie Stephen, vol. i. pub- 
lished by Smith, Elder & Co., 1 Jan. 1885. 
BIOLOGY, termed the science of life and living 

things, by Treviranus, of Bremen, in his work on 

Physiology, published 1802-22. Biology includes 

zoology, anthropology, and ethnology (which see). 

Herbert Spencer’s ‘ Principles of Biology,’ pub- 

lished 1865-67. T. H. Huxley, “ Practical in- 

struction in Biology,” 1875. In 1831 about 70,000 

animals were known and described ; in 1881, about 

320,000. Sir John Lubbock. 

A society for the Biological Investigation of the Coasts 
of the United Kingdom, established by the Royal 
Society and others 31 March, 1884; president, professor 
Huxley ; incorporated as the Marine Biological Asso- 
ciation ; patron the prince of Wales ; fine laboratory 
to be at Plymouth. See Naples, ‘1872. 


BIRCH TREE. The black (Betula nigra), 
brought from North America, 1736. The birch tree 
known as the Betula pumila, introduced into Kew 
gardens, England, by Mr. James Gordon, from 
North America, 1762. Hardy’s Annals. 


IRDS were divided by Linnzus into six orders 
a 5); by Blumenbach into eight (1805); and by 
Cuvier, into six (1817). The most remarkable works 
are those published by John Gould, F.R.S.; they 
consist of nearly 40 folio volumes of coloured 
plates, &c. They now include the birds of Europe, 
Asia, Australia, Great Britain, and New Guinea, be- 
sides monographs of the humming-birds, &c. John 
Gould died 3 Feb. 1881. Dr. John Latham’s ““Synop- 
sis of Birds,’ 1781-90. John J ames Audubon’s 
“‘ Birds.of America,’’ 1826-40. See Wild Birds. 


“British Ornithologists’ Union” founded 1858; 
published the *‘ Ibis” 1859, et seq. 

A morphological classification of birds (based on 
Huxley’s), put forth by professors Parker and 
Newton; Encyclopedia Britannica ; oth ed. 

The Wild Birds Protection Act, 43 & 44 Vict. e. 35, 
passed . Ms ‘ - : > : 7 Sept. : 

International Congress of Ornithologists, rst meet- 
ing, = 3 . x : 7-1r April, - 
BIRKBECK LITERARY AND SCIENTI 


INSTITUTION, Bream’s buildings, W.C., the ; 
sent name of the mechanics’ institution founder 


Dr. Birkbeck in 1823. Foundation stone of - 
building laid by the Duke of Albany, 23 Aj 
1883. New building opened with an addres 
Dr. Tyndall, 22 Oct. 1884. 


BIRKENHEAD (Cheshire), a modern t 
on the Mersey, opposite to Liverpool. The g 
dock here was projected by Mr. John Laird, | 
structed by Mr. Rendell, and opened in Aug. : 
by lord Morpeth. In 1861 Birkenhead was ma 
parliamentary borough, and Mr. Laird was ele 
first representative. He died 29 Oct. 1874. — 
kenhead received a charter of incorporation in 1 
Population in 1831, 200; in 1861, 51,649; ini 
65,971. See Wrecks, 1852. 


BIRMAN EMPIRE or EMPIRE OF A 


see Burmese Empire and India. 


BIRMINGHAM existed in the reign of Al: 
There were ‘‘many smythes”’ here in the tim 
Henry VIII. (Leland), but its great import: 
commenced in the reign of William III. See 
pulation. 


Grammar school founded by Edward VI. 
Besieged and taken by prince Rupert . k K 
Button manufactures established . : is 
Soho works established by Matthew Boulton about 
1764; and steam engine works about | 
Birmingham Canal originated =. : 
Dr. Ash’s hospital founded, 1766 ; first 
musical festival for it é : * . ae 
Riots against Dr. Priestley and others commemo- 


Birmingham 


rating the French Revolution 14 July, 
Theatre destroyed by fire 7 Aug. 
Theatre burnt . A x ‘ A 7 Jan. 
Political Union, formed by T. Attwood Feb. 


Birmingham made a borough by Reform Act (2 

members) . - : s : : - i 
Town-hall built . . : A we 
Political Union dissolved itself . : to May, 
Birmingham and Liverpool railway opened as the 

Grand Junction F 3 5 . 4duly, 
London and Birmingham railway opened its entire 


length . : : ‘ : ; 17 Sept. 
Great Chartist riot; houses burnt . 15 July, 
Town incorporated, and Police Act passed . . 
Meeting of British Association 29 Aug. 
Queen’s College incorporated F Bp 
Corn Exchange opened « 5 . 27 Oct. 
British Association (meet again) . 12 Sept. 
Queen’s College organised . Jan. 


Birmingham and Midland Institute incorporated ; 


Public park opened (ground virtually given by 
Mr. Adderley) . : : 2 S . 3 Aug. 
‘New music-hall opened. : 3 Sept. 


Another park opened by the duke of Cambridge, 
100,000 persons present (ground given by lord 
Calthorpe) . : : ; . * x June, 

Death of G. F. Muntz, M.P. . 

John Bright elected M.P. 


: 5 - 14-16 June, 


The Free Library opened . 4 April, 
Factory explosion: g killed . 23 June, 
People’s park purchased by corporation Sept. 
New Exchange opened . P 2 Jan. 


The bank of Attwoods and Spooner stops payment 


and causes much distress F to March, 
Meeting of British Association (3rd) 6 Sept. 
| Stoppage of the ‘“‘ Banking Company ” 13 July, 


BIRTHS. 


BISHOPS. 


annual horse show di Kah ae . 
Reform meeting . a 
it riots tingueh the lectures of Murphy, an 
i-popery orator, ata tabernacle 17, 18 June, 
dditional M.P. given to Birmingham by 
orm Act . . rs Aug. 
ng of Nat. Social Science ‘Association, 7 Oct. 
club house here opened 3 May, 
gton orphan houses, endowed by 53 osiah 
son, a manufacturer of steel-pens begun 18 de 
shed ‘ Jul Ys 9» 
nal Education League meet . MLS TO OCD: |\ 55 
sion at Kynoch’s “eartridge-factory, Witton, 
iy deaths and injuries . 17 Nov. 
sions at Messrs. Ludlow’s cartridge- factory at 
ton, 17 killed and 53 injured, several dying 
n after: noon, 9 Dec. ; 33 dead up to 13 Dee. ; 
ip to 26 Dec x 
: Arthur opens “Royal Horticultural Exhibi- 
25 June, 
its Mason (knighted 1872) endows a college 
practical science . 
on-hill park (presented to the town ‘by Miss 
ands) opened . rSept. ,, 
h of Mr. Bright (after re-election on resuming 
e as chancellor of duchy of Lancaster) to 
ut 16,000 persons in Bingley hall 22 Oct. ;, 
B OL Priestley (in commemoration of his dis- 
ary of oxygen) unveiled by prof. Huxley 1 Aug. 
of the prince and princess of Wales, 3 Nov. ay 
lation of sir Josiah Mason’s college laid by 
self and Mr. Bright ee 28 HOU: 
ngham Philosophical Society ‘founded 28 Feb. 
Dudley bequeaths roo,oool. for charitable pur- 
es in Birmingham March, ., 
al meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society 
17-24 July, ,, 
Western arcade opened . 28 Sept. ,, 
"_E. Gladstone addresses about 30,000 persons 
3ingley hall . 31 May, 1877 
ngham liberal federation formed . ae June, ,, 
it Mr. Denison’s, confectioner; Mrs. Denison 
3 others perish, 26 Aug. ; verdict at inquest, 
yn, criminal unknown . 30 Sept. 
al ‘library, comprising the chief free pica 
ary and the Shakspeare library, Cervantes 
ection &c., with ents, destroyed 
avenue rr Jan. 
of sir Josiah Mason . - 16June, 
very of nitro-glycerine manufacture carried 
iy Alfred Whitehead (arrested) ; box conveyed 
sondon seized 4 April; a large quantity made 
| dynamite, at great risk burnt in a field 
8 April, 
2¢ Dynamite 5 April, 
ral in honour of John Bright, 25 years M.P. 
Birmingham ; silver dessert-service presented 
I-15 June, 
>of the queen, by T. Woolner (to accompany 
5 of the Prince Consort, ne Foley), in the 
3 Library, uncovered g May, 
reform demonstration, Mr. Bright red Mr. 
mberlain present . BEANE, 5 
Conservative demonstration at Peete (sir 
ford Northeote, lord Randolph Churchill, 
others), prevented by brutal rioters ; a free 
t; many 2S agian i much damage of pro- 
iy : . : i PauOChe wuss 


RTHS. The births of children were taxed 
gland, viz. : birth of a duke, 30/.; of a common 
a, 25 2 Will. III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. 
instances of four children at a birth are 
rous; but it is recorded that a woman of 
ssberz (3 Sept. 1784), and the wife of hes a 
, of Oxford-market, London (Oct. 1800), had 
hildren at a birth. The queen usually pre- 
a small sum of money to a poor woman giving 
to three or more living children at one , time. 
‘ills of Mortality and Register 3 

SHOP (Greek episcopos, overseer), a name 
by the Athenians to those who had the in- 
on of the city. The Jews and Romans had 
ke officers. St. Peter, styled the first bishop 
‘ne, was martyred 65. The presbyter was the 


1872 
1873 


1878 


1879 
1881 


| Bishops excluded from voting i in the house of peers 


| The bishop of Norwich resigned 


same as abishop. Jerome. The episcopate became 
an object of contention about 144. ‘The title of 
pope was anciently assumed by all bishops, and 
was exclusively claimed by Gregory VII. (1073-85). 


BISHOP. OF LONDON’S FUND, see 
under Church of England, 1864, et seq.; amount 
received up to 31 Dec. 1878, 603,718/. 


BISHOPS 1n ENGLAND* were coeval with 
the introduction of Christianity. The see of London 
is mythically said to have been founded by Lucius, 
king of Britain, 179. 


Bishops made barons 

Intervention of the pope in regard to bishops, 13th 
century 

The Congé d’Elire of the king to choose a bishop 
originated in an ar rangement by king John. 

Bishops were elected by the king’s Congé W Elire, 
25 Henry VIII. . «| £594 

Bishops to rank as barons by stat. ar Hen. VIL. - 1540 

Seven were deprived for being married . 1554 

Several suffered martyrdom under queen J Mar} y; see 
Protestants . 1555-6 


1072 


on temporal concerns, 16 Char les I. 1641 
Several protest against the legality of acts of parlia- 

ment passed while they are deprived of votes, 

28 Dec. ; committed to the tower 30 Dee: 5; 


| The order of archbishops and paheas anole by 


the parliament 9 Oct. 
Bishops regain their seats. Nov. 
Seven bishops (Canterbury, Bath, Chichester, St. 
Asaph, Bristol, Ely, and Peterborough) sent to 
the tower for not reading the king’s declaration 
for liberty of conscience “(intended to bring the 
Roman Catholics into ecclesiastical and “civil 
power), 8 June; tried and acquitted, 29-30 June, 
The archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Sancroft) and 
five bishops (Bath and Wells, Ely, Gloucester, 
Norwich, and Peterborough) suspended for refus- 
ing to take the oaths to William and Mary, 1689 ; 
deprived . 
Retirement of bishops : The bishops of London and 
Durham retired on annuities : - 1856 


1857 


1688 


1690 


The Bishops’ Resignation (for Infir mity) Act, (author- 
ising the appointment of bishop coadjutors), 
passed, 1x Aug. ards made perpetual by Act 
passed . 14 June, 

Bishopric of St. Albans created, and dioceses of 
London, Winchester, and Rochester re-arranged, 

38 & 39 Vict. ec. 34; passed . - 29 June, 

Bichnpric of Truro founded, 39 & 40 VIC Tal Ga wae 
passed . irr Aug 

The Bishoprics Act, 41 & 42 Vict. ¢. "68, authorises 
the endowment of four new bishopries, Liver- 
pool, Newcastle, and Wakefield (York), and 
Southwell (Canterbury). The number of bishops 
in parliament is not to be increased 16 Aug. 1878 


ENGLISH BISHOPRICS. 


1875 


1375 
1876 


Sees. Founded. Sees. Founded. 
London (abpe.) . (?) 179} Lindisfarne, or Holy 
York (abpe.) . 4th cent. Island (after wards 
Sodor and Man . 4th cent. Durham, 995) . 634 
Llandaff - 5th cent. | West Saxons, (after- 

St. David’s . 5th cent. wards Winchester, 
Bangort . abouts516 705) : Ba tein 
St. Asaph - abouts6o | Mercia (afterwards 
Canterbury (abpe.) 598! Lichfield, Preh . ' 656 
Rochester 604 | Hereford 676 
London (see above) . 609 | Worcester 7 EOSD 
East Anglia(afterwards Lindisse (afterwards 
Norwich, 1091) 630 Lincoln, 1067). 680 


* Bishops have the titles of Lord and Right Rev. Father 
in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and York, taking 
place of all dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops 
of London, Durham, and Winchester have precedence of 
all bishops ; the others rank ac cording to seniority of 
consecration. 

+ An order in council, Oct. 1838, directed the sees of 
Bangor and St. Asaph’ to be united on the next vacancy 
in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be created 
thereupon ; this order, as regarded the union of the sees, 
was rescinded 1846. 


/ ae 
BISHOPS. 112 BISHOPS. 
ENGLISH BISHOPRICS. The Scottish convention expelled the bishops; 
Sees. Founded. Sees. Founded. abolished episcopacy ; declared the throne vacant 
Sherborne (afterwards | Chester . . 1542 drew up a claim of right ; and proclaimed William 


Salisbury, 1042) . 7o5 | Oxford 


Cornwall (afterwards Ripon 
Devonshire, after- Manchester PLOAy 
wards Exeter, 1050) gog | St. Alban’s . 1876 
Wells . 4 : SR MET ULO: ‘ F . 1877 
Bath . . 1088 | Newcastle, authorised 
Ely . - 1108 1878 . 1882 
Carlisle . - 1132 | Liverpool . - 1880 
Peterborough - 1541 | Southwell Ay ep utshey 
Gloucester* . ees a Wakefield, authorised 1878 
Bristol * srg 42 


BISHOPS In IRELAND are said to have been 
consecrated in the 2nd century ; see Church of Lre- 


land. 


Prelacies were constituted, and divisions of the 
bishoprics in Ireland made, by eardinal Paparo, 


legate from pope Eugene III. 4 F é II51 
Several prelates deprived by queen Mary ee RUSS A. 
Bp. Atherton suffered death ignominiously . . 1640 


Two bishops deprived for not taking the oaths to 
William and Mary . F ; : : eae 
Church Temporalities Act, for reducing the number 
of bishops in Ireland, 3 & 4 Will. IV., c. 37, passed 
14 Aug. 1833 
[By this statute, of the four archbishoprics of Armagh, 
Dublin, Tuam, and Cashel, the last two were to be 
abolished on the decease of the then archprelates, 
which has since occurred ; and it was enacted that 
eight of the then eighteen bishoprics should, as they 
became void, be henceforth united to other sees, which 
was accomplished in 1850; so that the Irish church 
at present consists of two archbishops and ten 
bishops. ] 


1691 


Ossory founded 402 | Ferns. about 598 
rim i: : . 432|Cloyne . + before 604 
Killala . about 434]Cork . d about 606 
Armagh, 445; abpe. . 1152 | Glandalough . before 612 
Emly . about 448 | Derry . before 618 
Elphin P 450 | Kilmacduach about 620 
Ardagh . : . . 454 | Lismore . about 631 
Clogher before 493 | Leighlin 2032 
Down . . about 499 | Mayo . about 665 
Ardfert and Aghadoe Raphoe .fbefore 885 
before 500] Cashel, before gor; 
Connor about ,, abpe. : Carry 
Tuam, about sor; Killaloe, abpe. . I0Ig 
abpe. . . . 1152] Waterford . - 1096 
Dromore about 510 | Limerick. - before 1106 
Kildare . . before 519 | Kilmore sHTISO 
Meath . : . 520] Dublin, abpe.. as aS 
Achonry 530 | Kilfenora . before 1254 
Louth. 534 (For the new combina- 
Clonmacnois . 548 tions, see the sepa- 
Clonfert . SES 5c rate articles.) 
Ross about 570 


BISHOPS IN SCOTLAND were probably 
nominated in the fourth century. 


The Reformers, styling themselves ‘‘ the Congrega- 
tion of the Lord,” having taken up arms and 
defeated the queen-mother, Mary of Guise, calleda 
parliament, which set up a new form of church 
polity on the Genevese model, in which bishops 
were replaced by ‘‘ superintendents” . 5 é 

Episcopacy restored by the regent Morton (see Twl- 
chan Bishops) : : : 5 . : 1572-3 

Three prelates for Scottish sees consecrated at 
Lambeth (John Spottiswood, Gawin Hamilton, 
and Andrew Lamb) for Glasgow, Galloway, and 
Brechin A 4 : : : 21 Oct. 

Episcopacy abolished, the bishops in a body de- 
posed, and four excommunicated, by a parliament, 
elected by the people (covenanters), which met 
at Glasgow : . - - é ec. 1638 

Episcopacy restored ; an archbishop (James Sharp) 
and three bishops consecrated by Sheldon, bishop 
of London . 3 . 15 Dec. 1661 


I56r 


1610 


* The sees of Bristol and Gloucester were united, 
1836, separated, 1884. 


, 1836 Episcopacy formally abolished, and the 


and Mary . 1x April, 

bishops’ 
revenues sequestrated . . : - —_19 Sept. 

The Episcopal church was thus reduced to the 
condition of a Non-conformist body, at first barely 
tolerated. It opened its first congress, 19 May, 

Bishop Rose connected the established episcopal 
church of Scotland with that form of it which ig 
now merely tolerated, he having been bishop of 
Edinburgh from 1687 till 1720, when, on his death, 
Dr. Fullarton became the first post-revolution 
bishop of that see. Fife (mow St. Andrews, so 
called in 1844) now unites the bishopric of 
Dunkeld (re-instituted in 1727) and that of Dun- 
blane (re-instituted in 1731). Ross (of uncer- 
tain date) was united to Moray (re-instituted in 
1727) in 1838. Argyll and the Isles never existed 
independently until 1847, having been conjoined 
to Moray and Ross, or to Ross alone, previously 
to that year. Galloway has been added to the see 
of Glasgow. 


Orkney, founded. Edinburgh <7 | 


Uncertain. 
Isles 3 + ¥ 2360 POST-REVOLUTION 
Galloway before 50c BISHOPS. 
St. Andrews, 800; Edinburgh . : j 
abpe. . : . .1470| Aberdeen and the 
Glasgow, about 560; Isles . 2 4 3 
abpe. : . 1488 | Moray (and _ Ross), 
Caithness about 1066 primus . Je 4 
Brechin before 1155 | Brechin . : m3 
Moray . . 1115 | Glasgow (and Gallo- 
Ross . : K - 1124| Way) : : 
Aberdeen. . . 1125|/St. Andrews (Dun- 
Dunkeld ; 2 §x130 keld, Dunblane, &.) 
Dunblane - before 1153} Argyll and the Isles . 
Argyll. - 1200 
Romanist Bishoprics revived by Pope Leo XIII. 
4 March, 


Scotch Protestant bishops protest . 13 April, 


BISHOPS, AMERICAN. The first was 8a 
Seabury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by 
nonjuring prelates, at Aberdeen, in Scotlan 
Nov. 1784. The bishops of New York and P 
sylvania were consecrated in London, by the 2 
bishop of Canterbury, 4 Feb. 1787, and the bi 
of Virginia in 1790. Several American bis 
formed part of the Pan-Anglican synod, at Laml 
24-27 Sept. 1867. The first Roman Catholic bi 
of the United States was Dr. Carroll, of Mary! 
in 1780. 

BISHOPS, CononraL, &c.* By 15 4 
Vict. c. §2 (1852), and 16 & 17 Vict. c. 49 (1 
the colonial bishops may perform all epist 
functions in the United Kingdom, but have no j 
diction. 


Nova Scotia Gibraltar. 


- 1787 


Quebec . - 1793 | New Zealand (see 
Caleutta - 1814 Christchurch) . 
Barbados 1824 | Antigua . 


Guiana, S. America . 
Huron, Canada . . 
Tasmania . We ¢ 
Colombo, Ceylon . 

Fredericton, N. Bruns. 
Adelaide, 8. Australia 
Cape Town. 


Jamaica 
Madras . : ae 
Australia (see Sydney) 
Montreal ; Sh ye ae 
Bombay . ‘. | 1537 
Newfoundland a 1030 
Toronto . 3 antes 


1835 
1836 


* Between 1847-59, Miss (now baroness) Burdett-Ce 
gave 60,0001. to endow colonial bishoprics. In 1866 
petitioned parliament, on account of some of the bisl 
professing independence of the church of Engl 
Since then, colonial bishops have been appointed ¥ 
out intervention of the civil power. Much discus 
took place in 1867, through the deposition of Dr. Cole 
bishop of Natal, by his metropolitan, Dr. Gray, bish¢ 
Capetown, and the attempts of the latter to consecré 
new bishop, in opposition to the law; see under 
and Church of England, 


i | ~ \ \ 

BISHOPS. 113 BLACKHEATH. 
‘bourne _. . . 1847) Ballarat . - «1872 | The Othman Turks take Prusa, the eapital (and 
veastle, N. S. W. . ,, | Moosonee 3 quate. make it the seat of their empire till they possess 
ney (Metropol. of Algoma , : of MP ees Constantinople) . ; ; - - 3 Pia kGee 
Us ia 7 x St. John’s, Kaffraria . r 
Bei, 2sah > Soe Mieteend : 3874 | , BITONTO (Naples). Here Montemar and the 
soria, Hong Kong. ,, | Saskatchewan. ,, | Spaniards defeated the Germans, 27 May, 1734, and 
faLeone .  . 1852! Niagara .1875 | thereby acquired the kingdom of the Two Sicilies 
am’s-town  . . 1853, Je thee - . 1877 for Don Carlos. 
al, S. Africa. 4 Transvaal . See aol ; ie 
vitius .  . . 1854/ Lahore fn a SY BLACK ACT, 9 Geo. I. c. 22 (1722), was 
wan. .  . 1855 North Queensland . 187g | passed to punish armed persons termed déacks, going 
stchureh, N. Z. . 1856 | Travancore and Cochin 1879 | about in disguise with their faces blacked, robbing 


wh, W. Australia . 
lington, N. Z. 

jon, N. Zealand 
bane, Queensland. 


New Caledonia(British 
Columbia) 
New Westminster 
MISSIONARY BISHOPS. 


39 


« 1858 < ? 


” 
sd ” 


rig 


ish Columbia . >» | Jerusalem Stor bs 
tbourn, N.S. W.. ,, | Melanesia . . 1860 
delena . % ae seLonoluly. wi) a LOOE 
‘apu, N. Z. P » | Zanzibar and Central 

trio, Canada . 1861 Africa - 1863 } 
jau, Bahamas. ,, | Niger Territory . . 1864 
ton, Australia. . 1863 | Falkland Isles - 1869 
edin, New Zealand 1866 | Madagascar - 1870 
tzburg, 8. Africa, 1869 | Bloemfontein Shs ay 
sland, New Zeald. ,, | Zuluiand gofg TO7E 
| LOUIS Gane heey » | North China . 1872 
mm, 4 « . 1871} Japan eos Loos 
dager. . - 1872 

ISHOPS, SUFFRAGAN, to assist metropoli- 


, existed in the early church. Twenty-six, 
inted by Henry VILLI. 1534, were abolished by 
y, 1553, and restored by Klizabeth, 1558. The 
appointed is said to have been Sterne, bishop of 
hester, 1606. The appointment of suffragan 
ops wasrevived in 1869, and archdeacon Henry 
kenzie, suffragan bishop of Nottingham (diocese 
‘ncoln) was consecrated 2 Feb. 1870, and arch- 
on Edward Parry, suffragan bishop of Dover 
sese of Canterbury), 23 March, 1870. Others 
‘ been appointed since; Guildford, 1874; Bed- 
1879; Hull, 1883. 


I[SMUTH was recognised as a distinct metal 


/ 


gricola, in 1529. It is very fusible and brittle, | 


of a yellowish white colour. 
ISSEXTILE, see Calendar and Leap Year. 


(THY NIA, a province in Asia Minor, pre- 
sly called Bedrieia, is said to have been invaded 
ie Thracians under Bithynus, son of Jupiter, 
gave it the name of Bithynia. It was subject 
ossively to the Assyrians, Lydians, Persians, 
Macedonians. Most of the cities were rebuilt 
‘recian colonists. 
Asus revolted and reigned, about 
‘ras, his son, succeeds 4 5 ‘ Ap ve 
Bias, son of Botyras, 376; repulses the 
tCKS 


B.C. 430-440 
378 


warrens and fish-ponds, cutting down plantations, 
killing deer, &c. By this act, sending anony- 
mous letters demanding money, &c., was made 
felony. 


BLACK ART, see Alchemy, Witchcraft. 
BLACK ASSIZE, see under Oxford. 
BLACK BOOK (Liber Niger), a book kept in 


the exchequer, which received the orders of that 
court. It was published by Hearne in 1728. 

A book doubtfully said to have been kept in monas- 
teries, wherein details of the enormities practised in reli- 
gious houses were entered for the inspection of visitors, 
under Hen, VIII. 1535. The name was given to the list 
of pensioners, printed 18371 ; and to other books. Sce 
Italy, 1876. The title Black Look was given to a list of 
Habitual Criminals, 1869-76; published by lieut.-col. 
Du Cane of Brixton, March, 1877. 


BLACKBURN, Lancashire, so called in 
Domesday-book. The manufacture of a cloth called 
Blackburn cheque, carried on in 1650, was super- 
seded by Blackburn greys. In 1767, James Har- 
greaves, of this town, invented the spinning-jenny, 
for which he was eventually expelled from the 
county. About 1810 or 1812, the townspeople 
availed themselves of his discoveries, and engaged 
largely in the cotton manufacture, now their staple 
trade. Blackburn murder, see Zirials, July, 1876. 


BLACK DEATH, sce Plagues, 1340 and 18606. 
BLACK FLAGS, see Zonguin, 1883. 
BLACK FRIARS, see Dominicans. 
BLACKFRIARS BRIDGE, London. The 


first stone of the late bridge was laid 31 Oct. 1760, 
and it was completed by Mylne, in 1770. It was 
frequently repaired, 1834-50, and began to sink. In 
1864 it was pulled down, and a temporary bridge 
erected. The foundation of a new five-arched 
bridge, designed by Mr. Joseph Cubitt, was laid by 
lord mayor Hale, 20 July, 1865, and the bridge was 
opened by the queen 6 Noy. 1869. The first railway 
train (London, Chatham, and Dover) entered the 
city of London over the xew railway bridge, Black- 


_ friars, 6 Oct. 1864. Another railway bridge founded 


b 4 ; { ‘ : : 328 
tes, son of Bias, resists Lysimachus . ye 326 
lies, leaving four sons, of whom the eldest, 
ye I,, succeeds (he invites the Gauls into 
builds Astacus, and names it Nicomedia . a, 
3, son of Nicomedes, reigns . ’ . about 250 
iding to massacre the chiefs of the Gauls at a 
st, Zielas is detected in his design, and is him- 
> put to death, and his son Prusias I. made 

g, about SOR TS ae its » 228 

| as defeats the Gauls, and takes cities <). 223 

| as allies with Philip of Macedon, and marries 
unea, his daughter : : ye hse 208 
,ceives and employs Hannibal, then a fugitive 

_; Who poisons himself to escape betrayal to 
Romans . 4 : . - ‘ : « 183 
as IL, succeeds. : A f : au 150. 
nedes IT. kills his father Prusias and reigns. 149 
aedes III., surnamed Philopator i I 
sed by Mithridates, king of Pontus ; 88 
red by the Romans . : : i 84 
2aths his kingdom to the Romans i 74 
., the younger, pro-consul . “ ‘. A.D. 103 

) 'ghusian Tartars settle in Bithynia ONS eres 


4 


7 Jan. 1884. 
BLACK FRIDAY, 11 May, 1866, the height 


of the commercial panic in London, through the 


| stoppage of Overend, Gurney, & Co. (limited), on 10 


May. Messrs. John Henry and Edmund Gurney, 
and their partners, committed for trial for conspiracy 


| todefraud, 21 Jan. 1869, were tried and acquitted, 13- 
23 Dec. 1869. 


BLACK HAND, see Spain, 1883. 

BLACKHEATH, Kent, near London. Here 
Wat Tyler and his followers assembled 12 June, 
1381; and here also Jack Cade and his 20,000 
Kentish men encamped, 1 June, 1450; see Tyler 
and Cade. Here the Cornish rebels were defeated 
and Flammock’s insurrection quelled, 22 June, 
1497. The ancient cavern, on the ascent to Black- 
heath, popularly termed ‘‘the retreat of Cade,” and 
of banditti in the time of Cromwell, was re-dis- 
covered in 1780. Several daring highway robberies 

i 


BLACK HOLE. 


114 


_ BLAZONRY. 


were committed near the heath, and the youthful | The conference met in London 17 Jan. 1871, anda 


eulprits punished, in 1877. See Trials. 
BLACK-HOLH, see Calcutta. 
BLACK LEAD, see Graphite. 


BLACK LETTER, employed in the first 
printed books in the middle of the 15th century. 
| The first printing types were Gothic; but they were 
modified into the present Roman type about 1469 : 
Pliny’s Natural History was then printed in the 
new characters. 


BLACK-MAIL, a compulsory payment for 
protection of cattle, &c., made in the border counties, 
was prohibited by Elizabeth in 1601. It was exacted 
in Scotland from the lowlanders by the highlanders, 
till 1745. It checked agricultural improvement. 


BLACK MONDAY, Easter Monday, 14 April, 
1360, ‘‘so full dark of mist and hail, and so bitter 
cold that many men died on their horsebacks with 
the cold.’’ Stow. In Ireland, Black Monday was 
the day on which a number of the English were 
slaughtered at a village near Dublin, in 1209. 


BLACK MONEY, base foreign coin so termed, 
1335. 


BLACK MONKS, sce Dominicans. 
BLACK MUSEUM, at Scotland Yard, is a 


collection of relics connected with crime, begun in 
1874. 


BLACK PRINCH, Epwarp, eldest son of 
king Edward III, born 15 June, 1330; victor at 
Poitiers, 19 Sept., 1356; at Najara, 3 April, 1367; 
died 8 June, 1376. 


BLACK REPUBLIC, sce Hayti. 


BLACK ROD has a gold lion at the top, and is 
carried by the usher of the order of the knights of the 
garter (instituted 1349), instead of the mace. He 
also keeps the door when a chapter of the order is 
sitting, and during the sessions of parliament 
attends the house of lords and acts as their messen- 
ger to the commons. 


BLACK SEA, THE EUXINE (Pontus Euxinus 
of the ancients), a large internal sea between the 
S. W. provinces of Russia and Asia Minor, con- 
nected with the sea of Azoff by the straits of Yenikalé, 
and with the sea of Marmora by the channel of 
Constantinople. 


This sea was much frequented by the Greeks and 
Italians, till closed to all nations by the Turks 
after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. 

The Russians obtained admission by the treaty of 
Kainardji. G : : : : to July, 1774 

It was partially opened to British and other traders, 
(since which time the Russians gradually obtained 
the preponderance). ; : , : AP lee 

Entered by the British and French fleets, at the 
requisition of the Porte, after the destruction of 
the Turkish fleet at Sinope by the Russians, 
30 Noy. 1853 .- : 2 F ; : 3 Jan. 

A dreadful storm in this sea raged, and caused 
great loss of life and shipping, and valuable stores 
for the allied armies. See Lusso-Twrkish War. 

13 to 16 Nov. ,, 

The Black Sea was opened to the commerce of all 
nations by the treaty of 1856. 

The article of the treaty of Paris, 30 March, 1856, 
by which the sea was opened to the commerce of 
all nations, and interdicted to any ships of war ; 
and the erection of military maritime arsenals for- 
bidden, was repudiated by a Russian circular, 
dated 31 (19) Oct. 1870 

After some correspondence, the meeting of a con- 
ference on the subject, in London, was agreed to 
by all the powers concerned in the treaty. 


1779 


1854 


treaty was signed by which the neutralization of 
the sea was abrogated: but it was agreed by a 
special protocol, that no nation shall liberate itself 
from the obligations of a treaty without the con- 
sent, of the others who signedit . 13 March, 
Blockade of the Black Seardeclared by Turkey 
during the war . ‘ ¢ about 3 May, 


BLACKS or Neri ; see Bianchi. 
BLACKWALL (London), the site of 


commercial docks and warehouses. See Ji 
The Blackwall railway was opened to the publ 
July, 1840; the eastern terminus being at Bl 
wall wharf, and the western in Fenchurch strex 


BLACK WATCH, armed companies of 
loyal clans (Campbells, Monros, &c.) employe 
watch the Highlands from about 1725 to 1 
when they were formed into the celebrated , 
regiment, enrolled as ‘‘The Royal Highland B 
Watch,” Their removal for foreign service prob 
facilitated the outbreak in 1745. They wore 
tartans, and hence were called Piack Watch. 1 
distinguished themselves in the Ashantee war, 
Feb. 1874, and in Egypt, 1882-5. 


BLACKWATER, BATTLE oF, in Irel 
14 Aug. 1598, when the Irish chief O’ Neil defe 
the English under sir Henry Bagnall. |] 
Clement VIII. sent O’Neil a consecrated ph 
and granted to his followers the same indulgen 
to crusaders. 


BLACKWOOD’S EvpinspurcH Maca 
established, 1817. 


BLADENSBURG, see Washington, 1814 
BLANC, see Mont Blane. 
BLANDFORD’S ACT, 19 & 20 Vict. e. 


for augmentation of benefices, &c. passed, 1856 
BLANK VERSE, see Verse. 


BLANKETEERS. A number of operat 
who, on 10 March, 1817, met in St. Peter's f 
near Manchester, many of them having blan! 
rugs, or great coats rollaa up and fastened to t 
backs. This was termed the Blanket meet 
They proceeded to march towards London, but | 
dispersed by the magistracy. It is stated that t 
object was to commence a general insurrect 
See Derby. Eventually the ringleaders had 
interview with the cabinet ministers, and a bé 
understanding between the working classes and 
government ensued. 


BLANKHETS are said to have been first n 
at Bristol by Thos. Blanket, in the 14th cent 
This is doubtful. 


BLASPHEMY was punished with death 
the law of Moses (Lev. xxiv.) 1491 B.c.; and b 
code of Justinian, A.D. 529 tt is punishable 
the civil and canon law of England, regulated b 
Geo. III. c. 8 (1819). Daniel Isaae Eaton 
tried and convicted in London of blasphem 
March, 1812. Robert Taylor, a protestant clergyn 
was tried twice for the same crime. He was | 
tenced to two years’ imprisonment, and lar 
fined, July, 1831. In Dec. 1840, two publisher 
blasphemous writings were convicted. 

BLASTING GELATINE, (a mixture 
nitro-glycerine and gun-cotton,) a violent explo 
prepared by Alfred Nobel, and modified by profé 
Abel, 1879. 

BLAZONRY. Bearing coats-of-arms was 
troduced and became hereditary in Franee 
England about 1192, owing to the knights pau 


at i 


BLEACHING. 


cir banners with different figures, thereby to dis- 


nguish them in the crusades. Dugdale. 


BLEACHING was known in Egypt, Syria, 
Pliny. An improved chemical 
stem _was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced 
into England and Scotland in 1768. There were 
rge bleach-fields in Lancashire, Fife, Forfar, and 
mfrew, and in the vale of the Leven, in Dumbar- 
n. The application of the gas chlorineto bleaching 

Perthollet’s discovery, about 1785. Its 
mbination with lime (as chloride of lime) was 
vised by Mr. Tennant, of Glasgow, who took out 
yatent for the process in 1798, and by his firm it 
still extensively manufactured. In 1822 Dr. Ure 
blished an elaborate series of experiments on this 
bstance. A new more rapid process invented by 
'. Jacob Baynes Thompson, tried at Bolton, and 
vorted successful, April, 1884. In 1860 bleaching 
d dyeing works were placed under the regulations 


idia, and Gaul. 


due to 


the Factories Act. 


BLENHEIM (or Plintheim) a village in 
varia on the left bank of the Danube, near the 
rn of Hochstett, the site of a battle fought 2 Aug. 
‘w style, 13), 1704, between the English and 
ifederates, commanded by the duke of Marl- 
‘ough, and the French and Bavarians, Pe’ 

e 
er were defeated with the loss of about 12,000 


rshal Tallard and the elector of Bavaria. 


led, and 13,000 prisoners (including Tallard). 
varia became the prize of the conquerors. The 


tish parliament gaye Marlborough the honour of 
odstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for 


a the house of Blenheim.* 


3LIND. The first public school for the blind 
3 established by Valentine Haiiy, at Paris in 
4. The first in England was at Liverpool, in 
I; in Scotland, at Edinburgh, in 1792; and the 
in 1799. Printing in raised or 
bossed characters for the use of the blind was 
un at Paris by Haiiy in 1786. The whole Bible 
; printed at Glasgow in raised Roman characters 


t in London 


ut 1848. A sixpenny magazine for the blind, 


ed by the late rev. W. Taylor, F.R.S., so 
nent for his forty years’ exertions on behalf of 


se sufferers, was published in 1855-6. He aided 


establishment of a college for the blind of the 


rer classes at Worcester, in 1866. There is 
dly any department of human knowledge in 


ch blind persons have not obtained distinction.+ 


ira Bridgman, born in 1829, became dumb and 
id two years after. She was so well taught by 
Howe, of Boston, U.S., as to become an able 
ructor of blind and dumb persons. By the 
sus of 1851, there were in Great Britain, 21,487 
d persons ; 11,273 males, 10,214 females; about 
im 975 blind. The number of the blind in 
at Britain has proportionally decreased since 


Jn 5 Feb. 1861, a fire broke out at this place, which 
royed the *‘* Titian Gallery” and the pictures ; the 
r, a present from Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, 
ohn, the great duke of Marlborough. 
‘ames Holman, the ‘blind traveller” 
1857), visited almost every place of note in ‘the 
1. His travels were published in 1825. 
a blind clergyman, rev. J. Sparrow, 
lain to the Mercers’ Company, London, and read the 
ce, &c., from embossed books. 
count Cranborne (blind) was the author of many 
esting historical essays. He died in June, 186s. 
3 July, 1865, Henry Fawcett, the blind professor of 
cal economy at Cambridge, was elected M.P. for 
‘ton; for Hackney, 1874 and 1880; and was ap- 
ed postmaster-general, April, 1880, died 6 Noy. 1884. 
*, J. Campbell (blind) ascended Mont Blane in 


(born 1786, 


115 


BLOOD’S CONSPIRACY. 


Set, according to the census. Royal Normal 
College and Academy of Music for the Blind, esta- 
blished 1873. 


BLINDING by consuming the eyeballs with 
lime or scalding vinegar, was a punishment inflicted 
anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In 
the middle ages the penalty was frequently changed 
from total blindness to a diminution of sight. A 
whole army of Bulgarians was deprived of sight by 
the emperor Basil, 104. Several of the eastern 
emperors had their eyes torn from their heads. 


BLISTERS, used by Hippocrates (460-357 
B.C.), made, it is said, of cantharides, (which see). 


BLOCKADE is the closing an enemy’s ports 
to all commerce; a practice introduced by the Dutch 
about 1584. The principle recognized by the 
European powers is that every blockade, in order to 
be binding, must be effective. The Elbe was 
blockaded by Great Britain, 1803; the Baltic, by 
Denmark, 1848-49 and 1864; the gulf of Finland 
by the Allies, 1854; and the ports of the Southern 
States of North America by president Lincoln, April 
19, 1861. See Orders in Council, and Berlin. 


BLOCK BOOKS, see Printing. 


BLOCKS employed in the rigging of ships were 
much improved in their construction by Walter 
Taylor, about 1781. In 1801, Mark I. Brunel in- 
vented a mode of making blocks b machinery, 
which was put into operation in 180 , and in 1815 
was said to have saved the country 20,0007. a year. 


BLOIS, France, the Roman Blesum. The 
count Guy IT. sold it with his domains to Louis 
duke of Orleans in 1391, and eventually it accrued 
to the crown. The states-general were held here 
1576 and 1588, on account of the religious wars; 
and here Henry duke of Guise was assassinated b 
order of the king, Henry III., 23 Dec. 1 588. The 
empress Maria Louisa retired here in 1814. 


BLOOD. The circulation of the blood through 
the lungs was known to Michael Servetus, a Spanish 
physician, in 1553. Czsalpinus published an ac- 
count of the general circulation, of which he had 
Some confused ideas, improved afterwards by 
experiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, or Father 
Paolo (real name Peter Sarpi), discovered the valves 
which serve for the circulation ; but the honour of 
the positive discovery of the circulation belongs to 
William Harvey, between 1619 and 1628. Freind. 
A memorial window in the church at Folkestone, 
his birthplace, was uncovered 9 April, 1874, and a 
statue at the same place, 6 Aug. 1881. 


EatinG Bioop was prohibited to N oah, Gen. ix., to the 
Jews, Lev. xvii., &c., and to the Gentile converts by 
the apostles at an assembly at Jerusalem, a.p. 52} 
Acts xv. 

BuLoop-DRINKING was anciently tried to give vigour to 
the system. Louis XI. in his last illness, drank the 
warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring his 
decayed strength, 1483. Hénault. 

In the 15th century an Opinion prevailed that the de- 
clining vigour of the aged might be repaired by TRANS- 
FUSING into their veins the blood of young persons. 
It was countenanced in France by the physicians 
about 1668, and prevailed for many years, till the most 
fatal effects having ensued, it was suppressed by an 
edict. ‘‘An English physician (Louver, or Lower) 
practised in this way ; he died in 1691.” Freind. It 
was attempted again in France in 1797, and more 
recently there, in a few cases, with suecess; and in 
England (but the instances are rare) since 1823. Tried 
at Philadelphia, U. 8., April, 1877; in London, un- 
successful, 10 May, 1877. 


BLOOD’S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a dis- 
carded officer of Oliver Cromwell’s household, with 
12 


“>” 
- 


’ = 


- ¢ ot 


1 


ate one te NALS TES ——— 


“BLOODY ASSIZES.” 


his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his 


coach, intending to hang him, and had got him to 
T'yburn, when he was rescued by his friends, 6 Dec. 
1670, Blood afterwards, in the disguise of a clergy- 


man, attempted to steal the regal crown. from the | 
Jewel-office in the Tower, 9 May, 1671; yet, not- | 


withstanding these and other offences, he was not 


only pardoned, but hada pension of 500/. per annum. | 


settled on him by Charles II. 1671. He died 24 
Aug. 1680. 


“BLOODY ASSIZES,” held by Jeffreys in 
the west of England, in Aug. 1685, after the defeat 
of the duke of Monmouth in the battle of Sedgmoor. 
Upwards of 300 persons were executed after short 
trials; very many were whipped, imprisoned, and 
fined; and nearly 1000 were sent as slaves to the 
American plantations. 


BLOOMER COSTUME, see a ote to article 


Dress. 


BLOOMSBURY GANG, acant term applied 
to an influential political party in the reign of 
George III., who met at Bloomsbury House, the 
residence of the duke of Bedford. ‘Che marquis of 
Stafford, the last survivor, died 26 Oct. 1803. 

BLOREHEATH (Staffordshire), where, 23 
Sept. 1459, the earl of Salisbury and the Yorkists 
defeated the lLancastrians, whose leader, lord 
Audley, was slain with many Cheshire gentlemen. 
A cross commemorates this conflict. 


BLOWING-MACHINHES, the large cylin- 
ders, used in blowing machines, were grected by 
Mr. Smeaton at the Carron iron works, r760. One 
equal to the supply of air for forty forge fires was 
erected at the king’s dockyard, Woolwich. The 
hot-air blast, a most important improvement, causing 
great economy of fuel, was invented by Mr. James 
B. Neilson, of Glasgow, and patented in 1828. He 
died 18 Jan. 1865. 


BLOW-PIPE. An Egyptian using one is 
among the paintings on the tombs at Thebes. It 
was employed in mineralogy, by Antony Von Swab, 
a Swede, about 1733, and improved by Wollaston 
and others. In 1802, professor Robert Hare, of 
Philadelphia, increased the action of the blow-pipe 
by the application of oxygen and hydrogen. By the 
agency of Newman’s improved blow-pipes, in 1816, 
Dr. E. D. Clarke fused the earths, alkalies, metals, 
&c. A work on the blow-pipe by Plattner and 
Muspratt, published 1854; by G. Plympton, 1874. 


BLUE was the favourite colour of the Scotch 
covenanters in the 17th century. Blue and orange 
or yellow, became the whig colours after the revolu- 
tion in 1688; and were adopted on the cover of the 
whig periodical, the ‘‘Edinburgh Review,’ first 
published in 1802. The Prussian blue dye was dis- 
eovered by Diesbach, at Berlin, in 1710. Fine 
blues are now obtained from coal-tar; see Aniline. 
BLUE-CcOAT SCHOOLS, so called in reference to the 
costume of the children. The Blue-coat school in 
Newgate-street, London, was instituted by Edward 
VI. in 1552; sce Christ’s Hospital. BLUE-STOCKING, 
a term applied to literary ladies, was originally 
conferred on a society comprising both sexes (1760, 
et seq.). Benjamin Stillingfleet, the naturalist, an 
active member, wore blue worsted stockings; hence 
the name. The beautiful Mrs. Jerningham is said 
to have worn blue stockings at the conversaziones of 
Mrs. Montague. Blue Ribbon Army, see Tempe- 
vance, 1882. 

BLUE-BOOKS, reports and other papers 
printed by order of parliament, are so named on ac- 
count of their wrappers; 70 vols were printed for 


116 


wot 


BQOSOTIA, 


the lords, and 76 vols for the commons in | 
The official colour of France is yellow, Spain 
Germany white, Italy green, Portugal white, 


BLUMENAU, Lower Austria; on 22 July, 
the Austrians in possession of this place 
attacked by the Prussians on their march toy 
Vienna, a severe conflict was interrupted by 
news of the armistice agreed to at Nikolsburg | 


| the same evening Austrians and Prussians bivou: 


together. 


BOARD OF ADMIRALTY, Contr 
GREEN-CLOTH, HEALTH, TRADE, &e,. 


| under Admiralty, &c. 


BOATS. Flat-bottomed boats, made in En: 
in the reign of William I.; again brought int 
by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690; see Life- 
A mode of building boats by the help of the st 
engine was invented by Mr. Nathan Thomps 
New York in 1860, and premises were erected f 
application at Bow, near London, in 1861. Cl} 
Clifford’s valuable Boat-lowering apparatus ws 
vented 1856. See Canal-Boats and Life-Boa: 


Boat Voyage. Alfred Johnson, a young man, 
started from America in the Centennial, a boat 
20 feet long, on 15 June, and landed at Aber. 
castle, Pembrokeshire . s i +) mp Aug. 

Two young sailors crossed the Atlantic in the City 
of Bath, a boat 14 feet long: arriving at Fal. 
mouth : ; : : ; ; 24 Aug. 

Mr. Terry formed a boat on the framework of 2 
tricyele, and on it went from London to Dover, 
crossed the Channel to Calais and proceeded t 
Paris : July. 


BOAT-RACES; see Dogget, and Unive 
The London rowing club beat the Atalanta ro 
club in a four-oared race on the Thames, I0. 
1872. Race on the Tyne; championship ot 
world won by Edward Hanlan of Toronto, 3 / 
1882. 


BOCCACCIO’S DECAMERONE, «4 
lection of a hundred stories or novels (many 
immoral), severely satirising the clergy, feign 
have been related in ten days, during the plag 
Florence in 1348. Boccaccio lived 1313-75. A 
of the first edition (that of Valdarfer, in 1471, 
knocked down at the duke of Roxburgh’s 
to the duke of Marlborough, for 2260/., 17 | 
1812. This copy was afterwards sold by p 
auction, for 875 guineas, 5 June, 1819. 


BODLEIAN LIBRARY, Oxford, fou 
in 1598, and opened in 1602, by sir Thos. Bi 
(died, 28 Jan. 1612). It is open to the public 
claims a copy of all works published in this cow 
In 1868, it contained about 250,000 volumes 
1883, 1,250,000 volumes. For rare works and! 
it is said to be second only to the Vatican. 
Macray’s ‘¢ Annals of the Bodleian library,” 
lished 1868. 


BOROTTA, a division of Greece, north of At 
known previously as Aonia, Messapia, Hya 
Ogygia, and Cadmeis. ‘Uhebes, the capital, 
celebrated for the exploits and misfortunes o! 
kings and heroes. The term Beotian was us¢ 
the Athenians as a synonym for dulness; but 
justly,—since Pindar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democt 
Epaminondas, and Corinna, were Beeotians. 
early history and dates are mythical; see Zheb 
Arrival of Cadmus, founder of Cadmea (Hales, 1494 + 

Clinton, 1313) : ait é : . B.C. 
Reign of Polydore . F 4 ; E ‘ 
Labdachus ascends the throne . : ; aN: 
Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, and dethrone 

Laius . “ i : . . : a: 


et d 
hat! 
{% { 
é 
Paes 


BOERS. 


iyth of Gidipus; he kills in an affray his father. 
 Laius: confirming the oracle foretelling his death 
_ by the hands of his son, 1276; resolves the 


 Sphinx’s enigmas. ‘ 1266 
ar of the Seven Captains . 1225 
‘hebes besieged and taken 1213 
‘hersander reigns 1198 ; slain ; ; op eet93 
he Thebans abolish royalty (ages of obscurity 
follow) ; ; : : : ; about 1120 
ae Thebans fight with the Persians against the 
Greeks at Platvea ‘ : : : : Nev ik 
ate Spartans aiding the Thebans defeat the Athe- 
nians near Tanagra : : f : uae 4 SO 
‘utle of Coronea, in which the Thebans defeat the 
Athenians . . : a : : «447 
ie Thebans, under Epaminondas and Pelopidas, 
enrol their Sacred Band, and join Athens against 
‘Sparta F P ; $ : : SRS 77, 
vaminondas defeats the Lacedemonians at 
Leuctra, and restores Thebes to independence 37 
‘lopidas killed at the battle of Cynoscephale =. 364 
yaminondas gains the victory of Mantinea, but is 
‘slain 3 3 i : ‘ ; é : "302 
uilip, king of Macedon, defeats the Thebans and 
Athenians near Chieronea : : : erate E Ns! 
exander destroys Thebes, but spares the house of 
Pindar : : é F é ; ass 
e Beotian confederacy dissolved by the Romans 170 


eotia henceforth partook of the fortunes of 
Greece ; and was conquered by the Turks under a.p. 
Mahomet II. . : : ; : é - 1456 
‘BOKRS, (peasants), aname given to the Dutch 
ttlers, in South Africa; see Zransvaal. 


BOGOTA, SANTA Fk DE, capital of New 
“enada (which see), founded 1538. 


BOGS, probably the remains of forests, covered 
th peat and loose soil. An act for the drainage 
Trish bogs, passed March, 1830. ‘The bog-land of 
land has been estimated at 3,000,000 acres; that 
Scotland at upwards of 2,000,000; and that of 
igland at near 1,000,000 of acres. In Jan. 1849, 
', Rees Reece took out a patent for certain 
luable products from Irish peat. Candles and 
rious other articles produced from peat have been 
ce sold in London. Fuel for railway engines and 
ler purposes was made from peat (April, 1873) ; 
da peat, coal, and charcoal company established. 


Tuch destruction has been caused by the motion of 
§s. Leland (about 1546) speaks of Chat Moss doing 


lischief was done at Enaghmore, Ireland, 3Ja 
{farm houses and fields near Dunmore were 


i» 1873, 
BOGUE FORTS, see China, 1841. 
BOHEMIA, formerly the Hereynian forest 


ylemum, Zacitus), derives its name from the Boii, 
eltic tribe, It was governed by dukes (Borzivoi 
) first, 891), till Ottocar assumed the title of king, 
8. The kings at first held their territory from 
empire: and the crown was elective till it came 
‘the house of Austria, in which it is now here- 
ary. The original Bohemians term themselves 
‘chs, and, following the example of Hungary, 
v call for autonomy. Prague, the capital, is 
\ous for sieges and battles. Population in 1857, 


n. 1853; 
covered, 


525253 im 1870, 5,140,544; sce Prague. For 

iemians, see Gypsies. 

' Czechs (Slavonians) seize Bohemia about 550 
_ of Prague founded ; 795 
oduction of Christianity : . - A 

emia conquered by the emperor Henry III. who 
reads devastation through the country - 104 
‘car (Premislas) I., first king of Bohemia - 1198 


,car IT, rules over Austria, and obtains 
'., 1253 ; refuses the imperial crown 4 . 12 
car vanquished by the emperor Rudolph and 
)prived of Austria, Styria, and Carniola, 1277; 
led at Marchfeld =. 2 ‘ . 26 Aug. 1278 
| John (bind), slain at the battle of Crecy 


Styria, 


+ 1346 


30HN’S LIBRARIES. 


John Huss and Jerome of Prague, two of the first 
reformers, burnt for heresy ; which occasions an 
insurrection : F : : : I4I5, 1416 
| Ziska, leader of the Hussites, takes Prague, 1419 ; 
| dies of the plague epee : } « 1424 
Albert, duke of Austria, marries the daughter of the 

late emperor and king, and receives the crowns of 

Bohemia and Hungary a : Z A oe 2 3977 
The succession infringed by Ladislas, son of thie 

king of Poland, and George Podiebrad, a protes- 

tant chief j ; : : f - 1440-1458 
Ladislas, king of Poland, elected king of Bohemia, 

on the death of Podiebrad : : : Pee Of 
The emperor Ferdinand I. marries Anne, sister of 

Louis the late king, and obtains the crown le fy, 
The emperor Ferdinand IL., oppressing the protes- 

tants, is deposed, and Frederic the elector-pala- 

tine, elected king 5 Sept. 1619 


Frederic, totally defeated at Prague, flees to 
Holland . : 3 : : 9 Noy. 1620 
Bohemia secured to Austria by treaty - 1648 
Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia LTA 
Prague taken by the Prussians ; - 1744 
Prussians defeat Austrians at Prague 6 May, 1757 
tevolt of the peasantry 2 : ; + 1775 
Edict of Toleration promulgated el 7On 
The French occupy Prague . - 1806 


Insurrection at Prague, 12 June; submission, state 

of siege raised d J : 20 July, 1848 
The Prussians enter Bohemia, which becomes the 

seat of war (see Gerinany, 1866) . 24 June, 1866 
Agitation of the Czechs, who require the emperor 

to be crowned king of Bohemia with the crown of 


St. Wenceslas at Prague p autumn, 1867 
Riots at Prague; habeas corpus act suspended, 
to Oct. 1868 
Bohemian agitation for self-government ; addresses 
to the emperor 14 Sept. and 5 Oct. 1870 
Manifesto of the emperor : : 14 Sept. 1871 
Bohemian deputies absent from the reichsrath, 
Decks 
The “ Young Czech ” party defeated in the elections 
July, 1874 
Czech deputies enter reichsrath,  , « 8 Oct. 1879 
KINGS, 
1198. Premislas Ottocar I. 
1230. Wenceslas IIT, 
1253. Premislas Ottoear IT. 
1278.. Wenceslas IV., king of Poland. 


Wenceslas V. 

Rudolph of Austria, 

Henry of Carinthia. 

John of Luxemburg (killed at Crecy). 

Charles I., emperor (1347). 

Wenceslas VI., emperor. 

Sigismund I., emperor. 

Albert of Austria, emperor. 

Ladislas V. 

George von Podiebrad. 

Ladislas VI., king of Hungary (in 1490). 

Louis, king of Hungary (killed at Mohatz). 

Bohemia united to Austria under Ferdinand Te 
elected king. See Germany, emperors. 


BOHEMIAN BRETHREN, a body of 
Christians in Bohemia, appear to have separated 
from the Calixtines (which see), a branch of the 
Hussites in 1467. Dupin says « They rejected the 
sacraments of the church, were governed by simple 
laics, and held the scriptures for their only rule of 
faith. They presented a confession of faith to king 
Ladislas in 1504 to justify themselves from errors 
laid to their charge.” They appear to have had 
communication with the Waldenses, but were dis- 
tinct from them. Luther, in 1533, testifies to their 
purity of doctrine, and Melanchthon commends 
their discipline. They were dispersed during the 
religious wars of Germany in the 17th century. 

BOHN’S LIBRARIES. Mr. H. G. Bohn 
began the publication of his ‘‘ Standard Library ”’ 
in 1846. ‘This was followed by the classical, anti- 
quarian, scientific and illustrated libraries, aboye 
600 volumes. ‘These were bought by Messrs. Bell 


1305. 
1306. 
1307. 
1310. 
1346. 
1378. 
1419. 
1438. 
1440. 
1458. 
1471. 
1516. 
1526. 


BOTTI. 


118 


BOMBAY. 


and Daldy in 1864, who have added 156 volumes, 
1884. Mr. Bohn died 22 Aug. 1884, aged go. 


BOIL, a Celtic people of N. Italy, who emigrated 
into Italy, and were defeated at the Vadimonian 
lake, 283 p.c. They were finally subdued by Scipio 
Nasica, I9I B.C. 


BOILERS, SrrAm. Many lives have been 
lost by their explosions. 23 persons were killed at 
Glasgow iron-works, 5 March, 1879; and 21 killed 
at the Birchill ironworks, near Walsall, 15 May, 
1880. Boilers Explosion Act, 45 & 46 Vict. c, 22, 
passed 12 July, 1882. 


BOILING OF LIQUIDS. Dr. Hooke, about 
1683, ascertained that liquids were not increased in 
heat after they had once begun to boil, and that a 


fierce fire only made them boil more rapidly. The 
following boiling points have been stated :— 

Ether 93° Fahr. | Phosphorus - 554 Kahr. 
Alcohol Ab 4) Oil of turpentine 312 ,, 
Water SFL? Wels. Sulphur Spies ae 
Nitric acid PO ashy Kalen! Mercury Si6O2 "1855 
Sulphuric acid . 600 _—s—=#»» 


BOILING TO DEATH, made a capital 
punishment in England, by stat. 22 Hen. VIII., 
1531 (repealed in 1547). This act was occasioned 
by seventeen persons having been poisoned by 
Richard Rosse, otherwise Coke, the bishop of 
Rochester’s cook, two of whom died. Margaret 
Davy, a young woman, suffered in the same manner 
for a similar crime, 28 March, 1542. Stow. 


BOIS-LE-DUC, Dutch Brabant, the site of a 
battle between the British and the French repub- 
lican army, in which the British were defeated, and 
forced to abandon their position and retreat to 
Schyndel, 14 Sept. 1794. This place was captured 
by the French, 10 Oct. following ; it surrendered 
to the Prussian army, under Bulow, in Jan. 1814. 


BOKHARA, the ancient Sogdiana, after suc- 
cessively forming part of the empires of Persia, of 
Alexander, and Bactriana, was conquered by the 
Turks in the 6th century, by the Chinese in the 7th, 
and by the Arabs about 705. After various changes 
of masters it was subdued by the Uzbek Tartars, its 
present possessors, in 1505. ‘The British envoys, 
colonel Stoddart and captain Conolly, were mur- 
dered at Bokhara, the capital, by the khan, about 
June, 1843. In the war with Russia, begun in 1866, 
the emir’s army was defeated several times in May, 
et seq. Peace was made II July, ie The 
Russians were again victors, 25 May, 13868, and 
occupied Samarcand the next day. Further con- 
quests were made by the Russians, and Samarcand 
was secured by treaty, Nov. 1868. A new political 
and commercial treaty with Russia was published 
Dec. 1873. 


BOLIVIA, a republic in South America, for- 
merly part of Peru, population in 1875, about 
2,000,000; in 1880, 2,325,000. 

The insurrection of the ill-used Indians, headed by 


Tupac Amaru Andres, took place here . 1780-2 
The country declared its independence . 6 Aug. 1824 
Secured by the victory of Ayacucho 10, Der aes 


Took the name of Bolivia, in honour of general 
Bolivar . : : : ; . 11 Aug. 1825 

First congress met . : ; 25 May, 1826 

General Sucre governed ably . 1826-8 


Slavery abolished . . 1836 
Santa Cruz ruled - 1828-39 
Gen. Velasco, president. - 9 Feb. 1839 
José Ballivian, president . in 1841 
Gen. Belzu : . until 1855 
Free-trade proclaimed ; - 1853 
General Cordova, president . ; 1855-7 


Succeeded by the dictator José Maria Linares 
31 March, 1859 


George Cordova, constitutional president. 
Succeeded by José M. de Acha - - May 
General Melgarejo defeats the troops of presiden 
De Acha. 4 3 . c ; - °28 Dec 
Becomes dictator of the republic : . Feb 
Puts down an insurrection under Belzu. March 
Totally defeats Arguedas at Viacha and publishe 


an amnesty . : 24 Jal 
Suppresses a revolt - 17 Oct 
Proclaims an amnesty 21 Dec 


Civil war . : : , : : nd 
The president, A. Morales, 1871 ; said to have bee: 


murdered é l Jan 
President, Dr. Tomas Frias 14 Feb 
Corral’s insurrection suppressed . . Sept 


General Hilarion Daza, president : . 4 May 
Bolivia joins Peru in war against Chili, (see Chil) 
April 

Revolution ; Daza deposed ; flees ; Campero pres: 
dent 5 5 . c : - xrdune 
Peace with Chili ; conditions finally settled . Dec 


BOLLANDISTS, see Acta Sanctorum. 
BOLOGNA (central Italy) the ancient 


sina, afterwards Bononia, a city distinguish 
its architecture, made a Roman colony, 189 B.« 


A university said to have been founded by Thec 
dosius, about 433 ; really in . E 4 x 
Bologna joins the Lombard League : : 
Pope Julius II. takes Bologna ; enters in triump 
ir No\ 
It becomes part of the states of the Church 
In the church of St. Petronius, remarkable for it 
pavement, Cassini drew his meridian line (ove 
one drawn by Father Ignatius Dante in 1575) 
Bologna was taken by the French, 1796; by th 
Austrians, 1799; again by the French, after th 
battle of Marengo, in 1800; and restored to th 
pope in : : : 3 : - - p 
A revolt suppressed by Austrian interference . 
Rebellion, 1848 ; taken by Austrians 16 May 
The Austrians evacuate Bologna: and cardinal Fe: 
retti departs: the citizens rise and form a pr 
visional government. . A \ . 12 June 
Which decrees that all public acts shall be heade 
“‘ Under the reign of king Victor Emmanuel,” & 
r Oc 
. 2 Ma) 


BOLOMETER (Greek 4o/os, a throw or 
an electrical instrument, invented by prof. 
Langley, who also terms it an ‘‘ actinic bale 
It is much more sensitive to radiant heat th: 
thermopile (Vatwre, 3 Nov. 1881). 


BOLTON, Lancashire, was stormed by | 
Rupert, 1644. It was an early seat of the | 
manufacture. Cotton velvets were made h 
1756, and muslins in 1782. Temple Opera- 
burned 16 April, 1882. Bayley’s cotton 
burned, several persons killed, and many inj 
about 60,000/. worth damaged, 16 Aug. 1882. 


BOMARSUND, astrong fortress on one 
Aland isles in the Baltic sea, taken by sir C 
Napier, commander of the Baltic expedition, 
by the French military contingent under g 
Baraguay d’Hilliers, 15 Aug. 1854. The go 
Bodisco, and the garrison, about 2000 men, b 
prisoners. The fortifications were destroyed. 


BOMBAY, the most westerly and small 
our Indian presidencies, was visited by the | 
guese in 1509, and acquired by them in 153 
was given (with Tangier in Africa, and 300,06 
money) to Charles II. as the marriage portion 
infanta Catherine of Portugal, 1662. In 16 
was granted to the East India company, wh 
long desired it, ‘‘in free and common socag' 
cf the manor of East Greenwich, at an annua 
of 107. Confirmed by William III. 1689. 
two principal castes at Bombay are the P 
(descendants of the ancient Persian fire-wo 


He enters Bologna as sovereign: . 


; 
1 4 
a em 


BOMBS. 


1 Fa ee 


rs) and the Borahs (sprung from early converts 
Islamism). They are both remarkable for com- 
ercial activity. 

st British factory established at Ahmednuggur . 
. Gyfford, deputy-governor, roo soldiers, and 
‘other 


1612 


English erish through the climate, 
mee ~ Oct. 1675—Feb. 1676 
ptain Keigwin usurps the government . 1681-84 
mbay made chief over the company’s settlements 1687 
-e whole island, except the fort, seized and held 
‘or a time by the mogul’s admiral. : - 1690 
mbay becomes a distinct presidency oP 4e a RIOD 
ditions to the Bombay territory :—Bancot river, 
1756 ; island of Salsette , : - 1975 
shopric established . : ese TO3 7 
rd Elphinstone governor. ; 4 > pose 
pulation of the presidency, 12,034,483. eitLO5S 
e benevolent sir Jamsetjee J ejeebhoy, a Parsee 


who erected several hospitals, &c.), dies15 April, 18 59 
S$ son sir Cursetjee, visits England . “ - 1860 


G. R. Clerk, governor . 4 : 3 ae He 
ting against the income-tax suppressed Nov. Dec. 
Henry Bartle Frere, governor . March, 
2atly increased prosperity through the cotton 
rade, leads to immense speculation. Nov. 
ported failure of Mr. Byramjee Cama, a Parsee, 
oF 3,300,001. ; other failures, and great depres- 
ion ; the projected international exhibition in 


1862 
1864 


867 abandoned hs - May, 1865 
2overing from commercial crisis . ANT Ue 2s 


. (after sir) W. R. Seymour Fitzgerald, appointed 
overnor, Noy. 1866; arrived . 28 Feb. 
ld a durbar of native princes, at Poona. 6 Oct. 
und reception of the duke of Edinburgh, rr March, 
Philip Wodehouse, governor 5 April, 
ots : Mahometans attack Parsees for publishing 
art of Washington Irving’s “ Life of Mahomet at 
ives lost and property destroyed . x 3-15 Feb. 
iprits punished by the British . : c bi 
2 Prince of Wales warmly received, 8 Noy. 1875 ; 
ailed from here forhome . . 13 March, 
eting of loyal Mahometans to petition the queen 
1 favour of the Sultan pi : F 24S8ept. ,, 
adful famine, relieved by government and 
y British subscriptions d : 2 . 
tue of the prince of Wales (given by sir Albert 
assoon), uncovered ; 26 or 27 June, 
James Fergusson nominated governor ~ . Feb. 
iatriotic fund to relieve sufferers by Afghan war, 
berally subscribed to by natives and others, Aug. 
versons drowned in the great tank . 17 April, 
d Reay appointed governor 4 - Dec, 1884 
‘ive troops sail for the Soudan . f 23 Feb. 1885 
30MBS (iron shells filled: with gunpowder), 
1 to have been invented at Venlo, in 1495, and 
d by the Turks at the siege of Rhodes in 1 a2) 
>y came into general use in 1634, having been 
viously used only by the Dutch’ and Spaniards, 
nb-vessels were invented in France in 1681. 
‘taive. The shrapnel shell (invented by colonel 
me Shrapnel, who died in 1 42) is a bomb filled 
h balls, and a lighted fuse to make it explode 
re it reaches the enemy. 


3ONA, Algeria; an early station of the French 


ican company, till 1789. It was taken by the 
nch from the Arabs, 6 May, 1832. 


3ONAPARTE, or BUONAPARTE, 
MILY. The name appears at Florence and 
oa in the 13th century; in the 1 5th a branch 
led in Corsica. See Table in Vincent's « Dic- 
ary of Biography.” 


RLES BONAPARTE, born 


1867 
1868 
1870 
1872 


1874 


> 


1876 


1877 


1879 
1880 


bed 


1883 


TE, | 29 March, 1746, died 24 Feb., 
85. He married in 1767, Letitia Ramolina (born 
Aug., 1750, died Feb. 1836) ; ISSUE, 
OSEPH, born 7 Jan. 1768, made king of Two Sicilies, 
05; Of Naples alone, 1806 : of Spain, 1808 ; resides 
United States, 1815; comes to England, 1832; 
ttles in Italy, 1841 ; dies at Florence, 28 July, 1844. 
APOLEON I., emperor, born 15 Aug. 1769 (see France.) 
UCIEN, prince of Canino, born 1775; at first aided 
’ brother Napoleon, but opposed his progress towards 
iversal monarchy. He was taken by the English on 
s way to America, and resided in England till 18r4. 


BOOK. 


He died at Viterbo, 30 June, 1840. His son Charles 
(born 1803, died 1857) was an eminent naturalist. 

4. Louis, born 2 Sept. 1778 ; made king of Holland, 1806; 
died 15 July, 1846. By his marriage with Hortense 
Beauharnais (daughter of the empress Josephine), in 
1802, he had three sons: 1. Napoleon Louis (born 1803, 


died 1807) ; 2. Louis Napoleon (born 1804, died 1831) ; 
and 


3- CHARLES-LovIs-NAPOLEON, born 20 April, 1808; 
educated under the care of his mother at Aremberg, 
Switzerland, and at Thun, under general Dufour ; 
took part in the Carbonari insurrection in the Papal 
States in March, 1831 

Attempted a revolt at Strasbourg, 30 Oct. 1836. 

Sent to America, 13 Nov. 1836. 

Repairs to London, 14 Oct. 1838. 

Lands at Boulogne with fifty followers, 6 Aug. 1840. 

Condemned to imprisonment for life, 6 Oct. 1840. 

Escapes from Ham, 25 May, 1846. 

Arrives at Boulogne, 2 March, 1848. 

Elected deputy, 8 June; and takes his seat, 27 Aug. ; 

see France 1848-71: died at Chislehurst, 9 Jan. 1873. 

Son: Napoleon Eugene Louis Jean J oseph ; born 
16 March, 1856; educated at military academy, 
Woolwich ; killed in Zululand, June 1, 1879. 

. JEROME, born 15 Noy. 1784; king of Westphalia, 
1 Dec. 1807-1814; (married: I. Elizabeth Paterson, in 
America, 24 Dec. 1803; son J erome, born at Camber- 
well, London, 7 July, 180s (she died, aged 94, 4 April, 
1879). II. Princess Catherine, of Wirtemberg, r2 Aug. 
t807.] Made governor of the Invalides, 1848; and 
marshal, 1850 ; died 24 June, 1860; his children— 

Mathilde, born 27 May, 1820; married to prince 
A. Demidoff in 1841. 

Napoleon, born 9 Sept. 1822; married princess Clo- 
tilde of Savoy, 30 Jan. 18 59: issue, Victor, born 18 
July, 1862; Louis, born 16 July, 1864; Marie, born 
20 Dec. 1866; princeVictor separates from his father ; 
accepted as chief by the Bonapartists ; the father 
publishes painful correspondence. J une, 1834. 


BONDAGE, sce Vitlanage. 


BONES. The art of softening bones was dis- 
covered about 1688, and they were used in the 
cutlery manufacture, &c., immediately afterwards. 
The declared value of the bones of cattle and of 
other animals, and of fish (exclusive of whale-fins) 
imported into the United Kingdom from Russia, 
Prussia, Holland, Denmark, &c., amounted to 
363,6137. in 1851, to 659,416. in 1871, to 741,899/. 
in 1877, and_to 617,748/. in 1883. Bone-dust has 
been extensively employed in manure since the 
publication of Liebig’s researches in 1840. 


BONE-SETTING cannot be said to have 
been practised scientifically until 1620. Bell. 


BONN, atown on the Rhine (the Roman Bonna), 
was in the electorate of Cologne. It has been 
frequently besieged, and was assigned to Prussia 
in 1814. The academy founded by the elector in 
1777, made a university, 1784; abolished by Napo- 
leon; re-established and enlarged, 1818. -Here 
Albert, our late prince consort, was entered as a 
student, May, 1837. 


BONNY RIVER, Guinea, West Africa; a 
seat of the palm oil trade; king George visited 
England in 1878. A Sanguinary battle was fought 
between the king Oko Jumbo and the people of 
New Calabar, who were defeated, April, 1882. Peace 
made by British intervention on Aug. 14, 1882. “ 


BONS HOMMES, hermits of simple and 
gentle lives, appeared in France about 1257; in 
England about 1283. The prior of the order was 
called le bon homme by Louis VI. 


BOOK (Anglo-Saxon, doc ; German, buch). 
Books were originally made of boards, or the inner 
bark of trees: afterwards of skins and parchment. 
Papyrus, an indigenous plant, was adopted in 
Egypt. Books with leaves of vellum were invented 
by teats king of Pergamus, about 198 B.C., at 


un 


BOOKS. 

which time books were in volumes or rolls. The 

MSS. in Herculaneum consist of papyrus, rolled 

and charred and matted together by the fire, and 

are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three 
inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. 

The most ancient books are the Pentateuch of Moses 

and the poems of Homer and Hesiod. The first 

Printep Books (see Printing) were printed on one 

side only, the leayes being pasted back to back. See 

Libraries. 

Books of astronomy and geometry were ordered to 
be destroyed in England as being infected with 
magic, 6 Edw. VI. Stow. 2 i 3 2 : 

Anne’s act, 1709, relating to the price of books, 


repealed E ‘ : A : : PRO GUE 
2032 volumes of new works, and 773 of new editions, 
were published in London in é : : . 1839 
3359 new works, and 1159 new editions, and go8 
pamphlets, were published in . ‘ i 2 eko52 
3553 volumes were published in . 1864 
Published in Great Britain :— 
‘ New New New New 
Works. Editions. Works. Editions. 
1870 4775 1878 3730 1584 
1871 3547 1288 1879 4204 1540 
1872 3419 II0o 1880 4293 I4I5 
1874 3351 961 1881 4110 1296 
1875 3573 1331 1882 3978 1146 
T8708 (2O3z 1957 1383 4732 I4I3 
TO77 wes) 3049 2046 1884 . 4832 1541 


The production of a Universal Catalogue of books 
printed in the United Kingdom, proposed by the 
society of Arts, in the Journal rz April, 1879 

In Paris, 6445 volumes were published in 1842 ; and 
7350in 1851. See Bibliography. 

PRIcEsS oF Booxs.—Jerome (who died 420) states that 
he had ruined himself by buying a copy of the works of 
Origen. <A large estate was given by Alfred for a book 
on cosmography, about 872. The Roman dela Rose was 
sold for about 30l. ; and a homily was exchanged for 
zoo sheep and five quarters of wheat. Books frequently 
fetched double or treble their weight in gold. They sold 
at prices varying from rol. to gol, each in 1400. A copy 
of Macklin’s Bible, ornamented by Mr. Tomkins, was 
declared worth 500 guineas. Butler. A yet more superb 
copy was insured in a London office for 3000]. See 
Boecaccio’s Decanerone. 

Petraca by Bernardino di Novara, 1488, at the Sun- 
derland sale bought by B. Quaritch for 195o0l., 11 
Nov. 1882; he gave for sir John Thorold’s Mazarin 
bible, 3900l. 13 Dec.; and his ‘‘Psalmorum Codex,” 
49501. ; : : ; ; : We EO Me. 

Boox-Brnpinc.—The book of St. Cuthbert, a very 
early ornamental book, is supposed to have been 
bound about . : ; c : : : 4 

A Latin Psalter was bound in oak boards, oth 

century. 

AMS. copy of the four Mvyangelists, the book on 
which our kings from Henry I. to Edward VI. 
took their coronation oath, was bound in oaken 
boards, nearly an inch thick . : cae 

Velvet was the covering in the r4th century ; and 
silk soon after. Vellum was introduced early in 
the x5th century; it was stamped and orna- 
mented about : : : : 

Leather came into use about the same time. 

The rolling machine, invented by Mr. Wm. Burr, 
was substituted for the beating-hammer, and gas 
stoves began to take the place of the charcoal 
fires used to heat the gilder’s finishing tools, 

about 

Cloth binding superseded the common boards 
generally about . ; : : : 4 Tie 

Caoutchouce or India-rubber backs to account-books 
and large volumes were introduced in . 4 : 

CHeap Booxs.—Mrs. Brassey’s ‘‘ Voyage of the 
Sunbeam,” Nov. 1881, published for sixpence ; 
and Martin’s ‘ Life of the Prince Consort,” for 
2s. 6d... ‘ . ; : . Autumn 

Boox-Hawkine Socretres (already in Scotland) 
begun in England in 1851 by archdeacon Wigram 
(afterwards bishop of Rochester). The hawkers 
vend moral and religious books in a similar man- 
ner to the French colporteurs. 


1884 


650 


II00 


I5I0 


1830 
1831 
1841 


1881 


Ce ooo re oe ee ene 


120 


BORAX. 

BOOK-KEEPING. The system by 
entry, called criginally Italian book-keepin 
taken from the course of algebra publish 
Burgo, in the 15th century, at Venice. 
Gowghe, a printer, published a treatise ‘. 
kepyng of the famouse reconynge . - 
and Creditor,’ London, 1543. ‘This is our « 
work on book-keeping. James Peele publis! 
Book-keeping in 1569. John Mellis publish 
Briefe Instruction and Manner how to Keepe. 
of Accompts,” in 1588. Improved system 
published by Benjamin Booth in 1789 and by 
Thos. Jones in 1821 and 1831. 


BOOK OF COMMON PRAYEI 


Common Prayer. 


BOOK OF SPORTS, see Sports. 
BOOK POST, see Post. 
BOOK SOCIETY, 28, Paternoster-ro 


tablished for the gratuitous distribution of 
and good books, 1750. 


BOOKS, National, Coloured. See unde 
Books. 


BOOKSELLERS, at first migrator 
hawkers, became known as stationarii, fror 
practice of having booths or stalls at the cor 
streets and in markets. They were long sul 
vexatious restrictions, from which they wer 
in 1758. 

The earliest bookseller’s catalogue is said to 
published by Andrew Maunsell, of Lothbury, de 
to Queen Elizabeth, 1595. 

** Booksellers’ Provident Institution” founde: 
“‘Retreat”’ Abbot’s Langley, Herts, 1843. 

The Bookseller, a monthly newspaper of Brit 
foreign literature, published in 1858 ; with it wa 
porated Bent’s Literary Advertiser, established in 


BOOKSELLERS’ ASSOCIATION 
chief publishers in London formed themsely 
an association and fixed the amount of disc 
be allowed, 29 Dec. 1829, and for some ye 
stricted the retail booksellers from selling ec 
works under the full publishing price. A+ 
arose as to the right of the latter to dispose 0 
which had become theirs by purchase, at su 
profit as they might deem sufficiently remune 
The dispute was referred to lord chief js 
bell, at Stratheden House, 14 April, 1852 
lordship gave judgment against the assoc 
which led to its dissolution, 19 May followin; 


BOOTHIA FELIX, a large peninsula 
point of America, discovered by sir John } 
1830, and named after sir Felix Booth, wl 
presented him with 20,000/. to fit out hi 
expedition. Sir Felix died at Brighton in Fet 


BOOTS, said to have been the inyention 
Carians, were mentioned by Homer, 907 B.« 
frequently by the Roman historians. A vai 
forms may be seen in Fairholt’s “ Costume ii 
land.’ An instrument of torture termed 
boot’’ was used in Scotland upon the covet 
about 1666. 


BORAX (Boron), known to the ancient: 
in soldering, brazing, and casting gold an 
metals, was called chrysocolla. Borax is pr 
naturally in the mountains of Thibet, an 
brought to Europe from India about 1713. 
berg in 1702 discovered in borax boracie acid, 
latter in 1808 was decomposed by Gay-1 
Thénard, and H. Davy, into oxygen and tl 
viously unknown element, doron. Borax ha 


7% 


a 


“eit . 


BORDEAUX. 


n found in Saxony. It is now largely manu- 
ured from the boracie acid found by Heefer to 
st in the gas arising from certain lagoons in 
eany; and an immense fortune has been made 
heir owner M. Lardarel since 1818. 


;ORDEAUX (W. France), the Roman Bur- 
lla, in Aquitania, was taken by the Goths, 412 ; 
Clovis, 508. It was gained by Henry II. onhis 
riage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, 1151. Mdward 
Black Prince brought John, king of France, 
‘ive to this city after the battle of Poictiers, 
Sept. 1356, and here held his court eleven 
rs: his son, our Richard II., was born at Bor- 
ax, 1366. After several changes Bordeaux finally 
‘endered to Charles VII. of France, 14 Oct. 1453. 
fine equestrian statue of Louis XV. was erected 
743. Bordeaux was entered by the victorious 
ish army after the battle of Orthes, fought 
Feb. 1814.—13 vessels were burnt and others 
ired in the port, through the ignition and 
losion of petroleum spirit, 28 Sept. 1869. The 
nch delegate government and the represen- 
ves of foreign powersremoved here from Tours, 
Dec. 1870. M. Gambetta remained for a time 
1 the army of the Loire. By the ‘‘ pacte de 
deaux,’’ between the different parties of the 
onal assembly, M. Thiers became chief of the 
sutive power, 17 Feb. 1871. ‘The French Asso- 
ion for the Advancement of Science held its 
Bier here, 5 Sept. 1872; M. Quatrefages, 
ident. 


,ORNEO, an island:in the Indian Ocean, the 
est In the world except Australia, was dis- 
red by the Portuguese about 1518. 


Dutch trade here in 1604 ; establish factories, . 
og; abandon them, 1623; re-establish them . 1776 
wee settled by sir James Brooke ; appointed 
jah . 3 : : E Fi , ‘ ales 
pirates of Borneo chastised by the British in 
13, and by captain Keppel in March, 
a treaty with the sultan, through the instru- 
entality of sir J. Brooke, the island of Labooan, 
Labuan (N. W. of Borneo), and its dependen- 
2s, incorporated with the British empire, and 
rmally taken possession of in presence of the 
wrnean chiefs . : “ } Z 1 2 Dec. 
es Brooke, rajah of Sarawak (1846), governor of 
vbuan and consul-general of Borneo, visits 
agland and receives many honours . Oct. 
lestroys many of the Bornean pirates . nafs 
uan made a bishopric ; the bishop (F. J. Mac- 
ougall) consecrated at Calcutta, the first English 
shop consecrated out of England 18 Oct. 
Chinese in Sarawak rise in insurrection and 
assacre a number of Europeans ; sir J. Brooke 
capes by swimming across a creek ; he speedily 
turns with a force of Malays, &c., and chas- 
ses the insurgents, of whom 2000 are killed, 
17, 18 Feb. 
comes to England to seek help from the govern- 
ent, without success 3 . 5 : a 
health being broken up, an appeal for a sub- 
ription for him made. 7 - z he 
utation of merchants waits on the earl of Derby 
commending the purchase of Sarawak, which 


1841 


1843 


declined q A o Noy. 
J. Brooke returns to Borneo . : Z Noy. 1860 
arned to England ; died ir June, 1868 


rajah of Sarawak, with an expedition of Malays 
id Dyaks, defeats and punishes a marauding 
‘capitating tribe of Dyaks é . June, 
ish North Borneo Company gazetted, 8 N ov. : 
reatened protest of Spanish government N ov. 
ting of Committee in London as OCt. 
dom of trade in the Archipelago settled by 
eat Britain, Germany, and Spain, 1877; further 
th Spain . a aie . 1884 


ORNOU, an extensive kingdom in central 
ca, explored by Denham and Clapperton (sent 


121 


BOSNTA. 


out by the British government), in 1822. The 
population is estimated by Denham at 5,000,000, 
by Barth at 9,000,000. 


BORODINO, a Russian village on the river 
Moskwa, near which asanguinary battle was fought, 
7 Sept. 1812, between the French under Napoleon, 
and the Russians under Kutusoff; 240,000 men 
being engaged. Lach party claimed the victory; 
but the Russians retreated, leaving Moscow, which 
the French entered, 14 Sept.; see dloscow. 


BORON, see Borax. 
BOROUGH. or Buren, anciently a company 


of ten families living together, now such towns as 
send members to parliament, since the election of 
burgesses in the reign of Henry III.1265. Charters 
were granted to towns by Henry I. 1132; which 
were remodelled by Charles II. in 1682-4, but re- 
stored in 1688. 22 new English boroughs were 
created in 1553. Burgesses were first admitted into 
the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326; and 
into the Irish, 1365. Acts to amend the Represen- 
tation of the People in England and Wales passed 
7 June, 1832, and 15 Aug. 1867; and the Act for 
the Regulation of Municipal Corporations, 9 Sept. 
1835; see Constituency. 


BOROUGH-BRIDGE (W.R.of York). Here 
Edward II. defeated the earls of Hereford and Lan- 
caster, 16 March, 1322. Lancaster was mounted on 
a lean horse, led to an eminence near Pontefract, 
and beheaded. 


BOROUGH-ENGLISH, an ancient tenure 
by which the younger son inherits, is mentioned as 
occurring 834. It was abolished in Scotland by 
Malcolm III. in 1062. 


BOSCOBEL, near Donington, Shropshire. 
Charles II. (after his defeat at Worcester, 3 Sept. 
1651), disguised in the clothes of the Pendrills, 
remained from 4 to 6 Sept. at White Ladies; on 
7 and 8 Sept. he lay at Boscobel house, near which 
exists an oak, said to be the scion of the Royal Oak 
in which the king was part of the time hidden with 
col. Careless. Sharpe. The ‘Boscobel Tracts” 
were first published in 1660. In 1861 Mr. F. Man- 
ning published ‘ Views,”’ illustrating these tracts. 
W. H. Ainsworth’s ‘ Boscobel,” a story with 
authentic details, published 1872. 


BOSNIA, in European Turkey formerly part of 
Pannonia, was governed by chiefs tilla brother-in- 
law of Louis king of Hungary was made king, 1376. 
He was defeated by the Turks in 1389, and became 
their vassal. Bosnia was incorporated with Turkey 
in 1463. Many efforts have been made by the 
Bosnians to recover their independence. A re- 
bellion, begun in 1849, was quelled by Omar Pasha 
in 1851. ‘The Bosnians joined the insurgents in 
Herzegovina, Sept. 1875; revolt was subdued, Aug. ° 


1877. See Turkey. 
About 100,000 Bosnian fugitives said to be in 
Austrian territories 3 : July, 1878 
Proclamation of the emperor before his troops enter 
Bosnia (in conformity with the treaty of Berlin, 
w3July) . : . P . If 27 July, ,, 
Advance of the Austrians, 29 July, vigorously re- 
sisted by the Bosnian begs, aided by Turks 
4-6 Aug. +5; 
The Bosnians defeated between Zepce and Maglai, 
8 Auge: f 


’ 
The Austrians oceupy Travnik, the old capital, rr 
Aug. ; slightly repulsed, : 4 16 Aug. 
Victories of Philippovich at Han Belalovich, 16 
Aug. ; of Tegethoff 5 ; - x18 Ang. 
Serajevo, the capital, bombarded and taken by storm 
1g Aug. ; other successes . 30 Aug., 5 Sept. 


~ ” 


¥ ‘Oe 
or] ‘ d on 
; A _* 
‘O ‘<2 “ae If, - 
. a ort 1 
we; 


BOTTLE-CONJURER. | 


BOSPHORUS. 122 
The fortress Trebinje voluntarily surrenders British grenadier guards’ band 3 a day allotted 
7 Sept. 1878 each nation 5 £ 17 June—4 Ju 
Behacs firmly resists, 10 Sept. ; taken 19 Sept. ,, Tremendous fire ; great loss of life and propert 


Senkovies, a strong fortress, with arms and ammu- 
nition, taken ‘ i : - 21 Sept. ,, 
Zwornik, a stronghold, surrenders about 25 Sept. ,, 
Livno bombarded and taken 28 Sept. ,, 
Other places surrender about 12 Oct. ,, 
Resistance ended ; general amnesty issued 
about 9 Nov. ,, 
Austrian loss estimated sooo killed, wounded, 
missing : a 3 ‘ ; F ee OV ass 
The country settled, gradual political reforms Jan. 1880 
Population, 1,142,147; announced . Re bans 


BOSPHORUS, THRACcIAN (now Channel of 
Constantinople). Darius Hystaspes threw a bridge 
of boats over this strait when about to invade 
Greece, 493 B.c. See Constantinople. 


BOSPORUS (improperly BOSPHORUS), now 
called Circassia, near the Bosphorus Cimmerius, 
the straits of Kertch or Yenikalé. The history of 
the kingdom is involved in obscurity. It was 
named Cimmerian, from the Cémmeri, who dwelt 
on its borders, about 750 B.C. 


The Archeenactide from Mitylene rule. 
They are dispossessed by Spartacus I. 438 
Seleucus, 431 ; Satyrus I. ‘ : : ema Or 
Leucon, 393; Spartacus II., 353; Parysades . BAS 
Eumelus, aiming to dethrone his brother Saty- 

rus II., is defeated ; but Satyrus is killed is 
Prytanis, his next brother, ascends the throne, but 

is murdered by Eumelus : : ; ; : 
Eumelus puts to death all his relations, 309 ; andis 

killed . ; : : 8 . = . 304 
The Scythians conquer Bosporus’ . . ; e285 
Mithridates VI., of Pontus, conquers Bosporus. . 80 
He poisons himself ; and the Romans make his son, 


- B.C. 502-480 


310 


399 


Pharnaces, king . d : : . ; MOS 
Battle of Zela, gained by Julius Cesar over Phar- 

naces II. (Cvesar writes home, Veni, vidi, vici, ‘<I 

came, I saw, I conquered”) . - ns Fe Per yy, 
Asander usurps the crown : A p : 3 a 
Cesar makes Mithridates of Pergamus king ot fe + 


Polemon conquers Bosporus, and favoured by 
Agrippa, reigns. : t : : : : 

Polemon killed by barbarians of the Palus Meeotis a.D. 33 

Polemon IT. reigns 5 : citi 


> - ”? 

Mithridates II. reigns . - » . : ay 

Mithridates conducted a prisoner to Rome, by 
order of Claudius ; Cotys I. king . : vows 

A list of kings given by some writers ends with 
Sauromates VII. . é R ; s Ace! 


BOSTON, Lincolnshire ; a trading town, made 
a staple for wool, 1357; St. Botolph’s church with a 
lofty tower, was erected about 1309. 


BOSTON, Massachusetts, United States, built 
about 1627. Here originated that resistance to the 
British authorities which led to American inde- 
pendence. The act of parliament laying duties on 
tea, papers, colours, &c. (passed June, 1767) so 
excited the indignation of the citizens of Boston, 
that they destroyed several hundreds of chests of 
tea, Dec. 1773. 


** Boston News Letter,” first American newspaper, 
appeared : : : : : . 24 April, 
Boston seaport shut by the English parliament, 
until restitution should be made to the Hast 
India Company for the tea lost . 25 March, 
The town besieged by the Americans, and 400 
houses destroyed : : - é 3 sie 
Battle of Bunker’s Hill, between the royalists and 
independent troops; the latter defeated, 
17 ‘JUNC, 
The city evacuated by the king’s troops April, 1776 
Industrial exhibition opened é ; - Oct. 1856 
Great peace jubilee ; concert of about 10,371 voices 
and 1094 instruments, with anvils, bells, &c., 
begun : - : : ; . 15 June, 
International peace jubilee ; chorus about 20,000 ; 
orchestra, 1000; with military bands and other 
performers of different nations, including the 


1704 


1774 
1775 


1869 


about 80 acres of buildings burnt; 959 hou 
(125 dwellings) ; 35 persons killed . 9, ro, 11 Ny 
Another great fire; with loss of life and prope 
30 Mz 


BOSWORTH FIELD, Leicestershi, 
site of the thirteenth and last battle betwe 
houses of York and Lancaster, 22 Aug. 1485 
Richard III. was defeated by the earl of Ric! 
afterwards Henry VII., and slain, throu; 
desertion of sir Wm. Stanley. It is sa: 
Henry was crowned on the spot with the ¢: 
Richard found in a hawthorn bush near the 


BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the | 
of the science (about 347 B.c.). Historia Pla 
of Theophrastus was written about 320B.c. 
on botany became numerous at the close of t! 
century. Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Cesalpin 
others, wrote between 1535 and 1600. The 
and arrangement of the great Linnzus wa 
known about 1735; and Jussieu’s system, f 
on Tournefort’s, and called ‘‘the natural sj 
in 1758. At Linnzeus’s death, 1778, the sp 
plants actually described amounted in nun 
11,800. The number of species now recorded 
fall short of 100,000. J. C. Loudon’s * E: 
pedia of Plants,’’ a most comprehensive wo 
appeared in 1829. De Candolle’s ‘Pro 
Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis” (of 
Vol. I. appeared in 1818), was completed i 
An International Botanical congress was 0 
London, 23 May, 1866, professor A. De 
president; another at Amsterdam, 13 Apri 
Robert Brown, who accompanied Flinders 
survey of New Holland in 1803, died Ic 
1858, aged 85, was long acknowledged to 
chief of the botanists of his day (facile prin 


BOTANIC GARDENS, 


Established about Establish 
Padua ; . . 1545 | Kew, 1760; greatly’ 
Montpellier + £555 proved oa 
Leyden . - 1577 | Cambridge . 
Leipsic ; : . 1580 | Coimbra. ae 
Paris (Jardin des St. Petersburg . 

Plantes) . » 1624 | Calcutta. é 

Jena - 1629 } Dublin ‘ : 
Oxford . . 1632 | Horticultural Socie 
Upsal. : : . 1657 Chiswick ; 
Chelsea . : . 1673-86 | Royal Botanic Socie 
Edinburgh . - 1680 Regent’s Park. 
Vienna . . 1753 | Royal Horticultu 
Madrid - 2755 Society’s, 8. Ke 


sington A 4 


BOTANY BAY, Australia, discover 
captain Cook, 28 April, 1770, received it 
from the great variety of plants growing 
shore. It was fixed on for a colony of ¢ 
from Great Britain. The first governor, | 
Arthur Phillip, who sailed from England i 
1787, arrived at the settlement in Jan. 1788 
colony was eventually established at Port J 
about thirteen miles to the north of the bs 
New South Wales, and Transportation. 


BOTHWELL BRIDGE, Lanarkshix 
Scotch covenanters, who took up arms agai 
intolerant government of Charles II., and d 
the celebrated Claverhouse at Drumelog, 1 
1679, were totally routed by the earl of Mor 
at Bothwell Bridge, 22 June, 1679, and ma 
soners were tortured and executed. 


BOTTLE-CONJURER. Inaccordan 
a wager, a person having advertised that he 
jump into a quart bottle at the Haymarket t 
on 16 Jan. 1749, the house was densely ¢ 


be! 


4 
f 
a 
«, 
4 


BOTTLES. 


“besieged by thousands anxious to gain ad- 
ance. The pickpockets hada rich harvest, and 
duped crowd nearly pulled down the edifice. 


OTTLES in ancient times were made of 
her, ‘The art of making glass bottles and 
king-glasses was known to the Romans at least 
re 79; for these articles and other vessels have 
: found in the ruins of Pompeii. Bottles were 
ein England about 1558. A bottle which con- 
ed two hogsheads was blown, we are told, at 
h, in Scotland, in Jan. 1747-8; see Glass. 


OUILLON, Belgium, formerly a duchy, was 
by Godfrey its ruler, to Albert, bishop of Liége, 
btain funds for the crusade, 1095. It was 
:d by the French in 1672, and held by them till 
, when it was given to the king of the Nether- 
s, as duke of Luxemburg. It was awarded to 
‘ium afterthe Revolution of 1830. 


OULEVARDS (Bulwarks), sites of old 
fications in Paris and other French towns, now 
ted with rows of trees, The practice has been 
ted in some London suburban roads, 1875, 
7. See Playground. 


QULOGNE, a seaport in Picardy, N. France, 
dto Burgundy, 1435; to France, 1447. Here 
ry VIII. and Francis I. concluded a treaty to 
se the Turks, 28 Oct. 1532. Boulogne was 
‘ged by Henry VII. 2 Oct. 1492, for a few days; 
a by Henry VIII. on 14 Sept. 1544, but restored 
sum of money, I550. 


Nelson attacked a flotilla here, disabling ten 
sels and sinking five é - Be reche Ui teat 
ther attempt he was repulsed with great loss, 
| captain Parker of the Medusa and two-thirds 
ais crew were killed ¢ . TAUg. eS 
parte assembled 160,000 men and_ 10,000 horses, 
ta flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors to 
ade England in 1804; the coasts of Kent and 
‘sex were covered with martello towers and 
8 of defence ; and nearly half the adult popu- 
on of Britain was formed into volunteer corps ; 

Sidney Smith unsuccessfully attempted to 
nm the flotilla with fire machines called cata- 
rans. i 3 c 5 f ~) e:Octs 
wh removed on the breaking out of war with 
stria : F 5 : é ; Pp 
reve-rockets used in another attack, and set 
town on fire : ; : ; ~) oF Oct, 
| Napoleon (afterwards emperor) made a fruit- 
; descent here with about 50 followers, 6 Aug. 
iperor, he reviewed the French troops destined 

the Baltic, 10 July, 18 54; and entertained 


1801 


1804 
1805 
1806 


1840 


ace Albert and the king of the Belgians, 5 Sept. 18 
e of Edw. Jenner here inaugurated, II Soht 1804 


images here to adore an image of the Virgin 
l Child, said to have been miraculously brought 
. boat in 633 : , : ; ! ” 1857-75 
authorising construction of a new deep-sea 
‘bour, by M. Steecklin (in r5 years), cost about 
,o0ol, ; passed 19 June; first stone laid, by 
Freycinet . : A b 9g Sept. 1878 
JUNDARY ACT. Commissioners were ap- 
ed by the Reform Bill, passed 15 Aug. 1867. 
unt Eversley, Russell Gurney, sir John T. B. 
‘worth, sir Francis Crossley, and John Walter, 
sat 16 Aug. England and Wales were divided 
18 districts, and other arrangements made. 
her boundary act was passed 13 J uly, 1868. 


dary commissioners appointed ‘to carry out 
redistribution of seats bill Nov. 1884. Work 


pleted . : : : - - 10 Feb. 188 

J be ee es hon. T. H.W. Pelham: 
. R. Sandford, Mr. J. T. Henley, lieut.-col. R. 0. 
, and Major H. Tulloch. } icc. 
JUNTIES, premiums granted to the producer, 
‘ter, or importer of certain articles ; 
luced into commerce by the British parliament. 
irst granted on corn, in 1688, were repealed in 


128 


a principle , 


BOURIGNONISTS. 


1815. They were first legally granted in England 
for raising naval stores in America, 1703, and have 
been granted to the herring fishery, on sail-cloth, 
linen, and other goods. 


BOUNTY MUTINY, took place on board the 
Bounty, an armed ship which quitted Otaheite, with 
bread-fruit trees, 7 April, 1789. The mutineers 
put their captain, Bligh, and nineteen men into an 
open boat, with a small stock of provisions, near 
Annamooka, one of the Friendly isles, 28 April, 
1789; these reached the island of Timor, south of 
the Moluccas, in June, after a voyage of nearly 
4000 miles. Some of the mutineers were tried 
15 Sept. 1792; six were condemned and three ex- 
ecuted. For the fate of others, see Pitcairn’s Island. 


BOURBON, HovseE oF (from which came 
the royal houses of France, Spain, and Naples), 
derives its origin from the Archambauds, lords of 
Bourbon in Berry. 


Robert, count of Clermont, son of Louis IX. of 
France, married the heiress Beatrice in 1272 ; died 
1317; and their son Louis I. created duke of 
Bourbon and peer of France by Charles IV. . 1327, 

The last of the descendants of their elder son Peter 
I., Susanna, married Charles, duke of Montpen- 
sier, constable of Bourbon, who, offended by his 
sovereign Francis I., entered into the service of 
the emperor Charles V., and was killed at the 
siege of Rome . A 3 5 : eo Way. 

From James, the younger son of Louis I., descended 
Antony, duke of VendéOme, who married (1548) 
Jeanne d’Albret, daughter of Henry, king of Na- 
varre. Their son, Henry IV., born at Pau, 14 
Dec. 1553, became king of France 31 July, 

The crown of Spain was settled on a younger 
branch of this family, 1700, and guaranteed by 
the peace of Utrecht (Rapin). R 4 : 

Bourbon Famity Compact (a defensive alliance 
between France, Spain, and the Two Sicilies 
concluded by M. de Choiseul) ; 15 Aug. 

The Bourbons expelled France, 1791; restored 
1814; again expelled on the return of Bonaparte 
from Elba, and again restored after the battle of 
Waterloo, 1815. The elder branch was expelled 
once more, in the person of Charles X. and his 
family, in 1830, in consequence of the revolu- 
tion of the memorable days of July in that year. 

Orleans branch ascended the throne in the person 
of the late Louis Philippe, as ‘‘ king of the 
French,” 9 Aug. 1830 ; deposed, 24 Feb. 1848 ; and 
his family also was expelled. 

The Bourbon family fled from Naples (6 Sept. 1860), 
and Francis II. lost his kingdom ; expelled from 
Spain, Sept. 1868 ; restored by Alfonso XII. 31 
Dec. 18743; see France, Spain, Naples, Orleans, 
Parma, Condé, and Legitinists. 

The fusion of the parties supporting the comte de 
Chambord with the Orleamists, said to be accom- 
plished, 5 Aug. 1873. Thecomtede Chambord, last 
of the elder branch, died aged nearly 63, 24 Aug. 1883. 

See France. 


BOURBON, ISLE oF (in the Indian ocean), 
discovered by the Portuguese about 1542. ‘The 
French are said to have first settled here in 1642. 
It surrendered to the British, under admiral Rowley, 
21 Sept. 1809, and was restored to France in 1815. 
Alison. An awful hurricane in Feb. 1829, did 
much mischief. Bourbon was named ‘‘I’Ile de la 
Réunion” in 1848; see Mauritius. 


BOURDEAUX, see Bordeaux. 
BOURIGNONINSTS, a sect founded by An- 


toinette Bourignon, who, in 1658, took the Augus- 
tine habit and travelled in France, Holland, Eng- 
land, and Scotland; in the last she made man 

converts about 1670. She maintained that Chris- 
tianity does not consist in faith and practice, but in 
inward feelingand supernatural impulse. A disciple 
named Court left hera good estate. She died in 


1527 


1589 


1713 


176 


BOURNOUS. 


1680, and her works, 21 volumes 8yo, were pub- 
lished 1686. 


BOURNOUS, the Arabic name of a hooded 
garment worn in Algeria, which has been introduced 
in a modified form into England and France since 
1847. 

BOUVINES (N. France), the site of a despe- 
rate battle, 27 July, 1214, in which Philip Augustus 
of France was victorious over the emperor Otho and 
his allies, consisting of more than 150,000 men. ‘The 
counts of Flanders and Boulogne were taken pri- 
eaat and the earl of Salisbury, brother of king 

ohn. ' 


BOVILL’S ACT, 23 & 24 Vict. c. 34, 1860, 
relates to petitions of right. 

BOWLS or Bow1ina, an English game as 
early as the 13th century. Henry VIII., Charles I. 


played at it, and also Charles II. at Tunbridge. 
Grammont. 


BOW-STREET, see Magistrates. 
BOWS anp Arrows, see Archery. 


BOXING, or Prize-Ficurine, the pugi- 
latus of the Romans, once a favourite sport with the 
British, who possess strong arms, giving them 
superiority in battles decided by the bayonet. 
Broughton’s amphitheatre, 

built 


behind Oxford-road, 
¢ 4 : 4 8 4 J Ge 
Schools opened in England to teach boxing. 70 
Mendoza opened the Lyceum in the Strand in - 1791 
Boxing was much patronised from about 1820 to 1830 
Tom Winter (nicknamed Spring), beside other vic- 
tories, beat Langan (for 1oool. ) ‘ . § June, 
John Gully, originally a butcher, afterwards a 
prize-fighter, acquired wealth, and became M.P. 
for Pontefract in 1835, died . g March, 
Desperate conflict at Farnborough between Thomas 
Sayers, the Champion of England, a light Sussex 
man, about 5 feet 8 inches high, and John Heenan, 
the *‘ Benicia Boy,” a huge American, in height 
6 feet rinch. Strength, however, was matched 
by skill ; and eventually the fight was interrupted, 

17 April. Both men received a silver belt 

3t May, 
Tom King beat Mace, and obtained the champion’s 


1824 


1863 


1860 


belt, &e. 5 s 3 ¥ < 26 Noy. 1862 
He beat Goss, x Sept., and Heenan (nearly to death) 
to Dec. 1863 
A trial, in consequence of the last fight, ensued : 
the culprits were discharged, on promising not 
to offend again - : ; : 5 April, 1864 
Wormald obtained the championship after a con- 
test with Marsden 4 Jan. 1865 


Contest for championship between Mace and O’Bald- 
win, a giant ; prevented by the arrest of Mace, 
15 Oct. 

Railways prohibited carrying persons going to a 
prize-fight, 30 & 31 Vict. c. 119. . : : 
Prize-fight in St. Andrew’s hall (formerly Tavistock 
chapel), London, W.C., stopped 27 March, 1882 


BOXTEL (in Dutch Brabant), where the 
British and allied army, commanded by the duke 
of York, was defeated by the French republicans, 
who took 2000 prisoners and eight pieces of cannon, 


17 Sept. 1794. 
BOX-TREE, indigenous to this country, and 


exceedingly valuable to wood-engravers. In 181 5 
a large box-tree at Box-hill, Surrey, was cut down, 
and realised a large sum. Macculloch says, that 
‘the trees were cut down in 1815, and produced 
upwards of 10,000/.”” About 1820 the cutting of 
trees on the hill produced about 6000/. 


BOY-BISHOP. During the middle ages a 


choir-boy was frequently elected on St. Nicholas’ 
day, 6 Dec., and held office till the 28th. Thecus- 


1867 
1868 


124 


a, 
x 4 


BRADLAUGH CASE. 


tom was suppressed in England in J uly, 1. 
lingered for some time after. 


BOYCOTTING, see Ireland, 1880. 
eott fund to assist capt. Boycott in his tro 
subscribed 1880-1. 


BOYDELL’S LOTTERY for his 
peare gallery of paintings got up (1; 
alderman Boydell, lord mayor of London. 
ticket was sold at the time the alderman 
Dec. 1804, before the decision of the whee! 


BOYLE LECTURES, instituted by 
(18 July, 1691), by Robert Boyle (son of + 
earl of Cork), a philosopher, distinguishe 
genius, virtues, and benevolence, who diec 
1691. Eight lectures (in vindication of th 
tian religion) are to be delivered. The 
lecturer is tenable for three years. 


BOYNE, a river in Ireland, near whi 
liam IIT. defeated his father-in-law, Ja 
I July, 1690. ‘The latter lost 1500 (out of 
men; the Protestant army lost about a thir 
number (out of 36,000). James fled to 
thence to Waterford, and escaped to France 
duke of Schomberg was killed by mistak 
own soldiers as he was crossing the river, ; 
also was killed the rey. George Walker, 
fended Londonderry, in 1689. Near Drog! 
splendid obelisk, 150 feet in height, erected 
by the Protestants of the empire in comma 
of this victory. 


BOYNE, man-of-war of 98 guns, dest 
fire at Portsmouth, 4 May, 1795) by the e 
of the magazine; numbers perished. Porti 
recovered June, 1840. 

BOYTON’S Swiamine APPARATI 
under Life Boat, &e. 

BRABANT, part of Holland and Belg 
ancient duchy, part of Charlemagne’s em} 
to his son Charles, 806. It became a 
duchy (called at first Lower Lorraine) in | 
descended to Philip IT. of Burgundy, 142¢ 
regular succession to the emperor Charle: 
the 17th century it was held by Holla 
Austria, as Dutch Brabant and the Wallo 
vinces, and underwent many changes thro 
wars of Europe. The Austrian division w: 
by the French in 1746 and 7794 It was u 
the Netherlands in 1814, but South Brab 
given to Belgium, 1830. The heir of the t! 
Belgium is styled duke of Brabant; see Bel 


BRACELETS were worn by the ancie 
armille were Koman military rewards. 1 
pearls and gold were worn by the Roman la 


BRACHYGRAPHY, see Stenograph 
SMEEt RESERVOIR, see 4 
4. 


BRADFORD, West Riding of Yorks! 
ancient seat of the woollen manufacture; 
parliamentary borough in 1832; has thrive 
1851; see Potsoning. 


I 


New town-hall was opened . . 9 Se 
British Association met here + Suzie 
Statue of sir Titus Salt unveiled eer 
Statue of R. Cobden unveiled . 25 JU 


New technical school opened by the prince of - 
ae 


2 . 
Fall of chimney of New Land’s mills ; 54 kill 
250 injured, 28 Dee. 1882; verdict, accident 
deaths : 4 4 : : . gid: 
Pe itinmten bes CASE, see Larl 
1880-5. 


4 s 
yy, 


a 


- BRADSHAW’S GUIDE. 


De, 125 BRAZIL. © 


4 ’S RAILWAY GUIDE was | most probably bronze. When Lucius Mummius 
eae Me. G. Bradshaw, assisted by Mr. | burnt Corinth to the ground, 146 B.c., he found 


. Adams, in Dec, 1841. He had previously 
shed oceasionally a Railway Companion (1833). 
ontinental Bradshaw was established in 1548. 


\AGANZA, a city in Portugal, gave title to 
30, natural son of John I. of Portugal (in 
; founder of the house of Braganza. When 
ition, in a bloodless revolution in 1640, threw 
» Spanish yoke, John, duke of Braganza, was 
to the throne as John IV., and his descen- 
now reign over Portugal and Brazil (which 


AHMINS, Hindoo priests, the highest of 
mur castes. Pythagoras is thought to have 
d from them his doctrine of the Metempsycho- 
nd it is affirmed that some of the Greek philo- 
rs went to India on purpose to converse with 

The Brahmins derive their name from 
aah, one of the three beings whom God, ac- 
¢ to their theology, created, and with whose 
nee he formed the world. See Vedas. 


AHMO SOMAJ, see Deism. 
AINTREE CASK (in Essex) was decided 


2 by Dr. Lushington, who determined that a 
ity in @ parish vestry cannot levy a church 


AKRES, see under Railways. 


AMHAM (W. BR. York): near here the earl 
‘thumberland and lord Bardolf were defeated 
lain by sir Thomas Rokeby, the gencral of 
rIV., 19 Feb. 1408; and Fairfax was defeated 
e royalists under the earl of Newcastle, 29 
t, 1643. 
ANDENBURG, acity in Prussia, founded 
:Slavonians, who gave it the name of Bander, 
signified Guard of the Forest, according to 
others explain the name as Burg, or city, 
Brenns. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, 
defeating the Slavonians, fortified ‘‘ Bran- 
” 926, as a rampart against the Huns, and 
red the government on Sigefroi, count of 
‘heim, with the title of margrave, or protector 
marches or frontiers. The emperor Sigis- 
gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. 
wemburg, of the house of Hohenzollern, 
or of the royal family of Prussia, made 
‘in 1417. Fora list of the margraves since 
see Prussia. 


ANDENBURG HOUSE, Hammersmith, 


ween Caroline. 


ANDY (German Branntwein, burnt wine), 
irit distilled from wine. Alcohol appears to 
‘een known to Raymond Lully in the 13th 
y, and to have been manufactured in France 
in the 34th. It was at first used medicin- 
nd miraculous cures were ascribed to its in- 
> In 1852, 3,959,452; in 1866, 5,621,930 ; 
0, 7,942,965 ; In 1874, 3,378,057; in 1876, 
192; In 1877, 2,962,697; i 1879, 5,024,668 ; 
3, 2,202,344 gallons were imported into the 

Kingdom. It is now largely manufactured 
ain. 


ANDY WINE, a river in N. America, near 
a battle took place between the British, under 
and the Americans under Washington, in 
the latter (after a day’s fight) were defeated 
reat loss, 11 Sept. 1777. Philadelphia fell 
e possession of the victors. 


ASS, That mentioned in the Bible was , 


ee 


immense riches, and during the conflagration, it is 
said, all the metals in the city melted, and running 
together, formed the valuable composition described 
as Corinthian Brass. This is well doubted, for the 
Corinthian artists had long before obtained great 
credit for their method of combining gold and 
silver with copper. Du Fresnoy. Some of the 
English sepulchral engraved drasses are said to be 
as old as 1277; a white brass produced by Mr. P. 
M. Parsons, about 1875. 


BRAURONTA, festivalsin Attica, at Brauron, 
where Diana had atemple. The most remarkable 
that attended these festivals were young virgins in 


| yellow gowns, dedicated to Diana. They were about 


ten years of age, and not under tive ; and therefore 
their consecration was called ‘ dekateuein,’ from 
deka, ten; 600 B.C. 


BRAVO CASE. Mr. Charles Delauney Turner 
Bravo, barrister, died suddenly and mysteriously 
(at Balham, Surrey), suicide suspected, 18 April, 
1876; open verdict at inquest; new inquest or- 
dered, 26 June, 1876; began 10 July. Verdict : 
“* Wilful murder by administration of tartar emetic ; 
but not sufficient evidence to fix the guilt upon 
any person,’”’ 11 Aug. 1876. 


BRAY, Berks. Fuller says that its vicar, 
Symon Symonds, was twice a papist and twice a 
Protestant—in the reigns of Henry VIII., Ed- 
ward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth (1533—1558). Upon 
being called a turn-coat, he said he kept to his 
principle, that of “living and dying the vicar of 
Bray.” The modern song refers to the political 
changes of the 17th and 18th centuries. 


BRAY’S ASSOCIATES for founding clerical 
libraries and supporting negro schools. This so- 
ciety began in 1723, by Dr. Thomas Bray, rector of 
Sheldon, appointing trustees to expend gool. be- 
queathed by Mr. D’Allone for the instruction of 
negroes. In 1733 these trustees received their pre- 
sent name, and their fund was increased by legacies 
in 1767 and 1768. 

Dr. Bray, who was one of the founders of the Society 
for Propagating the Gospel, and who had acted ener- 
getically as commissary in Maryland for the bishop of 
London, about 1696, died 15 Feb. 1730, bequeathing 
part of his books to Sion College and part to found a’ 
parochial library, under certain conditions, complied 
with at Maidstone ; and also money for other religious 
purposes. The associates assist schools and libraries in 
the colonies, and parochial libraries at home. 


BRAZEN BULL, said to have been contrived 
by Perillus, at Athens, for Phalaris, tyrant of Agri- 
gentum, 570 B.c. It had an opening in the side to 
admit the victims, and a fire was kindled under- 
neath to roast them to death; their groans resem- 
bled the roaring of a bull. Phalaris admired the 
invention, but ordered the artist to make the first 
experiment. The Agrigentes revolted against Phal- 
aris, cut his tongue out, and roasted him in the 
brazen bull, 549 B.c. 


BRAZIL, an empire in South America, was 
discovered by Vincent Pinzon in Feb. 1500. Pedro 
Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, driven upon its 
coasts by a tempest, April following, called it the 
land of the Holy Cross; but it was subsequently 
named Brazil, on account of its red wood. The 
French having seized on Portugal in 1807, the 
royal family and nobles embarked for Brazil, and 
landed 7 March, 1808. The dominant religion js 
Roman Catholic; but others are tolerated. Consti- 


BRAZIL. 


tution of 25 March, 1824; modified 12 Aug. 1834 and 
-12 May, 1840. Population in 1883, 12,002,978. 
See Portugal. 


Brazil explored by Amerigo Vespucci . about 1504 
Divided into captaincies by the king of Portugal . 1530 
Martin de Souza discovers Rio, and founds the first 
European colony at San Vincente . 3 - 1531 
Jews banished from Portugal to Brazil : see Sr 48. 
San Salvador (Bahia) founded by Thomé de Souza . 1549 


French protestants occupy bay of Rio Janeiro . 1555-60 | 
Sebastian founded : : . : : . 1567 
Brazil, with Portugal, becomes subject to Spain . 1580 
James Lancaster captures Pernambuco - 1593 


- 1594 


The French establish a colony at Maranham ._ 
: - 1615 


Belem founded by Calderia . 
The French expelled . 


The Dutch seize the coast of Brazil, 1630 ; and hold” 


Pernambuco A ! ‘ : : He ay ese 
Defeated at Guararapés, 1646 ; give up Brazil . - 1661 
Gold mining commences “ : ; - 1693 
Destruction of Palmares : : : : - 1697 
The French assault and capture Rio Janeiro. _ 1710-11 
Diamond mines discovered in Sezzo Frio. . 1729 
Jesuits expelled . ‘ ; ; : , - 1758-60 
Capital transferred from Bahia to Rio Janeiro 1763 


Royal family of Portugal arrive at Brazil, 7 March, 1808 


First printing-press established r : 


Brazil becomes a kingdom . : : : 7 LOLs 
King John VI. returns to Portugal, and dom Pedro 
becomes regent .. : . = 2 : . 182r 
Brazil declares its independence . . 7 Sept. 1822 
Pedro I. crowned emperor Tec es. 
New constitution ratified : . 25 March, 1824 
Independence recognised by Portugal 29 Aug. 1825 


Revolution at Rio Janeiro; abdication of dom 
Pedro Ly. 5 “ : ; <1) 2 TERDLLL, eee 
Abolition of slave trade decreed (not effected till 
TSS2)" is ; : : 4 . : 5 : 
Reform of the constitution, 12 Aug. 1834 and 12 May, 
Pedro II. declared of age . : : 23 July, 
Steam-ship line to Europe commenced : Fd 
Suppression of the slave-trade ; railways com- 
menced . 3 - ; : a < ‘ . 
Rio Janeiro lit with gas ; : : ‘ rite 
The British ship ‘‘ Prince of Wales” wrecked at 
Albardas, on coast of Brazil, is plundered by 
some of the natives, and some of the crew killed, 
about 7 June, 
Reparation long refused; reprisals made; five 
Brazilian merchant ships being seized by the 
British 5 ; : - - 4z Dec, 
The Brazilian minister at London pays 3,200l. as an 
indemnity, under protest «. : . 26. Feb 
The Brazilian government request the British to 
express their regret for reprisals ; declined ; diplo- 
matic intercourse suspended + 5-28 May, 
Dispute between the governments respecting the 
arrest of some British officers at Rio Janeiro (17 
June, 1862) referred to the arbitration of the king 
of the Belgians, who decides in favour of Brazil, 
18 June, 
New ministry formed; F. J. Furtado, president— 
prospect of reconciliation with Great Britain, 
30 Aug. 
U. S. war-steamer “Wachusett” seizes the con- 
federate steamer ‘‘ Florida,” in the port of Bahia, 
while under protection of Brazil, 7 Oct. ; after 
remonstrance, Mr. Seward, U. 8. foreign minister, 
apologises. [The ‘‘ Florida” (inadvertently) sunk?] 
26 Dec. 
War with Uruguay—the Brazilians take Paysandu, 
and march upon Monte Video . . 2 Feb. 
The comte d’Eu and princess Isabella (on marriage 
tour) land at Southampton =. 2 Ta ee: 
Lopez, president of Paraguay, declares war against 
the Argentine Republic : : April, 
Treaty between Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine 
Republic against Paraguay, governed by Lopez, 
signed é / é : : ; . i May, 
Scientific expedition under Agassiz favoured by the 
emperor . : ; ; : . : July, 
Amicable relations with England restored . Aug. 
The emperor joins the army against Lopez Aug. 
The allies under Flores defeat the Paraguayans at 
Santayuna on the Uruguay 18 Sept. 
Uruguayana surrenders to the allies 18 Sept. 


3? 


2? 


1864 


126 


BREACH OF PROMISE. 


Indecisive battle between the allies and the Pa 


guayans, at Paso de la Patria about 25 I’ 
Paraguayans defeated on the Parana 16, r7 Ap 


Victory of the allies at Estero Velhaco, 2 May; 
decisive battle there. : + 6 24M 
Bombardment of the allied camp on the Parana 


14d 
Two days’ fight at Tuyuty ; allies defeated, 
16, 18, Ju 
Fruitless meeting of president Lopez with the chi 
on proposais of peace . ‘ ; 2 12 Se 
The allies attack the fortress of Curupaiti ; defea: 
with severe loss. e ; - 17-19, 22 Se 
The allies’ camp bombarded, 18 Oct.; the Pa 
guayans repulsed at Tuyuty - 300 
The Brazilians take Corumba . : - 13du 
The duke of Edinburgh visits Rio de Janeiro 
15-22 Ju 
The Paraguayans victors, 24 Sept. ; severel defea 
3 and ax ( 
Proposals for peace by Lopez declined . is 
Severe defeat of Paraguayans before Tuyuty 3N 
Freedom decreed to slaves belonging to the nat 
who shall become soldiers 4 S 6 
Three monitors pass Curupaiti, on the Paragu 
17 Feb. ; 6ironclads force the passage of Humai 
they find Asuncion abandoned . 2rF 
Fierce resistance of the Paraguayans ; Lopez saic 
have armed 4000 women ; , ; Ju 
After several conflicts Lopez is totally defeated 
Villeta, and flies E 5 : ola 
The comte d’Eu appointed general of the allied ar 
24 Mar 
The allies surprise and capture Rosorio and gai: 
8M 
Lopez defeated in severe conflicts, 12, 16, 18, 21 A 
Lopez defeated and killed near the Aquidaban, 
1 Mar 
Treaty of peace with Paraguay quite subdued 
20 Ju 
The count and countess d’Eu arrive in England, 


I 

New ministry under viscount St. Vincent, Py Se 
The emperor and empress come to Europe, and vi 
public and scientific institutions, manufactor 
in Great Britain and other countries, June—A: 
Fhe emperor and empress, after visiting the co1 
nent, return to Brazil x £ .  grifar 
Gradual slave emancipation bill passed by ° 
senate ; great rejoicings r 27, 28 Se 
Treaty with the Argentine republic . JJ 
Prosecution of the archbishop of Pernambuco a 
other prelates, for infraction of the constitut: 
Sept.-D 
In a settlement of German emigrants at Po 
Alegre, a number of fanatics, popularly term 
Mucker (hypocrites), headed by Jacobina Mam 
a prophetess who claimed to be a female Chri 
and her priest Hans Georg Maurer, attempt 
convert their neighbours by force, and desgol: 
the property of those who refuse. She and nea 
all her band are killed after several conflicts w: 

their neighbours, aided by the military 
21-26 Ju 


Great bank failures at Rio Janeiro . M 
Duke de Caixias president of ministry . 25 Jum 
Emperor and empress at opening of Philadelpl 
Exhibition, 10 May, 1876; travelled in Euro) 
&c., returned to Rio Janeiro , ; Se 
A ministerial crisis respecting emancipation 
slaves (see under Slavery) : : . Be 
The emperor supports his minister Dantas ; 1,200, 
slaves in Brazil . i ; ‘ ‘ . 


EMPERORS OF BRAZIL, 


1822. Dom Pedro (of Portugal) ; abdicated in favor 
infant son, 7 April, 1831 ; died 24 Sept. 18 

1831. Dom Pedro II. (born 2 Dec. 1825); assuD 
government, 23 July, 1840; crowned, 1 
1841; married, 4 Sept. 1843, princess Th 
Naples (born 14 March, 1822). 

Heiress. Isabella, born 29 July, 1846 ; married ( 
1864) Louis comte d’Eu, son of the 
Nemours (born 29 April, 1842). 

Heir. Pedro, born 15 Oct. 1875. 


BREACH OF PROMISE of Mami 


P| 


BREAD. 


127 


BREMEN. 


tion in favour of abolishing the action, was 
ed in the Commons (106-65), 6 May 1879. 


EAD. Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, 
uted to have been the first who taught men 
hinese) the art of husbandry, and the method 
king bread from wheat, and wine from rice, 
0. Univ. Hist. Baking of bread was known 
: patriarchal ages: see Hxodus xii. 15. It 
e a profession at Rome, 170 B.c. After the 
est of Macedon, 148 B.c., numbers of Greek 
; came to Rome, obtained special privileges, 
on obtained a monopoly. During the siege of 
by Henry IV., owing to famine, bread, which 
2en sold whilst any remained for a crown a 
, was at last made from the bones of the 
‘l-house of the ae Innocents, A.D. 1594. 
uit. Inthe time of James I., barley bread was 
xy the poor; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, 
. to powder, is made into bread; potato-bread 
lin Ireland. The London Bakers’ Company 
1corporated in 1307. Bread-street was once 
ondon market for bread. Until 1302, the 
no bakers were not allowed to sell any in their 
1ops. Stow. Bread was made with yeast by 
iglish bakers in 1634- In 1856 and 1857 Dr. 
ish patented a mode of making ‘‘aerated 
” in which carbonic acid gas is combined with 
and mixed with the flour, and which is said 
sess the advantages of cleanliness, rapidity, 
uiformity. In 1862 a company was formed to 
‘age Stevens’ bread-making machinery. An 
¢ regulating bakehouses was passed in July, 
A strike of the journeyman bakers of the 
dolis, 23 Sept., was settled by concessions, 
1872. A Bread Reform League formed ; meet- 
the Mansion House, London, 17 Dec. 1880. 


ern Loaf (4lb. 5402.) } 1800 . . Price 173d. 
Price 54d. | 1800 . [For 4 weeks, 224d. ] 

x eh ae? -[ 1805 : 12} 

5 1810 . ; ‘ - 154 

7 1812 Aug. 21x 

6% | 1814. : 124 

64 |2820 . A HRS: 

12} 

June. Dec. 

~pound Loaf (best) 1865 7 8 

. : Io 1866 8% 9 
<b EL 1867 Io = I0# 

- Toy | 1868 ee 85 

nF 1869 ee! 7s 

- 9 | 1870 7% «= (8h 

June. Dec. | 1872 9 9 

730. 7id. | 1872 93 0 

7 6% 1873. eo eo 8 

DOy. ET 1874 (medium), 8 64 

Ceeeoee rs). (6 7 

+ 2x Ioy | 1876 6% 7 

92 8% | 1877 . en 

7 1878 | 6 

Bega. (2879) 6 7 

8% og 1880 7 7 

9 9 1881 6 7 

9 8 1882 65 64 

8 ery aeos. . Ls Ode 

7 7 | 1884 bbe 6 


EOF BREAD. The first statute for the regulation 
sale of bread was 3 John, 1203. The chief justi- 
md a baker commissioned by the king, had the 
ion of the assize. Matthew Puris. The assize 
‘ther regulated by statute in 5: Hen. ITI. 1266, 
nne, 1710. Bread Act, Ireland, placing its sale 
same footing as in England, x Vict. 1838. Bread 
»cted to be sold by weight in London in 1822 ; the 
“ Assessa Panis” was repealed in 1824; and the 
bread throughout the country was regulated in 


JAD-FRUIT TREE, a native of the 
Sea islands. A vessel under captain Bligh 
ted out to convey some of these trees to 


various British colonies in 1789 (see Bounty), and 
again in 1791. The number taken on board at 
Otaheite was 1151. Some were left at St. Helena, 
352 at Jamaica, and five were reserved for Kew 
Gardens, 1793. The tree was successfully culti- 
vated in French Guiana, 1802. 


BREAKWATERS. The first stone of the 
Plymouth breakwater was lowered 12 August, 1812. 
It stretches 5280 feet across the sound, is 360 feet 
in breadth at the bottom and more than 30 at the 
top, and consumed 3,660,000 tons of granite blocks, 
from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841, and 
cost a million and a half sterling. The architects 
were Mr. John Rennie and his son sir John. The 
first stone of the lighthouse on its western extremity 
was laid 1 Feb. 1841. Breakwaters have been con- 
structed at Holyhead, Portland, Dover, &c. 


BREAST-PLATE. One was worn by the 
Jewish high priest, 1491 B.c. (Hzod. xxxix.) 
Goliath ‘‘ was armed with a coat of mail,’ 1063 
B.C. (I Sam. xvii.) Breast-plates dwindled to the 
diminutive gorgets. Ancient breast-plates are men- 
tioned as made of gold and silver. 


BRECHIN, Scotland; sustained a siege against 
the army of Edward III., 1333. The battle of 
Brechin or Huntly-hill was fought between the 
earls of Huntly and Crawford, the latter defeated, 
18 May, 1452. The see of Brechin was founded by 
David I. in 1150. One of its bishops, Alexander 
Campbell, was made prelate when but a boy, 15 ro 
The bishopric, discontinued soon after the revolu- 
tion in 1688, was revived in 1731. 


BREDA, Holland, was taken from the 
Spaniards by prince Maurice, of Nassau, in 1 5903 
retaken by the Spaniards, under Spinola, June, 
1625; and by the Dutch, Oct. 1637. The “ Com- 
promise of Breda’’ was a proposal to Philip II., de- 
precating his harsh measures in the Netherlands, 
presented and refused in 1566. Our Charles II. 
resided here at the time of the restoration, and here 
he issued his declaration of a free general pardon, 
4 April, 1660; sce Restoration. Breda was taken 
by the French in 1793. The French garrison was 
expelled by the burgesses in 1813. 


BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this gar- 
ment indicated slavery. It was worn by the 
Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations ; 
and in Italy, it is said, was worn in the time of 
Augustus Cesar. In the reign of Honorius, about 
394, the braccarit, or breeches-makers, were ex- 
pelled from Rome. The ‘‘ Geneva Bible,” termed 
the “Breeches Bible’? (from the rendering in 
Gen. iii. 7), published 1560. 


BREECH-LOADERS, see under Cannon 


and Firearms. 
BREED’S HILL, see Bunker's Hill. 
BREHONS, ancient judges in Ireland, are said 


to have administered justice with religious im- 
partiality, but in later times with a tendency to 
love of country. It was enacted by the statute of 
Kilkenny, that no English subject should submit to 
the Brehon laws, 40 Edw. III., 1365. These laws, 
however, were recognised by the native Irish till 
1650. A translation of them was proposed in 18 52, 
and a commission appointed. The publication of 
the “* Ancient Laws of Ireland”’ by the government, 
began 1865. 


BREITENFELD, see Leipsiec. 


BREMEN (N. Germany), said to have been 
founded in 788, and long an archbishopric, and one 
of the leading towns of the Hanseatic League, was 


BRENNEVILLE. 


bs 


allowed a ‘seat and a vote in the college of imperial 


France, 8 May, 1360, by which England 


cities in 1640. In 1648 it was secularised and | Gascony and Guienne, and acquired other prc 


erected into a duchy and held by Sweden till 1712, 
when it was taken possession of by Denmark, by 
whom it was sold to Hanover in 1731. It was 


renounced her pretensions to Maine, Anjo 
raine, and Normandy; was to receive 3, 
crowns, and to release king John, long a 


taken by the French in 1757, who were expelled | The treaty not being carried out, the king re 


by the Hanoverians in 1758. Bremen was annexed 
by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810; but its 
independence was restored in 1813, and all its old 
franchises in 1815. It became a member of the 
North German Confederation in 1866. International 
agricultural exhibition opened 13 June, 1874. 
Population of the province, 1871, 122,402; see 
Hanse Towns. For the explosion at Bremerhafen, 
Ir Dec. 1875, see Dynamite. 


BRENNEVILLE, N.W. France. Here 
Henry I. of England defeated Louis VI. of France, 


who supported William Cliton, son of Robert, duke 


of Normandy, 20 Aug. III9. 
BRENTFORD, county town of Middlesex. 


Here Edmund Ironside defeated the Danes, May, 
1016. It was taken by Charles I., after a sharp 
fight, 12 Nov. 1642. 

BRESCIA, N. Italy (the ancient Brixia), be- 
came important under the Lombards, and suftered 
by the wars of the Italian Republics, being attached 
to Venice. It was taken by the French under 
Gaston de Foix, Feb. 1512, when it is said 40,000 
of the inhabitants were massacred. It was retaken 
26 May, 1516. It surrendered to the Austrian 
eran Haynau, 30 March, 1849, on severe terms. 
It was annexed to Sardinia in 1859. 


BRESLAU, in Silesia, was burnt by the Mon- 
gols in 1241, and conquered by Frederick II. of 
Prussia, Jan. 1741. <A fierce battle took place here 
between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter 
under prince Bevern, who was defeated 22 Noy. 
1757. Breslau was taken; but was regained 21 Dee. 
same year. It was besieged by the French, and 
surrendered to them, Jan. 1807, and again in 1813. 


BRESSA PRIZE. Dr. Cesare Antonio 
Bresea, by will of 4 Sept. 1835, bequeathed property 
to the Royal Academy of Sciences, Turin, to give a 
prize every two years for some important discovery 
or valuable work published relating to physics, 
natural history, geography, history, statistics, &c. 
The first prize (about 1200/.), was to be awarded in 
1879 to a foreigner; the second to an Italian, and 
so on alternately. 


BREST, a seaport, N. W. France, was besieged 
by Julius Cwsar, 54 B.c.—possessed by the English, 
A.D. 1378—given up to the duke of Britanny, 
1390. Lord Berkeley and a British fleet and army 
were repulsed here with dreadful loss in wee The 
magazine burnt, to the value of some millions of 
pounds sterling, 1744. The marine hospitals, with 
fifty galley slaves, burnt, 1766. The magazine 
again destroyed by fire, 10 July, 1784. From this 
great depot of the French navy, numerous | 
squadrons were equipped against England during | 


the late war, among them the fleet which lord | 
Howe defeated on I June, 1794. England main- 
tained a large blockading squadron off the harbour 
from 1793 to 1815; but with little injury to France. | 
It is now a chief naval station, and is considered 
impregnable. ‘The British fleet visited Brest, Aug. 
1805. 

BRETAGNE, see Drittany. 


BRETHREN, see Bohemian and Plymouth | 
Brethren. 


BRETIGNY, PEAcE or, concluded with | 


and died in England. 


BRETON, see Cape Breton. 
BRETWALDA (wide-ruling chief), 


the kings of the Saxon heptarchy, chosen 
others as a leader in war against their c 
enemies. The following are mentioned b 
(492 to 642), Ella, king of Sussex; Ceay 
Wessex; Ethelbert of Kent; Redwald « 
Anglia; Edwin, Oswald, and Oswy of North 
land. The title was bestowed upon Egber 
see Britain. 


BREVIARY (so called as being an abri 
of the offices used in the Roman Catholic servic 
tains the seven canonical hours, viz., matin: 
midnight; lauds (when not joined to mating 
3 a.m.), primes (about 6), tierce (about 9 
(about 12), nones (about 3 p.m.), vespers (: 
complines (about 9). Lord Bute published ¢ 
lation of the Breviary, 1879. The brey 
ascribed to pope Gelasius I. about 492. 
first called the custos, and afterwards the bre 
came into use among the ecclesiastical order 
1080; and was reformed by the councils of 
and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIL 
other popes. The quality of type in whi 
breviary was first printed gave the name 
printing type called brevier. 


BREWERS are traced to Egypt. Brew: 
known to our Anglo-Saxon ancestors. | 
‘One William Murle, a rich maltman or hn 
Dunstable, had two horses all trapped witl 
1414.” Stow. In Oct. 1851, there wer 
licensed brewers in England, 146 in Scotlan 
97 in Ireland; total, 2548: these are exclu: 
retail and intermediate brewers. There 
40,418 licensed brewers in the United King 
1853; the revenue from whom to the state - 
that year 81,0307. In 1858 in England ther 
205 great brewers; see Ale, Porter. 

In 1880 the brewers’ licence (for sale) was mé 
not for sale, 6s., a duty was laid upon beer eal 
upon the specifie gravity of the wort (43 & 44 Viet 

Brewers’ exhibition at the Agricultural Hall, L 

began 1870. 

BRIAR’S CREEK (N. America), near 
the Americans, 2000 strong, under general 
were totally defeated by the English under g 
Prevost, 3 March, 1779. 

BRIBERY forbidden (Devt. xvi.19). Sa 
sons were guilty of it, 1112 B.c. (1 Same. vill. 3.) 
de Weyland, a judge, was banished for bril 
1288; he was chief justice of the common 
William de Therpe, chief justice of the 
bench, was convicted of bribery in 1351. A 


| judge was fined'20,000/. for the like offence, 


Mr. Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent 
Tower for bribery in 1712. Lord Strangfo 
suspended from voting in the Irish house of 
for soliciting a bribe, Jan. 1784. 
BRIBERY art Exxectrions. In 1854: 
portant act was passed consolidating and ame 
previous acts relating to this offence, fr 
Will. III. (1695) to 5 & 6 Vict. c. 184. 
Messrs. Sykes and Rumbold fined and imprisone 
for bribery ~ ©. <0). ee 
Messrs. Davidson, Parsons, and Hopping, imp! 
soned for bribery at Iichester, 28 Apn 


~v 

9 
a 
P 


BRIC-A-BRACS. 


‘Swan, M.P. for Penryn, fined and imprisoned, 
id sir Manasseh Lopez sentenced to a fine of 
,oool. and two years’ imprisonment for bribery 
-Grampound : : é A 4 . Oct. 1819 
members for Liverpool and Dublin unseated — 1831 
friends of Mr. Knight, candidate for Cambridge, 
nvicted of bribery . : : : . 20 Feb. 
tions for Ludlow and Cambridge made void . 1840 
oury disfranchised, 1848 ; St. Albans also + 1852 
tions at Derby and other places declared void 
t bribery . 2 : : : : . + 1653 
upt Practices Act passed . ; - : . 1854 
he case of Cooper v. Slade, it was ruled that 
¢ payment of travelling expenses was aN 
17 April, 
s bribery practised at Gloucester, Wakefield, 
d Berwick . : 4 ni : : aes 
Wim. H. Leatham convicted of bribery at Wake- 
Id : F : - : i - Ig July, 
sxrmment commissions of inquiry respecting 
ibers, sat at Great Yarmouth, Totnes, Lancas- 
*, and Reigate; and disgraceful disclosures 
re made , : : ; : . Aug -Nov. 
boroughs were disfranchised by the Reform bill, 
ssed : : : ; : . 15 Aug. 
Parliamentary Elections Act enacted that elec- 
n petitions should be tried by a court ap- 
inted for the purpose, passed 31 July, 1868 
: trials under this act; Mr. Roger Eykyn (at 
ndsor) was declared duly elected, 15 Jan., and 
H. Stracey (at Norwich) was unseated, 
18 Jan. 1869 
Kinglake, Mr. Fenelly, and others, were sen- 
iced to be fined for bribery in parliamentary 
ctions . : 4 r ; . 10 May, 1870 
rley, Bridgewater, Sligo, and Cashel disfran- 
sed for bribery and corruption Z ; 
1 corruption during the elections of April; 
mbers for Oxford, Chester, Boston, and other 
ices, unseated. s : 3 : ; . 1880 
gent Act against it brought in by sir H. James, 
orney-general, was passed in A : - 1881 
see Corrupt Practices. 


RIC-A-BRACS, (French), old curiosities: 

as cabinets, pieces of ironwork, &c. The 
cting began about the time of queen Anne, 
-14. The publication of Bric-d-Brac, a 
chly price list, began in 1869. 


RICKS were used in Babylon, Egypt, Greece, 
Rome; in England by the Romans about 44. 
> under the direction of Alfred the Great, 
t 886. Saxon Chron. The size regulated by 

of Charles I., 1625. Taxed, 1784. The 
ber of bricks which paid duty in Ph tent in 
Was 949,000,000 ; in 1830, above I,100,000,000 ; 
'40, 1,400,000,000; and in 1850, 1,700,000,000. 
duties and drawbacks of excise on bricks were 
led in 1850. In 1839 Messrs. Cooke and Cun- 
ham brought out their machinery by which, 
said, 18,000 bricks may be made in ten hours. 
rs. Dixon and Corbett, near Newcastle, in 1861 F 
making bricks by steam at the rate of 1 500 
our. ‘Ihe machinery is the invention of Clay- 
¢ Co., London. 


2IDEWELL, once a palace of king John, 
Fleet-ditch, London, I210, was given to the 
for a workhouse by Kdward VI., 1 553-* The 
Bridewell prison, erected in 1829, was pulled 
in 1864; that of Tothill-fields was rebuilt in 


1835 


1858 
1859 
1860 


1866 
1867 


tIDGES were first of wood. There are 
nt stone bridges in China. Abydos is famous 
e bridge of boats which Xerxes built across 


: 

f the old buildings little remains : merely offices 
few cells for refractory city apprentices. By the 
‘y Commissioners’ scheme (1860) the annual income 
21. in 1876) is devoted to the maintenance of two 
vial schools : for boys, at Witley, Surrey; r girls 
George’s fields. : 


129 


| Bishop’s bridge, Norwich . 


BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. 


the Hellespont, 480 n.c. Trajan’s magnificent 
stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, 
was built in A.D. 105. Brotherhoods for building 
bridges existed in S. France about 1180. The Devil’s 
bridge in the Canton of Uri was built on two high 
rocks; and many stories have been invented to ac- 
count for it. At Schaffhausen an extraordinary 
bridge was built over the Rhine, 400 feet wide : there 
was a pier in the middle of the river, but it is doubt- 
ful whether the bridge rested upon it; a man of 
the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, 
yet waggons heavily laden passed over without 


danger. The bridge was destroyed by the French 
in 1799. See London, Waterloo, Blackfriars, 


Southwark, and other bridges, in separate articles. 
The chief Thames bridges were freed from toll 24 
May, 1879, and 26 June, 1880. 


Triangular bridge at Croyland abbey referred to in 
a charter dated : , 2 : A 
A stone bridge erected at Bow, near Stratford, by 
queen Matilda : about 1100-18 
; . “ : - 1295 
London bridge : one existed about 978; one built 
of wood, ror4 ; one by Peter of Colechurch, 1176- 
1209 ; new bridge finished b : : a3 
The first large iron bridge erected over the Severn, 
Shropshire. Y : : ; . : : 
Sunderland bridge by Wilson, roo feet high, an 
arch with a span of 236 feet F : is 
The chain suspension bridge at Menai Strait . 


943 


1831 
1777 


1796 
+ 1325 


| Old Westminster, opened, 1750; old Blackfriars, 


1769 ; Waterloo, 1817 ; Southwark, 1819 ; Hunger- 
ford, 1845 ; Chelsea, 1858 ; Vauxhall, 1816. 
A railway bridge 2} miles long projected over the 
Firth of Forth (not executed) . a rl Bieter 
The very wide Victoria bridge, over the Thames (by 
which the London, Chatham and Dover railway 
enters the Victoria station, Pimlico) ; founded by 
lord Harris ‘ ; : : - 22 Feb. 
For details see separate articles, and also T'ubular 
bridge, Newcastle, Niagara, Victoria bridge, &e. 
New York and Brooklyn bridge, 5862 feet long; 
1600 central span ; 130 feet high ; July, 1872, et sey. 
Tay bridge (which see) 727), : . 1871-7 
The great railway bridge over the Severn (above 3 
mile long), connecting the Forest of Dean with 
Sharpness Point, the port of Gloucester (cost 
1,000,000/.), was formally opened 17 Oct. 1879 
Great railway bridge over the Volga, near Syzlan, 
Saratov government, built : A : 1877—80 
Suspension bridge from New York to Brooklyn 
(5989 feet long) opened 24 May, 1883 


BRIDGEWATER, Somersetshire, was incor- 
porated by king John, int200. In the war between 
Charles I. and the parliament, the king’s forces 
burnt part of the town, 1643. Here stood an an- 
cient castle in which the ill-advised duke of Mon- 
mouth lodged when proclaimed king in 1685. The 
town was disfranchised for bribery, 1870. 


BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great 
work of the kind in England, was begun by the 
duke of Bridgewater, the father of canal navigation 
in this country, in 1759, and opened 17 July, 1761. 
James Brindley was the engineer. It commences 
at Worsley, seven miles from Manchester; and at 
Barton Bridge is an aqueduct which, for upwards 
of 200 yards, conveys the canal across the river 
Irwell. The length of the canal is about; twenty- 
nine miles. 


BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. The rey. 
Francis, earl of Bridgewater, died in April, 1829, 
leaving by will 8,000/. to be given to the author or 
authors, appointed by the president of the Royal 
Society, who should write an essay ‘‘on the power, 
wisdom, and goodness of God, as manifested in the 
creation.”’ The essays (by sir Charles Bell, Drs. T. 
Chalmers, John Kidd, William Buckland, William 


K 


1864 


1865 


BRIER.” 1 
William | 


Prout, Peter M. Roget, and the revs 
Whewell and William Kirby) were published 1833- 


35: 


eR a weekly newspaper, began Noy. 
1877. 

BRIEFS are the letters of the pope despatched 
to princes and others on public affairs, and usually 
written short, without preface or pr eamble, and on 
paper; in which particulars they are distinguished 
from bulls. The latter are ample, and written on 
parchment. Briefs are sealed with red wax and 
the seal of the fisherman, or St. Peter in a boat, 
and always in the presence of the pope. The queen’s 
letters, called ‘ briefs,’’ authorising collections in 
churches for charitable purposes are now discon- 
tinued. A lawyer’s brief is an abridgment of his 
client’s case. 


BRIENNE (N. E. France). Here the allied 
armies of Russia and Prussia, under Bliicher, were 
defeated by the French, 29 Jan. 1814. 


BRIGANDAGE. See Italy, 1861 et seq.; 
Greece, 1870; Spain, 1870, and Turkey. 


BRIGHTON, formerly Brighthelmstone, a 


fishing town, Sussex, was made a place of fashion- 
able resort by the prince of Wales, afterwards 
George lV. See Population. 


At Shoreham, near Brighton, Charles II. embarked 


for France after the battle of Worcester sy LOSE 
Visit of the prince of Wales . + 1782 
He founded the Pavilion . : 1784 
It was greatly enlarged and made to resemble the 

Kremlin at Moscow, 1784- fae sold to the town 

for 53,000l. . 1849 
The Block-house swept. away . 26 March, 1786 
Part of the cliff fell; great damage . 16 Nov. 1807 
Chain-pier, 1134 feet long, 13 wide, completed . 1823 
Brighton made a parliamentary borough , . 1832 
The railway to London opened . . 21 Sept. 1841 
Collision of trains in Clayton tunnel, 23 bina 

killed and many injured 5 Aug. 1861 


Volunteer reviews here on Easter Monday s, Bao, -6—1870- 2 
New pier erected . : 1865-6 
Great aquar jum inaugur ated by prince Ar thur, 30 
Mar. ; and formally ‘opened by the mayor, ro Aug. 1872 
British "Associ ation meet here I4 Aug. 5 
Free library, museum, and picture gallery, opened 
12 Sept. 
Inauguration of statue of sir John Cordy Hae ale 
great benefactor to the town . 4 Feb. 
About 2000 French and Belgian singers en musi- 


1873 
1878 


cians meet 3 5s Sept. x188x 
Grand concert room, &c., burned - 8 Oct. 1882 
New town hall, Hor e, opened . ro Decale 
Electric railway tried 4 April, 1884 


Preston park (pur ‘chased for 60, cool. aided oy legacy 
from W. E. Davis) opened by the mayor 8 Nov. ,, 


BRILL or BRIE, Holland. A seaport, seized 
by the expelled Dutch confederates, became the 
seat of their independence, 1572. Brill, given up 
to the English in 1585 as security for advances 
pee Py queen Elizabeth to Holland, was restored 
in IOI 


BRISBANE, capital of Queensland, on the 
river Brisbane, Australia, was founded by Oxley, 
in 1823, and made a bishopric in 1859, when the 
colony was constituted. 


BRISSOTINS, see Girondists. 


BRISTOL (W. England), built by Brennus, a 
British prince, 380 B.c., is mentioned in A.D. 430as 
a fortified city. It was "called Caer Oder, a city in 
the valley of Bath; and, sometimes Caer Brito, the 
British city, and by the Saxons Brightstowe, plea- 
sant place. Gildas and Nennius speak of Bristol in 


| passed by Liverpool. 


0 BRITAIN. 


the 5th and 7th centuries. From the 12t} 
18th century it was, next to London, t 
flourishing port in England ; ; it has since b 
See under ope 
An industrial and fine art exhibition for § 
and Gloucester opened 2 Sept. 1884. See Poy 


Taken by the earl of Gloucester, in his defe 
of his sister Maud, the empress, against 
Stephen. 

Eleanor of Brittany (daughter of Geoffrey, $01 
Henry II.) dies in the castle after 39 re 
prisonment . 

St. Mary’s chureh built. : 

Bristol made a distinct county by Edw ard IIL. 

Bishopric founded by Henry VIII. . 

Taken by prince Rupert, 26 July, 1643 ; by Cromy 

Io & 

Edwd. Colston’s hospital, a free school, and ot 
charities established soe peta 13 Noy. k 
annually] ~ : : 

New charter . | 

Act passed for new exchange, 1723; erected ¢ 

Bread riots . : . A “i : 

Bridge built : ‘ XM 

Attempt to set the shipping on fire - 220 

Riot on account of a toll; the troops fire on 
populace, and many are wounded 25 ( 

Docks built 

Riot on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, 
recorder, into the city, he being opposed to 
reform bill ; the mansion house, the bish 
palace, several merchants’ stores, some of 
prisons (the inmates liberated), nearly roo hot 
burned, and above 500 persons killed by the n 
tary or ‘perished ; 29-31 ( 

Trial of rioters (four executed ; 22 ” transport 


2Jan.; suicide of col. Brereton, during trial 
court-martial : . -Q0 
Meeting of British Association . ‘ “ A 
Railway to London completed 30 Jl 
Clifton suspension-bridge opened. +) eae 
Industrial Exhibition opened 19 Si 


British Association, 2nd meeting 

Proposed foundation of a college for science 
literature here for the south and west of Engla 
meeting, 13 June, 18743; opened as as 
College. 

Great fire ; Clutterbuck’s, dr ys salters, ‘&e., itn 
tween 80, cool. and 100,000l. . Z 24-25 M 

Avonmouth dock opened : ; . Sa 


BRISTOL, SEE oF, one of the six bi 
erected by Henry VIII. out of the spoils of 
solved monasteries, 1542. The cathedral 
church of the abbey of St. Austin, founded 
Robert Fitz-Harding, son to a king of Denm: 
a citizen of Bristol, 1148. The see is value 
king’s books at 3387. 8s. 4d. Paul Bushe, pr 
of the Bons- hommes, was the first bishop, iz 
deprived for being married, 1554. The see 
tol was united by an order in council with 
Gloucester, in 1836, but was separated by ac 
in 1884. The cathedral (under repair sin 
Maly reopened in 1861; a new nave opened 
I 

BISHOPS OF BRISTOL. 
Hon. G. Pelham, translated to Exeter, 180 
John Luxmoore, translated to Hereford, 1 
Wm. Lort Mansell, died, 27 June, 1820. 
John Kaye, tr anslated to Lincoln, 1827. 
Robert Gray, died 28 Sept. 1834 
Joseph Allen, the last bishops translate 
in June, 1836. (In October the dioc 
united with Gloucester. ) 


BRITAIN (called by the Romans Brit 
from its Celtic name Prydhain, Camden) 


* The Romans eventually divided Britain int 
nia Prima (country south of the Thames and | 
Britannia Secunda.(Wales) ; Flavia Cesariensis | 
the Thames, Severn, and Humber) ; Maxima Co’ 
(between the Humber and Tyne) ; and Valentia ( 
the Tyne and Firth of Forth). 


1803. 
1807. 
1808. 
1820. 
1827. 
1834. 


BRITAIN. 131 


‘iest records of the history of this island are the 
iuscripts and poetry of the Cambrians. ‘The 
ts, the ancestors of the Britons and modern 
Ish, were the first inhabitants of Britain. It is 
red to as the Cassiterides or tin-islands by 
‘odotus, 450 B.c. ; as Albion and Ierne (England 
Treland) by Aristotle, 350 B.c., and Polybius, 
Bc. Britain, including England, Scotland, 
‘Wales, was anciently called Albion, the name 
ritain being applied to all the islands collec- 
ly—Albion to only one. Pliny; see Albion, 
land, Scotland, and Wales. ; 


488 


725- 
siacus, king of the Suessones, in Gaul, said to ».c. 
ve supremacy over part of Britain 57 


. 760. 
i invasion of Britain by the Romans, under 


794- 


lius Cesar . : ‘ : ; 26 Aug. 55 | 796. 
nd invasion ; he defeats Cassivelaunus, British 805. 
eral ; ; : : z : oh EP Ya Gee 
beline (Cunobelin), king of Britain wg 4 
'S Plautus defeats the Britons reAaDt AS 
nd Vespasian reduce 8. Britain 47 


stacus defeated by Ostorius, 50; carried in 
ains to Rome ; : : 6 : s 
aus defeated by Boadicea, queen of the Iceni ; 
ooo Slain, and London burnt: she is defeated 
Suetonius ; 80,000 slain : ‘ : A ic 
‘ola, governor, conquers Anglesey, and over- 
‘S Britain in seven campaigns, and reforms the 
ernment : : : : : P - 78-84 
efeats the Caledonians under Galgacus ; sur- 
ders the islands x ‘ s : F 
‘mperor Adrian visits Britain, 120; and builds 
‘all from the Tyne to the Solway : : 
is, king of the Britons, said to have sent an 
bassy on religious affairs to pope Eleutherius, 

about 
sritons (allies of Albinus) defeated at Lyons by 
erus 3 : : : 5 : : : 
iern Britain subdued and divided by the 
nans into two provinces. +4 ASD. 
us keeps his court at York, then called Ebora- 
1, 208 ; finishes his wall, and dies at York, 


491. 
514. 


648. 
686. 


84 


12I 


18r 519. 


534- 
560. 
591. 


597- 
611. 


197 


204 


4 Feb. arr ae 
sius usurps the throne of Britain - 286 672. 
killed by Allectus, another usurper : 204 
antius recovers Britain and kills Allectus 206 674. 
ban and 17,000 Christians martyred (Bede) 34 | 676 
untius, emperor of Rome, dies at York, 68 5. 
25 July, 306 
1 bishops at the council of Arles. : - 314 | 688 
and Picts invade Britain, 360; routed by ; 
»dosius 3 : ; , : = 368 728. 
1s gradually withdraw from Britain 402-436 740 
of Vortigern : : : : ert? 75 4. 
‘xons and Angles aid in expelling the Picts j 
Scots : : : P : : 429 
mans quit Britain . . : ; eee 755 
nglo-Saxon invaders drive the Britons into F 
S ° : coe ge te . 449-455 784. 
Britons settle in Armorica (Brittany) - 388-457 
xon Heptarchy ; Britain divided into seven 856 
ore kingdoms : : : : cos 457 : 
vades South Britain, 477; founds kingdom 
issex é : i : . 5 : me e4OX 
ied reigns of Vortimer, 464; Vortigern again, 
Aurelius Ambrosius, 481 ; and Arthur Pen- 
pie ; . : ; . : 500 | 526, 
saxon invasion under Cerdic : - + 495 | 587. 
towned king Arthur said to reign . + 500-532 | 597. 
of St. Augustin (or Austin), and re-establish- 614. 
of Christianity . : : A : ; 507 
lader, last king of the Britons, reigns . 678 | 623. 
arne church destroyed by the Northmen. 794 | 655. 
king of Wessex, virtually KING OF ENGLAND 827 


66x. 


INGS OF THE HEPTARCHY,* see Bretwalda. 663. 


Kent. [The shire of Kent.] 
ingist. [473, Saxon Chronicle.] 


693. 
yore) 


7°9- 

: i 738: 

term “Octarchy” is sometimes used ; North- | 792. 
being divided into Bernicia and Deira, separate | 799. 


is, 823. 


512. 


542. 
560. 


616. 
640. 
664. 
673. 
685. 
694. 


748. 


West Saxons. 


BRITAIN. 
vi Riel CE EL BS WME T aL Nas dS 0 EE one 


. Hise, Esca, or Escus, son of Hengist ; in honour of 
whom the kings of Kent were for some time called 
ZEscings. 

Octa, son of Aise. 

Hermenric, or Ermenric, son of Octa. 

St. Ethelbert ; first Christian king (styled 
Anglorwm). 

Eadbald, son of Ethelbert. 

Ercenbert, or Ercombert, son of Eadbald. 

Ecbert, or Egbert, son of Ercenbert. 

Lothar, or Lothair, brother of Ecbert. 

Edric ; slain in 687. [The kingdom now subject to 
various leaders. ] 

Wihtred, or Wihgtred. 


Rex 


Eadbert, : : 
Ethelbert IL., Lsons of Mi eee succeeding 
lric, : p 


Edbert, or Ethelbert Pryn 
Cuthred, or Guthred. 
Baldred ; who lost his life 
EGBERT, king of Wessex. 


; deposed. 


and kingdom to 


Souru Saxons. [Sussex and Surrey. ] 


Ella, a warlike prince, succeeded by 

Cissa, his son, whose reign was long and peaceful, 
exceeding 70 years. 

[The South Saxons then fell into an almost total de- 
pendence on the kingdom of Wessex. ] 

Edilwald, Edilwach, Adelwach, or Ethelwach. 

Authun and Berthun, brothers ; reigned jointly ; 
vanquished by Ina, king of Wessex, 689 ; kingdom 
conquered in 725, 


(Berks, Hampshire, W ilts, 
Dorset, Devon, and port of Cornwall.} 


Cerdie. 

Cynric, or Kenrie, son of Cerdie. 

Ceawlin, son of Cynric ; banished ; dies in 593. 

Ceolric, nephew to Ceawlin. 

Ceolwulf. 

he ee and in 
Cwichelm, his son, reigned jointly. 

Cenwal, Cenwalh, or Cenwald. 

Sexburga, his queen, sister to Penda, king of Mer- 
cia ; of great qualities ; probably deposed. 

Esewine,; with Centwine ; on his death, 

Centwine rules alone. 
Cedwallo: went to Roi 
blood, and died there. 
Ina or Inas, a brave and wise ruler ; journeyed to 

Rome ; left an excellent code of laws. 

Ethelheard, or Ethelard, related to Ina. 

Cuthred, brother to Ethelheard, 

Sigebright, or Sigebert, having murdered his friend 
Cumbran, governor of Hampshire, was slain by 
one of his victim’s retainers. 

Cynewulf, or Kenwulf, or Cenulpe, a noble youth 
of the line of Cerdie ; murdered, 

Bertric, or Beorhtric ; poisoned by drinking of a 
cup his queen had prepared for another. 

EcxBert, afterwards sole monarch of England, and 
Bretwalda. 


Somerset, 


ne, to expiate his deeds of 


East Saxons. [Essex, M iddlesex, and part of Herts.] 


527, Or 530, Erchenwin, or Erchwine. 

Sledda; his son. 

St. Sebert, or Sabert ; son ; first Christi 

Saxred or Sexted, or Se 
and Seward ; all slain. 

Sigebert II. surnamed the little ; 

Sigebert III. surnamed th 
put to death. 

Swithelm (or Suidhelm), son of Sexbald. 

Sigher, or Sigeric, jointly with Sebbi, or Sebba, who 
became a monk. 

Sigenard, or Sigehard, and Suenfrid. 

Offa ; became a monk at Rome. 

Suebricht, or Selred. 

Swithred, or Swithed ; a long reign. 

Sigeric ; died ina pilgrimage tu Rome. 

Sigered. 

Kingdom seized by Ecgerr of Wessex. 


kK 2 


an king. 
rred, jointly with Sigebert 


son of Seward. 
e good ; brother of Sebert : 


> 


BRITAIN. 


132 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 


NorrHuMspia. [Lancaster, York, Cumberland, Westmore- 


land, Durham, and Northumberland. ] 


*,* Northumbria was at first divided into two govern- 


547- 
560. 


9? 


567. 
572. 
573: 
580. 
588. 


593- 
617. 


634. 


635. 
642, 
670. 
685. 
705. 
716. 
718. 
729. 
737: 
757- 
759: 
765. 
774- 
778. 
789. 
790. 
794: 
806. 
808. 
809. 
841. 


571 


578. 
599- 


624. 
627. 
629. 
632. 
635. 
654. 
655- 
664. 
713. 
7406. 
749- 
758. 
761. 
790- 


870. 


MERCIA. 


East ANGLES. 
526. 


ments, Bernicia and Deira; the former stretching 
from the Tweed to the Tyne, and the latter from the 
Tyne to the Humber. 


Ida, a valiant Saxon. 

Adda, his eldest son ; king of Bernicia. 

Ella, king of Deira; afterwards the sole king of 
Northumbria (to 587). 

Glappa, Clappa, or Elapea: Bernicia. 

Heodwulf; Bernicia. 

Freodwulf ; Bernicia. 

Theodoric ; Bernicia. 

Ethelric ; Bernicia. 

Ethelfrith, surnamed the Fierce. 

Edwin, son of Ella, king of Deira in 590; a great 
prince. Slain in battle with Penda, of Mercia. 

Eanfrid rules in Bernicia, and Osric in Deira ; both 
put to death. 

Oswald slain in battle. 

Osweo, or Oswy ; a reign of great renown. 

Ecfrid, or Egfrid, king of Northumbria. 

Alcfrid, or Ealdferth. 

Osred, or Ealdferth. 

Cenric ; sprung from Ida. 

Osric, son of Alefrid. 

Ceolwulf ; died a monk. 

Eadbert, or Egbert ; retired to a monastery. 

Oswulf, or Osulf ; slain in a sedition. 

Edilwald, or Mollo ; slain by Alred 

Alred, Ailred, or Alured ; deposed 

Ethelred, son of Mollo ; expelled. 

Elwald, or Celwold ; deposed and slain. 

Osred, son of Alred ; fled. 

Ethelred restored ; afterwards slain. 

Erdulf, or Ardulf ; deposed. 

Alfwold. 

Erdulf restored. 

Eanred. 

Kingdom annexed by EGBERT. 


[Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Ely.} 

Uffa lands. 

or 575. Utta; a German, said to be first king. 

Titilus, or Titulus ; son of Uffa. 

Redwald, son of Titilus ; the greatest prince of the 
East Angles. 

Erpwald, Eorpwald, or Eordwald. 

Richbert. 

Sigebert, half-brother to Erpwald. 

Egfrid, or Egric ; cousin to Sigebert. 

Anna, or Annas ; a just ruler ; killed. 

Ethelric, or Ethelhere ; slain in battle. 

Ethelwald ; his brother. 

Aldulf, or Aldwulf. 

Selred, or Ethelred. 

Alphwuld. 

Beorna and Ethelred, jointly. 

Beorna alone. 

Ethelred. 

Ethelbert, or Ethelbryght; treacherously put to 
death in Mercia in 792, when Offa, king of Mercia, 
overran the country, which was finally subdued by 
EGBERT. 

St. Edmund (vassal king) slain by the Danes. 


(Gloucester, Hereford, Chester, Stafford, Worces- 
ter, Oxford, Salop, Warwick, Derby, Leicester, 
Bucks, Northampton, Notts, Lincoln, Bedford, Rut- 
land, Huntingdon, and part of Herts.] 


. Crida, or Cridda, a noble chieftain. 

. [Interregnum—Ceolric. ] 

. Wibba, a valiant prince, his son. 

. Ceorl, or Cheorl ; nephew of Wibba. 

. Penda ; fierce and cruel; killed in battle. 

. Peada, son of Penda ; killed to make way for 

. Wulfhere (brother) ; slew his two sons. 

. Ethelred ; became a monk. 

. Cenred, or Cendred ; became a monk at Rome. 
. Ceolred, Celred, or Chelred ; son of Ethelred. 
. Ethelbald ; slain in a mutiny by his successor, 
. Beornred, or Bernred ; himself slain. 


Offa ; formed the great dyke near Wales. 


. Egfrid, or Egferth, son of Offa ; died suddenly. 


Cenulph Cenwulf, or Kenulph ; slain. 


819. Kenelm, or Cenelm, a minor ; reigned five 
killed by his sister Quendreda. 

Ceolwulf, uncle to Kenelm; expelled. 

Beornwulf ; killed by his own subjects. 

Ludecan ; a valiant ruler ; slain 

Withlafe, or Wiglaf. 

Berthulf, or Bertulf. 

Burhred, or Burdred. 

Ceolwulph ; deposed by the Danes, 877. 


[The kingdom merged into that of Englan 


BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRID( 
Tubular Bridge. 


BRITANNY, see Britiany. 


BRITISH, see Architects ; Antiquaries 
Joint Stock; Guiana, Honduras, Nationa 
cal, Orphans, Societies. 


BRITISH AMERICA (see Americ 
prises the dominion of Canada, Nova Scot: 
Brunswick, Newfoundland and Prince F 
Island, Labrador, British Columbia and Van 
Island. Population 4,324,810 (1881). 


Delegates from the first six provinces met at Q 
ro Oct., and agreed to the basis of a Federa 
with the queen as the executive (represente: 
governor-general), a legislative council of 96: 
for life, and a house of commons of 194 mem 
Oct. 1864. 

The secretary for the colonies, Mr. Cardwell, e 
his approval of the plan, 3 Dec. 1864. 

The plan opposed by New Brunswick, 7 March, 

Messrs. Cartier and Galt came to England to ad) 
April, 1865. 

Act for the union of Canada, Nova Scotia, a 
Brunswick, under the name of ‘“‘ the dom 
Canada,” brought into parliament by the earl 
narvon, 19 Feb., passed 29 March, 1867. 

(The British government guaranteed a sul 
3,000,000l. to complete the intercolonial railw: 

By the British North America act, the parlia 
Canada may establish new provinces, 29 June, 


BRITISH AND FOREIGN—Bible | 
established 1804 (see under Bible) ; School } 
1808 ;—Sailors’ Society, 1818. 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION for the A 
ment of Science, was established by sir 
Brewster, sir R. I. Murchison, &c., in 1831 
fessor John Phillips was secretary till 1863. . 
annual meetings; the first of which was 
York on 27 Sept. 1831. One of its main ob 
‘*to promote the intercourse of those who ¢' 
seience with each other.’ It appoints comn 
and makes pecuniary grants for scientific re 
and publishes annually a volume containing 
of the proveedings. Kew observatory prese 


821. 
823. 
825. 
838. 
852. 
874. 


| the association by the queen in 1842. Supe 


dents, Francis Ronalds, the first; John 
1852; Balfour Stewart, 1859. It was purch: 
the Royal Society by Mr. J. P. Gassiot, in 1° 


1. York Meeting . . 1831 | 21. Ipswich . 
2. Oxford . - 1832 | 22. Belfast. 
3. Cambridge . 1833 | 23. Hull a) 
4. Edinburgh . . 1834 | 24. Liverpool (2nd) 
5. Dublin . 1835 | 25. Glasgow (2nd). 
6. Bristol . 2 . 1836 | 26. Cheltenham. 
7. Liverpool. . 1837] 27. Dublin(end) .« 
8. Newcastle . 1838 | 28. Teed Sam 
g. Birmingham . 1839 | 29. Aberdeen. 
10. Glasgow . 1840 | 30. Oxford (3rd). 
rz. Plymouth . 1841 | 31. Manchester (20 
12. Manchester . . 1842 | 32. Cambridge (3rd) 
13. Cork . . . 1843] 33. Newcastle (2nd) 
14. York (2nd time) . 1844| 34. Bath . = 
15. Cambridge (2nd). 1845 | 35. Birmingham (3! 
16. Southampton . 1846 | 36. Nottingham. 
17. Oxford (2nd) . 1847 | 37. Dundee 
18. Swansea . 1848 | 38. Norwich 
19. Birmingham (2nd) 1849} 39. Exeter . - 
20. Edinburgh (2nd) . 1850 | 40. Liverpool (3rd) 


a 


el 


BRITISH COLUMBIA. 133 BRITISH MUSEUM. 
dinburgh (grd) . 1871 | 50. Swansea (2nd). 1880 BRITISH MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, 
righton . 1872 | 51. York (3rd) Jubilee 1881 | see Medical. 
radford . . 1873] 52, Southampton ; ; 
elfast (2nd). 1874 (end) 23 Aug. 1882; BRITISH MUSEUM, originated with the 
ristol fend). 2.1875, | 53- Southport 1g Sept. 1883 grant by parliament (5 April, 17 53) of 20,0004. to the 
sasgow (ard). 1870) 54. Montreal 2884 daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in payment for his 
ieee ee tea} 55+ Aberdeen (2nd) . 1285 fine library, and vast collection of the productions of 
ublin (3rd) . 1878 | 56. Birmingham . . 1886 Y> 3 the p 3 
neffield . . 1879 nature and art, which had cost him 50,000/. The 


ISIDENTS.—r. Viscount Milton; 2. Dr. Buckland; 
of. Sedgwick ; 4. Sir Thos. Brisbane; 5. Provost 
olomew Lloyd; 6. Marquis of Lansdowne; 7. Earl 
rlington ; 8. Duke of Northumberland ; g. Rev. W. 
n Harcourt; ro. Marquis of Breadalbane ; 11. Pro- 
Whewell; r2. Lord Francis Egerton: 13. Earl of 
; 14. Dean Peacock; 15. Sir J. F. W. Herschel ; 
rR. L Murchison ; 17. Sir R. H. Inglis; 18. Mar- 
f Northampton ; 19. Rev. Dr. T. R. Robinson ; 20. 
. Brewster. ar. Prot. G, B. Airy; 22. Col. E. 
2; 23. Mr. W. Hopkins; 24. Earl of Harrowby ; 
ike of Argyll; 26. Dr. C. G. B. Daubeny; 27. Rev. 
uumphry Lloyd; 28. Prof. R. Owen; 29. Prince 
1; 30. Lord Wrottesley; 31. Wm. Fairbairn ; 32. 
%. Willis ; 33. Sir Wm. Armstrong; 34. Sir Charles 
- 35. Prof. John Phillips; 36. W. R. Grove; 37. 
of Buccleuch ; 38. Dr. J. D. Hooker; 39. Prof. 
Stokes; 40. Prof. T. H. Huxley; 4r. Sir Wm. 
ion; 42. Dr. W. B. Carpenter; 43. Prof. A. W. 
nson ; 44. Prof. J. Tyndall; 4s. Sir John Hawk- 
46. Prof. Thos. Andrews; 47. Prof. Allen Thom- 
8. Dr. Wm. Spottiswoode ; 49. Dr. G. Allman; 
of. A. C* Ramsay; 51. Sir J. Lubbock; 52. Dr. 
. Siemens ; 53. A. Cayley ; 54. Lord Rayleigh ; 55. 
on Playfair, 


ITISH COLUMBIA (N. America). In 
1858, news came to California that in April 
ad been found in abundance on the mainland 
th America, a little to the north and east of 
aver’s Island. A great influx of gold-diggers 
ew weeks above 50,000) from all parts was 
nsequence; and Mr. Douglas, governor of 
iver’s Island, evinced much ability in pre- 
sorder, The territory with adjacent islands 
ide a British colony with the above title, and 
under Mr. Douglas. The colony was nomi- 
ind the government settled by 21 & 22 Vict. 
Aug. 1858), and a bishop nominated in 1859. 
by the marquis of Lorne and _ princess 
20 Sept. 1882.—For a dispute in July, 1859, 
ited States. Vancouver’s Island was incor- 
. with the colony in 1866, and Victoria was 
ne capital, 24 May, 1868. Recent governors: 
ck Seymour, 1864; Anthony Musgrave, 1869; 
Trutch, 1871; hon. C. F. Cornwall. The 
was annexed to Canada, 1871. 
s with Canada respecting the non-construc- 
frailways, middle of , : , : 
‘ lord Dufferin, gov.-gen. of Canada; well 
edat Victoria. 15 Aug, 


‘TISH GUIANA, sce Guiana. 


TISH INSTITUTION (for the encour- 
it of British artists, Pall-mall, founded in 
pened 18 Jan. 1806, on a plan formed by sir 
s Bernard. In the gallery (erected by alder- 
ydell, to exhibit the paintings executed for 
ion of Shakspeare), were from time to time 
od pictures by the old masters, deceased 
artists and others, till 1867, when the lease 
remises expired. The fund of 16,2002. in the 
f earl Powis and other trustees, to be devoted 
romotion of the fine arts, had accumulated 
00. in 1884. 


TISH LEGION, raised by lord 
Lacy Evans, and others to assis 
Spain against the Carlists in 1 


>? 


John Hay, 
t queen Isa- 
835, defeated 
t. Sebastian’ 8, 


library contained 50,000 volumesand valuable MSS., 
and 69, 332 articles of virti enumerated in the cata- 
logue. Montagu-house was obtained by government 
as a place for their reception. The museum (includ- 
ing the Cottonian, Harleian, and other collections) 
was opened 15 Jan. 1759, and has since been enor. 
mously increased by gifts, bequests, and purchases.t 
The old royal library was given by George II. 
He 77 . A list of the more important additions is given 
elow. 


New buildings erected by sir R. Smirke 
Iron railing completed : : : - 1852 
The great reading-room erected by Sydney Smirke, 
according to a plan by Mr. Antonio Panizzi, the 
librarian (cost about r50,000l. ; height of dome, 
1o6 feet; diameter, 140 feet; contains about 
80,000 volumes, and accommodates 300 readers), 


. 1823-47 


opened to public : ; : * 18 May, 1857 
Incorporation of the four library catalogues into one 
alphabet begun ; three copies made : . 1861 
The proposed separation of the antiquarian, literary, 
and scientific collections, was disapproved by a 
commission in 1860; and a bill to remove the 
natural history collections to South Kensington 
rejected by the commons 1g May, 1862 
A refreshment room for readers opened 21 Nov. 1864 
Number of books (estimated) 1,600,000 Jan. 1870 
f ae Be 1,350,000(50,000 MSS.) 1884 
6oool. vote for a Natural History Museum at South 
Kensington : : : : : 2 Aug. 1870 
Photographs of above 5000 objects of antiquity 
(supplying evidence of man’s progress in civilisa- 
tion), published for about 116l. . Aug. 1872 
Castellani collection of gold ornaments, gems, 5 
bronzes, &c., purchased for 52,0001... + 2 87293 
Act of Parliament authorising removal of natural 
history collections to South Kensington ; passed 
' 13 Aug. 1878 
The Museum partly opened daily after 11 Feb. 1879 
Electric light tried in the reading-room, 25 Feb. et 
seq. ; adopted for evenings in the winter months 
20 Oct. ,, 
The White bequest (60,000l.) ; ‘< : - 1880 
The new British Museum for Natural History, Crom- 
well-road, South Kensington ; building completed 
INOVse ss 
Part of the collection removed and opened to the 
public, Easter Monday ‘ 2 18 April 1881 
John Gould’s humming-birds, &e., bought April, ,, 
New buildings in Montague-street, founded (by 
means of Mr. Wm. White’s legacy of 63,9411.) 
23 Sept. 1882 
New Assyrian room (including Mr, Rassam’s col- 
lection) opened : ; . : Jan. 1884 
New catalogue printing, 74 volumes ready Dec. 1884 


IMPORTANT ADDITIONS (bought or given). (Edwards.) 


Those marked * were gifts or bequests. 
*Solomon Da Costa, Hebrew Library , : mum Gate 
*G. Thomason, collection (political) from Geo. III. 1762 
*Solander, fossils . 3 . : , 1766 
*Birch, library and MSS. . ey) 


ent 


+ The total expenditure by the government on the 
British Museum for the year ending 31 March, 1860, was 
78,4451. ; 1861, 92,7761. ; 1864, 95,500l. ; 1867, 110,756. $ 
1877, 108,9471.; 1884, 152,133/. The number of visitors to 
the general collection in 1851 (exhibition year), 2,524,7543 
in 1859, 517,895 ; in 1862 (exhibition year), 895,007; in 
1863,440,801 ; in 1866, 516,550; 1871, 418,094} 1875, 663,891 $ 
in 3878, 448,516; in 1879, 606,3943 in 1880, 665,688 ; 
in 1882, 767,402; in 1883, 660,557. Additions to library 
in 1880, 27,543 volumes and pamphlets (including books 


Hernani, 5 May, 1836, andat S 


of music and volumes of newspapers.) Expenditure on 
purchases, 1753—1875, 1,070,934l. Readers in 1883,152,983. 


Hamilton vases, &e. 
*Musgrave library . 


*Grenville library, collected by right hon. Thos. 


John I., duke, 1237 ; John IT. 
John III. » 1372; dies without issue. 
The succession disputed between John of Montfort 


John VL., duke, 1399: Francis I. 


BRITISH ORCHESTRAL SOCIETY. 134 


Halicarnassian and Cnidian marbles (by ©. dt Newton) 


*Slade collection (glass, &c.) 


*Mr. George Smith’s (of Daily Telegr aph) Assyrian 


1790-99 
*Cracherode library . 1799 
Hatchett minerals. BL 
*Alexandrian collection (from Geo. III. i. . 1802 
Townley marbles 2 1805-17 
Lansdowne MSS. . . 1804 
Greville minerals > LOLO 
Roberts, English coins . ap 
Hargrave library 5 ita ae) 
Phigaleian marbles . 1815 
Elgin marbles . 1816 
Burney library . 1818 
*Banks’ arch: vological collections ; 
*King George III.’s library, given by George IV. 1823- 5 
*Payne Knight’ s collections . 1824 
*Sir J. Banks’ library and collections . . 1827 
*HKeerton MSS. : . 1829 
*Arundelian MSS. . . 1831 
Mantell, fossils . 1839 
Syriac MSS. . 1841- 7 
*Lycian marbles (by sir C. Fellows) ey iS45 


Grenville (20,240 vols.) - 1847 
Morrison’s Chinese library f * 
Assyrian collections (by A. Lay ard) | . 1851- 60 


1855-60 

Carthaginian antiquities (by N. Davis) - 1859 
Cyrene marbles (by Smith and Porcher) . 1860 
Cureton, Oriental MSS. . . 1864 
Duke of Blacas’ museum (bought for 48, cool. ¥) . 1866 
*Abyssinian antiquities é : - 1868 


3? 


collections ore 73 
*Elamite antiquities, by col. Ross : . 1876 
*Urns, implements, ornaments, &c., from "234 

British barrows (see Barrows), by” rev. canon 

Greenwell. : - 1879 
About 300 Baby lonian tablets pur chased June 1882 

PRINCIPAL LIBRARIANS. 
Dr. Gowin Knight « 1753 
Dr. Matthew Maty - 1772 
Dr. Charles Morton - 1776 
Joseph Planta - 1799 
Henry Ellis - 1827 
Antonio Panizzi - 1856 
J. Winter Jones . é 1866 
Edward Augustus Bond “Aug. 1878 


BRITISH ORCHESTRAL SOCIETY, 


established 1872. 


BRITTANY, BRITANNY, or BRETAGNE 


(N. W. France), the ancient Armorica (which see,) 


formed part of the kingdom of the Franks. 


Nomenoé revolts and becomes the first count . 
Brittany ravaged by Northmen, bats 
Geoffroy I., the first duke . 

Alan V., 1008 Conan IL. 

Hoel V., 1066 ; Alan VI. 

Conan II]. . 

Hoel VI. expelled ; Geoffroy ‘of Anjou duke 


ceded to them 


Conan IV. duke, 1156; on the death of Geoffroy, 
cedes Brittany to Henry If. of England, and 
betrothes his daughter, Constance, to Henry’s son, 
Geoffroy (both infants) 

Geoffroy succeeds, 1171 ; 

His son, Arthur, 
England ; his daughter, 
Bristol (for 39 years) 


killed at a tournament 


Eleanor, imprison ed at 
April, 


Alice, daughter of Constance - by her second hus- 


band, Guy de Thours, proclaimed duchess, 1203 ; 
marries Peter of Dreux, made duke . . A 


(John LY.) supported by Edward of England, and 
Charles of Blois, made duke by Philip VI. of 
France. John is made prisoner ; his wife, Jane, 
besieged at Hennebonne, holds out, and is re- 
lieved by the English, 1343; John dies 


Charles of Blois defeated and slain at ane a Sept. ; 


John V., son of Montfort, duke 


841 
g2t 
992 


b 1040 
- 1084 
- II1I2 


Im55 


- II59 
= iTos 
murdered by his uncle, John of 


1203 


7 1253 
- 1286 


1341 


+ 1345 


- 1364 
- 1442 


BRONZE. 


- 1772 | Peter IL., 1450 ; Arthur III. . 


Francis I. , 1458; takes part with the Orleanists j in 
France; defeated at St. Aubin, 28 July, 1488 ; die 

Anne, his daughter, and heiress, marries rst 
Charles VIII. of France, I4QI 3 ond, Louis XII. 
1499; her eldest daughter, Claude (born 1490) 
marries Francis, count of Angouléme, 1514; kin 
of France 1 Jan 

Brittany formally united to the monarchy . 

Brittany held by the Spaniards, r5o9x ; recovered b 
Henry IV. 5 

The Bretons take part i in the Vendean | insumeetio 
(see La Vendée) in 


BRITTON, an ancient treatise on Eneli 
written in French by or in the name of king > EK 
I. about 1291. Coke attributed the work to J« 
Breton, bishop of Hereford, who died in 127s. 
edition of ‘« Britton,” with a translation int 
by Mr. F. Nicholls, was published in 186s. 


BROAD ARROW. All attempts to ase. 
the origin of this mark have been fruitless. 
stated that timber trees fit for shipping i 
forest of Dean in 1639 were marked with the , 
and broad arrow. It is said to have been the < 
of viscount Sydney, earl of Romney, master gx 
of the ordnance, 1693-1702. Brewer. 


‘BROAD BOTTOM” ADMINIS) 
TION. The Pelham administration (whic. 
was socalled becauseformed by a coalition of p: 
Nov. 1744. 


BROAD CHURCH SCHOOL i 
Church of England, whose members reject 
tional beliefs and substitute what has been t 
‘“negative theology.’’ It became prominent 
1836, through the lectures of Dr. Hampden 
still more through the ‘“ Theological Essay: 
Mr. F. D. Maurice in 1853; the “ Essay 
Reviews”? (which see) in 1860; and the wo 
bishop Colenso on the Pentateuch, &e., 1862, ¢ 
and of abp. Whately (1 -87-1863), Aug. Wn 
Julius C. Hare, Dr. Arnold, dean Stanley, 
Kingsley, and others. 


BROCADE, a silken stuff, variegated wit 
or silver, and enriched with flowers and fi 
originally made by the Chinese; the manuf: 
was established at Lyons in 1757. 


BROCCOLI, said to have been brought te 
land from Italy in the 16th century. 


BROKERS, both of money and mercha 
were known early in England. See Appr 
They are licensed, and their dealings regulat 
law in 1695-6, 1816, and 1826. ‘The deali 
stockbrokers were regulated i in 1719, 1733, and 
and subsequently ; see Pawnbroker, and Bar 
Act. Brokers in the city of London . pla 
the supervision of the lord mayor and alde 
in 1707, were relieved from it by an act pa 
Aug. 1870. 

BROMINE (from the Greek drdmos, a s 
a poisonous volatile liquid element discove 
salt water by M. Balard in 1826. It is fo 
combination with metals and mineral waters. 


BROMLEY COLLEGE, Kent, founc 
1666, for widows of clergy of the chureh of En: 
residence and pension. 


BRONZE was known to the ancients, § 
whose bronze statues, vessels, &c., are in the | 
Museum. The bronze equestrian statue of 
XIV., 1699, in the Place Vendéme at Paris (« 
ished’ 10 Aug. 1792), the most colossal ever } 
it contained “60,000 lbs. Bronze is compo 
copper and tin, with sometimes a little zin 
lead. The present bronze coinage, penny, 

\ 


BROOKLYN. 


y, and farthing (composed of 95 parts of copper. 
‘ 1 zinc), came into circulation Dec. 1860. 
2O0OOKLYN, see New York, 1876 and 1883. 
200KS8S’S CLUB, first a gaming club in 
‘Mall kept by Almack and afterwards by 
<s in 1764, gradually became the Whig club, 
vas removed to St. James’s Street in 1778. 


,OUGHAM, a popular vehicle said te have 
invented in 1839, and so named in consequence 
adoption by lord Brougham. Brougham’s Act, 
14 Vict. e. 21; see Acts, and Bankrupt. 


tOWN INSTITUTION, Battersea, with a 
tal for quadrupeds and birds useful to man, esta- 
ed by means of a bequest of Thomas Brown of 
in; opened 2 Dec. 1871. First professor, Dr. 
on-Sanderson ; Dr. Greenfield, professor, Dec., 
; Dr. C. 8. Roy, professor, 1885. 


20 W'S INSURRECTION, see United 
s, 1859. 

ROWNIAN MOTION. So called from 
‘t Brown, the celebrated botanist, who in 1827, 
e aid of the microscope, observed in drops of 
. motion of minute particles which at first was 
uted to rudimentary life, but was afterwards 
od to be due to currents occasioned by inequali- 
f temperature and evaporation. 


LOWNING SOCIETY, for the study and 
ssion on the works of Robert Browning, inau- 
ed at University college, London, 28 Oct. 


,OWNISTS or BarrowlistTs, the first In- 
dents (which see), named after Kobert Brown, 
oolmaster in Southwark, about 1580. Henry 
y, Henry Barrow, and other Brownists, were 
y executed for alleged sedition, 29 May, 1593. 


-UCH’S TRAVELS. James Bruce, the 
‘ssinian traveller,” set out in June, 1768, to 
er the source of the Nile. Proceeding first te 
he navigated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed 
sert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jedda, 
| some months in Arabia Felix, and after 
is detentions reached Gondar, the capital of 
inia, in Feb. 1770. On 14 Nov. 1770, he ob- 
la sight of the sources of the Blue Nile. He 
ied to England in 1773, and died 27 April, 1794. 


‘UGEHS, Belgium, in the 7th century was 
1 of Flanders, and in the 13th and 14th cen- 
almost the commercial metropolis of the world. 
fered much through an insurrection in 1488, 
1e consequent repression. It was subjected to 
e in 1794, to the Netherlands in 1814, and to 
im in 1830. 


rt REVOLUTION, see Diree- 
99. 


/UNANBURG (supposed by some to be near 

Northumberland). Anlaf, with an army of 
men from Ireland, and Constantine III. king 
ts landed at the mouth of the Humber, and 
lefeated with very great slaughter at Brunan- 
oy Athelstan, 937. 


UNDISIUM (now Brindisi), s. Italy, a 
city, taken by the Romans, B.c. 267; and 
a colony, 244. Here Virgil died 22 Sept. 


UNN, capital of Moravia, since 1641; was 
d by the French under Murat, 18 Noy. 1805, 
y the Prussians, 13 July, 1866. 


UNSWICK CLUBS, established to main- 
1e house of Hanover and the Protestant as- 
icy in church and state, began in England at 


135 


| Guelph of Bavaria; see Bavaria. 


BRUNSWICK. 


| Maidstone, 18 Sept. 1828 ; in Ireland at the Rotunda 


in Dublin, 4 Noy. same year. Other cities formed 


similar clubs. 


BRUNSWICK, Hovssz or. The duchy of 
Brunswick, in Lower Saxony, was conquered by 
Charlemagne, and governed afterwards by counts 
and dukes. Albert-Azzo II. marquis of Italy and 
lord of Este, died in 1097, and left by his wife Cune- 
gonde:(the heiress of Guelph duke of Carinthia in 
Bavaria), a son, Guelph, who was invited into Ger- 
many by Imitza, his mother-in-law, and invested 
with all the possessions of his wife’s step-father, 
His descendant, 
Henry the Lion, married Maud, daughter of Henry 
II. of England, and was the founder of the Bruns- 
wick family. His dominions were very extensive ; 
but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick 
Barbarossa in a war against pope Alexander III., 
through the emperor’s resentment he was proscribed 
at the diet at Wurtzburg, in 1180. The duchy of 
Bavaria was given to Otho of Wittelsbach, ancestor 
of the family of Bavaria; the duchy of Saxony to 
Bernard Ascanius, founder of the house of Anhalt; 
and his other territories to different persons. On 
this, he retired to England; but at the intercession 
of our Henry II. Brunswick and Luneburg were 
restored to him. The house of Brunswick in 1409 
divided into several branches. Brunswick was in- 
cluded by Napoleon in the kingdom of Westphalia 
in 1806, but was restored to the duke in 181 aa 
Population of the duchy of Brunswick in 1871, 
312,170; 1875, 327,493. . Brunswick joined the 
North German Confederation, 18 Aug. 1866. 


DUKES OF BRUNSWICK. 
Henry, duke of Bavaria. 
Henry the Lion (son). 
Henry the Long and William (sons). 
Otho I. (son of William). 
Albert I. (son of preceding). 
Albert IT. (son). 
Otho, Magnus I., and Ernest (sons). 
Magnus II. (Torquatus) (son of Magnus I.) 


DUKES OF BRUNSWICK-WOLFENBUTTEL. 
First Branch. 

Henry I. (son of Magnus II.) 

William I. and Henry II. (sons). 

Frederic and William II. “178 

Henry ITI. and Hrie sons of William I. 

Henry IV. (son of Henry II.) 

Julius (son of preceding). 

Henry Julius (son). 

Frederic-Ulvic (son), died without issue. 

Second Branch. 

Augustus (son of Henry of Luneburg). 

Rodolph-Augustus ; who associated his next brother, 
Anthony-Ulric, in the government, from 1685 ; 
died, 1704. 

Anthony-Ulric now ruled alone; became a Roman 
Catholic in 1710; died in 1714. 

Augustus- William (son). 

Lewis-Rodolph (brother). 

Ferdinand-Albert, duke of Brunswiek-Bevern, 
married Antoinette-Amelia, daughter of Lewis- 
Rodolph, and succeeded him. 

Charles (son). 

Charles-William-Ferdinand (son); a great general 
(served under his uncle Ferdinand in the Seven 
Years’ War, 1756-1763); married princess Augusta 
of England ; was mortally wounded at the battle 
of Auerstadt, 14 Oct., and died 10 Noy. 1806; suc- 
ceeded by his fourth son (his elder sons being 
blind, abdicated). 

William-Frederick, whose reign may be dated from 
the battle of Leipsic in Oct., 1813; fell at Quatre- 
Bras, commanding the avantgarde under the duke 
of Wellington, 16 June, 1815 ; succeeded by his 
eldest son. 

Charles-Frederick-William ; (very eccentric), as- 
sumed government 30 Oct. 1823. [Revolution at 
Brunswick ; the duke (declared incapable of 
reigning by the German diet) retired to England, 


1136. 
1139. 
1195. 
1213. 
1252. 
1278, 
1318. 
1368. 


1409. 
1416. 
1482. 
1495- 
I514. 
1568. 
1589. 
1613. 


1634. 
1666. 


1704. 
1714. 


1731. 
1735- 


1735: 
1780. 


1806. 


1815. 


BRUNSWICK THEATRE. 


136 


BUCKINGHAM PALACE, 


a 


7 Sept. 18303; died at Geneva, bequeathing his 


immense property to that city, 18 Aug. 1873.] 
William, brother; born 25 April, 1806; succeeded 
provisionally, 7 Sept. 1830; and, on the demand 
of the Germanic diet, definitively, 20 April, 1831 ; 
unmarried ; died, deeply lamented, 18 Oct. 1884. 
(His magnificent palace was destroyed by fire, 
24 Feb. 1865.) His jubilee celebrated 25 April, 
1881. Succession claimed by the duke of Cum- 
berland ; regency assumed, 18 Oct. 1884. 
DUKES OF BRUNSWICK-LUNEBURG. 
Bernard (son of Magnus II., duke of Brunswick, 
see above). 


1830. 


1409. 


1434. Otho and Frederic (his sons). 
1478. Henry (son of Otho). 
1532. Ernest I. (son of Otho). His sons were 


Henry (founder of second branch of Brunswick- 
Wolfenbuttel) and William, whose seven sons cast 
lots to determine who should marry. The lot fell 
on GEORGE, sixth son. Four of the brothers 
reigned, viz. :— 

Ernest II. 

Christian. 

Augustus. 

Frederic IT. 

Christian-Lewis (son of the George above-mentioned.) 

George-William (brother of Christian-Lewis), dies 
in 1705; leaving as heiress SOPHIA-DOROTHEA, his 
daughter, who married in 1682 her cousin, prince 
GEORGE-LEWIS of Hanover, afterwards George I. 
of England (son of Ernest of Hanover, youngest 
son of the above-mentioned George). 

(See Hanover and England.) 


BRUNSWICK THEATRE, Well-street, 
East London, built toreplace the Royalty (burnt down 
11 April, 1826), was opened 25 Feb. 1828. On the 
29th the building was destroyed by the falling in of 
the walls, too much weight being attached to the 
heavy iron roof. Fortunately the catastrophe hap- 
pee in the day-time (during a rehearsal of ‘ Guy 

annering’’), and only twelve persons perished. 


1540. 


1592. 
1611. 
1633. 
1636. 
1648. 
1665. 


[ke issue. 


BRUSSELS, once capital of Austrian Brabant, 
now of Belgium (since 1831), was founded by St. 
Gery, of Cambray, in the 7th century. It is cele- 
brated for its fine lace, carpets, and tapestry. ‘lhe 
Hotel de Ville has a turret 364 feet in height; and 
on its top is a copper figure of St. Michael, 17 feet 
high, which turns with the wind; see Belgiwn. 


Cathedral of St. Gudule (begun roro?) completed . 1273 | 
Made capital of the Low Countries . + 1507 
Ruled tyrannically by Alva . . ‘ : » 2567 | 
“‘ Union of Brussels” to expel the Spaniards . 1577-78 


Bombarded by marshal Villeroi ; 14 churches and 
10,000 houses destroyed : : autores 
‘Taken by the French, 1701 ; by Marlborough, 1706; 
by Saxe, 16 Feb. 1746; and by Dumouriez, Nov. 
The revolution commences : z . 25 Aug. 
The costly furniture of 16 houses demolished in con- 
sequence of a display of attachment to the house 


1695 


1792 
1830 


of Orange . 5 - , ; x 5 April, 1834 
Maritime conference to obtain uniform meteoro- 

logical observations held here 7 - 1853 
International philanthropic congress . Sept. 1856 


International association for social science meet 
22-25 Sept. 

Brussels Conference. The Scciety for the Ameliora- 
tion of the conditions of prisoners of war sent 
eircwlars (dated 28 March) to the great powers. 
On 17 April Russia issued a programme for con- 
sideration at the conference, consisting of 7r 
articles, embracing all the “‘usages of war.” 
Lord Derby (for Great Britain), in a despatch, de- 
elined the discussion of international law, 4 July. 
General sir Alfred Horsford was sent delegate for 
Great: Britain without active powers: reserving 
liberty of action. The congress was opened 
27 July; baron Jomini (from Russia) president. 
The United States not represented. The sittings 
were secret. The conference closed without im- 
portant results, 28 Aug. 1874. British Report 
published in London Gazette » 24 Oct. 
Belgian Industrial exhibition opened 5 Sept. 
International exhibition of objects relating to pub- 


1862 


1874 


lic health and safety, opened by the king, 26 June 

a congress met : ; - 27 Sept.—2 Oct 

International congress of commerce and industry 

6—10 Sept 

Commercial Museum opened . - about 17 + 

Tue magnificent new Palace of Justice opened pb 

the king . : 

The parliament 

destroyed, loss about 480,000! . : 
Industrial exhibition opened 


; , $ s . - 15 Oct 
houses burnt; valuable library 
6 Dec 

29 Dec 


BRUTTIUM (now Calabria Olta), §. | 


The Bruttians and Lucanians defeated and 


| Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 326 B.c, 


were conquered by Rome, 277. 


BUBBLE COMPANIES, see Comp 
Law’s Bubble, and South-sea Bubble. 


BUCCANEERS, cruel piratical advent 
French, English, and Dutch, who commenced 
depredations on the Spaniards of America soon 
the latter had taken possession of that contine1 
the West Indies. Their numbers were muc 
creased by a twelve years’ truce between the | 
iards and Dutch in 1609, when many of the disch 
sailors joined the buccaneers. ‘The first le 
ship-money in England in 1635 was to defr: 
expense. of chastising these pirates. The pri 
commanders of the first buccaneers were Mo: 
Lolonois, Basco, and Morgan. Van Horn, of 0 
captured Vera Cruz, 1603; Morgan took Pa 
1670; Gramont seized Campeachy, 1685 ; and P 
took Carthagena, 1697; all gained enormous | 
The buccaneer confederacy was broken up th 
the peace of Ryswick, 10 Sept. 1697. 


BUCENTAUR, the vessel in which the d 


Venice used to proceed to wed the Adriatic, fro 
12th to the 18th century. 


BUCHANITES (in Scotland): follow 
Mrs. Buchan, who about 1779 pretended to | 
woman of ev. xii., and promised to conduct 
to the new Jerusalem, &c. She died in 179) 
her followers dispersed. 


BUCHAREST (in Wallachia). Prelimi: 


of peace were ratified at this place between | 


and Turkey, it being stipulated that the - 


should be the frontier of the two empires; s 
28 May, 1812. The subsequent war between 
powers altered many of the provisions of this t 
Bucharest was occupied by the Russians, Turk 
Austrians successively in the Crimean war. 
last quitted it in 1856. It is now capital 
kingdom of Roumania, established 26 March, 


BUCKHURST PEERAGE, see Trials, 
BUCKINGHAM PALACH, the L 


residence of the sovereign. Old Buckingham- 
was built on the ‘‘ Mulberry-gardens,”’ by 
Sheffield, duke of Buckingham, in 1703. In1 
was bought by George I1I., who in 1775 sett 
on his queen, Charlotte. She made it her 
residence; and here all her children, excep 
eldest, were born. Here were married the di 
York and princess Frederica of Prussia, in - 
the duke of Gloucester and princess Mary, | 
the prince of Hesse-Homburg and princess | 
beth, 1818 ; and the duke of Cambridge and pr 
of Hesse the same year. The house was pulled 
in 1825, and the present palace commenced 
site. After an expenditure of nearly a m 
sterling, it was completed, and occupied by ¢ 
Victoria, 13 July, 1837. Further improve! 
were made in 1853. ‘The marble arch, taken 
from the exterior of this palace, was re-erect 
Cumberland-gate, Hyde-park, 29 March, 1851 


‘CKLERS, used in single combat, are said 
re been invented by Preetus and Acricius of 
, about 1370 B.c. When Lucius Papirius 
ed the Samnites, he took from them bucklers 
1 and silver, 309 B.C, 


‘CKLES were worn instead of shoe-strings 
reign of Charles II., and soon became fashion- 
nd expensive ; about 1791 they fell out of use. 
iental buckles became fashionable, 1873. 


DA (or OFEN), the ancient Aquincum, on 
. bank of the Danube opposite Pesth, and with 
med Buda-Pesth) the capital of Hungary. It 
ken by Charlemagne in 799; and sacked by 
ian II. after the battle of Mohatz, when the 
arian king, Louis, was killed, and 200,000 of 
bjects carried away captives, 1526. Buda was 
| a second time, when the inhabitants were put 


sword, and Hungary was annexed to the | 


anempire, 1541. Retaken by the Imperialists, 
the duke of Lorraine, and the Mahometans 
red up to the fury of the soldiers, 1686. It 
d much in 1848; was entered without resist- 
y the Austrians, 5 Jan. 1849; stormed, 20 May; 
up by Russians to Austrians, July, 1849. 
she emperor Francis Joseph was crowned king 
ngary, 8 June, 1867; see Hungary. Buda- 
constituted the capital of Hungary, Nov. 
Great loss of life (about 120) and property by 
m, 26 June, 1875; another storm, 11 July 
ing. 


DDHISM, the chief religion in Asia beyond 
inges, andin China, Japan, and Ceylon, origi- 
with Gautama Siddartha, the Sakya Muni, 
ly termed Buddha, or ‘‘ the enlightened,” a 
of Kapalivastu in Central India, said to have 
orn 623, and to have died 543 B.c. 
',594B.C., disgusted with the behaviour of the Brah- 
, he retired from the world for atime, and on com- 
orth, preached a new religion so successfully that 
dominated in India till the roth century, a.p.* 
ism inculcates strict morality ; it forbids killing, 
ing, adultery, lying, and drunkenness, and every 
e of these vices, and declares charity or love to be 
source of all virtues. Some writers assert that 
lhism includes belief in the transmigration of 
, and the absorption of good souls into God him- 
from whom they have emanated ; others reckon 
hilation or eternal sleep (the Nirvana) amongst 
thist tenets. 
of Buddhism, termed the religion of Fé, exists in 
a, hesides the system of Confucius and Laot-se. 
mt to have been introduced in the reign of Ming-ti, 
“Or, 
ouddha et ses Religions,” by M. J. B. St. Hilaire, 
published in 1860. Mr. T. Rhys Davids’ “ Bud- 
m,” in 1878. 
iddhists in the world are estimated at 455,000,000. 


DE LIGHT (so named from Bude in Corn- 
the residence of Mr. aft. sir Goldsworthy Gur- 
's inventor), consists of two or more concentric 
1 gas-burners, one rising above another, which 
-e a most brilliant flame, like the petals of a 
The illuminating powers were increased by 
ting manganese, &c., to the action of the 
in order to produce oxygen and hydrogen 
This light was patented 1839 and 1841. 
DGET (from the French bougette, Latin 
a small bag), a term applied to the English 
lor of the exchequer’s annual statement of the 
es of the country, from the documents having 
formerly presented in a leather bag. The 
ts of sir R. Peelin 1842 (including the income- 
nd 1846 (free trade), and of Mr. Gladstone in 


; Pa oe 
. Edwin Arnold’s ‘‘ Light of Asia,” a poem, in 


-BUCKLERS. | 137 


ee) BU LUDENC: 


1860 (in connection with the treaty with France), 
are the most important in recent times. A surplus 
of about 6,000,000. was announced by sir Stafford 
Northcote, 16 April, 1874; since then there has been 
a deficiency. See Revenue. Mr. Childers in his 
budget proposed the reduction of consols from 3 to 
2% per cent. for capital raised to 108/., and the 
coinage of 10s, pieces worth gs. to meet the loss by 
wear of gold coinage. Coinage bill withdrawn 10 


July, 1884. 
BUENOS AYRES, 2 province of 8. America, 


now part of the Argentine republic. The country 
was explored by Sebastian Cabot in 1526, and the 
capital, Buenos Ayres, founded by don Pedro de 
Mendoza in 1535. In 1585 the city was rebuilt and 
recolonised; and made a bishopric, 1620; and a 
Viceroyalty, 1775. La Plata, the new capital, 
founded by Dr. Rocha, the governor, 24 Nov. 1882; 
made seat of government April, 1884. See drgentine 
Confederation. 


A British fleet and army, under sir Home Popham 
and general Beresford, take the city with slight 
resistance, 27 June; it is retaken by the Spaniards, 
12 Aug.; by the British : ; . 29 Oct. 1806 
Monte Video taken by storm by sir Samuel Auch- 
muty, 3 Feb.; evacuated . ; : . 7 July, 1807 
General Whitelock and 8000 British enter Buenos 
Ayres; severely repulsed : ‘ Sees July, 
Independence of the province declared 19 July. 1816 
Recognised as forming part of the Argentine con- 
federation . : : Z : ; .. Feb. 1822 
[A prey to civil war through the violent intrigues of 
Rosas, Oribe, Urquiza, and others, for many 
years. | 
Urquiza overthrows Rosas, and is made provisional 
dictator . : x : i ; i = . 1851 
Oribe defeated by general Urquiza, to whom Buenos 
Ayres capitulates . : : : 3 Feb. 1852 
Rosas flees, arrives at Plymouth . 2EVA TIS Piss 
Urquiza deposed, ro Sept. ; invests the city; after 
some successes he retires. P A SOC Loge 
Constitution voted ; : ‘ E . 23 May, 1853 
Buenos Ayres secedes from the Argentine confede- 
ration, and is recognised as an independent state ; 
the first governor, Dr. D. Pastor Obligado, elected 
Tr OctaT ees 
Dr. Valentin Alsina elected governor . . May, 1857 
War breaks out; Urquiza, general of the forces of the 
Argentine confederation, has an indecisive conflict 


— 


with the Buenos Ayres general Mitre 23 Oct. 1859 
A treaty signed, by which Buenos Ayres is re-united 
with the Argentine confederation . Sopen NOVI, 


Fresh contests: Mitre defeats Urquiza in an almost 
bloodless contest at Pavon; Urquiza retires 
17 Sept. 1861 
National congress at Buenos Ayres. 25 May, 1862 
Mitre installed president . 5 - 2 elr2: Octks es, 
Jesuits’ college and archbishop’s palace burnt down, 
and several priests killed, by a great mob; mar- 
tial law proclaimed A : 7 » 28 Feb. 1875 
General amnesty bill passed : - Aug. 1883 
See Argentine Republic. 


BUFFOONS were originally mountebanks in 
the Roman theatres. Their shows were discouraged 
by Domitian, and abolished by Trajan, 98; see 
Jesters. 

BUILDING. In early times men dwelt in 
eaves; wood and clay were the first building mate- 
rials. Building with stone was early among the 
Tyrians. In Ireland a castle was built of stone at 
Tuam by the king of Connaught, in 1161; and it 
was ‘‘so new and uncommon as to be called the 
Wonderful Castle.’ Building with brick was intro- 
duced by the Romans into their Pro wueel Alfred 
encouraged it in England in 886. It was adopted 
by the earl of Arundel, about I $98; London being 
then almost wholly built of wood; see Architecture. 
Building acts were passed by Elizabeth in 1562, 1580, 

and 1592; and by Charles II. in 1667. Recent 


BULGARIA. 138 


BULLION. 


acts are very numerous. The Building Act for 
the Metropolis, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 84 (1844), was 
amended in 1855, 1860, 1869, 1871, 1878, and 1882. 

Building societies, formed to enable a person to pur- 
chase a house by paying money periodically to a 
society for a certain number of years, instead of 
paying rent to a landlord, began about 1836, when 
an act was passed for their regulation. Their 
nature and objects having been considerably 
changed, a new act was passed 30 July, 1874. 
Building Societies in 1884, 2,290, with an asserted 
capital of 48,000,000l. 


BULGARIA, theancient Mesia Inferior, a prin- 
cipality tributary to Turkey. The Bulgarians were a 
Slavonian tribe, who harassed the Eastern empire 
and Italy from 499 to 678, when they established a 
kingdom. They defeated Justinian II., 687; but 
were subdued, after several conflicts, by the emperor 
Basil, in 1018. After defeating them in 1014, and 
taking 15,000 Bulgarian prisoners, he caused their 
eyes to be put out, leaving one eye only to every 
hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his 
countrymen home. The kingdom was re-established 
in 1186; but after several changes was conquered 
by Bajazet and annexed to the Ottoman empire, 
1396. Bulgaria was a chief site of the Russo- 
Turkish war (which see), 1877-8. Capital, Sofia 
(which see). 

The Bulgarians said to support the revolt in Her- 

zegovina (which see) ? : : = ; 1875-6 
Insurrection in Bulgaria, quickly suppressed with 

great cruelty (“‘ Bulgarian Horrors,” see England, 

1876) ; see Turkey : : ‘ May—sept. 1876 
Zancotf and Balabanow, Bulgarian delegates, re- 

ceived in London - : : 9 Oct: 55 
Bulgaria constituted an autonomous principality, 

tributary to the sultan, by the Berlin treaty (which 

TERM he : ; : ¢ : ; 13 July, 1878 
First parliament opened at Tirnova by prince Don- 

doukott Korsakotf; the new constitution brought 

forward : ; é : : . 22¥eb. 1879 
Prince Alexander of Hesse elected prince as Alex- 

ander I. : ; 2 ‘ SEaO UA DLIL Ours 
Visits the European courts; received by queen 

Victoria . : A A - A 5 June, 
Takes the oaths to the constitution at Tirnova 

gJuly, ,, 
Bulgaria said to be quitted by the Russians 17 July 
Ministerial difficulties; parliament dissolved 18 Dec. 
The prince announces the summoning a national 

assembly, and threatens to resign g May 1881 
Zancoff and other liberal ministers arrested for in- 

sulting the prince in their election addresses 

(soon released) - : : 21 June, 5, 
Elections for national assembly ; voters said to be 

coerced; : ; : = 27 June, et seq. ,, 
Meeting of the assembly; the prince’s proposals 

unanimously accepted ; he promises reforms and 
adherence to the constitution . 2 13 July, 
The late liberal ministers, Zancoff and Slaviekoff, 
temporarily arrested “ 3 about 23 July, ,, 
Amnesty for political offences proclaimed 12 Sept. 
New council of state established . about 28 Sept. 
New ministry under gen. Soboleff and M. Kypriak 
15 Mar. 1883 

The prince virtually dictator; opposes Russia, 
under whose influence a liberal reaction against 
the prince takes place, and a new constitution is 
proposed ; the national assembly meets 16 Sept. 
Manitesto of the prince restoring the Tirnova con- 
stitution; Zancotf minister . - 20 Sept. 
Col. Redigher, war minister, and other Russian 
officers summarily dismissed by the prince 
26 Oct. 

Peaceful relations with Russia re-established about 
15 Nov. 

Changes in the constitution proposed by govern- 
ment adopted 5 3 ‘ 3 17 Dec. 
Disputes with Servia respecting refugees and 

boundaries A : : May, June 1884 
M. Zancoff’s ministry resigns; succeeded by Kara- 

veletf . . : : c ; : July 
Raids of Servians repelled, the Bulgarian govern- 

ment protests - " Sept.; Oct. ;, 


_ his pontificate. 


Disputes with Servia unsettled . 3’ = fee 
PRINCE. 

Alexander (Joseph) I. (son of prince Alexande: 

uncle of Louis IV., grandduke of Hesse), bor 

5 April, 1857; elected . “ E 29 Apr 


BULL, or EDICT OF THE PoPE. The 
is properly the seal, either of gold, silver, le 
wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and 
and on the other the name of the pope, and y 
A bull against heresy was 
by Gregory IX. in 1231. Pius V. published 
against Elizabeth, 25 April, 1570; in 1571 
were forbidden to be promulgated in England. 
bull Uniyenitus (beginning with this word) a 
the Jansenists was issued by Clement XI, 
confirmed by Benedict XIII., 1725. The ¢ 
Bull of the emperor Charles IV., so called fr 
golden seal, was made the fundamental law 
German empire, at the diet of Nuremburg, 
see Brazen Bull. Pius IX. published an ene 
letter censuring modern errors, 8 Dec. 186, 
under Rome ; see Stocks. 


BULL-BAITING or BULL FIGHTIN 
an amusement at Stamford in the reign of 
1209; and at Tutbury, 1374. In the Spo 
England, we read of the ‘‘ Kaster fierce hunts, 
foaming boars fought for their heads, and lust 
and huge bears were baited with dogs;”’ an 
the Clink, London, was the Paris, or Bear G 
so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the 
bition of bear baiting, then a fashionable ¢ 
ment. A bill to abolish bull-baiting was t 
out in the commons, chiefly through the inf 
of the late Mr. Windham, who made a spe 
favour of the custom, 24 May, 1802. It wa: 
illegal in 1835; see Cruelty to Anwnals. 
fights were introduced into Spain about 
abolished there, ‘‘except for prows and pa 
purposes,” in 1784. Bull-fights are very com! 
Spain. A bulltight at Lisbon, attended by 
spectators, on Sunday, 14 June, 1840; ome 
place at Havre, 5 July, 1808. Somewhat the 
fights with Spanish bulls, at the Agricultura 
London, were stopped 28 March, 1870, for ¢ 


| At a bull-fight at Marseilles about 17 person 


killed, and 230 injured, by the fall of wooden: 
Sunday, 14 Aug. 1881. A bull-fight at Nimes 
prohibited), 12 June, 1884. — 


BULLETS of stone were in use, 1514. 
ones are mentioned in the Federa, 1550. 
bullets were made before the close of th 
century. The conoidal cup rifle-ball was inve1 
capt. Minié, about 1833; a modification ¢ 
(conoidal but without cup), by Mr. Pritchett ( 
is used with the Enfield rifle. Other bullet 
been since devised. 


BULLION, uncoined gold and silver 
‘* Bullion Report ”’ of a parliamentary commi 
1810, principally guided by Mr. Horner a1 
(afterwards sir R.) Peel, established the cone 
that paper money is always liable to be over- 


‘and consequently depreciated, unless it be 


times immediately convertible into gold. Thi 
ciple has been adopted in British monetary al 
ments, see Bank of England. 


VALVE OF BULLION IMPORTED INTO GREAT BRI 
Sil 


Gold. 
1858, £22,793,126 £6,70 
1868, 17,136,177 27) 
1870, 18,806,728 10,6. 
1874, 18,081,019 12,2 
1876, 235475,975 13,5; 
1877, 15,441,985 2157) 
1878, 20,871,410 11,5! 


1879, 13,368,675 10,7 


BULL-RUN BATTLES. 


Gold. Silver. 
80 9,454,861 6,799,022 
8x 9,963,006 6,901,402 
32 14,379,559 9,242,925 
33 737553800 9,468,002 


ULL-RUN BATTLES, see Manassas. 


ULWER- CLAYTON TREATY, con- 
ed 19 April, ratified 4 July, 1850, by which sir 
ry Lytton Bulwer for the British, and Mr. Clay- 
for the American government, declared that 
her should obtain exclusive control over the 
yosed ship canal through Central America, or 
t any fortification on any part of the country. 
yutes afterwards arose with respect to this 
ty, and the connection of Great Britain with 
Mosquito territory (which see), which were 
led in 1857. 

ibrogation was proposed by the Americans in 1880, 
-account of De Lesseps’ plan for a canal in Central 
merica, 


UNDSCHUH, see Jacquerie. 
UNHILL- FIELDS (originally Bonhill- 


d), a burial-ground near Finsbury-square, 
sondon, termed by Southey the ‘“‘ Campo Santo 
he Dissenters ;’’ first used in 1665. Here were 
rred Thomas Goodwin (1679), John Owen (1683), 
e Watts (1748), John Bunyan (1688), George 
, the Quaker (1690), general Fleetwood, son-in- 
of Cromwell (1692), and Daniel De Foe (1731). 
ningham. Anact for the preservation of the 
ind as an open space was passed, 15 July, 1867, 
it was re-opened by the lord mayor, 14 Oct., 
}; anda monument to De Foe, subscribed for 
oys and girls, was inaugurated, 16 Sept. 1870. 


;UNKER’S HILL, more properly Breed’s 
(near Boston, U.S.). Here the British (nearly 
»), after severe loss, compelled the revolted 
sricans (about 5000) to retreat, after a desperate 
lict, 17 June, 1775 Ralph Farnham, who was 
ent at the battle, died on 28 Dec. 1860, aged 
; years. He was introduced to the prince of 
es when in America. Centenary of the battle 
brated June, 1875. 


UONAPARTEH, see Bonaparte. 
URFORD CLUB, the appellation given 


ording to Mr. Layer, the barrister, a conspira- 
see Layer) by the Pretender and his agents toa 
ended Jacobite club, of which lord Orrery was 
irman, and lord Strafford, sir Henry Goring, 
Cowper, Mr. Hutcheson, the bishop of Rochester, 
Jonstantine Phipps, general Webb, lord Bingley, 
| Craven, Mr. Dawkins, lord Scarsdale, lord 
hurst, Mr. Shippen, and lord Gower, were mem- 
. ‘his story was set aside by the solemn decla- 
ons of lord Cowper and lord Strafford. The list 
his club was published in the Weekly Journal, 
ited in Whitefriars; but when Read, the printer, 
ordered to appear at the bar of the house, he 
vonded. March, 1722. Salmon. 


\;URGESSHS, from the French Bourgeois, a 
inction coeval in England with corporations. 
'y were called to ie ae in England, 1265; 
Scotland in 1326; and in Ireland about 1365. 
gesses to be resident in the places they repre- 
ed in parliament, 1 Hen. V. (1413); see 
ough. 

SURGH, see Borough. 


under Home Rule. 


‘'URGHERS Anp ANTI-BURGHERS. In 
2 Ebenezer Erskine and others seceded from the 
rch of Scotland. Differing in regard to the in- 


Burgh Convention, 


139 


BURIALS. 


| terpretation of the burgess oath, they divided into 


two sections with the foregoing names in 1747. In 
1820 they were reunited as the United Associate 
Synod of the Secession church, which, on 13 May, 
1847, joined the Relief church, together forming the 
United Presbyterian church. 


BURGLARY was a capital offence till 1829. 
Formerly he who convicted a burglar was exempted 
from parish offices, 1699; Statute of Rewards, 5 Anne, 
1706; and 6 Geo. I. 1720. Receivers of stolen plate 
and other goods to be transported, 10 Geo. III. 1770. 
Persons haying upon them picklock-keys, &c., to be 
deemed rogues and vagabonds, 13 Geo. III. 1772-3. 
The laws with respect to burglary were amended by 
Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel’s acts between 1823 
and 1829, and by the criminal laws of 1861. 
Burglaries in England, 1871, 614; 1873, 433 ; 1875, 501 $ 

1879, 420. 


BURGOS (Spain), the burial place of the Cid, 
1099. Lord Wellington entered Burgos on 19 Sept. 
after the battle of Salamanca (fought 22 July, 1812). 
The castle was besieged by the British and allied 
army, but the siege was abandoned 21 Oct. same 
year. The fortifications were blown up by the 
French, 12 June, 1813. 

BURGUNDY, a large province in France, 
derives its name from the Burgundians, a Gothic 
tribe who overran Gaul in 275, and were driven out 
by the emperor Probus: they returned in 287, and 
were defeated by Maximin. In 413 they established 
a Kinepom, comprising the present Burgundy, 
large parts of Switzerland, with Alsace, Savoy, 
Provence, &c. Gondicar, their leader, the first 
king. It was conquered by the Franks, 534.—The 
second kingdom, consisting of a part of the first, 
began with Gontran, son of Clotaire I. of France, in 
561. The kingdom of Arles, Provence, and Trans- 
jurane Burgundy, were formed out of the old king- 
dom.—Ducuy. In 877 Charles the Bald made his 
brother-in-law Richard the first duke of Burgundy. 
In 938, Hugh the Great, count of Paris, founder of 
the house of Capet, obtained the duchy. His de- 
scendant, Henry, on becoming king of France, con- 
ferred it on his brother Robert, in whose family it 
remained till the death of Philippe de Rouvre, 
without issue, in 1361. In 1363, king John of 
France made his fourth son, Philip, duke; see 
Austria and Germany. 

DUKES. 

Philip the Bold; marries Margaret, heiress of 
Flanders, 1369. 

1404. John the Fearless (son); joined the English inva- 
ders of France ; privy to the assassination of the 
duke of Orleans in 1407 ; himself assassinated at 
Montereau, in presence of the dauphin, Sept. 1419. 

Philip the Good (son), the most powerful duke. 

Charles the Bold ; married to Margaret of York, 
sister to Edward IV., 9 July, 1468; invaded 
France, 1472 ; Switzerland, 1476; killed in an 
engagement with the Swiss, before Nancy, 4 
Jan. 1477. 

Mary (daughter) ; married, 19 Aug. 1477, to Maxi- 
milian of Austria ; died, 27 March, 1482. 

. Louis XI. annexed Burgundy to France. The other 

dominions fell to Austria. 


BURIALS. Abraham buried Sarah at Mach- 
pelah, 1860 B.c., Gen. xxiii. Places of burial were 
consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in A.D. 210. 
Eusebius. The Greeks had their burial-places at a 
distance from their towns; the Romans near the 
highways; hence the necessity for inscriptions. 
The first Christian burial-place, it is said, was in- 
stituted in 596; ‘burial in cities, 742; in conse- 
crated places, 750; in churchyards, 758. Many of 
the early Christians are buried in the catacombs at 
Rome ; see Catacombs, Cemeteries, and Dissenters. 


1363. 


1419. 
1467. 


1477- 
1479 


BURKING. 


—— 


140 


ea 


BURNING THE DEAD. 


Vaults erected in chancels first at Canterbury 
caer shrouds only permitted to be used in Eng- 
and : : : . : - : ; 
Linen scarfs introduced at funerals in Ireland, 
1729 ; and woollen shrouds used : 2 L933 

Burials taxed : , ‘ : : : ads) 

A tax enacted on burials in England—for the burial 
of a duke sol., and for that of a common person 
48.—under Will. III. 1695, and Geo. III. . . 1783 

Acts relating to Metropolitan burials passed . 1850-67 

Parochial registers of burials, births, and marriages, 
instituted in England by Cromwell, lord Essex, 
about 1538. Stow. 

“ Earth to earth” system of burialadvocated by Mr. 
Seymour Haden ; wicker-coffins exhibited at Staf- 
ford-house : : ; : - 17 June, 1875 

Consecrated burial grounds in England, 13,673 ; 
closed, rarz . : i : 5; 2 : + 1077, 

Burials Act (permitting any Christian service in a 
parish churchyard) passed 7 Sept. 1880 

See Disscniers. 


BURKING, a new species of murder, com- 
mitted in Britain, thus named from Burke, the first 
known criminal by whom it was perpetrated. His 
victims were killed by pressure or other modes of 
suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no 
marks of violence, were sold to the surgeons for 
dissection. He was executed at Edinburgh, 28 
Jan. 1829. A monster named Bishop was appre- 
hended in Nov. 1831, and executed in London 
5 Dec. with Williams, one of his accomplices, for 
the murder of a poor friendless Italian boy, named 
Carlo Ferrari. They confessed to this and other 
similar murders. 

BURLINGHAME TREATY, promoted by 
Mr. Anson Burlinghame and a Chinese embassy, 
and signed at Washington 4 July, 1868. It autho- 
rised mutual immigration. California prospered 
through Chinese labour ; 
led to a demand for its 
the treaty. 

BURLINGTON ARCADE, 
opened 20 March, 1819. 

BURLINGTON FINE ARTS CLUB, for 
exhibiting works of art, and promoting intercourse 
between artists, amateurs, &c., founded 1867. 


1666 


Piccadilly, 


BURLINGTON HEIGHTS. After a fierce | 
contest here between the British and the United 
States American forces, 6 June, 181 3, the British | 


carried the heights. 
BURLINGTON HOUSE, Piccadilly, Lon- 


don, was built by Denham for lord Burlington, 
about 1664; and rebuilt by lord Burlington, the 
architect, about 1731. It was bought for 140,000/. 
by the government, authorised by vote of the house 
of commons, on 27 July, 1854. 1t became the home 
of the Royal, Linnean, and Chemical societies in 
1857 (who occupied new rooms in 1873), and of the 
Antiquaries, Geological, and Royal Astronomical 
societies in 1873. In 1866, sites for buildings for 
the University of London and the Royal Academy 
were granted in the grounds of Burlington House, 
The entrance, colonnade, &c., were removed in 
1868, and the exhibition of the Royal Academy was 
first opened here 3 May, 1869. Burlington charity 
school near here, founded 1699. 


BURMAH, or BURMESE EMPIRE, 
founded in the middle of the 18th century by 
Alompra, the first sovereign of the present dynasty, 
Our first dispute with this formidable power in 1795 
was amicably adjusted by general Erskine. Hos- 
tilities were commenced by the British in 1824, and 
they took Rangoon on May 11. The fort and 
pagoda of Syriam were taken in 1825. After a short 
armistice, hostilities were renewed, 1 Dec. same 


but depression in 1879-80 | 
expulsion and abrogation of | 


aELOTS | 


year, and pursued until the successive y 
of the British led to the cession of A 
and to the signature of peace, 24 Feb. 182¢ 
the events of this war, and of the war in 1§ 
India. Pegu was annexed to our Indian ¢ 
20 Dec. 1852. The war ended 20 June, 185; 


Rebellion against the king (of Upper Burm: 
suppressed by British aid A - about Se 
Treaties with Great Britain . - 1862 and 25 O 
Burmese embassy in England, 6 June; introdue 
to the queen , : a i : + 2rdu 
The king Mindone suspected of inciting Chine 
to attack British expedition to West China (s 
India), ; ; “ 2 s : » te 
Sir Douglas Forsyth’s mission to the king; arriy 
at Mandalay, 14 June; submission of the ki 
announced about 18 June; he refuses permissic 
for British troops to march as a convoy throug 
his territories to China; sir D. Forsyth retire 
J 


un 

Col. Duncan sent to Mandalay . about Au 
The king eventually acceded to the British 4 
mands ; announced ; : : . Oe 
The king dies, about 5 Sept. ; announced 2 Oc 
His successor, Theebau (Wongyee prince - 
Theebau) kills many of the royal family; ar 
their friends . 4 5 2 oe Be 
The British resident and others quit Mandalay 8 Oc 
The king, attacked by small-pox, commits fres 
atrocities : : 4 : + 12 AbD 
Prince Nyoung’s rebellion, May, J une, suppressed 
he enters British territory . : 27 Jun 
Political massacres at Mandalay recommence, ai 
nounced A ; F : ; . ,2t Apri 
Destructive fire at Mandalay, announced 11 Apri 
Another great fire . ‘ . . - 9 Apri 
Misgovernment ; massacres at Mandalay, 21 Sept. 
prospect of British intervention . oe 
Town of Bhamo violently captured by the Chine; 


8—10 De 
Captain Terndrup of the steamer Kahbyor reseue 
missionaries and others . : 12—13 De 


Conmercial treaty with France » Kel 


BURNETT PRIZES, to be awarded 
40 years to the authors of the two best ess: 
‘The evidence that there is a Being all poy 
wise, and good, by whom everything exists, 
were founded by Mr. Burnett, a Scottish gentl 
who died 1784, bequeathing moneys for the 
pose. Various amounts have been paid t 
W. L. Brown, to rev. J. B. Sumner, after 
archbishop of Canterbury, 1815; to rev. 
Thompson, and to Dr. J. Tulloch, 1855. 
establishment of a Burnett lectureship in Abe 
by the trustees (the lecturer to be chosen in 
was sanctioned Aug. 1880; but opposed b: 
house of lords, 24 Jan. 1881. 


BURNHAM BEECHES, Bucks, the ] 
resque remains of an ancient forest, were pure 
for public use by the corporation of Lond 
1879. Dedicated 3 Oct. 1883. 


BURNING ALIVE was inflicted amon 
Romans, Jews, and other nations, and was co 
nanced by bulls of the pope; see Witches. | 
persons have been burned alive as heretics. 
William Sawtre, priest of St. Osyth, Lo 
suffered 12 Feb. 1401. In the reign of Mary: 
bers were burned; see Protestants. Eliz: 
Gaunt, an Anabaptist, was burnt at Tybur 


treason (concealing rebels under Monmouth 
Oct. 1685. 


BURNING THE DEAD was pra 
among the Greeks and Romans, and Homer. 
descriptions. It was very general about 122 
and was revived by Sylla about 78 B.c. It is 
practised in parts of the East Indies, and has 
advocated in this country by the eminent sur: 
sir Henry Thompson, one others, 1873; see Su 
Barrows. 


. 


BUKNING-GLASS. 


fessor L, Brunetti exhibited his plan and results 
; the Vienna exhibition : Z 3 : 
mation societies founded in London, Vienna, and 
‘erlin, &e. : : : . _. 13 Jan. 
_ corpse of the wife of sir Charles Dilke, with 
yffin, burnt at Dresden ; ashes about 6 1b. 10 Oct. 
erection of a crematorium at Woking stopped 
y authorities Pe this lt ys summer 1879 
srematorium erected at Milan, Jan. 1883; in 
aris . . 3 é A : : Meee TOOd 
mation increasing at Rome Pee es . : 
Justice Stephen decides that it is not illegal 

March, 
Cameron’s bill for the regulation of cremation 
jected by the Commons (149—79) S0O- Aprils |, 


3URNING-GLASS anp Concave MIrR- 
rs. Their power was known to Archimedes, 
.it is even asserted that by their aid he burnt a 
t in the harbour of Syracuse, 214 B.c. Their 
rers were increased by Settalla; Tschirnhausen, 
0 ; Buffon, 1747; and Parker and others more re- 
tly. The following experiments were made about 
0, with Mr. Parker’s lens or burning mirror, 
ch cost 70o/., and is said to have been the 
‘est ever made. It was sold to capt. Mackenzie, 
» took it to China, and left it at Pekin. 


1873 
1874 


” 


¥ 


” 


tances fused. Weight. Time. 
3 gold . 20 grains 4 seconds. 
er + 20 55 3 ” 
per. : ps ¥ 9» 20 ”» 
Ing!) #3, 7 a OU yg eS.) tes 

; iron (a eube) De Sie se ears 

, a rs ‘ ° ° . - Io 9, %I2 ” 
paz ‘ at ce) hs Sy lh Rel Wer ces Stamey 
2merald ‘ 2 3 Su gy t2B yy 
‘ystal pebble . ; = POU 7S 55) OP bys 
hie A é - ; 7 24 fe} » 30 ” 
1elian ‘ , c PEE se LO os 
lice stone . 3 é 


‘ Se CS fie ee 
m wood takes fire instantaneously ; water boils im- 
ediately; bones are calcined; and things not ca- 
ible of melting at once become red-hot, like iron. 


‘URSEH, see Exchange. 


‘URTON CRESCENT, London. Here Mrs. | 


hael Samuel, a widow living alone, was mur- 
‘d in the night 11 Dec. 1878. No robbery. 
‘y Donovan, a charwoman, was arrested and 
harged, 10 Jan. 1879. In a house here also, 
‘y Ann Yates was found murdered, 9 March, 
Ie 

'URWELL FIRE. A number of persons 
mbled to see a puppet-show in a barn at Bur- 
l, near Newmarket, 8 Sept. 1727. A candle 
ing set fire to a heap of straw, seventy-six indi- 
ials perished, and others died of their wounds. 


;URY ST. EDMUND’S, Suffolk, named | 


n St. Edmund, king of East Anglia, who was 


e, and to whose memory its magnificent abbey 
founded. Magna Charta was prepared here by 
barons on 20 Nov. 1214. Henry VI. summoned 
iliament in Feb. 1447, when Humphry, duke 
tloucester, was imprisoned, and died here, it is 
posed by poison. It was almost consumed by 
in 1608, and was desolated by plague in 1636. 


'URYING ALIVE. In Beotia, Creon 
red Antigone, the sister of Polynices, to be 
ed alive, 1225 B.c. The Roman vestals were 
ected to it far any levity that excited suspicion 
heir chastity. The vestals buried alive on a 
‘ge of incontinence, were Minutia, 337 B.c.; 
tilla, 274 B.c.; Cornelia, A.D. 92. Lord Bacon 
s instances of the resurrection of persons who 
been buried alive; Duns Scotus being of the 
iber. ‘The two assassins of Capo d’Istria, presi- 
; of Greece, were sentenced to be immured in 
k walls built around them up to their chins, 


141 


BUTTER. 


and to be supplied with food in this species of tor- 
ture until they died, Oct. 1831. 


BUSACO, or Buzaco (Portugal). Here the 
British, under lord Wellington, repulsed the French 
under Massena, 27 Sept. 1810. ‘he latter lost one 
general and 1000 men killed, two generals and about 
3000 men wounded, and several hundred prisoners ; 
the loss of the allies did not exceed 1300; the 
British retreated to the lines of Torres Vedras, too 
strong for Massena to force, and the armies re- 
mained in sight of each other to the end of the 
year. 


BUSHEL. This measure was ordered to con- 
tain eight gallons of wheat, 12 Henry VIII., 1 2015 
the legal Winchester bushel was regulated 9 Will. 
III. 1697; the imperial corn bushel of 2218-192 
cubic inches is to the Winchester of 2150-42 as 32 
to 31. Regulated by act 5 Geo. IV., June, 1824, 
which act came into operation 1 Jan. 1826. 


BUSHIRE (onthe Persian Gulf), attacked by sea 


by sir H. Leeke, and by land by general Stalker, was 


taken 10 Dec. 1856. The place proved stronger than 
was expected, and was bravely defended. Brigadier 
Stopford and col. Malet were killed in a previous 
attack on the fort at Reshire, 9 Dec. The loss of 
the British was four officers killed, and one 
wounded ; five men killed, and thirty-five wounded. 


BUSHRANGERS, Australian highwaymen, 
formerly escaped convicts. Morgan, a desperate 
robber and murderer, was surrounded and shot 
April, 1865. The ‘‘ Kelly gang” seized and pillaged 
the town of Jerilderie, New South Wales, 8-10 
Feb. 1879. Ned Kelly and some of his gang were 


captured and taken to Melbourne, 27, 28 J une, 
1880, 


BUSSORAH, see Bassorah. 


| BUSTS. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the 
inventor of moulds, from which he cast wax 
| figures, 328 B.c. Pliny. Busts from the face in 
plaster of paris, were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, 
about A.D. 1466. Smaller busts and statuettes are 
now accurately produced from larger ones by 
machinery. 


BUTCHERS. Among the Romans there were 
three classes: the Suarii provided hogs, the Boarii 
or Peewarti oxen and sheep, which the Lanii or Carni- 
Jices killed. The butchers’ company in London is 
ancient, though not incorporated till 1606. 


BUTE ADMINISTRATION, John earl 


of Bute,* tutor of prince George (afterwards George 


| III.), formed an administration in May, 1762, 
rdered by the Danes on 20 Nov. 870, and buried 


which, after various changes, resigned 8 April, 1763. 
It was severely attacked by Junius and John 
Wilkes. 


John earl of Bute, first lord of the treasury. 

Sir Francis Dashwood, chancellor of the exchequer, 

Karl Grenville, president of the cowncil. 

Duke of Bedford, privy seal. 

Earl of Halifax, admiralty. 

Earl of Egremont and George Granville, secretaries of 
state. 

Lord Ligonier, ordnance. 

Henry Fox, afterwards lord Holland, paymaster of the 
Sorces. 

Viscount Barrington, treasurer of the navy. 

Lord Sandys, first lord of trade. 

Duke of Marlborough, earl Talbot, lord Huntingdon, 
lord Anson, lord North, &c. 


BUTTER is said to have been used by the 


SD 

* John Stuart, earl of Bute, born 1713; secretary of 
state, March, 1761; prime minister, May, 1762; died 
10 March, 1792. 


BUTTONS. 


Arabs in early times, but not by the Greeks and 
Romans, who had excellent oil. It is not men- 
tioned as food by Galen a.p. 130-200. It has long 
been used by northern nations. Various statutes 
have passed respecting its package, weight, and sale; 
the principal of which are the 36th & 38th Geo. III. 
and 10 Geo. IV. 1829. In Africa, vegetable butter 
is made from the fruit of the shea tree, and is of 
richer taste, at Kebba, than any butter made from 
cow’s milk. Jungo Park. The import duties of 
5s. per cwt. on foreign butter (producing in 1859, 
104,587/. on 421,354 cwts.) was repealed in 1860. 
Butter imported, 1846, 257,385 ewt.; 1856, 513,392 
ewt.; 1866, Seay ewt.; 1870, 1,159,210 cwt.; 
1874, 1,619,808 ecwt.; 1876, 1,659,492 ewt. ; 
1877, 1,637,403 cwt.; 1879, 2,045,399 cwt.; 1883, 
2,334,473 ewt. 

BUTTONS, an early manufacture in England ; 
those covered with cloth were prohibited, to en- 
courage the manufacture of metal buttons, 8 Geo. I. 
1721. Buttons largely employed to ornament 
ladies’ dresses, 1873-81. 


BUXAR, a town in Bengal, near which, on 
23 Oct. 1764, major, afterwards sir Hector Monro 
(with 857 Europeans and 6215 Sepoys) gained a 
great victory over the troops of the nabob of Oude, 
&e., 50,000 in number; 6000 of these were killed, 
and 130 pieces of cannon were taken. The loss of 
the English was trifling. 


BY-LAWS, or Byk-Laws, private ordi- 
nances, made by subordinate communities, such as 
corporations. ‘These laws must not militate against 
the law of the land. By 5 & 6 Will. IV. 1834, 
those made by corporate bodies become valid, if not 
disallowed by the king’s council within forty days 
after their enactment. 


BYE PLOT, of lord Grey of Wilton and 
others, to imprison James I[., and compel him to 
grant liberty of worship to Romanists, was sup- 
pressed 1603. It was called also the “surprise 
plot.”’ 


142 


BYZANTIUM. 


BYNG, Hon. ADMIRAL JOHN, was « 
with neglect of duty in an engagement wi 
enemy off Minorca, 20 May, 1756, condemr 
an error of judgment, and shot on boa 
Monarch at Spithead, 14 March, 1757. 


BYRON’S VOYAGE. Commodore 
left England on his voyage round the el 
June, 1764, and returned g May, 1766. E 
covered the populous island in the Pacific 
which bears his name, 16 Aug. 1765. 1 
brave and intrepid, such was his general ill-f 
at sea, that he was called by the sailors of 1! 
** Poulweather Jack.”’ 


BYRON NATIONAL MEMORTA 
erection determined on, at a meeting in L 
16 July, 1875; Mr. Disraeli in the chair, 
3,000/. were subscribed. The statue by f 
Claude Belt, placed on a pedestal near Har 
place, Hyde-park, was uncovered privately | 
Houghton, 24 May, 1880. A marble pedest 
promised by the Greeks. . 


BYZANTIUM, now Constantinople 
Stamboul, in the ancient Thrace, foundec 
colony of Megarians, under Byzas, 667 B.« 
various dates and persons are given. It wa: 
successively by the Medes, Athenians, and 
tans. In 340 B.c., in alliance with the Ath 
the Byzantines defeated the fleet of Phi 
Macedon. During the wars with Macedon, 
&c., it became an ally of the Romans, by w 
was taken, A.D. 73. Rebelling, it was take: 
two years’ siege, and laid in ruins by Sev: 
196. It was refounded by Constantine in 3: 
dedicated on 22 May, 330, all the heathen t 
being destroyed; and from him it received its 
see Constantinople. BYZANTINE ART flo 
from the time of Constantine to about 1204 
BYZANTINE or Eastern empire really comr 
in 395, when Theodosius divided the Rom: 
pire; see East. The ‘‘ Byzantine Histo 
from 325 to 1453, were published at Paris, 


| 1711; and at Venice, 1722-33. 


G: 


CAABA. 


CADE’S INSURRECTION. 


4 ABA, the shrine of the sacred black stone, 


in a temple at Mecca, and venerated by the 

is, long before the Christian era. Its guardians, 
tribe of Koreish, were defeated by Mahomet, 
hose followers it is still venerated. 


ABAL. In English history the term has 
applied to the cabinet of Charles II. 1667-74 ; 
vord Cabal being formed from the initials ot 
‘names: sir Thomas, afterwards lord Clifford 

the lord Ashley (A), (afterwards earl of 
tesbury) ; George Villiers, duke of Bucking- 
(B); Henry, lord Arlington (A); and John, 
of Lauderdale (L). 


ABBAGES. Some new kinds were brought 
igland from Holland about 1510, it is said by 
rthur Ashley of Dorset, and introduced into 
and by Cromwell’s soldiers. 


ABBALA, a Jewish system of philosophy or 
‘ophy, deriving its name from a Hebrew word, 
fying reception or tradition, said to have been 
. by God to Adam, and transmitted from father 
n by his descendants. It is said to have been 
ut the Babylonian captivity (587 B.c.), but to 
been ea ae again to Ezra. Its supporters 
t that the cabbalistic book ‘Sohar,’’ or 
iendour,’’ a mystic commentary on the Penta- 
1, was first committed to writing by Simon 
Jochai, A.D. 72-110. The true date of the books 
ining the cabbala is now considered to range 
gth to the 14th centuries, and their origin to 
1e mingling of talmudism with the Greek 
sophy termed Neo-Platonism. Some of their 
as are akin to Christian tenets, such as the 
‘y, the incarnation, &c. The cabbala exercised 
1 influence upon the mental development of 
ews, and even captivated the greatest thinkers 
2 16th and 17th centuries. 


\BETRA (Asia Minor). Here Mithridates, 
of Pontus, was defeated by Lucullus, 71 B.c. 


\BINET COUNCIL. There were councils 
ngland as early as the reign of Ina, king of 
West Saxons, 690; Offa, king of the Mercians, 

and in other reigns of the Heptarchy. State 
cils are referred to Alfred the Great. Syel- 
; see Administrations.* 


\BLES. A machine was invented in 1792 
aaking them, by which human labour was re- 
1 nine-tenths. Chain cables were introduced 
the British nayy about 1812; directions for 
1g them enacted, 1864, and 1874. 


{BOCHIENS, an armed Burgundian faction, 
ding 500 butchers, named from their leader 
net Caboche, a skinner, 1412. They ruled 
: with violence, and constrained the doctors of 
sorbonne to become their allies and the dau- 
to recognise them as the ‘White Hoods,” and 
nee They were exterminated by the citizens, 
18, 


\BRIOLETS (vulgo 


ABINET Nore, or “‘ Dark Closet,” the chamber in 
1 letters entrusted to the French post were opened 
ate purposes. The system, which began with 

XI., was organised under Louis XV. ; and is said 
ve been discontinued in 1868. 


Cabs), 


one-horsed 


vehicles, were introduced into the streets of London 
in 1823, when the number plying was twelve. In 
1831 they had increased to 165, and then the 
licences were thrown open. The number in 1862 
running in the metropolis exceeded 6000 (of which 
about 1800 only plied on Sunday). Previous to 
throwing open the trade, the number of hackney 
carriages was limited to 1200, when there were few 
omnibuses. Number in 1871 was 7818; in 1881, 
9652. See Hackney Coaches. 


Mr. Joseph Aloysius Hansom, architect, invented 
his patent safety cab about 1833. He died 29 
June, 1882. 

Cab Strike-—On 28 Jane, 1853, an act (called Mr. 
FitzRoy’s act) was passed for ‘‘ the better regula- 
tion of metropolitan stage and hackney carriages, 
and for prohibiting the use of advertising 
vehicles,” by which the cab fares were reduced 
to 6d. a mile. It came into operation rr July, 
and on the 27th a general strike of the London 
cabmen took place. Much inconvenience was 
felt, and every kind of vehicle was employed to 
supply the deficiency. Some alterations having 
been made in the act, the cabs re-appeared on the 
stands on the 30th. 

Cabmen’s clubs began at Paddington in . . Feb. 

A London General Cab Company published its 
prospectus, professing a reformed system, July, 

Cabs running in London: in 18s5, 3296 ; in 1867, 
6149; in 1874, 7864; in 1877, about 8000. 

Cab Tragedy.—S. H. Hunt, a servant of Butler and 
McCulloch’s, seedsmen, Covent-garden, London, 
poisoned his wife and children in a cab, on 7 Noy. 
1863 ; and himself on g Nov. at his own house, 
just before his apprehension. 

The cabmen in Paris strike against a company ; 
above 3000 vehicles stopped, 16 June ; fierce 
attack on men who give in; strike subsides, 

23 June, 

Second Cab Strike.—Metropolitan Streets Act, 30 & 
3 Vict. ¢. 17 (passed 20 Aug.) required hackney 
carriages to carry lamps; and changed lowest 
fare from 6d. to 1s. The cab-proprietors and 
drivers struck at 4p.m., 3 Dec. ; but by the 
intervention of lord Elcho, an arrangement was 
made with Mr. Gathorne Hardy, the home secre- 
tary, and the strike ceased 2 - 4 Dec. 

Third Cab Strike to compel railway companies to dis- 
continue privileged cabs ; unsuccessful, 5-9 Sept. 

Licences on cabs reduced from rol. and 17l. tO 42s, 
by act of 1869. : : : 5 1 Jan. 

Cab-drivers’ Benevolent Association founded : 

First Cabmen’s Shelter opened by hon. A. Kinnaird 
at St. John’s Wood, 6 Feb. 1875; others soon 
after, Cabmen’s Mission Hall, King’s Cross, Lon- 
don, N., opened . : ; : : 12 Nov. 

Disputes about wages; luck-out of 100 drivers 
(Hansom), 27 June, 1882, closed ; proposed estab- 
lishment of Cab-drivers’ Co-operative Cab Com- 
pany, about 29 July, 1882. 


CABUL, or Cagpoon, on the river Cabul, 


about 1774, by Timsur Shah, was made capital of 
Afghanistan (which see). 


CACHET, see Lettres de Cachet. 
CADDEE, or Leacuz or Gop’s Hovsz, 


the league of independence in Switzerland, formed 
by the Grisons to resist domestic tyranny, 1400 to 
1419. aA second league of the Grisons was called 
the Grise or Gray League (Graubiindten), 1424. 
A third league, the League of Ten J urisdictions 
was formed in 1436, see Grisons., They united in 
1471. 


CADE’S INSURRECTION. In May, 1450, 


1859 
1862 


1865 


CADET’S COLLEGE. 


Jack Cade, an Irishman, assumed the name of 


Mortimer, and headed about 20,000 Kentish men, | 


who armed “ to punish evil ministers, and procure 
a redress of grievances.’ He defeated and slew 
sir Humphry Stafford, at Sevenoaks, 27 June, 
entered London in triumph, and beheaded the lord 
treasurer, lord Saye, and several other persons of 
consequence, 3 July. When the insurgents lost 
ground, a general pardon was proclaimed, and Cade, 


been offered for his apprehension, he was discovered, | 


and refusing to surrender, was slain by Alexander 
Iden, sheriff of Kent, 11 July. 


CADET’S COLLEGE, see Sandhurst. 
CADIZ (W. Spain), anciently Gadiz, the Ro- 
man Gades; said to have been built by the Phoeni- 
cians, about I100 B.C. é 
One hundred vessels of the Spanish armada de- 
stroyed in the port by sir Francis Drake L507, 
Cadiz was taken by the English under the earl of 
Essex, and plundered 15 Sept. 1596 


Vainly attacked by sir George Rooke . . 4) yi 

Bombarded by the British : : ; . July, 1797 | 

Blockaded by lord St. Vincent for.two years 1797-9 | 
. Oct. 1800 


Again bombarded by the British oil 
A French squadron of five ships of the line and a 
frigate surrender to the Spanish and British, 
14 June, 
Besieged by the French, but the siege was raised 
after the battle of Salamanca Ae July, 
Insurrection, 1819 ; massacre of many inhabitants 
by the soldiery . ; ‘ : . 9, 10 March, 1820 
Taken by the French in Oct. 1823, and held till . 1828 
Declared afree port. : : pate! eae LOS 
Insurrection against the queen began with the fleet 
here (see Spain) : : - _. 137 Sept. 
Republican insurrection suppressed with bloodshed, 
5-13 Dec. 


1808 


1868 


) 


CADMIUM, a metal, discovered by Stromeyer 
and Hermann in 1818. 


CADOUDAL, see Georges. 


1812 


144 


| Spain by Augustus. 


deserted by his followers, fled. A reward having | dependent: om, Hasiectona, 


CAIRO. 


is performed by cutting the child out 
womb. * 


CAESARS, see Rome ; Emperors. Th 
the Czesars or Spanish Era, is reckoned fro 
38 B.c., being the year: following the con 
Jt was much used it 
Spain, and the south of France; but b 
held in 1180 its use was abolished in all the, 
Pedro TV. of 
abolished the use of it in his dominions 
John of Castile did the same in 1383. It. 
in Portugal till 1415, if not till 1422. The 
and days of this era are identical with th 


| calendar ; and to turn the time into that of 


subtract thirty-eight from the year; but 
the Christian era, subtract thirty-nine. 


CASSIUM (Latin, bluish), a rare 
metal, found in some mineral waters by 
in 1861, by means of the ‘Spectrum a: 
which see. 


CAFEINE, an alkaline body, diseo 
coffee by Runge in 1820, and in tea (an 
théine) by Oudry in 1827. The identity of 
was proved by Jobst and Mulder in 1823, 


CAFFRARIA, AND CAFFRE W. 
Kaffraria, 


CAGLIARI, see Naples, note. 


CAGOTS, an outcast race in the Pyren 
posed to be descendants of the ancient Got! 
have been subjected to superstitious perse 
lately as 1755. 


CAI-FONG, the old capital of China, 
sieged by 100,000 rebels, in 1642. The cor 
of the relieving forces, in order to drown th 
broke down its embankments. All the | 


_ and 300,000 of the citizens perished. 


CZACILIAN SOCIETY, instituted in Lon- | 


don, in 1785, for the performance of sacred music, 
especially Handel’s. At first it met at private 


houses, afterwards at various city company halls, | 


and finally at Albion hall, Moorfields, till its dis- 
solution in 1861. Mr. Z. W. Vincent, the first 
conductor, held the oftice for upwards of thirty 
years. 

cessor of the Sacred Harmonic Society, came many 
eminent professional musicians. 


CAEN (N. France), a place of importance before 
912, when it became the capital of the possessions 
of the Normans, under whom it flourished. It was 
taken by the English in 1346 and 1417; but was 
finally recovered by the French I July, 1450. Here 
were buried William the conqueror (1087), and his 
queen (1083). 


CAERLEON, Monmouthshire, a Romanstation, 


and made the seat of an archbishopric by Dubritius. | 


His disciple and successor, St. David (522), removed 
it to Menevia, now St. David’s, 577. 


CAERNARVON (N. Wales). In the castle 
(founded in 1282) Edward II. was born, 25 April, 
1284; and the town was then chartered by Edward I. 
The town suffered by the civil war of Charles, but 
was finally retained for the parliament, 


CAISAREA, the Roman capital of Judea, built 
by Herod the Great, 10 B.c. Eusebius the historian 


was bishop about 315. 
CASAREAN SECTION, which, it is said, 


first gave the name of Cisar to the Roman family, 


Out of this society, which was the prede- | 


A IRA! the burden of a popular song 
the French revolution, first heard at Paris 
1789 : 

**Ah! ca ira, ga ira, ca ira! Malgré les mut 
reussira.” An after addition was ‘‘ Les Ari 
ala lanterne!” 

(‘‘ It will proceed ! &e, 
succeed.” 


In spite of mutineers 
*“ Hang the aristocrats !”) 


CAIRO, or GRAND CATRO, the moder 


| of Egypt, remarkable for its mosques, and tl 


chres of its Fatimite caliphs; see Egypt. 


| Partially built by the Saracens : ‘ 5 
| Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans 
; Ruined by an earthquake and a great fire, W 


40,000 persons perished 5 . fe 
Taken by the French under Napoleon Bonapa 
they enter the city i : / 1 yea 
Taken by the British and Turks, when 6000 Fre 


capitulated : A 27 JI 
Massacre of the Mamelukes 1 Ma 
Visit of the prince of Wales ‘ Ma 


Riots against Nubar Pasha and the British minis 
18 | 
Population 31 Dec. 1878, 327,462; 1883, 378, 


* The case of Alice O’Neal, an Irishwoman, 
vived the section, which was performed by 4 1 
authenticated by Dr. Gabriel King, of Armagh, 
geon Duncan Stewart, of Dungannon. In Jan. 
operation was performed in St. Bartholomew's 
London, on a young woman of diminutive statu 
the influence of ether: but she died the next d: 
Dec. 1860, a similar operation was successfully p 
by Dr. James Edmunds at Bethnal Green. On' 
nent the operation is said to have been more 
and more successful. Cooper’s Surgical Dictic 
1861) contains a table, which, out of 2009 case 
mortality of 55°4 per cent. of the mothers and 
cent. of the children. 


CALABAR. 145 CALEDONIAN CANAL. 


The fort attacked and taken by an army Of 70,000 
horse and foot, and 400 elephants (146 of the 
British crammed into the ‘‘ Black-hole prison,” a 
dungeon, about 18 feet square, from whence 
23 only came forth the next morning alive) 

20 June, 1756 


ifter their victory at Tel-el-Kebir, 13 Sep. 1882, 
he British entered Cairo the next day. 
See Cholera, 1883. 


JALABAR, OLD and NEw, rivers in West 


ica, see Bonny. 


f Calcutta retaken by Clive , F : 2Jan. 1757 
JALABRIA (the ancient Messapia of S. E. Supreme court of judicature established . . 1773 
ly), was conquered by the Romans, 266 .B.c. It] Asiatic Society founded ‘ . 1784 


med part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths under 
sodoric, A.D, 493; was re-conquered (for the: 
stern empire) by Belisarius, 536; subdued by the 
nbards and joined to the duchy of Benevento, 

After various changes, it was conquered by 
vert Guiscard, the Norman, 1058, who obtained 
title of duke of Calabria, and eventually that of 
g of Naples; see Naples. 


JALAIS (N. W. France), fortified by Baldwin 
, count of Flanders, 997 ; taken by Edward ILI. 
ra year’s siege, 4 Aug. 1347. It was retaken by 


College founded . : ; R : { aoa TBOH 
Bishopric of Calcutta instituted by act . July, 1813 
Bishop’s College founded . “ : , + ee EBSO 
Cathedral founded . : ‘ f : : . 1840 
An industrial exhibition opened . E . 25 Jan. 1855 
Great cyclone, followed by a ‘‘ bore ” or spring tide 
in the Hooghly ; water rises 30 feet high ; immense 
damage done to shipping and houses; (see 
Cyclone) J : “ : : - § Oct. 1864 
Another cyclone ; about 30,000 small houses un- 
roofed, much small shipping injured ; and the 
crops in Lower Bengal destroyed (about 90,000 
persons drowned ; 75,000 die of cholera), xz Nov. 1867 


> : : eehiley, | TE Visited by the king of Siam : ° . Jan. 1872 
duke of Guise, in the reign of Mary, 7 Jan. Visited by the prince of Wales, 25 Dec. 1875—3 Jan. 1876 
8, and its loss so deeply touched the queen’s Statue of lord Mayo unveiled by him sit toe Alice 
rt, as to cause some to say it occasioned her death, | Statue of the queen given by the maharajah of 
ch occurred soon afterwards, 17 Nov. same year. Burdwan, unveiled... 1 Jan. 1878 


International exhibition opened by the viceroy, 
the marquis of Ripon, the duke and duchess of 
Connaught present, 4 Dec. 1883 ; closed 10 March, 1884 


See Bengal and India. 
CALEDONIA (now Scotland). The name is 


supposed by some to be derived from Gael, or Gael- 
men or Gadel-doine, corrupted by the Romans. 
Tacitus, who died 99, distinguishes this portion of 
Britain by the appellation of Caledonia. Venerable 
Bede says that it retained this name until 2 58, when 
it was invaded by a tribe from Ireland, and called 
Scotia. The ancient inhabitants appear to have been 
the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, who 
passed over from the opposite coast of Gaul. About 
the beginning of the 4th century of the Christian 
era they were invaded (as stated by some authorities) 
by the Scuyths or Scythins (since called Scots), who, 
having driven the Picts into the north, settled in the 
Lowlands, and gave their name to the whole country; 
see Scotland. 


Caledonian monarchy, said to have been founded by 
Fergus L., about B.c. 330 


‘hen I am dead,” said the queen, “ Calais will 
ound written on my heart.” It was taken by 

Spaniards, April 1596, restored, 1598. Here 
is XVIII. landed after his long exile from France, 
il, 1814. About 12 persons drowned in a house 
ursting of a reservoir, 30 Jan. 1882; see Tunnels. 


ALATRAVA, see Knighthood. 


‘ALCIUM, the metallic base of lime, was dis- 
red at the Royal Institution, London, by Hum- 
y Davy in 1808. 


ALCULATING MACHINES. To avoid 
rs in computing and printing logarithms and 
es of figures, machines to calculate and print 
> been devised. Pascal, when nineteen years of 
invented one about 1650. The construction of 
C. Babbage’s differential machine was com- 
ced at the expense of government in 182 I, and 
inued till 1833, when the work was suspended 
‘an expenditure of above 15,0007. The portion 
pleted was placed in the library of King’s Col- 
, London; it is now at South Kensington. Pro- 
r Clifford, in his lecture at the Royal Institu- 


2 et Babbage expended | Arriola, the Roman, Invates Gaston ay 

00/. upon his machines, and that the analytical | He defeats Galgacus, and builds a wall between the 

nine was nearly finished, and would Beeeualliv ah a. Women aie Clyde 8) oon bike Ton a 84 

uch used. In 1857, Messrs. . and G. Scheutz, | Wallof Antoninus built . ai sie peace Gate ae 

Swedish engineers, published in London speci- | Ulpius Marcellus repels their anton a Miedo ak 
tables, calculated and printed by machinery Christianity introduced in the reign of Donald [. . 201 


The Caledonians invade South Britain, 207 ; repelled 
by the emperor Severus, who advances to the 
Moray Frith . : 3 : ; : : 

Caledonia invaded by the Scuths, or Scotti, from 
Ireland, about ‘ : ¢ ~ 2 +2.) -306 

Caledonian monarchy revived by Fergus II. . + 404 

Kenneth II., king of the Scotti, subdues the Cale- 
donians and Picts, and founds one monarchy, 
named Scotland. : : : : 838 to 843 


CALEDONIAN ASYLUM for children of 
indigent respectable Scotch parents, Islington, Lon- 
don, established in 1813, 


CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North 
Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. The act for its construc- 
tion received the royal assent 27 July, 1803; and 
the works were commenced same year. ‘The nautical 
intercourse between the western ports of Great 
Britain and those also of Ireland to the North Sea 
and aoe is shortened in some instances 800, and 
} L in others 1000 miles. A sum exceeding a million 
in 1689. Population, 1876, 776,579. sterling was granted by parliament Sei time to 
ased as a zemindary, and Fort William built 1698 | time; and safe navigation for ships was.opened 1 
the head of a separate presidency . . , 1707 ' Nov. 1822. It has not been successful commercially, 


L 


tructed between 1837 and 1843, after a study of 
account of Mr. Babbage’s machine. Messrs. 
utz brought their machine to England in 18 54- 
as bought for 1ooo/. by Mr. J. F. Rathbone, an 
rican merchant, to be presented to Dudley ob- 
tory in his own town, Albany. In 1857, Messrs. 
utz were engaged to make one for the British 
rnment, which is now completed. Mr. Wiberg’s 
ine, exhibited at Paris, Feb. 1863, was much 
nended. Tables constructed by means of 
utz’s machine, and edited by Dr. W. Farr, were 
shed by the government in 1864. The arith- 
eter, patented by M. Thomas (de Colmar) in 
(?), exhibited at the International exhibitions, 
and 1862, is said to be in use in asstirance 
s. Geo. B. Grant described a simpler machine 
e “American Journal of Science,” Oct. 1874. 


\LCUTTA, capital of Bengal and British 
; the first settlement of the English here was 


209 


CALENDAR. 


Annual income from tonnage, I May, 1859, 5080/. ; 
expenditure, 6951/.; annual income, 1866-7, 6541/. ; 
expenditure, 6698/. 


CALENDAR, see Jewish Era and Calendar. 
The Roman calendar was introduced by Romulus, 
who divided the year into ten months, comprising 
304 days, 738 B.c. This year was of fifty days’ less 
duration than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less 
than the solar year, and its commencement did not 
correspond with any fixed season. Numa Pompilius, 
“13 B.c., added two months; and Julius Cesar, 45 
B.c., to make it more correct, fixed the solar year at 
365 days 6 hours, every fourth year being bissextile 
or leap-year; see Leap-year. This calendar was 
defective, as the solar year consists of 365 days, 5 
hours, 49 minutes, and not of 365 days 6 hours. 
This being still erroneous Augustus Cesar reformed 
the calendar still further, but not perfectly, B.c. 8, 
and the difference, in the 16th century amounted to 
10 entire days, the vernal equinox falling on 11th 
instead of 2Ist March. ‘To obviate this error, pope 
Gregory XIII. ordained, in 1582, that ¢hat year 
should consist of 355 days only (5 Oct. became 15 
Oct.) ; and to prevent further irregularity, it was 
determined that a year ending a century should 
not be bissextile, with the exception of that end- 
ing each fourth century; thus 1700 and 1800 have 
not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so: but the 
year 2000 will be a leap-year. In this manner three 
days are retrenched in 400 years, because the lapse 
of eleven minutes makes three days in about that 
period. The year of the calendar is thus made as 
nearly as possible to correspond with the true solar 
year, and future errors of chronology are avoided. 
See New Style and French Revolutionary Calendar. 

CORRESPONDENCE OF CALENDARS WITH A.D. 1885. 


Julian period . . : Z 5 : < - 6598 
Year of the world (Jewish year) 20 Sept. 1884— 

9g Sept. 1885 . ; ; : : : one Ser 
Hegira (21 Oct. 1884, to 9 Oct. 1885) 1302 
Foundation of Roine (Varro) . : 2638 
Olympiads : : 3 . 2661 
Era of Nabonassar 2632 


United States’ Independence - 109-10 

Year of Queen Victoria . ; ; 3 48-49 

Comte, in his ‘‘Systeme de Politique Positive,” (insti- 
tuting the ‘‘ Religion of Humanity”), published a ca- 
lendar of 13 months, dedicated successively to Moses, 
Homer, Aristotle, Archimedes, Cesar, Paul, Charle- 
magne, Dante, Guttenberg, Shakespeare, Descartes, 
Frederic, and Bichat; an eminent person was con- 
memorated every day. 


CALENDER, a machine used in glazing vari- 
ous kinds of cloth, was introduced into England by 
the Huguenots, who were driven by persecution 
from France, Holland, and the Netherlands to these 
countries, about 1685. -Anderson. 


CALENDS were the first days of the Roman 
months. ‘Che Nones of March, May, July, and Oct., 
fell on the 7th; and their Jdes on the 15th. The 
other months had the Nomes on the 5th and the Jdes 
on the 13th. As the Greeks had no Calends, ‘‘on 
the Greek Calends,” ad Grecas Calendas, meant 
never. 


CALICO, cotton cloth, named from Calicut, a 
city of India, visited by the Portuguese in 1498. 
Calico was first brought to England by the East 
India Company in 1631. Calico-printing and the 
Dutch loom engine were first used in 1676, when a 
Frenchman established a factory at Richmond, near 
London. Anderson. Calicoes were prohibited to 
be printed or worn in 1700; and again in 1721, a 
penalty of 5/. was laid on the wearer, and 20/. on the 
seller of.calico. In 1831, by the exertions of Mr. 
Poulett Thompson, afterwards lord Sydenham, and 


146 


CALIPPIC PERIOD. 


others, the consolidated duty of 33d. on the 
yard of printed calico was taken off. Sinc 
the manufacture has been greatly increased 
applications of science. Cylinders for print 
now engraved by galvanism, and many ne 
have been introduced by the discoveries of 

Hofmann, Perkin, &c.; see Cotton and Dyer 


CALICUT (now Kolikod), 8. W. India, t 
Indian port visited by Vasco da Gama, 20 Ma: 
It was seized by Hyder Ali, 1766; taken 
English, 1782; destroyed by Tippoo Saib 
ceded to the English, 1792. 


CALIFORNIA (from the Spanish, | 
Fornalla, hot furnace, in allusion to the cl 
was discovered by Cortez in 1537; others 
Cabrillo in 1542; and visited by sir Francis 
who named it New Albion, in 1579. Califor 
admitted into the United States in 1850. 
advancing rapidly in wealth and importan 
society is still in a very disorganised stat 
population in 1856 was 506,067; in 1880, 86 
The Spanish establish missionary and milit: 

stations . 5 F F 2 5 2 ; 
California becomes subject to Mexico. ; 
After a bloodless revolution, it becomes virtu 

independent , 3 3 Z ee { 
Occupied by the army of the United States . 
Gold discovered in great abundance by capt. Sut 
and Mr. Marshall . : : : »  =Be 
Ceded to the United States 
Made a sovereign state. z - 2 ? 4 
Numerous murders in San Francisco—Lynch 1 
prevailing ; ‘ ‘ c : : 
Adhered to the union during the war . 3 , 
Suffered much damage by an earthquake, 21 Se 
Bank of California, long very prosperous, st 
through unsuccessful speculations, suspec 

suicide of ‘‘the prince,” Wm. C. Ralston, 1 

mager . : : ‘ : . about 25 A 
Great opposition to increasing Chinese immigrati 

Mar 

Political agitation caused by Dennis Kear 
against cash payments + eee 
New constitution (excluding Chinese from citiz 
ship; altering taxation to favour the worki 
classes ; restricting coinpanies, &e.) promoted 

Dennis Kearney, the agitator ; passed 8M 
Political disorders; Mr. de Young, an editor, d 

gerously wounds rey. Mr. Kallock, the elec 

mayor . : ; 5 : = ‘ Pa 
Violent reaction against Kearney, who flees for 
Lite saeee : - : 5 ee 


CALIPER COMPASS, whereby the 
cannon, small arms, &c. is measured, is said 
been invented by an artificer of Nuremberg : 


CALIPH (Arabic), Vicar, or Lieuten: 
title assumed by the sophi of Persia, as suc: 
Ali, and, since 1517, by the sultan of Tu 
successor of Mahomet, and sovereign of Mc 
Medina. The caliphat began with Abube 
father of the prophet’s second wife. The I 
caliphs ruled in Egypt, 908-1171. 


CALIPHS OF ARABIA. 


632. Abubeker. 
634. Omar I. 
644. Othinan. 
655. All 

661. Hassan. 


The OMMIADES ruled 661-750. 
The ABBASIDES ruled 750-1258. 
In 775 they were styled caliphs of Bagdad, 
Haroun-al-Raschid ruled 786-809. 
See Ommiades and Abbasides. 


CALIPPIC PERIOD, invented by © 
about 330 B.C., to correct the Metonic cycle, 
of four cycles, or of seventy-six years, at the 
tion of which he incorrectly imagined the 
full moons return to the same day of the 60! 


CALIXTINS. 
; period began about the end of June, third year 
(2th Olympiad, year of Rome 424, and 330 B.c. 


ALIXTINS, 1. Asect derived from the Hus- 
, about 1420demanded the cup (Greek, Kalix) in 
Lord’s supper. They were also called Utraquists 
artaking of both elements. They were recon- 
to the Roman church at the council of Basle, 
. 2. The followers of George Calixtus, a Lu- 
an,who died in 1656. He wroteagainst the celi- 
of the priesthood, and proposed a re-union of Ca- 
es and Protestants based on the Apostles’ creed. 


ALI YUGA, the Hindoo era of the Deluge, 


os with the entrance of the sun into the Hindoo 
Aswin, now on II April, N.S. In 1600 the 
began on 7 April, N.S., from which it has now 
need four days, and from the precession of the 
noxes, is still advancing at the rate of a day in 
‘years. ‘The number produced by subtracting 
from any given year of the Cali Yuga era will 
he Christian year in which the given year 
18. 

ALLAO (Peru). After an earthquake, the 
etired from the shore, and returned in moun- 
us waves, which destroyed the city in 1687, and 
3 Oct. 1746. The attempt of the Spanish ad- 
| Nuiez to bombard Callao, 2 May, 1866, was 
ited by the Peruvians; blockaded by Chilians, 
1 1880, see Chili. 


ALLIGRAPHY (beautiful writing). Calli- 
sis said to have written an elegant distich on 
amum seed, 472 B.C. In the 16th century 
r Bales wrote the Lord’s Prayer, Creed, and 
logue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, 
0, day of the month, year of our Lord, and of 
eign of queen Elizabeth (to whom he presented 
at Hampton Court), all within the circle of a 
‘ penny, enchased in a ring and border of gold, 
overed with crystal, so accurately done, as to 
ainly legible. Holinshed. 


\LMAR, UNtIon oF. The treaty whereby 
nark, Sweden, and Norway, were united under 
overeign, Margaret, queen of Sweden and Nor- 
‘‘ the Semiramis of the north;’’ June, 1397, see 
en. The union was dissolved by Gustavus 
in 1523. 


\LMUCKS, see Zartary. 
\LOMEL (“beautiful black’’) a compound 


reury, sulphuric acid, and chloride of sodium, 
nentioned by Crollius early in the r7th century. 
irst directions given for its preparation were by 
in in 1608. 

\LORESCENCE, In Jan. 1865 Professor 
all rendered the ultra-red rays of the spectrum 
e electric light visible by causing a focus of 
to impinge on a plate of platinum, which they 
1 to a white heat. He termed the phenomenon 
escence; see Fluorescence. 


.\LORIC, see Heat. 
\LOTYPE PROCESS (from the Greck 


beautiful), by which negative photographs 

‘oduced on paper, is the invention of Mr. Henry 
Calbot about 1840. Also called TALRoTyYPE, 
*hotography. 


.LOYERS (meaning good old men). The 
s of the Greek church, of the order of St. Basil. 
‘most celebrated monastery in Asia is at Mount 
, endowed by Justinian (aied 565); the Eu- 
a one isat Mount Athos. 


147 


| 
| 


| 


CAMBRAY. 
CALPEHE, India. 


Sir Hugh Rose defeated the 
mutineers here, and took the town, 22, 23 May, 1858. 


CALVARY, Movunt, the place where the Re- 
deemer suffered death, 5 April, A.D. 30; (Hales, 31; 
Clinton, 29; others 38) ; see Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian, 
at the time of his persecution of the Christians, 
erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount Calvary, and 
a temple of Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, 


142. 
326; see Holy Places. 


CALVES’ HEAD CLUB, noblemen 


The empress Helena built a church here about 


and 


gentlemen, who are said to have exposed raw calves’ 
s from 3101 B.C. (according to some, 3102), and | heads at the windows of a tavern, 30 Jan. 1735, the 


anniversar 


of the execution of CharlesI. An in- 


censed mob was dispersed, and the club was sup- 


pressed, 


CALVI (Corsica). 


The British forces besieged 


the fortress of Calvi, 12 June, 1794. After fifty-nine 


days it surrendered on 10 Aug. 
the French in 1796. 


It surrendered to 


CALVINISTS, named after John Calvin (or 
Chauvin), who was born at Noyon, in Picardy, 10 
July, 1509. Adopting the reformed doctrines he fled 
to Angouléme, where he composed his Jnstitutio 


Christiane Religionis in 1533; ie 
He retired to Basle, and settle 


ublished in 1536. 


in Geneva, where 


he died, 27 May, 1564. He was instrumental in 
burning Servetus for denying the Trinity in 1553. 
A formal separation between the Calvinists and 
Lutherans took place after the conference of Poissy 
in 1561, where the former expressly rejected the 
tenth and other articles of the confession of Augs- 


burg, and took the name of Calvinists. 


In France 


(see Huguenots) they took up arms against their 
persecutors. Henry I[V., originally a Calvinist, on 


becoming king, secured their liberty bythe Edict of 
Calvinistic doctrines 


Nantes in 1598 (which see). 


appear in the articles of the Church of England and 
in the confession of the Church of Scotland, and are 


held by many protestant sects. 


CAMALDULES or CAMALDOLITES, 2 reli- 


gious order founded at Camaldoli near Florence, by 


Romuald about 1022. 


CAMBIUM REGIS; see Royal Exchange. 
CAMBODTA, Central Asia; akingdom, divided 


between the emperor of Annam and the king of 


Siam, 1820. 


The king recognizes French protecto- 


rate by treaty, Oct. 1883. Insurrection; French 
posts at Sambaur, 12 Jan.; governor of Cochin 
China marches there ; rebels attacked and dispersed 


21 Jan. 1885. 


CAMBRAY (N. France), the ancient Camara- 
cum, was in the middle ages the capital of a prince 
bishop subject to the emperor. It gives its name to 


cambric. 
1565. 
Held by Louis XI. of France 5 
Taken by Charles V. + 
By the Spaniards . A 4 
By the French and annexed 
Fénélon made archbishop , rs 4 - A se! 
The French were defeated at Czesar’s camp, in the 
neighbourhood, by the allied army under the duke 
of York . : Z 3 24 April, 
It was invested by the Austrians, 8 Aug., when the 
republican general, Declay, replied to the sum- 
mons to surrender, that ‘‘he knew not how to do 
that, but his soldiers kiew how to fight.” It 
was taken by Clairfait, the Austrian general, 


I 


: to Sept. 
Cambray seized by the British, under sir Charles 
Colville . F " : . 24 June, 


League of Cambray against the republic of Venice, 


L 2 


Councils held here, 1064, 1303, 1383, 


477-8 


1544 


» 1595 
. 1667 


1695 


1794 


1798 
1815 


. 


* 
4 
un ee 


CAMBRIA. 148 CAMERA LUCIDA. 


comprising pope Julius II., the emperor Maxi- 

milian, and Louis XII. of France, and Ferdinand 

of Spain, entered into : to Dec. 1508 
Treaty between Francis I. of France, and Charles V. 

of Germany, (called Paix des Dames, because nego- 

tiated by Louisa of Savoy, mother of the French 

king, and Margaret of Austria, aunt of the 


emperor) ; . 1529 
Treaty between the emperor Charles VI. and 
Philip V. of Spain. : ~ 1924-5 


CAMBRIA, ancient name co Sales (which see). 


CAMBRIC first made at Cambray; worn in 
England, and accounted a great luxury, 1580. Stow. 
Its importation restricted in 1745; prohibited in 
1758; re-admitted, 1786; prohibited 1795. 


CAMBRIDGE, the Roman Camboricum and 
the Saxon Granta bricsir , frequently mentioned by 
the earliest British historians, was burnt by the 
Danes in 870 and 1010. See Population. 


Plundered by the barons . : 1088 
The university, said to have been commenced by 
Sigebert, king of the East Angles, about A.D. 630; 
was neglec ted during the Danish invasions, from 
which it suffered much ; was restored by Edward 
the elder in 915; and began to revive about . . 1110 
Henry I. bestows many privileges i pe 
Henry III. granted a charter to the univer sity, ; 
I230 OF 1231 
In Wat Tyler’s and Jack Straw’s rebellion, the 
rebels enter the town, seize the university records 


and burn them in the market-place r R BGs tabs 
University press was set up. ry baa SOS 34 
Letters patent granted by Henry VII. Bree 
Incorporated by Elizabeth . , 1571 
The university authorised to send two members to 

parliament. 3 R ° : , + 1603 
Garrisoned by Cromwell é 1642 


The university refuses the degree of M.A. to father 
Francis, a Benedictine monk, recommended by 
the king ; and the presidency of Magdalen college 
to Farmer, a Roman Catholic, notwithstanding 


the king’s mandate F : : 5 . 1687 
Mathematical tripos instituted . 1747 
Cambridge Philosophical Hadad established in 1819, 

and chartered. : sko32 
Railway to London opened : : J une, 1845 
Fitzwilliam museum, endowed 1816 ; founded 1837 ; 

completed ; 1847 


Commissioners were appointed for the government 
and extension of this university and Eton college, 


by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 88 - 1856 
New statutes confirmed by the Queen : 1858 
British Association met here ; : 1833, 1845, 1862 
Visit of prince and princess of Wales . 2-4 June, 1864 

* University Tests act passed. : 16 June, 1870 
Royal commission of inquiry respecting university 
property appointed ; c 6 Jan. 1872 


Reported income in 1871: university, 34,0501. 178. 3d..: 
colleges and halls, 306,511l. 118. 430.3 total, 
340,562. 8s. 73d. Oct. 1874 
Cambridge university bill ‘introduced ; withdrawn 

July, 1876 

Cavendish college opened Pay the duke of Devon- 
shire : , : 4a Oot. s. 

Universities act ‘passed o Aug. 1877 

Proposed new statutes issued (important) Dec. 1879 

Selwyn College opened. to Oct. 1882 

St Paul’s Hostelry for Indian. students, chartered 

18 July, 1883 

New Museum of Classical Art and Archeology 


opened : “ 6 May, 1884 
Henry Fawcett, M. Py Postmaster-general, buried 

at Trumpington . : : . sO INOVenm. 

COLLEGES. 

Peterhouse College, by Hugo de Balsham, bishop of 

Kly, founded. 1257 
Pembroke College, founded by the countess of 

Pembroke ‘ - 1347 
Gonville and Caius, by Edmund Gonville , 7 eer 345 
fHnlarged by Dr. John Caius. ; c ‘ - 1558 
Corpus Christi, or Benet. 4 . : era 5 
King’s College, by Henry VI. . 1441 
Queens’ College. by ite? sah of Anjou, 448 5 and 

Klizabeth Woodville . - - 1449 


Jesus College, by John Alcock, bishop of Ely 

Christ's College, founded 1442; endowed by } 
garet, countess of Richmond, mother of ae 
VIL. 


St. John’s College, endowed by Margaret, coun 
of Richmond . 

Magdalene College, by Thomas, baron Audley 

Trinity College, by Henry VII 

Emmanuel College, by sir Walter Mildmay 

Sidney Sussex College, founded by Prascas Sid 
countess of Sussex. 

Downing College, by sir George Downing, by 1 
in 1717; its charter . 

Ridley Hall (theological), foundation stone 1 

17 ( 

Selwyn College, founded . ' 5 3 a) 

THREE HALLS. 

Clare Hall, or College, first founded by Dr. Ric] 
Baden in 1326; destroyed by fire and re-es 
lished by Elizabeth de Bourg, sister to Gilt 

earl of Clare i al 

Trinity Hall, by Wm. Bateman, bishop of Norw 

St. Catherine’s College or Hall, founded. 


[Cambridge University Calendar. ] 


CHANCELLORS. 
Charles, duke of Somerset, elected 
Thomas, duke of Newcastle . ; 
Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton 
H. R. H. William Frederick, duke of Glouceste 
John, marquis Camden : 
Hugh, duke of Northumberland — x 
The Pri ince Consort [died Dec. 14, 186r. rt 28 } 
William, duke of Devonshire . ool 


PRINCIPAL PROFESSORSHIPS. 
Divinity (Margaret) 1502; Regius . 
Laws, Hebrew, Greek, and Physic - 
Arabic : : 5 
Mathematics (Lucasian) 
Music 


Chemistry — . ie > aes 2 : 
Astronomy ‘ : : : - . I 
Anatomy 


Modern History, Botany : 

Natural and exper imental Philosophy 
Mineralogy P : 5 
Political Economy 

Slade (fine art) . 


CAMBUSKENNETH, near Stirlin 
tral Scotland). Here Wallace defeated the 
under Warrenne and Cressingham, 10 Sept. 


The abbey, one of the richest in Scotland, was 
by King David I. in 1147, was spoiled and tl 
nearly destroyed by the reformers in 1559. 


CAMDEN (N. America). Here 16 Au 
lord Cornwallis defeated the revolted Am 
under Gates. Ata second battle (also calle 
kirk’s hill), between general Greene and lot 
don, the Americans were again defeated, 2: 
1781. Camden was evacuated and burnt 
British, 13 May, 1781. 

CAMDEN SOCIETY, established 18: 
lishes British historical documents. 138 | 
had been issued, Jan. 1885, 


CAMDEN TOWN, N.W. London, be 
land let for building 1400 houses by earl | 
in 1791; received his name a few years afte 


CAMEL, Day oF THE, 4 Nov. 656 (ac 
to some 658 or 659) when Talha and Zobei 
Arab chiefs, were defeated and slain by the 
Ali. Ayesha, Mahomet’s widow, friend 
chiefs, was present in a litter, on a camel, he 
name. 

Camel corps, engaged in the war in the Soudan 


CAMERA LUCIDA, invented by Dr. 
about 1674; another b Dr. Wollaston it 
CAMERA OpscurA, or dark chamber, const 
it is said, by Roger Bacon in 1297; impro 
Baptista Porta, about 1 500; and remods ed 


4: 3 
Pe Ps 
jie 


CAMERON’S ACT. 


: Newton. By the invention of M. Daguerre, 
39, the pictures of the camera are fixed; see 
ography. 
,MERON’S ACT, Dr. see Dedt. 1880. 
iMERONTANS, a name frequently given 
e Reformed Presbyterian church of Scotland, 
escendants of the covenanters of the 17th cen- 
‘the established church, 1638-50.* Charles IT. 
ithe League and Covenant in 1650, in hopes 
overing his kingdoms, but renounced it in 1661, 
‘evived episcopacy. A revolt ensued in 1666, 
many covenanters were slain in.battle (in the 
and hills, &c.), and many refusing to take the 
required, and declining to accept the king’s 
yence, died on the scaffold, after undergoing 
tortures. The name Cameronian is derived 
Richard Cameron, one of their ministers, who 
illed in a skirmish, in 1680. On 22 June in 
year he and others issued at Sanquhar a de- 
ion for religious liberty. The bi-centenary 
ept in 1880. In 1689 they raised a body of 
rs to support William III., who enrolled 
under the command of lord Angus, as the 
regiment, since so famous. In 1712 they re- 
| their public covenants, and are described 
> of their tracts as “‘ the suffering anti-popish, 
ati-prelatical, anti-erastian, true presbyterian 
h of Scotland.”” They have now between 
‘and forty congregations in Scotland.—The 
regiment (Cameron Highlanders), raised in 
»y Allan Cameron, has no connection with the 
ronians. 


MISARDS (from chemise, Latin camisa, a 
which they frequently wore over their dress in 
attacks), a name given to the French Pro- 
ts in the neighbourhood of the Cévennes 
itain chains in 8. France), who after enduring 
severe persecution in consequence of the 
ition of the edict of Nantes, 22 Uct. 1685, took 
ms in July, 1702, to rescue some imprisoned 
‘en. They revenged the cruelties of their 
es, and maintained an obstinate resistance 
st the royalist armies commanded by marshal 
evel, and other distinguished generals, till 
when the insurrection was suppressed by 
ial Villars. After futile conciliatory efforts, 
il of the heroic leaders suffered death rather 
surrender, Cavalier, an able general, unable 
ry out a treaty made with Villars, seceded in 
entered the British service, and died governor 
sey, 1740. 

MLET, formerly made of silk and camel’s 
but now of wool, hair,:and silk. Oriental 
t first came here from Portuguese India, in 

Anderson. 


-MORRA, a secret society of plunderers and 
\ers, exacting money from shopkeepers and 
*s, In Naples (said to have originated from 
xtreme destitution of the lower 
under the Bourbons; checked 
; about 80 Camorristi seized 


) 


ey were frequently called hill-men or mountain men, 
ciety people(from the places and modes of worship 
ch they were frequently reduced), and MeMillanites, 
John MeMillan, their first minister, after their 
on from the church of Scotland on account of its 
viency to the English government, and its declining 
its original rigid principles. They assumed the 
of the ‘Reformed Presbyterian Church,” on May 
wa and soon after united with the Free Church of 
od, 


149 


CANADA. 


laid out by divine direction, 1490 B.c. (Numbers ii.) 
The Romans and Gauls had intrenched camps in 
open plains ; and vestiges of such exist to this day 
in England and Scotland. A camp was formed in 
Hyde Park in 1745 and 1814; see Chobham, Alder- 
shot, and Kildare. 


CAMPAGNA, near Rome. Its drainage and 
planting were authorised by the Italian senate, 31 
May 1878. 

CAMPANTA (S. Italy), was occupied by Han- 
nibal and various cities declared in his favour 216 
B.C. ; conquered by the Romans, 213. Its capital 
was Capua (which sce). 


CAMPPBELL’S ACTS, introduced by John 
Campbell, lord chancellor. 1. Against libels and 
slanders, 6 & 7 Vict. c. 96 (1843), and 8 & g Vict. ec. 
75 (1845). 2. To compel railway companies to make 
compensation for injuries by culpable accidents, 9 & 
10 Vict. e. 93 (1846). 3. Against obscene publica- 
tions, prints, &c., 20 & 21 Vict. c. 83 (1857). In 
accordance with the second act, the family of a 
gentleman killed through the breaking of a rail, 
obtained a verdict for 13,0007. from the Great 
Northern Railway Company. On appeal the sum 
was reduced. 


CAMPBELLITES, or Rowites, a name given 
to the followers of the rev. John McLeod Campbell, 
minister of Row, Dumbartonshire, who, on 24 May, 
1831, was deposed by the general assembly of the 
church of Scotland for teaching the universality of 
the atonement, and other doctrines contrary to the 
church’s standard. Dr. Campbell established a 
congregation in Glasgow in 1833. The “ Disciples 
of Christ,’’ which see, are also sometimes termed 
Campbellites. 


CAMPEACHY-BAY (Yucatan, Central 
America), discovered about 1517, and settled by 
Spaniards in 1540; taken by the English in 1659; 
by the buccaneers, in 1678; and by the freebooters 
of St. Domingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town 
and blew up the citadel. The English logwood- 
cutters made their settlement here about 1662. 


CAMPERDOWN: south of the Texel, Hol- 
land, near which admiral Duncan defeated the Dutch 
fleet, commanded by admiral De Winter ; the latter 
losing fifteen ships, either taken or destroyed, 11 
Oct. 1797. The British admiral was made lord Dun- 
can of Camperdown. He died suddenly on his way 
to Edinburgh, 4 Aug. 1804. 

CAMPO FORMIO (N. Italy). Here a treaty 
was concluded between France and Austria; the 
latter yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian 
Islands to France, and Milan, Mantua, and Modena 
to the Cisalpine republic, 17 Oct. 1797. By a secret 
article the emperor gained the Venetian dominions. 


CAMPO SANTO (Holy Field), a burial-place. 
That at Pisa, surrounded by an arcade erected by 
archbishop Ubaldo, about 1300, is celebrated for 
the frescoes painted on the walls by Giotto, Memmi, 
and others. 


CAMPS, see Aldershot, Chobham, and Kildare. 
CAMPUS RAUDIUS, near Verona, N. Italy. 


flere the Cimbri were defeated with great slaughter 
by Marius and Catulus, IoI B.c. 

CANAAN (Palestine), is considered to have 
been settled by the Canaanites, 1965 B.c. (Clinton, 
2088). ‘The land was divided among the Israelites 
by Joshua, 1445 (Hales, 1602). 

CANADA (N. America), was discovered by John 
and Sebastian Cabot, 24 June, 1497. In 1524, a 
French expedition under Verazani formed a settle- 


CANADA, 


150 


ment named New France, and in 1535 Jacques 
Cartier (a Breton mariner), ascended the St. Law- 
rence as far as the site of Montreal; see Montreal 


and Quebec. Canada has been termed ‘‘ the 


minion,’ 
American colonies, 1 July, 1867. 


First permanent settlement : Quebec founded 
Canada taken by the English, 1629; restored . 
War begins in 1756; Canada conquered by the Eng- 
lish, 1759 (see Quebec), confirmed to them by the 
treaty ot Paris, signed to Feb. 
Legislative council established ; “the French laws 
confirmed, and religious liberty given to Roman 
Catholics 
The Americans under Montgomery invade Canada, 
and surprise Montreal, Noy. 1775; expelled by 
Carleton . March, 
Canada divided into Upper and Lower 
The ‘‘clergy reserves ” established by parliament— 
one seventh of the waste lands of the colony ap- 
propriated for the maintenance of the Protestant 
clergy (during the debates on this bill the tenth el 
between Mr. Burke and Mr. Fox arose) 
Canada made a bishopric . 
United States army, under general Hull, invade 
Canada; defeated at Br ownstown, near Toronto, 
8 Aug. ; surrender . 16 Aug. 
Americans take York, 27 April; Fort Geor ge, 27 
May; defeated at "Chippewa, 25 July; peace 
signed at Ghent sn ee4 tec. 
Opposition to Canada cler; sy reserves . 
First railway in Canada opened July, 
The Papineau rebellion commences at Montreal by 
a body called Fils de la Liberté . 


The rebels defeated at St. Eustace . “a4 Dee. 
Repulsed at Toronto by sir F. Head 5 Jan. 
Karl of Durham appointed gov.-gen. 16 Jan 
Lount and Mathews (rebels) hanged 12 April, 
Lord Durham resigns his government 9 Oct 
Rebellion appears in Beauharnais, 3 Nov. ; the in- 


surgents at Napierville, under N elson, routed, 
6 Nov. ; rebellion suppressed . . 17 Nov. 
Sir John Colborne, governor .) WEG 
Acts relating to government of Lower ea 
passed in Feb. 1838, and : 
Chas. Powlett Thonypson (afterwards lord Sy aehiany 


governor wept: 
Upper and Lower Canada re- united 10 Feb. 
Sir Chas. Bagot, governor . . Oct. 
Sir Chas. T. (aft. lord) Metcalfe, governor Feb. 
Earl Cathcart, governor ; : March, 
Earl of Elgin, gov.-general __. Oct. 
Riots in Montreal ; parliament house burnt 
26 April, 


Canada clergy reserves abolished by the British 
parliament : 9 May 
Concluded an important tr eaty with United States: 

June, 
The grand trunk railroad of Canada (850 aoiieay 
from, Quebec to Toronto, opened 12 Nov. 
On reference made to the queen, Ottawa, formerly 
Bytown, appointed the capital; this decision 
unpopular Au 
Canada raises a regiment of soldiers (made one of 
the line, and called the rooth) 
The prince of Wales presents the colours at Shorn- 
litt Meee Io Jan. 
The prince of Wales, the duke of Newe castle, &c., 
arrived at St. John’ 8, Newfoundland, 24 July ; 
visit Halifax, 30 July ; Quebee, 18 Aug. ; Montreal, 
25 Aug.; Ottawa, t Sept. ; leave Canada, 20 Sept. ; 
after visiting the United States embark at Port- 
land, 20 Oct. ; and arrive at Plymouth 15 Noy. 
Lord Monck assumes office as gov.-gen. 28 Nov. 
In consequence of the “Trent” affair (see United 
States, 1861), 3000 British troops sent to Canada; 
warlike preparations made . Dee. 
British N. American Association founded i in London 
Jan. 
Cartier’s ministry defeated on Militia bill; Mr. J. 
Sandfield Macdonald, premier 20-23 May, 
The assembly vote only 5000 militia and 5000 re- 
serve towards the defence of the country ; this 


causes discontent in England 4 uly, 
Mr. J. Macdonald again premier 20 May, 
New militia bill passed . *  - Sept. 


Do- 


since its incorporation with the other 


- 1608 
- 1632 


1763 
1774 
1776 


1791 


1791 
1793 


1812 


1814 


1817 et seq. 


1836 


1837 
1838 


1839 


+9 
1840 
1841 
1843 
1846 


” 
1850 
» 1853 
1854 
1856 


g. 1858 


3) 


1859 


CANADA. 


Military measures in progress . iS 

Meeting of about 20,c00 volunteers ; “delegates 1 
N. American colonies at Quebec, to deliberat 
the formation of a confederation, to Oct.; 4 
on the bases 

Between 20 and 30 armed confederates quit Ga 
and enter the little town of St. Alban’s, Verm 
rob the banks, steal horses and stores, fire, 
kill one man, and wound others, and retur 
Canada, 19 Oct ; 13 are arrested, 21 Oct. ; but 
discharged, on account of some legal be 
by J udge Coursol 

Great excitement in United States, ‘poner 
proclaims reprisals; volunteers called ow 
Canada to defend the frontiers ; president 
coln rescinds Dix’s proclamation. : i 

The confederation scheme rejected by New Br 
wick . 7 Ma 

The British parliament grant 50,0001. for die 
Canada . - 23 Ma 

The St. Alban’s raiders discharged, 30 Me 
Mr. Seward gives up claim for their —— 


Messrs. Galt and Cartier visit England to sae 
confederation A 
The threatened invasion of the Fenians, 9 Ma 
1o0,ooo volunteers called out 15 Ma 
The Canadian parliament opened, for the first t 
at Ottawa; the Habeas Corpus act suspenc 
many Fenians flee ; 35,000 men under arms 
Fenians) : 4 8 J 
Discovery of gold i in Hastings county, Canada ¥ 


I 

Act for the union of Canada, Nova Scotia, and] 
Brunswick under the name of the Dominio: 
Canada, with parliament, to consist of the Qu 

a senate of 72 members, and a house of comn 
of 18: members, passed : ‘ - 29 Ma 
Canada Railway loan act passed 12) A) 
Lord Monck sworn in as viceroy of Canada, 
virtue of the act for the union of the Bri 
provinces in North America 2d 
New parliament meets at Ottawa . Gat 
Reported agitation against the new confeder: atio 


Nova Scotia ; : : Rei? 
Murder of Mr. Darcy McGhee . : 7 A& 
A Fenian raid into Canada vigorously répelae 

the militia : ‘ : about 24 


Visit of prince Alfred, : Sept. et 
Sir John Young (aft. lord Lisgar) appointed go 
nor-general 1n room of lord Monck (resign 
arrives . Pek 
Hudson’s Bay territories purchased, subjec 
conditions, for 300,000l. (see Hudson’s Bay) 1 
In consequence of the resistance of some of 
settlers (see Rupert's land), an expedition, ur 
colonel Wolseley, arrived at Fort Garry, 
a conciliatory proclamation was issued 23 J 
Rupert’s land formed into a province, named M 


toba; Mr. Adams G. A. Archibald named the | 
governor ‘ ‘ rans 
Canada defences loan act passed F gt 


Disputes with United States respecting fishing. N 
Opposition to the fishery clauses in the treat; 
Washington : Jl 
By the British North America act, the parliar 
of Canada may establish new provinces, 29 Jt 
British Columbia united to the ‘‘ Dominion” _ 
Departure of last battalion of royal troops . N 
A liberal ministry constituted under Mr. Edw 


Blake P . 231 
Lord (aft. earl of) Dufferin appointed gow 
general ; inaugurated . 25du 
Sir George Cartier, statesman, ‘died . 20 M 


Mr. Ar ch, on behalf of British labourers, vi 
Canada : : autu 
The ministry of sir John Macdonald charged W 
corruption connected with the Pacific railw 
the parliament suddenly prorogued by | 
Dufferin . 13A 
Commission of inquiry—Macdonald- admits rect 
ing money from sir Hugh Allan Se 
Parliament meets, 23 Oct.; the ministry resig 
5 Nov.; Mr. Mackenzie forms a ministry, 7 N 
New reciprocity treaty rejected by the U.S. + 
4 
The Canadian and United States fishery commiss 
(sir Alexander Galt for Canada, Mr. E. T. Kell 


CANAL BOATS. 


161 CANALS. 


or United States, and M. Delfoss, Belgian U.S. 
iinister) meet at Halifax, 15 June; award 
»,500,000 dollars to Canada, Mr. Kellogg dissent- 
23, 24 Nov. 
erican fishermen in Fortune Bay {attacked for 
creaking laws respecting fishing . 6 Jan. 
, ctions: great majority against the government, 


1877 
1878 


~ 
9 


Nbout . 19 Sept. ,, 
o> marquis of Lorne appointed governor-general, 
14 OC. ,, 
signation of ministry ; sir John ae a forms 
new one about . . é - x9 Oct. ,, 
»lifax award paid : 2 ar Nov. 5, 
2 marquis of Lorne and princess Louise land at 
Talifax . as NOV. =; 
> Queen’ 8 telegram, “Delighted at reception, say 
| A : eC 5 
m rotectionist budget passed : . 5 Mar. 1879 
-minion industrial exhibition at Ottawa Snabied 
vy the marquis of Lorne. : 24 Sept. ,, 


-tune-bay affair (Jan. 1878), compensation refused 
oy the earl of Salisbury, granted by lord Gran- 
‘ille, but rules affirmed . 26 Oct. 
turn of Canadian prosperity affirmed by the mar- 


1880 


_uis of Lorne gDec. ;, 
tract for new Pacific railway ratified by the 

yssembly . . r Feb. 1881 
oria steamer sunk on the Thames, great lass of 

ife (see Wrecks) . eee May ey, 
tune-bay affair; 15, cool. awarded 28 May, ,, 


cessful progress of the oda general through 
|he dominion F Ju ly—Oct. as 
e marquis of Lorne. arrives at Birkenhead 
4 Nov. 1881; returns to Canada . 21 Jan. 
cific railway bill passed . 8 2G April, ;, 
ciety for the Advancement of Literature and 
icience founded in Ottawa by the marquis of 
zorne - 25 May ,, 
sections: a protectionist majority ‘ aeuunes)s, 
W. territory beyond Manitoba divided into four 
iew territories ; Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Al- 
verta, and Athabasea: by order in council July, ,, 
rquis of Lorne returns to Ottawa from a visit to 
Sritish Columbia, Washington, &c. 31 Jan. 
w parliament meets Shed. ;, 
> marquis of Lansdowne arrives at Quebec as 
overnor-general . 22 Oct. 
1ada offers military assistance in the Soudan Feb. 
‘urrection in N. W. Territories (see Manitoba), 
; Mareh-> 5, 
ulation in 1857: Lower Canada, 1,220,514 ; 
‘pper Canada, 1,350,923; of the Dominion in 
871, 3,788,618. 
yulation in 1881, 45359,933- 


SANAL BOATS, used as dwellings; an act 
sed for their registration and regulation, 14 Aug. 
iy (40 & 41 Vict. c. 60); amended, 1884. M. 
‘soni’s application of mechanical traction to cana! 
its by means ef an endless cable of Bessemer 
el, set in motion by fixed engines; tried between 
twerp and Liége, Sep. 1882. 


JANALS (artificial watercourses). The im- 
‘ial canal in China, commenced in the 13th 
itury, is said to pass over 2000 miles, and to 4I 
les; see Ganges, Suez, and Panamd. 


> canal of Languedoc (Canal du Midi) which joins 
he Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean, was 
ompleted . 

ut of Orleans from the Loire to the Seine. com- 
aenced : ‘ A : ae to7s 
rgundy canal. 1775 
it. between the Baltic and the North Sea, at Kiel, 


1681 


pened 1785 
at of Bourbon, between the Seine and Oise, 
ommenced 1790 


ne and Loire, opened ‘ 1791 
it from the Cattegat to the Baltic a1 a 1794" -1800 
> great American Erie canal, 363 miles in length, 
ras commenced : - 3 
at of Amsterdam to the sea . : : - 1819-25 
ages canal completed : 1854 
aal between Amsterdam and the North Sea 
pened . 1 Nov. 1876 
ind canal connecting the Atlantic and Medi- 


—— 


terranean (between Bordeaux and Narbonne) 

proposed . May, 1884 
(See Ganges, Suez canal and Punjaub. ) 

BRITISH CANALS. fx" 

The first was by Henry I., when the Trent was joined 
to the Witham, 1134. 

Francis Mathew in 1656, and Andrew Yarranton in 1677, 
in vain strongly urged improvement in internal navi- 
gation. 

In England there are said to be 2800 miles of canals, and 
2500 5 miles of rivers, taking the length of those only 
that are navigable—total, 5300 miles. (Mr. Porter, in 
1851, SayS 4000 miles.) 

In Ireland there are 300 miles of canals ; 150 of navigable 
rivers ; and 60 miles of the Shannon, navigable below 
Limerick ; in all, 510 miles. Williams. 

The prosperity of canals, for a time largely checked by 
the formation of railways, is now greatly revived ; and 
railways are connected with them (1878-1883). 


INLAND NAVIGATION. 


New river commenced . 1609 
Brought to London 1613 
Thames made navigable to Oxford 1624 
Kennett navigable to Reading . 1715 
Caermarthenshire canal 1756 
Droitwich to the Severn Ke 


Duke of Bridgewater’s navigation (first great canal) 
commenced (see Bridgewater) a ee 
Northampton navigation . 
Dublin to the Shannon (the Grand) 
Stafford and Worcester, commenced ot 
Grand Trunk (Trent and Sa a commenced by 
Brindley ; 
Forth to Clyde, commenced 4 
Birmingham to Bilston F P p St sons sl 


Oxford to Coventry, commenced. : 1769 
Lea made navigable from Hertford to ) Ware, 1739 ; 

to London . - : : ae L7 
Leeds to Liverpool . 2 : : aati 
Monkland (Scotland), commenced : : Ppt tt 
Ellesmere and Chester F : “ 1772 
Basingstoke canal begun. s Z x et ee 
Liverpool to Wigan . : 1774 
Stroud to the Severn 1775 
Staffordshire canal, begun : : F 1776 
Stourbridge canal, completed. X : Sey Ys: 
Runcorn to Manchester .’ 4 m P < Ader 
Mersey, opened “ “ : : 1777 
Chesterfield to the Trent . i ; 3 : ere 
Belfast to Lough Neagh a 1783 
Severn to the Thames, completed 1789 
Forth and Clyde, completed , 1790 
Bradford, completed F 5 é ; : ab S 
Grand Junction, begun i 3 ‘ . ete cp 
Birmingham and Coventry : : : ; eats 
Monastereven to Athy . a Z 1791 
Worcester and Birmingham . A ; - Be 
Manchester, Bolton, and Bury . : 3 re eee 
Warwick and Birmingham +) 1795 
Crinan, Argyllshire, cut 1793-1801 
Barnsley, cut ‘ F i : ae 7O4 
Rochdale, act passed ‘ : ‘ i ‘ ett 
Huddersfield, act passed. 2 : F ae Ve neae 
Derby, completed . ‘ 3 4 : : Fa ee 
Hereford and Gloucester 1796 
Paddington Canal begun . 1798 
Kennet and Avon, opened 1799 


Peak-forest canal, completed 5 ‘ 
Thames to Fenny Stratford . ‘ a 4 a> aA) ss 
Buckingham canal 2 ; : ‘ 
Grand Surrey, act passed. ; : é Pa 
Brecknock canal ; F 


Caledonian canal begun 1803 
Ellesmere aqueduct . : ; : 1805 
Ashby-de-la-Zouch, opened . ‘ ‘ s “ae 

Royal Military canal, Hythe ‘to Rye. 1807 
Aberdeen, completed : 5 3 +. ees 

Glasgow and Ardrossan, opened 1814 
Leeds and Liverpool, opened : : 1816 
Wye and Avon . < . ‘ an se 

Edinburgh and Glasgow Union . 1818 
Sheffield, completed . < 1819 
Regent’s canal, opened 1820 
Caledonian canal, completed * 30 Oct. 1822 
Birmingham and ‘Liverpool, begun . 1826 
Gloucester and Berkeley, ship-canal, completed 1827 
Norwich and Lowestoft navigation opened . 183" 


CANARY ISLANDS. 


CANARY ISLANDS (N. W. Africa), known 


to the ancients as the Fortunate Isles. ‘The first 
meridian was referred to the Canary Isles by Hip- 
pe cuue, about 140 B.c. They were re-discovered 

y a Norman named Bethencourt, about 1400; his 
descendants sold them to the Spaniards, who became 
masters, 1483. The canary-bird, a native of these 
isles, brought to England about 1500. ‘Teneriffe is 
the largest island. Ferro, the most south-western, 
was appointed the French meridian by Louis XIII. 
in 1632, 


CANCER HOSPITAL, West Brompton, 
S.W. London, was founded by Miss (now baroness) 
Burdett-Coutts, 30 May, 1859. A temporary hospital 
begun in 1851. 


CANDAHAR, a province of Afghanistan held 
by Duranis and Ghilzais. Candahar, the capital, 
is said to have been founded by Alexander the 
Great (334-323 B.c.) After being subject to suc- 
cessive rulers of India, it was made capital of 
Afghanistan by Ahmed Shah, 1747, but the seat of 
government was transferred to Cabul in 1774, 


Taken and held by the British 7 Aug. 1839 to 
22 May, 
Gen. Nott (with major Rawlinson and major Lane) 
defeated the Afghans near here. Jan. and June, ,, 
The government of Candahar conferred on Shere 
Ali(a cousin of the late ameer Shere Ali), with the 
title of Wali, by the viceroy of India April, 1880 
Shere Ali resigned, and went to Calcuttain Dee. 
After the disaster of Maiwand, 27 July 1880, Can- 
dahar was held by British during the winter 1880-rz 
In the house of lords on the earl of Lytton’s mo- 
tion to retain Candanar, 165 voted for its reten- 
tion, 76 against : E - § March, 
The house of commons, on Mr. Stanhope’s motion 
for retention, 336 voted against it; 216 for it, 
24-26 March, 
Candahar evacuated by the British, 16-21 April, 
Sirdar Kashim Khan (on behalf of Abdur-rahman, 
ameer of Cabul) enters Candahar 16 April, 
Invasion of Ayoob Khan; he defeats the ameer’s 
army at Karez-i-Atta, 26 July ; enters Candahar. 
30 July, 
After a severe conflict, 22 Sept., the ameer enters 
Candahar 5 . sass “ 30 Sept. 
See Afghanistan. 
CANDIA, the medieval name (now aban- 
doned) of Crete, an island in the Mediterranean 
Sea, celebrated for its 100 cities, its centre Mount 
lda; the laws of its king Minos, and its labyrinth 


1842 


” 


1881 


”> 


to secure the Minotaur (about 1300 B.c.). It was 
conquered by the Romans 68 B.c. 

Seized by the Saracens - A.D. 823 
Re-taken by the Greeks Jae Oas 
Sold to the Venetians ~ Aug. 1204 
Rebelled ; reduced 1364 


Gained by the Turks, after a twenty-four years’ 
siege, during which more than 200,000 men 


perished . ; 5 : . 1669 
Ceded to the Egyptian pacha . 1830 
Restored to Turkey ; ‘ : é : . 1840 
Insurrections suppressed, 1841 ; by conciliation. . 1858 
Persecution of the Christians - 31 July, 1859 
The Christians demand redress of grievances, June, 1866 


They establish a “‘ sacred battalion ” 12 Aug. 
Publish an address to the powers protecting Greece, 
21 Aug. 

The Cretan general assembly proclaim the abolition 
of the Turkish authority in Candia, and union 
with Greece . : ; ; : ; 2 Sept. 
Commencement of hostilities: the Turkish army 
commanded by Mustapha Pacha . 1x Sept. 
Greeks victorious in several conflicts, Sept. and Oct. 
The Greek steamer Panhellenion begins to convey 
volunteers, &c., to Candia 2 f : OCs < 
Monastery of Arkadi besieged ; blown up by the 
defenders ; great loss on both sides 26 Nov. 
Proposition of Austria, Prussia, Italy, and Switzer- 
land to the sultan to give up Candia, 28 March ; 
declined =. : - : ; 31 March, 1867 


93 


> 


152 


CANDLES. 


Many defenceless villages said to be burnt June, 
Collective note from Russia and other powers urging 

the Porte to suspend hostilities 15 June. 
Indecisive conflicts . ‘ P : eer. NY, 
The Arkadi Greek steamer, after running the block: 

ade 22 times, landing Greek volunteers, and 

bringing away women and children, destroyed by 

the Turkish vessel I[zeddin - 19 Aug. 
Assembly of delegates meet the vizier 22 Sept. 
Insurrection subsides ; the grand vizier arrives, 2: 
Sept. ; proclaims an amnesty, and promises re. 
forms ‘ : : : F ‘ - § Noy, 
Successful blockade running by the Greeks ; Oma 
Pasha, the Turkish general, resigns his command 
intheisland . ; : - . | ey, 
The delegates’ demands granted 11 Dec, 
The war renewed (indecisive) s ; . Feb. 
The Petropaulakes landed about 2500 men on oppo: 
site sides of the isle, ro Dec., but failed in thei 
attempt to unite; after several skirmishes, ir 
which they lost about 650 men, all surrendered 
(and were sent to Greece) ; . 26 Dec. 
The provisional government surrendered 30 Dec. 
The new Turkish governor, Omer Fenizi, arrived 

and the blockade ended : . 8 March, 
Insurrection announced, with provisional govern. 
ment ; 3 : - about 20 Dec. 
Union with Greece proclaimed, 31 Jan. ; decreed 
by a general assembly F : 11 Feb. 
Insurrection unsubdued; anarchy; Berlin treaty 
declares for enforcing legal and political releae: 

13 Jul 

Pacification by Mukhtar Pasha through conkaane 


of self-government, &e. . ; ‘ +. Oat 
Insurrection on account of religious difficulties 
8 Feb. 


The christian notables appeal to the sultan for 2 
christian governor, and to Greece and other 
powers for mediation about 1 March 
Photiades, reappointed governor for five years an- 

nounced 6 March. 


CANDLEMAS DAY, 2 Feb. is kept i 
church in memory of the purification of the V: 
who presented the infant Jesus in the Te 
From the number of candles lit (it is sai 
memory of Simeon’s song, Luke ii., 32, ‘a Lis 
lighten the Gentiles,’ &c.), this festival was ¢ 
Candlemas, as well as the Purification. Its 
is ascribed by Bede to pope Gelasius in the 
century. The practice of lighting the churehe 
forbidden by order of council, 2 Edw. VI.1 548: 
is still continued in the church of Rome. Ca 
mas is a Scotch quarter-day. 


CANDLES. The Roman candles were 
posed of string surrounded by wax, or dipp 
pitch. Splinters of wood fatted were used for 
among the lower classes in England, about 
Wax candles were little used, and dipped ¢a 
were usually burnt. The Wax Chandlers’ 
any was incorporated 1483.' Mould candle 
said to be the invention of the sieur Le Bre 
Paris. Spermaceti candles are of modern m 
facture. ‘The Chinese make candles from wa: 
tained from the candleberry-tree (myriea cery 
The duty upon candles made in England, im 
in 1709, amounted to about 500,000/. ann 
when it was repealed in 1831. Very great imp 
ments in the manufacture of candles are due t 
researches on oils and fats, carried on by 
father of the fatty acids,’ Chevreul, since 
and published in 1823. At Price’s manufacte 
Lambeth, the principles involved in many pa 
are carried into execution; including thos 
Gwynne (1840), Jones and Price (1842), and 
son in 1844, for candles which require no snt 
(termed composite). Palm and cocoa-nut oil 
now extensively used. In 1860, at the Bel 
works g0O persons were employed, and in W 
100 tons (7000/. worth) of candles are manufac’ 


weekly. Candles are manufactured at Bel 


a 


CANDLESTICKS. 


the mineral oil of tar brought from Rangoon 


he Burmese empire, and from Trinidad. In 
the manufacture of candles from a mineral 
tanee named ozokerit began. Electric candles 
tblochkoff and Jamin; see under Electricity. 


ANDLESTICKS (or lamp-stands) with 
a branches were regarded as emblematical of 
yriest’s office, and were engraven on their seals, 
,and tombs. Bezaleel made ‘“‘a candlestick of 
gold” for the tabernacle, B.c. 1491 (Exod. 
i. 17). Candlesticks were used in Britain 1n 
days of king Edgar, 959 (‘‘silver candelabra 
gilt candelabra well and honourably made’’). 


ANDY (Ceylon), was taken by a British de- 
ment, 20 Feb. 1803, who capitulated 23 June 
wing, on account of its unhealthiness, and 
y were treacherously massacred at Colombo, 
une. The war was renewed in Oct. 1814; the 
was made prisoner by general Brownrigg, 
‘eb. 1815; and the sovereignty was vested in 
t Britain, 2 March, 1815. 


ANICULAR PERIOD, sce Dog-star. 


ANN Ad (Apulia). Here, on 2 Aug. 216 B.c., 
aibal with 50,000 Africans, Gauls, and Spaniards, 
ited Paulus Amilius and Terentius Varro, with 
)0 Romans, of whom 40,000 were slain. The 
r sent to Carthage three bushels of rings, taken 

the Roman knights. The place is now deno- 
ited by some ‘‘ the field of blood.”’ 


ANNIBAL, an Indian term, thought to be 
rm of Carribal; as Columbus, in 1493, found 
Caribs of the West Indies gross cannibals. 
hropophagt (man-eaters) are mentioned by 
ier and Herodotus ; and the practice still exists 
sme of the South Sea Islands and other savage 
tries. For Mignonette case, see Wrecks, 
. Superstitious cannibalism practised in Hayti, 


ANNING ADMINISTRATION.* The 
ss of lord Liverpool, Feb., led to the formation 
1is administration, 24-30 April, 1827. Mr. 
ting died 8 Aug. following: see Goderich. 


re Canning, first lord of the treasury and chancellor 
he exchequer. 

of Harrowby, president of the cowncil. 

: of Portland, lord privy seal. 

unt Dudley, viscount Goderich, and Mr. Sturges 
urne, foreign, colonial, and home secretaries. 
|, Wynn, president of the India bourd. 

Huskisson, board of trade. 

Palmerston, secretary at war. 
_ Bexley, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. 
of Clarence, lord high admiral. 
Lyndhurst, lord chancellor, &c. 

ee of Lansdowne, without office; afterwards home 
“etary. 
of Carlisle, woods and forests. 


ANNON., Gibbon describes a cannon em- 
2d by eee Il. at the siege of Adrianople, 
(5 see Artillery. 


irst cannon cast in England was by Hugget, at 
&field, Sussex, 1543. 

| Meg, a large cannon (above 13 ft. long, 20 
hes calibre) in Edinburgh castle, said to have 
-n cast at Mons in Hainault, in 1486, but more 
_bably forged at Castle Douglas, Galloway, by 
se brothers named M‘Kim, and presented by 


eorge Canning was born ir April, 1770; became 
n secretary in the Portland administration, 1807 ; 
_taduel with ld. Castlereagh and resigned, 1809 ; 
‘lent of the India board in 1820; disapproved of the 
_'s trial and resigned in 1821 ; appointed governor- 
u of India in 1822, but became soon after foreign 
_ary, and remained such till 1827, when he became 
er. He died 8 Aug. saine year. 


153 


CANNON. 


them to James IT. at the siege of Thrieve castle, 
1455. It was removed to London, 1754; but, at 
the request of sir Walter Ncott, restored to Edin- 
burgh, 1829. 

A cannon of Mahomet II., dated 1464, presented to 
the British governinent by the sultan of Turkey, 
and placed in the Artillery Museum, Woolwich, 
1868. 

Moolk-e-Maedan, an Indian bronze gun of Beejapoor, 
calibre 23 inches ; 17th century. 

At Ehrenbreitstein castle, opposite Coblentz on the 
Rhine, is a cannon, eighteen feet and a half long, 
a foot and a half in diameter in the bore, and 
three feet four inches in the breech ; the ball for 
it weighs 18o0lb., and its charge of powder ggtb. 
It was made by one Simon . ; : i : 

In Dover castle is a brass gun (called queen Eliza- 
beth’s pocket pistol), 24 feet long, a present from 
Charles V. to Henry VIII. 

Fine specimens in the Tower of London. 

A leathern cannon fired three times in the King’s 
park, Edinburgh. Phillips : 23 Oct. 

The Turkish piece, now in St. James’s park, was 
taken by the French at Alexandria; but was re- 
taken, and placed in the park March, 

Messrs. Horsfall’s monster. wrought-iron gun was 
completed in May, 1856, at Liverpool. Its length 
is 15 feet 10 inches, and its weight 21 tons 17 ewt. 
r1qr. 14lb. Its cost was 35001. With a charge of 
a5lb. it struck a target 2000 yards’ distanve. It 
has been since presented to government. 

Rifled ordnance committee appointed 20 Aug. 

Recently great improvements have been made in 
the construction of cannon, by Messrs. Whit- 
worth, Mallet, Armstrong, and others. Mr. Wm. 
G. Armstrong knighted : 18 Feb. 

He had been working for four years on gun-making, 
and had succeeded in producing ‘‘a breech-load- 
ing rifled wrought-iron gun of great durability 
and of extreme lightness, combining a great ex- 
tent of range and extraordinary accuracy.” The 
range of a 32-Ib. gun, charged with sib. of powder, 
was a little more than 5 miles. The accuracy of 
the Armstrong gun is said at equal distances to 
be fifty-seven times more than that of our com- 
inon artillery, which it greatly exceeded also in 
destructive effects. The government engaged the 
services of sir W. Armstrong for ten years (com- 
mencing with 1855) for 20,oool., as consulting 
engineer of rifled ordnance . 22 Keb. 

A parliamentary committee on ordnance was ap- 
pointed 20 Feb., and reported 23 July, 

Sir W. Armstrong resigned his appointment 5 Feb. 

His gun said to be very effective in the attack on 
the Chinese forts at Taku : . 21 Aug. 

Mr. Whitworth’s guns and rifles greatly commended 


1529 


1858 


1859 


33 


1860 
1863 


1860 


1860-70 


An American cannon, weighing 35 tons, stated to 
be the largest in the world, cast - : . 
Great endeavours made to improve the construction 
of cannon, to counterbalance the strength given 
to ships of war by iron plates; trials at Shoe- 
buryness, Essex. i ; ; E < . 
Targets of the thickness of the iron sides of the 
Warrior, three s5-inch plates of wrought iron 
bolted together, pierced three times by 156tb. 
shot from an Armstrong gun smooth bore, 3o0o0lb., 
muzzle-loaded with charges of 4olb. of powder, 
twice, and once of solb. : ; 8 April, 
The Horsfall gun, mentioned above, with a charge 
of 75lb. of powder and a shot of 270lb., smasheda 
Warrior target : ; : A . 16 Sept. 
Mr. Whitworth’s shells sent through 54-inch iron 
plates and wood-work behind 12 Nov. 
Clark’s target destroyed ; ; . . 7 July, 
Armstrong’s gun ‘‘ Big Will” tried and pronounced 
to be perfect ; weight, 22 tons; length, rs feet; 
range with shot weighing srolb., 748 to 4187 yards 
19 Nov. 

Reed’s target tried successfully : 8 Dec. 
The competitive trial between the Armstrong and 
Whitworth guns began. ; 2 x April, 
Iron-plate commission experiments close 4 Aug. 
Capt. Palliser, by experiment, has shown that iron 
shot cast in cold iron moulds instead of hot sand, 
is much harder, and equals steel; he also sug- 
gested the lining cast iron guns with wrought 
iron exits, which is stated to be successful . ‘ 


- 1860 


99 


CANNON. 


CANOSSA. 


The competitive trials of Armstrong’s and Whit- 
worth’s cannon upon the Alfred target-ship at 
Portsmouth closed n ‘ : a LS) NOs 

* Hercules target,” 4 ft. 2 in. thick, 11} inches of 
iron, resists 300 pounders A ‘ . June, 

National Artillery Association (see Artillery) 

Duel between the Bellerophon, with a 12}-ton 9-inch 
rifled naval service gun with steel bolts (250 tb.), 
and powder charge of 48tb., and the single gun 
turret of the Royal Sovereign by capt. Cowper 
Coles : the equilibrium of the turret base undis- 
turbed by any amount of pounding 15 June, 

At Shoeburyness Palliser’s chilled metal shot 
(250lb.) by 43lb. of powder in a g-inch muzzle- 
loading wrought-iron Woolwich rifle gun, is sent 
through a target of 8 inches rolled iron, 18 inches 
teak, and # inch iron, and about 20 feet beyond, 

13 Sept. 

[His patent is dated 27 May, 1863. Mr. James 
Nasmyth had previously suggested the use of 
chilled iron. ] 

Many experiments made with cannon and targets at 
Shoeburyness . : : : F : F 
The American 15-inch naval gun, with a east-iron 
spherical shot 453lb., greatly damages an 8-inch 
target; other experiments at Shoeburyness, 

23 July, 

Continued experiments at Shoeburyness; Ply- 
mouth model fort, with 15-inch solid shield- 
plates, tried with 23-ton gun of 12-inch bore, 
bearing 60olb. Palliser shot; exterior of fort de- 
stroyed ; interior intact ;—the 1o-inch English 
gun shown to be superior to American and Prus- 
Sian great guns : : : . 16-24 June, 

Capt. Moncrieff’s protected barbette gun-carriage (in 
which the recoil is utilized for reloading), tried at 
Shoeburyness and proved successful 2 Oct. 

Contest at Shoeburyness : the iron targets of Brown 
of Sheffield resist the Whitworth guns, 2 March, 

Palliser shot said to have failed in the Hercules, 

20 Jan. 

“ Woolwich Infant,” 35 tons ; largest gun then ever 
made ; length 16 feet 3 inches ; formed of a steel 
tube with coiled breech piece ; designed to fire a 
qoolb. projectile, with r2otb. charge; made at 
Woolwich in 1870 ; when tried in Dec. 1871, the 
inner tube cracked; others made . 2 : 

Duel between the Hotspur (with 25-ton 12-inch rifle 
gun, heaviest afloat, with Palliser’s 6oolb. shot, 
and 8sib. of powder), and the Glatton iron-clad, 
whose turret plates successfully resisted the 
attack (animals in the turret uninjured), 5 July, 

Col. Moncrieff’s hydro-pneumatic carriage for artil- 
lery invented about April ; the principle claimed by 
sir Wm. Armstrong for hydraulic machine 11 Noy. 

Woolwich Infant.—Experimental gun constructing 
at Woolwich ; 80 tons ; 27 feet long; for 1650 tb. 
shot ; 300 Ib. of powder . ; f . May, 

81-ton gun tried at Woolwich ; shot 1250 b.; 190 Ib. 
of powder ; 12 men rammed in the charge ; shot 
penetrated so feet of sand; tried successfully 
18 Sept. 1875, 24-26 July, with 370 tb. of powder 

4 Aug. 

Gen. von Uchatius’s steel bronze cannon making at 
Vienna, . Sept. 1875; reported successful, Sept. 

Sir Wm. Armstrong’s 1oo-ton gun for Italy tried 
successfully at Spezzia, 2000 Ib. shot and 330 bb. 
powder 3 . . ; ‘ : 21 Oct. 

81-ton (or 80-ton) gun tried at Shoeburyness for 
sea-range, with 1760 tb. Palliser shell 

27 Sept. et seq. 1876, and 1 Feb. 

Four 1oo-ton guns by Armstrong ordered by go- 
vernment : F ; F ‘ March, 

A 1oo-ton gun tried at Woolwich, 13 June; finally 
proved 5 : = : , é 16 July, 

Great guns by Krupp successfully tried at Meppen, 
Hanover . : . : - : - 5-8 Aug. 

Breech-loading cannon ordered to be made 

Experiments with the 38-ton Thwnderer gun (see 
Navy, 1879), 9 Dec. 1879 ; exploded when double- 
charged : i : 4 : ; waureD: 

One of Armstrong’s roo-ton guns in the Duwilio near 
Naples exploded a ‘ - 6 March, 

A Krupp gun, of 130 tons, cast for Italy Oct. 

Mr. Hiram Stevens Maxim’s machine-gun, in which 
the recoil is utiilsed for reloading and refiring 
until the store of ammunition is exhausted (de- 
scribed in ‘‘ Nature,” 5 March, 1885) é eh 


1366 


. 1872 


CANOE. In the ‘Rob Roy” a very 
constructed canoe, ‘‘ giving the pleasure of 
without the expense,’ Mr. J. Macgregor, - 
travelled about a thousand miles on the riy 
lakes of Europe. His second cruise was 
Baltic. He explored the Suez canal, Noy. 
rivers of Syria, Dec. 1868, and the canals a; 
of Holland in the summer of 1871. The ‘Oc 
(16 feet long, 23 inches broad) crossed the 
from Boulogne to Dover, in II hours; | 
1867. ‘The Royal canoe club founded, 186¢ 
prince of Wales president, 1876. 


Mr. Fowler crossed from Boulogne to Sand; 
standing in an india-rubber twin canoe (the P. 
scaphe), in x2 hours . ; ; 19 A 


CANON oF SCRIPTURH, see Bid, 


CANON, 2a piece of music in two or mo 
imitating each other. ‘Non nobis, Domi 
Birde (died 1523) is an early specimen. 


CANONBURY TOWER, eee 
London, relic of ancient priory, built 
Bolton, of the order of St. John of Jerusal 
to have been visited by queen Elizabeth. 


CANONICAL HOURS, see Brevia 
CANONISATION of pious men and 


as saints, was instituted by pope Leo I 
Tallent. Every day in the calendar is 
saint’s day. ‘The first canonisation by papa 
rity was of St. Udalricus, Ulric, in 993. Pr 
canonisation was the act of the bishops anc 
Heénault. On 8 June, 1862, the pope cano 
Japanese, who had been put to death on 
1597, near Nagasaki, and 25 others, on : 
ree7" Among persons canonised by pope ] 
in Oct. 1872, was the late queen of 
Popes, 1881. 


CANONS, APOSTOLICAL, ascribed 
Apostles by Bellarmin and Baronius, by o 
St. Clement, are certainly of much later da 
325). The Greek church allows 85, the La 
them. The first Ecclesiastical Canon was 
gated 380. Usher. Canon law of the 
Gratian compiled a text-book of the cano 
it existed in his time, about 1130-50; it w: 
duced into England about 1154; see Decrete 
present Canons and Constitutions of the C 
England, collected from former ordinane 
established in 1603 by the clergy im cony 
and ratified by king James I., 1604. A m 
of canons formed by the convocation in 16 
declared unlawful by the commons, 16 Dee. 
An intermediate class of religious, betwee1 
and monks, in the 8th century, were termet 
as living by arule. Canons in some of our ¢a 
and collegiate churches resemble the preb 
in others. The endowment of canonries w: 
tated by the Cathedrals Act, 1873. 


CANOPUS, see Alexandria. 
CANOSSA, a castle in Modena. E 


emperor Henry IV. of Germany, subm 
penance imposed by his enemy, pope Greg: 
(Hildebrand), then living at the castle, t 
dence of the great countess Matilda. He 
exposed for several days to the inclem 
winter, Jan. 1077, till the pope admitted h 
granted absolution. Matilda greatly inere 
temporal power of the papacy by bequeath 
her large estates, to the injury of her sec’ 
band, Guelph, duke of Bavaria. A Camoss: 
ment, near Harzburg, against the papacy, 
augurated 26 Aug. 1877. 


apl 


CANTERBURY. | 


JANTERBURY (Kent), the Durovernum of 
- Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, king of Kent, 
‘o reigned 560-616. He was converted to Chris- 
ity by Augustin, 596, upon whom he bestowed 
ay favours, giving him land for an abbey and 
hedral, dedicated to Christ, 602. St. Martin’s 
irch is said to be the oldest Saxon church in 
tain. The riot at Boughton, near Canterbury, 
duced by a fanatic called Tom or Thom, who 
umed the name of sir William Courtenay, oc- 
red 28-31 May, 1838; see Zhomites. The rail- 
yto London was completed in 1846.—The ARrcH- 
HOP is primate and metropolitan of all England, 
| the first peer in the realm, having precedency 
ill officers of state, and of all dukes not of the 
od royal. Canterbury had formerly jurisdiction 
r Ireland, and the archbishop was styled a 
riarch. This see has yielded to the Church of 
ne 18 saints and 9 cardinals; and to the civil 
te of England, 12 lord chancellors, and 4 lord trea- 
ers. ‘This see was made superior to York, 1073; 
York. The revenue is valued in the king’s 
ks at 2816/. 7s. 9d. Beatson. Present income, 
9002. The Cathedral was sacked by the Danes, 
I, and burnt down 1067; rebuilt by Lanfranc 
i Anselm, and the choir completed by the prior 
wad in 1130, and in which Becket was mur- 
ed, 1170, was burnt 1174. It was rebuilt by 
lliam of Sens (1174-78), and by ‘ English 
lliam,” 1178-84. A new nave was built and 
er parts, 1378-1410. ‘The great central tower 
s erected by prior Goldstone about 1495. The 
geous shrine of Becket was stripped at the 
yxmation, and his bones burnt. Here were in- 
red Edward the Black Prince, Henry IV., car- 
al Pole, and other distinguished persons. Part 
the roof was destroyed by an accidental fire, 
| the edifice narrowly escaped, 3 Sept. 1872. The 
‘k-tower was nearly on fire, 2 June, 1876. See 
guenots. 


Archbishops of Canterbury. 


2-605. St. Augustine, or Austin, died 26 May. 
5-619. St. Lawrence. 

)-624. St. Mellitus. 

|-630. Justus. 

(-653. St. Honorius. 

5-664. Deusdedit (Adeodatus). 
3-690. Theodore of Tarsus. 
3-731. Berhtuald. 

(-734. Taetwine. 

5-741. Nothelm. 

(-758. Cuthbert. 

)-762. Breogwine, 

3-790. Jaenbehrt, or Lambert. 
»-803. ithelheard. 

3-829. Wulfred. 

D: Fleogild. 

»-870. Ceolnoth. 

0-889. Athelred. 

1-923. Plegemund. 

3 (2)  thelm. 

3-941. Wulfelm. 

1-958. Odo. 

9-988. St. Dunstan, d. 19 May. 
3-989. Aithelgar. 

-995. Sigeric. 

5-1006. Aulfric. 

-ro11. St. Hlphage, murdered by the Danes, 19 April. 
3-1020. Lyfinz, or Alfstun. 
>-1038. Athelnoth. 


. St. Hadsige. 
. Robert of Jumiéges. 
. Stigand : deprived. 
. St. Lanfranc, d. 24 May. 
. Anselm. 
[See vacant 5 years. ] 
. Radulphus de Turbine. 
. William de Curbellio. 
. Theobald. 
. Thomas 4 Becket : murdered 29 Dec. 
[See vacant. } 


155 


1174-1184. 
1184-1190. 
I1gI. 


1193-1205. 


1206-1228. 
1229-1231. 
1233-1240. 
1240-1270. 
1272-1278. 
1279-1292. 
1293-1313. 
1313-1327. 
1327-1333. 
1333-1348. 
1348-1349. 
1349. 

1349-1366. 
1366-1368. 
1368-1374. 
1375-1381. 


1381-1396. 
1397-1398. 
1398. 

1399-1414. 
1414-1443. 
1443-1452. 
1452-1454. 
1454-1486. 
1486-1500. 
1501-1503. 
1503-1532. 
1533-1556. 
1556-1558. 
1559-1575- 
1576-1583. 
1583-1604. 
1604-1610, 
1611-1633. 
1633-1645. 


1660-1663. 
1663-1677. 
1678-1691. 


1691-1694. 
1695-1715. 
1715-1737: 
1737-1747- 
1747-1757: 
1757-1758. 
1758-1768. 
1768-1783. 
1783-1805. 
1805-1828. 
1828-1848. 
1848-1862. 
1862-1868. 
1868-1882. 


1882. 


CANTICLES. _ 


Richard. 

Baldwin. 

Reginald Fitz-Joceline, died 26 Dec. 
[See vacant. ]’ 

Hubert Walter. [Reginald the sub-prior, and 
John Grey, bishop of Norwich, were suc- 
cessively chosen, but set aside. ] 

Stephen Langton, died 6 July. 

Richard Weathershed. 

Edmund de Abingdon. 

Boniface of Savoy. 

Robert Kilwarby (resigned). 

John Peckham. 

Robert Winchelsey. 

Walter Reynolds. 

Simon de Mephain. 

John Stratford. 

John de Ufford. 

Thomas Bradwardin. 

Simon Islip. 

Simon Langham (resigned). 

Wm. Whittelsey. 

Simon Sudbury, beheaded by the rebels, 14 
June. 

William Courtenay. 

Thos. Fitzalan or Arundel (attainted), 

Roger Walden (expelled). 

Tho. Arundel (restored). 

Henry Chicheley. 

John Stafford. 

John Kemp. 

Thomas Bouchier. 

John Morton. 

Henry Deane or Denny. 

Wm. Warham. 

Thos. Cranmer (burnt 2x March). 

Reginald Pole, d. 17 Nov. 

Matt. Parker, d. 17 May. 

Edm. Grindal, d. 6 July. 

John Whitgift, d. 29 Feb. 

Rd. Bancroft, d. 2 Nov. 

Geo. Abbot, d. 4 Aug. 

Wm. Laud (beheaded, ro Jan). 

[See vacant 16 years. ] 

Wm. Juxon, d. 4 June. 

Gilb. Sheldon, d. 9 Nov. 

Wm. Sancroft (deprived 1 Feb.), d. 24 Nev. 


1693. 

John Tillotson, d. 22 Nov. 

Thos. Tenison, d. 14 Dec. 

Wm. Wake, d. 24 Jan. 

John Potter, d. 10 Oct. 

Thos. Herring, d. 13 Mar. 

Matt. Hutton, d. 19 Mar. 

Thos. Secker, d. 3 Aug. 

Fred. Cornwallis, ad. 19 Mar. 

John Moore, d. 18 Jan. 

Chas. Manners Sutton, d. 21 July. 

Wm. Howley, d. r1 Feb. 

John Bird Sumner, d. 6 Sept. 

Chas. Thos. Longley, d. 27 Oct. 

Archibald Campbell Tait, elected 4 Dec. ; d. 
3 Dec. 1882 

Edward White Benson (trans. from Truro), 
Dec., elected 29 Jan. 1883. 


CANTERBURY (New Zealand), a Church of 
England settlement founded in 1850. Population 
in 1854, 6000, in 1868, 54,000; during that period, 
1,800,000/. expended on. public works, principally 
from the current revenue. 


CANTERBURY TALES, by Geoffrey 


Chaucer, were written about 1364; and first printed 


about 1475 or 1476 (by Caxton). 


Chaucer Society 


established 1867, 
CANTHARIDES, venomous green beetles 


(called Spanish flies), employed to raise blisters. 
This use is ascribed to Areteus of Cappadocia, 
about 50 B.c. 


CANTICLES, a name given to the Benedictus, 
Magnificat, Nunc dimittis, &c., in the Book of 


Common 


Solomon.’ 


Prayer, and especially to the “Song of 


’ 


CANTON. 156 


CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 


CANTON, founded about 200 B.c., the only 
city in China with which Europeans were allowed 
to trade, till the treaty of 29 Aug. 1842. Merchants 
arrived herein 1517. English factory established, 
1680. A fire destroying 15,000 houses, 1822. An 
inundation swept away 10,000 houses and 1000 
persons, Oct. 1833. Canton was taken by the British 
in 1857; restored, 1861. See China 1835, 1839, 
1856, 1861. Population estimated at 1,000,000. 


CANTOR LECTURES, courses given an- 
nually at the rooms of the Society of Arts. The 
expenses are defrayed by a legacy from Dr. Theo- 
dore Edward Cantor, of the Indian civil service ; 
aon died about 1859. The lectures began 7 Dec. 
1863. 


CANULEIAN LAW, permitting the patri- 


cians and plebeians to intermarry, was passed at 
Rome 445 B.c. 


CAOUTCHOUC or InprA RuBBER, an 
elastic resinous substance that exudes by incisions 
from several trees that grow in South America, 
Mexico, Africa, and Asia, especially Castilloa 
Hevea or Siphonia elastica, and Ficus elastica. 
Observed at Hayti by Columbus (Herrera) . ses RLAQ3 
Described by Torquemada ; : : : SOLS 
Discovered by La Condamine in Quito (termed by 

natives cahout-chow) ; brought to Europe about 1735 
Dr. Priestley said that he had seen ‘‘a substance 

excellently adapted to the purpose of wiping from 

paper the marks of a black lead pencil.” It was 

sold at the rate of 3s. the cubic half-inch . . 1770 
India rubber cloth was made by Samuel Peal anc 

patented . ; : : : 4 : eek 
Caoutchoue discovered in the Malay Archipelago, 

1798 ; in Assam : - : : : ; 
Vulcanised rubber formed by combining India rub- 

ber with sulphur, which process removes the sus- 

ceptibility of the rubber to change under atmo- 
spheric temperatures, was patented in America, 
by Mr. C. Goodyear : : : i : 
Invented also by Mr. T. Hancock (of the firm of 

Macintosh & Co.), and patented : care 
Mr. Goodyear invented the hard rubber (termed 

Ebonite) as a substitute for horn and tortoise- 

shell : : : : : ; : F - 1849 
A mode of retaining India rubber in its natural 

fluid state (by applying to it liquid ammonia) 

patented in England for the inventor, Mr. Henry 

Lee Norris, of New York . : : : 
See under Printing. 

African caoutchoue imported into England . - 1856 
Caoutchouc imported in 1850, 7617 cwts. ; in 1856, 

28,765 cwts.; in 1864, 71,027 cwts.; in 1866, 

72,176 cwts. ; in 1870, 152,118 ewts.; in 1874, 

129,163 cwts.; in 1876, 158,692 ewts.; in 1877, 

759,723 cwts.; in 1879, 150,601 cwts. ; in 1883, 

229,101 cwts. 


CAPE BRETON, a large island, E. coast of 
N. America, said to have been discovered by Cabot, 
1497; by the English in 1584; taken by the French 
in 1632, but was afterwards restored; and again 
taken in 1745, and re-taken in 1748. The fortress, 
Louisburg, was captured by the English 26 July, 
1758, when the garrison were made prisoners, and 
eleven French ships were captured or destroyed. 
The island was ceded to England, 10 Feb. 1763: 


CAPE-COAST CASTLE (S. W. Africa). 
Settled by the Portuguese in 1610; taken by the 
Dutch 1643; demolished by admiral Holmes in 
1661. All the British factories and shipping along 
the coast were destroyed by the Dutch admiral, 
De Ruyter, in 1665. It was confirmed to the 
English by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. See 
Ashantees. 


CAPE DE VERDE ISLANDS (N. At- 
lantic Ocean), belonging to Portugal, were known to 
the ancients as Gorgades, but not to the moderns till 


1839 


1843 


discovered by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese nay: 
in the service of Portugal, 1446, 1450, or 146¢ 


CAPE FINISTERRE (N. W. Spain) 
this cape admirals lord Anson and Warre; 
feated and captured a French fleet under | 
Jonquiére, 3 May, 1747. 


CAPE HORN, or Hoorn, on the last isl: 
the Fuegian archipelago, the southernmost po 
America, was discovered and named by Sche 
1616, after his birth-place in the Netherlands. 


CAPE LA HOGUEH, see La Hogue (corr 


Hague). 
CAPEL COURT, see under Stocks, 


CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, a promont« 
the 8. W. point of Africa, called ‘‘ Cabo To 
toso’’ (the stormy cape), the ‘‘ Lion of the 
and the ‘*‘ Head of Africa,’’ discovered by 
tholomew de Diaz in 1487. Its present nam 
given by John II. of Portugal, who augured fa 
ably of future discoveries from Diaz having re 
the extremity of Africa. Population of “ 
Colony”’ in 1856, 267,096; in 1881, 720,984. 


The cape was doubled, and the passage to Indi 
discovered by Vasco da Gama : - 19 Noy 
Care Town, the capital, founded by the Dutch 
Colony taken by the English under admiral Elphir 
stone and general Clarke 16 Sept 
Restored at the peace of Amiens . - 25 March 
Taken by sir D. Baird and sir H. Popham 9g Jar 
Finally ceded to England . ‘ 
British emigrants arrive . 5 ~ : 
The Kaffirs make irruptions on the British settle 
ments, and ravage Grahamstown ; see Kaffraric 


Oc 
Bishopric of Cape Town founded ; Dr. Robert Gray 
first bishop . ; f 3 ‘ . ‘4 
The inhabitants successfully resist the attempt t 
make the cape a penal colony 19 May 
Territories north of Great Orange river placed unde 
British authority, 3 Feb. 1848; annexed as th 
Orange river territory. ‘ t . Marcel 
The constitution granted to the colony promulgate 


and joyfully received . 5 ; : x July 
General Preetorius, chief of the Transvaal republic 
died Aug 


The British jurisdiction over the Orange rive 
territory abandoned, 30 Jan. ; a free state wa 
formed ; see Orange river : March 

The first parliament meets at Cape Town 1 July 

The Kaffirs much excited by a prophet. name 
Umhla-kaza ; by the exertions of sir George Grey 
the governor, tranquillity maintained . Aug 

The cape visited by prince Alfred in : July 

The first railway from Cape Town, about 58 mile 
long, opened : : : : . about Dec 

Governor, sir Philip E. Wodehouse . : i 

Disputes between bishops of Cape Town and Natal 
see Church of England A A : : ‘ 

Cape Town visited by the duke of Edinburgh 

17 Aug 

Discovery of diamonds ; leads to disputes betwee! 
the free states and the tribes ; see Diamonds 1 

Large tracts of territory devastated by fire Feb 

Death of Moshesh, an eminent chief of the Basutos 
friendly to the British : . 11 March 

New harbour, breakwater, and docks at Cap 
Town inaugurated by the duke of Edinburgh 

12 July 

Sir Henry Barkly appointed governor . (Aug 

Energetic conduct of sir Henry Barkly, repressin 
aggressions of the president of the Orange rive 
territory A : : : Ras, March 

Colony of Griqualand constituted ; 27 Oct 

The British flag erected amidst the diamond field 
with great acclamation : . 17 Nov 

Great success in the diamond fields; robbery © 
diamonds valued between 35,0001. and 40,000l. 
cppression of the natives stopped by sir H. os 

ug 


x Sept 


Death of bishop Gray, deeply lamented 
. 1x Sept 


Macomo, an eminent Kaffir chief died 


CAPE ST. VINCENT. 


arrection of Langalibalele, a chief, suppressed 
Jee Natal) : : 5 ‘ Noy. Dec. 1873 
th African Confederation (which see), proposed 
y earl of Carnarvon; opposed by Mr. Molteno 
nd his cabinet, May ; long debate commenced 
nit in the cape parliament . 11 Nov. 
‘| of Carnarvon, in 4 despatch, proposes that the 
onference on the confederation shall be trans- 
srred to England, 22 Oct. ; much resented Nov. ,, 
1 of Carnarvons despatch expressing earnest 
esire for the confederation, and proposing a 
veeting of delegates in London, their decision 
ot to be conclusive, 15 Novy. ; parliament pro- 
ogued . % ‘ F ; ; : 26Nov. ,, 
ference of delegates in London began ; earl of 
larnarvon, not Mr. Molteno, present . 5 Aug. 
H. Bartle E. Frere appointed governor and lord 
igh comniissioner for South Africa . IOVS) V55 
opens a successful exhibition at Cape town 

5 April, 
insvaal republic (which see)annexed 12 April, ,, 
yublesome disputes between tribes (Fingoes and 
talekas) ; lead to war; (see Kaffraria) . Sept. ,, 
e minister Molteno opposes employing im- 
yerial troops in the Kaffir war Jan., Feb. 
. Molteno’s ministry dismissed ; one formed by 
dr. J. Gordon Sprigg, about 12 Feb. ; reported 
uccessful . , ; 2 ADEM Ser, 5 
ffir war ended; amnesty to surrendering rebels 
nnounced : sie JULY ys 


1875 


anksgiving day for restoration of peace 1 Aug. ,, 
iu war begins (see Zululand) 12 Jan. 1879 
‘urrection in the Transvaal (which see) Dets.. 5s 


egraphic communication with Great Britain 
completed ; telegram from the queen to sir 
3artle Frere and others . a eazy WC. 5; 
vernment proposition for conference of delegates 
0 promote federation, rejected by the assembly 
about 24 June, 
ir with Basutos  . : , A June, ,, 
call of sir Bartle Frere, 1 Aug.; announced in 
yarliament . : 5 ? : 2Aug. ,; 
Hercules G. R. Robinson appointed High 
yommissioner . R 3 - ; S anrANe. 4, 
signation of Mr. Sprigg’s ministry, through 
iarrow escape of vote of censure ; succeeded by 
fr. Scanlen and Mr. Molteno : 6, 7 May, 
: settles the difficulty with the Transvaal (which 
ee 5 2 ; 5 a : . 1883-4 
nistry defeated, resigns; Mr. Upington, new 
ninister : ‘ ; : : 7 May, 1884 
ey agree to support the imperial government in 
‘epressing the Boer-filibusters ; z Oct; 
r recent wars, see Basutoland, Zululand, and 
"ransvacl. 


CAPE ST. VINCENT (S. W. Portugal). 
‘George Rooke, with twenty-three ships of war, 
1 the Turkish fleet, was attacked by Tourville, 
th 160 ships, off Cape St. Vincent, when twelve 
glish and Dutch men of war, and eighty mer- 
intmen, were captured or destroyed by the 
ench, 16 June, 1693.—Sir John Jervis, with the 
rditerranean fleet of fifteen sail, defeated the 
anish fleet of twenty-seven ships of the line off 
S cape, taking four ships and sinking others, 
Feb. 1797. For this victory sir John was raised 
the peerage, as earl St. Vincent. Nelson was 
zaged in this battle. Near this cape the fleet of 
n Pedro, under admiral Charles Napier, captured 
n Miguel’s fleet, 5 July, 1833. 


SAPETIANS, the third race of the kings of 
ince, named from Hugo Capet, count of Paris 
1 Orleans, who seized the throne on the death of 
uis V., called the Indolent, 987. Hénault. The 
t line of the house of Capet ended with Charles 
», in 1328, when Philip VI. of Valois ascended 
| throne; see France. 


JAPILLARITY (the rising of liquids in 
all tubes, and the ascent of the sap in plants) 
said to have been first observed by Niccolo 
giunti of Pisa, 1600-35. The theory has been 


r88r 


157 


CAPPADOCIA. 


examined by Newton, La Place, and others. Dr. 
T. Young’s theory was put forth in 1805, and 
Mr. Wertheim’s researches in 1857. 


CAPITAL, estimated amount (R. Giffen) :— 
Great Britain: beginning of century, 115,000,000l.; 1843, 
251,000,0001. ; 1853, 262,000,000l. 
United Kingdom: 1855, 308,000,000l. 3 1865, 396,000, 0001. ; 
1875, 571,000,000l. 
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT, see Death. 
CAPITATION TAX, see Poll-taz. 


CAPITOL, said to have been so called from 
a human head (caput) found when digging the 
foundations of the fortress of Rome, on Mons Tar- 
peius. Here a temple was built to Jupiter Capito- 
linus. The foundation was laid by Tarquinius 
Priscus, 616 B.c.; the building was continued by 
Servius Tullius; completed by Tarquinius Super- 
bus, but not dedicated till 507 B.c. by the consul 
Horatius. It was destroyed by lightning 6 July, 
183; burnt during the civil wars, 83; rebuilt by 
Sylla, and dedicated again by Lutatius Catulus, 69 ; 
again burnt a.p. 69, 80; rebuilt 70, 82; sacked by 
Genseric, June, 455. ‘he Roman consuls made 
large donations to this temple, and the emperor 
Augustus bestowed on it 2000 pounds weight of 
gold, of which metal the roof was composed: its 
thresholds were of brass, and its interior was de- 
corated with shields of solid silver. The Cupitoline 
games, instituted 387 B.c, to commemorate the de- 
liverance from the Gauls, were revived by Domitian, 
A.D. 86. The Campidoglio contains palaces of the 
senators, erected on the site of the Capitol by 
Michael Angelo soon after 1546. 


CAPITULARIES, the laws of the Frankish 
kings, commencing with Charlemagne (801). Col- 
lections have been published by Baluze (1677) and 
others. 


CAPITULATIONS: a name given to the 
judicial rights granted by treaties to foreign consuls 
in Turkey. After many years’ opposition, the 
sultan addressed a memorial to the sovereigns of ' 
Europe, in June, 1869; and modifications were 
agreed to, April, 1870. The sultan decided on the 
nen of the capitulations in Egypt about July, 
1872. 


CAPPADOCIA, Asia Minor. 


is involved in obscurity. 


Pharnaces said to have founded the kingdom _B.c. 744 
Cappadocia conquered by Perdiccas, regent of 
Macedon; the king, Ariarathes I., aged 82, 
crucified . : s : A 


Its early history 


Sais : a . 322 
Recovers its independence . : 4 315 
Conquered by Mithridates of Pontus 201 
Held by Seleucus, 288 ; independent . + tet BBS 
Ariarathes V., Philopator, reigns, 162; dethroned 

by Holophernes, 158, but restored soon after by 

the Romans; killed with Crassus in the war 

against Aristonicus : : ; rod 
His queen, Laodice, poisons five of her sons: the 

sixth (Ariarathes V1.) is saved ; she is put todeath ,, 
Ariarathes VI. murdered by Mithridates Eupator ; 

who sets up various pretenders; the Roman 

senate declares the country free, and appoints 

Ariobarzanes I. king . 03 


He is several times expelled by Mithridates, &c., 
but restored by the Romans ; dies : : 4-864 

Ariobarzanes II. supports Pompey, and is slain by 
Crassus. : 


s e 7 “ . 2 
Ariarathes VII. deposed by Antony . : : *6 
Archelaus is favoured by Augustus, 20 B.c. ; but 
accused by Tiberius, he comes to Rome and dies 
there oppressed with age . ‘ = A.Dars 
Cappadocia becomes a Roman province . 17 
Invaded by the Huns : : 51s 
And by the Saracens . 717 


Recovered by the emperor Basil I. | 876 


CAPPEL. 
Conquered by Soliman and the Turks . 1074 
Annexed to Turkish Empire - 1360 


CAPPEL (Switzerland). Here the reformer 
Ulric Zwinglius was slain in a conflict between 
the catholics and the men of Zurich, 11 Oct. 1531. 


CAPRI (Capree), an island near Naples, the 
sumptuous residence of Augustus, and particularly 
of Tiberius, memorable for the debaucheries he 
committed during his last years, 27-37. Capri was 
taken by sir Sydney Smith, 12 May, 1806. 


CAPS, see Hats. 


CAPS anp HATS. About 1738, Sweden was 
much distracted by two factions thus named, the 
former in the interest of the Russians, and the latter 
in that of the French. They were broken up and 
the names prohibited by Gustavus III. in 1771, who 
desired to exclude foreign influence. His assassina- 
tion by Ankarstrém, 16 March, 1792, set aside all 
his plans for the improvement of Sweden. 


CAPSTAN, used to work ships’ anchors, is 
said to have been invented, but more probably was 
only improved, by sir Samuel Morland, who died 
30 Dec. 1695. 


CAPTAIN, H.M.’s iron-clad turret ship, 
capsized during a squall, 12.15 A.M., 7 Sept., 1870. 
Capt. Hugh Burgoyne, capt. Cowper Coles, who 
designed the vessel, and 469 persons perished. See 
under Navy of England. Subscriptions for relief 
ofthe widows and orphans of the lost up to 17 Nov., 
34,8942.; 3 Dec., 38,004/.; 31 Dec., about 46,000. ; 
May, 1871, about Seer 25 June, 1871, about 
55,7002. Total, 57,8242. The fund was transferred 
to the Royal Commission of the Patriotic Fund. 


CAPUA (Naples), capital of Campania, took the 
part of Hannibal when his army wintered here 
after the battle of Canna, 216 B.c., and it is said 
became enervated. In 211, when the Romans re- 
took the city, they scourged and beheaded all the 
surviving senators; the others had poisoned them- 
selves after a banquet previous to the surrender of 
the city. Only two persons escaped; one woman 
who had prayed for the success of the Romans, and 
another who succoured some prisoners. During the 
middle ages Capua was successively subjugated by 
the Greeks, Saracens, Normans, and Germans. it 
was restored to Naples in 1424, and captured by 
Crsar Borgia, 24 July, 1501; was taken by Garibaldi 
2 Nov. 1860. 


CAPUCHIN FRIARS, Franciscans, _ so 
named from wearing a Capuchon, or cowl hanging 
down upon their backs. The order was founded by 
Matthew Baschi, about 1525; and established by 
the pope Clement VII. 1529. ‘The capuchin con- 
fessors of the queen Henrietta introduced here 1630, 
were imprisoned by the parliament, 1642. 


CAR. Theinventionis ascribed to Erichthonius 
of Athens, about 1486 B.c, Covered cars (currus 
arcuati) were used by the Romans. The Jlectica (a 
soft cushioned car), next invented, gave place to the 
carpentum, a two-wheeled car, with an arched 
covering, hung with costly cloth. Still later were 
the carruce, in which the officers of state rode. 
Triumphal cars, introduced by Tarquin the Elder, 
were formed like a throne. 


CARACAS (S. America), part of Venezuela, 
discovered by Columbus 1498. It was reduced by 
arms, and assigned as property to the Welsers, 
German merchants, by Charles V.; but for their 
tyranny, they were dispossessed in 1550, and a 
crown governor appointed. The province declared 
its independence, 9 May, 1810. In the city Leon 


158 


CARDINALS. 


de Caracas, on 26 March, 1812, nearly 12,0 
sons perished by an earthquake; see Venezu 


CARAITES, see Karaites. 
CARBERRY HILL (S. Scotland). 


lord Hume and the confederate barons dispe 
royal army under Bothwell, and took Ma 
of Scots prisoner, 15 June, 1567. Bothwell 


CARBOLIC ACID (or phenic acid), o 
by the distillation of pit-coal, by Laurent, 
is a powerful antiseptic. Itis largely m 
tured for medical purposes, and has been 
tageously used at Carlisle and Exeter in the 
risation of sewage (1860-1); and as a disir 
during the prevalence of cholera in London i 
It was successfully used for embalming by 
sor Seely in 1868. Professor F. Crace Ca’ 
great manufacturer of this acid, died 1873. 


CARBON was shown to be a distinct ¢ 
by Lavoisier in 1788. He proved the diar 
be its purest form, and converted it into ¢ 
acid gas by combustion. : 


CARBONARI (charcoal-burners), a p 
secret society in Italy, which derived its 
according to some, from the Waldenses, and 
became prominent early in the present cent 
aimed at the expulsion of foreigners from It: 
the establishment of civil and religious liber 
March, 1820, it is said that 650,000 joined 
ciety, and an insurrection soon after broke 
Naples, general Pépé taking the commané 
king Ferdinand made political concessions, | 
influence of the allied sovereigns at Layb 
Ferdinand to annul them and suppress the 
party, Jan. 1821, when the Carbonari were der 
as traitors. The society spread in France, and 
less hastened the revolutions in 1830 and 18 


CARBONIC ACID GAS, a gaseou 
pound of carbon and oxygen, found in theai 
product of combustion, respiration, and ferme! 
The Grotto del Cane yields 200,000 lbs. per: 
No animal can brestie this gas. The brist 
champagne, beer, &c., is due to its preset 
was liquefied by atmospheric pressure by Far 
1823. On exposing the liquid to the air it I 
solid, resembling snow, through vaporisatiot 


CARCHEMISH, see Hittites. 


CARDIFF CASTLE (S. vee 
Robert, duke of Normandy, eldest son of Wil 
is said to have been imprisoned from 1106 
death 10 Feb. 1135. 


CARDIGAN BAY, see Fishguard. 
CARDINALS, princes in the chureh of 


the council of the pope, and the conclave or ‘ 
college,’’ at first were the principal priests 
cumbents of the parishes in Rome, and said 
been called cardinales in 853. They begar 
sume the exclusive power of electing the 
about 1179. ‘They first wore the red hat to 
them that they ought to shed their blood 
ligion, if required, and were declared prince 
church by Innocent LV., 1243 or 1245. I 
gave the scarlet habit, 1464; and Urban V1 
title of Eminence in 1623 or 1630. In 15865i 
fixed their number at 70; but there are ge 
vacancies. In 1860 there were 69 cardin: 
1864, 59; in Nov. 1867, 52;—in 1873, 5 of th 
of bishops ; 34 priests; 6 deacons; 45 in all 
cardinals (one a Bonaparte) were made, 13 
1868.* Eleven new cardinals appointed, 12 


* British Cardinals: Henry Stuart, create 


CARDROSS CASE. 


_ In 1885, 6 cardinal bishops, 35 priests, II 
ms ; inall 52; (including archbishops Manning, 
loskey, an American, Ledochowski, Edward 
ard and John Henry Newman). 


ARDROSS CASE, see Zrials, 1861. 


ARDS, Puayinea. The origin of the game 
certain. It is said to have been brought to 
‘bo in 1379. Cards were illuminated for Charles 
f France, 1392, then depressed in mind. W. 
Jhatto’s work on the “History of Playing 
s,”’ published, 1848. Piquet and all the early 
23 are French.—Cards first taxed in England 
. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 
900 in 1800. In 1825, the duty being then 
yd. per pack, less than 150,000 packs were 
ped; but in 1827 the stamp duty was reduced 
'. and 310,854 packs paid duty in 1830. Duty 
paid on 239,200 packs in the year ending 5 Jan. 
; and on near 300,000, year ending 5 Jan. 

By an act passed in 1862 the duty on cards 
reduced to 3d. per pack, and the sellers were 
ired to take out a licence. Duty received in 
, 13,1314. ; in 1875, 13,8107. See Christmas. 


ARIA (Asia Minor), was conquered by Cyrus, 
B.c.; by Dercyllidas, a Lacedemonian, 397; 
uccessor Hecatomnus became king, 385 B.C. ; 
1is son Mausolus the Jawsolewm was erected 
ch see). Caria was annexed by the Romans, 
B.c. It is now part of the Turkish empire. 


ARIBBEE ISLANDS, see West Indies. 
ARICATURES. Bufalmaco, an Italian 


ter, about 1330, drew caricatures and put labels 
ie: mouths of his figures with sentences. The 
ern caricatures of Gillray, Rowlandson, H. B. 


n Doyle {>} = 3B), Richard Doyle, John 


h, and John Tenniel are justly celebrated. 
well-known ‘‘ Punch’’ was first published in 
The most eminent writers of fiction of the 
and others (Douglas Jerrold, Thackeray, 
-ckett, Professor E. Forbes, &c.) contributed to 
Jee Charwari and Punch. Mr. T. Wright pub- 
id a “ History of Caricature,’ 1865; and “the 
and WorksofJamesGillray,’’ 1873. Mr.J.Grego 
ished T. Rowlandson’s Works and Life, 1880. 


ARIGNAN, a small town about twelve miles 
| Sedan, department of Ardennes, N.E. France. 
he plain of Douzy near this place and the en- 
pment of Vaux, a part of MacMahon’s army, 
eating before the Germans, turned round and 
e a stand, 31 Aug. 1870. Aftera long, severe 
igement, in which the same positions were 
n_and retaken several times, the Germans 
ed the flank of their enemies, who were com- 
»d to fall back upon Sedan, where they were 
ly overcome, I Sept. 


ARILLONS, see Bed/s. 


ARINTHIA, a Bavarian duchy, annexed to 
territories of the duke of Austria, 1336. 


ARISBROOKE CASTLE (Isle of Wight), 
to have been a British and Roman fortress, was 
n 33° by Cerdic, founder of the kingdom of the 
t Saxons. Its Norman character has been as- 
od to William Fitz-Osborne, earl of Hereford in 
iamI.’stime. Here Charles I. was imprisoned 
. 1647 to Nov. 1648; and here his daughter 
pe ee eee 
les Erskine, 1801; Thomas Weld, 1830; Charles 
a, 1839; Nicholas Wiseman, 30 Sept. 18s0—6s; 
y Edward Manning, 1875; Edward Howard, 12 
h, 1877; John Henry Newman, 12 May, 1879; Ewd. 
\\be, 27 March, 1882 (d. 11 Feb. 1885), 


159 


CARLSBAD. 


Elizabeth, aged fifteen, died, too probably of a 
broken heart, 8 Sept. 1650. 


CARIZMIANS (fierce shepherds living near 
the Caspian), having been expelled by the ‘lartars, 
invaded Syria in 1243. The union of the sultans 
of Aleppo, Hems, and Damascus was insufficient to 
stem the torrent, and the Christian military orders 
were nearly exterminated in a single battle in 1244. 
In Oct. they took Jerusalem. They were totally 
defeated in two battles in 1247. 


CARLAVEROCK CASTLE (S. Scotland), 
taken by Edward I., July, 1300, the subject of a 
contemporary poem published, with illustrations, 
by sir Harris Nicolas in 1828, 


CARLISLE (Cumberland), a frontier town of 
England, wherein for many ages a strong garrison 
was kept. Just below this town the famous Picts’ 
wall began, which crossed the whole island to New- 
castle-upon-Tyne, and here also ended the great, 
Roman highway. Of the great church, called St. 
Mary’s, a large part was built by David, king of 
Scotland, who held Cumberland, Westmoreland, 
and Northumberland, from the crown of England. 
The castle, destroyed by the Danes, 875, restored in 
1092 by William II., was the prison of Mary queen 
| of Scots in 1568.—Taken by the parliamentary forces 
| in 1645, and by the young Pretender, 15 Nov. 1745; 
retaken by the duke of Cumberland, 30 Dec. saine 
year.—The see was erected by Henry I. in 1132, 
and made suffragan to York. The cathedral had 


been founded a short time previously, by Walter, 
| deputy for William Rufus. It was almost ruined 
by Cromwell, 1648, and partially repaired after the 
Restoration. It was reopened in 1856 after renova- 
tion, costing 15,000/. The see has been held by 
one lord chancellor and two lord treasurers; it is 
valued in the king’s books at 530/. 4s. 11d. per 
annum. Present income 4500/. 


BISHOPS OF CARLISLE. 
Kdward Venables Vernon, trans. to York, 1807. 
Samuel Goodenough, died 12 Aug. 1827. 
Hugh Percy, died Feb. 1856. 
Hon. H. Montagu Villiers, trans. to Durham, 
May, 1860. 
1860. Hon. Samuel Waldegrave, died x Oct. 1869. 
1869. Harvey Goodwin; consecrated Jan. 1870. 


CARLISLE ADMINISTRATION, 
Halifax. 

CARLISTS, see Spain, 1830-40 and 1872-6, 
The legitimists of Europe subscribed to their cause 
1873-6. A committee in London supplied arms 
and money. 


CARLOVINGIANS, or CAROLIN- 
GIANS, the second dynasty of the French kings, 
752-987. Charles Martel (715-741) and Pepin his 
son (741-752) were mayors of the palace. The 
latter became king 752; see France. 


CARLOW (S.E. Ireland). The castle, erected 
by John, 1180, surrendered after a desperate siege to 
Rory Oge O’ Moore, in 1577; again to the parlia- 
mentary forces, in 1650. Here the royal troops 
routed the insurgents 24 May, 1708. 


CARLOWITZ, Austria. Here was concluded 
a treaty of peace between Turkey and the allies, 
Germany, Russia, Poland, and Venice, 26 Jan. 1699, 
in consequence of the great defeat of the Turks b 
prince Eugene at Zenta, 11 Sept. 1697, by whic 
Hungary was finally secured to Austria. 

CARLSBAD (or Charles’s Bath), in Bohemia, 
the celebrated springs, said to have been discovered 
oy the emperor Charles IV. in 1370.—On 1 Aug. 
1019, a congress was held here, when the great 


1791. 
1808. 
1827. 
1856. 


see 


CARLSRUHE. 


powers decreed measures to repress the liberal 
press, &c. 

CARLSRUHE, capital of Baden, built by 
margrave Charles William, 1715. A revolution 
here was suppressed by Prussian aid, June, 1849, 
and the grand-duke returned 18 Aug. 


CARLTON CLUB, Pall Mall (Conservative), 
established by the duke of Wellington and others, 
1831-2; present house opened 1855. 


CARLYLE CLUB. Formed in 1881 for the 
purpose of affording to disciples and students of 
Thomas Carlyle a means of meeting together and 
of discussing the religious, political, and social pro- 
blems treated of in his writings. His statue on the 
Thames Embankment, Chelsea, was unveiled by 
Prof. Tyndall 26 Oct. 1882. 


CARMAGNOLE, a Piedmontese song and 
dance, written about Aug. 1792; popular in France 
during the reign of terror, 1793-4. ‘he chorus was 
‘¢ Dansons la Carmagnole: vive le son du canon !”’ 


CARMATHIANS, a Mahometan sect. Car- 
math, a Shiite, about 890, assumed the title of ‘‘ the 
guide, the director,” &c., including that of the 
representative of Mahomet, St. John the Baptist, 
and the angel Gabriel. His followers subdued 
Bahrein in 900, and devastated the east. Dissen- 
sions arose amongst themselves, and their power 
soon passed away. 


CARMELITES, or WHITE FRIARS, of 
Mount Carmel, one of the four orders of mendi- 
cants with austere rules, founded by Berthold about 
1156, and settled in France in 1252. Hénauilt. 
Their rules were modified about 1540. They claimed 
succession from Elijah. They had numerous mon- 
asteries in England, and a precinct in London 
without the Temple, west of Blackfriars, is called 
Whitefriars to this day, after a community of their 
order, founded there in 1245. A Carmelite church 
at Kensington was founded by archbishop Manning, 
July, 1865. ‘The Carmelites, as well as other orders, 
were expelled from their houses in France in Oct. 
1880. 

CARNATIC, a district of Southern Hindostan, 
extending along the whole coast of Coromandel. 
Hyder Ali entered the Carnatic with 80,000 troops, 
in 1780, and was defeated by the British under 
sir Eyre Coote, 1 July, and 27 Aug: 1781; and de- 
cisively overthrown 2 June, 1782. ‘he Carnatic 
was overrun by Tippoo in 1790. The British ac- 
quired entire authority over the Carnatic by treaty, 
31 July, 1801; see India. 

CARNATION, so called from the original 
species being of a flesh colour (carnis, of flesh), 
Several varieties were first planted in England by 
the Flemings, about 1567. Stow. 

CARNEIAN GAMES, observed in many 
Grecian cities, particularly at Sparta (instituted 
about 675 B.c. in honour of Apollo, surnamed 
Carneus), lasted nine days. 

CARNIVAL, (Carni vale, Italian, i.e. Mesh 
farcwell !), a festival time in Italy and other 
catholic countries at Shrove tide, or beginning of 
Lent. 

CAROLINAS (N. America). Said to have been 
discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1498, or by De Leon 
in1512. Raleigh formed a settlement at Roanoke 
in June, 1585, which was broken up in 1586. About 
850 English ‘settled here about 1660; and Carolina 
was granted to lord Clarendon and others in 1663. 
The cultivation of rice was introduced by governor 
Smith in 1695, and subsequently cotton. A con- 


160 


CARRIERS’ ACT. — 


stitution drawn up by John Locke was al 
The province was divided into North and 
1729; see America. ‘the Carolinas bei 
states, great excitement prevailed in then 
1860, on account of Abraham Lincoln’s e 
the presidency of the United States, | 
strongly opposed to slavery. South Carol} 
the secession from the United States, 20 D 
North Carolina followed, 21 May, 1861; s 
States, 1861-5. Both readmitted to th 
25 June, 1868. Embezzlements of South 
“ official ring’ (state government) disclo; 
secutions, Sept., Oct. 1877. 


CAROLINE ISLANDS (S. Paci: 


discovered by the Spaniards in the reign o 
II., 1686. 


CARP, a fresh-water or pond fish, y 
said, first brought to these countries ab 
Walton. Itis mentioned by lady Juliane 
in her book printed 1496. 


CARPETS are of ancient use in the Ez 
manufacture of woollen carpets was introd 
France from Persia, in the reign of He 
between 1589 and 1610. Some artisans 
quitted France in disgust established the 
carpet manufacture, about 1750. A co: 
company was formed in 1862. 


CARPET-BAGGERS, a name give 
venturers in the southern states of North 
who, after the conclusion of the war, in 
deavoured, from interested motives, to pre 
political predominance of the negroes. 4 
fluence counteracted by the conciliatory 
of president Hayes, 1877-8. 


CARPI (N. Italy). Here prince Eu: 
the Imperialists defeated the French 9 Jul 


CARPOCRATIANS, followers of Ca 


a Gnostic, in the 2nd century. 


CARRACK or KARRACK (Italian, | 
a large ship in the middle ages. ‘The San 
the property of the knights of St. John, 
1700 tons, sheathed with lead, was built 
about 1530. It was literally a floating fort 
aided Charles V. in taking Tunis in 1535. 
tained a crew of 300 men and 50 pieces of 


CARRIAGES. Erichthonius of Athe 
to have produced the first chariot about | 
Rude carriages were known in France 
reign of Henry II., a.p. 1547; in England 
Henry IY. of France had one without 
springs. They were made in England in 1 
of Elizabeth, and then called whirlicot 
duke of Buckingham, in 1619, drove six 
and the earl of Northumberland, in rivali 
eight. Carriages were let for hire in Paris 
at the Hotel Fiacre: hence the name, ji 
Car, Cabriolets, Coaches and Licence 
Annual licence duty for carriages; { 
2/, 2s.; under 4 cwt. or less than 4 whi 
Carlo Bianconi successfully introduce 
into Ireland about 1815; he died, ne 
16 Sept. 1875. G. A. Thrupp’s “Hi 
Coaches”’ published, 1877. 


*CARRICKFERGUS (Antrim, Irelai 
castle is supposed to have been built by | 
Lacy in 1178. The town surrendered to 
of Schomberg 28 Aug. 1689. ‘The castle sur 
to the French admiral Thurot, Feb. 17 
Thurot. 


CARRIERS’ ACT, 11 Geo, IV. & 1" 
c. 68, 1830. 


CARROCIUM. 161 CASHEL. 
) ei taining a crucifix: | Hannibal recalled to Carthage 3 i : oat 2s 
ay - peitedeaa Taliax armiesin | Totally defeated at Zama (which see) . 202 
rete: 7: Pp End of the second Punie war 201 


iddle ages. The Milanese lost theirs at Cor- 
va, 27 Nov. 1237. ~ 


RRON IRONWORKS, on the banks of 
arron, in Stirlingshire, established in 1760. 
works in 1852 employed about 1600 men. 
since 1776 have been made the pieces of ord- 
called carronades or smashers. 


RROTS and other edible roots were im- 
| from Holland and Flanders, about 1510. 
RS, see Carriages. 

RTES DE VISITE. The small photo- 
ic portraits thus termed are said to have been 
aken at Nice, by M. Ferrier, in.1857. The 
of Parma had his portrait placed upon his 
ig cards, and his example was soon followed in 
and London. 


RTESIAN DOCTRINES, promulgated 
ené Descartes, the French philosopher, in 
His metaphysical principle is, “I think, 
ore Iam ;’’ his physical principle, ‘‘ Nothing 
but substance.” He accounts for all physi- 
enomena on his theory of vortices, motions 
d by God, the source of all motion. He was 
1596, and died at Stockholm, the guest of 
Christina, in 1650. 
RTHAGE (N. coast of Africa near Tunis), 
ed by Dido or Elissa, 878 3.c. (869, Blair ; 
Niebuhr). She fled from her brother Pyg- 
a, king of Tyre, who had killed her husband, 
ok refuge in Africa. Carthage disputed the 
2 of the world with Rome, which occasioned 
inie wars. The Carthaginians bore the charac- 
a faithless people, hence the term Punic 
Cato the censor (about 146 B.c.) ended his 
ies in the senate with Carthago delenda! 
hage must be destroyed!’’ Many councils 
ere, A.D. 200-535. 


lliance of Carthaginians and Romans . B.c. 


593 
rthaginians in Sicily defeated at Himera by 


; the elder Hamilcar perishes E x - 480 
2nd 300,000 men into Sicily : se AOF 
grigentum i - 5 . s A - 406 
geofSyracuse . x : : : ap e8.300 
rthaginians land in Italy ‘ & - a0 
efeat by Timoleon at the Crimesus 339 


2d by Agathocles, they immolate their children 
ie altar to Saturn. ‘ é : 4 - 310 
st Punic war begins (lasts 23 years) . nye 04 
rthaginians defeated by the Roman consul 


us in a naval engagement : < - 260 
ppus defeats Regulus . " r mike 255 
\bal defeated by Metellus at Panormus . - 251 
sputtodeath . d 4 : 5 - 250 
8 defeated before Lilybeum . F en, 

at Hannibal born : , : : SN 2ay 
‘bal founds New Carthage (Carthagena) + 242 
first Punie war ; Sicily lost by Carthage . . 241 


tween the Carthaginians and African merce- 
ar Bareas sent into Spain: takes his son, 
libal, at the age of nine years, having first 
him swear an eternal enmity to the Romans 
ar killed . ; F i - ; 5 
bal assassinated 


3? 


238 
+ 229 


. . . . « 220 
al conquers Spain, asfarastheIberus .. 219 
md Punic war begins (lasts 17 years). . 218 


al crosses the Alps, and enters Italy 

‘ats the Roman consuls at the Ticinus and 

a, 218 ; at the lake Thrasymenus, 217 ; and at 

* (which see) . : : . -  2Aug. 216 
Scipio carries war into Spain and takes New 
age. 3 : - : A Z A oe 
bal, Hannibal’s brother, arrives with an army ; 
ted and slain at the Metaurus E ‘ 


210 


aks * i a 7, 
sinians expelled from Spain by Scipio . 206 
wrives in Africa, and lays siege to Utica... 204. 


The third Punic war ; Scipio invades Africa. 2. 
Carthage taken and burned, by order of the Senate 


July, 146 
Colony settled at Carthage by C. Gracchus . da BOL. 
Its rebuilding planned by Julius Cesar ; - 46 
And executed by his successors . 19 et seq. 
A Christian bishopric A.D. 200 
Cyprian holds a council here 4 é A ernie 
Taken by Genseric the Vandal A - 9 Oct. 439 
Retaken by Belisarius : < ; 2535 
Ravaged by the Arabs . , : : < Paley by 
Taken and destroyed by Hassan, the Saracenic 
governor of Egypt . : : ; : 2 . 698 
Carthaginian antiquities (excavated by Mr. Nathan 
Davis) brought to the British Museum Be eto 
His excavations about to be renewed Aug. 1876 
Mr. Bosworth Smith’s ‘‘ Carthage,” published - 1878 


CARTHAGENA, or NEw CARTHAGE (S.E. 
Spain), built by Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian 
general, 242 B.c.; taken by Scipio, 210. The 
modern Carthagena was taken by a British force under 
sir John Leake, June, 1706; retaken by the duke 
of Berwick, Nov. It was the last place held by 
the Intransigentes and Internationalists of Spain’; 
was besieged by general Martin Campos, about 
22 Aug. 1873. Bombardment begun 26 Noy., taken 
by general Lopez Dominguez, 12 Jan. 1874. See 
Spain.—CaRTHAGENA, in Columbia, South Ame- 
rica, was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1585: 
pillaged by the French buccaneers in 1697; 
bombarded by admiral Vernon in March, 1741; 
and unsuccessfully besieged, April, 1741. 


CARTHUSIANS, areligious order (springing 
from the Benedictines) founded by Bruno of 
Cologne, who retired with six companions about 
1084, to Chartreuse (which see), in the mountains 
of Dauphiné. Their austere rules were formed by 
Basil VII., their general. They appeared in Eng- 
land about 1180, and a monastery was founded by 
sir William Manny, 1371, on the site of the present 
Charter-house, London; see Charter-house. The 
Carthusian powder, of father Simon, at Chartreuse, 
was first compounded about 1715. 


CARTOONS, large chalk drawin gs preparatory 
to oil painting. Those of RAPHAEL (twenty-five 
in number) were designed (for tapestries) in the 
chambers of the Vatican under Julius II. and 
Leo X. about 1510 to 1516. The seven preserved 
were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. 
of England, for Hampton-court palace in 1629. 
They were removed to South Kensington 28 April, 
1865.—The tapestries executed at Arras from these 
designs are at Rome. They were twice carried 
away by invaders, in 1526 and 1798, and were re- 
stored in 1815.—The Cartoons for the British 
Houses of Parliament were exhibited in J uly, 1843. 

RAPHAEL’S CARTOONS, 
. The Miraculous Draught of Fishes. 
. The Charge to Peter. 
. Peter and John Healing the Lame at the Gate of the 

Temple. 

. The Death of Ananias. 

Elymas the Sorcerer Struck with Blindness. 

. The Sacrifice to Paul and Barnabas, at Lystra. 
. Paul Preaching at Athens. 


CARVING, see Sculptures. 

CASAMICCIOLA, Ischia. See 
quakes, 4 March, 1881, and 28 July, 1883. 

CASH-PAYMENTS, see Bank of England. 


_ CASHEL (Tipperary, Ireland). Cormack Cuil- 
linan, king and bishop of Cashel, was the reputed 
founder or restorer of the cathedral, gor. In 11 52 
bishop Donat O’Danergan was invested with the 


M 


Wo NA 


NauUp 


Earth- 


CASHMERE. 


pall; see Pallium. ; 
king’s books, 29 Henry VIII. at 66/. 13s. 4d. Irish 
money. By the Church Temporalities Act, 1833, it 
ceased to be archiepiscopal, and was joined to 
Waterford and Lismore. 


CASHMERE, in the valley of the Himalayas ; 
was subdued by the Mahometans under Akbar, in 
1586; by the Afghans in 1752; by the Sikhs, 1819, 
end by the treaty of Lahore, 9 March, 1846, ceded 
to the British, who gave it to the Maharajah 
Gholab Singh, as tributary sovereign. The true 
Cashmere shawls, first brought to England in 1666, 
are well imitated at Bradford and Huddersfield. 
Shawls of Thibetian wool, for the omrahs, cost 150 
rupees each, about 1650. 

Gholab dies, succeeded by his son Runbeer, a 
favourer of education, 1857 ; who assists in sup- 
pressing the Indian mutiny and receives further 
guarantees . : & : : , March, 

The prince of Wales warmly received by the maha- 
rajah at Jummoo . E 3 : . 20 Jan. 

Dreadful famine (partly due to continued de- 
structive snowstorms, Oct. 1877—May, 1878) 


summer, 1879 
CASSANO (N. Italy). 


1860 
1876 


Site of an indecisive 
conflict between prince Eugéne of Savoy and the 
French, 16 Aug. 1705. 

CASSATION, Court oF, the highest court 
of appeal in France, was established 10 Nov. 1790, 
by the national assembly. 


CASSEL, formerly the capital of Hesse-Cassel, 
Central Germany, acquired importance through be- 
coming the refuge of French protestants after the 
revocation of the edict of Nantes, 1685. It was the 
capital of Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, 
1807-13, and Wilhelmshohe, a neighbouring castle, 
became the residence of Napoleon III. after his 
surrender to the king of Prussia, 2 Sept. 1870, ar- 
riving at 9.35 P.M. 5 Sept. He went to England 
in 1871. 

CASSITERIDES, see Scilly Isles. 

CASTALIA, see under Steam. 

CASTEL FIDARDO, near Ancona, Central 


Italy. Near here general Lamoriciére and_ the 
papal army of 11,000 men were totally defeated by 
the Sardinian general, Cialdini, 18 Sept. 1860. 
Lamoriciére with a few horsemen fled to Ancona, 
then besieged. On 29 Sept. he and the garrison 
surrendered, but were shortly after set at liberty. 


CASTES, distinct sections of society in India. 
In the laws of Menu (see Menu), the Hindus are 
divided into the Brahmans, or sacerdotal class; 
the Kshatrya or Chuttree, military class; the 
Vaisya, or commercial class; and the Sudras, or 
sooders, servile class. 


CASTIGLIONE (N. Italy). Here the French 
under Augereau defeated the Austrians, commanded 
by Wurmser, with great loss, 5 Aug. 1796. 

CASTILE (Central Spain). A Gothic govern- 
ment was established here about 800.—Roderick, 
count of Castile, 860; Ferdinand, a count, became 
king, 1035. Ferdinand, king of Arragon, married 
Isabella, queen of Castile, in 1474, and formed one 
monarchy, 1479; see Spain. 


CASTILLEJOS (N. Africa). Here on 1 Jan. 
1860, was fought the first decisive action in the 
war between Spain and Morocco. General Prim, 
after a vigorous resistance, repulsed the Moors 
under Muley Abbas, and advanced towards Tetuan. 

CASTILLON, Guienne (S. France). Here 
the army of Henry VI. of England was defeated 
by that of Charles VII. of France, and an end put 
to the English dominion in France, Calais alone 


162 


Cashel was valued in the 


CATALYTIC FORCE. 


remaining, 17 or 23 July, 1453. ‘Talbot 
Shrewsbury, es killed. ae 

CASTLEBAR (Ireland). About tro 
troops, under Humbert, landed at Killala 
sisted by Irish insurgents here, compelled t! 
troops under Lake to retreat, 27 Aug. 1 
were compelled to surrender at Ball 
8 Sept. 


CASTLEPOLLARD (Ireland). At 
at a fair here between some peasantry anc 
of police, thirteen persons lost their lives, a 
were wounded, 23 May, 1831. 


CASTLES. The castle of the Ang 
was a tower keep, either round or squ 
ascended by a flight of steps in front. 
erected 48 strong castles. Several hundre 
by permission of Stephen, between 1135 ; 
were demolished by Henry ITI., 1154. x 
dismantled in the civil wars. Richboroug 
fall, and Burgh are existing specimens 0 
castles. 


CASUAL POOR ACT, 45 & 46¥: 
passed 18 Aug. 1882. 


CAT. The generally received opinion 
domestic cat is derived from the European 
is doubted by Mr. T. Bell (1827). Riipy 
1794) found a wild cat in Nubia, whose c 
tion agreed with that of the Egyptian catn 
Cats fetched high prices in the middle 
were protected by law in Wales, about 94! 
cat shows were held at the Crystal Palace 
and 2 Dec. 1871; 26-29 Oct. 1872; and 
since (latest, 21 Oct. 1884). A cat intern 
debates in the commons, 9 July, 1874. A ee 
formed at Battersea, Dec. 1882. 

A discussion respecting the use of the “ cat of 
tails” took place in the commons, and navy 

and others were inspected (see Flogging), 5: 


CATACLYSMISTS, see Continuity 


CATACOMBS. The early depositor 
dead. The first Christians at Rome met 
ship in the catacombs; and here are said 
been the tombs of the apostles Peter a 
Belzoni in 1815-18 explored many Egypt 
combs, built 3000 years ago. He brought 
land the sarcophagus of Psammetichus, f 
oriental alabaster, exquisitely sculptured 
Parisian catacombs (formerly stone quarrie: 
remains from the cemetery of the Innoet 
deposited in 1785 ; and many of the victin 
revolution in 1792-4, are interred in tl 
31 May, 1578, some labourers digging 01 

alaria, two miles from Rome, discovered 
brated catacombs of which an account wit! 
ings was published by Antonio Bosio, in h 
Sotteranea”’ (1632), and by Aringhi (I 
others. John Evelyn saw them in 1045: : 
accounts have been published recentl ¥ : 
an abstract of whose researches will ie Ol 
‘‘Roma Sotteranea”’ of the Rev. J. 8. 
and W.R. Brownlow, 1869 and 1879. 


CATALOGUES, see Libraries, Boo 


CATALONTA (N.E. Spain), was sett 
Goths and Alani, about 409; conquere 
Saracens, 712; recovered by Pepin, and b 
magne (788). It formed part of the Spanis. 
and the territory of the count of Barcelor 
see). The natives were able seamen: | 
quently unruly, their peculiar privile 
abolished in 1714. -See Barcelona. 


CATALYTIC FORCE. The disc 
1819 by Thenard of the decomposition of 


a ee ee EEE aREEI a 


CATAMARANS. 


‘drogen by platinum, and by Dobereiner in 
of its property to ignite a mixture of hydro- 
nd oxygen, formed the groundwork of the 
ne of catalytic force, also termed “action of 
t or presence,” put forth by Berzelius and 
nerlich. Their view has not been adopted by 
s and other chemists. 

TAMARANS (or carcases), fire-machines 
stroying ships; tried in vain by sir Sydney 
, 2 Oct. 1804, on the Boulogne flotilla destined 
naparte to invade England. 


TANITA (the ancient Catana), a town near 
Sicily, was founded by a colony from Chalcis, 
753 B.c. Ceres had a temple here, open to 
yut women. Catania was almost totally over- 
n by an eruption of Etna in 1669, and in 1093 
carly swallowed up by an earthquake: in a 
nt more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were 
| in the ruins. An earthquake did great 
re, 22 Feb. 1817. In Aug. 1862, the town 
eld by Garibaldi and his volunteers, in op- 
m. to the Italian government. He was cap- 
on 29 Aug. 


TAPHRYGIANS, heretics in the second 
‘y, who followed the errors of Montanus. 
are said to have baptized their dead, forbidden 
vge, and mingled the bread and wine in the 
s supper with the blood of young children. 


TAPULTA, military engines of the cross- 
‘ind, for throwing huge stones as well as 
ind arrows ; invented by Dionysius, the tyrant 
‘acuse, 399 B.C. 

TCH CLUB, NosLEMEN AND GEN- 
‘EN’S, formed in 1761, included eminent 
ians of the time. Prizes were given occa- 
ly; sometimes, since 1821, for a composition, 
or silver cup. 


TEAU CAMBRESIS (N. France), where, 
3 April, 1559, peace was concluded between 
‘ II. of France, Philip II. of Spain, and 
eth of England. France ceded Savoy, Corsica, 
rly 200 forts in Italy and the Low Countries 
p..% 

TECHISMS are said to have been com- 
in the 8th or gth century. Luther’s were 
hed 1520 and 1529. The catechism of the 
1 of England in the first book of Edward VI., 
rch, 1549, contained merely the baptismal 
the creed, the ten Petnandiaents, and the 
| prayer, with explanations; but James I. 
d the bishops to add an explication of the 
vents, 1612. The catechism of the council of 
was published in 1566; those of the Assem- 
Divines at Westminster 1647 and 1648. 


THARI (from the Greek katharos, pure), 
ie given to the Novatians (about 251), Mon- 
s, and other early Christian sects. See Puri- 


THAY, an old name for China. 


THEDRAL, the chief church of a diocese, 
taining the cathedra, or seat of the bishop, 
ed the name in the Ioth century. 


‘erence of the higher clergy to consider 
‘dral institutions held at Lambeth, 1 March, 
t 3 & 4 Vict. c. 113, for the regulation of 
drals passed in 1840, amended and the en- 
ent of canonries facilitated in : ‘ 
commission to inquire respecting cathedral 
thes appointed (abp. of Canterbury, lord 
srook, Mr. Beresford Hope, and others), 
; Metin . : : ; ; Aug. 1879 
issued recommending more flexibility in 

2es, With use of nave, &c, Feb. 1882 


1872 


1873 


163 


CATTLE. 
CATHERINE. The order of knights of St. 


Catherine was instituted in Palestine, 1063. An 
order of ladies of the highest rank in Russia was 
founded by Peter the Great, 1714, in honour of the 
bravery of his empress Catherine. They were to 
be distinguished, as the name implied (from 
katharos, pure), for purity of life and manners; 
see Docks and Katharine. 


CATHOLIC LEAGUE formed by English 


churchmen more Romanistic than the English 
Church Union, June, 1882. 


CATHOLIC MAJESTY. This title was 
given by pope Gregory III. to Alphonso I. of Spain, 
739, and to Ferdinand V. and his queen in 1474 by 
Innocent VIII. on account of their zeal for religion, 
and their establishment of the Inquisition. 


CATHOLICS, see Roman Catholics. 


CATHOLIC UNION OF GREAT BRI- 
TAIN, president, the duke of Norfolk, was con- 
stituted in 1871. A Catholic union in Dublin was 
formed Dee., 1873; see Roman Catholics. 


CATILINE’S CONSPIRACY. Lucius Ser- 
gius Catiline, a dissolute Roman noble, having been 
refused the consulship (65 B.c.), conspired to kill 
the senate, plunder the treasury, and set Rome on 
fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered and 
frustrated. A second plot (in 63), was detected by 
the consul Cicero, whom he had resolved to murder. 
Catiline’s daring appearance in the senate-house, 
after his guilt was known, drew forth Cicero’s cele- 
brated invective, ‘‘Quousque tandem, Catilina!”’ 
on 8 Nov. On seeing five of his accomplices ar- 
rested, Catiline fled to Gaul, where his partisans 
were assembling an army. Cicero punished the 
conspirators at home, and Petreius routed their 
forces; Catiline being killed in the engagement, 
Jan. 62 B.o. 


CAT ISLE, see Salvador. 


CATO, SuIcIDE oF. Considering freedom as 
that which alone ‘‘ sustains the dignity of man,” 
and unable to survive the independence of his 
country, Cato stabbed himself at Utica, 46 k.c. 


CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY : a gang 
of desperate men, headed by Arthur Thistlewood, 
assembled in Cato-street, Edgware-road, and pro- 
posed the assassination of the ministers of the 
crown, at a cabinet dinner. They were betrayed 
and arrested, 23 Feb. 1820, and Thistlewood, Brunt, 
Davidson, Ings, and Tidd, were executed as traitors, 
on I May. 


CATTI, a German tribe, attacked but not sub- 
dued by the Romans a.p. 15, and 84; absorbed by 
the Franks, 3rd century. 


CATTLE. The importation of horned cattle 
from Ireland and Scotland into England was pro- 
hibited by a law, 1663; but the export of cattle 
from Ireland became very extensive. In 1842 the 
importation of cattle into England from foreign 
countries was subjected to a moderate duty, and in 
1846 they were made duty free ; and since then the 
numbers imported have enormously increased.* 
Horned cattle imported into the United Kingdom 


ree 531480 ; Bee opio23) TR, (war), 97,527 ; 


104,569; I 3,271 ; 1806, 237,739; 1867, 
177,948; 1868, 136,688; 1869, 220,190 ; 1870, 
202,172; 1874, 193,862; 1876, 271,576; 1877, 


201,193 ; 1879, 247,768. 1881, 319,374; 1883, 
474,750. See under Sheep, Smithfield, Metro- 
politan Cattle-market, and Foreign Cattle-market. 


* Sale of 30 of duke of Devonshire’s shorthorn bulls 
for 19,9231., about Sept. 1878. 


M 2 


* 
‘ 


— 


A cattle plague began in Hungary ; extended over 
Western Europe, destroying 14 million cattle 1711-14 
A severe cattle plague raged in England and west 
Europe (about 3 million cattle perish) . - 1745-56 
The privy council ordered diseased beasts to be 
shot, and their skins destroyed ; granting mode- 
rate compensation ; S ; . 12 March, 1746 
Great disease among foreign cattle ; excluded from 
this country by prohibitions . : . April, 1857 
The cattle plague appears at Laycock’s dairy, 
Barnsbury, London, N. rapidly spreads, about 
24 June, 1865 
27,432 beasts had been attacked ; 12,680 died ; 
8,998 slaughtered, up to . : : ariOCties,. 
A royal commission to inquire into the causes of 
cattle plague and suggest remedies met first, 10 
Oct. ; report of majority considered the disease 
to have been imported, and recommend slaughter 
of animals, and stringent prohibition of passage 
of cattle across public roads, &c., 31 Oct.1865 ; 
second report, 6 Feb. ; 3rd report . t May, 1866 
Orders in council for regulating the cattle plague 
(in conformity with the act of 1850), 23 Nov. and 
16 Dec. 1865 ; and ; : ; > buco An... 
Disease raging; official report; cattle attacked, 
120,740; killed, 16,742; died, 73,750 ; recovered, 
14,162 ; unaccounted for, 16,086. ear VEL. bs 
Cattle Disease Acts passed 20 Feb. and ro Aug. ,, 
Orders in council making uniform repressive mea- 
sures throughout the country . . 27 March, ,, 
The disease materially abates s SeAprilys. 
Privy council return: cattle attacked, 248,965 ; 
killed, 80,597; died, 124,187; recovered, 32,989 ; 
unaccounted for, 11,192 . x 3 . 22June, ,, 
The disease nearly ‘‘ stamped out”’ : or OCi ue. 
Order in council directing that foreign cattle be 
landed only at certain parts (after 13 Nov.), there 


to be subjected to quarantine . F TOUNOVetess 
Cattle plague re-appears in Cheshire and Lanca- 
shire and Yorkshire . Ss Dess: Mes 


Re-appears at Barnsbury (see 24 June, 1865), 46 

animals slaughtered E : oh he ODL DOT 
Re-appearance in various places . . June, July, ,, 
Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act amended Aug. ,, 
No case reported to the privy council . SeAUS ny. 
Order of council permitting cattle to be removed 

from the metropolis : : : . 25 July, 1868 
New general orders issued. : 2 . Aug. 1869 
Prevalence of ‘‘ foot and mouth disease” in 

England . Aug. 1869—Dec. 18703; June, July, 1871 
Disease appears at Kaiserslautern, rear of the Ger- 

man army; cautionary regulations promulgated 

by the privy council : : ‘ - gSept. 1870 
New foreign cattle market determined on, Nov. 

1870; opened : : , : : s/ WDec.s 187 
Suffers by great fire, about 10,o00l. lost . 18 Sept. 1883 


Foot and mouth disease in England, . July, Aug. 1872 
Appearance of the plague in German cattle ; further 
importation suspended : . about3 Aug. ,, 
Cattle plague appears at Pocklington, Yorkshire; 
vigorously treated, 3 Sept. ; stringent order from 
the privy council . : : ; ; 7 Sept. ,, 
Live cattle imported to Glasgow from America by 
Mr. Bell . £ : : : : July, 1873 
Foot and mouth disease in some English counties, 
Aug. Sept. 1875 
Re-appearance of cattle-plague in England ; restric- 
tions in London and other places; much eattle 
killed. z : , , . _dan.—May, 1877 
Cattle-plague cominission enlarged, 3 May ; plague 
said to be stamped out; restrictions removed, 26 
June; fresh cases in London; restrictions re- 
sumed 13 July; removed . 3 - yao lye 
New Cattle Contagious Diseases Act passed 16 Aug. 1878 
Order in council prohibiting importation of living 
. eattle from eastern half of Europe after x Jan. 
1879 ; imports permitted from some countries, 
cattle to be slaughtered ; (no restriction respect- 
ing some countries) . : ! : 6 Dec. ,, 
Foot and mouth disease in E. Lancashire, Aug. 
1881; in Staffordshire, Aug. 1882; Norfolk Oct, 1882 
International cattle show at Hamburg . July, 1883 
Foot and mouth disease prevailing in English mid- 
land counties, July; in Kent nee Uy. ev sent ine 
Severe at Odessa 4 : - Oct. 1883—May, 1884 
Abating in England through suspension of fairs, 
&c., announced . R , er Aprilyes. 


CATTLE. 164 CAVALRY. 


Cattle-men of United States ; above 12,000 del 
hold a convention at St. Louis, organ 
national live stock association, and recom 
the formation of a National trail ten miles 
for the passage of cattle from the Red Riy 
the Northern boundary of the States 18-20 

New Contagious Diseases Act passed , 


CATTLE AND SHEEP IN THE UNITED KINGD 
ISLANDS. 
Cattle. Sheep. Cattle. 
1866 8,570,000 26,380,000 | 1875 10,162,787 


1867 8,731,473 33,817,951 | 1876 9,997,189 
1868 9,083,416 35,607,812 | 1877 9,731,537 
1869 9,078,282 34,250,272 | 1878 9,761,288 
1870 9,235,052 32,786,783 | 1879 9,961,536 
1871 9,346,216 31,403,500 | 1880 9,871,153 
1872 9,718,505 32,246,642 | 1881 9,905,013 
1873 10,153,670 33,982,404 | 1882 9,832,417 
1874 10,281,036 34,837,597 | 1883 10,097,943 

Maximum, 1874; decrease since. 


CATTLE SHOW, see Smithfield. 
CAUBUL, see Cadul. 


CAUCASUS, a lofty mountain, a cor 
of the ridge of Mount Taurus, between tl 
and Caspian seas. In Mythology, Prome 
said to have been tied on the top of Ca 
Jupiter, and continually devoured by 
(1 ve B.C.) The passes near the moun 
called Caucasie Porte, and it is supp 
through them the Sarmatians or Huns in 
provinces of Rome, A.D. 447; see Circassi 


CAUCUS. An American term apy 
private meeting of the leading politicians 
to agree upon the plans to be pursued « 
election or session of congress. This inst 
now a very powerful antagonist to publi 
The word is said to be derived from ‘‘ship” 
meetings. <A ‘‘caucus club”’ is mentione 
Adams, in 1763. Bartlett. Similar me 
occasionally held in London by conserys 
liberals; one was held by Mr. Gladstone 1 
the ballot bill, 6 July, 1871. Jealousy; 
the system was aroused in 1878. 


CAUDINE FORKS, according to 
Furcule Caudine (in Samnium, S. Italy), 
narrow defiles or gorges, united by a range 
tains on each side. The Romans went th 
first pass, but found the second blocked w 
turning they found the first similarly o 
Being thus hemmed in by the Samnites, 
command of C. Pontius, they surrendered 
tion, 321 B.c. (after a fruitless contest, ac: 
Cicero). The Roman senate broke the tr 


CAULIFLOWER, said to have bee 
from Cyprus to England about 1603. 


_ CAUSTIC, In PAINTING, a metho 
ing colours into wood or ivory, invented b 
of Sicyon. He painted his mistress Glyec 
on the ground making garlands with flo 
picture was hence named Stephanoplocon 
bought by Lucullus for two talents, 335 B. 


CAUTIONARY TOWNS (Holla 
Briel, Flushing, Rammekins, and W: 
were given to queen Elizabeth in 1585 as 
for their repaying her for assistance in thei 
with Spain. They were restored to tl 
republic by James I. in 1616. 


CAVALIER. The appellation giv 
supporters of the king during the civil w: 
number of gentlemen forming themsely 
body-guard for the king in 1641. T 
opposed to the Roundheads, or parliament: 


CAVALRY. Used by the Canaanit 


JAVENDISH EXPERIMENT. . 
.c. (Josh. xi. 4). Attached to each Roman 
was a body of 300 horse, in ten turma; the 
mder always a veteran.—The Persians had 

horse at Marathon, 490 B.c.; and 10,000 
o horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 
Plutarch. In the wars with Napoleon I. the 
i cavalry reached to 31,000 men. Our cavalry 
in 1840, was 10,733. In 1867, horse guards, 
‘cavalry of the line, 10,023; in depots, 838 ; 
ia, 5421; total, 17,599; in 1880, total 17,245 ; 
t, total 16,998; see Horse Guards, §c. 


VENDISH EXPERIMENT. In 1798 
on. Henry Cavendish described his experi- 
for determining the mean density of the 
by comparing the force of terrestrial attrac- 
ith that of the attraction of leaden spheres of 
| magnitude and density, by means of the 
t balance. Brande. The Cavendish Society, 
: publication of chemical works, which ceased 
tmelin’s Chemistry (1848-67), was established 


VENDISH COLLEGE, Cambridge 
ed to give cheap university education to 
| younger than those admitted at other col- 
and leaving earlier), was inaugurated by the 
f Devonshire, 26 Oct. 1876. 


VES are frequently mentioned in the Bible 
lings, refuges, and burying-places. Mr. W. 
wkins’ “‘ Cave-hunting; Researches on the 
ce of caves respecting the early inhabitants 
rope,” was published 1874. Oreston cave, 
, discovered 1816; Kirkdale, Yorkshire, 1821 ; 
| Hole, Torquay, 1825; Brixham cave, 1858 ; 
»y Hole, Somerset, 1859; and many others; 
een well explored. 

WNPOREH, a town in India, on the Doab, 
isula between the GangesandJumna. During 
itiny in June, 1857, it was garrisoned by na~ 
oops under sir Hugh Wheeler. These broke 
0 revolt, An adopted son of the old Peishwa 
Rao, Nana Sahib, who had long lived on 
y terms with the British, came apparently to 
ssistance, but joined the rebels. He took the 
after three weeks’ siege, 26 June; and in 
if a treaty massacred great numbers of the 
., without respect to age or sex, in the most 
manner. General Havelock defeated Nana 
16 July, at Futtehpore, and retook Cawn- 
17 July. Sir Colin Campbell defeated the 
here on 6 Dec. following. A column was 
1 here, in memory of the sufferers, by their 
es of the 32nd regiment. In Dec. 1860, 
was said to be living at Thibet; and in Dec. 
ras incorrectly said to have been captured at 
shee; see India, 1857. 

XTON SOCIETY, established for the 
ation of chronicles and literature of the 
>» Ages, published sixteen volumes, 1844-54. 
2 Celebration, see under Printing, 1877. 


YENNE, French Guiana (S. America), 
by the French, 1604-35. It afterwards came 
sively into the hands of the English (1654), 
1, and Dutch. The last were expelled by the 
1in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, 
. 1809, but was restored to the French in 
Here is produced the Capsicum baccatum, or 
e pepper. Many French political prisoners 
nt here in 1848. 


JILIAN SOCIETY, see Cecitian. 

JAR CREEK and MOUNTAIN, 
a, U.S. On 19 Oct. 1864, gen. Sheridan 
ced the defeat of the Federals by the Con- 
es under Long&treet into a complete victory. 


165 


CEMETERIES. 


At Crpar Mountain gen. Stonewall Jackson 
defeated Banks, 9 Aug. 1862. 


CEDAR TREE. The red cedar (Juniperus 
virginiana) came from North America before 
1664; the Bermudas cedar from Bermudas before 
1683; the Cedar of Lebanon (Pinus Cedrus) from 
the Levant before 1683. In 1850 a grove of veners 
able cedars, about 4o feet high, remained on 
Lebanon. ‘The cedar of Goa (Cupressus lusitanica) 
was brought to Europe by the Portuguese about 
1683; see Cypress. 


CELERY is said to have been introduced into 
England by the French marshal, Tallard, during 
his captivity in England, after his defeat at Blen- 
heim by Marlborough, 2 Aug. 1704. 


CELESTIAL GLOBE, see Gloves. 


CELIBACY (from celebs, unmarried), was 
preached by St. Anthony in Egypt about 305. His 
early converts lived in caves, &c., till monasteries 
were founded. The doctrine was rejected in the 
council of Nice, 325. Celibacy was enjoined on 
bishops only in 692. The decree was opposed in 
England, 958-978. The Romish clergy generally 
were enjoined a vow of celibacy by pope Gregory 
VII. in 1073-85, and its observance was established 
by the council of Placentia, held in 1095. Mar- 
riage was restored to the English clergy in 1547. 
The marriage of the clergy was proposed, but nega- 
tived at the council of Trent (1563); also at a cons 
ference of the old catholics at Bonn, June, 1876. 
Sir Bartle Frere termed the Zulu army “a celibate 
man-slaying machine,” 1878. 

CELL THEORY (propounded by Schwann 
in 1839) supposes that the ultimate particles of all 
animal and vegetable tissues are small cells. Some 
of the lowest forms of animal and vegetable life 
are said to be composed of merely a single cell, as the 
germinal vesicle in the egg and the red-snow plant. 


CELTIBERI, see Nwmantine War. 


CELTS, or KELTs, a group of the Aryan 
family; see Gauls. Above 8000/. subscribed to 
found a Celtic professorship at the university of 
Edinburgh, Oct. 1876; 11,9377. subscribed April, 
gh One was established at Oxford in 18763; see 

aelic. 


CEMETERIES. The burying-places of the 
Jews, Greeks, Romans, were outside their towns 
(Matt. xxvii. 60). Many public cemeteries re- 
sembling ‘* Pére La Chaise’ * at Paris, have been 
opened in all parts of the kingdom since 1856; see 
Catacombs, Bunhill-fields. 

Kensal-green cemetery, 53 acres; consecrated, 2 Nov. 1832 
South Metropolitan and Norwood cemetery, 40 


acres ; consecrated . . : : 6 Dee. 1837 
Highgate and Kentish-town cemetery, 22 acres; 

opened and consecrated : 20 May, 1839 
Abney Park cemetery, Stoke Newington, 30 acres; 

opened by the lord mayor . : : 20 May, 1840 
Westminster, or West London cemetery, Kensing- 


ton-road ; consecrated . : 15 June, ,, 
Nunhead cemetery, about 50 acres; consecrated 
29 July, ”? 
City of London and ‘Tower Hamlets cemetery, 


30 acres ; consecrated . A , ‘ =) tod gS 
London Necropolis and National Mausoleum, at 

Woking, Surrey, 2000 acres ; the company incor- 

porated in July, 1852; opened Jan. 1855 
City of London cemetery, Ilford ; opened, 24 June, 1856 
Acts respecting burials passed ~ - 1850-57 


* Pere La Chaise was the favourite and confessor of 
Louis XIV., who made him superior of a great establish- 
ment of the Jesuits on this spot, then named Mont 
Louis. The house and grounds were bought for a national 
cemetery, which was laid out by M. Brongniart. and first 
used on 21 May, 1804. 


4 


; 


CENIS, MOUNT. 166 


' CENIS, Mowunt, see under Alps. 


CENSORS, Roman magistrates, to survey 
and rate the property, and correct the manners of 
the people. The two first censors were appointed, 
443 B.c. Plebeian censors were first appointed, 131 
B.C. The office, abolished by the emperors, was 
revived by Decius, A.D. 251; see Press. 

CENSUS. The Israelites were numbered by 
Moses, 1490 B.c.; and by David, 1017 B.c.; Deme- 
trius Phalereus is said to have taken a census of 
Attica, 317 B.c. Servius Tullius enacted that a 
general estimate of every Roman’s estate and per- 
sonal effects, should be delivered to the govern- 
ment upon oath every five years, 566 B.c. The 
proposal for a census in 1753 was opposed as pro- 
fane. In the United Kingdom the census is now 
taken at decennial periods since 1801; 1811, 1821, 
1831, 1841, 1851, 1861 (7 April), 1871 (3 ee 
1881 (3 April); act passed 7 Sept. 1880. See Popu- 


‘lation. For the latest census of other countries, 


see TABLE, facing page I. 
CENTAL, a new name given to the roolbs. 
weight, London Gazette, 7 Feb. 1879. 


CENTRAL AMERICA, see America. A 
large American steamer of this name was wrecked 
during a gale in the gulf of Mexico, 12 Sept. 1857. 
Of about 550 persons only 152 were saved; several 
of these after drifting on rafts above 600 miles. 
The loss of about 2} million dollars in specie aggra- 
vated the commercial panic in New York shortly 
after. The captain and crew behaved heroically. 


CENTRAL CRIMINAL COURT, estab- 
lished in 1834. Commissions are issued to the 
fifteen judges of England (of whom three attend in 
rotation at the Old Bailey) for the periodical de- 
livery of the gaol of Newgate, and the trial of 
offences of greater degree, committed in Middlesex 
and parts of Essex, Kent, and Surrey; the new 
district is considered as one county. 


CENTRAL HALL OF SCIENCES, see 
under Albert. 


CENTURION, the captain, head, or com- 
mander of a subdivision of a Roman legion, which 
consisted of 100 men, and was called a centuria. 
By the Roman census each hundred of the people 
was called a centuria, 556 B.c. 


CENTURY. The Greeks computed time by 
the Olympiads, beginning 776 B.c., and the Roman 
church by Indictions, the first of which began 24 
Sept., A.D. 312. The method of computing time 
by centuries commenced from the incarnation of 
Christ, and was adopted in chronological history 
first in France. Dupin. 


CEPHALONTIA, one of the Ionian islands, 
was taken from the tolians by the Romans, 189 
B.c., and given to the Athenians by Hadrian, a.p, 
135; see Lonian Isles. 


CEPHISUS, a river in Attica, near which 
‘Walter de Brienne, duke of Athens, was defeated 
and slain by the Catalans, 1311. 


CERBEREH, a French gun-brig, with a crew 
of 87 men, and seven guns, in the harbour of 
L’Orient, within pistol-shot of three batteries, was 
captured in a most daring manner by lieut. Jeremiah 
Coghlan, in a cutter with 19 companions aided by 
two boats, one of which was commanded by mid- 
shipman Paddon. The prize was towed out under 
a heavy but ineffectual fire from the batteries 
26 July, 1800. Nicolas. 

_ CEREMONIES, MAsrer oF THE, an office 
instituted for the more honourable reception of 
ambassadors and persons of quality at court, 


’ 


CHAIN BRIDGES. 


I James I. 1603. The order maintaine 
master of the ceremonies at Bath, ‘ Bea 
the ‘‘King of Bath,”’ led to the adopti 
office in on assemblies; he died in 
year, 1761. Ashe. 


CERES, a planet, 160 miles in diam 
discovered by M. Piazzi, at Palermo, 1 J: 
he named it after the goddess highly est: 
the ancient Sicilians. 


CERESUOLA \(N. Italy). Here F 
Bourbon, count d’ Enghien, defeated the im 
under the marquis de Guasto, 14 April, 15 


CERIGNOLA (8. Italy). Here t 
captain Gonsalvo de Cordova and the § 
defeated the duc de Nemours and the 
28 April, 1503. 

CERINTHIANS, followers of Cer: 
Jew, who lived about a.p. 80, are said to I 
bined Judaism with pagan philosophy. 


CERIUM, 2a very rare metal, disco 
Klaproth and others in 1803. 


CEUTA (the ancient Septa), a town o1 
of Africa, stands on the site of the ancie 
the southern pillar of Hercules. It y 
from the Vandals by Belisarius for Justin 
by the Goths, 618; by the Moors about 
whom it was taken by the Portuguese, 14 
Portugal, it was annexed in 1580 to Spa 
power still retains it. 


CEYLON (the ancient Taprobane), 
in the Indian Ocean, called by the native 
of paradise. It became a seat of Budd] 
B.c., and was kaown to the Romans abot 
Population 1873, 2,323,760; 1881, 2,758,1 
Invaded by the Portuguese Almeyda 5 . 
The Dutch landed in Ceylon, 1602; and cap 

the capital, Colombo, ‘ : : i 
Frequent conflicts ; peaceful commercial rela 

established . ; rie P 
Intercourse with the British begun. : 

A large portion of the country taken by the 
1782; wasrestored . . ; A : 
The Dutch settlements seized by the British; ’ 

comalee, 26 Aug. ; Jaffnapatam . 3 i 
Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the pea 

Amiens . ‘ : 4 - : F 3 
British troops treacherously massacred or 

prisoned by the Adigar of Candy, at Colo 

see Candy . : : : ‘ . 288 
Complete sovereignty of the island assume 

England . 5 : : ; _ F : 
Bishopric of Colombo founded . ae 
The governor, lord Torrington, absolved fr 

charge of undue severity in suppressing a 1 

lion: es) #) . “ : 2 2 : 
Prosperity of Ceylon greatly increased unde 

administration of sir H. Ward . é - 
Sir J. E. Tennent’s work, ‘‘ Ceylon,” appeared 
Sir Hercules G. Robinson appointed gore 


7 
The duke of Edinburgh visited Ceylon . / 
Win. H. Gregory, M.P., appointed governor, 9 
Visit of the prince of Wales p Bs 
Sir J. R. Longden appointed governor 
Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon . = 
Native industry reported very satisfactory 


CHA RONEA (Boeotia). Here G 
ruined by Philip; 32,000 Macedonians 
0,000 Thebans, Athenians, &c., 6 or 7 Aug 
ere Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithrid: 
defeated by Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadoe: 
slain, 86 B.c.; see Coronea. 


CHAIN BRIDGES. The largest a 
chain bridge in the world is said to be that 
tung, in China, where it forms a perfect 1 
the top of one mountain to the top of 
Mr. Telford constructed the first chain-bri 


ey 


\ CHAIN-CABLES. 
Y 

| scale in England, over the strait between 
sey and the coast of Wales, 1818-25; see 


ii Straits. 


/AIN-CABLES, Pumps, AND SHOT. 
hain-cables were in use by the Veneti, a people 
‘tely connected with the Belge of Britain in 
me of Cesar, 57 B.c. These cables came into 
venerally in the navy of England, in 1812. 
‘or the proving and sale of chain-cables and 
rs were passed in 1864, 1871, and I 874.—CHAIN 
to destroy the rigging of an enemy’s ship, 
invented by the Dutch admiral, De Witt, in 
—CHAIN-Pumps were first used on board the 
, British frigate, in 1787. 
(AINS, Hanerne In. By 25 Geo. II. 
it was enacted that the judge should direct 
odies of pirates and murderers to be dissected 
natomised, or hung in chains. The custom of 
ng in chains was abolished in 1834. 


[ALCEDON, Asia Minor, opposite Byzan- 
colonised by Megarians, about 684 B.c. It 
aken by Darius, 505 B.c.; by the Romans, 
lundered by the Goths, a.p. 259; taken by 
oes, the Persian, 609; by Orchan, the Turk, 

Here was held the ‘‘Synod of the Oak,”’ 
and the fourth general council, which annulled 
it of the ‘‘ Robber Synod,”’ 8 Oct. 451. 


[ALCIS, see Hubea. 

[ALD ADA, the ancient name of Babylonia, 
‘terwards restricted to the 8. W. portion. The 
geans were devoted to astronomy and astrology ; 
Jan. ii. &e.—The CHALDHAN REGISTERS of 
ial observations, said to have commenced, 
‘B.c. were brought down to the taking of 
lon by Alexander, 331 B.C. (1903 years). 
‘registers were sent to Aristotle by Callisthenes. 
ALDHAN CHARACTERS: the Bible was tran- 
d from the original Hebrew into these charac- 
now called Hebrew) by Ezra, about 445 B.c. 


[ALGROVE (Oxfordshire). At a skirmish 
with prince Rupert, 18 June, 1643, John 
den, of the parliament party, was wounded, 
lied 24 June. A column was erected to his 
ry, 18 June, 1843. 


[ALLENGER, see Deep Sea Soundings. 
[ALONS-SUR-MARNE (N.E. France), 


the emperor Aurelian defeated Tetricus, the 
f the pretenders to the throne, termed the 
y Tyrants, 274; and here in 451 Aétius 
ed Attila the Hun, compelling him to retire 
-annonia. 


LAM, see Charivari. 
[AMBERLAIN, early a high court officer 


ance, Germany, and England. The office of 
berlain of the exchequer was discontinued in 


,EDITARY LORD GREAT CHAMBERLAIN OF ENGLAND. 
sixth great officer of state, whose duties, among 
, relate to coronations and public solemnities. 
fice was long held by the De Veres, earls of Oxford, 
d by Henry I. in rror. On the death of John De 
the sixteenth earl, Mary, his sole daughter, 
ing lord Willoughby De Eresby, the right was 
ished in that nobleman’s family by a judgment of 
use of peers, 2 Charles I. 1625. On the death of 
scendant, unmarried, in July 1779, the house of 
and twelve judges concurred that the office de- 
_to lady Willoughby De Eresby, and her sister the 
eorgina Charlotta Bertie, as heirs to their brother 
t, duke of Ancaster, deceased ; and that they had 
; to appoint a deputy to act for them, not under 
gree of a knight, who, if his majesty approved of 
light officiate accordingly. Beatson. This dignity 
r some time held jointly by the lord Willoughby 


167 


CHAMPION. 


De Eresby and the marquis of Cholmondeley, descendants 
of John de Vere, earl of Oxford. Lord Willoughby 
De Eresby died without issue 27 Aug. 1870, and lord 
Aveland, his sister’s son, was appointed to act. The 
marquis of Cholmondeley died 16 Dec. 1884, and was 
succeeded by his grandson. 


LoRD CHAMBERLAIN OF THE HousEHOLD.— An ancient | 


office. The title is from the French Chambellan, in 
Latin Cumerurius. Sir William Stanley, knt., afterwards 
beheaded, was lord chamberlain, 1 Henry VII. 148s. 
A vice-chamberlain acts in the absence of the chief; the 
offices are co-existent. Beatson. 

The Chamberlain of London is an ancient office. 


CHAMBERS, see Commerce, Agriculture. 


CHAMBERS’ JOURNAL was first published 
at Edinburgh in Feb. 1832. Jubilee kept 4 Feb. 
1882. Robt. Chambers died 17 Mar. 1871. liam 
died 20 May, 1883. 

CHAMBRE ARDENTEH (fiery chamber), an 
extraordinary French tribunal so named from the 
punishment frequently awarded by it. Francis I. 
in 1535, and Henry II. in 1549, employed it for the 
extirpation of heresy, which led to the civil war 
with the Huguenots in 1560; and in 1679 Louis 
XIV. appointed one to investigate the poisoning 
eases which arose after the execution of the mar- 
chioness Brinvilliers. 

CHAMBRE INTROUVABLE, a_name 
given to the chamber of deputies, elected in France 
in 1815, on account of its ignorance, incapacity, and 
bigoted reactionary spirit. 

CHAMPAGNE, an ancient province, N. E. 
France, once part of the kingdom of Burgundy, was 
governed by counts from the roth century till it 
was united to Navarre, count Thibaut becoming 
king, in 1234. The countess Joanna married 
Philip IV. of France in 1284; and in 1361 Cham- 
pagne was annexed by their descendant king John. 
The effervescing wine termed Champagne, became 
popular in the latter part of the 18th century. 


CHAMP DE MARS, an open square in front 
of the Military school at Paris, with artificial 
embankments on each side, extending nearly to the 
river Seine. The ancient assemblies of the Frankish 
people, the germ of parliaments, held annually in 
March, received this name. In 747, Pepin changed 
the month to May. Here was held, 14 July, 1790 
(the anniversary of the capture of the Bastile), the 
“‘federation,” or solemnity of swearing fidelity to 
the ‘‘patriot king’’ and new constitution: great 
rejoicings followed. On 14 July, 1791, a second 
great meeting was held here, directed by the Jacobin 
clubs, to sign petitions on the “‘ altar of the country,’’ 
praying for the abdication of Louis XVI. A com- 
memoration meeting took place, 14 July, 1792. 
Another constitution was sworn to here, under the 
eye of Napoleon I., 1 May, 1815, at a ceremony 
called the Champ de Mai. The prince president 
(afterwards Napoleon III.) had a grand review in 
the Champ de Mars, and distributed eagles to the 
army, 10 May, 1852. Here also was held the Inter- 
national Exhibitions opened 1 April 1867, and 1 
May 1878, see Paris. 


CHAMPERTY, see Barretry. 
CHAMPION oF THE KiNG oF ENGLAND, 


(most honourable), an ancient office, since 1377 has 
been attached to the manor of Scrivelsby, held by 
the Marmion family. Their descendant, sir Henry 
Dymoke, the seventeenth of his family who held 
the office, died 28 April, 1865; succeeded. by his 
brother John ; he died, and his son Henry Lionel 
succeeded, who died Dec. 1875. At the coro- 
nation of the English kings, the champion used to 
challenge any one that should deny their title. 


< 
- 
‘ 


CHAMPLAIN. 168 


CHANCELLOR OF IRELA) 


CHAMPLAIN, see Lake Champlain. 


CHANCELLOR OF ENGLAND, Lorp 
Hiau, the first lay subject after the princes of the 
blood royal. Anciently the office was conferred 
upon some dignified ecclesiastic termed Cancel- 
larius, or doorkeeper, who admitted suitors to the 
sovereign’s presence. Arfastus or Herefast, chaplain 
to the king (William the Conqueror) and bishop of 
Elmham, was lord chancellor in 1067. Hardy. 
Thomas a Becket was made chancellor in 1154. 
The first person qualified by education, to decide 
causes upon his own judgment, was sir Thomas 


‘More, appointed in 1529, before which time the 


officer was rather a state functionary than a judge. 
Sir Christopher Hatton, appointed lord chancellor 
in 1587, was ‘very ignorant, on which account the 
first reference was made to a master in 1588. The 
great seal hus been frequently put in commission ; 
in 1813 the office of Vice-Chancellor was estab- 
lished; see Keeper, and Vice-Chancellor.—Salary, 
60007. ; as speaker of house of lords, 4000/. 


LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS. 

1487. John Moreton, archbishop of Canterbury. 

1504. William Warham, aft. archbshp. of Canterbury. 

1515. Thomas Wolsey, cardinal and abp. of York. 

1529. Sir Thomas More. 

1532. Sir Thomas Audley, keeper. 

1533. Sir Thomas Audley, chancellor, aft. lord Audley. 

1544. Thomas, lord Wriothesley. 

1547. William, lord St. John, keeper. 

»» Richard, lord Rich, lord chancellor. 

1551. Thomas Goodrich, bishop of Ely, keeper. 

1552. The same ; now lord chancellor. 

1553- Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. 

1556. Nicholas Heath, archbishop of York. 

1558. Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper. 

1579. Sir Thomas Bromley, lord chancellor. 

1587. Sir Christopher Hatton. 

1591. The great seal in commission. 

1592. Sir John Puckering, lord keeper. 

1596. Sir Thomas Egerton, lord keeper. 

1603. Sir T. Egerton, lord Ellesinere chancellor. 

1617. Sir Francis Bacon, lord keeper 

1618. Sir Francis Bacon, cr. ld. Verulam, ld. chancellor. 

1621. The great seal in commission. 

1625. John, bishop of Lincoln, lord keeper. 

>» ‘Sir Thomas Coventry, afterwards lord Coventry, 
lord keeper. 

1640. Sir John Finch, afterwards lord Finch. 

1641. Sir Edward Lyttelton, afterwards lord Lyttelton, 
lord keeper. 

1643. The great seal in the hands of commissioners, 

1645. Sir Richard Lane, royal keeper. 

1646. In the hands of commissioners. 

1649. In commission for the commonwealth. 

1653. Sit Edward Herbert, king’s lord keeper. 

1654. In commission during the commonwealth. 

1660. Sir Edward Hyde, lord chancellor, afterwards 
created lord Hyde, and earl of Clarendon. 

1667. Sir Orlando Bridgman, lord keeper. 

1672. amen eaed Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, lord chan- 
cellor. 

1673. Sir Heneage Finch, lord keeper. 

1675. Heneage, now lord Finch, lord chancellor, after- 
wards earl of Nottingham. 

1682. Sir Francis North, cr. lord Guilford, lord keeper. 

1685. Francis, lord Guilford ; succeeded by 

», George, lord Jeffreys, lord chancellor. 

1689. In commission. 

1690. Sir John Trevor, knt., sir William Rawlinson, knt., 
and sir George Hutchins, knt., commissioners 
or keepers. 

1693. Sir John Somers, lord keeper. 

1697. Sir John Somers, cr. lord Somers, chancellor. 

1700. Lord chief justice Holt, sir George Treby, chief 
justice C. P., and chief baron sir Edward Ward, 
lord keepers. 

» Sir Nathan Wright, lord keeper. 

1705. Right hon. William Cowper, lord keeper, after- 
wards lord Cowper. 

1707. William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. 

1710. In commission. 

>» Sir Simon Harcourt, er. lord Harcourt, keeper. 


1713. 
1714. 
1718. 


? 


1725. 
93 
1733- 
1737- 
1756. 
1757- 


1761. 


1766. 
1770. 


” 
I77 te 


1778. 
1783. 


” 
1792. 


1793+ 


r8o1. 
1806. 
1807. 
1827. 
1830. 
1834. 
1835- 


1836. 


1841. 
1846. 


1850. 


1850. 
1852. 


1858. 
1859. 
1861. 
1865. 
1866. 


1868. 


9 


1872. 


1874. 
1880. 


Simon, lord Harcourt, lord chancellor, 

William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor 

In commission. 

Thomas, lord Parker, lord chancellor; aff 
earl of Macclesfield. 

In commission. 

Sir Peter King, cr. lord King, chancellor. 

Charles Talbot, created lord Talbot, chance 

Philip Yorke, lord Hardwicke, lord chance 

In commission. 

Sir Robert Henley, afterwards lord Henley, 
keeper. 

Lord Henley, lord chancellor, afterwards 
Northington. 

Charles, lord Camden, lord chancellor. 

Hon. Charles Yorke, lord chancellor, 
[Created lord Morden ; died by suicide 
three days, and before the seals were yy 
patent of peerage. ] 

In commission. 

Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley ; succeeded 
Bathurst. 

Edward Thurlow, created lord Thurlow. 

Alexander, lord Loughborough, and othe 
missioners. 

Edward, lord Thurlow, again. 

In commission. 

Alexander Wedderburne, lord Loughboro 
chancellor. 

John Scott, lord Eldon. 

Hon. Thomas Erskine, created lord Erskin 

John, lord Eldon, again. 

John Singleton Copley, created lord Lynd] 

Henry Brougham, created lord Brougham. 

Lord Lyndhurst, again. ; 

Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, master of 1 
vice-chancellor Shadwell, and Mr. justic 
quet, C. P., commissioners, 

Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, created 1 
tenham, lord chancellor. 16 Jan. 

Lord Lyndhurst, a third time. 3 Sept. 

Lord Cottenham, again lord chancellor, 6. 
{His lordship on signifying his inte. 
retire, 19 June, 1850, was created earl oi 
ham. } 

Lord Langdale, master of the rolls, sir L 
Shadwell, vice-chancellor of England, 
Robert Monsey Rolfe, B.E., commissi 
the great seal. 19 June. 

Sir Thomas Wilde, lord Truro. 15 July. 

Sir Edward Sugden, lord St. Leonard’s. 2 

Robt. Monsey Rolfe, lord Cranworth. 28 | 

Sir Frederic Thesiger, lord Chelmsford. 2! 

John, lord Campbell, 18 June; died 23 Ju 

Richard Bethell, lord Westbury. 26 Jt 
signed 4 July, 1865. 

Thomas lord Cranworth, again. 6 July. | 
June, 1866. 

F. Thesiger, lord Chelmsford, again. 6 J 
signed Feb. 1868. 

Hugh Cairns, lord Cairns. 29 Feb. 

William Page Wood, lord Hatherley ; died 
1881. 

Roundell Palmer, lord Selborne. 15 Oct. 

Hugh Cairns, lord Cairns. er Feb. 

Roundell Palmer, lord (afterwards earl) 
28 April. 


CHANCELLOR OF TRELAND, 
Hicu. The earliest nomination was by 
I., 1189, when Stephen Ridel was elevates 


rank. 


The office of vice-chancellor was k 


Ireland in 1232, Geoffrey Turvillo, archdé 
Dublin, being so named. The Chancery at 
mon Law Offices (Ireland) act was passed 


1867. 


LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS OF IRELAND. 


Patent. 


1690. 
1697. 


>? 
2? 


1702. 


Sir Charles Porter. 29 Dec. 

Sir John Jeffreyson, Thomas Coote, and 
Donellan, lords keepers. 12 Jan. 

J. Methuen. x11 March. 

Edward, éarl of Meath, Francis, earl of I 
and Murrough, viscount Blessingto: 
keepers. 21 Dec. 

Lord Methuen, lord chancellor. 26 Aug. 


TAN CELLOR OF EXCHEQUER. 169 CHAPLAIN. 


Sir Richard Cox, bart., 6 Aug. ; resigned in 1707. 
Richard Freeman. June. j 

Robert earl of Kildare, archbishop (Hoadley) of 
» Dublin, and Thomas Keightley, commissioners. 
; 28 Nov. 

Sir Constantine Phipps. 22Jan. Resigned Sept. 


1714. 
| Man earick; afterwards viscount Middleton. 
xz Oct. Resigned May, 1725. 
‘Richard West. June. 
‘Thomas Wyndham, afterwards lord Wyndham of 
Finglas. 21 Dec. ( 
Robert J ocelyn, afterwards lord Newport and visct. 
Jocelyn. 7 Sept.; died 25 Oct. 1756. 

John Bowes, afterwards lord Bowes of Clonlyon. 
22 March ; died 1767. 

James Hewitt, afterwards viscount Lifford. 9 Jan. 
died 28 April, 1780. 

John, baron Fitzgibbon, afterwards earl of Clare. 
20 June ; died 28 Jan. 1802. 

John, baron Redesdale. x15 March. Resigned Feb. 
1806. 

George Ponsonby. 25 March ; resigned April, 1807. 

Thomas Manners Sutton, lord Manners, previously 
an English baron of the exchequer. May. Re- 
signed Noy. 1827. 

Sir Anthony Hart, previously vice-chancellor of 
England. 5 Nov. Resigned Nov. 1830. 

William, baron Plunket. 23 Dec. Resigned Nov. 


1834. 

Sir Hawand Burtenshaw Sugden. 13 Jan. Resigned 
April 1835. 

‘Willam, baron Plunket, a second time. 30 April. 
Resigned June, 1841. 

John Campbell. June. Resigned Sept. 1841. 

Sir Edward Sugden, afterwards lord St. Leonards, 
a second time. Oct. Resigned July, 1846. 

Maziere Brady. 16 July. Resigned Feb. 1852. 

Francis Blackburne. March. Resigned Dec. 

Maziere Brady, again. Jan. 

Joseph Napier. Feb. 

‘Maziere Brady, again. June. 

Francis Blackburne. July. Resigned March, 1867. 

Abraham Brewster. 24 March. 

Thomas, lord O'Hagan. Resigned, Feb. 1874. 

In commission. 

John T, Ball, lord Merton. 

Thomas, lord O’Hagan. 
r88r. 

Hugh Law, died ro Sept., 1883. 

(in commission) 22 Sept., Sir 
Dec., 1883. 


[TANCELLOR or THE EXCHEQUER. 


xchequer. 


LANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND, Lorp, 
laws of Malcolm II. (1004) say:—‘‘The 
ellar sall at al tymes assist the king in giving 
counsall mair secretly nor the rest of the 
ity. . . The chancellar sall be ludgit neir 
the kingis grace, for keiping of his bodie, and 
rill, and that he may be readie, baith day and 
, at the kingis command.” Str James Balfour. 
was lord chancellor to Malcolm IIL., Canmore, 
, and James, earl of Seafield, afterwards 
ater, was the last lord chancellor of Scotland, 
office having been abolished in 1708; see 
or, 

[ANCELLOR’S AUGMENTATION 
, passed 1863, enabled the lord chancellor to 
he advowson of certain livings in his gift for 
enting poor benefices. 


[ANCELLORSVILLE, Virginia, U.S., a 
brick hotel, once kept by a Mr. Chancellor, 
ae site of severe sanguinary conflicts between 
merican federal army of the Potomac under 
al Hooker, and the confederates under general 
On 28 April, 1863, the federal army crossed the 
thannock; on 2 May, general “Stonewall” 
m furiously attacked and routed the right 
but was mortally wounded by his own party 
on him by mistake. Gen. Stuart took his 


16 Dec. 
April. Resigned 9 Nov. 


Edwd. Sullivan. 5 


command, and after a severe conflict on 3 and 4 
May, with great loss to both parties, the federals 
were compelled to recross the Rappahannock. The 
struggle was compared to that at Hougomont 
during the battle of Waterloo. Jackson died 10 May. 


CHANCERY, Court of, is said to have 
been instituted either in 605, or by Alfred, 887; 
refounded by William I., 1067 (Stow) or 1070. 
This court had its origin in the desire to render 
justice complete, and to moderate the rigour of 
other courts that are bound to the strict letter of the 
law. It gives relief to or against infants, not- 
withstanding their minority; and to or against 
married women, notwithstanding their coverture ; 
and all frauds, deceits, breaches of trust and confi- 
dence, for which there is no redress at common 
law, are relievable here. Blackstone; see Chan- 
cellors of England. ‘The delays in chancery pro- 
ceedings having long given dissatisfaction, the 
subject was brought before parliament in 1825, and 
frequently since; which led to the passing of im- 
portant acts in 1852, 1853, 1855, 1858, and 1867, to 
amend the practice in the court of chancery. See 
Accountant, County Courts, and Supreme Court. 

The Chancery division of the high court of 
justice now consists of the lord chancellor and five 
judges. 


CHANNEL STEAMERS, see under Steam. 
CHANDOS CLAUSE, see Counties. 
CHANNEL TUNNEL COMPANY, regis- 


tered, 15 Jan. 1872; see Tunnels. 

CHANTING is attributed to Ambrose, about 
386. About 602, Gregory the Great added tones to 
the Ambrosian chant, and established singing 
schools. Chanting was adopted by some dissenters 
about 1859. 

John Marbeck’s ‘‘ Book of Common Praier noted” (1559) 
is the first adaptation of the ancient Latin music to 


the Reformed Church ; Clifford’s ‘‘Common Tunes” 
for chanting, 1664. 


CHANTREY LEGACY, see Royal Aca- 


demy. 
CHANTRY, a chapel endowed with revenue 


for priests to sing mass for the souls of the donors; 
see Chanting. Chantries were abolished in England 
in 1545. 

CHAPEL. There are free chapels, chapels of 
ease, the chapel royal, &c. Cowell. The gentlemen 
pensioners (formerly poor knights of Windsor, who 
were instituted by the direction of Henry VIII. in 
his testament, 1546-7) were called knights of the 
chapel; see Poor ee of Windsor.—The Private 
Chapels act passed 14 Aug. 1871. The place of con- 
ference among printers, and the conference itself, 
are by them called a chapel, it is said, because the 
first work printed in England by Caxton was exe- 
cuted in a ruined chapel in Westminster-abbey. 


CHAPLAIN, aclergyman who performs divine 
service in a chapel, fora prince or nobleman. About 
seventy chaplains are attached to the chapel royal. 
The chief personages invested with the privilege of 
retaining chaplains are the following, with the 
number that was originally allotted to each rank, 
by 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13 (1529) :— 


Archbishop . 


‘ - 8| Knight of the Garter . 3 
Duke i é - 6} Duchess . : . -2 
Bishop 6 | Marchioness < Sasi | 
Marquis . P - 5 | Countess. oe 
Earl . : - -5| Baroness . ; .2 
Viscount . y 4| Master of the Rolls -2 
Baron . és 3 | Royal Almoner 4 +2 
Chancellor . , 3) Chief Justice). "=. , 


CHAPLETS. 
CHAPLETS, the string of beads used by the 


Roman Catholics in reciting the Lord’s prayer, Ave 
Maria, &c.; see Beads. 

CHAPTER. Anciently the bishop and clergy 
lived in the cathedral, the latter to assist the former 
in performing holy offices and governing the church, 
until the reign of Henry VIII. The chapter is now 
an assembly of the clergy of a collegiate church or 
cathedral. Cowell. The chapter-house of West- 
minster-abbey was built in 1250. By consent of 
the abbot, the commoners of England held their 
parliaments there from 1377 until 1547, when 
Edward VI. granted them the chapel of St. Stephen. 


CHAR-ASIAB, the heights before Cabul; 
held by Afghan mutineers, were gallantly carried 
by general Baker, with the 72nd Highlanders and 
5th Ghoorkas, 6 Oct. 1879. The enemy was totally 
defeated with severe loss. Capt. Young, Dr. 
Duncan, and lieut. Fergusson were killed, and 
about 70 of the British force killed and wounded. 
The British were falsely accused of cruelty after the 
victory. 

CHARCOAL AIR-FILTERS were devised 
by Dr. John Stenhouse, F.R.S., in 1853. About 
the end of the last century Lowitz, a German 
chemist, discovered that charcoal (carbon) possessed 
the property of deodorising putrid substances, by 
absorbing and decomposing offensive gases. Air- 
filters, based on this property, have been success- 
fully applied to public buildings, sewers, &c. Dr. 
Stenhouse also invented charcoal respirators. See 
Fireman’ s Respirators. 


CHARING CROSS. At the village of Charing 
stood the last of the memorial crosses erected in 
memory of Eleanor, queen of Edward I., in con- 
formity with her will. She died, 28 Nov. 1290. 
The cross remained till 1647, when it was destroyed 
as a monument of popish superstition. The present 
cross was erected for the South Eastern Railway 
Company in 1865 by Mr. E. M. Barry. The houses 
at Charing-cross were built about 1678; alterations 
began in 1829. The first stone of Charing-cross 
hospital was laid by the duke of Sussex, 15 Sept. 
1831. Hungerford-bridge (or Charing-cross bridge) 
was opened 1 May, 1845; taken down July, 1862, 
and the materials employed in erecting Clifton sus- 
pension bridge, beginning March, 1863; see Clifton. 
CHARING-cROsS Rattway. The first train passed 
over it, 2 Dec. 1863, and it was opened to the public 
on II Jan. 1864. The new railway bridge, built 
of iron with brick piers, was constructed by Mr. 
(aft. sir John) Hawkshaw. The foot-bridge was 
opened toll free 5 Oct. 1878. Pleistocene fossils 
found in excavations for Drummond’s_ banking 
house: cave lion, mammoth, Irish deer, rhinoceros, 


&c. Autumn, 1882. 
CHARIOTS. Chariot racing was a Greek 
exercise. The chariot of an Ethiopian officer is 


mentioned, Acts viii. 27. Cesar relates that Cassi- 
belaunus, after dismissing his other forces, retained 
no fewer than 4000 war-chariots about his person ; 
see Carriages, &c. 

CHARITABLE BEQUESTS, &c. Boards 
for their recovery were constituted in 1764 and 
1800, and a board for Ireland (chiefly prelates 
of the established church), in 1825. The Roman 
Catholic Charitable Bequests act passed in 1844, 
and an act for the better administration of Chari- 
table Trusts in 1853, when commissioners were ap- 
pointed, who have from time to time published 
voluminous reports. Amendment acts were passed 


1855 and 1871. 
CHARITABLE BRETHREN, an order 


170 


CHARLES-ET-GEORGES. 


founded by St. John of God, and approved by 
Pius V. 1572; introduced into France, 1601; s 
at Paris, 1602. Heénault. 


CHARITABLE FUNDS INVESTM 
ACT passed, 1 Aug. 1870. 


CHARITABLE RELIEF, society f 
ganizing, established 1869. There are 38 ¢ 
where applications are received and inquiries. 
Reported successful, 1881, in which year 
14,000 persons were assisted, and about | 
refused. Fifteenth annual meeting, 23 May, 


CHARITABLE TRUSTEES’ IN( 
PORATION ACT passed, 27 June, 1872. 


: Co ae TRUSTS ACTS am 
in 1869. 

CHARITABLE USES, statute of, 43 
c. 4 (1601), passed ‘‘ to redresse the misemplo 
of landes, goodes, and stockes of money, here 
given to charitable uses.” The law respectir 
conveyance of land for charitable uses was am 
in 1861. 


CHARITIES anp CHARITY SCHO 
see Education. The Charity Commission re 
to parliament that the endowed charities al 
Great Britain amounted to 1,500,000/. annua. 
1840. Charity schools were instituted in Lon 
prevent the seduction of the infant poor into I 
Catholic seminaries, 3 James II., 1687-8. Mr. 
‘* Charities of London’”’ was published 1862. J 
edition, 1885. 

First charity commission (originated by Mr. afte1 
wards lord Brougham in 1816) appointed i 
1818; issued reports in 38 vols. (income of char 
ties, 1,209,395/.) e = ‘ 5 : a | 

New commissioners appointed 1853; office, Gw) 
dyr House, Whitehall ; powers increased 

Additional commissioners appointed through abc 
lition of the Endowed School Commission . 

A meeting was held at the Mansion House, Londor 
to consider objections to charity electioneerin: 
without immediate result . . 30 Oc 

The Charity Voting Association, held its fir 
annual meeting . ; : : : . 18 Fel 

The Metropolitan charities received about 3,195,181: 
in 1874; 4,114,489l. in 1875; 4,447,436. im 1884. 

The Charity Commissioners’ scheme for the Cam] 
den estates, Kensington ; much opposed; cor 
firmed by Chancery ; - © 2yamey 

Gross income of parochial charities in 1879-6 
London, 116,960l.: Westminster, 33,1731. 
CHARITY CHILDREN of London; 

ings began at St. Andrew’s, Holborn, 1704; | 

other churches in following years; in 180 

since at St. Paul’s, with intermissions ; no m 

in 1878, and since, the erections interfering wi 

ordinary services. 


CHARIVARI (French for *‘ clattering « 
and pans,” &c., noise made to annoy obn 
persons), the name assumed by the French 
trated satirical journal, first published 1 
1832, edited by Louis Desnoyers, Altaroch 
Albert Clerc. “Among the artists were ‘‘ Cha 
name taken by the comte de Noé, who contr 
from 1842 till his death, 6 Sept. 1879. See - 
“the London Charivari.”’ 


CHARLEROI, in Belgium; _fortifie 
named by the Spanish governor Rodrigo, 
Several great battles have been fought nes 
town, especially in 1690 and 1794; see 2 
Charleroi was besieged by the prince of O 
1672 and 1677; but he was soon obliged to 
Near here, at Ligny, Napoleon attacked the 
oe line, making it fall back upon Wavres, 16 
1815. 


CHARLES-rr-GEORGES, « Frencl 


CHARLESTON. 


171 


CHASSEPOT RIFLE. 


professedly conveying free African emigrants 
really slaves), seized bythe Portuguese, in 
lucia bay, 29 Nov. 1857, sent to Lisbon, and 
emned as a slaver. The French government 
two ships of war to the Tagus, and the vessel 
surrendered under protest ; but the emperor of 
ice gave up the free emigration scheme. 


HARLESTON (South Carolina), founded by 
le from old Charlestown, 1680. The English 
here was repulsed with great loss, 28 June, 
. It was besieged by the British troops at the 
r end of March, 1780, and surrendered 13 May, 
wing, with 6000 prisoners; it was evacuated, 
ec. 1782. Great commotion arose here in Noy. 
, through the election of Mr. Lincoln for the 
dency, he being opposed to slavery. On 
‘3 April, 1861, the war began by the confede- 
s bombarding Fort Sumter; see United States. 
dec. 1861, the federals sank a number of vessels 
n with stone in order to choke up the entrance 
harleston harbour. Unsuccessful attacks were 
2 on Charleston by the federals between April, 
, and 17 Feb. 1865, when the confederates were 
relled to retire; and the federals replaced their 
lard on fort Sumter, 14 April, the day on which 
dent Lincoln was assassinated. 


HARLESTOWN (Massachusetts) was burnt 
ae British forces under general Gage, 17 June, 
Charlestown taken by the British, 7 May, 1779. 


CHARTE CONSTITUTIONNELLE,” 
French political constitution acknowledged by 
s XVIII., 4-10 June, 1814. The infraction of 
constitution led to the revolution of 1830. The 
aded ‘* Charte’’ was promulgated by Louis 
ippe, 14 Aug. 1830; and set aside by the revo- 
n of 1848. 


HARTER-HOUSE (a corruption of Chart- 
», which see), London, formerly a Carthusian 
astery, founded in 1371 by sir Walter de Manny, 
of the knights of Edward III., now an extensive 
[table establishment. The last prior, John 
zhton, was executed as a traitor, for denying 
king’s supremacy, in May, 1535. After the 
lution of monasteries in 1539, the charter- 
e passed through various hands till 1 Nov. 
, when it was sold by the earl of Suffolk to 
nas Sutton for 13,000/., who obtained letters 
at directing that it should be called ‘‘ the hos- 
of king James, founded in the Charter-house,”’ 
that ‘‘there should be for ever 16 governors,”’ 
On the foundation are 80 poor brothers and 
vor scholars.’ Sutton died, 12 Dev. 1611. The 
nditure for 1853-4 was 22,396/.; the receipts, 
82. This school was affected by the Public 
ols’ Act, 1868. In Sept. 1872, the school was 
ed in new buildings, at Godalming, Surrey. 
old buildings, adapted for the Merchant 
ors’ (day) School, were opened by the prince of 
lee 6 April, 1875. The buildings for the poor 
»thren’” were also modified, and in Noy. en- 
y new arrangements for them were proposed. 
“Charter-House past and present,’ by Dr. 
Haig Brown, head master, published 1879. 


AARTER-PARTY, a covenant between 
hants and masters of ships relating to the ship 
argo, said to have been first used in England 
|i 1243. 

IARTERS, granted to corporate towns to 
ct their manufactures by Henry I. in 1132; 
fied by Charles IT. in 1683; the ancient charters 
ted in 1698. Alterations were made by the 
cipal Reform Act in 1835. See Magna Charta 


and Boroughs. Ancient Anglo-Saxon charters are 
printed in Kemble’s ‘‘ Codex Diplomaticus,”’ 1829. 


CHARTISTS, the name assumed by large 
bodies of the lower classes, shortly after the passing 
ef the Reform Bill in 1832, from their demanding 
the people’s Charter,* the six points of which were 
Universal Suffrage, Vote by Ballot, Annual Parlia- 
ments, Payment of the Members, the abolition of the 
Property Qualification (which was enacted, June, 
1858), and Equal Electoral Districts. In 1838 the 
chartists assembled in various parts of the country, 
armed with guns, pikes, and other weapons, and 
carrying torches and flags. A proclamation was 
issued against them, 12 Dec. Their petition (agreed 
to at Birmingham, 6 Aug. 1838) was presented to 
parliament by Mr. T. Attwood, 14 June, 1839. 
They committed great outrages at Birmingham, 
15 July, 1839, and at Newport (which see), 4 Nov. 
1839. They held for some time a sort of parliament 
called the ‘‘ National Convention,’’ the leading 
men being Feargus O’Connor, Henry Vincent, Mr. 
Stephens, &c. On 10 April, 1848, they proposed to 
hold a meeting of 200,000 men on Kennington 
common, London, to march thence in procession to 
Westminster, and present a petition to parliament; 
but only about 20,000 came. The bank and other 
establishments were fortified by military, preventive 
measures adopted, and not less than 150,000 persons 
of all ranks (including Louis Napoleon, afterwards 
emperor) were voluntarily sworn to act as special 
constables. The chartists dispersed after slight en- 
counters with the police, and the monster petition, 
in detached rolls, was sent in cabs to the house of 
commons. From this time the proceedings of the 
chartists became insignificant. 


CHARTREUSH, LA GRANDE, chief of the 
monasteries of the Carthusian order, situated among 
the rugged mountains near Grenoble, in France, 
was founded by Bruno of Cologne, about 1084. At 
the revolution in 1792, the monks were expelled and 
their valuable library destroyed. They returned to 
the monastery after the restoration of 1815. In 
Noy. 1880 they declined to accept indulgence from 
the decrees for expelling the religious orders from 
France. 


CHARTS and MAPS. Anaximander of 
Miletus is said to have been the inventor of geo- 
graphical and celestial charts, about 570 B.c. 
Modern sea-charts were brought to England by 
Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother’s 
theory respecting a western continent, 1489. The 
first tolerably accurate map of England was drawn 
by George Lilly, who died in 1559. Gerard Mer- 
cator published an atlas of maps in 1595; see 
Mercator. The daily papers published in their 
columns maps illustrating the wars of 1870-1, 
1876-7, &e. 


CHASSEPOT RIFLE, a modified needle- 
gun, and a breech-loader (named after its inventor, 
Alphonse Chassepot), adopted by the French go- 
vernment in 1866. In April, 1867, 10,000 had been 
issued to the troops. In his report on the battle of 
Mentana (which see), 3 Nov. 1867, gen. De Failly 
said, ‘‘the chassepot has done wonders.”’ It was 
generally considered successful in the war, 1870-1. 
**The range of the chassepot being 1800 paces, and 
that of the needle-gun only between 600 and 700, 
the Germans in all their charges had to traverse 
1200 paces before their arms could be used to pur- 
pose.”” Many Germans were armed with the chasse- 
pot after the surrender of the French army at Sedan, 
2 Sept. 1870. 


* Wm. Lovett, its alleged author, died, Aug. 1877. 


ae 


re ee 


CHASTITY. 
CHASTITY. The Roman laws justified homi- 


cide in defence of one’s self or relatives; and our 
laws justify a woman for killing a man in defence 
of her chastity; and a husband or a father in taking 
the life of him who attempts to violate his wife or 
daughter. In 1000 years from Numa, 710 B.c., to 
Theodosius, A.D. 394, only eighteen Roman vestals 
had been condemned for incontinence. See Vestals, 
Acre, and Coldingham. 


CHATEAUDUN, an old city, N. C. France, 
the residence of the heroic Dunois, who died 1468. 
Here were massacred, 20 July, 1183, about 7000 
Brabangons, fanatic mercenaries who had been hired 
to exterminate the Albigenses by the cardinal 
Henry, abbot of Clairvaux, in 1181. They had 
become the scourge of the country, and the ‘‘ Capu- 
chons’”’ were organised for their destruction, Cha- 
teaudun was captured by the Germans after a 
severe conflict of about nine hours, 18 Oct. 1870. 
Barricades had been erected in the town, and the 
Garde Mobile fought bravely. The town was re- 
occupied by the French, 6 Nov. 


CHATHAM (Kent), a principal station of the 
royal navy, the dockyard, commenced by queen 
Elizabeth, has been greatly extended. The 
Chatham Chest, for the relief of the wounded and 
decayed seamen, originally established here by 
the queen and admirals Drake and Hawkins, in 
1588, was removed to Greenwich in 1803. On 
10 June, 1667, the Dutch fleet, under admiral De 
Ruyter, sailed up to this town, and burnt several 
men-of-war; but the entrance into the Medway is 
now defended by Sheerness and other forts, and 
additional fortifications were made at Chatham. 
On 8-11 Feb. 1861, a violent outbreak of the convicts 
Was suppressed by the military, and many rioters 
flogged. About roool. worth of property was de- 
stroyed, and many persons were scriously hurt. New 
docks and a basin, said to be the largest and finest 
in the world, opened by Mr. Géschen, 21 June, 1871. 
Additional docks completed, 1883. 


CHATHAM ADMINISTRATION, * suc- 
ceeded the first Rockingham administration in Aug. 
1766: after several changes it terminated Dec. 
1767. See Grafton. 

Earl of Chatham, first minister and lord privy seal. 

Duke of Grafton, jirst lord of the treasury. 

Lord Camden, lord chancellor. 

Charles Townshend, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl of Northington, lord president. 

Earl of Shelburne and general Conway, secretaries of state. 

Sir Charles Saunders (succeeded by Sir Edward Hawke), 
admiralty. 

Marquis of Granby, ordnance. 

Lord Hillsborough, first lord of trade. 

Viscount Barrington, secretary at war. 

Lord North and sir George Cooke, joint paymasters. 

Viscount Howe, treasurer of the navy. 

Duke of Ancaster, lord de Despenser, &c. 


CHATILLON (on the Seine, France). Here 
a congress was held by the four great powers allied 
against France, at which Caulaincourt attended for 
Napoleon, 4 Feb. 1814: the negotiations for peace 
were broken off on 19 March following. 


CHAT MOSS (Lancashire), a peat bog, twelve 


* William Pitt, earl of Chatham (the *‘ great commoner” ) 
born 15 Nov. 1708, entered parliament in 1735; became 
secretary of state (virtually the premier) in the Devon- 
shire administration, Nov. 1756, secretary in the New- 
castle administration, Jan. 1757. In 1766 he became 
premier, lord privy seal, and afterwards earl of Chatham, 
which lord Chesterfield called a fall upstairs. He opposed 
the taxation of the American colonies, but protested 
against the recognition of their independence, 7 April, 
1778, and died 11 May following. 


172 


| in 1690. 


CHELSEA. 


miles square, in most places so soft as to b 
capable of supporting a man or horse, over y 
George Stephenson, the railway engineer, ca 
the Liverpool and Manchester railway, after , 
coming difficulties considered invincible. The 
(literally a floating one) was completed by 1 
1830, when the first experimental train, dray 
the Rocket locomotive, passed over it. See Be 


CHATTANOOGA. (Tennessee). Near 
the federal generals, Sherman and Thomas, 
feated the confederate general Bragg, after stor 
the entrenchments, 24-25 Nov. 1863. Brag; 


| treated into Georgia, and Longstreet into Virg 


CHAUMONT (on the Marne, France), Tx: 
OF, entered into between Great Britain, Au 
Russia, and Prussia, I March, 1814. This t 
was succeeded by that of Paris, 11 April, by w 
Napoleon renounced his sovereignty ; see Pari 


CHAUVINISM, a term said to be de 
from Chauvin, the principal character in Ser 
‘“Soldat Laboureur,”’ a veteran soldier of the 
empire, filled with intense admiration for Napc 
and for all that belonged to him. Scribe was 
24 Dec.'1794, died 20 Feb. 1861. 


CHEAP TRAINS ACT, 7 & 8 Viet. ¢ 
1844. Another act passed, Aug. 1883. See J 
ways. 

CHEATS were punishable by pillory, in 
sonment, and fine, and a rigorous statute 
enacted against them in 1542. Persons cheati1 
play, or winning at any time more than Io. ot 
valuable thing, were deemed infamous, and 
to suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 A 
1711. Blackstone. 


Bp aie = CONVENTION, see Ch 
1876. 

CHEESE is mentioned by Aristotle, a 
350 B.c. It is supposed by Camden and others 
the English learned cheese-making from the Ron 
about the Christian era. Wilts, Gloucester, 
Cheshire make vast quantities; the last alone, 
nually, about 31,000 tons. In 1840 we impo 
from abroad about 10,000 tons; in 1855, 354 
ewt. ; in 1866, 872,342 cwt.; in 1870, 1,041 
ewt.; in 1876, 1,531,204 ewt.; in 1879, 1,789 
ewt. ; in 1881, 1,840,090 ewt.; in 1883, 1,799 
ewt. The duty on foreign cheese, producin 
nually about 50,000/., was taken off in 1860. 
quantities are imported from the United States. 


CHELSEA (Middlesex). A council held 
27 July, 816. Nicolas. A theological college 
founded by James I. in 1609, was converte 
Charles II. in 1682 to an asylum for wounded 
superannuated soldiers. The erection was cat 
on by James II., and completed by William 
The projector was sir Stephen | 
grandfather of the orator C. J. Fox; the arch 
was sir Christopher Wren; and the cost 150,( 
In 1850 there were 70,000 owt- and 539 w+ 
stoners.—The body of the duke of Wellington 
here in state, 10-17 Nov. 1852.—The physic ga 
of sir Hans Sloane, at Chelsea, was given t0 
Apothecaries’ company, 1721.—The Chelsea wa 
works were incorporated, 1722 —The first stom 
the Military Asylum, Chelsea, was laid by Fredet 
duke of York, 19 June, 1801.—The bridge, ‘ 
structed by Mr. ‘I. Page to connect Chelsea 1 
Battersea-park, was opened March, 1858. 
Albert-bridge was opened 31 Dec. 1872; both f 
from toll, 24 May, 1879. The parliamentary bord 
of Chelsea, created by the Reform act, 15 Aug. I 
consists of Chelsea, Kensington, Fulham, and 
mersmith. The Chelsea embankment was opt 


CHELTENHAM. 


173 


CHESS. 


the duke and duchess of Edinburgh, 9 May, 
See Trials, July, 1870 and 1872. Cremorne 
ic gardens closed, 1877. 
HELTENHAM (Gloucestershire). Its cele- 
sd mineral spring was discovered in 1718. 
king’s-well was sunk in 1778 ; and other wells 
Ir, P. Thompson in 1806. Magnesian salt was 
found in the waters in 1811. The theatre was 
ied in 1804. Grammar school and _almshouses, 
wed by Richard Pates, 1574. Cheltenham was 
rporated, 1876. 
HEMICAL SOCIETIES. One formed in 
lon in 1780, did not long continue. The 
mt Chemical society of London was established 
341; that of Paris in 1857; that of Germany at 
in, 1867. The Institute of Chemistry of Great 
ain formed ; professor Edward Frankland first 
dent, 1877; first meeting, 1 Feb. 1878. Chemi- 
"dustry Society founded 4 April, 1881. 


HEMICAL WORKS. Royal commission 
inted to inquire into the management of 
1ical works, to ascertain the effect of gases and 
urs given off, and the means of prevention: 
commissioners were lord Aberdare, earl Percy, 
sssors Abel, A. Williamson, Roscoe, and others, 
uly, 1876. In their report, issued Aug. 1878, 
recommended increased inspection, and more 
gent regulations. See A/kalies. 


HEMISTRY was introduced into Spain by 
Moors, about 1150. The Egyptians and Chinese 
1. an early acquaintance with chemistry. The 
chemists were the Alchemists (see Alchemy) ; 
chemistry was not a science till the 17th 
ary ; during which its study was promoted by 
n, Hooke, Mayow, and Boyle. In the early 
of the 18th century, Dr. Stephen Hales laid the 
dation of Pneumatic Chemistry, and his con- 
orary Boerhaave combined the study of 
istry with medicine. These were succeeded 
ergman, Stahl, Black, &e. In 1772, Priestley 
shed his researches on air, having discovered 
sases oxygen, ammonia, &c.; and thus com- 
ed anew chemicalera. He was ably seconded 
vavendish, Scheele, ‘Lavoisier, Chaptal, and 
s. The 19th century opened with the brilliant 
veries of Davy, continued by Dalton, Faraday, 
ison, &e. Organic Chemistry has been very 
ly advanced by Berzelius, Liebig, Dumas, 
ent, Hofmann, Cahours, Frankland,* and others, 
1830; see Pharmacy, Electricity, Galvanism. 
the analytical processes termed ‘ Spectrum 
/sis,’ invented by Kirchhoff and Bunsen 
‘), and ** Dialysis’’ (1861), and “ Atmolysis”’ 
3), IMvented by Mr. T. Graham, see those 
es.—The Royal College of Chemistry, Oxford- 
3, London, was established in 1845 (now at 
1 Kensington)—Henry Watts’ great ‘‘ Dic- 
ry of Chemistry,” begun 1863, has supple- 
8; he died 30 June, 1884. M. Ad. Wurtz’s 
ly great “‘ Dictionnaire de Chimie,’’ 1868-84. 
IEQUE BANK, opened in Pall Mall East, 
uly, 1873. It issued cheques for fixed sums 


1 to 1/,) available for paying and transmitting 
sums, and is suited for persons not having a 


1828 Wohler produced artificially wrea, a body 
to known only as a product of the animal organ- 
| Since then, acetic acid, alcohol, grape sugar, 
S essential oils, similar to those of the pine apple, 
jarlic, &e., have been formed by combinations of 
ses, oxygen, hydrogen, and carbonic acid. The 
‘formed by chemists between organic and inorganic 

is thus broken down. Indigo artificially formed 
yer, 1878. 


banker. The plan, due to Mr. James Hertz, a 
director, has been modified. He died 23 Feb. 1880. 


CHEQUES, see Drafts. 
CHERBOURG, the great naval fortress and 


arsenal of France on the coast of Brittany, about 
60 or 70 miles equi-distant from Portsmouth and 
Plymouth. It was captured by our Henry Y. in 
1418, and lost in 1450. Under the direction of 
Louis XIV., some works were erected here by the 
great Vauban, which with some shipping, &c., were 
destroyed by the British, 6, 7 Aug. 1758. The 
works resumed by Louis XVI., were interrupted by 
the revolution. The breakwater, commenced in 
1783, resumed by Napoleon I. about 1803, and com- 
pleted in 1813, forms a secure harbour, affording 
anchorage for nearly the whole navy of France, and 
protected by strong fortifications. On 4, 5 Aug. 
1858, the railway and the Grand Napoleon docks 
were opened, the latter in the presence of the 
queen of England and court. The British fleet 
visited Cherbourg, 15-17 Aug. 1865, receiving much 
hospitality. Presidents Grévy, Léon Say, and 
Gambetta visit Cherbourg; launch of a man-of- 
war, &c., 8-(1 Aug. 1880. 


CHERITON DOWN (Hants). Here sir Wm. 
Waller defeated the royalists under lord Hopton, 
29 March, 1644. 


CHERRY, the Prunus Cerasus (from Cerasus, 
a city of Pontus, whence the tree was brought by 
Lucullus to Rome, about 70 B.c.), first planted in 
Britain, it is said, about 100. Fine kinds were 
eo from Flanders, in 1540, and planted in 
ent. 


CHERSON, see Kherson. 
CHERSONESUS, see Crimea. 


CHESAPEAKE. At the mouth of this river 
a contest took place between the British admiral 
Graves and the French admiral De Grasse aiding 
the revolted states of America; the former was 
obliged to retire, 5 Sept. 1781. The Chesapeake and 
Delaware were blockaded by the British fleet in the 
American war of 1812, and the bay was, at that 
period, the scene of great hostilities of various 
results. 


CHESAPEAKE, an American frigate, in Boston bay, com- 
manded by capt. Lawrence (50 guns, 376 men), struck 
to the Shannon, British frigate (38 guns, 330 Men) com- 
manded by capt. Philip Vere Broke, after a severe 
action of eleven minutes, 1 June, 1813. Eleven minutes 
elapsed between the firing of the first gun and the 
boarding, and in four minutes more the Chesapeake was 
the Shannon's prize. Capt. Lawrence died of his wounds. 


CHESHUNT COLLEGE, Herts, founded 
by Selina, countess of Huntingdon, for the educa- 
tion of ministers of her “connexion,” Calvinistic 
methodists. The college was first opened at Tre- 
vecca-house, Talgarth, near Brecon, by the countess 
and George Whitefield, 1768. It was removed to 
Cheshunt in 1792. She died 17 June, 1791. 


CHESS, a game attributed to Palamedes, 680 
B.C. ; Hyde and sir William Jones refer the origin 
of chess to the Hindoos. 


Caxton printed ‘the Gaine and Playe of the Chesse” 
A chess-club formed at Slaughter’s coffee-house, St. 
Martin’s-lane : : j : : Pests 
The automaton chess-player (a piece of machinery) 
exhibited in England . : c : 5 - 1769 
M.F. A. Danican, known as Philidor, played three 
matches blindfolded at the Salopian; he died, 1795 
The London Chess-club founded in 1807, and St. 
George’s é : : é : ; a ae 
Herr Paulsen played ten games at once, of which 
he won five, and lost one ; three were drawn, and 
one not played out 4 - Dec. 1862 


1474 
1747 


1833 


4 ie 4 
= , 


CHILDREN. 


CHESTER. 174 
International chess congresses: 1, 2, London (winner, posed of old wooden buildings. The city was 
M. Anderssen, of Breslau), 1851, 1862; 3, Paris, built most energetically . : a i 
(M. Kolisch), 1867; 4, Paris(M. Anderssen), 1870 Another great fire; many rendered homeless, 


5, Vienna (M. Steinmetz), Aug. 1873. 

Automaton chess-player at the Crystal-palace (a 
youth concealed in box perforated with holes) 
exhibited : 5 A - - . 

Howard Staunton, a great player, died . June, 

J. J. Lowenthal, eminent Hungarian player, died 

20 July, 

J. H. Zukertort of Riga, gains first prize at the 
International Chess Congress, Paris, June, July, 

“Mephisto,” a mechanical chess-player, exhibited 
at the Westminster Aquarium eee OC. 

Chess Congress at New York . : = Hehe 

Chess tournament at Wiesbaden, g July, 1880; at 
Berlin, 30 Aug. 1881 (1st prize, Mr. Blackburne) ; 
at Vienna, first prize, M. Steinmetz 24 June, 

In London (M. Zukertort, 1st prize), 26 April— 
23 June. “ 5 ; : - 1883 
CHESTER (England, N. W.), the British 

Caerleon and the Roman Deva, the station of the 

twentieth legion, Valeria Victriz, quitted by them 

about 406. The city wall was first built by Edel- 
fleda, about 908 ; and Hugh Lupus, the earl, nephew 
of William I., rebuilt the Saxon castle in 1084, and 
the abbey of St. Werburgh. Chester was incorpo- 
rated by Henry IIT. and madea distinct county. The 
palatine jurisdiction was abolished by parliament, 

23 July, 1830. The sEE, anciently part of Lichfield, 

one of whose bishops, Peter, removing the seat hither 

inI075, occasioned his successors to be styled bishops 
of Chester; but it was not made a distinct bishopric 
until Henry VIII. in 1541 raised it to this dignity, 


1873 
1874 


1876 
1878 


9 
1880 


1882 


and allotted the church of the abbey of St. Wer- | 


burgh for the cathedral. After extensive repairs, 
the cathedral was re-opened, 25 Jan. 1872. This 
see is valued in the king’s books at 420/. Is. 8d. 
per annum. Present income 4500/. 


Chester ravaged by Danes . : . : 980 
Nearly destroyed by fire . : : : : ~ 1471 
Taken, after three months’ siege, for the parliament 1645 
Fatal gunpowder explosion . ? : : ery 72 
Exchange and town hall burnt - 30 Dec. 1862 
A projected attack of Fenians on Chester castle was 
defeated by the vigilance of the authorities and 
the arrival of the military : - 1, 12 Feb. 1867 
New town hall opened by the prince of Wales 
15 Oct. 1869 
Cathedral re-opened after restoration by sir Gilbert 
G. Scott p a P ; : ; 7 Aug. 1876 
Ancient tower of St. John’s Church fell 15 April, 1881 
Foundation stone of new Museum and School of 
Art laid by the duke of Westminster 3 Feb. 1885 


RECENT BISHOPS OF CHESTER. 
Henry Wm. Majendie, trans. to Bangor, 1809. 
Bowyer Edward Sparkie, trans. to Ely, 1812. 
George Henry Law, trans. to Bath, 1824. 
Chas. J. Blomfield, trans. to London, Aug. 1828. 
John Bird Sumner, trans. to Canterbury, 1848. 
John Graham, died 15 June, 186s. 
William Jacobson. Resigned Jan. ; died 13 July, 


1800. 
1810. 
1812. 
1824. 
1828. 
1848. 
1865. 


1884. Wiz. Stubbs, Feb. 
CHESTER LE STREET, see Durham. 
CHEVALIER D’EON, see D’ Eon. 


CHEVY CHASE, sce Otterburne. 


CHICAGO, Illinois, United States, a flourish- 
ing city settled in 1831 ; incorporated 1837; popu- 
lation, 1867, above 200,000; in 1880, 503,185. 


Chicago was nearly destroyed by fire, occasioned by 
the upsetting of a paraffin lamp, 8, 9, 10, rz Oct. 
About 250 perished, and 98,500 were rendered 
destitute. The loss was reckoned at 290,000,000 
dollars. Large sums were collected for relief of 
the sufferers in London (10,000. in a few hours)and 
other British cities, as well as in North America. 
The area of the fire was computed at from three 
to five square miles, and about 25,000 buildings 
were destroyed. The heart of the city was com- 


1871 


14 Jul 
CHICAMAUGA (‘“thestream of death”? 
the Chattanooga, Tennessee, North America. 
here the confederates under general Bragg, ai 
Longstreet, totally defeated the federals 
Rosencrans, 19, 20 Sept. 1863. The loss was 
on both sides. The credit of the victory wa 
buted to Longstreet; its fruitlessness to Bra 


CHICHESTER (Sussex), built by 
about 540. The cathedral was completed 
1108, burnt with the city in 1114, and rebt 
bishop Seffrid about 1187. The present cat 
was erected during the 13th century. The 
fell 20 Feb. 1861; the foundation of a new o1 
laid 2 May, 1865, completed June, 1866. The 
dral re-opened after repairs, 14 Nov. 1867. 
bishopric originated thus: Wilfrid, archbis| 
York, compelled to flee by Egfrid, king of Nor 
berland, preached the gospel in this countr 
built a church in the Isle of Selsey, about 67 
681 Selsey became a bishopric, and so con 
until it was removed to Chichester, then 
Cissan-Caester, from its builder, Cissa, by St 
about 1082. This see has yielded to the ¢ 
two saints, and to the nation three lord chane 
It is valued in the king’s books at 677/. Is. 3 
/ annum. Present income, 4500/. 


RECENT BISHOPS OF CHICHESTER. 


1798. John Buckner, died 2 May, 1824. 

1824. Robert J. Carr, trans. to Worcester, Sept. x! 
1831. Edward Maltby, translated to Durham, 1836 
1836. Charles Otter, died 20 Aug. 1840. 

1840. Philip Nicholas Shuttleworth, died 7 Jan. xf 
1842. Ashurst Turner Gilbert, died 21 Feb. 1870. 
1870. Richard Durnford. 


“ CHICHESTER” training-ship for hor 
London boys, established chiefly by the e 
Shaftesbury and Mr. Williams, in connection 
the refuges for destitute children, Great Q 
street. 50 boys placed in it, 18 Dec. 1866; rey 
highly successful. The baroness Burdett ( 
gave 5ooo/. in 1874. H.M.S. Arethusa wa 
voted to a similar object, through the instru 
tality of the same persons, 3 Aug. 1874. 
Goliath training-ship was burnt, 22 Dee. | 
several lives were lost. See Wrecks, 1875. 


CHICKAHOMINY BATTLES, see 
oaks, and United States, June, 1862. 


CHICORY, the wild endive, or Ciche 
Intybus of Linnzus, grows wild in calcareous 
It was for many years so largely mixed with 
in England, that it became a matter of serious 
plaint, the loss of revenue being estimate 
100,000/. a year. An excise order was 1s 
interdicting the mixture of chicory with col 
Aug.1852. The admixture, however, has since 
permitted, provided the word ‘‘ chicory” be pl 
printed on each parcel sold. In 1860 duty 
per cwt. was put upon English-grown chicory 
April, 1861; it is now 12s. Id. per cwt. (1885) 


CHIGNON, French for the ‘ back-hatt 
ladies. In directions for full dress im 17 
is said: ‘The hair large and the chignon lo’ 
hind.” Lady's Magazine. Warge chignons | 
to be worn in England in 1866; discontinued 
| CHILDERMAS DAY, 28 Dee., of am 


observance by the Roman Church, in memo 
the slaughter of the Holy Innocents. (JLait.1 


CHILDREN. Many ancient nations ex] 
their infants,—the Egyptians on the bank 


CHILI. 


175 


CHILTERN HUNDREDS. 


, and the Greeks on highways,—when they 
not support or educate them ; in such cases, 
vere protected by the state. The old custom 
lish parents selling their children to the 
for slaves, was prohibited by Canute, about 

See Foundling, Factory Acts, and Infanti- 


en’s Dangerous Performances Act (earl de la 
r’s act) passed ; much needed 24 July, 
n Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to 
dren, founded 8 July, 1884, to protect them 
. neglect, ill-usage, andimmorality. A similar 
sty established in Liverpool 19 April, 1883, 
been very efficient. Ashelter near Theobalds 

London, opened by the baroness Burdett- 
tts and the lord mayor 27 Oct. 1884 


[ILI (S. America), discovered by Diego de 
ero, one of the conquerors of Peru, 1536. 
1 Almagro crossed the Cordilleras, the natives, 
ling the Spaniards on their first visit as allied 
» Divinity, collected for them gold and silver 
nting to 290,000 ducats, a present which led 
- subsequent cruelties and rapacity of the in- 
s. Chili was subdued, but not wholly, in 1546. 
ation in 1865, 1,068,447; in 1875, 2,068,447 ; 
2,241,182. 

declares its independence of Spain, 18 Sept. 1810 
ith varying success: decisive victory gained 

jan Martin over the royal forces at Chacabuce, 

‘eb. 1817 ; the province declared independent, 


1879 


12 Feb. 1818 
it constitution established 22 May, 1833 
>1 Montt elected president . 18 Oct. 1851 


‘ection headed by Pedro Gallo, Dec. 18 58, sup- 


sed . : April, 1859 
’. Perez, president . ef . 8 Sept. 1861 
gration of the Jesuits’ church at Santiago 


Santiago), more than 2000 persons perished 
Dec. 1863 

ire between Chili and Bolivia respecting the 
iano” isles 2 2 A . 1 March, 
tes with Spain respecting Peru settled by the 
aish minister, 20 May, disavowed by his 
rnment : : < 25 July, 
ous toleration enacted . : - July, 
Perez again proclaimed president ; vigorous 
ecution of the war A : é OCT 
panish admiral Pareja appears before Val- 
iso claiming satisfaction for Chilian inter- 
ion in the war with Peru, 17 Sept. ; refused 21 
» 3 he declares a blockade, 24 Sept. ; Chili 
ares war against Spain, 29 Sept. ; joins Peru, 
5 Dec. 

- 31 March, 
14 April, ,, 
18 Sept. 

. 18 Sept. 


oaniards bombard Valparaiso 
f the blockade . : 
?erez re-elected president 
azuriz elected president 
nines discovered near Iquique . aan OCG, 
"acna (capt. Hyde), overloaded, left Valpa- 
>, 7 March; soon after sank; 19 (some chil- 
\) drowned; captain and officers saved ; he 
reprimanded at Valparaiso, and set free; 
rwards seized by orders of the Chilian govern- 
: at Lota; eventually released, and compen- 
: , : : : F é pre kes 
ational exhibition provisionally opened at fe 
tage 26 Sept. ; to the public 31 Oct. 1875 
| Pinto, president (till 1881) . 18 Sept. 1876 
an forts seized by the Chilians - Dec. 1878 
efuses to recognise a treaty between Peru and 
via (6 Feb. 1873) respecting boundaries ; they 
are war against Chili “ : April, 
hilian wooden vessels Esmeralda and Cova- 
a blockade Iquique ; the Peruvian ironclad 
ot ships (with rams) Huascar and Indepen- 
tcattemptrelief; Esmeralda sunk by Huascar 
at 110 perish) ; Independencia runs ashore 
e chasing Covadonga ; capt. Pratt and 6 men 
-b up Huascar and are killed fighting on the 
21,23 May, ,, 
captures 2 
29 July, ” 
4 Aug. ,, 


1879 


fe enters port of Tquique, and 
ls ee ard : : - : 
de of Iquique raised ; announced 


Huascar captured by Chilian fleet off Mejillones, 
after 6 hours’ gallant fight; the admiral and 


many officers killed. 2 : ; 8 Oct. 1879 
Pisagua bombarded and captured by Chilians 
2 Nov. ,, 


Combined Peruvian and Bolivian army defeated 
near Iquique (which surrenders) Nov. ; again 
near Tarapaca, which is taken about 27 Nov. ,, 

Naval engagement; dashing conduct of Peruvian 
vessels = : d : ‘ : 27 Feb. 

Callao blockaded by Chilians ; alarm at Lima 

about 18 April, ,, 

Battle of Tacna ; it is captured by Chilians 

26 May, ,, 

Arica taken by the Chilians - - S Juneyys; 

Pierola dictator of Peru; declares for perseverance 
in the war; excitement at Lima ; levy en masse 

28 June, ,, 

Chilian transport Loa sunk by torpedo, by a Peru- 
vian launch apparently laden with fruit; Callao 
greatly shaken : : : Ap SEAM BGS Oey 

Chilian vessel Covadonga bombarding town, sunk 
by Peruvian torpedoes off Chancay: about rr5 
perish ; (severe reprisals) . : : 14 Sept. ,, 

Chilians storm Lurin, 4 Jan. ; defeat the Peruvians 
at Chorillos, 13 Jan.; at Miraflores, r5 Jan. ; 
occupy Lima without resistance, Pierola flees, 
about 17 Jan. ; Callao taken soon after Jan. 

Conditions of peace reported ; cession of territory ; 
750 million dollars indemnity; occupation of 
Callao; working of mines till indemnity paid; 


1881 


announced : : : : 30. Jano 55 
England and France requested to mediate by Peru 
Heb.ou,; 
Treaty of peace between Spain confirmed Sept. 
Calderon elected president, announced TP Sept.cey 
President ; Domingo Santa-Maria 18 Sept. ,, 
Treaty of peace with Bolivia : ‘ - 25 Jan. 1882 


Peace protocol between Chili and Peru, agreed to 
March, ,, 

War resumed ; skirmishes; Chilians generally suc- 
cessful 5 3 P : = A JULY; 56 

Peruvians defeated by Chilians in several engage- 
ments, 13, 15, and 16 July, also 8 Aug. ‘ ‘ 
Concepcion burned, announced FOr Wy sens, 

Reported peace; cession of Tarapaca and Tacna 
28 Sept. _,, 
Negotiations fail, announced : BOGE. 43 
Peace said to be signed; Peru cedes Tacna and 
Arica to Chili for 10 years, reported 25 May, 
Peruvian leaders defeated at Huanchuco’ by col. 
Grostiago A : : . - 3, a LOrd ULy noes 

Severe battle, Peruvians defeated with great loss at 
Huamachuea : : : ro July, 73, 
Peace with Peru signed at Ancon 20 Oct. 
Lima evacuated 23) OCLs 


CHILLED SHOT, see Cannon, 1864-6. 
CHILLIANWALLAH, BATTLE of, India, 


between the Sikh forces in considerable strength, 
and the British commanded by lord (afterwards 
viscount) Gough, fought 13 Jan. 1849. The Sikhs 
were completely routed, but the loss of the British 
was very severe: 26 officers were killed and 66 
wounded, and 731 rank and file killed, and 1446 
wounded. The Sikh loss was 3000 killed and 
4000 wounded.* On 21 Feb. lord Gough attacked 
the Sikh army, under Shere Singh, in its position 
at Goojerat, with complete success ; and the whole of 
the enemy’s camp fell into the hands of the British. 


CHILTERN HUNDREDS (viz. Burnham, 
Desborough, and Stoke), an estate of the crown on 
the chain of chalk hills that pass from east to west 
through the middle of Buckinghamshire. The 
stewardship is a nominal office, with a salary of 25s., 
conferred on members of parliament when they wish 


* The duke of Wellington (commander-in-chief) did 
not think the victory complete. Gough was superseded, 
and sir Charles Napier sent out (March, 1849), who did 
rik arzive in India till Gough had redeemed his reputa- 

ion. 


CHIMBORAZO. 


po eeeneoe 


to vacate their seats. The strict legality of the 
practice is questioned. ‘The practice began in 
1750. 


CHIMBORAZO, highest point in the Andes, 
South America; (altitude 21,068 feet) was as- 
cended by Humboldt, 23 June 1802, by Boussin- 
gault and Hall, 16 Dec. 1831; by Edward Whym- 
per, 3 July, 1880. See Andes. 


CHIMNEY-TAX, see Hearth. 
CHIMNEYS. 


previous to the invention of chimneys, which were 
first introduced into these countries, in 1200, when 
they were confined to the kitchen and large hall. 
The.family sat round a stove, the funnel of which 
passed through the ceiling, in 1300. Chimneys 
were general in domestic architecture in 1310. At 
the chemical works, Glasgow, is a chimney (there 
termed a stalk) 420 feet in height; the height of 
the monument in London being 202 feet; of St. 
Paul’s, 404 feet. 


Act to regulate chimney-sweeping, 28 Geo. ITI. . 1789 
The chimney-sweeping machine was invented by 
Smart : . ; : : : : 
A statute regulating the trade, the apprenticeship 
of children, the construction of flues, preventing 
calling ‘‘ sweep ” in the streets, &c., passed - 1834 
By 3 &4 Vict. c. 85 (1840), it is not lawful for master 
sweeps to take apprentices under sixteen years 
of age ; and no individual under twenty-one to 
ascend a chimney after : ‘ . rJuly, 1842 
Enforcement of this law made more stringent . 1864 
New chimney sweepers’ act passed . rr Aug. 1875 
Joseph Glass, inventor of the sweeping machine 
now in general use, not patented, died 29 Jan. 1868 


CHINA (TsIna), the ‘Celestial Empire,” in 
Eastern Asia, for which the Chinese annals claim 
an antiquity of from 80,000 to 100,000 years B.C., is 
said to have commenced about 2500 B.c.; by others 
to have been founded by Fohi, supposed to be the 
Noah of the Bible, 2240 B.c. We are told that the 
Chinese were acute astronomers in the reign of Yao, 
2357 B.c. Towards the close of the 7th century 


1805 


B.c., the history of China becomes more distinct. | 


Twenty-two dynasties have reigned, including the 
present. 
at sige in 1884 D.C. Boulger’s ‘‘ History 
of China” (3 vols. 1881-4) is a useful compendium. 


The Chinese state their first cycle begun . - B.C. 2700 
The first dates fixed to his history, by Se-ma-tsien, 


begin . , : : A ‘ : : st ity HOST 
Supposed age of Confucius (Kungfutze), the philo- 

sopher . - c 3 ; - 550 
Stupendous wall of China completed . + 2EE~P 
The dynasty of Han ‘ i a 202 OY 206 
Literature and the art of printing encouraged (?) . 202 
Battle between Phraates and the Scythians: the 

Chinese aided the latter, and ravaged the coasts 

of the Caspian : their first appearance in history 

(Lenglet.) : ‘ : : é A : 129 
The religion of Laot-se begun. : : ae inal 
Buddhism, or the religion of F6, introduced about 

A.D. 68-81 

Nankin becomes the capital : : ° 420 
The atheistical philosopher, San-Shin, flourishes 449 
The Nestorian Christians permitted to preach 635 
They are proscribed and extirpated . é 845 
China ravaged by Tartars, oth to 11th centuries. 
Seat of government transferred to Pekin —. + ie F200 
Marco Polo introduces missionaries . : : - 1275 
Kublai Khan establishes the Yuen or Mongol 

dynasty = : about ,, 
Ming dynasty . ‘ : / S - 1368 
Canal, called the Yu Ho, completed . about 1400 
Europeans first arrive at Canton . 1517 
Macao is granted to the Portuguese . - « - £530 


Jesuit missionaries are sent from-Rome . é 
The country is conquered by the eastern or Mant- 


176 


Chafing-dishes were in use | 


The population of China was estimated | 


CHINA. 


chou Tartars, who establish the present reignit 
Tsin dynasty . “ E 3 : 

Tea brought to England . : : +7ae 

An earthquake throughout China, buries 300,0¢ 
persons at Pekin alone : 2 

Galdan, a prince of Jangaria, conquers Kashgar 
and becomes supreme in Central Asia, 167: 
checked by Kang-hi, 1689 ; totally defeated 

Commerce with Kast India Company begins . 

Jesuit missionaries preach . < : é , 

Commercial relations with Russia . ‘ ce 

The Jesuits expelled . : . va 4 

Another general earthquake destroys 100,000 pe 
sons at Pekin, and 80,000 in a suburb . . 

Successful war in Central Asia; Davatsi and h 
opponent Amursana, subdued by Keen-lun; 
1755, et seq. ; Kashgar, Khokand, the Khirgez, & 
annexed . 3 < c a . ; : 

In a salute by one of our ships in China, a gun w; 
inadvertently fired, which killed a native; tl 
government demanded the gunner ; he was soo 
strangled . : ; ; ; 2 ; 

Earl Macartney’s embassy arrives at Pekin ; his r 
ception by the emperor : : - 14 Sep 

[This embassy threw light on the empire; it a] 
peared to be divided into 15 provinces, containiu 
4402 walled cities ; the population of the who! 
was given at 333,000,000: its annual revenues ; 
66,000,000l. ; and the army, including the Tartar: 
1,000,000 of infantry and 800,000 cavalry; th 
religion Pagan, and the government absolut 
Learning, and the arts and sciences, were encol 
raged, and ethics studied. ] 

He is ordered to depart + ROC] 

And arrives in England . 3 : - 6 Sep 

The affair of the Company’s ship Neptune, when 
Chinese was killed . 2 A c Fe 3 

Hdict against Christianity A ; 

Chinese rule in Central Asia weakened k 

Lord Amherst’s embassy ; he leaves England, 8 Fet 

[His lordship failed in the objects of his missior 
having refused to make the prostration of th 
kotow, lest he should thereby compromise th 
majesty of England. J 


Temporary insurrections in Kashgar. 1826, 
Exclusive rights of the HE. I. Co. cease . 22 April 
Free-trade ships sail for England 25 April 


Lord Napier arrives at Macao to superinten 
British commerce F ; : . 15 July 
Affair between the natives and two British ships 0 
war ; several Chinese killed é F 5 Sept 
Lord Napier dies, and is succeeded by Mr. (after 
wards sir John) Davis . “ B , Sandct 
Opium dispute begins ; the trade prohibited by th 
emperor. : : s : : . Nov 
Chinese seize the Argyle and crew . 31 Jan 
Opium burnt at Canton by Chinese . 23 Feb 
Captain Elliot, chief British commissioner 14 Dec 
A British commissioner settled at Canton, March 
Admiral Maitland arrives at Macao . 2 July 
Commissioner Lin orders seizure of opium, 1 
March ; British and other residents forbidden t 
leave Canton, 19 March ; the factories surrounded 
and outrages committed . : . 24 March 
Captain Elliot requires British subjects to surrende 
to him all opium, promising them full value of if 
27 March ; half of it is given up as contrabau 
to the Chinese, 20 April; the remainder (20,28 
chests) surrendered, 21 May; eaptain Elliot an 
the British merchants leave Canton, 24 May ; th 
opium destroyed by the Chinese 3 Juue 
Affair between the British and American seameél 


and the Chinese ; a native killed . gduly 
Hong-Kong taken 23 Aug 


The British boat Black Joke attacked, and the crev 
murdered, 24 Aug. ; the British merchants re 
tire from Macao . é 5 F . 26 Aug 

Affair at Kow-lung between British boats ai 
Chinese junks . |) a) ee 

Attack by 28 armed junks on the British frigate: 
Volageand Hyacinth : severaljunks blown up 3 Nov 

The British trade with China ceases, by an edict 0 
the emperor, and the last servant of the compan) 
leaves this day . , ‘ .. & Seeaes 

Edict of the emperor interdicting all trade ant 
intercourse with England for ever . 5 dan 

The Hellas ship attacked by armed junks, 22 May 
blockade of Canton by a British fleet, by orders 


CHINA. 


177 


CHINA. 


. sir Gordon Bremer, 28 June; the Blonde 
. a flag of truce fired on at Amoy, 2 July ; 
-hai, in Chusan, surrenders, 5 July ; blockade 
blished along the Chinese coast, ro July ; Mr. 
ton earried off to Canton . 6 Aug. 
n Elliot, on board a British steam-ship, 
rs the Peiho river, near Pekin rr Aug. 
ip Kite lost on a sand-bank, and the captain’s 
and a part of the crew are captured by the 
ves, and confined in cages . 15 Sept. 
nally degraded ; Keshin appointed imperial 
missioner, 16 Sept. ; capt. Elliot’s truce with 

: 6 Nov. 
. 20 Nov. 


29 Nov. 


1 plenipotentiaries off Macao 

al Elliot's resignation announced . 
aunton released . 2 4 : 12 Dec. 
lations cease, owing to breach of faith on 
part of the Chinese emperor . 6 Jan. 
-pe and Tae-coc-tow, and 173 guns (some sent 
ngland) captured ; : ; - 7 Jan. 
Kong ceded by Keshin to Great Britain, and 
9,000 dollars agreed to be paid within ten days 
he British authorities : 20 Jan. 
Kong taken possession of . i . 26 Jan. 
nperor rejects Keshin’s treaty, 11 Feb. ; hos- 
ies resumed, 23 Feb. ; Chusan evacuated, 
‘eb. ; rewards proclaimed at Canton for the 
es of Englishmen, dead or alive ; 50,000 dollars 
e given for chiefs . - : 25 \Feb. 
forts taken by sir G. Bremer ; admiral Kwan 
id; 459 guns captured . 26 Feb. 
ritish squadron proceeds to Canton, 1 March; 
H. Gough takes command of the army, 
irch ; hostilities again suspended, 3 March ; 
again resumed, 6 March; Keshin degraded 
heemperor . i . 12 March, 
a of boats destroyed, Canton threatened, the 
ign factories seized, and 461 guns taken by 
British forces : : 18 March, 
ommissioners from Pekin arrived at Canton 


14 April, 
Kong Gazette first published . . r May, 
Elliot prepares to attack Canton . 17 May, 
ts behind Canton taken 25 May, 


ity ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars ; 5,000,000 
down ; hostilities cease ; a greMays 
1 forces withdrawn, 1 June; and British trade 
pened . : : ; : : . 16 July, 
l at Macao of sir Henry Pottinger, who, as 
ipotentiary, proclaims the objects of his 


ion ; capt. Elliot superseded to Aug. 
taken, and 296 guns destroyed . 27 Aug. 
ogue forts destroyed. , 14 Sept. 


ae taken, 136 guns captured, and Chusan re- 
ipied by the British, 1 Oct. ; they take Chin- 
1o Oct. ; Ning-po, 13 Oct. ; Yu-yaou, Tsze- 
and Foong-hua : é ; 5 pb. 
se attack Ning-po and Chin-hae, and are re- 
ed with great loss, 10 March ; 8000 Chinese 
‘outed near Tze-kee 15 March, 
ya attacked ; defences destroyed 18 May, 
3ritish squadron enters the river Kiang, 
une ; capture of Woosung and of 230 guns 
stores, 16 June; Shang-hae taken, 19 June, 


ritish armament anchors near the ‘“ Golden 
”’ 20 July; Chin-Keang taken; the Tartar 
ral and many of the garrison commit suicide, 
July; the advanced ships reach Nankin, 
ig. ; the whole fleet arrives, and the disem- 
‘ation commences, g Aug. ; Keying arrives 
Yankin, with full powers to treat for peace 

: 12 Aug. 
of peace signed before Nankin, on board the 
wallis by sir Henry Pottinger for England, 
Keying Elepoo* and Neu-Kien on the part of 
shinese emperor—[Conditions: lasting peace 
friendship between the two empires ; China 
LY 21,000,000 0f dollars ; Canton, Amoy, Foo- 
foo, Ningpo, and Shang-hae to be thrown 
. to the British, and consuls to reside at these 
s ; Hong-Kong to be ceded in perpetuity to 
and, &c. ; Chusan and Ku-lang-su to be held 


se 


» took part (it was said without authority) in 
ing the treaty of Tien-tsin in June, 1858. He was 


sequence condemned to death—by suicide. 


by the British until the provisions are fulfilled *] 
29 Aug. 1842 
The ratification signed by queen Victoria and the 


emperor formally exchanged . A . 22Jduly, 1843 
Canton opened to the British 3 3 27 July, ,, 


Appointment of Mr. Davis in the room of sir Henry 


Pottinger 5 ; 2 ; : - 16 Feb. 1844 
Bogue forts captured by the British 5 April, 1847 
Hong-Kong and the neighbourhood visited by a 

violent typhoon ; immense damage done to the 

shipping ; upwards of 1ooo boat-dwellers on the 

Canton river drowned : ; ; . Oct. 1848 
H.M. steam-ship Medea destroys 13 pirate junks in 

the Chinese seas. : : : 4 March, 1850 
Rebellion breaks out in Quang-si_. : AUR tines 
Appearance of the pretender, Tien-teh + March, 1851 
Defeat of Leu, the imperial commissioner, and de- 

struction of half the army . < -  IgJune, 1852 
Successful progress of the rebels ; the emperor ap- 

plies to the Europeans for help, without success 

March and April, 1853 
The rebels take Nankin, 19, 20 March; Amoy, 

1g May ; Shang-hae . ‘ : 5 7Sept. ,, 
And besiege Canton without success Aug.-Noy. 1854 
The scanty accounts are unfavourable to the rebels, 

the imperialists having retaken Shang-hae, Amoy, 

and many important places = : wy TOSS 
Outrage on the British lorcha Arrow, in Canton 

river}: : : é . c 3 8 Oct. 1856 
After vain negotiations with commissioner Yeh, 

Canton forts attacked and taken 23 Oct. *, 
A Chinese fleet destroyed and Canton bombarded, 

by sir M. Seymour ; : : SSA INOV tao 
Imperialists defeated, quit Shang-hae . = 6 Novis. 


The Americans revenge an attack by capturing three 
forts a F : 21-23 Nov. ,, 


Rebels take Kuriking . A : 26 Nove =; 
Other forts taken by the British . ; , Deen ess 
The Chinese burn European factories . - 14) DGCagess 
And murder the crew of the Thistle 30: DeCran,s 


The Mahometans of Panthay, in Yunan, become 
independent during Tae-ping rebellion 3 ,ao, 
A-lum, a Chinese baker, acquitted of charge of 


poisoning the bread . : : : - 2 Feb. 1857 
Troops arrive from Madras and England ; and lord 
Elgin appointed envoy . Marchi, : 


* The non-fulfilment of this treaty led gradually to the 
war of 1856-7. 

+ The emperor Taou-Kwang, who died 25 Feb. 1850, 
during the latter part of his reign, became liberal in his 
views, and favoured the introduction of European arts ; 
but his son, the late emperor, a rash and narrow-minded 
prince, quickly departed from his father’s wise policy, 
and adopted reactionary measures, particularly against 
English influence. An insurrection broke out in conse- 
quence, Aug. 1850, and quickly became of alarming im- 
portance. The insurgents at first proposed only to expel 
the Tartars ; but in March, 1851, a pretender was an- 
nounced among them, first by the name of Tien-teh 
(Celestial Virtue), but afterwards assuming other names. 
He is stated to have been a native of Quang-si, of 
obscure origin, but to have obtained some literary know- 
ledge at Canton about 1835, and tohave become acquainted 
at that time with the principles of Christianity from a 
Chinese Christian, named Leang-afa, and also from the 
missionary Roberts in 1844. He announced himself as 
the restorer of the worship of the true God, Shang-ti, 
and derived many of his dogmas from the Bible. He de- 
clared himself to be the monarch of all beneath the sky, 
the true lord of China (and thus of all the world), the 
brother of Jesus, and the second son of God, and de- 
manded universal submission. He made overtures for 
alliance to lord Elgin in Noy. 1860. His followers were 
termed Taepings, ‘‘princes of peace,” a title utterly 
belied by their atrocious deeds. The rebellion was virtu- 
ally terminated, 18 July, 1864, by the capture of Nankin, 
the suicide of the Tien-Wang, and the execution of the 
military leaders. 

{ It was boarded by the Chinese officers, 12 men out of 
the crew of 14 being carried off and the national ensign 
taken down. Sir J. Bowring, governor of Hong-Kong, 
being compelled to resort to hostilities, applied to India 
and Ceylon for troops. On 3 March, 1857, the house of 
commons, by a majority of 19, censured sir John for the 
“‘violent measures” he had pursued. The ministry (who 
took his part) dissolved the parliament; but obtained a 
large majority in the new one. 


N 


CHINA. 


No change on either side: Yeh said to be straitened 
for money ; the imperialists seem to be gaining 
ground upon the rebels May, 

Total destruction of the Chinese fleet by commodore 
Elliot, 25, 27 May ; and sir M. aed mour and com- 
*modore Keppel Hi iJ eek 

Blockade of Canton 

Stagnation in the war—lord Elgin departs to “Oak 
cutta, with assistance to the English against the 
Sepoys, 16 July ; returns to Hong-Kong 25 Sept. 

Gen. Ashburnham departs for India, and gen. Strau- 
benzee assumes the command 3 aa itg Oct: 

Caiton bombarded and taken by English and 
French, 28, 29 Dec. 1857 ; who enter it 5 Jan. 

Yeh* sent a prisoner to Caleutta . Jan. 

The allies proceed towards Pekin, and take the Pei- 
ho forts . . 20 May, 

The expedition arrives at Tien- tsin 20 May, 

Negotiations commence, 5 June; treaty of peace 
Magan at Tien-tsin by lord Elgin, baron Gros, and 
Keying (who signed the treaty of 1842)—[Ambas- 
sadors to be at both courts ; freedom of trade ; 
toleration of Christianity ; expenses of war to be 
paid by China; a revised tariff; term I (bar- 
barian) to be no longer applied to Eur opeans] 

26, 28, 29 June, 

Lord Elgin visits Japan, and concludes an im- 
portant treaty with the emperor ; 28 Aug. 

The British destroy about ie piratical junks in the 
Chinese seas . Aug. and Sept. 

Lord Elgin® proceeds up the Ya ng-tse-Kiang to 
Nankin, Jan. ; returns to England May, 

Mr. Bruce, the British envoy, on his way to Pekin, 
is stopped in the river Pei-ho (or Tien tsin) ; ad- 
miral Hope attempting to force a passage, is re- 
pulsed with the loss of 81 killed, and about 390 
wounded : 25 June, 

The American envoy Ward arrives at Pekin, and 
refusing to submit to degrading ceremonies, does 
not see the emperor : 29 July, 

Commercial treaty with America . 24 Nov. 

The English and French prepare an expedition 
against China. Oct. 

Lord Elgin and baron Gros sail for China, April 26 ; 
wrecked near point de Galle, Ceylon, 23 May; 
arrive at Shang-hae 29 June, 

The war begins: the British commanded by sir Hope 
Grant, the French by general Montauban. The 
Chinese defeated in a skirmish near the Pei-ho 

12 Aug. 

The allies repulse the Taeping rebels attacking 
Shang-hae, 18-20 Aug. ; and take the Taku forts, 
losing 500 killed and wounded ; the Tartar general 
San-ko-lin-sin retreats . . 21 Aug. 

After vain negotiations, the allies advance towards 
Pekin ; they defeat the Chinese at Chang-kia-wan 
and Pa-li-chiau . 18 & 2 21 Sept. 

Consul Parkes, captains Anderson and Brabazon, 
Mr. de Norman, Mr. Bowlby (the Times’ cor- 
respondent), and 14 Others (Europeans and 
Sikhs), advance to Tung-chow, to arrange con- 
ditions for a meeting “of the ministers, and 
are captured by San- ko- lin-sin ; capt. Brabazon 
and abbé de Luc beheaded, and said to be 
thrown into the canal ; others carried into Pekin 

21 Sept. 

The allies march towards Pekin; the French ravage 
the emperor’s summer palace, 6 Oct. ; Mr. Parkes, 
Mr. Loch, and others, restored alive, 8 Oct. ; capt. 
Anderson, Mr. De Norman, and others die of ill- 
usage . : : : 8-11 Oct. 

Pekin invested ; surrenders, 12 Oct. ; severe pro- 
clamation of sir Hope Grant. see esrOCE: 

The bodies of Mr. De Norman and Mr. Bowlby 
eee buried in the Russian cemetery, Pekin, 

7 Oct. ; the summer palace (Yuen- -ming-yuen) 
Bor nt by the British, in memory of the outraged 
prisoners . . 18 Oct. 

Convention signed in Pekin by lord Elgin and the 
prince of Kung, by which the treaty of Tien-tsin 
is ratified ; apology made for the attack at Pei-ho 
(25 June, 1859); a large indemnity to be paid im- 
mediately, and compensation in money given to 
the families of the murdered prisoners, &e. ; Kow- 


178 CHINA. 
loon ceded in exchange for Chusan, and the tr eaty 
and convention to be oi throughout the 
1857 empire . : - » 24 Oct. 


39 


3? 


29 


* He died peacefully at Calcutta, 9 April, 1859. 


He is 


Allies quit Pekin . : 5 Noy. 
Treaty between Russia and China—the former ae 
taining free trade, territories, &c. 14 Nov. 
First instalment of indemnity paid . 30 Noy, 
Part of the allied troops settled at Tien-tsin; con- 
sulate established 5 Jan, 
Adm, Hope examines Yang-tse- -Kiang, &e. a ‘eb, 
English and French embassies established at Pekin 


March, 
The emperor Hienfung dies . Aes AE 
Canton restored to the Chinese 2x Oct, 


Ministerial crisis ; several ministers put to Bac 
Nov. ; Kung appointed regent . 3 Dee. 
Advance of the rebels ; they seize and desolate Ni ing- 

po and Hang-chow . Dee. 
They advance on Shang-hae, which is placed’ under 
protection of the English and French, and fortified 
J 
Rebels defeated in two engagements . Aynil, 
English and French assist the government against 
the rebels—Ning-po re-taken - To May, 
French admiral Protet killed in an attack on rehels 


7 Ma 
Captain Sherard Osborne permitted by the "British 
government to organise a small fleet of gunboats 
to aid the imperialists to establish order July, 
Imperialists gain ground, take Kah-sing, &e. Oct, 
Tungani (Mahomedan) revolt in Central — ; Mas- 
sacre of Buddhists. 
Commercial treaty with Prussia ratified 14 Jan. 
The imperialists under col. Charles Gordon defeat 
the Taepings under Burgevine, &c. . - Je OGk 
Gordon captures Sow-chow (after a severe attack, 
27, 28 Nov.); the rebel chiefs ct 
butchered by the Chinese . 5 Dee. 
Capt. Osborne came to China; but retired i in pie 
quence of the Chinese government ie from 
its engagements : 1 Dee, 
Gordon’s successes continue . ‘Jan. te ‘April 
Repulsed ; he takes Chang-chow-foo . 23 March, 
He takes Nankin (a heap of ruins) ; Hun- sen-tsenn, 
the Tien-wang, the rebel emperor, commits suic ide 
by eating gold leaf, 30 June; Chang-wang and 
Kan-wang, the rebel generals, are “cut into a 
thousand pieces” 18 July, 
Great mortality among British troops at Kowloon 


Jan 
The Taepings hold Ming-chow ; the Mahome te 
rebellion (Dounganes) progressing in Honan 
Jan.-March, 
Taepings evacuate Ming-chow 
Rebellion in the north advancing 4 
A rebellion of the Nien-fei in the north ; Pekin in 
danger . July 
The Chinese general San-ko-lin-sin defeated - 
slain ; his son more successful July, 
Prince Kung chief of the regency again. 7 Noy. 


Sir Rutherford Alcock, ambassador at Pekin, 
26 Nov 

Chinese newspaper, ‘Messenger of the Flying 
Dragon,” appears in London 14 Jan, 
Great v ictory over the Nien-fei announced at Canton 
13 March, 

Chinese commissioners visit London June, 


Rivalry of two great political chiefs in China, Li- 
hung-ching and Tsen-kwo-fan July, 

Reported victory of the Nien-fei over the impe- 
rialists Dee. 

Mahomed Yakoob Beg defeats the ‘Tungani, becomes 
supreme in Kashgar, 1866; is recognised by 
Europe. 

Chinese embassy (Mr. Anson Burlinghame, Chin 
Kang, and Sun Chia Su) received by ies 
Johnson at Washington, 5 June; they Sign a 
treaty, (see Burlinghame), 4 July; arrive in Lon 
don, Sept. ; received by the queen 20 Nov. 

The rebels seize Ningpo . Oct. 

The people at Yang-chow, incited by the ‘Jiterati 
(learned classes) ‘destroy the Protestant mission- 
houses, 22 Aug. ; redress not obtained ; a Britis 
squadron proceeds to Nankin, 8 Nov. ; the vive- 
roy is superseded, and the British demands ac- 
ceded to Noy. 


24 Jan. 


said to have ordered the beheading of about 100,000 | Chinese embassy received by the emperor a Paris, 


rebels. 


al 


CHINA. 179 CHINA. 
\ visi dinburgh, incognito, intercourse); said to be signed, 13 Sept. ; rati- 
. visited by the duke of Edinburgh, incog Ore ae pe .: g 3 OE anes re 


lementary convention to the treaty of Tien-tsin 
ne, 1858) for additional commercial freedom, 
ied : : . - : : . 24 Oct. 
ughame dies at St. Petersburg 22 Feb. 
issful rebellion of Mahometans in northwest 
vinces reported . - ‘ ; 4 May, 
massacre of the French consul at Tien-tsin, 
nan Catholic priests, sisters of mercy (22 per- 
8), besides many native converts, and above 
shildren in the orphanage, by a mob, with, it 
aid, the complicity of the authorities ; the 
sionaries were accused of kidnapping children, 
2r June, 

ased hatred of the people to foreigners at Tien- 
t; lukewarm proceedings of the government 
inst the murderers , : ny el ELY. 
viceroy of Nankin, favourable to Europeans, 
issinated . ; ‘ F . about 22 Aug. 
2ls destroyed at Fatshan é 21 Sept. 
‘rench ultimatuin refused ; the murderers of 
nuns unpunished ; Chinese warlike prepara- 
us reported : : j : 26 Sept. 
ious mandate from the mandarin Tseng-kwo- 
, exculpating the missionaries, and condemn- 
their massacre : : x ; - Oct. 
olies beheaded, 15 Sept., and 23 exiled ; in- 
ity to the sufferers by the outrage ordered ; 
orted . : 4 : ‘ - 26 Oct. 
f the difficulty announced ~ 3g Non 
z-How, an envoy, arrives in London Aug. 
ved at Paris ; apologizes for Tien-tsin massa- 
3, and reports redress . ‘ - . 23 Nov. 
rial addressed to the Chinese government by 
Hart, inspector of customs, recommending 
nges in civil and military administration, 
autumn, 

oung emperor married . : 16 Oct. 
a annexes Kuldja_. 5 i . : : 
‘Armstrong Russell consecrated Anglican 
1op of North China ‘ “A 5 AB To. 
mperor’s majority; he assumes the govern- 
beer A 4 : : : : 23 Feb. 
0, capital of the insurgent Panthay Mahome- 
3, captured ; thousands massacred Feb. 
gn ministers for the first time received by the 


eror . ke : : ; 2 . 29 June, 
te with Japan, see Formosa, July-Aug. ; 
led by treaty 31 Oct. 


park sails from Canton to Macao; capt. Brady 
Mr. Mundy, and a foreign crew and passen- 
:; pirates, who came on board secretly, kill 
tain and others, and carry off booty, while 
voyage ; the wounded crew manage to reach 


sO mn 3 : 6 22 AUS 
of the emperor . . : : 12 Jan, 
unation of his successor, Tsai-tien, son of 


in, 7th son of Taou-Twang (nephew of Kung), 
Feb. 

ring expedition under col. Horace Bowne 
‘pen a passage from Burmah into 8. W. China, 
. 1874; Mr. Margary and 5 Chinese going 
ore, killed at Manwyne, 21 Feb. ; col. Browne 
his troops repulse an attack by Chinese, but 

eat to Rangoon, 22 Feb. ; some of the party 
sing st tia : ; r - 12 March, 
gh negotiation of Mr. Wade, the Chinese go- 
unent promise due reparation; announced Sep. 
permitting intercourse between chiefs of de- 

ments and foreign ministers, about 4 Oct. ; 
ning proper treatment of foreigners, 11 Oct. 
am from Mr, Wade : he has obtained necessary 
vantees, satisfaction for the murder of Mr. Mar- 
’, and concessions for foreign trade, 18 Oct. 
‘ailway in China, from Shang-hae to Oussoon 
osung) (11 miles) ; trial trip, 16 March (at first 
sed); publicly opened . 3 - 30 June, 
.ee-see-ta-hee ordered for trial, tr Feb. ; Mar- 
’s murderers said to be executed, 5 May, 
osvenor and others sent to inquire respecting 
murder of Mr. Margary arrive at the place 
report the proposed punishmnent of the 
ilerers . : : ’ A : . June, 
90 convention ; difficulties in the negotiations 
ved (the government agree to compensation 
r. Margary’s family ; removal of commercial 

‘ances ; opening of four ports ; proper official 


3 
1870 


9? 


” 


”? 


9” 


War against the Tungani; Manas captured; great 
massacre of rebels : 5 ; ; 6 Nov. 
Accredited Chinese envoy (Quo-ta-Zhan) lands at 
Southampton . 3 : : 5 az Jan. 
Decree of equal rights to Chinese Christians, 1 Feb. 
Dreadful famine in northern provinces 2 : 
Four more Chinese ports opened eet A DIits 
Opium smoking interdicted after 3 years; an- 
nounced . 2 F F : : a) Ae 
The railway from Shang-hae bought to be stopped, 
1 Oct. ; resumed f 4 : Dec: 
Quo-ta-Zhan (or Kuo-ta-Jén) first accredited minis- 
ter at London ; Liu-ta-Jén at Berlin about Nov. 
Yakoob Beg of Kashgaria totally defeated by the 
Chinese general, ‘I'so-tsung-tang ; is assassinated, 
May ; Kashgar and other towns captured; end 
ofwar . f : ; 5 é 6 Dec. 
The Chinese minister’s first grand evening reception 
,Ig June, 
Destruction of mission property at Wu-shih-shan 
by a fanatical mob, unrestrained by the Sag ie 
30 Aug. 
Famine abating; 48,3031. for relief collected in 
England . Sept. 
The Shang-hae For- 
mosa , : : é 5 ; ‘ Sikes 
Chinese immigrants virtually excluded from Aus- 
tralia by a poll-tax é i a 4 : - 
Rebellion in Kwang-si, announced . : Oct. 
Chung-How, ambassador at St.Petersburg, demands 
the surrender of Kuli Beg, a fugitive from Kash- 
gar, and restitution of the territory Dec. 
Rebellion in Hainan, in Canton province; Li- 
Yang-tsai, who iuvades Annam, claims the 


"railway plant removed to 


throne by descent ; reported . F Z Jan. 
Marquis Tséng, the new Chinese ambassador, 
arrivesin London , 2 “ y April; 


Treaty with Russia, who agrees to evacuate the 
Kuldja territory, China to pay an indemnity 

about June, 

Li-Yang-tsai, rebel chief, captured ; reali git 
2 Dec. 
Chung-How, the late Chinese ambassador at St. 
Petersburg, imprisoned and the treaty disavowed 
spring, 
Chinese from Kashgar said to invade Russian 


territory 4 A a : : May, 
Prospect of war; col. Gordon goes to China from 
Bombay z < = “ : June, 
Li-Hung-Chang, governor of metropolitan pro- 


vinces, fortifies approaches to the capital, June; 
visited by col. Gordon ;. 5 nA : July, 
Chung-How released ; proposed war with Russia 
given up; announced ; ; ° 15 July, 
Thomas duke of Genoa sails up the Yang-tse-Kiang 
in an Italian vessel . c : t April, 
Peace with Russia, who makes concessions nego- 
tiated by marquis Tséng; treaty signed 19 Aug. 
Complication with France respecting Tonquin (see 
Tonquin) s - : ; 4 : Sept. 
Mr. Logan sentenced to seven years’ penal servi- 
tude for killing a coolie at Canton . « Sept. 
Canton greatly excited against foreigners wc. 
Correspondence of Franceand China respecting Ton- 
quin published in the Times, both firm 29 Oct. 
Warm reception of sir Henry Parkes as British 


ambassador ‘ c ‘ , ‘ - Sept. 
China issues a circular claiming Annam as a de- 
pendency 4 = fs f ? 5 Nov. 
Coup d'état at Pekin effected by prince Chun, 


father of the reigning emperor, who becomes 
dictator ; prince Kung, and the viceroy Li-Hung- 
Chang, deposed . “i 5 - «1 April, et seq. 
The marquis Tseng recalled from Paris, announced 
2 May 

Replaced by Li-Fong-Pao - about 8 May, 
Treaty with France, signed by capt. Fournier and 
Li-Hung-Chang, at Tientsin ; French protectorate 
of Annam and Tonquin recognized ; three southern 
provinces opened to commerce p - 11 May, 
The Chinese break the treaty by attacking the 
French marching to occupy Langson (see Tonquin) 
The French demand evacuation of the Tonquin 
frontier forts, and 10,000,000l. indemnity . July, 
The war party at Pekin oppose the empress and 
Li-Hung-Chang the viceroy . é cee e ULL 


n 2 


7 


1877 


1880 


CHINA GRASS. 


ee Oe 


180 CHLOROFORM. 


The frontier towns to be surrendered, the indemnity 
refused, announced ; A 
China offers reduced indemnity . ; . Aug. 
Kelung in Formosa bombarded and forts destroyed 
by alleged treachery by adm. Lespés 5, 6 Aug. 
Adm. Courbet at Foochow 3 ‘ spt AUP. 
Negotiations at Shanghai . : 4 Aug. 
France declines mediation of the powers; France 
issues a circular to the powers 2 17 Aug. 
Indemnity claimed by France, reduced to 3,200, 000l. 
19 Aug. ; refused by China 2 3 a 4 
The French ambassador, Semallé, leaves Pekin ; 
_war ensues. “ : 4 3 : 2x Aug. 
Adm. Courbet with his fleet sails up the Min river 
unattacked; destroys the Chinese fleet with 
much slaughter, 23 Aug. ; bombards the arsenal 
at Foochow, and dismantles the forts ; destroys the 
forts and batteries, &c., at Mingan and Kinpai ; 
French killed, about 7; Chinese said to be about 


1000 . : : ; A : 26-28 Aug. 
Li-Hung-Chang deprived of his highest offices about 
28 Aug. 


Chinese declaration of war, in a manifesto to the 
people, announced : : - - 6 Sept. 
H.M. gun-boat Zephyr fired on by mistake, 6 Sept. ; 
Chinese apologise. ; : ; 18 Sept. 
Chinese said to be defeated at Kinpai Pass, about 


16 Sept. 
Europeans, at Shanghai and other places, protest 
against the war. : Sept. 


Li-Hung-Chang reappointed viceroy about 24 Sept. 
Adm. Courbet captures Kelung 1 Oct. ; adm. Lespés 
bombards Tamsui, 2 et seq. Oct. ; lands; retires 

8 Oct. 

N. and W. Formosa blockaded . A 23 Oct. 
Kelung occupied by French; little resistance 8 Oct. 
tooo Chinese defeated near Tamsui, 2 Nov.; re- 
pulsed in attack on Kelung, announced 12 Nov. 
Fruitless mediation of earl Granville with marquis 
Tseng, announced 5 : ; - 2zo Dec. 
Reported Chinese defeat near Kelung . 13 ec: 
Foreign Enlistment Act proclaimed at Hong Kong 


23 Jan. 

French attack near Kelung, Chinese works carried 
Q 25 Jan. 
Chinese defeated with much loss. ~ y2gridan, 


Two Chinese junks sunk by French torpedoes,r1s Feb. 
Bombardment of Chin-hae, at the mouth of the 
Yung-Kiang river. 4 A 2 March, 
{For continuation of the war, and the peace, see 
ADDENDA. ] 


CHINESE EMPERORS. 

1627. Chwang-lei. 

1644. Shun-che (first of the Tsing dynasty). 

1662. Kang-hi, an able sovereign ; consolidated the 
pire, compiled a great Chinese dictionary. 

1723. Yung-ching. 


. 3goduly, 1884 


? 


” 


” 


em- 


1736. Keen-lung, warlike ; fond of art; greatly embel- 


lished Pekin. 
1795. Kea-king. 
1820. Taou-Kwang. 
1850. Hieng-fung, 25 Feb. 


1861. Ki-tsiang (altered to Toung-chi) 21 Aug. ; born 27 
April, 1856; married 16 Oct. 1872; died 12 Jan. 


1875. 
1875. Tsai T’ien (altered to Kwang Su), aged 4. Jan. 
CHINA GRASS, or Ruka; a prize of 5ooo/. 


was offered by the Indian government for machinery 
to prepare and cleanse the fibre, 11 Jan. 1870. 
Mr. John Greig’s machine was exhibited in Edin- 


burgh, Dec. 1871. 


CHINA PORCELAIN, introduced into Eng- 


land about 1531; see Pottery. 


CHINA ROSH, &c. The Rosa indica was 
brought from China, and successfully planted in 
England, 1786; the Chinese apple-tree, or Pyrus 


spectabilis, about 1780. 
CHINCHA ISLES, see Peru, 1864-5. 
CHINCHONA, see Jeszits. 


CHINESE WALL, said to have been erected 
about 300 B.c. Reported in 1879 to be 1728 miles 


long, 18 feet wide, 15 feet thick at the top. 


CHIOS nee Scro), an isle in the Greek A 
pelago, revolted against Athens, 412 and 35° 
It partook of the fortunes of Greece, being cong 
by the Venetians, a.D. 1124; by the crusaders, 
by the Greek emperor, 1329; by the Genoese, 
and finally by the Turks in 1594. A dreadful 
sacre of about 40,000 inhabitants by the Turks 
place 11 April, 1822, during the Greek insurre, 
About 4000 perished by an earthquake; the towr 

Chio and many villages were destroyed, 3 April 

many shocks since up to . ‘* 12 April 


CHIPPAWA (N. America). Here the B 
under Riall were defeated by the Americans - 
Brown, 5 July, 1814. The Americans were de} 
by the British under Drummond and Riall, 2: 
following ; Riall was wounded and taken pris: 


CHIROPLAST, an apparatus for giv: 
correct position of the hands of pianoforte pla 
invented by J. B. Logier; patented, 1814. 


CHIVALRY arose out of the feudal syst 
the latter part of the 8th century (chevali, 
knight, being derived from the caballarius 
equipped feudal tenant on horseback). Fron 
12th to the 15th century it tended to refine mar 
The knight swore to accomplish the duties « 
profession, as the champion of God and the |; 
to speak the truth, to maintain the right, to p 
the distressed, to practise courtesy, to fulfil ol 
tions, and to vindicate in every perilous adye 
his honour and character. Chivalry expired 
the feudal system. See Knighthood and To 
ments. By letters patent of James I. the earl 
shal of England had ‘‘the like jurisdiction i 
courts of chivalry, when the office of lord higt 
stable was vacant, as this latter and the marsh 
jointly exercise,”’ 1623. 

CHLORAL HYDRATE, a combinati 
chlorine and alcohol, discovered by Liebig, y 
when inhaled, produces deep sleep, but not i 
sibility to pain. This property was discover 
Oscar Liebreich, and reported to the French 
demy of Sciences, 16 Aug. 1869. In Oct. 1! 
was said to be sometimes deleterious. 


CHLORALUM, or chloride of alumina, a 
pound of chlorine and alumina, a new anti 
disinfectant, invented by Dr. Gamgee about 
It is said to be safe and efficacious, and use: 
medicine for gargles, washing wounds, &c. 


CHLORINE (Greek chloros, pale green). 
first obtained by Scheele in 1774, by treating 
ganese with muriatic (hydrochloric) acid. * 
Davy, in 1810, stated this gas to be an elemer 
named it chlorine. Combined with sodium it 
common salt (chloride of sodium), and con 
with lime it forms the bleaching powder and 
fectant, chloride of lime; see Bleaching. 
Faraday condensed chlorine into a liquid. 
The supposed dissociation of oxygen from chlor 

heat by V. and H. Meyer of Zurich, was ann 

Aug. 1879. Afterwards chlorine was proved t 

in two similar states at high temperatures. 

CHLOROFORM (the ter-chloride of the 
thetical radical formyl) is a compound of ¢ 
hydrogen, and chlorine, and was made from al 
water, and bleaching powder. It was discove 
Soubeiran in 1831, and independently by - 
in 1832; and its composition was determm 
Dumas in 1834. The term ‘chloric ether 
applied in 1820 to a mixture of chlorin 
olefiant gas. Chloroform was first applied 
anesthetic experimentally by Mr. Jacob B 
London, in Feb., and Dr, Simpson of Edinbu 
Noy. 1847; and was administered in Englanc 
Dec. 1848, by Mr. James Robinson, surgeon-d 


CHLOROZONE. 


181 


CHRISM. 


mittee of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical 
7 in July, 1864, after examining statistics, 
d that the use of anesthetics had in no degree 
ed the rate of mortality. 


LOROZONE, 2 new disinfectant, intro- 
1873. 

OBHAM COMMON, in Surrey. A mili- 
imp was formed here on 14 June, 1853, by 
between 8000 and 10,000 strong. Only one 
case of misconduct was reported during all 
1. 


OCOLATEH, made of the cocoa berry, intro- 
into Europe (from Mexico and the Brazils) 
1520, was sold in the London coffee-houses 
ter their establishment, 1650. 


OCZIM, Bessarabia, 8. Russia. Here the 
were totally defeated by John Sobieski, king 
ind, 11 Noy. 1673; and by the Russians, 30 
nd 13 July, 1769. 


OIR. This was separated from the nave of 
irch in the time of Constantine. The choral 

was first used in England at Canterbury, 
ee Chanting. 


OLERA MORBUS (Asiatic cholera) was 
ed by Garcia del Huerto, a physician of Goa, 
(560. It appeared in India in 1774, and at 
imes, and became endemic in Lower Bengal 
7, whence it gradually spread, till it reached 
in 1830, and Germany in 1831, carrying off 
han 900,000 persons in 1829-30. In England 
ales in 1848-9, 53,293 persons died of cholera, 
1854, 20,097; see Germ Theory of Disease. 


,appears at Sunderland 26 Oct. 1831 
Edinburgh é : - . 6Feb. 1832 
bserved at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, 
on, 13 Feb. ; and in Dublin 3 March, ,, 
ty very great, but more so on the Continent ; 
> deaths at Paris, between March and Aug. 
, rages in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, 
n, &., in 2 z . . July and Aug. 
' visitation of cholera in England : the num- 
f deaths in London, for the week ending 15 
1849, Was 3183 ; the ordinary average, 1008 ; 
che number of deaths by cholera from 17 
to 2 Oct. in London alone, 13,161. The 
ity lessened and the distemper disappeared 
about 13 Oct. 
tle-upon-Tyne, Hexham, Tynemouth, and 
northern towns, suffer much from cholera, 
Sept. 
}in Italy and Sicily ; above 10,000 are sald 
ve died at Naples ; it was also very fatal to 
‘lied troops at Varna : . autumn, 
. very severe for a short time in the southern 
of London, and in Soho and St. James’s, 
minster : Aug. and Sept. ,, 
in Alexandria, June ; abated July, 
ing in Ancona (843 deaths) Aug., subsiding, 
Sept. §,, 
vere in Constantinople, nearly 50,000 Feniha: 
; subsides after the great fire 6 Sept. ,, 
at Marseilles, Toulon, and Southampton, 
end of Sept. ,, 
, prevalent at Marseilles, Paris, Madrid, and 
8 4k 5 : " : ~ wsuly-Oct. ,, 
rnational meeting at Constantinople, to con- 
preventive measures, proposed, Oct. 1865, 
8 Feb. 1866. At the last sitting the conclu- 
adopted were that cholera may be propa- 
, and from great distances; and a num- 
' preventive measures were recommended, 


1849 


1853 


: 26 Sept. 1866 
appears at Bristol, 24 April; at Liverpool, 
y ; at Southampton July, 53 


severe in east of London: 346 deaths in 
ending ; : 3 x : AO RMB ary. 
to house visitation ; Metropolitan Relief 
iationformed ; large subscriptions received 
n’s 500.) F é . July and Aug. 
subsides . A as - ‘ o Bepte 3 


Very severe at Naples. A : 
Cholera Relief Committee closes . sr Octaiesy 
Cholera declared to be extinct in London nm Dechy 5; 
Cholera in Rome, Naples, and Sicily, Aug.-Sept. ; 

in Switzerland : 4 4 7 ; . Oct. 1867 
Alarm of approaching cholera, July; said to be 

severe in K6nigsberg in Prussia - Aug.'1875 
Cholera severe in Vienna, Aug.; Paris . . Sept. 1873 
Egypt, 1883. Cholera breaks out at Damietta, 37 

deaths, about 23-26 June; 113 deaths (and at 

Mansourah about 1000 deaths up to 3c June) 1883, 

1100 up to 2 July, diminishing at Damietta, in- 

creasing at Mansourah and other places 

11-13 July 1883 

Appears in Cairo about 16 July ; deaths in 24 hours, 

23-24 July—soo ; 25-26 July—36s5 ; cholera appears 

in the British army, 2 deaths 24 July, 11 deaths 

26 July . é 5 ; F - 
Appears at Alexandria about 3 : 
25 deaths in British army in Egypt, upto x21Aug. ,, 
Decreasing in Cairo, &e. . : - oe 7 AUS ge 
Deaths at Cairo and Ghizeh up to 1 Aug.—4085 
In the British army up to 7 Aug.—122 aA 
The disease greatly abating, reported TOLAT SC eeees 
Deaths up to 31 Aug.—27,318, including 140 among 

British troops . : : = : Zs TS 
Cholera lingering at Alexandria, 12 Sept. ; extinct 


Sept. 1866 


eae welts fry 


CLOG “45 
Reappears at Alexandria . ‘ 5 oe T7LOCTS aes 
Reported increasing . 3 a2) OCT ss 
26 deaths in 3 days 27-29 Oct. 4, 
No cases . . . < ss - St WCCamss 
France, 1884. Cholera at Toulon began 14 June; 


45 deaths up to 28 June; deaths increasing, 6 
July ; much panic . A : : ¢ July 
Cholera appears at Marseilles 27 June; 26 deaths 
6, 7 July; 872 deaths up to 21 July; great heat, 
deaths increase 20 July; cholera increasing at 
Marseilles 8 Aug. Total deaths at Marseilles up 
to 15 Sept.—1671 . . - : x A “ 
Registered deaths: Toulon, 880, 18 June—z6 Oct. ; 
Marseilles, 1700 . % : . 27 June—26 Oct. ,, 
A few cases in Paris 15 Sept; 25 deaths in poor 
districts 5, 6 Nov.; estimated total deaths in 
Paris, nearly goo. “ E ¢ : Novi. *,; 
The disease appeared at Arles, Nantes, Yport, and 
other places : ts : = - : oan 
Total deaths in France estimated 5000 up to 15 
Sept. 2 3 - : ‘ : : ‘ 
Italy, 1884. Cholera severe at Turin, 7 Aug.; 
spreading 19 Aug,, increasing at Spezzia, &.; 23, 
24 Aug., and at Naples and Turin 2 Sept. ; very 
many deaths at Genoa 24 Sept.—8 Oct.; very 
severe at Naples (visited by the king) 2 Sept.— 
2 Nov. = “ ps - : - - ats 
Spain, 1884. Cholera appears in Alicante x Sept. 
et seq. ; much panic : at Toledo, Madrid, and other 
places Sept., Oct. . : ; 


CHORAGUS, the regulator of the chorus in 
Greek feasts, &c. Stesichorus (or Tysias) received 
this name, having first taught the chorus to danve 
to the lyre, 556 B.c. Quéntil. 


CHORAL HARMONISTS’ SOCIETY 
London, existed 1833-51. 


CHORUS-SINGING was early practised at 
Athens. Hypodicus, of Chalcides, carried off the 
prize for the best voice, 508 B.c. Parian marbles ; 
see Music. 


CHOUANS, a name given to the Bretons 
during the war of La Vendée in 1792, from their 
chief Jean Cottereau, using the cry of the Chat- 
huant, or screech-owl, as a signal. He was killed 
in 1794. Georges Cadoudal, their last chief, was 
said to be connected with Pichegru in a conspiracy 
against Napoleon when first consul, and was executed 
in 1804. 

CHRISM, consecrated oil, was used early in the 
ceremonies of the Greek and Roman churches. 
Musk, saffron, cinnamon, roses, and frankincense, 
are mentioned as used with the oil, in 1541. It was 
ordained that chrism should consist of oil and 
balsam only; the one representing the human 


CHRIST. 


nature of Christ, and the other his divine nature, 
1596. 

CHRIST, see Jesus Christ. 

CHRIST CHURCH, see Lincoln Tower. 


CHRIST’S HOSPITAL (the Blue-Coat 
school) was established by Edward VI. 1553, on the 
site of the Grey Friars’ monastery. A mathematical 
ward was founded by Charles II. 1672. The Times 
ward was founded in 1841. Large portions of the 
edifice having fallen into decay, it was rebuilt: in 
1822 a new infirmary was completed, and in 1825 
C5 April) the duke of York laid the first stone of 
the magnificent new hall. On 24 Sept. 1854, the 
master, Dr. Jacob, in a sermon in the church of the 
hospital, censured the system of education and the 
general administration of the establishment, and 
many improvements have since been made. Rey. G. 
C. Bell, successor of Dr. Jacob, 12 Aug. 1868-1876, 
‘The subordinate school at Hertford, for 416 younger 
boys and 80 girls, was founded in 1683.—The annual 
income varies: (1884) about 61,000/. 800 boys in Lon- 
don; 200 boys and 20 girls at Hertford. The removal 
of the school to the country negatived by the 
' governors, 26 April, 1870. The proposal that the 

buildings and ground should be purchased by the 
Mid-London Railway Company for 600,000/. was 
not carried out. The Charity Commissioners’ 
scheme for the reformed administration of the hos- 
pital published in the Times, 9 March, 1885, 

Wm. Gibbs, a scholar aged 12, strangled himself 
while locked up for running away, night of 

3-4 July, 1877. A committee of investigation 

(including Mr. Russell Gurney, the recorder) in 

their report exonerated the authorities: pub- 

lished 3 : : A i - io Aug. 1877 

CHRIST’S THORN, conjectured to be the 
plant of which our Saviour’s crown of thorns was 
composed, came hither from the south of Europe 
before 1596. 


CHRISTIAN COMMUNITY, founded 
about 1685, re-organized by John Wesley and 
others in 1772, for visiting and preaching the gospel 
in workhouses, asylums, rooms, &c., and in the open 
air; and for distribution of tracts. 


CHRISTIAN ERA, see Anno Domini. Curis- 
TIAN KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY was founded in 1698 to 
promote charity schools, and to disperse Bibles and 
religious tracts. It has an annual revenue of about 
100,000/. Most CurisTIAN KING; Christianissi- 
mus Rex, a title conferred by pope Paul II. in 1469 
on the crafty Louis XI. of France. 


CHRISTIAN EVIDENCE SOCIETY 
established by earl Russell, the bishop of London, 
and others to counteract ‘‘ the current forms of un- 
belief among the educated classes,’ 1870. Lectures 
for this purpose were given in St. George’s Hall in 
1871, beginning with the archbishop of York, 25 
April. A public meeting was held 6 June following. 
Six volumes of lectures and tracts for circulation 
have been published. 


CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE, Socrery 
FOR PROMOTING, founded 1698. 1877: income, 
for charitable purposes (including legacies of 
16,000/.), ie 5817. Bibles, &c., given away ; churches 
and schools helped ; bishoprics maintained, ete. 
Offices removed fiom Lincoln’s Inn-Fields to Northum- 

berland Avenue, opened 3 Nov. 1870. 


CHRISTIAN UNITY, AssocIATIon For 
THE PROMOTION OF, on the basis of the three 
creeds, formed by thirty members of the Greek, 
Roman, and English Churches, 8 Sept. 1857; 20th 
anniversary kept in London, 8 Sept. 1877. A meet- 
ing to promote the reunion of Christendom was held 


182 


ys 


CHRISTMAS-DAY, 


in London, 19 July, 1878, the bishop of Freder 
in the chair. | 


CHRISTIANIA, the capital of Norway, 
in 1624, by Christian IV. of Denmark, to re 
Opslo (the ancient capital founded by Harold 
rade, 1058), which had been destroyed by fire, 
13 April, 1858, Christiania suffered by fire, th; 
being about250,000/. The university was establ: 
in 1811. New Storthing (parliament hovse) 
1861-2. Statue of Charles John XIV. unveil 
Sept. 1875. 


CHRISTIANITY. The name Christian 
first given to the disciples of Christ at Antioc 
Syria, 43 (dets xi. on ; I Peter iv. 6). The 
Christians were divided into episcopors (bisho, 
overseers) or presbyterot (elders), diaconot (min: 
or deacons), and pistoz (believers) ; afterwards 
added catechwmens, or learners, and energumens, 
were to be exorcised; see Persecutions. 


Christianity preached in Jerusalem, A.D. 33; §a- 
maria, 34; Damascus, 35 ; Asia Minor, 41; Cyprus, 
45; Macedonia, 53; Athens, Corinth, &c., 543 
Ephesus, 56; Troas, &.,60; Rome . ., . 

Christianity said to be taught in Britain, about 
64; and propagated with some success (Bede). . 

Christianity said to be introduced into Scotland in 
the reign of Donald I. about . : 7 

Constantine the Great professes the Christian 
religion . : 5 - : = . -_ - 

Frumentius preaches in Abyssinia - about 

Introduced among the Goths by Ulfilas . ; oe. 

Into Ireland in the second century, but with more 
success after the arrival of St. Patrick . .. 

Christianity established in France by Clovis . 

Conversion of the Saxons* by Augustin 

Introduced into Helvetia, by Irish missionaries 

Into Flanders in the 7th century. 

Into Saxony, by Charlemagne . 

Into Denmark, under Harold 

Into Bohemia, under Borsivoi . 

Into Russia, by Swiatoslaf . 

Into Poland, under Meicislaiis I. 

Into Hungary, under Geisa . . : 0) oe 

Into Norway and Iceland, under Olaf I. . soe 

Into Sweden, between roth and r1th centuries. 

Into Prussia, by the Teutonic knights, when they 
were returning from the holy wars am A 

Into Lithuania ; paganism was abolished about. . 

Into Guinea, Angola, and Congo, in the 15th 
century. 

Into China, where it made some progress (but was 
afterwards extirpated, and thousands of Chinese 
Christians were put to death) . : =e 

Into India and America, in the 16th century. 

Into Japan, by Xavier and the Jesuits, 1549; bul 
the Christians were exterminated . Se t 

Christianity re-established in Greece co ce 


CHRISTINOS, supporters of the queen-r 
Christina against the Carlists in Spain durin; 
war, 1833-40. | 


CHRISTMAS-DAY, 25 Dec. (from @ 
and the Saxon messe, signifying the mass & 
Jeast), a festival in commemoration of the nat 
of Christ, said to have been first kept 98; andor’ 
to be held as a solemn feast, by pope Telesph 
about 137.+ In the eastern church, Christw 


about 


* It is, traditionally, said that Gregory the ! 
shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, Dp 
through the slave-market at Rome, and perceiving 
beautiful children set up for sale, inquired about 
country, and finding they were English pagans, hei 
to have cried out, ‘‘ Non Angli sed Angeli forent, st 
Christiani ;” that is, “They would not be Englis! 
angels, if they were Christians.” From that time | 
dently desired to convert the nation, and ordered a 
named Austin, or Augustin, and others, to undertal 
mission to Britain in the year 5096. , A 

t Diocletian, the Roman emperor, keeping his 
at Nicomedia, being informed that the Christians 
assembled on this day in great multitudes to cel 


CHRISTMAS ISLAND. 

n 6 Jan. our Epiphany (which see). The 
ians celebrate both feasts on 18 Jan. The 
nd mistletoe used at Christmas are said to be 
mains of the religious observances of the 
3 see Anno Domini. 
tmas Cards.—About 1862 pictures of robins, holly, 
1 eards, designed by Mr. John Leighton, were 
by Messrs. Goodall of London, playing card 

Artistic designs were introduced in 186s. 
mprovements were made in Germany, France, 
London by Messrs. De la Rue, Marcus Ward, and 
1879-84. 
RISTMAS ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, 
ned by captain Cook, who landed here on 
nas-day, 1777. He had passed Christmas- 
. Christmas-sound, 1774. On the shore of 
nas Harbour, visited by him in 1776, a man 
a piece of parchment inscribed: ‘* Ludovico 
talliarum rege, et d. Boynes regi a secretis ad 
writimas, annis 1772 et 1773.” On the other 
aptain Cook wrote: ‘* Naves Resolution et 
ery de rege Magne Britannia, Dee. 1776,” 
aced it in a bottle. 
RISTOPHER’S, St. (or St. Kitt’s), a West 
(sland, discovered in 1493, by Columbus, who 
‘hisown name. Settled by the English and 
1, 1623 or 1626. Ceded to England by the 
of Utrecht, 1713. Taken by the French 
2, but restored the next year. The town of 
erre suffered from fires, 3 Sept. 1776; also 
4 July, 1867, when the cathedral and nearly 
‘town were destroyed. About 200 lives lost 
pees II, 12 Jan. 1880; hurricane, violent 

Os 


ROMIUM (Greek, chroma, colour), a rare 

discovered by Vauquelin in 1797. It is found 
aed with iron and lead, and forms the colour- 
itter of the emerald. 


ROMO-LITHOGRAPHY, see Printing 


urs. 


RONICLES. The earliest are those of the 
Chinese, and Hindoos. In Scripture there 
0 ‘* Books of Chronicles’? ; see Bible. Col- 
s of the British chronicles have been pub- 
by Camden, Gale, &c., since 1602; in the 
t century by the English Historical Society, 
n 1858, the publication of ‘‘Chronicles and 
rials of Great Britain and Ireland during the 
> Ages,” commenced under the direction of 
aster of the Rolls (still going on, 1885). 
. Macray’s ‘* Manual of British Historians’’ 
iblished. 


RONOGRAM, an inscription on tombs, 
igs, medals, &c. im which a date or epoch is 
sed by letters. A large collection of ‘* Chro- 
ns,’ with translations and explanations, was 
hed by Mr. James Hilton in 1882. 


RONOLOGY, the science of time ; see Hras 
yochs. Valuable works on the subject are 7’ _Art 
‘ifier les Dates, compiled by the Benedictines 
1820). Playfair’s Chronology, 1784; Blair’s 
logy, 1753 (new editions by sir H. Klis in 1844, 
Mr. Rosse, in 18 56). The Oxford Chrono- 
Tables, 1838. Sir Harris Nicolas’ Chronology 
ory, 1833; new edition, 1852. Hales’ Chron- 
2nd edition, 1830; Woodward and Cates’ Ency- 
ia of Chronology, 1872; Mr. H. Fynes-Clin- 
‘asti Hellenici and Fasti Romani (1824-50). 


RONOMETER, see Clocks, and Harrison. 


nativity, ordered the doors to be shut, and the 
to be set on fire, and 600 perished in the burning 
‘gis was the commencement of the tenth persecu- 
rich lasted ten years, 303. 


| 


183 


CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 
CHRONOSCOPE, an apparatus invented by 


professor Wheatstone in 1840, to measure small 
intervals of time. It has been applied to the velocity 
of projectiles and of the electric current. A chrono- 
scope was invented by Pouillet, in 1844, and by 
others since. Capt. Andrew Noble (engaged by sir 
William Armstrong) invented an apparatus for 
determining the velocity of a projectile in a gun; 
a second of time is divided into millionths, and the 
electric spark is employed in recording the rate of the 
passage. The apparatus was exhibited at Newcastle- 
on-Tyne in Aug. 1869, and in London in April, 1870. 


CHRYSANTHEMUMS were introduced 
into England from China, about 1790; and many 
varieties since. 

CHRYSOPOLIS, or ScuTart. 

CHUNAR, or CHUNARGHUR, N.W. India, 
taken by the British, 1763, and ceded to them, 1768. 
Here was concluded a treaty between the nabob of 
Oude and governor Hastings, by which the nabob 
was relieved of his debts to the East India Company, 
on condition of his seizing the property of the be-- 
gums, his mother and grandmother, and delivering 
it up to the English, 19 Sept. 1781. This treaty 
enabled the nabob to take the lands of Fyzoola Khan, 
a Rohilla chief, who had settled at Rampoor, under 
guarantee of the English. The nabob presented to 
Mr. Hastings 100,000/.; see Hastings. 


CHURCH (probably derived from the Greek 
kyriakos, pertaining to the Lord, Ayrios), signifies 
both a collected body of Christians, and the place 
where they meet. In the New Testament, it signi- 
nifies ‘* congregation,’ in the original ekklesia. 
Christian architecture commenced with Constantine, 
who erected at Rome churches called basilicas (from 
the Greek dasileus, a king) ; St. Peter’s about 330. 
His suecessors erected others, and adopted the 
heathen temples as places of worship. Several very 
ancient churches exist in Britain and Ireland. See 
Architecture ; Choir and Chanting ; Rome, Modern ; 
Popes. 


CHURCH AND STAGE GUILD, was 
formed in 1880 to promote morality and temperance 
by the agency of theatrical performances. 


CHURCH ARMY. An imitation of the 
“Salvation army,” constituted in 1882. Captain 
Rev. Carlyle Wilson was very active in West- 
minster. 

CHURCH ASSOCIATION, formed to 
counteract popery and ritualism, 1865. Frequent 
meetings are held in London and the provinces. 


CHURCH BUILDING. The society for 
promoting the enlargement, building, and repairing 
of churches and chapels, was established 1818, and 
incorporated 1828. A commission for building 
churches in populous places, appointed in 1820, was 
incorporated with the ecclesiastical commission 
about 1856. 


CHURCH CONGRESSES, meet annually, 


since 1861. See under Church of England. 


CHURCH DEFENCE INSTITUTION; 
founded in 1859—the archbishop of Canterbury pre- 
sident. It does not meddle with doctrines. 


CHURCH DISCIPLINE ACT @ & 4 
Vict. c. 86), passed 7 Aug. 1840, enables bishops to 
issue commissions of inquiry, and on conviction to 
inhibit clergymen from performing service, &c. 


CHURCH or ENGLAND.* 


* The church consists of three orders of clergy—bishops, 
priests and deacons; 1881; two archbishops, twenty- 
eight bishops, with four suffragans and three as- 


The following 


CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 


are leading facts in her history : for details, refer 
to separate articles; see Clergy and Free Church. 
In Sept. 1880 the Archbishop of Canterbury said 
that he was in communion with 162 bishops. 


Britain converted to Christianity (‘‘ Christo sub- 
dita,” Tertullian) . 4 : and century 

Invasion of the Saxons, 477; “converted by Augus- 
tin and his companions . 596 

Dunstan establishes the supr emacy of the monastic 
orders, about . g6o 

The aggrandising policy of the Church, fostered by 
Edward the Confessor, checked by William I. and 
his successors . . 1066 et seq. 

Contest between Henry II. and Becket respecting 
‘‘Constitutions of Clarendon” . . 1164-1170 

Contest between national or English’ party and 
Roman party (chiefly Norman) 1 ‘ith and rath centuries 

John surrenders his crown to the papal legate Abs G 

Rise of the Lollards--Wickliffe publishes tracts 
against the errors of the church of Rome, 1356; 
and a version of the Bible, about 

The clergy regulated by parliament, 15293 they lose 
the first fruits “ 

The royal supremacy imposed on the ‘clergy by 
Henry VIII., 1531 ; many suffer death for refusing 
to acknowledge it. 

Coverdale’s translation of the Bible commanded to 
be read in churches F 


1383 
1534 


1535 


** Six Articles of Religion” promulgated | - 1539 
First Book of Common Prayer issued - 1549 
The clergy permitted to marry = ss 

““ Forty-two Articles of Religion ” issued > 4552 


Restoration of the Roman forms, and fierce perse- 


cution of the Protestants by Mary . 1553-8 
The Protestant forms restored Me Elizabeth ; ‘the 

Puritan dissensions begin . 1558-1603 
«Thirty-nine ” Articles published — - 1563 
Hampton Court conference with the Pur itans. - 1604 
New translation of the Bible published 1611 


Book of Common Prayer suppressed and Dir ectory 

established by parliament . 1644 
Presbyterians established by the Commonwealth . 1649 
Act of Uniformity (14 Chas. II. ¢. 4) passed—zoo0o 


nonconforming ministers resign their livings . 1662 
Attempts of James II. to revive Romanism ; ‘‘ De- 
claration of Indulgence ” published . 1687 


Acquittal of the seven bishops on a charge of 
“seditious libel” . . 1688 
Comprehension bill for dissenters introduced - 1689 
The Non-juring bishops and others deprived ; (they 
formed a separate communion) . 1 Feb. 1691 
**Queen Anne’s. Bounty,” for the augmentation of 
poor livings : - 1704 
Act for building 50 new churches passed 1710 
Fierce disputes between the low church and ‘the 
high church; trial of Henry Sacheverell, for 
seditious sermons ; riots 4 5 : 
The Bangorian controversy begins “ 
John Wesley and George Whitefield commence 
preaching : 1738 
Rise of the Evangelical party i in the chureh, under 
Newton, Romaine, and others, latter ‘part of 
18th century 
Church of England united with that of Ireland at 
the Union . : . 1800 


sistants, and above seventy colonial and missionary 
bishops. The other dignitaries are chancellors, deans 
(of cathedrals and collegiate churches), archdeacons, 
prebendaries, canons, minor canons, and priest-vicars : 

these and the incumbents of rectories, vicarages, and 
chapelries, make the number of preferments” of the 
established church, according to official returns, 12,327. 
The number of benofices i in England and Wales, according 
to parliamentary returns, in "18.44, was 11,127, and the 
number of glebe-houses 5527. The number of parishes is 
11,077, and of churches and chapels about 14,100. The 
number of benefices in Ireland was 1495, to which there 
were not more than about goo glebe-houses attached, the 
rest having no glebe-houses. An act was passed in 1860 for 
the union of contiguous benefices. In 1867 the beneficed 
clergy were estimated at 12,888 ; curates and other clergy 
without livings about 7000. Estimated average income 
of the dignitaries and beneficed clergy (1877), 7,238,000l. 

—F. Martin. February, 1885, archbishops 2, bishops 
31, deans 32. 


184 


CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 


Clergy Incapacitation Act passed . 
Incorporated Church Building Society established, 
6 Feb, 
Church Inquiry Commission, appointed 23 June, 
Ecclesiastical Commissioners incorporated by act, 


13 Au, 

Acts for building and enlarging churches” 1828, 

200 new churches erected in the diocese of me 
under bishop C. J. Blomfield 

“Tracts for the Times ” (No. 1-90) published Guia 
controversy ensued) . saa ae 

Church Pastoral Aid Society, founded 

Additional curates’ society, founded . 

Ecclesiastical Commission established 

New Church Discipline Act (3 & 4 Vict. ec. 86). 

For the Gorham and Denison cases, see Trials, 1349, 

Anglo-Continental Society (which see), founded 

English Church Union, established 

“‘ Essays and Reviews” published, 1860; numerous 
Replies issued (see Essays and Reviews) ~ af 

[The Church of England is now said to be divided 
into High, Moderate, Low (or Evangelical), and 
Broad Church : the last including persons who 
hold the opinions of the late Dr. Arnold, the Rey. 
F. D. Maurice, dean Stanley, canon Kingsley, and 
others. } 

Church Congresses began at Cambridge, 1861; and 
at Oxford . : July, 

Dr. Colenso, bishop of Natal, publishes his work 
on ‘‘The Pentateuch,” about Oct. 1862; the 
bishops, in convocation, declare that it contains 
“err ors of the gravest and most dango cha- 

racter ” 20 May, 

A Church Congr ess at Manchester ~ 13, 14, 15 Oct. 

Bishop Colenso deposed by his metropolitan, Dr, 
Gray, bishop of Capetown. ; 16 April, 

** Oxford Declaration ” (authorship ascribed to arch- 
deacon Denison and Dr. Pusey), respecting belief 
in eternal punishment, drawn up and signed on 
25 Feb., and sent by post to the clergy at large 
for signature : about 3000 are said to have signed; 
it was presented to the archbishop of Canterbury 

12 May, 

Bishop of London's Fund, for remedying spiritual 
destitution in London, established 1863 ; the queen 
engages to give (in three years) 3000l., and prince. 
of Wales ro60!, : « 7 March, 

100,456l. received ; 72, oo3l. promised 31 Dee. 

The queen engages to give 15,oo00l. in 10 Hee 

Pp 

Church Congress at Bristol ‘  Uct. 

Church of England Education Society, founded : 

Church Association (against popery and ritualism) 
established. ‘ 

District Churches Tithes act passed (rectories con- 
stituted) . 

Bishop Colenso’s appeal - came before the ‘privy 
council, which declared bishop Gray’s proceed- 
ings null and void (since a colonial bishop can 
have no authority except what is granted by par- 
liament or by the colonial legislature), 21 March, 

London Free and open Church Association, founded 

New form of clerical subscription proposed by a 
commission in 1864; adopted by parliament, July, 

Church Congress at Norwich 3-7 Oc 

Meeting in London of three English bishops, Dr. 
Pusey, and nearly 80 of the clergy and laity with 
counts Orloff and Tolstse, and the Russian chap 
Jain, to consider on the practicability of uniting 
the English and Russian churches . 15 Nov. 

Bishop Colenso publicly excommunicated at Maritz 
burg cathedral, by bishop Gray 5 Jan. 

Bishop Gray declares himself independent, estab: 
lishes synods, and calls his see “The Church 0} 
South Africa’ early it 

The Church Missionary Society refuses to support 
colonial bishops, unless they keep within the for 
mularies of the Church of England . early ir 

Church Congress at York . 6 Oct 

Much excitement caused by the progress of ricual 
ism (which see) ; Sept.-Nov 

Bishop Colenso v, Gladstone and others (trustees 0 
the Colonial Bishoprie Fund) for withholding hi 
salary. Verdict of master of the rolls, for plaintiff 
with costs 6 Nov 

Unqualified condemnation of ‘ritualism. by the 
bishops in convocation, 13 Feb. ; the lower hous 
concurred . 9.) Sane . 15 Feb 


. 


‘CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 


185 


CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 


aaa ea 


jjop of Salisbury (Dr. Hamilton) in a church 
's the doctrine of the supernatural gifts of 
s, the Divine presence in the sacrament ; 
+ protest against it ‘ F - 16 May, 
‘Court of Arches Martin v. Mackonochie, 
sting extreme ritualistic practices at St. 
’s, Holborn ; case deferred 2r May, 
‘itualistic Commission appointed to inquire 
sting rubricks in the Prayer-Book, table of 
is, &c., 3 June; first report, censuring in- 
ion, signed ‘ = ‘ f . 19 Aug. 
glican Synod (which see) meets at Lambeth, 
| 24-27 Sept. 
Congress at Wolverhampton . x Oct. 
: of ritualists in St. James’s Hall, claiming 


y 3 . _ x , 19 Nov. 
* Martin v. Mackonochie, begun 4 Dec., 
| r4 days ; resumed : : 16-18 Jan. 


ul of bishop Gray of Capetown to consecrate 
flacrorie bishop of Natal in opposition to 
p Colenso, disapproved of by the English 
‘cotch bishops . ; : » 5) aE 
of London’s Fund, received, 312,30091. 
31 Jan. 

v. Mackonochie decided ; verdict for plain- 
use of incense, mixing water with the wine, 
tevation of the elements, in the sacrament, 
iden , : A 4 . 28 March, 
1eeting at St. James’s hall, in defence of the 
Church establishment ; 23 bishops present, 
May, 

; Churches Act, constituting vicarages 
op of Oxford’s Act), passed . . - 
Congress at Dublin . z 5 29 Sept. 
party contests at a special meeting of the 
tian Knowledge Society 8 Dee. 
v. Mackonochie: appeal case ; verdict for 
tiff, declaring certain ritualistic practices 
1 F : : : A 323) Dec. 
meeting of ritualists at St. James’s hall, 
12 Jan, 

ieeting of a Church Reform Society (since 
d ‘‘ Liturgical Revision Society”); Lord 


y, chairman 4 , 2¢ 13 May, 
conference at Sheffield 5 24 May, 
Congress at Liverpool ‘ Oct 


1 : oni 5 2 
v. Mackonochie: defendant censured by 
‘council for evading sentence 4 Dee. 
of London's Fund: — 411,839l. received, 


July, 
sal Disabilities Act” passed - 5 Any, 
Congress at Southampton =. om sxx Oct. 


in Knowledge Society votes 1r0,o00l. to sup- 
Church schools ; A . 20 Oct. 
fr. Mackonochie suspended from duty for 
months by decree of privy council for 
ing former sentence . Es : 25 Nov. 
. Voysey sentenced to be deprived for heresy ; 
al to judicial committee of privy council 
lowed (see Voysey) . ; : = ro: feb: 
‘tv, Purchas, of Brighton ; verdict against 
idant for cffences against ecclesiastical law ; 
‘dered a great defeat of the ritualists, and 
2d much excitement . : : 23 Feb. 
all’s resolution for disestablishing the church 
ingland defeated in the commons—374-89, 
AE bef, g May, 
bents’ Resignation Act passed 13 July, 
on for revival of diocesan synods, Sept.-Oct. 
Congress at Nottingham ; closed to Oct. 
wd v. Bennett (for teaching the divine pre- 
2 in the sacrament) ; appeal to privy council, 
ov. ; judgment adjourned 2) DOC; 
of London's Fund—received 441,1991. 3x Dec. 
nvocation authorised to consider alterations 
e Prayer Book : : : 3 . Feb. 
. reform meeting at St. James’s hall; paro- 
councils recommended : 15 Feb. 
ohn Purchas, of Brighton, to be suspended 
duties for one year, from : - 18 Feb. 
e died 18 Oct.] 

2nce of bishops, deans, and canons at Lam- 
, to consider cathedral reform x March, 
rd v. Bennett ; judgment for defendant, who 
usured : : E : . 8 June 
iall’s motion for royal commission to in- 
» into the property of the church lost (295-94) 
2 July, 


1867 


1872 


39 


Church Congress at Leeds ‘ : 8-11 Oct. 
Memorial (signed by 60,200 persons) against Ro- 
manist teaching, &c. in the church, presented at 
Lambeth to the archbishop by the church asso- 
ciation . 5 y é : é : May, 
The archbishops in reply admit the danger, and 
recognise their duty, as well as the difficulties of 
action, saying, ‘‘We live in an age when all 
opinions and beliefs are keenly criticised, and 
when there is less inclination than ever was 
before to respect authority in matters of opinion. 
In every state, in every religious community, 
almost in every family, the effect of this unsettled 


condition may be traced.” : jive LE SUNG, 
Mr. Miall’s motion for disestablishing the church, 
lost (356-61) . : . 16 May, 


483 clergymen petition convocation for the licens- 
ing of duly qualified sacramental confessors, May, 
Church Congress, at Bath . A - Oct. 
Archdeacon Denison, Dr. Pusey, canons Liddon 
and Liddell, and others, publish a declaration in 
favour of confession and absolution in Times, 
6 Dec. 

Archdeacon Denison attacks the bishops in a Latin 
pamphlet, ‘‘ Episcopatus Bilinguis”’ . Dec; 
Public Worship Regulation Act (which see) brought 
in by the archbishops, 20 April; royal assent, 


7 Aug. 
Meeting of lay and clerical delegates at Lambeth 
palace on church affairs : ro June, 


Addresses to the archbishops largely signed for and 
against the sanction of a distinctive dress for the 
minister during the celebration of the holy com- 
munion : : : : : . Sept. 

Church Congress at Brighton met 6 Oct. 

New society formed by bishops of Manchester, Car- 
lisle, and Edinburgh, and others, to promote union 
with orthodox dissenters... : edt HCL. 

Bishop of London's Fund :—500,187!. received or 
promised : ; . ; : é . Nev. 

Martin v. Mackonochie : new suit in court of arches 
(see 1870), 26 Nov. ; Mackonochie to be suspended 
for 6 weeks and pay costs : : 7) 17 Dec. 

Pastoral of the archbishops and bishops (bishops of 
Salisbury and Durham excepted) to the clergy 
and laity (counselling moderation and forbearance,) 

dated x March, 

Mackonochie declines to appeal; excitement at his 
church; rev. A. Stanton and congregation cele- 
brate holy communion at St. Vedast’s, Foster- 


lane . ; 3 : J ;: 27 June, et seg. 
Church Congress at Stoke-upon-Trent - 5-9 Oct. 
Several clergymen secede to Rome . Oct. 


Public Worship Regulation Act: new court, under 
lord Penzance, meet at Lambeth-palace ; first case 
the Parish of Folkestone v. rev. Charles Joseph 
Ridsdale, 4 Jan. ; verdict for plaintiffs. 3 Feb. 

Reported negotiation of ritualistic ministers with 
Rome disclaimed by Mr. Mackonochie and about 
roo Others in Times . 2 J . . 4 Feb. 

Chureh of England Working Men’s Society estab- 
lished at St. Alban’s, Holborn . 5 Aug. 

Church Congress at Plymouth . A . 3-9 Oct. 

‘“English Church Union” deny the authority of any 
secular court in matters spiritual, at a meeting, 

16 Jan. 

Address to the archbishops and bishops (signed by 
Dr. Church, dean of St. Paul’s, and other deans 
and canons) against the Public Worship Regula- 
tion act, &c., requiring legislation respecting 
ecclesiastical affairs to be made by church synods 
and adopted by parliament . : 3 April, 

Both archbishops vote for permitting dissenters’ 
funeral service in churchyards. 17 May, 

Bishop of London's Fund received 571,5971. . June, 

Declaration of above 41,000 (clergy and laity) and 
proposed petition to the queen against judgment 
in the Ridsdale case : ‘ 5 July, 

96 peers (Duke of Westminster and others) address 
the archbishop of Canterbury against auricular 
confession, ‘‘ Priest in Absolution,” &c., about 


Aug. 

17th Church Congress at Croydon, the aro bianed of 
Canterbury president ; very successful, 9-12 Oct. 
Pan-Anglican Congress (which see) meet at Lam- 
beth, &c., é ; ; : - 2-27 July, 
Bishoprics Act authorising establishment of four 
new sees, passed ‘ 16 Aug. 


1872 


1873 


”? 
>? 


1878 


3? 


ad 


CHURCH OF FRANCE. 


186 


CHURCH LEAGUE. 


18th Church Congress, at Sheffield, archbishop of 
York president. F 1-4 Oct. 1878 
New rubrics in Prayer-book agreed to by the con- 
vocation, 4 July ; act for them passed by convo- 
cation 5 : Aug. 1879 
roth Church Congress at Swansea 7 Oct. »” 
Dr. Julius y. the bishop of Oxford (for not rome: 
cuting rev. Mr. Carter, of Clewer), queen’s bench ; 
verdict against the bishop in 1879; reversed on 
appeal by house of lords ; (the bishop may but 
is not compelled to prosecute) 22 March, 
2zoth Church Congress, at Leicester ; friendly ad- 
dress from nonconformists 28 ’Sept. —1 Oct. ,, 
Rev. John Baghot dela Bere, jun., vicar of Prest- 
bury, Gloucestershire, deprived for disobedience 
respecting ritualism, &e. , by court of arches 
ax Dec. 1880, and 8 Jan. 
Memorial to the archbishop of Canterbury, from 
five deans (Dr. Church, dean of St. Paul’s, and 
other clergymen) in favour of toleration of diver- 
gence in ritualistic practice to Jan. ,, 
Counter memorial from bishops Parry and Ryan, 
dean Close, and other deans and clergymen, 
opposing toleration of unscriptural cae 
Cuber 
Mr. Mackonochie’s appeal to the house of lords 


dismissed ; sentence of 3 years’ suspension 

affirmed 4 7 April, ,, 
21st Church Congr ess at Newcastle- on-Tyne 4-10 Oct. ,, 
Catholic league formed : : June, 1882 
Death of Dr. E. B. Pusey 16 Sept. an 


2end Church Congress at Derby . 3-6 Oct. ,, 
Rey. A. Mackonochie resigns ‘living of ‘St. cine 8; 
Holborn, at the request of the ar chbishop of Can- 
terbury . . 1 Dec. 
23rd Church Congress at Reading : . 2 Oct. 
ae Official Year-book of the Church of England” 
first published . : ” 
Church School Company formed 118835 elit st annual 
meeting . . 21 Feb. 
24th Church Congr ess at Carlisle «  3OMEDEN 5s 
Church ef England Purity Society, see White Cross 
Army 3 i . <b 35 
See Public Worshi Dp Regulation Act; Trials. 


CHURCH oF FRANCE. St. Pothinus preached 
Christianity to the Gauls about 160; became bishop 
of Lyons, and suffered martyrdom with others, 177 ; 
For the reformed church see Huguenots and Pro- 
testants. 


A mission of seven bishops arrived in 245 ; followed 
by severe persecution 286-288 
Christianity tolerated by Constantius Chlorus 292 
Council of Arles convoked by Constantine, about 
600 bishops present; the Donatists condemned . 

Christianity established by Clovis 

Pragmatic sanction of St. Louis restraining the im- 
positions of the pope; and restoring the right of 
electing bishops, &c. 

Pr agmatic sanction of Bourges, , declaring .a general 
council superior to the pope, and pr ohibiting 
appeals to him . 

Concordat of Leo X. and Francis I. annulling the 
pragmatic sanction EG “Aug. 

Disputes between the Jesuits and Jansenists 

Declaration of the clergy (drawn up by Bossuet) i in 
accordance with the pragmatic sanctions, con- 
firmed by the king re ea Mar ch, 

The Jansenists excommunicated by the Bull Uni- 
genitus . 

Concordat with Pius VII. and Napoleon 180r and 

The principles of the concordat of Leo X. restored 
by Pius VII. and Louis XVIII . 

The archbishop of Paris and other pr elates resist 
dogma of papal infallibility at the council at Rome 

The clergy at first supported Napoleon III.; but op- 
posed his Italian policy, 1852-70; energetically 
support MacMahon’s ministry, in elections, Sept., 

Oct. 


314 
496 


1269 


1438 


1516 
- 1640 


1682 


1713 
1813 


1817 


1870 


1877 


2? 


18 archbishops, 77 bishops . 

The abbé Bougaud asserts that there are 2658 
parishes without priests, and et parishes 
without churches . A : . 1878 


CHURCH oF IRELAND, founded by St. 
Patrick in the 5th century; accepted the Reforma- 
about 1550; united with that of England as 


the United Church of England and Ireland in 180 
see Bishops and Ireland, 1868. 


“An act to put an end to the establishment of the 
church of Ireland,” introduced into the house of 
commons by Mr. Gladstone, x Mar. ; vote for 
second reading, 368; against, 250; 2 A.M., 24 
March; for third reading, 361; against, 247, 

t May, 18 

Introduced into the house of lords by earl Gran- 
ville, x June; read third time, 12 July; some 
amendments by the lords accepted, others re- 
jected ; received royal assent [to come into effect, 

z Jan. 1871] 26 July, , 

Address of “Wsnnie to the clergy and ey: dated, 


8 Aug 
Meeting of the general synod of the Irish oc ch in 
St. Patrick’s cathedral, Dublin, for Leen 
tion of the general council . SE LAUSeDL. >) 
Conference of the laity; duke of Rhein | chair- 
man . z3 Oct. | 
Church of Ireland disestablished. : 1 Jan. 18 
A sustentation fund established (well supported) ,, 
First elected bishop (Dr. Maurice Day, bishop of: 
Cashel) consecrated at St. Patrick’s, Dublin, 
I4 April, bs 
The new ecclesiastical court meets: tries a ince of 
ritual practices . 
The Irish Church Act amended 2 
Received for the sustentation fund, 33,573I. up to 


31 Dee. 

The first bishop elected by clergy and laity of Kil- 

more, &c., archdeacon Darley (12 candidates), 

23 Sept. 18 

Alleged migration of clergy to England . autumn, , 
Warm discussion upon the revision of the liturgy, 

May, 18 


CHURCH or NorTH AMERICA, was esta 
lished in' Nov. 1784, when bishop Seabury, chos 
by the churches in Connecticut, was consecrated 
Scotland. The first convention was held at Phil 
delphiain 1785. On 4 Feb. 1787, two more Americ: 
bishops were consecrated at Lambeth. In 18 
there were 37 bishops; see Pan-Anglican Synod. 

After much discussion, for several years, the chur 
convention passed a stringent canon against sa | 
27 Oct. 1847. 


CHURCH oF ScoOTLAND, see Bishops 
Scotland. On the abolition of Episcopacy, i in 162 
Presbyterianism became the established religic 
Its formulary of faith, said to have been compil 
by John Knox, in I 560, was approved by the pe 
liament and ratified in 1567, finally settled b 
act of the Scottish senate in 1696, and secure : 
the treaty of union with England in 1707; 5 
Discipline, Patronage, and Bishops. The chur 
is regulated by four courts—the general asse1 
bly, the synod, the presbytery, and kirk se 
sions; see Presbyterians. For important secessior 
see Burghers (1732), and Free Church (1843). 

The first general assembly of the church was he 
20 Dec. 1560. 

The general assembly constitutes the highest eccle 
astical court in the kingdom ; it meets annually in Ed: 
burgh in May, and sits about ten days. It consists 0! 
grand commissioner, appointed by the sovereign, @ 
delegates from pr esbyteries, royal boroughs, and uniy: 
sities, some being laymen. To this court all appe: 
from the inferior eccles "eae? courts lie, and its decisi 
is final. 

Patronage was abolished after 1 Jan. 
passed 7 Aug. 1874. 

In 1873, 1250 churches. 

Prosecution of Rev. Wm. L. M‘Farlan of Lenzie f 
heresy in ‘‘Scotch Sermons” (published 1880) by t 
Presbytery of Glasgow, Oct. 1880. Mr. Hastie, princi 
of the Church (Calcutta) Institution, 1878 ; dismissed 
bad temper, &c., Nov. 1883; his appeal to the Genet 
Assembly, dismissed (193—90), 29 May, 1884. 


CHURCH LEAGUE, for separation 
Church and State, began at St. Alban’s schoo: 
Holborn, London, Rey. A. H. Mackonochie, pre: 
dent; 1876-7. 


1875, by 2 


. 


CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY. 


CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY, 
founded 1799. Income, 1876, 195,116/.; 1879, 
207,053/. ; 1884, 232,448/, 

CHURCH PASTORAL AID SOCIETY 
(Evangelical), instituted in 1836 to maintain curates 
and lay-agents in densely populated districts. 


CHURCH-RATES. The maintaining the 
church in repair belongs to the parishioners, who 
have the sole power of taxing themselves for the 
expense when assembled in vestry. The enforce- 
ment of payment, which is continually disputed by 
dissenters and others, belonged to the ecclesiastical 
courts. Many attempts were made to abolish 
church-rates before Mr. Gladstone’s ‘‘ Compulsory 
Church-rate Abolition’ Bill, passed 31 July, 1868. 
Church Rate Abolition for Scotland repealed in the 

Commons (204-143) p ‘ x 11 July, 1877 


CHURCH SERVICEN were ordered by pope 
Vitelianus to be read in Latin, 663; by queen 
Elizabeth in 1558 to be read in English. 


CHURCH-WARDENS, officers of the 
ehurch, appointed by the first canon of the synod of 
London in 1127. Overseers in every parish were 
also appointed by the same body, and they continue 
now nearly as then constituted. Johnson’s Canons. 
Chureh-wardens, by the canons of 1603, are to be 
chosen annually. 


CHURCHING or Women is the act of 
returning thanks in the church by women after 
ehild-birth. It began about 214. Wheatley; sce 
Purification. 

CHURCHYARDS, said to belong to the 
parson, who has power to prohibit the erection of 
monuments, &c. See Consecration and Burials. 


CHUSAN, a Chinese isle; see China, 1840, 
1841, 1860. 

CIBORIUM, in early Christian times, was a 
protection to the altar-table, first a tabernacle, and 
afterwards a baldachin over the altar, and also a 
canopy used at solemn processions. Ciborium also 
means the vessel in which the eucharist is reserved. 


CIDER (Zider, German), when first made in 
England, was called wine, about 1284. The earl 
of Manchester, when ambassador in France, is said 
to have passed off cider for wine. It was subjected 
to the excise in 1763 et seg. The duty was taken 
off in 1830. Many orchards were planted in Here- 
fordshire by lord Scudamore, ambassador from 
Charles I. to France. 
poem *‘ Cider’’ in 1706. 
CIGAR SHIP, see under Steam, 1866. 

CIGARS, see Zobacco. 


CILICIA, in Asia Minor, partook of the for- 
tunes of that country. It became a Roman province 
about 64 B.c., and was conquered by the Turks, 
A.D. 1387. 

CIMBRI, a Teutonic race from Jutland, in- 
vaded the Roman empire about 120 3.c. They 
defeated the Romans, under Cneius Papirius Carbo, 
113 B.c.; under the consul, Marcus Silanus, 109 
B.¢., and under Ceepio Manlius, at Arausio, on the 
banks of the Rhine, where 80,000 Romans were 
slain, 105 B.c. Their allies, the Teutones, were 
defeated by Marius in two battles at Aque Sextin 
(Aix) in Gaul; 200,000 were killed, and 70,000 
made prisoners, 102 B.c. The Cimbri were defeated 
by Marius and Catulus, at Campus Raudius, when 
about to enter Italy; 120,000 were killed, and 
60,000 taken prisoners, 101 B.c. They were after- 
wards absorbed into the Teutones or Saxons. 


CIMENTO (Italian, experiment). The ‘“Acca- 


187 


John Philips published his. 


CIRCASSIA. 


demia del Cimento,’ at Florence, held its first 
meeting for making scientific experiments, 18 June, 
1657. It was patronised by Ferdinand, grand duke 
of Tuscany. The Royal Society of London was 
founded in 1660, and the Academy of Sciences at 
Paris in 1666. The Nuovo Cimento, a scientific 
periodical, published at Pisa, began in 1855. 


CINCHONA, or CHINCHONA, see Jesuits’ 


ark. 


CINCINNATI. A society established by 
officers of the American army soon after the peace 
of 1783, ‘‘ to perpetuate friendship, and to raise a 
fund for relieving the widows and orphans of those 
who had fallen during the war.’”’ On the badge 
was a figure of Cincinnatus. The people dreaded 
military influence, and the society dissolved itself. 


CINCINNATI, capital of the state of Ohio, 
North America, founded 1789. This flourishing city 
desolated by an inundation caused by the rising of 
the river Ohio, 13 Feb. 1883. Several lives were lost, 
and about 50,000 rendered homeless, Ample relief 
afforded. About 50 persons killed and 150 wounded 
in an attack on the gaol to execute murderers 
(especially Wm. Berner) ; new court-house burnt, 
28-30 March, 1884; one regiment refused to march. 


CINNAMON, 2 species of laurel, is mentioned 
among the perfumes of the sanctuary (Hxodus xxx. 
23) 1491 B.c. It was found in the American forests 
by don Ulloa, 1736, was cultivated in Jamaica and 
Dominica 1788, and is now grown in Ceylon. 


CINQUE-CENTO (five hundred) ; ter cento, 


&e.; see note to article Italy. 


CINQUE PORTS, on the south coast of 
England, were originally five (hence the name)— 
Dover, Hastings, Hythe, Romney, and Sandwich ; 
Winchelsea and Rye were afterwards added. Jeake. 
Their jurisdiction was vested in barons, called war - 
dens, for the better security of the coast, these ports 
being nearest to France, and considered the keys 
of the kingdom; said to have been instituted by 
William I. in 1078. Rapin. The latest lord- 
wardens: the duke of Wellington, 1828-52; the 
marquis of Dalhousie, 1852-60; lord Palmerston, 
1861-65; earl Granville, appointed Dec. 1865. Their 
peculiar jurisdiction was abolished in 1855. 


CINTRA (Portugal). Here was signed an 
agreement on 22 Aug. 1808, between the French 
and English the day after the battle of Vimeira. 
As it contained the bases of the convention signed 
on 30 Aug. following, it has been termed the con- 
vention of Cintra. By it Junot and his army were 
permitted to evacuate Portugal free, in British 
ships. The convention was publicly condemned, 
and a court ef inquiry was held at Chelsea, which 
exonerated the British commanders. Both Wel- 
lington and Napoleon justified sir Hew Dalrymple. 


CIPHER, a secret manner of writing. Julius 
Cesar and Augustus when writing secret despatches 
are said to have employed the second or third letter 
instead of the first, and the same sequence with 
regard to the others. This cipher was in use till 
the reign of Sixtus IV. (1471-84), when the secret 
was divulged by Leon Battista Alberti, and a new 
sort of cipher sprang up. The father of Venetian 
cipher was Zuan Soro, who flourished about 1516. 
Rawdon Brown.—See Cryptograph. 

CIRCASSIA (Asia, on N. side of the Caucasus). 
The Circassians, said to be descended from the Al- 
banians, were unsubdued, even by Timour. In the 
16th century they acknowledged the authority of 
the czar Ivan II. of Russia, and about 1745, the 


CIRCENSIAN GAMES. 


princes of Kabarda took oaths of fealty. Many 
Circassians became Mahometans in the 18th century. 
Circassia surrendered to Russia by Turkey by the 
treaty of Adrianople (but the Circassians, under 
Schamyl, long resist) ‘ A 14 Sept. 
Victories of Orbelliani over them, June, Nov., Dec. 
He subdues much country, and expels the inhabi- 
tants. . . : 5 5 ; EEE ADIL, 
Schamyl, the great Circassian leader, captured, and 
treated with much respect : . 7 Sept. 
About 20,000 Circassians emigrate to Constanti- 
nople, suffer much distress, and are relieved. 
28 April, 

Vaidar, the last of the Circassian strongholds, 
captured, and the grand duke Michael declares 
the war at an end ‘ : : 8 June, 
Many thousand Circassians emigrate into Turkey ; 
partially relieved by the sultan’s government, 
June, et seg. ;, 

Schamyl and his son at the marriage of the czaro- 
witch, 9 Nov. 1866; he dies , March, 
Revolt against Russia ; suppressed. Many Circas- 
sians flee to Turkey and join the army, July, Aug. 1877 


CIRCENSIAN GAMES were combats in 
the Roman circus (at first in honour of Consus, the 
god of councils, but afterwards of Jupiter, Neptune, 
Juno, and Minerva), said to have been instituted by 
ivander, and established at Rome, 732 B.c. by 
Romulus. Tarquin named them Circensian; their 
celebration continued from 4 to 12 Sept. 


CIRCLE. The quadrature, or ratio of the 
diameter of the circle to its circumference, has 
exercised the ingenuity of mathematicians of all 
ages. Archimedes, about 221 B.c., gave it as 7 to 
22; Abraham Sharp (1717) as 1 to 3 and 72 deci- 
mals; and Lagny (1719) as I to 3 and 122 decimals. 


CIRCLES oF GERMANY (formed by Maxi- 
milian I. about 1500, to distinguish the members of 
the diet of the empire) were, in 1512, Franconia, 
Bavaria, Upper Rhine, Suabia, Westphalia, and 
Lower Saxony; in 1512, Austria, Burgundy, Lower 
Rhine, the Palatinate, Upper Saxony and Bran- 
denburg were added. In oh these divisions were 
annulled by the establishment of the Confedera- 
tion of the Rhine, in 1806 (which see). 


CIRCUITS in ENGLAND were divided into 
three, and three justices were appointed to each, 
1176. They were afterwards divided into four, 
with five justices to each division, 1180. Rapin. 
They have been frequently altered. England and 
Wales were formerly divided into eight—each 
travelled in spring and summer for the trial of civil 
and criminal cases, the larger towns are visited in 
winter for trials of criminals only; this is called 
‘going the circuit.’’ The circuits were settled by 
order in council, 5 Feb. 1876. There are monthly 
sessions for the city of London and county of Mid- 
dlesex. 

The circuit system was much modified by the council 
of judges, with the object of retaining more judges in 
London, and economising their labour, ro June, 1884. 


CIRCULAR IRONCLADS._ The design is 
attributed to the Russian admiral Popoff; one of 
these, named after himself, was launched at the 
port of Nicolaieff, 7 Oct. 1875. The admiral stated 
that he derived the idea from the works and views 
of Mr. E, J. Reed, late constructor of the British 
navy, who has expressed his approbation of the 
admiral’s works. 

CIRCULATING LIBRARY. Stationers 
lent books on hire in the middle ages. The public 
circulating library in England, opened by Samuel 
Fancourt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about 
1740, failed; but similar institutions at Bath and 
in London succeeded, and others were established 
throughout the kingdom. ‘There was a circulating 


1829 
1857 


1858 


1859 
1860 


1864 


1871 


188 


CIRCUS. 


library at Crane-court, London, in 1748, of which 
a catalogue in two vols. was published.—No books 
can be taken from the British Museum except for 
judicial purposes, but the libraries of the Royal 
Society and the principal scientific societies, except 
that of the naval Institution, London, are circulat- 
ing.—The London Library (circulating) which wa: 
founded 24 June, 1840, is of great value to literary 
men.—Of the subscription libraries belonging t 
individuals, that founded by Mr. C. E. Mudie, ir 
New Oxford-street, is the most remarkable for the 
large quantity and good quality of the books 
several hundreds, sometimes thousands, of copie: 
of a new work being in circulation. It began 
1842, and grew into celebrity in Dec. 1848, wher 
the first two volumes of Macaulay’s History of Eng. 
land were published, for which there was an un 

recedented demand, supplied by this library. Th 

all, having the walls covered with shelves fillec 
with new books, was opened in Dec. 1860. Thi 
“Circulating Library Company”? was founded iz 
Jan. 1862, and other companies since. The Liver. 
pool library was established in 1757. 


CIRCULATION oF THE BLOooD, see Blood 


CIRCUMCISION (instituted 1897 B.c.) wa 
the seal of the covenant made by God with Abra 
ham. It was practised by the ancient Egyptians 
and is still by the Copts and some oriental nations 
The Festival of the Circumcision (of Christ), origi 
nally the octave of Christmas, is mentioned abou 

87. It was introduced from the Roman missa 
into the first English prayer book in 1549. 


CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the mos 
daring human enterprises at the period when it wa 
first attempted, was the circumnavigation of th 
earth in 1519-22. 

Magellan or Magalhaens, a native of Portugal, in the 
service of Spain, sailed from San Lucar, 20 Sept. 
1519; With three ships passed the Straits named 
after him, 28 Nov. 1520; he was killed in a’ con- 
flict on the Philippine Isles, 17 April, 1521 ; Juan 
Sebastian del Cano in the Vittoria, the only re- 
maining ship of five, reached San Lucar 6 Sept. 152 


Grijalva, Spaniard is : : > is 
Alvaradi, Spaniard 4 ; . 5 : . 
Mendana, Spaniard . A : : : - 156 
Sir Francis Drake, first English . . 3 + 1577-8 
Cavendish, first voyage 4 ; - . 1586-8 
Le Maire, Dutch . : 5 - 1615-1 
Cuiros, Spaniard : A ‘ 5 » 12 
Tasman, Dutch ‘< . s : Peery: 
Cowley, British . 3 ‘ Q : i : . 168 
Dampier, English . ; A E | SS 
Cooke, English . - LO 
Clipperton, British Ps 
Roggewein, Dutch . - . 172% 
Anson (afterwards lord) 1740-4 
Byron, English. : 1764-6 
Wallis, British 1766-6 
Carteret, English 1766-6 
Bougainville, French 1766- 
James Cook . : - : s 3 - © 576827 
On his death the voyage was continued by King 177 
Portlocke, British 5 3 : o> nag 9 
King and Fitzroy, British 1826-3 
Belcher, British rs 1836-4 
Wilkes, American : ‘ 3 4 . . 1838-4 
The steamer Tonic sailed from New Zealand to 
Plymouth in 86 days . ‘ 24 Aug. 188 


See North East and West Passage and Deep Sea Sounding: 


CIRCUS (Greek, Hippodrome.) There wer 
eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind a 
Rome; the largest the Circus Maximus, was buil 
by the elder Tarquin, 605 B.c. It was an ova 
figure: length three stadia and a half, or more tha: 
three English furlongs; breadth 960 Roman feet 
It was enlarged by Julius Cesar so as to seat I 30100 
persons, and was rebuilt by Augustus. Juliu 


CIRRHA. 


189 


CIVIL SERVICE. 


Jesar introduced into it large canals of water, 
which could be quickly covered with vessels, and 
epresent asea fight. Pliny; see Amphitheatres, 
und Factions. 


CIRRHA, a town of Phocis (N. Greece), for 
sacrilege, razed to the ground in the Sacred War, 


586 B.C. 


CISALPINE REPUBLIC, including the 
territories of Milan, Mantua, Modena, Bergamo, 
Ferrara, Bologna, Ravenna, &c, (N. Italy), 
formed by the French in May, 1797, from the 
Cispadane and Transpadane republics, acknow- 
ledged by the emperor of Germany by the treaty 
of Campo Formio (which see), 17 Oct. following. 
[t received a new constitution in Sept. 1798; was 
remodelled, and named the Italian republic, with 
Napoleon Bonaparte president, 1802; and merged 
into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805; see 
Ttaly. 


CISPADANE REPUBLIC, with _ the 
Transpadane republic, merged into the Cisal- 
pine republic, Oct. 1797. 

CISTERCIANS (the order of Citeaux), a 

owerful order of monks founded about 1098 by 

bert, a Benedictine, abbot of Molesme, named 
from Citeaux, in France, the site of the first convent, 
near the end of the 11th century. The monks 
observed silence, abstained from flesh, lay on straw, 
and wore neither shoes nor shirts. ‘They were re- 
formed by St. Bernard; see Bernardines. 


CITATE. The Russian general Gortschakoff, 
intending to storm Kalafat, threw up redoubts at 
Citate, close to the Danube, which were stormed by 
the Turks under Omer Pacha, 6 Jan. 1854. The 
fighting continued on the 7th, 8th and 9th, when 
the Russians were compelled to retire to their 
former position at Krajowa, having lost 1500 
killed and 2000 wounded. The loss of the Turks 
was estimated at 338 killed and 700 wounded. 


CITIZEN. It was not lawful to scourge a 
citizen of Kome. Livy. In England a citizen isa 
person who is free of a city, or who doth carry on 
atradetherein. Camden. Various privileges have 
been conferred on citizens as freemen in several 
reigns.—The wives of citizens of London (not being 
aldermen’s wives, nor gentlewomen by descent) 
were obliged to wear minever caps, being white 
woollen knit three-cornered, with the peaks pro- 
jecting three or four inches beyond their foreheads; 
aldermen’s wives made them of velvet, 1 Eliz. 1558. 
Stow.—On 10 Oct. 1792, the convention decreed 
that ‘‘citoyen”’ and ‘‘citoyenne” should be the 
only titles in France. 


CITY. (Latin civitas, French cité, Italian 
cittd.) ‘The word has been used in England only 
since the conquest, when London was called Lon- 
donburgh. Cities were first incorporated 1079. A 
town corporate is generally called a city when 
made the seat of a bishop, but is really made by 
tharter. Truro and St. Albans were made cities in 
(877, and Liverpool in 1883, having become 
dishoprics. 

f CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON IN- 
STITUTE (see Education, 1878-81). Foundation 
itone of Central Institution, South Kensington, laid 
vy the prince of Wales, the president, 18 July, 1881. 


_CITY CHURCH PROTECTION SO- 


a 


JIETY, founded to preserve old churches, 1879. 
CITY GUILDS REFORM ASSOCIA- 
TION held fifth annual meeting, 2 Sept. 1880. It 
jad recommended the appointment of the royal 
‘ommission of inquiry of 1880, 


CITY LIBRARY anp MUSEUM, see 
Guildhall, 


CITY OF GLASGOW BANK, see under 


Banks. 


CITY OF LONDON COLLEGE (for young 
men) established 1861; began in 1848 as Metro- 
politan Evening Classes. 


CITY OF LONDON COURT, the name 
given to the Sheriffs’ Court (established 1517) by 
the County Courts act of Aug. 1867. 


CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL, established 
by parliament in 1834, (based on an endowment by 
John Carpenter in 1442) was opened first in Honey- 
lane. The foundation of the new buildings on the 
sar Embankment was laid 14 Oct.1880; opened, 
1883. 

CITY ROAD, from London to Islington, was 
projected by Mr. Dingler, and cut out about 1760. 


CIUDAD RODRIGO, a strong fortified town 
in Spain invested by the French, 11 June, 1810, 
and surrendered to them 10 July. It remained in 
their possession until it was stormed by the British, 
under Wellington, I9 Jan. 1812. 


CIVIL CLUB (at the New Corn Exchange 
Tavern, Mark-lane), was established 19 Noy. 
1669, for the purpose of promoting fellowship, 
mutual assistance, and the revival of trade after 
the interruption to business in consequence of the 
fire, Sept. 1666. 

Only one person of the same trade or profession can be 
a member of this club, and the members pledge them- 
selves to give ‘preference to each other in their re- 
spective callings.” The club meets monthly, and the 
members dine together four times a year. Its officials 
are a treasurer, stewards, auditors, a secretary (all 
merchants of London), and a chaplain. 


CIVIL ENGINEERS, see Engineers. 


CIVIL LAW. See Codes. Civil law was 
restored in Italy, Germany, &c., 1127. Blair. It 
was introduced into England by Theobald, a Nor- 
man abbot, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, in 
1138. It is now used in the spiritual courts only, 
and in maritime affairs ; see Doctors’ Commons, and 
Laws. 

CIVIL LIST. This now comprehends the 
revenue awarded to the kings of England in lieu of 
their ancient hereditary income. The entire revenue 
of Elizabeth was not more than 600,000/., and that 
of Charles I. was about 800,000/7. After the revolu- 
tion a civil list revenue was settled on the new king 
and queen of 700,000/. (in 1660), the parliament 
taking into its own hands the support of the forces 
both maritime and military. The civil list of 
George II. was increased to 800,000/. ; and that of 
George III., in the 55th year of his reign, was 
I,630,0002. 

In 1831, the civil list of the sovereign was fixed at 

510,000l., and in December, 1837, the civil list of 

the queen was fixed at 385,o00l. 

Prince Albert obtained an exclusive sum from par- 

liament of 30,o00l peran. . 5 : 7-Feb. 1840 
Sir H. Parnell’s motion for inquiry into the civil list 

led to the resignation of the Wellington adminis- 

tration : é / F 3 R 15 Noy. 1830 
A select committee was appointed by the house of 

commons for the purpose . ‘ 2 Feb. 1860 

CIVIL PROCEDURE ACTS, 42 & 43 Vict. 
e. 59, passed 15 Aug. 2879 (it abolishes outlawry 
in civil proceedings); and 44 & 45 Vict.c.59, passed 
27 Aug. 1881. 

CIVIL SERVICE. Nearly 17,000 persons 
were employed in this service under the direction of 
the treasury, and the home, foreign, colonial, post, 
and revenue offices, &c. In 1855, a commission re- 


CIVIL WARS. 


ported most unfavourably on the existing system 
of appointments, and on 21 ue commissioners 
were appointed to examine into the qualifications 
of the candidates, who report annually. By an 
order of council, 4 June, 1870, the system of compe- 
titive examination was made general after I Oct. 
1870. The civil service superannuation act passed 
in April, 1859. Civil service for the year (ending 
31 March) 1855, cost 7,735,5150.; 1865, 10,205,434. ; 
1867, 10,523,019/.; 1871, 13,176,659/.; 1877 (esti- 
mate) 15,779,7790. ; 1880, 15,155,522/.; 1881, 
15,432,442. ; 1883-4, _17,253,004/.; 1884-5, 
17,243,2540. ; 1885-0, 17,678,149. A select com- 
mittee to inquire into this expenditure, voted 18 
Feb. 1873; issued its report, June, 1874. Important 
changes made, by order in council, 12 Feb. 1875. 


CIVIL WARS, see England, France, &e. 
CIVILISATION. The opinion thatthecivili- 


sation of mankind was gradually developed from a 
low savage state is advocated by sir John Lubbock 
in his ‘Origin of Civilisation,’’ 1870, and by Mr. 
Edward B. Tylor in his ‘‘ Primitive Culture, 1871. 


CLAIM OF RIGHT. A document agreed 
to by the Scottish Convention parliament at Edin- 
burgh asserting the constitutional liberties of the 
kingdom, accepted by King William III. and Queen 
Mary II. at Whitehall, 11 May, 1689. 


CLAIMANT, The. See Trials, 1871-4; see 
France, 1874. 


CLAMEURS, see Haro. 


CLANS are said to have arisen in Scotland, in 
the reign of king Malcolm II., about 1008. The 
legal power of the chiefs and other remains of 
heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scotland, 
and liberty was granted to clansmen _in 1747, in 
consequence of the rebellion of 1745. The following 
is a list of all the known clans of Scotland, with 
the badge of distinction anciently worn by each. 
The chief of each clan wears two eagle’s feathers 
in his bonnet, in addition to the badge. Chambers. 
A history of the clans by Wm. Buchanan was pub- 
lished in 1775. 


Name. Badge Name. Badge. 
Buchanan . Birch. M ‘Kenzie Deer-grass. 
Cameron Oak. M‘Kinnon . St. John’s 
Campbell Myrtle. wort. 
Chisholm Alder. M‘Lachlan . Mountain- 
Colquhoun . Hazel. ash. 
Cumming Common M‘Lean . Blackberry 

sallow. heath. 
Drummond. Holly. M‘Leod . Red whortle- 
Farquharson Purple fox- berries. 
glove. M‘Nab . . Rose black- 
Ferguson Poplar. berries. 
Forbes Broom. M‘Neil Sea-ware. 
Frazer Yew. M‘Pherson . Variegated 
Gordon . Ivy. box-wood. 
Graham . Laurel. M‘Quarrie . Blackthorn. 
Grant Cranberry M‘Rae Fir-club 
heath. moss 
Gun Rosewort. Menzies . Ash. 
Lamont Crab-apple | Munro Eagle’s 
tree. . feathers. 
M‘Alister Five-leaved | Murray . Juniper. 
heath. Ogilvie. Hawthorn. 
M‘Donald . Bell-heath, | Oliphant Great naple. 
M‘Donnell . Mountain- Robertson . Fern, or bre- 
heath. chans. 
M‘Dougall . Cypress. Rose Briar-rose. 
M‘Farlane . Cloud-berry | Ross Bear-berries. 
bush. Sinclair . Clover. 
M‘Gregor Pine. Stewart . Thistle. 
M‘Intosh Box-wood. Sutherland. Cat’s-tail 
M‘Kay ‘Bull-rush. grass. 


CLAN NAGAEL (brotherhood of Gaels), an 
Trish secret society to replace the Fenians, said to 
have been formed in 1881. 


190 


CLARENDON. 


CLAPHAM SECT, a name given to th 
evangelical ee in the Church of England, fir 
Ay the rev. Sydney Smith, ,in the latter part of th 
18th century. The rev. Henry Venn was vicar ¢ 
Clapham, and several of its eminent members live 
there. The sect included Wm. Wilberforec 
Zachary Macaulay (father of the historian), an 
the Rev. W. Romaine. 

Memoirs of some appear in sir James Stephen’s ‘* Ex 
clesiastical Biography,” 1849. 


CLARE AND CLARENCE (Suffolk). Richar 
de Clare, earl of Gloucester, is said to have seate 
here a monastery of the order of Friars Eremite 
the first of this kind of mendicants who came t 
England, 1248. Zanner. Lionel, third son of Ed 
ward III., becoming possessed of the honour « 
Clare, by marriage, was created duke of Clarence: 
The title has ever since belonged to a branch of th 
royal family. 


DUKES OF CLARENCE. 

1362. Lionel. born 1338, died, 1369 ; see York. 

141zr. Thomas (second son of Henry IY.), born 138¢ 
killed at Baugé, 1421. 

1461. George (brother of Edward IV.), murdered, 1478. 

1789. William (third son of George III.), afterwards kit 
William IV. 

CLARE was the first place in Ireland sin« 
1689 that elected a Roman Catholic M.P.; see Roma 
Catholics. At the election, held at Ennis, tl 
county town, Mr. Daniel O’Connell was returne: 
5 July, 1828. He did not sit till after the passin 
of the Catholic Emancipation Act, in 1829, bein 
re-elected 30 July, 1829. 


CLARE, Nouns oF Sr., a sisterhood, calle 
Minoresses, founded in Italy by St. Clare and 8 
Francis d’ Assisi, about 1212. They were also calle 
Urbanists; their rule having been modified by poy 
Urban IV., who died 1264. This order settled i 
France about 1260, and in England, in the Minoric 
without Aldgate, London, about 1293, by Blanch 
queen of Navarre, wife of Edmund, earl of Lar 
caster, brother of Edward I. At the suppressior 
the site was granted to the bishopric of Bath an 
Wells, 1539. Tanner. 


CLAREMONT (Surrey), the residence of tl 
princess Charlotte (daughter of the prince-regen 
afterwards George 1V., married to prince Leopol 
of Saxe-Coburg, 2 May, 1816): here she died i 
childbirth, 6 Nov. 1817. The house was built t 
sir John Vanbrugh, and was the seat successive] 
of the earl of Clare, of lord Clive, lord Gallowa; 
and the earl of Tyrconnel. It was purchased : 
Mr. Ellis by government for 65,000/. for the prin« 
and princess of Saxe-Coburg; and the former, tl 
late king of Belgium, assigned it to prince Albe 
in 1840. The exiled royal family of France too 
up their residence at Claremont, 4 March, 184& 
and the king, Louis Philippe, died there, 29 Au; 
1850. Bought by Queen Victoria March 1882. 


CLARENCIEUX, the second king-at-arm 
said to have been nominated by Thomas, son + 
Henry IV., created duke of Clarence, 1411. HL 
duty was to arrange the funerals of all the lowe 
nobility, as baronets, knights, esquires, and gentle 
men, on the south side of the Trent, from when¢ 
he is also called sur-roy or south-roy. 


CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF, we 
enacted at a council held 25 Jan. 1164, at Clarer 
don, in Wiltshire, to retrench the power of tl 
clergy. They led to Becket’s quarrel with Henry IT 
were annulled by the pope, and abandoned by th 
king, April, 1174. 

I. All suits concerning adyowsons to be determined | 
civil courts. 


CLARENDON PRESS. 


If. The clergy accused of any crime to be tried by civil 
udges. 

J sia No person of any rank whatever to be permitted to 
leave the realm without the royal licence. 

IY. Laics not to be accused in spiritual courts, except 
by legal and reputable promoters and witnesses. 

V. Nochief tenant of the crown to be excommunicated, 
nor his lands put under interdict. 

VI. Revenues of vacant sees to belong to the king. 

VII. Goods forfeited to the crown not to be protected 
in churches. 

VIII. Sons of villeins not to be ordained clerks with- 
out the consent of their lord. 

IX. Bishops to be regarded as barons, and be sub- 
jected to the burthens belonging to that rank. 

X. Churches belonging to the king’s see not to be 
granted in perpetuity against his will. 

XI. Excommunicated persons not to be bound to give 
security for continuing in their abode. 

XH. No inhabitant in demesne to be excommunicated 
for non-appearance in a spiritual court. 

XIII. If any tenant in capite should refuse submission 
to spiritual courts, the case to be referred to the king. 

XIV. The clergy no longer to pretend to the right of 
enforcing debts contracted by oath or promise. 

XY. Causes between laymen and ecclesiastics to be 
determined by a jury. 

XVI. Appeals to be ultimately carried to the king, and 
no further without his consent. 


CLARENDON PRESS, Oxrorp. The 

building was erected by sir John Vanbrugh, in 
I7II-13, the expense being defrayed out of the 
profits of lord Clarendon’s History of the Rebellion, 
the copyright of which was given to the university 
by his son. The original building was converted 
into a museum, lecture-rooms, &c., and a new 
printing-office erected by Blore and Robertson, 
1825-30. 
_ CLARION, said by Spanish writers to have 
deen invented by the Moors in Spain, about 800, 
Was at first a trumpet, serving as a treble to 
wumpets sounding tenor and base. Ashe. 


~CLARIONET, or CLARINET, a wind instru- 
nent of the reed kind, said to have been invented 
vy Johann Christopher Denner, in Nuremberg, 
tbout 1690. 


CLASSIS. The name was first used by Tullius 
Jervius abe sixth king of ancient Rome), in 
faking divisions of the Roman people, 573 B.c. 
Che first of the six classes were called classici, by 
Vay of eminence, and hence authors of the first 
ank (especially Greek and Latin) came to be 
alled classics, 

, CLAVECIN, French for harpsichord. See 
tanoforte. 

j CLAVICHORD, a keyed-stringed musical in- 
‘rument of various forms in use in France, Spain, 
‘od Germany, in the 16th and 17th centuries. See 
‘irginals, Spinet, and Piano. 
CLAVICYTHERIUM, an upright musical 


istrument, probably resembling the harpsichord 
sed in the 16th century. 


CLAVIER, German for pianoforte (which see). 


| CLAY’S ACT, Str Wirr1am, 14 & 15 Vict. 
/ 14 (1851), relates to the compound householders. 


‘CLAYTON -BULWER TREATY, sce 


ulwer. 


, CLEARING-HOUSE. In 1775, a building 
ombard-street was set apart for the use of 
nkers, in which they might exchange drafts, 

8, and securities, and thereby save labour and 
‘rtail the amount of fioating cash requisite to 
et the settlement of the different houses, if 
ected singly. By means of transfer tickets, trans- 
‘ons to the amount of millions daily are settled 


191 


CLERGY. 


without the intervention of a bank note. In 1861 ‘ 
the clearing-house was used by I17 companies, and 
in May, 1864, it was joined by the Bank of England. 
In the year ending 30. April, 1868, 3,257,411,000/, 
passed through the clearing-house ; 30 April, 1873, 
6,003,335,000/, 3 1877-8, 5,066,533,000/. ; 1880-1, 
5,909,959,000/7, Amount in the week ending 27 
Sept., 1875, about 105,867,004. ; 


27 Sept. 1876 
about 73,135,0001. ee ip 


The Railway clearing-house in 
Seymour-street, near Euston-square, established 
in 1842, is regulated by an act passed in 1850. In 
1868, it regulated 13,000 miles of railways. 


CLEMENTINES, apocryphal pieces, attri- 
buted to Clemens Romanus, a contemporary of 
St. Paul, and said to have succeeded St. Peter as 
bishop of Rome. He died 102. Niceron. Also the 
decretals of pope Clement V. who died 1314, pub- 
lished by his successor. Bowyer. Also Augustine 
monks, each of whom having been a superior nine 
years, then merged into a common monk.— 
CLEMENTINEs were the adherents of Robert, son of 
the count of Geneva, who took the title of Cle- 
ment VII. on the death of Gregory XI., 1378, and 
UrRBANIstTs, those of pope Urban VI. Christendom 
was divided by their claims: France, Castile, Scot- 
land, &c., adhering to Clement; Rome, Italy, and 
England, to Urban. The schism ended in 1409, 
when Alexander V. was elected pope, and his rivals 
resigned; see Anti-Popes. 


CLEOPATRA’S NEEDLE, sce Obelisks. 
CLEPSYDRA, a water-clock ; see Clocks. 
CLERGY (from the Greek Xleros, a lot or in- 


heritance) in the first century were termed pres- 
byters, elders, or bishops, and deacons. The bishops 
(episcopot or overseers), elected from the presbyters, 
in the second century assumed higher functions 
(about 330), and, under Constantine, obtained the 
recognition and protection of the secular power. 
Under the Lombard and Norman-French kings in 
the 7th and 8th centuries, the clergy began to pos- 
sess temporal power, as owners of lands; and after 
the establishment of monachism, a distinction was 
made between the regular clergy, who lived apart 
from the world, in accordance with a regula or rule, 
and the secular (worldly) or beneficed clergy. The 
English clergy write clerk after their names in 
legal documents. See Church of England (note) and 
Bishops. 


The clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges 
being chosen after the Norman custom from the sacred 
order, and the officers being clergy: this gave them 
that denomination, which they keep to this day. Black- 
stone. 

As the Druids kept the keys of their religion and of 
letters, so did the priests keep both these to themselves : 
they alone make profession of letters, and a man of 
letters was called a clerk, and hence learning went by 
the name of clerkship. Pasquier. 

BENEFIT OF CLERGY, Privilegiwm Clericale, arose in the 
regard paid by Christian princes to the church, and 
consisted of: 1st, an exemption of places consecrated 
to religious duties from criminal arrests, which was 
the foundation of sanctuaries ; 2nd, exemption of the 
persons of clergymen from criminal process before the 
secular judge, in particular cases, which was the 
original meaning of the privilegiwm clericale. The 
benesit of clergy was afterwards extended to everyone 
who could read ; and it was enacted, that there should 
be a prerogative allowed to the clergy, that if any man 
who could read were to be condemned to death, the 
bishop of the diocese might, if he would, claim him as 
a clerk, and dispose of him in some places of the clergy 
as he might deem meet. The ordinary gave the pri- 
soner at the bar a Latin book, in a black Gothie 
character, from which to read a verse or two ; and if 
the ordinary said, ‘‘ Legit ut Clericus” (‘He reads 


CLERICAL DISABILITIES. 


like a clerk”), the offender was only burnt in the 
hand ; otherwise, he suffered death, 3 Edw. I. (1274). 

The privilege was restricted by Henry VII. in 1489, and 
abolished, with respect to murderers and other great 
criminals, by Henry VIII., 1512. Stow. 

The reading was discontinued by 5 Anne, c. 6 (1706). 

Benefit of Clergy was wholly repealed by 7 & 8 Geo. LV 
¢. 28 (1827). 

CLERGY CHARITIES. 

William Assheton, an eminent theological writer, was the 
first proposer of a plan to provide for the families of 
deceased clergy. He died Sept. 1711. Watts's Life of 
Assheton. 

Festival of the “Sons of the Clergy,” held annaully at St. 
Paul’s cathedral, instituted about 1655 ; from it sprang 
the charity called the ‘‘Sons of the Clergy ” (clergy 
orphan and widow corporation), incorporated x July, 
1678. 

oe Orphan corporation, 1749. 

Friend of the Clergy corporation, 1849. 

St. John’s foundation school for sons of poor clergy, 


1852. ‘ 
Poor Clergy Relief corporation, established 1856; incor- 


porated £867. : : 
There are several other charities for relatives of the 


clergy. See Bromley College. ; 
The clergy prevented from being members of parliament 


by 41 Geo. III. ¢. 63, 1801. ‘ 
A pill to repeal this act was lost in the commons (110 to 


tor), tr May, 1881. 


CLERICAL DISABILITIES, an act passed 
g Aug. 1870, relieves persons who have been ad- 
mitted priests or deacons of certain clerical dis- 
abilities upon their resigning their ecclesiastical 
offices and preferments, and declares them incapable 
of officiating henceforward. Up to 31 Dec, 1873, 50 
had resigned. 

CLERICAL SUBSCRIPTION ACT, 

- 28 & 29 Vict. c. 122, passed 5 July, 1865, simplified 
and modified the oaths to be taken by the clergy 
when ordained. 

CLERK, see Clergy. 

CLERKENWELL, 2 parish, N. E. London, 
so called from a well (fons clericorum) in Ray- 
street, where the parish clerks occasionally acted 
mystery-plays: once before Richard II. in 1390. 
Hunt’s political meetings in 1817 were held in 
Spa-fields in this parish. In St. J ohn’s parish are 
the remains of the priory of the knights of St. 
John of Jerusalem. Clerkenwell prison was built 
in 1616, in lieu of the noted prison called the Cage, 
which was taken down in 1614; the then Bride- 
well having been found insuflicient. The prison 
called the House of Detention, erected in 1775, was 
rebuilt in 1818; again a For the explosion 
here, see Fenians, Dec. 1867. At Clerkenwell- 
close formerly stood the house of Oliver Cromwell, 
where some suppose the death-warrant of Charles I. 
was signed, Jan. 1649. 

CLERMONT (France). Here was held the 
council under pope Urban II. in 1095, in which the 
first crusade against the infidels was determined 
upon, and Godfrey of Bouillon appointed to com- 
mand it. In this council the name of pope is said 
to have been first given to the head of the Roman 
Catholic church, exclusively of the bishops who used 
previously to assume the title. Philip I. of France 
was (a second time) excommunicated by this 
assembly. Henauit. 

CLEVEDON COURT, Somersetshire, the 
medieval seat of sir Arthur Hallam Elton; de- 
stroyed by fire 27 Noy. 1882—damage about 


20,000/, 

CLEVELAND, sce Steel. 

CLEVELAND IRON DISTRICT, see 
Middlesborough. 


192 


expose him to imminent dangers. 


CLOCK. | 
CLEVES (N.E. Germany). Rutger, count 


Cleves, lived at the beginning of the 11th century 
Adolphus, count of Mark, was made duke of Cleve 
by the emperor Sigismund, 1417. John William 
duke of Cleves, Berg, Juliers, &c., died withou 
issue, 25 March, 1609, which led to a war of suc 
cession. Eventually Cleves was assigned to th 
elector of Brandenburg in 1666; seized by th 
French in 1757; restored at the peace in 1763, an 
now forms part of the Prussian dominions. 


CLIFTON SUSPENSION - BRIDGE 


over the Avon, connecting Gloucestershire an 
Somersetshire, constructed of the removed Hunge1 
ford-bridge, was completed in Oct. and opene 
8 Dec. 1864. It is said to have the largest spa 
(702 feet) of any chain bridge in the world. | 


1753 Alderman Vick, of Bristol, bequeathed 1000 


to accumulate for the erection of a bridge over tl 
Avon. In1831 Brunel began one, which was abar 
doned after the expenditure of 45,0001. : 


CLIMACTERIC, the term applied to certa: 


periods of time in a man’s life (multiples of 7 or 9 
in which it is affirmed notable alterations in tl 


health and constitution of a person happen, ar 
Cotgrave say 
‘‘ Kvery 7th or gth or 63rd year of a man’s life, 2 


very dangerous, but the last most.”” The grand ci 


macteric is 63. Hippocrates is said to have referr 


to these periods, 383 B.C. 


CLINICAL SOCIETY oF Lonpovy, f 
the cultivation and promotion of practical med 
cine and surgery, established in Dec. 1867; fit 
president, sir Thomas Watson. See Lectur 
(clinical). 

CLIO. The initials C. L. I. 0., forming t 
name of the muse of history, were rendered famo 
from the most admired papers of Addison, in t 
Spectator, having been marked by one or other 
them, signed consecutively, in 1713. Cibber. 


CLOACA MAXIMA, the chief of the ce. 
brated sewers at Rome, the construction of which 
attributed to king Tarquinius Priscus (588 B.C.) a 
his successors. 


CLOCK. The clepsydra, or water-clock, w 
introduced at Rome about 158 B.c. by Scipio Nasi 
Toothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesibit 
about 140 B.c. Clocks said to have been found 
Cxsar on invading Britain, 55 B.c. The only clc 
supposed to be then in the world was sent by pe 
Paul I. to Pepin king of France a.D. 760. Pacific 
archdeacon of Genoa, invented one in the 9th ce 
tury. Originally the wheels were three feet 
diameter. The earliest complete clock of wh: 
there is any certain record was made by a Sarac 
mechanic in the 13th century. Alfred is said. 
have measured time by wax tapers, and to hé 
ot lanterns to defend them from the wind, alx 

re 
The scapement ascribed to Gerbert . A 7 3 E 
A great clock put up at Canterbury cathedral, cost 


Ol. nes . : ; ‘ é F ‘ oom 
Nth constructed by Richard, abbot of St. 
Alban’s . é 3 ‘ A Fi Z about 1 
John Visconti sets up a clock atGenoa . I 
A striking clock in Westminster . : r 2 
A perfect one made at Paris, by Vick . oe 
The first portable one made. i ‘ 5 Sf 
In England no clock went accurately before that 
set up at Hampton-court (maker's initials N. O.) 1 
++ ++ “Tike a German clock, 
Still a-repairing ; ever out of frame ; 
And never going aright.” 
Shakspeare, ‘ Love’s Labour's Lost,” 
The pendulum is said to have been applied to clocks 
by the younger Galileo, 1639; and by Richard 


eres 


¢ CLOGHER. 


Harris (who erected a clock at St. Paul’s, Covent- 
garden). g : A : ; : oer 
Christian Huyghens said he made his pendulum 
_ clock previously to ; : ‘ A » : 
Fromantil, a Dutchman, improved the pendulum 
about 
Repeating clocks and watches invented by Barlow, 
about 
Spiral pendulum spring invented by Robert Hooke, 
about 1658; cylinder and escapement, by Thos. 
Tompion F 5 : . ; ; : 
The dead beat, and horizontal escapements, by 
Graham, about 1700 ; compensating pendulum 
The spiral balance spring suggested, and the duplex 
scapement, invented by Dr. Hooke ; pivot holes 
jewelled by Facio; the detached-scapement, 
invented by Mudge, and improved by Berthould, 
Arnold, Earnshaw, and others in the 18th century. 
Harrison’s time-piece (which see) constructed <1 745 
Clocks and watches taxed, 1797 ; tax repealed . 1798 
Church clocks illuminated : the first, St.. Bride’s, 


London . 2 ? f : : - 2 Dec. 1826 
The Horological Institute established . : . 1858 
he great Westminster elock set up . - 30 May, 1859 
266,750 clocks and 88,621 watches imported into 

the United Kingdom in 1857 ; 258,628 clocks; 

372,420 watches in 1870; 687,271 clocks in . Se kale dy) 
The duty came off . ; 1861 


Messrs. Barraud and Lund’s electric system of 
synchronising clocles : city of London circuit of 
108 clocks in action - 4 Novy. 

Victor Popp of Vienna applies compressed air as a 
‘motive power to clocks ; announced March, 


See Electric Clock, under Electricity. 


CLOGHER (Ireland). St. Macartin, a disciple 
Mf St. Patrick, fixed a bishopric at Clogher, where 
1e also built an abbey ‘‘in the street before the 
‘oyal seat of the kings of Ergal.’’ He died in 506. 
Jlogher takes its name from a golden stone, from 
Which, in times of paganism, the devil used to 
ronounce juggling answers, like the oracles of 
Apollo Pythius. Sir James Ware. In 1041 the 
athedral was built anew, and dedicated to its 
ounder. Clogher merged, on the death of its last 
relate (Dr. Tottenham), into the archiepiscopal see 
f Armagh, by the act of 1833. 


CLONFERT (Ireland). St. Brendan founded 
im abbey at Clonfert in 558: his life is extant in 
ingling monkish metre in the Cottonian library at 
Westminster. In his time the cathedral, famous 
fn ancient days for its seven altars, was erected ; 
nd Colgan makes St. Brendan its founder and the 
inst bishop; but it is said, in the Ulster Annals, 
mder the year 571, “‘ Mena, bishop of Clonfert- 
irenain, went to rest.’’ Clonfert, in Irish, signifies 

wonderful den or retirement. In 1839 the see 
rerged into that of Killaloe; see Bishops. 


CLONTARF (near Dublin), the site of a battle 
jught on Good Friday, 23 April, 1014, between 
1¢ Irish and Danes, the former headed by Bryan 
oroimhe, monarch of Ireland, who defeated the 
tvaders, after a long and bloody engagement, was 
ounded, and soon afterwards died. His son Mur- 
tard also fell with many of the nobility ; 13,000 
anes are said to have perished in the battle. 


CLOSTERSEVEN (Hanover) ConvENTION 
P, was entered into 8 Sept. 1757, between the 
tke of Cumberland, third son “of George IL., 
idly pressed, and the duke of Richelieu, com- 
ander of the French. By it 38,000 Hanoverians 
d down their arms, and were dispersed. The 
saty was disavowed by the king; the duke re- 


yned all his commands, and the convention was 
on broken, 


CLOTH, see Woollen Cloth and Calico. 


\CLOTURE, the closing of a debate; the power 
|. ven to the Speaker of the House of Commons by 


1878 
1881 


193 


CLUBS. 


new rules, Feb. 1882. See Parliament, 9 Feb. 1881. 
The Cloture first used, 24 Feb. 1884. 


CLOUD, Sr., a palace near Paris, named from 
prince Clodoald or Cloud, who became a monk 
there in 533 after the murder of his brothers, and 
died in 560. The palace was built in the 16th 
century, and in it Henry III. was assassinated by 
Clement, 2 Aug. 1589. This palace, long the 
property of the dukes of Orleans, was bought by 
Marie Antoinette in 1785. It was a favourite 
residence of the empress Josephine, of Charles X. 
and his family, and of the emperor Napoleon III. 
It was burnt during the siege of Paris, having 
sb fired upon by the French themselves, 13 Oct. 
1870. 


CLOUDS consist of minute particles of water, 
often in a frozen state, floating in the air. In 1803 
Mr. Luke Howard published his classification of 
clouds, now generally adopted, consisting of three 
primary forms—cirrus, cumulus, and stratus; three 
compounds of these forms; and the nimbus or 
black rain clouds (cumulo-cirro-stratus.) A new 
edition of Howard’s Essay on the Clouds appeared 
in 1865. 

CLOVESHOO (now Cliff ), Kent. Here was 
held an important council of nobility and clergy 
concerning the government and discipline of the 
church, Sept. 747; and others were held here, 800, 
803, 822, 824. 

CLOYNE (S. Ireland), a bishopric, founded in 
the 6th century by St. Coleman, was in 1431 united 
to that of Cork, and so continued for 200 years. It 
was united with that of Cork and Ross, 1834; see 
Bishops. 


CLUBMEN, associations founded in the 
southern and western counties of England, to re- 
strain the excesses of the armies during the civil 
wars, 1642-9. They professed neutrality, but in- 
clined towards the king, and were considered ene- 
mies by his opponents. 


CLUBS, originally consisted of a small number 
of persons of kindred tastes and pursuits, who met 
together at stated times for social intercourse. The 
club at the Mermaid tavern, established about the 
end of the 16th century, consisted of Raleigh, 
Shakspeare, and others. Ben Jonson set up a club 
at the Devil tavern. Addison, Steele, and others, 
frequently met at Button’s coffee-house, as de- 
scribed in the Spectator. The present London 
clubs, some comprising 300, others about 1500 
members, possess handsome luxuriously furnished 
edifices in or near Pall Mall, The members obtain 
choice viands and wines at moderate charges, and 
many clubs possess excellent libraries, particularly 
the Atheneum (which see). The annual payment 
varies from 3/. 3s. to 117. I1s.; the entrance fee from 
57. Ss. to 42s. The following are the principal 
clubs ; several are described in separate articles :— 


Rota (political) : : P s ; an EOSO 
Civil Club (professional and commercial) 19 Nov. 1669 
White’s (Tory), at White’s Coffee house Be rdsro(s) 
Kit-Cat (literary) ow . . 1700 
Dilettanti (fine arts) Md eS 
Beef Steak . } , : - 1735 
Royal Society (scientific) . before 1743 
Cocoa Tree . - - : - 1746 
Boodle’s : P A : : : : « ur762 
Literary Club (which see), termed also ‘‘The Club,” 

and Johnson’s Club m i - 1764 


Brooks’s, originally Almack’s (Whig) 


Royal Naval ’ 4 - 1765 
Arthur’s : . : “ F ome ey 

Alfred (literary) ‘ 1808-51 
Roxburghe, London , : . 1812 
Guards ‘ ‘ 5 5 . 1813 
United Service . ‘ . 1855 


CLUBS. 194 


. 1819 
7 cO2r 
. 1822 


Travellers’ 
Union 
United University 


Bannatyne, Edinburgh . 1823 
Atheneum (which see) . . 1824 
Oriental . : : ot ae 

United Service (Junior) ROL, 
Wyndham . : . 1828 


Maitland, Glasgow 

Oxford and Cambridge 
Reform (Liberal) : : : d A aoe 
Carlton (Conservative), founded by the duke of Wel- 


e 1829 
1830 


lington and others 1831 
Garrick ; : : - o93 
City of London Club. . 1832 
Abbotsford, Edinburgh . 1835 
Parthenon . : é . 1836 
Army and Navy paALoay: 
Etching, London . 1838 
Spalding, Aberdeen . 1839 
Conservative . . 1840 
Gresham ‘ . 1843 
National A : : ‘ ; zB ee LOd's 
Whittington (founded by Douglas Jerrold and 

others) . : : : : : ‘ . . 1846 
East India United Service . 1047 
Savage “ : ; . 2857 
St. James’s . , Nias 
Naval and Military ’ . 1862 
Grafton . . . 1863 
Arts : 


d 1864 
. 1865 
. 1866 


4 unior Carlton ‘ 
Thatched House 
Cobden Club 


Marlborough . 1869 
St. Stephen’s . 1870 
Universities . 1871 
Scientific . 1874 
Wanderers . ° ais 


Devonshire (Liberal). : - 
Verulam (Literary and Scienti fic) 
Byron . : . : ; 
Hanover Square 
Empire Club. 
Constitutional . 


See Working Men’s Club. 


Aas 
. 1876 
. 1881 
. 1883 


FreNncH. The first arose about 1782. 
They were essentially political, and greatly con- 
cerned in the revolution. The Club Breton became 
the celebrated Club des Jacobins, and the Club des 
Cordeliers comprised among its members Danton 
and Camille Desmoulins. From these two came 
the Mountain party which overthrew the Girondists 
in 1793, and fell in its turn in 1794. The clubs 
disappeared with the Directory in 1799. They were 
revived in 1848 in considerable numbers, but did 
not attain to their former eminence, and were sup- 
pressed by decrees, 22 June, 1849, and 6 June, 
1850. Bovudllet. 


CLUB-FOOT, a deformity due to the shorten- 
ing of one or more of the muscles, although at- 
tempted to be relieved by Lorenz in 1784, by 
cutting the tendo Achillis, was not effectually cured 
till 1831, when Stromeyer of Erlangen cured Dr. 
Little by dividing the tendons of the contracted 
muscles with a very thin knife. 


CLUBS, 


CLUGNY or Ciuny, ABBEY OF, in France, 
formerly most magnificent, founded by Benedictines, 
under the abbot Bern, about 910, and sustained 
afterwards by William, duke of Berry and Aqui- 
taine. English foundations for Cluniac monks were 


instituted soon after. 


CLYDE anp FORTH WALL was built 
by Agricola, 84. The Forth and Clyde CANAL was 
commenced by Mr. Smeaton, 10 July, 1768, and 
was opened 28 July, 1790. It forms a communi- 
cation between the seas on the eastern and western 
coasts of Scotland. 


in Caria, Asia Minor: near here 
the Lacedsemoniar 


CNIDUS, 
Conon the Athenian defeated 


fleet, under Peisander, 394 B.C. 


COACH (from coche, Spanish). Beckmanr 
states that Charles of Anjou’s queen entered Naple 
in a caretta (about 1282). Under Francis I. ther 
were but two in Paris, one belonging to thi 
queen, the other to Diana, the natural daughter o 
Henry II. There were but three in Paris in 1550 
and Henry IV. had one without straps or springs 
John de Laval de Bois-Dauphin set up a coach 01 
account of his enormous bulk. The first coach see: 
in England was about I 583, Coaches were intro 
duced by Fitz-Alan, earl o Arundel, in 1580. Stove 
A bill was brought into parliament to prevent th 
effeminacy of men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 160) 
Carte. Repealed 1625. The coach of the duke « 
Buckingham had six horses, that of the earl « 
Northumberland eight, 1619. The coach-tax cor 
menced in 1747. Horace Walpole says that th 
present royal state coach (first used 16 Nov. 1762 
cost 75282. The lord mayor’s old state coach we 
not used 9 Nov. 1867; see Car, Carriages, Chariot 
Hackney Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c. G. Thrupp 
“History of Coaches’ published 1877. 


Acoachmakers’ exhibition, London, opened 2 June, 187 


COAL.* It is contended, with much seemir 
truth, that coal, although not mentioned by tl 
Romans in their notices of Britain, was yet in ul 
by the ancient Britons. Brandt, Henry III. 
said to have granted a licence to dig coals ne: 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1234; some say earlie 
and others in 1239. Sea-coal was prohibited fro 
being used in and near London, as being ‘‘ pre}! 
dicial to human health;”’ and even smiths we 
obliged to burn wood, 1273. Stow. In 1306 14] 
gentry petitioned against its use. Coal was fil 
made an article of trade from Newcastle to Londo 
4 Rich II. 1381. Rymer’s Federa, Notwithstandu 
the many previous complaints against coal as 
public nuisance, it was at length generally bum 
in London in 1400; but it was not in common J 
in England until the reign of Charles I. 1625. Cc 
was brought to Dublin from Newry in 1742. 


r7oo consumed in London 317,000 Cha 
TSO quai : ; 510,000 ., 
1800 814,000 ,, 
1810 980,372 >; 
1820 I,I71,1750m > 
1830 1,588,360 a. 
1835 2,299,816 tv 
1840 2,638,256 
1850 ; ‘ : : ; : 3,638,883 
1860.—Coal brought to London, 3,573,377 tons c04 


wise ; 1,499,899 tons by railways and canals. 

1861r.—Coal brought to London, 5,232,082 tons; in 18 
4,973,823 tons. ; 

Coal and fuel exported : value: 1856, 2,826, 5821. ; 18 
5,165,6681. ; 1873, 13,188,511. ; 1878, 75330474. 5 18 
10,645,991. 

The coal-fields of Great Britain are estimated at 5400 
square miles; of Durham and Northumberland, 
723 square miles. Bakewell. In 1857 about 65% 
millions of tons were extracted (value about 
16,348,676l.) from 2095 collieries ; about 25 millions | 
are consumed annually in Great Britain. 1882, 
collieries, 3,759- 

Coal obtained in Great Britain and Ireland :— 


1854. 64,661,401 tons. 1865. 98,150,587 tons 
1861. 83,635,214 99 1866. 101,630,544 5, 
1862. 81,638,338 355 1867. 104,500,480 5, 
1863. 86,292,215 5,5 1868. 103,141,157 + 
1864. 92,787,873 »» 1869. 107,427,557 » 


* There are five kinds of fossil fuel: anthracite, ¢ 
lignite, bituminous shale, and bitumen. No satisfact 
definition of coal has yet been given. The compositiv} 
wood is 49°x carbon, 6°3 hydrogen, 44°6 oxygen ; of | 
82°6 carbon, 5°6 hydrogen, 11°8 oxygen. 


— 


1870. 110,431,192 tons. .... value. 27,607,7981. 
Boyt 117,352,028 ,, .... 92 35,205,608. 
1872. 123,497,316 ,, >» 46,311,1431. 
Bm9 127,010,747 ,, .... » 47,031,2801. 
1874. 125,067,016 ,, .... ,, 45,849,194. 
Sees *G1,807,105 ,, ... »» 46,163, 4861. 
1876. 133,344,826 ” ”? 49,670, 6681. 
1877. 134,610,763 ,, 2» 475113,7671. 
1878. 132,654,887 ,, ++ 9) + 46,429, 2T01, 
1879. 134,008,228 a3 are »»  46,902,8790, 
1880. 146,818,622 ,, » 62,395,474. 
1881. 154,184,300 ” ” 65,528, 3271. 
1882. 150,499,977 5, .. 2» «= 44,118, 4091, 


United States, 41,752,609 tons, obtained in Se 
Mr. Sopwith, in 185s, computed the annual product 
of the coal-mines of Durham and N. orthumberland 
at 14 million tons :—6 millions for London, 2} 
millions exported, 2% millions for coke, r million 
for colliery engines, &c., and two millions for 
local consumption. 
Bya stipulation in the commercial treaty of 1860, in 
_ consequence of the French government greatly 
_ reducing the duty on imported coal, the British 
government (it is thought by many imprudently) 
engaged to lay no duty on exported coal for ten 
years. In 1859 about 7,000,000 tons of British 
coals were exported, of which 1,391,009 tons went 
to France. 
A commission (consisting of the duke of Argyll, sir 
Murchison, Dr. John Percy, professor 
_ Ramsay, and others) appointed to investigate into 
the probable quantity of coal in the coal-fields of 
the United Kingdom; &c. 28 J une, 1866, reported 
27 July, 1871 :— 
Attainable quantity of coal in known TONS 
coal-fields é A : + 90,207,000,000 
Probable available coal in other 
places . ‘ A ‘ + 56,273,000,000 
: 146,480,000,000 


= 


‘ 
jale of Coal Regulation Act A sRA hoe ae 
the duties on the exportation of British coal, which 
had existed since the 16th century, were prac- 
tically repealed : . - : 3 : 
‘ir R. Peel imposed a duty of 4s. a ton in 1842; 
caused much dissatisfaction ; repealed . vie 
Yomen were prohibited from working in English 
collieries in : f : : : ‘ : 
he consumption of coal in France in 1780, only 
400,000 tons, rises to 6,000,000 tons in é bP 
he United States produced between 8 and g millions 
oftons: Belgium, 5,000,000; and France, 4,500,000, 
n Act for the regulation and inspection of mines 
passed : : : : : = A . 
‘uplicate shafts act passed : : 4 ‘ 
oal-pitmen’s strikes frequently occur ; a long and 
Severe one arose in Staffordshire in 1864 ; near St. 
Helen’s, March, 1868; in S. Wales . J an.-March, 
oal-mines regulation act, tending to check the 
Supply, passed . 6 : : to Aug. 
 cCoal-cutting machine at work, producing about 
7° tons in 8 hours (work of 40 nen); requires 
attendance of 30or4 men. . Times, 6 Feb. 
reported successful in Northumberland . Nov. 
teat dearth of coal in London (see Strikes), best 
Coal 52s. a ton ’ - . . . 15 Feb. 
uty on Coal brought to London, gd. a ton, and 4d. 
be ton for London improvements ; produced 
-381,2491. r - ‘ ; - . A : 
\tliamentary committee respecting coal first met 
' 24 March, 
chibition of coal-raising machinery at Salford, 
Manchester, opened : : : 30 Jan. 
yal Commission on spontaneous combustion of 
coal (Mr. H. C. Childers, professor Abel, &c.) met 
tt Nov. 1875; report issued; alludes to danger 
of absorption of oxygen, need of ventilation, &c. 
| Aug. 
. Commission to inquire into the causes and 
‘emedies tor explosions was appointed (including 
Messrs. W, Warington Smyth, Tyndall, F. A. 
iabeuandothers) . . |.’ |.’ Feb, 
Preliminary report issued Nov. 188r.] 
great reduction of accidents through improved 
nanagement announced . ‘ . 


Noy. 1881 


. COAL. 195 COAL. 
te OAT 


Anew method of blasting by quick-lime-cartridges 

invented by Smith and Moor much recommended 1882 
Increase of wages obtained in consequence of the 

miners’ conference at Manchester Jan.-Feb. 
Yorkshire Miners’ Association (Benjamin Pickard 

and others) demand diminution of time of labour, 
and decrease of output in order to raise the price 
of coal : : : : : i - Feb. 
Government circular issued, recommending the 
use of Fleus’s apparatus for rendering foul air 
respirable after explosions (see Diving) March 
Important meeting of delegates from about 17,000 
miners requiring 15 per cent. increase of wages 
at Ardwick : 2 e : 4 oa O NOVaeed 

ACCIDENTS.—About 1000 lives are lost annually by 
accidents in mines. (1856-76). 1877, 1208 lost ; 1878, 
1413; 1879, 973 lost; 1880, 1318 lost. Decrease in acci- 
dents reported 1884. 

{n 1858, by explosionsin coal-mines, 
at Bardsley; 20 at Duffryn, near 
Tyldesley, near Leeds F 
the country. 

1859—5 April, 26 lives were lost at the chain colliery, 
near Neath, through the irruption of water. 

1860—76 lives were lost on 2 March, at Burradon, near 
Killingworth ; 145 at the Risca mine, near N ewport, 
Mon., 1 Dec. ; and 22 at the Hetton mine, Northumber- 
land, 20 Dec. 

1861—11 June, 21 lives were lost through an inundation 
in the Claycross mines, Derbyshire, 

85 lives were lost at Lalle coal-mine, in France, in Oct. 
186r. 

1862—47 lives were lost 


1883 


1872 


52 persons perished 
Newport; 52 at 
and about 36 in different parts of 


at Gethin mine, Merthyr 
Tydvill, 8. Wales, 19 Feb. ; at Walker, near Newcastle- 
on-Tyne, 15 lives lost, 22 Nov. ; Edmund’s Main, near 
Barnsley, 60 lives lost, 8 Dee. 

1863—13 lives lost at Coxbridge, near N ewcastle, 
6 March ; 39 lives lost at Margam, 8. Wales, 17 Oct. , 14 
lives lost at Moestig, 8. Wales, 26 Dec. 

1865—6 lives lost’ at Claycross, 3 May; 24 at New 
Bedwelty pit, near Tredegar, 16 June; explosion at 
Gethin mine, Merthyr Tydvill, 30 lives lost, 20 Dee. 

1866—Explosion at Highbrook colliery, near Wigan. 
Lancashire, about 30 lives lost, 23 Jan. ; at Dukinfield, 
near Ashton, 37 lives lost, 14 June; at Pelton Fell 
colliery, near Durham, about 24 lives lost, 3 Oct. ; at 
Oaks colliery, Hoyle-mill, near Barnsley, about 360 
persons killed, r2 Dec. ; 28 searchers killed (including 
Mr. Parkin Jeffcock, mining engineer) by fresh explosion, 
13 Dec.; at Talke-of-the-hill, Staffordshire, about 80 
persons perish, 13 Dee. 

1867—Explosion at Garswood colliery, near St. Helen’s, 
14 lives lost, 29 Aug. ; Shankhouse colliery, Cramlington , 
Northumberland, flooded x man drowned, x Nov. ; ex 
plosion at Ferndale colliery, Rhonnda Valley, near Cardiff 
about 178 lives lost: attributed to naked lights, 8 Nov. 

(For still more fatal accidents, see Lundhill and 
Hartley.) 

47 lives lost in a mine near J emmappes, Belgium, 6 
Aug. 1868. 

1868. Explosions: at Green pit, near Ruabon, rr 
persons killed, 30 Sept. ; at Arley mine, Hindley-green, 
near Wigan, 62 killed, 26 Nov. ; at Norley mine, near 
Wigan, about 7 killed, 2t Dec.; at Haydock collieries, 
near St. Helen’s, 26 deaths, 30 Dee. 

1869. Brierly pit, near Stourbridge, inundated 17 
March, many lost ;—some rescued, 20, 2r March : 
Explosions at Highbrooks colliery, near Wigan, about 
33 persons perished, x April; at Ferndale colliery, 
Glamorganshire, about 60 lost, ro June ; Haydock pit, 
St. Helen’s, about 58 lost, 2x J uly ; Moss Coal Company’s 
pit, near Hindley, about 30 lost, 22 Nov. 

1870. Explosions—at Silverdale colliery, Staffordshire, 
19 killed, 7 July; Llansamlet, near Swansea, 1g killed, 
23 July; Brynn-hall, near Wigan, about rg killed, 16 
Aug. 

1871, Explosions, Renishaw park colliery, Eckington, 
near Sheffield, 27 killed, 10 Jan. ; Pentre colliery, 
Rhonnda valley, 38 killed, 24 Feb. ; Victoria, near Ebbw 
vale, Monmouthshire, about 19 killed, 2 March; Moss 
Pits, near Wigan, 70 killed, 6 Sept. ; Grisons, Belgium, 
30 killed, 27 Sept. ; Gedly pit, Aberdare, 4 killed, 4 Oct. “ 
Seaham, 30 killed, 25 Oct. 

1872. Explosions—Lynvi valley near Bridgend, 1» 
killed, rz Jan. ; Black lake colliery, §S. Staffordshire, 3 
killed, (through carelessness), 2 5 Jan. ; Morley main, near 
Dewsbury and Leeds, 7 Oct. about 34 deaths: great 


0 2 


1876 


1879 


COAL. 


carelessness and bad discipline ; Rains mine, Pendlebury, 
6 killed, 6 Nov. ; Monceaux, department of Sadne et Loire, 
about 38 killed, 8 Nov. ; Pelsall-hall, Walsall, about 22 
drowned by influx of water from anold working, 14 Nov. 

1873. Explosion at Talke colliery, N. Staffordshire, Coal 
and Iron Company’s works, about 20 killed, 18 Feb. ; 
Drummond colliery, Nova Scotia, explosion and fire, 
about 75 perished, 13 May; Shamokin, Pennsylvania, 
U.S., x5 killed, 18 June; Meshes colliery, near Wigan, 
6 killed, 21 Nov. 

1874. Explosions—Astley pit, Dukinfield, near Man- 
chester, 54 killed, (attributed to gross ignorance or cul- 
pable carelessness), 14 April; Saw-mills pit, near Wigan, 
15 killed, 18 July ; Rawmarsh colliery near Rotherham, 
explosion through naked lights, about 23 killed, 20 Nov. ; 
Bignall hall colliery, near Dudley, Staffordshire, 17 
killed, 24 Dec. 

1875. Explosions—Aldwarke Main, near Rotherham, 
7 killed, 5 Jan. ; Ruffery colliery, Dudley, 4 killed, 6 Jan.; 
Bunker’s Hill, North Staffordshire, (through a_gun- 
powder fuze), 43 deaths, 30 April; Donnington Wood, 
Shropshire, 11 killed, xr Sept. ; Ashton Vale, near Bed- 
minster, 4 killed, 7 Oct. ; Haigh, near Wigan, Alexandra 
pit (accident with descending cages), 7 killed, 3 Dec. ; 
Powell Duffryn, New Tredegar, 22 killed, 4 Dec. ; Llan- 
colly, Pentyrch, (naked light), 12 killed, 5 Dec. ; Swaithe 
main, near Barnsley, about 140 killed, 6 Dec. ; Methley 
junction, near Leeds, 6 killed, 9 Dec. Explosion at a 
colliery near Mons, Belgium, about 110 killed, 14 Dec. 

1876. Explosions—Talke, North Staffordshire, 5 killed, 
5 Jan.; St. Etienne, France, about 30 killed, 4 Feb. 
Birley, near Sheffield, 6 killed, 26 June; Abertillery, 

Monmouthshire, 17 killed, 18 Dec. 

1877. Explosions, &c.—Stonehill, near Bolton, about 
18 killed, 23 Jan.; Darcey Lever, near Bolton, about 10 
killed, 7 Feb. ; Tyldesley, near Bolton, 7 killed, 6 March; 
New Worcester pit, Swansea, 18 or 19 killed, 8 March. Jn- 
undation—Tynewydd mine, near Pontypridd, 8S. Wales, 
several drowned, 11 April, several rescued by excavation, 
after ten days’ imprisonment ; great heroism shown, see 
Albert Medals, 20 April; Mr. Thomas, manager, accused of 
culpable negligence, after inquest on 5 deaths, 17 May.— 
King Pit, Pemberton, near Wigan, about 33 perished 
(including Mr. Walker, the manager, and two overlookers 
attempting rescue) 11 Oct. ; High Blantyre, near Glasgow, 
Messrs. Dixon’s pits, above 200 perished, 22 Oct. ; South 
Kirby, near Barnsley, rope broke, 4 killed, 29 Oct. 

1878. Explosions, &e.—High Blantyre, 6 perished, 9 
March; Kilsyth, Stirlingshire, Barnard Pit, 16 immured, 
8 March; Kersley, near Bolton, about 43 perished, 12 
March ; Apedale, near Chesterton, N. Staffordshire, about 
30 perished, 27 March; Wood Pits, Florida mine, Hay- 
dock, near Wigan, about 189 perished, 7 June; Ebbw 
Vale, Abercarne, 12 miles from Newport, Monmouth- 
shire, about 268 out of 387 perished, 11 Sept. 

1879. Explosions, &c.—Dinas pit, Rhondda valley, 
Glamorganshire, about 63 perish, 13 Jan. ; ‘‘ Deep 
Drop” pit, near Wakefield, 19 perish, 4 March ; Victoria 
colliery, Snydale, near Wakefield ; rope of descending 
cage broke, 8 killed, 7 March; Cwmavon, Glamorgan- 
shire; chain broke, 6 killed, 24 June; High Blantyre 
collieries, Dixon & Co., 28 killed. 2 July; Lady pit, 
Nilverdale, N. Staffordshire, 8 deaths, 12 Sept. ; Wann 
Lhwyd, Ebbw Vale, Monmouth, 3 killed, 22 Sept. ; 
Shortheath, near Wolverhampton, 6 killed, 12 Noy.; 
Scowerofts, Kearsley, near Bolton, 7 deaths, 25 Dec. 

1880. Explosions, &c.—Leycett, near Newcastle- 
under-Lyme, about 73 deaths, 21 Jan. ; Anderlaus 
(France), about 20 deaths, 1 April; Risca, 6 miles from 
Newport, Mon., about 120 deaths 15 July; Seaham, 
near Sunderland, Durham, about 170 perished, 8 Sept. ; 
Pen-y-Graig, 8. Wales, ror perished, ro Dec. 

1881. Explosions.—Whitfield colliery, Chell, N. Staf- 
ford, 20 killed, 7 Feb. ; Hanley, Staffordshire, about 5 
killed, 2x Nov. ; Cockerill Colliery, Belgium, 66 perished, 
about g Dec.; Abram colliery, near Wigan, about 48 
perished, 19 Dec. (13 explosions, with loss of 99 lives). 

1882, Explosions—Coedrae, Glamorganshire, 6 lives, 
11 Feb.; Trimdon Grange colliery, 69 perished, 16 Feb. ; 
Blaina, Monmouthshire, 5 deaths, 27 Feb. ; Lumley, near 
¥encehouses, Durham, fall of shaft, about 100 imprisoned, 
14 March; Tudhoe colliery, Weardale, Durham, 37 lives 
lost, 18 April; West Stanley, Durham, about 13 lives 
lost, 19 April; lord Lonsdale’s colliery, near White- 
haven, 4 killed, 26 April; Baxterley mine, near Ather- 
stone, Warwickshire, about 32 lives lost, 2 May; Vic- 
toria colliery, Brantcliff, Morley, near Leeds, 7 killed, 1 
May; Clay Cross, above 45 deaths, 7 Noy. 


Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Naples, 
Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Saxony, 
England and Austria ‘ - eS prAp 
Russia and Prussia ; the treaty ratified at Kalisch 


COCHIN. 


1883. Explosions.— Wharneliffe colliery, near Barns: 


ley, 17 deaths, 19 Oet.; Fair Lady pit, near Leycett, 
Newcastle-under-Lyme, 22 Oct.; Moor-fields colliery, 
near Accrington, Lancashire, about 68 deaths, 7 Nov. 


1884. Explosions, &c.—Gamant, Cywmamman, Sout): 


Wales; rope broke; cage fell; xz killed, 16 Jan. : 
Rhondda Valley, Glamorganshire, explosion, about 11 
perished, Jan.; Pochin colliery, near Tredegar, 1, 
deaths, 8 Nov. 


1885. Explosions.—Usworth, near Newcastle-on-Tyne 


about 38 deaths, 2 March. 


See Mansion-house Funds. 


CoaL ExcHANGE, London, established by 47 Geo. 


III. c. 68 (1807). The present building (a most 
interesting structure) was erected by Mr. J. B. 


Bunning, and opened by prince Albert 30 Oct. 184 


CoAL-wHIPPERS’ BoarD, to protect the men em- 


ployed in unloading coal-vessels from publicans, 
formed by an act of parliament in 1843, lasted 
till 1856, when the coal-owners themselves esta- 
plished a whipping office. 


COALITIONS AGAINST FRANCE general] 


arose through England subsidising the great powel 
of the continent. 


Austria, Prussia and Great Britain . 3 4 2 
Great Britain, Germany, Russia, Naples, Portugal, 


See Treaties. . 
17¢ 
22 June, 
5 Aug. 
6 Oct. 
ril, 


and Turkey, signed 170 


18¢ 
18 
1&« 


17 March, 183 


COALITION MINISTRIES, see Aberdeei 
Grenville II., Pelham, and Portland. 


COAST GUARD. In 1856, the raising an 
governing this body was transferred to the ac 
miralty. A coast brigade of artillery was establishe 
in Noy. 1859.—Coast VOLUNTEERS, see und 
Navy of England. 


COASTING TRADE of Great Britain throw 
open to all nations by 17 Vict. ¢. 5, 1854. | 


COBALT, 2 rare mineral found among the ve 
of ores, or in the fissures of stone, at an early dat 
in the mines of Cornwall, where the workmen cz 
it mundic. Hill. It was distinguished as a met 
by Brandt, in 1733. 

COBDEN CLUB, instituted to spread al 
develop Cobden’s principles; held first dinne 
W. E. Gladstone in the chair, 21 July, 1866. 1 
statue of Richard Cobden, at Camden town, w 
inaugurated, 27 June, 1868. 12 out of 14 cabin 
ministers were members July, 1880. » a 

COBURG, see Saxe Coburg. 

COCA, a powerful narcotic existing in t 
Erythoxylon Coca, a South American plan 
men taking a little of this are enabled to endu 
hard labour without any food for six or seven da 
and nights. Dr. Mantegazza’s prize essay _ 
German was published at Vienna in 1849. Cocait 
an anxsthetic obtained from this plant, said to 
very efficacious in ophthalmic and other delic 
surgical operations in 1884. 


COCCELANS, a small sect founded by Jo 
Cocceius, of Bremen, in the seventeenth centw 
He held, amongst other opinions, that of a visi 
reign of Christ in this world, after a general c 
version of the Jews and all other people to t 
Christian faith. He died in 1665. 


COCHEREL (near Evreux, N. W. Franc 
Here Bertrand du Guesclin defeated the king 
Navarre, and took prisoner the captal de Buch, 
May, 1364. i 

COCHIN (India), held by the Portuguese, 15¢ 
by the Dutch, 1663; by Hyder Ali, 1776; taken 
the British, 1796; ceded to them, 1814.—CocE 
CHINA, see Annam. 


| la NR aR ee 


COCHINEAL INSECT. 


althoug 


1845. 


COCKER’SARITHMETIC. Edward Cocker, 
um eminent penman, born 1631, died 1677, compiled 
edited by John 


i book which first appeared in 1677, 
Hawkins. . 


COCK-FIGHTING, practised by the Greeks, 
vas brought by the Romansinto England. William 
fitz-Stephen, in the reign of Henry II., describes 


ock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on Shrove- 
Tuesday. It was prohibited by Edward III. 136s ; 


yy Henry VIII.; and by Cromwell, 1653, and 


atterly in 1849. Part of the site of Drury-lane 
heatre was a cock-pit in the reign of James I.; and 
he Cock-pit at Whitehall was erected by Charles II. 
‘ormerly there was a Cock-pit-Royal in St. James’s 
ark; but the governors of Christ’s Hospital would 
‘ot renew the lease for the building.* Cock-fighting 
$s now forbidden by law. On 22 April, 1865, 34 
ersons were fined at Marlborough-street police- 
ffice, for being present at a cock-fight. It was 
opular in New York, 1873. 


COCK-LANE GHOST, an imposition prac- 
ised by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter, 
y means of a female ventriloquist, during 1760 and 
761, at No. 33, Cock-lane, London, was at length 
etected, and the parents were condemned to the 
illory and imprisonment, 10 July, 1762. 


COCOA or CAcAO, the kernel or seed of Theo- 

roma cacao (Linn.), was introduced into this 
ountry shortly after the discovery of Mexico, where 
1s an article of diet. From ‘cocoa is produced 
aocolate. The cocoa imported into the United 
ingdom, chiefly from the British West Indies and 
‘wana, was in 1849, 1,989,477 Ibs.; in 1855, 
343,458 lbs.; in 1861, 9,080,288 lbs.; in 186 } 
9,308,298 lbs.; in 1870, 14,793,950 lbs.; in 1876, 
3,443,591 lbs.; in 18713 17,056,364 lbs.; in 1879, 
9,155,788 lbs.; in 1883, 22,698,161 lbs., about 
alf retained for home consumption, 


COCOA-NUT TREE (Cocos nucifera, Linn.), 
tpplies the Indians with almost all they need, as 
ead, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, 
mey, sugar, needles, clothes, thread, cups, spoons, 
sins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails, cord- 
f@, nails, covering for their houses, &e. Ray. 
t Sept. 1829, Mr. Soames patented his mode of 
‘curing stearine and elaine from cocoa-nut oil. 
is said that 32 tons of candles have been made 

a month from these materials at the Belmont 
orks, Lambeth. 


CODES, see Laws. Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, 


IR ee 
‘Mr. Ardesoif, a gentleman of large fortune and great 
Spitality, who was almost unrivalled in the splendour 
his equipages, had a favourite cock, upon which he 
1 won many profitable matches. The last wager 

laid upon this cock he lost, which so enraged him, 
ina fit of passion he thrust the bird into the fire, 
‘elirious fever, the result of his rage and inebriety, in 
“ee days put an end to his life. He died at Tottenham, 
w London, 4 April, 1788. 


197 
COCHINEAL INSECT (Coccus cacti), de- 


riving its colour from feeding on the cactus, became 
known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of 
Mexico in 1518. Cochineal was brought to Europe 
about 1523, but was not known in Italy in 1548, 
the art of dyeing then flourished there. 
In 1858 it was cultivated successfully in Teneriffe, 
the vines having failed through disease. 260,000 lbs. 
of cochineal were imported into England in 1830; 
1,081,776 lbs. in 1845; 2,360,000 lbs. in 1850; 
3,034,976 lbs. in 1859; 47,790 cwt. in 1870; and 
32,094 cwt. in 1877; 27,952 cwt. in 1879; 30,017 
owt. In 1881 ; 21,440 ewt. in 1883. Duty repealed 


COFFEE. 


first collected the Roman laws about 66 B.c.; and 
Servius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them. 
about 53 B.c. The Gregorian and Hermoginian 
codes were published a.p, 290; the Theodosian 
code commenced by order of Theodosius II. in 

29; and published for the eastern empire in 438. 
n 447 he transmitted t. Yalentinian his new con- 
stitutions promulgated as the law of the west in 
448. The celebrated code of the emperor Justinian 
in 529—a digest from this last made in 5333 see 
Basilica. Alfred’s code, a selection from existing 
laws, is the foundation of the common law of 
England, 887.—The Copr NAPo.eEon, the civil code 
of France, was promulgated from 1803 to 1810. 
The emperor considered it his most enduring monu- 
ment. It was prepared under his supervision by 
the most eminent jurists, from the 400 systems 
previously existing, and has been adopted by other 
countries, 
A conference of jurists and publicists to consider 

an international code held at Brussels, J uly, Aug. 1874 


CODEX, sce under Bible, Alexandrian, &e. 
CODFISH, see Holland, 1347. 
COD-LIVER OIL was recommended as a 


remedy for chronic rheumatism by Dr. Percival in 
1782, and for diseases of the lungs about 1833. De 
Jongh’s treatise on cod-liver oil was published in 
Latin, 1844; in English, 1849. 


COERCION BILL, see Ireland, 1881. 
CQhUR bE LION or THE LIon-HEARTED, 


a surname given to Richard I. of England, on ac- 
count of his courage, about 1192; and also to Louis 
VIII. of France, who signalised himself in the 
crusades, and in his wars against England, about 
1223. 


COFFEE. _ The tree was conveyed from Mocha 
in Arabia to Holland about 1616; and carried to 
the West Indies in 1726. First cultivated at Suri-. 
nam by the Dutch, 1718. The culture was encour- 
aged in the plantations about 1732, and the British 
and French colonies now grow ¢éoffee abundantly. 
Its use as a beverage is traced to the Persians. It 
came into great repute in Arabia Felix, about 1454; 
and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and thence 
(in I511I) to Constantinople, where a coffee-house 
was opened in 1551. M. Thevenot, the traveller, 
first brought it to France, 1662. Chambers. See 
Cafeine. 


Coffee brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel 
Canopus, a Cretan, who made it his common 
beverage at Balliol college, Oxford. Anderson . 1641 

The first coffee-house in England was kept by a 
Jew, named Jacobs, in Oxford : ; ; 

Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant, brought 
home with him Pasquet, a Greek servant, who 
opened the first coffee-house in London, in George- 
yard, Lombard-street : : : Soe 

Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened 
the first house in that country. Anderson. 

Rainbow coffee-house, Temple-bar, represented as a 
nuisance : A » : : 5 - 1657 

Coffee-houses suppressed by proclamation, 1675; 
the order revoked on petition of the traders - 1676 

Licences to sell coffee abolished ; . 1869 

Duty on coffee reduced to 14d. the pound from 

2 May, 

The quantity of coffee imported into these realms 
in 1852, 54,935,510 lbs. ; in 1860, 82,767,746 lbs. ; 
in 1866, 127,044,816 lbs, ; in 1873, 183,392,576 lbs. ; 
in 1876, 1,361,642 cwts. ; in 1877, 1,608,282 cwts. ; 
in 1879, 1,609,386 cwts. ; in 1883, 1,407,134 cwts. 

Coffee Palaces, founded by Dr. Barnardo to replace 
public-houses for working-men. The “‘ Edinburgh 
Castle,” Limehouse, the first opened, 1873; the 
** Dublin Castle,” Mile End A - . 1876 

Coffee Taverns many opened in London 1877-1880 


1650 


1652 


1872 


I 


COFFERER. 198 COIN. 


ee 


Coin was made sterling in 1216, before which time 
rents were mostly paid in kind, and money was 
found only in the coffers of the barons. Stow. 

Coinage reformed by Edward V1. “ : + 1547-5 

Queen Elizabeth caused the base coin to be recalled 
and genuine issued 3 : 5 ‘ : . 15& 

During the reigns of the Stuarts the coinage was 
greatly debased by clipping, &e. A commission 
(Charles Montague, lord Somers, sir Isaac Newton, 
and John Locke) was appointed by William III. 
to reform the coinage; an act was passed, with- 
drawing the debased coin from circulation, and 
1,200,o00l. was raised by a window-tax duty to 
defray the expense ‘ f . le . 1695-9! 

Broad-pieces called in, and re-coined into guineas . 173 

The gold-coin brought into the Mint by proclama- 
tion, amounted to about 15,563,593/. ; the expense 
of collecting, melting, and recoining it, was 


754,010). . 1975- 


Act for weighing gold coin passed . . 13 dune, 177 
The coin of the realm valued at about 12,000,000l. 
in 1711. Davenant. At 16,000,000l. in 1762. An- 
derson. It waS 20,000,o0ool. in 1786. Chalmers. 
37,000,000l. in 1800. Phillips. 
New silver coinage . ; ; : ° 3 . 181 
English and Irish money assimilated .  ._ x Jan. 182 
The gold is 28,000,00ol., and the rest of the metallic 
currency is 13,000,000l1. Duke of Wellington  . 183 
Metallic currency calculated to reach 45,000,000l. . 184 
Estimated as approaching, in gold and silver, 
60,000,0001.  . é é 4 : ‘ . 185 
Silver coined in London, value 11,108,265/. 158. 1816-4 
Ditto, value 2,440,614l.  . . - Z a 283764 
Light gold called in : . 5 3 er: 
Napier’s coin-weighing machine at the bank of 
England constructed : , 4 : - 184 
The law respecting coinage offences consolidated . 18¢ 
New Coinage act. , P 4 April, 18; 


Coffee Public-house National Society, formed April, 
1879 ; opened a house at Shadwell . 28June, 1879 
Coffee disease prevalent in Ceylon, &c. autumn, 1882 


COFFERER oF THE HovsEHOLD, formerly 
an officer of state, anda member of the privy council, 
who had special charge of the other officers of the 
household. Sir Henry Cocks was cofferer to queen 
Elizabeth. In 1782 the office was suppressed. 


COFFINS. Athenian heroes were buried in 
coffins of cedar; owing to its aromatic and incor- 
ruptible qualities. Zhweydides. Coffins of marble 
and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is 
said to have been buried in one of gold; and glass 
coffins have been found in England. Gough. The 
earliest record of wooden coffins amongst us is that 
of the burial of king Arthur in an entire trunk of 
oak hollowed, pt: Asser. Patent coffins were 
invented in 1796; air-tight metallic coffins adver- 
tised at Birmingham in 1861. 


COHORT. A division of the Roman army 
consisting of about 420 men, with 300 cavalry, 
divided into centuries. It was the sixth part of a 
legion. 

COIF. The serjeant’s coif was originally an 
iron skull-cap, worn by knights under their hel- 
mets. The coif was introduced before 1259, and 
was used to hide the tonsure of such renegade 
clergymen as chose to remain advocates in the 
secular courts, notwithstanding their prohibition 
by canon. Blackstone. ‘The coif was at first a thin 
linen cover gathered together in the form of a skull 
or helmet, the material being afterwards changed 
into white silk, and the form eventually into the 
black patch at the top of the forensic wig, which 
is now the distinguishing mark of the degree of 
serjeant-at-law. oss’s Lives of the Judges. 


COIMBRA was made the capital of Portugal 
by Alfonso, the first king, 1139. The only Portu- 
guese university was transferred from Lisbon to 
Coimbra in 1308; finally settled in 1527. Ina 
convent here, Alfonso IV. caused Ifiez de Castro, at 


The first gold coins on certain record, struck 42 
Hen, TLinas ‘ “ 3 : . ‘: oe eS 
Gold florin first struck, Edw. III. (Camden) . - Bs 
He introduced gold 6s. pieces, and nobles of 6s. 8d. 
(hence the lawyer's fee), afterwards half and 
quarter nobles . ¢ . . 5 : <a 
Edw. IV. coined angels with a figure of Michael and 
the dragon, the original of George and the dragon r4( 
Sovereigns first minted , : > : . eee 
Shillings first coined (Dr. Kelly) . . 1503 OF 15¢ 
Crowns and half-crowns coined . : é ae! 


first mistress and afterwards wife of his son Pedro, | Irish shillings struck es 15! 

to be cruelly murdered in 1355. Milled shilling of Elizabeth. . . «. = .« . I5f 
i First large copper coinage, putting an end to the 

COIN. Homer speaks of brass money, 1184 circulation of private leaden pieces, &e. .  .~ x6: 

B.c. The invention of coin is ascribed to the | Modernmillingintroduced. . . . . .« 16 

Lydians, whose money was of gold and silver. | Halfpence and farthings . 9. . + + — «= Of 


Copper coined by government . 2 < ae a 
Guineas (value 20s.), 2-guinea and 5-guinea pieces, 1663~ 
Quarter-guinea coined, 3 Geo. I... ; : a7 
T'wo-penny copper pieces . ‘ ‘ 3 - ne 
Gold 7s.-pieces authorised : , - 29 Novak: 
Sovereigns, new coinage, St. George and dragon . 13: 
Four-penny pieces (see Groat) coined F -  '88b4 
Three-penny pieces : 3,299,208 coined . = et 
Half-farthings coined "i 5 : s ‘ . 13. 
Silver florin (2s.) . E ‘ 4 : : ee: 
No crowns (1848-78) or half-crowns coined. 1848-" 
Bronze coinage issued . 2 : 3 . x Dec., 13 
St. George and dragon sovereigns re-issued 14 Jan. 1% 
Half-crowns again coined; recommended by bankers 1% 
New die for gold coin finished ‘: ‘ March, 18: 
The bankers complain of great loss, by receiving 
light gold coins ‘ 4 F ‘ r - 1882 
See Budget, 1884. 
Sale of Mr. Whittall’s great collection of Greek and 
other coins, 1,668 lots realized 3,9511. - duly, 18 


AMOUNT OF MONEY COINED. 


Both were coined by Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, about 
862 B.c. Money was coined at Rome under Servius 
Tullius, about 573 B.c. The most ancient known 
coins are Macedonian of the 5th century B.c. Brass 
money only was in use at Rome previously to 269 
B.c. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver). Gold was 
coined 206 B.c. Iron money was used in Sparta, 
and iron and tin in Britain. Duwufresnoy. In the 
earlier days of Rome the heads were those of deities, 
or of those who had received divine honours. 
Julius Cesar first obtained permission of the senate 
to place his portrait on the coins, and the example 
was soon followed. The Britons and Saxons coined 
silver.—Rev. Roger Ruding’s ‘‘ Annals of the Coin- 
age of Great Britain,’’ published 1817-40.—The 
gold and silver coinage in the world is about 
250,000,000/. silver, and 150,000,000/. gold. Times, 
25 J une, 1852. See Gold, Silver, Copper and Guineas, 
and other coins under names. An international 


5 : 2 Elizabeth . 3 : : ¢ 3 - £5,832,0 
conference relative to a universal system of coinage | JamesI. . . . ~. «© «© «© =  2§00,0 
met at Paris in 1867; and a royal commission was | CharlesI. . . - + «+ «+ + 10,500,0 
appointed in London, Feb. 1868. £ for débra, | Cromwell . . . = | =] sss a 
Roman pound of 12 ounces; s. for solidi (Anglo- Seats e - 0 | rn os 
Saxon scill or scilling) ; d. for denarii, the Roman Bhs ry ees oan 
penny. Anne . : " : . : s «23007 ,6 
The first coinage was at Camalodunum, or Col- George I. : a 5 : . : » |. SeFe5 59 


chester, George II. . 5 : ; ‘ «oie OG .S 


COINING. 


George III. gold 74,501,586 
George IV. . : : aatee ss 41,782,815 
William IV. . 10,827,603 


[The quaatity of gold that passed through the Mint 
the 


since the accession of queen Elizabeth in 1558, to 


inning of 1840, is 3,353,561 pounds weight, troy. 


Of this, nearly one-half was coined in the reign of 


George III., namely, 1,593,078 pounds weight, troy. ] 

Victoria, from 1837 to 1848, gold, 29,$86,4571. ; weight, 
740,452 lbs. ; silver, 2,440,6r4l. ; copper, 43,7431. 
1848-1852, gold, silver, and copper, 19,838,377/. 

Gold coined in 1853 (when Australian gold came in), 


12,664,125/. ; in 1854, 4,354,2011. ; in 1855, 9,245,264. ; 


in 1856, 6,476,060l. 

Coined in 1859, 1,547,603 sovereigns ; 2,203,813 half-sov. 

Value of ten years’ (1849-50) gold coinage, 54,490,265). 

Coined from x July, 1854, to 3x Dec. 1860: gold, 
27,632,0391. ; silver, 2,432,1161. 

Coined in 1861: gold, 8,053,069). ; 
bronze, 273,5781. 13s. 4d. 

Coined in 1862: gold, 7,836,4131.; silver, 
bronze pieces, 4,125,977,600l. 

Coined in 1866: gold, 5,076,676. ; 
bronze, 50,372/. Total, 5,620,464. 

Coined in 1869: gold, , 7,372,204. ; Silver, 76,4281. ; 
copper, 20,8321. Total value, 7,469,464l. 

Coined in 1873 (less than 1872): gold, sovereigns, 
2,382,832; half-sovereigns, 2,003,464; silver, florins, 
5:905;740 5 1S., 6,486,480; 6d., 4,395,600; 4d., 4158 ; 
3%.» 4,059,321 ; 1d., 7920. Copper: 1d., 8,494,080 ; $d., 
3,584,000 ; id., 3,215,600. 

Coined in 1876 (work stopped five months through break- 
down of machinery), gold, sovereigns, 3,318,8661.; half- 
Sovereigns, 1,392,593/. ros.; silver (round numbers), 
half-crowns, 234,232/.; florins, 58,oo0l.; shillings, 
53,0001. ; 6d., 21,000l.; 3d., 23,0001. (4d., 2d.,and 1d.only 
coined for Maundy Thursday) ; bronze, 1d., 46,o00l. ; 
34., 14,0001. ; 4d., 1,120. 

In 1877, 30,131,130 pieces; value 1,567,9361. 15s. 64d. 

Value of coinage in ten years (1867-76). Gold, 46,802,5171.; 
Silver, 5,642,4061.; bronze, 401, 30091. 

1879: Gold, sovereigns, 17,525 ; half-sovereigns, 35,050; 
total value, 35,050. 38. od. Silver, half-crowns, gor1,2096 ; 
florins, 1,354,320 ; shillings, 3,611,520; sixpences, 
3,326,400 ; fourpences, 4,158 ; threepences, 2,966,568 ; 
twopences, 4,752; pence, 7,920 ; total value, 549,054. 
Bronze: Pence, 7,848,964 ; halfpence, 3,584,000 ; far- 
things, 4,300,800 ; total value, 44,6501. 13s. 4d. 

Net loss to the Mint in 1878, 51,5431. ; in 1870, 27,955). 

1880: Gold, 4,150,052. Silver, 761,508l, Copper, 
19,2641. ; total, 4,930,824. 

(883: Gold, 1,403,713. Silver, 1,274,328]. 
33,4501. ; total, 2,711, 4911. 

COINING. Originally the metal was placed 
between two steel dies, and struck by a hammer. 
in 1553, a mill, invented by Antoine Brucher, in- 
roduced into England, 1562. An engine invented 
by Balancier, 1617. Great improvements effected 
by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, 1788. The erection 
of the Mint machinery, London, began 1811. The 
nachinery was re-organised in I 869. 


COLCHESTER (Essex), Camelodunum, a 
oman station, obtained its’ first charter from 
tichard I., 1189. Its sixteen churches and all its 
uildings sustained great damage at the ten weeks’ 
lege, June-Aug. 1648. Two of its defenders, sir 
reorge Lisle and sir Charles Lucas, were tried and 
hot after surrendering, The baize manufacture was 
stablished here, 1660. Anderson. The railway to 
sondon was opened in 1843. A great fire; several 
usiness establishments destroyed, about 25,000/. 
rr 18 Aug. 1882. See Larthquakes, 22 April, 

4. 


COLD. The extremes of heat and cold are 
und to produce the same perceptions on the skin, 
nd when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below 
ero, the Sensation is the same as touching red-hot, 
‘on. During the hard frost in 1740, a palace of ice 
‘as built at St. Petersburg. Greig. Quicksilver 
‘as frozen hard at Moscow, 13 Jan. 1810. On 25 
ec. 1796, the thermometer was 16° below zero. On 


Silver, 209,484l. ; 


4,035,4121. ; 
Silver, 493,4161. ; 


Copper, 


199 


‘cient to have built a metropolis. 


COLLEGES. 


3 Jan. 1854, the thermometer marked 4° below zero, 

Fahrenheit ; on 25 Dec. 1860, it fell in some places 

to 18° and in others to 15° below zero; at Torquay, 

Devon, 20° below zero. From 23 to 30 Dec. the cold 

was excessive. On 4 Jan. 1867, the thermometer 

stood at 3° below zero at Hammersmith and Hornsey, 
near London; on 7 Jan., at 55° above. 

ASars cold Nov. 1878—May 1879, and Noy. 1879—Feb. 
1880, 

The December of 1879 said to be the coldest since 1796. 

Severe frost, 13 Jan.—26 Jan. 1881 (many deaths of ex- 
posed persons). 

Temperature said to have been on 1g Jan. 13° Fahrt. at 
Stepney, London; 5 degrees below zero, Fahrenheit, 
at Newcastle and Perth on Jan. 1881, 

Whilst liquefying gases, at the Royal Institution, pro- 
fessor Dewar obtained the temperature of—2r13 cent., 
June, 1884. 

See Frosts, Ice, Congelation, Regelation. 


COLDINGHAM, near Berwick, is celebrated 
for the heroism of its nuns, who, on the attack of 
the Danes, in order to preserve their chastity, cut 
off their noses and lips. The Danes burnt them all, 
with the abbess Ebba, in their monastery, 870. 


COLDSTREAM GUARDS. General Monk, 
efore marching from Scotland into England to 
restore Charles II., raised this regiment at Cold- 
stream, at the confluence of the Leet and Tweed, 
1660. For its services in suppressing Venner’s 
insurrection in 1661, it was not disbanded, but 
constituted the 2nd regiment of foot guards. 


COLENSO CONTROVERSY, see Church 
of England, 1862-8. 


COLIN, see Kolin. 


COLISEUM or ConossEum, at Rome, an 
elliptical amphitheatre, of which the external dia- 
meter is 1641 Italian feet, supposed to have been 
able to contain 80,000 spectators of the fights with 
wild beasts, and other sports in the arena. It was 
erected between 75 (some say 77) and 80, by the 
emperors Vespasian and Titus, at an expense suffi- 
Its remains are 
very imposing. Excavationsare proceeding, 1874-85. 


COLLAR, a very ancient ornament. The 
Roman hero Titus Manlius slew a gigantic Gaul in 
single combat, and put his torques (twisted chain or 
collar) on his own neck, and was hence surnamed 
Torquatus, 361 B.c. A collar is part of the ensigns 
of the order of knighthood. That of the order of the 
garter is described, and its wearing enjoined, in the 
statutes of Henry VIII., 24 April, 1522; but acollar 
had been previously worn. Ashmole. The collar 
of SS. was adopted by Henry IV., and became a 
Lancastrian badge; some consider the letters. stand 
for ‘‘ souveraigne,”’ in reference to his claim to the 
crown. Some writers consider SS. to be in honour 
of St. Simplicius, a martyr. The order of the Collar 
or Necklace (or Annonciada) was instituted by 
Amadeus VI. of Savoy, about 1360. 


COLLECTS, short prayers, very ancient, intro- 
duced into the Roman service by pope Gelasius, 
about 493, and into the English liturgy in 1548. 
The king of England coming into Normandy, ap- 
pointed a collect for the relief of the Holy Land, 
1166. Rapin. 


COLLEGES. University education preceded 
the erection of colleges, which were munificent 
foundations to relieve the students from the expense 
of living at lodging-houses and at inns. Collegiate 
or academic degrees are said to have been first con- 
ferred at the university of Paris, 1140; but some 
authorities say not before 1215. In England, it is 
contended that the date is much higher, and some 


COLLIERY ACCIDENTS. 


hold that Bede obtained a degree formally at Cam- 
bridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, and that they 
were the first doctors of these universities; see Cam- 
bridge, Oxford, Aberdeen, Queen’s Colleges, Heralds, 
Working Men’s Colleges, Preceptors, &c. 


FOUNDED A.D. 


Birmingham, Queen’s College b A oe LRLOSe 
Cheshunt College - P é : : - 1792 
Doctors’ Commons, civil la : A : » 1070 
Dulwich College : . 1619 
Eton College . ; i : : oad 
Glasgow College, now University . + 451 
Gresham College . : ; 4 ; : 2 SLGOE 
Haileybury, or East India College . 1806; closed 1858 
Highbury College F : : . : - 1826 
Highgate : : - <. EyO4 
King’s College, London . . 1829 
Maynooth College . : BEET OS 
Military College, Sandhurst . ~ - 1799 
Music, Royal college of ; see Music. - 1883 
Naval College, Portsmouth . 5 -  I722 
New College, St. John’s Wood . . 1850 
Owens College, Manchester - 1870 
Physicians, London Ae dye 
Physicians, Dublin - 1667 
Physicians, Edinburgh . 1681 
St. Andrews, Scotland . 1410 
Sion College, incorporated SpwtG30) 
Surgeons, London . 2 - 1745 
Surgeons, re-incorporated 1800 
Surgeons, Dublin. ‘ r - 1786 
Surgeons, Edinburgh (new) . - 1803 
Trinity College, Dublin - 1591 
University, London 1826 


Winchester College . batch Gee - : - 1387 
COLLIERY ACCIDENTS, see under Coal. 
COLLISIONS, see Sea. 


COLLODION, a film obtained from the solu- 
tion of gun-cotton in ether. The dodised collodion 
extensively employed in photography, was invented 
by Mr. F. Scott Archer, and announced in the 
‘¢Chemist,’’ in March, 1851. On the premature 
death of himself and wife, a pension of 50/. per an- 
num was granted by government to his three orphan 
children. 


COLLYRIDIANS, Arab heretics who offered 
collyrides, little cakes, to the Virgin Mary asa goddess 
in the 4th century. 


COLMAR, W. Germany; an imperial city 
13th century; taken by the Swedes, 1632; by 
Louis XIV. of France, who destroyed the fortifica- 
tions, 1673; ceded to France, 1697; with Alsace, 
restored to Germany, 1871, 


COLNEY HATCH, Middlesex. 


lunatic asylum here erected, 1851. 


COLOGNE (Colonia Agrippina), on the Rhine, 
the site of a colony founded by the empress Agrip- 
pina, about 50; an imperial town, 957; a member 
of the Hanseatic league, 1260. Many ecclesiastical 
councils held here, 782-1 $30. The Jews were ex- 
pelled from it in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, 
and it then fell into decay. Cologne was taken by 
the French under Jourdan, Oct. 1794. The arch- 
bishopric secularised,? 1801 ; ent to Prussia, 
1814. 
The cathedral, termed dom (containing many sup- 

posed relics, such as the heads of the magior three 

kings, bones of the 11,000 virgins, &c.) founded 

by abp. Conrad von MHochstade or Hoch- 

stettin ; architect Gerhard von Riehl or Rile 
15 Aug. 1248 
+ I509 


County 


Building intermittent ; suspended . c : 
Great collections made for resuming it by Prussia 
1814 et seq. 
Repairs completed ; new buildings founded 
4 Sept. 1842 
The body of the cathedral opened in the presence of 
the king, 6ooth anniversary of the foundation 
15 Aug. 1848 


200 


COLONIES. 


International industrial exhibition opened by the 
crown prince 2 A A . : 2 June, 
Dispute between the king and the chapter respect- 
ing the electing an archbishop, settled ; the pope 
appoints Melchers . P : c : Jan, 
Congress of Old Catholics meet(whichsee)20, 22 Sept. 
Archbishop Melchers arrested by government, 
30 March, 

A colossal statue of Frederick-William IIL, 22 fect 
high, with pedestrian figures at the base (Blucher, 
Humboldt, and others), the work of Blaser and 
Calendrelli, subscribed for by Rhinelanders ; un- 
veiled by the emperor William I. 26 Sept. 
The building reported finished, 14 Aug. ; solemnly 
opened by the emperor and other German sove- 
reigns . < A F 15 Oct. 188: 


COLOMBIA, a republic of S. America, forme: 
of states which declared their independence, Dec 


1819; civil war ensued and the union was dis 
solved, 


186 
186 
187 
187 


187 


Union of New Grenada and Venezuela 17 Dec. 181 
The royalists defeated at, Carabobo 24 June, 182 
Bolivar named dictator : i 10 Feb. 182 
Alliance between Colombia and Mexico 30 June ,, 

so Ke 


Independence of Colombia recognised . 
Alliance with Guatemala . ; : - 
Congress at Lima names Bolivar president, 
dictator ; : . , . 23 Nov. 182 
Padilla’s insurrection : ‘ ; - 9 April, 182 
Conspiracy of Santander against the life of Bolivar, 


March, ,, 
Aug. ; 


25 Sept. 5, 
Venezuela separates from Grenada Nov. 182 
Bolivar resigns, 4 April; dies . 17 Dec. 183 
Santander dies : 26 May, 184 


The republic now named Colombia instead of New 


Grenada ; president, general E. Salgar . ey 
Manuel Murillo Toro, president A x April, 187 
Santiago Perez, president . ‘ : . rt April, 187 
Aquileo Parra, president = . .z April, 187 
General Trujillo, president, proclaimed, _x April, 187 
General R. Nufiez, president, proclaimed, x April, 18. 
President, Zyaldua died Fi 2 ; Dec. 188 
T. E. Otalora, president. ~t Aprils 


Nunez elected president ‘ = ‘ Sept. 

Insurrection ; Government Troops defeated at Tunja 

announced g Jan. 1885; peace restored 1o Jan. 

Fresh insurrection; government troops defeated 

‘at Barranquilla, announced 2 March, ,, 
(See New Grenada, and Venezuela. ) 


COLOMBO (Ceylon), fortified in 1638 by th! 
Portuguese, who were expelled by the Dutch i: 
1666; the latter surrendered it to the British, 1/ 
Feb. 1796; see Ceylon, 1803, 1845. 


COLON (:). The colon and period were adopte 
by Thrasymachus about 373 B.c. (Swidas), an 
known to Aristotle. The colon and semicolon (s| 
first used in British literature in the 16th century. | 


COLONEL (from Italian colonna, a column) 
the highest regimental military officer. The tern 
had become common in England in the 16th century 


COLONIAL, see under Colonies. 


nies, frequently founded by political exiles, soo 
became independent of the mother country. Th 
Roman colonies, on the contrary, continued in clos 
connection with Rome itself; being governed almos| 
entirely by military law.—The Cotont&s or GREA’ 
Britain partake of both these characters. The N 
American colonies revolted in consequence of th: 
attempt at taxation without their consent in 1764) 
The loyal condition of the present colonies now i| 
due to the gradual relaxation of the pressure of th| 
home government. The population of the Britis] 
colonies in all parts of the oe was err ae ii) 
1861, at 142,952,243; in 1877, 204,254,406. 
revenue of theracioates was sdimatea teins to b; 
1,492,000/., the expenditure, 59,353,000/. The ac| 
or the abolition of slavery in the British colonies| 


= 


COLONIES. 


and for compensation to the owners of slaves 
20,000,000/, sterling), was peed in 1833. All 
the slaves throughout the British colonies were 
emancipated on 1 Aug. 1834. Germany and other 
‘powers showed great desire for colonization in 
1884-5. See Bishops (Colonial), Secretaries, and 
‘Separate Articles. 


‘BE. J. Payne’s “‘History of European Colonies” 
(1877) is good. 

Resolution of House of Commons recognises the 
claims of colonies to protection from conse- 
quences of imperial policy, but “is of opinion that 
colonies exercising rights of self-government 
ought to undertake the main responsibility of pro- 
viding for their own internal order and security, 
and ought to assist in their own external defence” 


Colony, or Possession. Date of Settlement, &c. 


1862 


African Forts ‘ : ‘ about 1618 
wes. : - Settlement about 1666 
Antigua . . Settlement . : - 1632 
Ascension. . Occupied. LOLS 
Australia, South . Settlement . Load 
Australia, W. (Swan river). Settlement . at ty Te28 
‘Bahama Island . i . Settlement 1629, et seq. 
Barbadoes . Settlement . sue) TODS 
Bengal e - Settlement . about 1652 
Berbice . . Capitulation, Sept. 1803 
Bermudas . . Settlements 1609, et seq. 
Bombay . A ‘ . See India 3 ns LOOS 
British Burmah . ~pee,Pegu. 2 . 1862 
British Columbia . . Settlement LOSS 
Canada : < . Capitulation, Sept. 1759-60 
Cape Breton . “ . Ceded . : . 1763 
Cape Coast Castle . By cession . Mintel, 
Cape of Good Hope . Capitulation . Jan. 1806 
Ceylon a ‘ . All acquired Pe TOES 
Cyprus ; . Ceded (underconditions) 1878 
Demerara and Essequibo . Capitulation Sept. 1803 
Dominica . : ? . Ceded by France + 1763 
Elmina and Dutch Guinea . By cession Feb. 1872 
Falkland Islands . . See Falkland Islands . 1833 
Biji a : pt Cened: . . A ened 
Gambia . ; . Settlement LOT 
Gibraltar : . . . Capitulation Aug. 1704 
sold Coast . 4 : . Settlement . about 1618 
q0zZO OC ; . Capitulation, Sept. 1800 
arenada ss, : ; . Ceded by France . . 1763 
Griqua-land, S. Africa - Settlement . 27 Oct. 1871 
Guiana, British . Capitulation : - 1803 
Heligoland . . Capitulation . 1807 
Honduras. : . By treaty - 1670 
Hong-Kong (Victoria) . Ceded . 1841 
Jamaica . < : . Capitulation . 1655 
Labuan . See Borneo. . 1846 
Lagos , . Ceded . : . 1861 
Madras : 4 . See India - 1639 
Malacca (under Bengal) 

Malta . 7 7 . Capitulation Sept. 1800 
Mauritius . Capitulation Dec. 1810 
Montserrat . . Settlement piv 8634 
Natal. . Settlement . . 1823 
iNevis . 3 : . Settlement ~~ » 1628 
New Brunswick . . Settlement - 1622-1713 
Newfoundland . Settlement about 1500 
‘New Guinea ‘ ‘ ‘ . en ax8C4 
New South Wales . . Settlement . . 1787 
New Zealand . . Settlement . . 1840 
‘Nova Scotia . . . Settlement . . 1622 
(Fegn . , , ; . Conquered . 1852 
2ort Phillip . . . See Victoria, 

°rince Edward Island =. Capitulated . 1745 
°rince of Wales Island 

-_(Penang) . A . . Settlement . . 1786 
‘Queensland, N. 8. Wales . Settlement . 1860 
‘Sierra Leone . Settlement . 


‘ler } é S ; StL 7O7 
United with other settlements as West Africa, Feb. 1866. ] 
singapore . Purchased ; ys Eero 


3t. Christopher’s . Settlement . 1623 
jt. Helena. . Capitulated meek eh LOOO 
St. Lucia . Capitulation June, 1803 

it. Vincent . Ceded by France : 1703 


>swan River, 


L . See West Australia. 
-Jasmania 


- See Van Dieman’s Land 


lobago i 3 ’ ey . Ceded by France. 0703 
ortola 3 . . Settlement . 1666 
_ Tansvaal é . Annexed  , -- 1877 


201 


public at Christmas, 1856, at one shilling. 


COLOSSEUM. 
Trinidad f 3 . Capitulation . Feb. 1797 
Van Diemen’s Land . Settlement . eS RLOOS 
Vancouver Island . . Settlement . 1781 
Victoria (Port Phillip) . Settlement . 1850 
Victoria . : ; . See Hong-Kong. 
Virgin Isles . -. Settlement . - 1666 


Colonial bishoprics fund, established . : . 

Colonial Branch Army Act passed. ig: 

Colonial Clergy Act, 37 & 38 Vict. ec. 77, passed 7 
Aug. 1874, removes certain disabilities of persons 
not ordained by bishops of the united church 
of England and Ireland. 

Colonial and Continental Church Society (formerly 
‘Colonial Church Society”), took its name x May, 
1861. It deals with colonial dioceses and British 
residents on the continent, 

CoLonraL DEFENCES COMMISSION (including the earl 
of Carnarvon, Mr. Childers, and others), appointed 
about : s A 3 ‘ 12 Sept 

Works recommended by government ; expenditure 
imperial and local . : : 3 : ; ' 

Colonial Naval Defence Act. to enable the Colonies 
to take effectual measures for their defence against 
attacks by sea, was passed in 2 : 5 4 

Colonial Society, established to promote the in- 
terests of the colonies, lord Bury, president, held 
its first meeting 26 June, 1868, and first annual 
meeting 28 June, 1869, when it assumed the title 
“Royal.” On 7 March, 1870, it became ‘‘ The 
Royal Colonial Institute ;” incorporated 1882. The 
“* Proceedings” have been published. A colonial 
congress met at Amsterdam 1g Sept. 1883. 

Exhibition of the products, manufactures, and arts 
of India and the colonies in London in 1886 ; Royal 
Commission . : 3 z a : 8 Noy. 

The formation of a National and Colonial League 
was resolved on at a meeting held at Cannon- 
street, London . : 5 Jan. 1870 


COLORADO (so called from its coloured 
ranges), a territory of the United States of North 
America, was organised 2 March, 1861; proclaimed 
a state, Aug. 1876; capital, Denver City. 

Gold found here, 1858, yield up to 1878, nearly 80 tons 
pure gold; 770 tons silver; and much copper and 
lead. 

CoLoRADO BEETLE, so called from its striped colouring, 
was first found in Wisconsin, was described by Thomas 
Say, and named doryphora decemlineata, in 1824, when 
he found it near the Upper Missouri. It soon took to 
feeding on potatoes, as they were planted, and gradually 
proceeded eastward through Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois, 
Ohio, &c., to the New England states, destroying the 
crops, 1859 et seg. In 1873 it reached New York, and 
the Atlantic seaboard in 1874, swarming there in 1876, 
and attacking Canada. The fear of its invading Britain 
led to an order in council respecting its destruction, 
&e., 14 Aug. 1877. Very few specimens arrived. 


COLOSSEUM, see Coliseum. The building in 
Regent’s Park, London, was planned by Mr. Hornor, 
a land surveyor, and commenced in 1824, by Peto 
and Grissell, from designs by Decimus Burton. The 
chief portion was a polygon of 16 faces, 126 feet in 
diameter externally: the walls were three feet thick 
at the ground: the height to the glazed dome 112 
feet. On the canvas walls of the dome was painted 
the panoramic view of London, completed in 1829 
from sketches by Mr. Hornor taken from the summit 
of St. Paul’s cathedral in 1821-2. The picture covered 
above 46,000 square feet, more than an acre of can- 
vas. The different parts were combined by Mr. E, 
T. Parris, who in 1845 repainted the whole. In 
1848 a panorama of Paris was exhibited ; succeeded, 
in 1850, by the lake of Thorn in Switzerland; in 
1851 the panorama of London was reproduced. In 
1848 the theatre, with the panorama of Lisbon, was 
added. In 1831, when Mr. Hornor failed, the esta- 
blishment was sold for 40,0007. to Messrs. Braham 
and Yates. In 1843 it was bought by Mr. D. Mon- 
tague for 23,000 guineas. Timbs. After having 
been long closed,-the building was opened to the 
Under 


1841 
1866 


1879 
1884 


1865 


1884 


COLOSSUS. 


the charge of Dr. Bachhoffner, it continued open till 
the spring of 1864, when it was. again closed. The 
sale of thesite wasannounced 1870. It wasannounced 
in Dec. 1871, that a company was about to transform 
the building and grounds into club-chambers, baths, 
a winter garden, &c. In 1874, it was sold; large 
mansions haye been erected on the site. 


COLOSSUS or RuHopks, a brass statue of 
Apollo, seventy cubits high, esteemed one of the 
wonders of the world, was erected at the port of 
Rhodes in honour of the sun, by Chares of Lindus, 
disciple of Lysippus, 290 or 288 B.c. It was thrown 
down by an earthquake about 224 B.c. The figure 
is said traditionally to have stood upon two moles, 
a leg being extended on each side of the harbour, so 
that a vessel in full sail could enter between. The 
statue was in ruins for nearly nine centuries, and 
had never been repaired ; when the Saracens, taking 
Rhodes, pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal, 
weighing 720,900 lbs., to a Jew, who is said to have 
loaded 900 camels in transporting it to Alexandria 
about 653. Dufresnoy. 


COLOUR is to light what pitch is to sound, 
according to the undulatory theory of Huyghens 
(about 1678), established by Dr. T. Young, and 
others. The shade varies according to the number 
of vibrations. 458 millions of millions of vibra- 
tions in a second attributed to the red end of the 
spectrum; to the violet, 727; see Spectrum.* See 
Blue, for National official colours. 


COLSTON DAY, Nov. 13, see Bristo/. 


COLUMBIA, a federal district round the city 
of Washington in Maryland; established 1800. 
Slavery was abolished in 1862, see Brit. Columbia. 


COLUMBIA MARKET, Bethnal Green, E. 
ondon; erected by Mr. Darbishire, architect, in 
the pointed Gothic style, and inaugurated by Miss 
(now lady) Burdett Coutts, the proprietor, 28 April, 
1869. It cost her 200,000/. It was opened as a 
wholesale fish-market, 21 Feb. 1870, but was not 
successful. On 3 Noy. 1871, lady Burdett Coutts 
presented the market to the corporation of London, 
and on 18 July, 1872, she received publicly the 
freedom of that city. 
The market did not succeed, and the buildings were 
restored to the donor ; : - Dec. 
Again opened on liberal terms under superintend- 
ence of Great Eastern, Great Northern, and Mid- 
land railway companies A eer sec. 
Reported failure; proposed use as a co-operative 
store : 3 : 4 - : . April, 
Re-opened as a fish-market 17 July, 1883 ; reported 
flourishing 5 , 2 - Aug. 1884 
COLUMBIUM, a metal discovered by C. 
Hatchett, in a mineral named columbite, in 1801. 
It is identical with niobium, and not with tantalum, 
as supposed by some chemists. Watts. 


COMBAT, SINGLE. Trial by this commenced 
by the Lombards, 659. Baronius. It was intro- 
duced into England for accusations of treason, if 
neither the accuser nor the accused could produce 
good evidence ; see High Constable, and Appeal of 
Battle. 

A battle by single combat was fought before the king, 

William II., and the peers, between Geoffrey Bay- 


1874 


1875 
1878 


* Some persons(about 65 outof 1154)cannot distinguish 
between colours, and are termed Colowr blind. The 
defect said to have been first described by Priestley, 
Phil. Trans. 1777. In 1859, professor J. Clerk Maxwell 
invented spectacles to remedy this defect, which is also 
called ‘‘ Daltonism,” after John Dalton, the chemist, to 
whom scarlet appeared drab-colour. Dr. George Wilson, 
“‘ Researches on Colour-Blindness,” 1847; Dr. Joy 
Jeffries, ‘‘ Colour Blindness,” 1870. 


202 


COMETS. 


nard and William, earl of Eu, who was accused by 
Baynard of high treason; and Baynard having con 
quered, Eu was deemed convicted, and blinded anc 
mutilated, 1096. 

A combat proposed between Henry of Bolingbroke, duk 
of Hereford (afterwards Henry IV.), and Thomas, duk« 
of Norfolk, was forbidden by Richard II. Sept. 1398. 

A trial was appointed between the prior of Kilmainhan 
and the earl of Ormond, the former having impeachec 
the latter of high treason, quarrel taken up by th 
king, decided without fighting, 1446. 

A combat was proposed between lord Reay and Mr 
David Ramsey, in 1631, but the king prevented it. 

In a combat in Dublin castle, before the lords justice: 
and council, between Connor MacCormack O’Conno: 
and Teig Mac-Gilpatrick O’Connor, the former had hi: 
head cut off, and presented to the lords, 1553. 


COMBINATION. Laws were enacted fron 
the time of Edward I. downwards, regulating th 
price of labour and the relations between master. 
and workmen, and prohibiting the latter from com: 
bining for their own protection. All these laws wer 
repealed, 6 Geo. IY. c. 129, in 1825, due protectior 
being given to both parties. The act was amende: 
in 1859 by 22 Vict. c. 34, when the subject was mucl 
discussed, in consequence of the strike in the build 
ing trades, see Sheffield and Strikes. 


COMBS, found in Pompeii; Combmakers’ com 
pany incorporated, 1636 or 1650. 


COMBUSTION, see Spontaneous. 


,COMEDIE FRANCAISE, Paris, establishe: 
T0650. 2 


At the death of Moliére in 1673, his company of actors 
at the Palais Royal, separated into two bodies. Th 
fusion of these formed the French National Theatre 
founded by Louis XIV. by a decree 18 Aug., firs 
performance 25 Aug. 1680; the actors, 15 men, andi. 
women, being the best of the time. The theatre wa 
much depressed in the king’s last years, revived unde 
Louis XY. ; ceased to exist in 1799 ; and was restore: 
in 1803. 

The oontaae visited London in 1879; first appearanc 
at the Gaiety, 2 June, 1879; eminent actors, Madam 
Sarah Bernhardt, MM. Got, Delaunay, and Coquelin 
and Miles. Brohan and Favart. 

The zooth anniversary of the establishment celebrate: 
21 Oct., et seg. 1880. 


COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy ani 
lyric poetry. Susarion and Dolon, the inventors o 
theatrical exhibitions, 562 B.c., performed the firs 
comedy at Athens, on a waggon or movable stage 
on four wheels, for which they were rewarded wit! 
a basket of figs and a cask of wine; see Arundelia 
Marbles, and Drama. 


Comedy, for libel, prohibited at Athens, 440 B.C. 

Aristophanes called the prince of ancient comedy, 43 
B.c., and Menander that of the new, 320 B.c. 

Of Plautus, 20 comedies are extant; he flourished 220 B.¢ 

Statius Cecilius wrote upwards of 30 comedies ; flourishe: 
at Rome 180 B.c. 

Comedies of Lelius and Terence first acted 154 8.¢. 

First regular comedy performed in England about a.p 


I I. 

It eae said of Sheridan that he wrote the best comed: 
(the School for Scandal), the best opera (the Duenna) 
and the best afterpiece (the Critic), in the English lan 
guage (1775-1779). 

COMETS (Greek come, a hair). It is recordec 
that more than 600 have been seen. Mr. Hind, ix 
his little work on comets, gives a chronological list 
The first discovered and described accurately was by 
Nicephorus, 1337. There are said to be 17,500,001 
in the solar system. Amédée Guillemin’s ** Worl 
of Comets,” by J. Glaisher, published 1877. 

At the birth of the great Mithridates two large comet: 
appeared, which were seen for seventy-two days to 
gether, whose splendour eclipsed that of the mid-day 


sun, and occupied the fourth part of the heavens, abow 
135 B.c. Justin. 


COMETS. 


A grand comet seen, 1264. Its tail is said to have ex- 

mded roo®. It is considered to have reappeared in 

1556, with diminished splendour ; and was expected to 
appear again about Aug. 1858 or Aug. 1860. Hind. 

A remarkable one seen in England, June, 1337. Stow. 

Tycho Brahe demonstrated that comets are extraneous 
to our atmosphere, about 1577. 

A comet which terrified the people from its near approach 
to the earth was visible from 3 Nov. 1679 to 9 March, 

1680. It enabled Newton to demonstrate that comets, 
as well as planets, aresubject to the law of gravitation, 
and most probably move in elliptic orbits, 1704. 

A most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passed 
within two million of miles of theearth. This beauti- 
ful comet, moving with immense swiftness, was seen 
in London ; its tail stretched across the heavens like 
a prodigious luminous arch, 36,000,000 miles in length. 

The computed length of that which appeared in 1811, and 
which was so remarkably conspicuous, was, on 15 
Oct. according to the late Dr. Herschel, upwards of 
100,000,000 miles, and its apparent greatest breadth, at 
the same time, 15,000,000 miles. It was visible all the 
autumn to the naked eye. Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. 
for 1812. Another comet, Dec. 1823. 

HAutey’s Comet, 1682. Named after one of the greatest 
astronomers of England. He first proved that many 
of the appearances of comets were but the periodical 
returns of the same bodies, and he demonstrated that 
the comet of 1682 was the same with the comet of 1456, 
1531, and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute obser- 
ation of the first-mentioned comet, and being struck 
by its wonderful resemblance to the comets described 
as having appeared in those years: Halley, therefore, 
first fixed the identity of comets, and predicted their 
periodical returns. Vince’s Astronomy. The revolution 
of Halley’s comet is performed in about 75 years ; it 
appeared (as he had predicted) in 1759, and came to its 
perihelion on March 13 ; its last appearance was 1835; 

___ its next will be ror0. 

Encke’s Comet. First discovered by M. Pons, 26 Nov. 
1818, but justly named by astronomers after professor 
Encke, for his success in detecting its orbit, motions, 
and perturbations ; it is, like the preceding, one of the 
three comets which have appeared according to predic- 
tion, and its revolutions are made in 3 years and 1x 5 
weeks. Thirteenth return observed at Copenhagen by 

Mz. d’Arrest, 20 July, 1863; observed in England, 14 
Oct. 1871 ; seen 13 April, 1875 ; in New South Wales, 
3 Aug. 1878. 

Brexa’s Comet has been an object of fear to many on 
account of the nearness with which it has approached, 
not the earth, but a point of the earth’s path ; it was 
first discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian officer, 28 Feb. 
1826. It is one of the three comets whose re-appear- 
ance was predicted, its revolution being performed in 
6 years and 38 weeks. Its second appearance was in 
1832, when the time of its perihelion passage was 27 
Novy. ; its third was in 1839; its fourth in 1845; and 
its fifth in 1852; it has since vanished. 

Donati’s ComET, so called from its having been first ob- 
served by Dr. Donati, of Florence, 2 June, 1858, being 
then calculated to be 228,000,000 miles from our earth. 
It was very brilliant in England in the end of September 
and October following, when the tail was said to be 
40,000,000 miles long. On the roth of October it was 
nearest to the earth; on the x18th it was near coming 
into collision with Venus. Opinions varied as to this 
comet’s brilliancy compared with that of 1811. 

[HE GREAT ComET of 1861 was first seen by Mr. Tebbutt 
at Sydney, in Australia, 13 May ; by M. Goldschmidt 

and others in France and England on 29, 30 June. The 

- nucleus was about 400 miles in diameter, with a long 
bush-like tail, travelling at the rate of 10,000,000 miles 
in 24 hours. On 30 June, it was suggested that we 

wae in the tail—there being “a phosphorescent auroral 
glare.” 


A tailless comet was discovered in the constellation Cas- 

 siopeeia, by M. Seeling, at Athens, on 2 July, and by 
M. Tempel, at Marseilles, 2 and 3 July, 1862. 

A comet detected at Harvard by Mr. Tuttle, 18 July, and 

by Rosa, at Rome, on 25 July, 1862. It was visible by 
_the naked eye in August and September. ) 

ix telescopic comets were observed in 1863, and several 

— In 1864. 

\ fine comet appeared in the southern hemisphere, and 

_ Was visible in South America and Australia, in Jan,- 
Feb. 1865. 


203 


COMMERCE. 


M. Babinet considered that comets had so little density 


that the earth might pass through the tail of one with- 
out our being aware of it, 4 May, 1857. 


Schiaparelli, of Milan, discovered that the August meteors 


move round the sun in an orbit almost identical with 
the second comet of 1862-1866. 


One discovered at Carlsruhe by Dr. Winnecke, 13 June, 


1868 ; a bright one by Paul Henry, 23 Aug. 1873. 

Shin small comets discovered by various astronomers, 
1873-81. 

A bright comet appeared in the southern hemisphere, 
large nucleus, fan-shaped tail ; visible in the southern 
hemisphere, May ; in London, 22 June et seq. 188r. 

ScHA&BERLE’s comet visible to naked eye, N.W. 26 Aug. 
1881, and Jan. 1885. 

ENCKE’s comet visible at Washington, &c., 18-21 Sept. 
1881. 

DENNING’s comet appears 4 Oct. 188r. 

New comet discovered at Dudley, Boston, U.S. 18 Mar. 
1882, 

Another at Madeira, at Ealing, near London, &e. (pro- 
bably that of 1843 and 1880) 17 Sept. 1882; at Paris, 
27 Sept. ; seen at Vienna, 29 Sept. 1882. 

Another at Athens, 8 Oct. 1882. 

Another in North America, 23-24 Feb. 1883, 

Another in North America, 2 Sept. 1883. 

Comet seen in 8.W., 14 Jan. 1884. 

New comet discovered at Strasburg, 20 Sept. 1884. 

Coaaia’s Comer, discovered by him at Marseilles, 
18 April, became visible (near Polar star) in London 
about 4 July; gradually increased in brightness, and 
passed out of sight ina few weeks, in Europe ; and 
appeared brilliant at Melbourne, 1 Aug. 1874. 


COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF, an office in the 
British army frequently vacant. When the duke 
of Wellington resigned the office, on becoming prime 
minister, in 1828 , his successor, lord Hill, became 
commander of the forces, or general commanding- 
in-chief. 

CAPTAINS-GENERAL. 


Duke of Albemarle . - - 4 3 ; - 1660 
Duke of Monmouth 3 é F - 1678 
Duke of Marlborough H . 1690 
Schomberg, duke of Leinster . 1691 
Duke of Ormond F é é Bayes: 
Duke of Marlborough, again . 1714 
Duke of Cumberland “ ‘ - 1744 
Duke of York : 2 ‘ : - 1799 
COMMANDERS-IN-CHIEF, 
Duke of Monmouth . 3 : ; - 1674 
Duke of Marlborough . E : é - 1690 
Duke of Schomberg . - . - 1691 
Duke of Ormond . . I7IL 
Earl of Stair. ; - 1744 
Field-Marshal Wade - 1745 
Lord Ligonier , 3 - 1757 
Marquis of Granby ; A : , . 1766 
Lord Amherst, general on the staff . - 1778 
Gen. Seymour Conway ; . 1782 
Lord Amherst, again : AG ier; 
Frederick, duke of York 11 Feb. 1795 
Sir David Dundas 25 March, 1809 


Frederick, duke of York, again . 29 May, x8xrr 
Duke of Wellington 22 Jan.—s5 May; 27 Aug. 1827 
Lord Hill, general commanding-in-chief 25 Feb. 1828 
Duke of Wellington, again . ; é . 15 Aug. 1842 
Viscount Hardinge (died 24 Sept. 1856), general 
commanding-in-chief $ - - . 28Sept. 1852 
Duke of Cambridge, ditto . . 15 July, 1856 


COMMEMORATION, see Encenia. 
COMMENDAM, “a benefice or church 


living, which being void, is commended to the 
charge of some sufficient clerk, to be supplied until 
it may be conveniently perp ed with a pastor.’’ 
Blount. By6&7 Will. IV. c. 77 (1836), future 
bishops were prohibited from holding 2” commendam 
the livings they held when consecrated. 


COMMERCE early flourished in Arabia, 
Egypt, and among the Pheenicians, see the descrip- 
tion of Tyre, 588 B.c., Hzek. xxvii. In later times 
it was spread over Europe by a confederacy of 
maritime cities, 1241 (see Hanse Towns); by the 


COMMISSION. 


discoveries of Columbus; and by the enterprises of 
the Dutch and Portuguese; see Exports, Im- 
ports, and articles connected with this subject. 
The first treaty of commerce made by England with 
any foreign nation was entered into with the 
Flemings, 1 Edw. I. 1272. The second was with 
Portugal and Spain, 2 Edw. II. 1308. Anderson ; 
see Treaties. Hertslet’s Collection, in 12 vols. 
8vo, published 1827-59, has a copious index. 
An important commercial treaty was concluded with 
France (see French Treaty) é : - aes 
Chambers of Commerce originated at Marseilles in 
the x4th century, and similar chambers were 
institited in all the chief cities in France, about 
These ehambers suppressed in 1791 ; restored by 
decrees . é E : 3 : . 3Sept. 
A chamber of commerce was started by John 
Weskett, merchant, he receiving payment, about 
The chamber of commerce at Glasgow was esta- 
blished 1783; at Edinburgh, 1785 ; Manchester, 
1820; Hull Z F : : ; : ee 
Associated (twenty-seven) chambers of commerce 
(not including Liverpool, Manchester, and Glas- 
gow) met at Westminster for interchange of 
opinions on various questions . . 21 Feb. 
Annual meetings held since ; 46 met 18 Feb. 1873 ; 
21st - : - : : “ b x Feb. 1881 
Meeting at Paris, 6 May, x873; at Newcastle-on- 
Tyne, 22 Sept. 1874; at Leeds, 5 Sept. 1875; at 
Bristol, 12, 13 Sept. 1876 ; at Hull, rz Sept. 18775 
at Hawick, &. . ° : : 24 Sept. 
The Metropolitan chamber of commerce constituted, 
Sept. issued prospectus, about ro Oct. 1881 5 600 
members first general meeting ; Mr. Magniac, pre- 
sident . 2 S 4 : - 25 Jan. 
First annual meeting . : “ 24 Jan. 
International Congress of Commerce at Brussels 
6-10 Sept. ,, 
A Minister of commerce in England proposed 1880, 
dropped . - . 4 : . 2 . 1882 
Commercial Travellers’ schools, Pinner, founded 
1845 ;—Benevolent Institution, Finsbury - »- 1849 


COMMISSION, see High Commission, Courtof. 
COMMISSIONNAIRES, street messengers 


in Paris. Those in London were originally pen- 
sioned soldiers wounded either in the Crimea or 
India, first employed in the west-end. They were 
appointed by a society, founded in Feb. 1859 by 
capt. Edward Walter, which is now under the 
patronage of the queen and the commander-in- 
chief. The charges are regulated by a tariff. In 
Jan. 1861 the society commenced the gratuitous 
issue of a Monthly Advertising Circular. In March, 
1864, there were 250 commissionnaires in London ; 
in Noy. 1866, about 340; in June, 1868, 377; in 
Oct. 1872, 500. On 17 June, 1865, capt. Walter 
resigned, and a permanent system of administration 
was formed. In 1865 commissionnaires were first 
engaged as private night-watchmen. A testimonial 
(piece of plate) from the officers of the army and 
pay was presented to Captain Walter, 14 June, 
1884. 

COMMITTEES, Standing and Grand, were 
directed to be appointed by the new rules for pro- 
cedure passed by the House of Commons in 1882, 
for facilitating the progress of legislation. The first 
grand committee a trade, shipping, &c.) met 9 
April, 1883; another (on law, &c.) soon after. 


COMMON COUNCIL oF Lonpon. Its 
organisation began about 1208. The charter of 
Henry I. mentions the folk-mote, a Saxon appella- 
tion for a court or assembly of the people. The 
general place of meeting of the folk-mote was in 
the open air at St. Paul’s-cross, St. Paul’s church- 
yard. It was not discontinued till after Henry III.’s 
reign; when certain representatives were chosen 
out of each ward, who, being added to the lord 
mayor and aldermen, constituted the court of com- 
mon council. At first only two were returned for 


1860 


1700 
1851 


1782 


1837 


1865 


1880 


204 


COMMON PLEAS. 


each ward; but the number was enlarged in 1347, 
and since. This council, which meets every Thurs- 
day, is elected annually 21 Dec., St. Thomas’s-day. 
A Common Hail is held occasionally. The common 
council supported the prince of Orange in 1688, and 
queen Caroline in 1820. 


COMMON LAW oF ENGLAND, an ancient 
collection of unwritten maxims and customs (/eges 
non scripte), of British, Saxon, and Danish origin, 
which has subsisted immemorially in this kingdom; 
and although somewhat impaired by the rude shock 
of the Norman conquest, has weathered the violence 
of the times. At the parliament of Merton, 1236, 
‘Call the earls and barons,” says the parliament 
roll, ‘with one voice answered, that they would 
not change the laws of England, which have 
hitherto been used and approved;’’ eminently the 
law of the land; see Bastard. The process, prac- 
tice, and mode of pleading in the superior courts of 
common law, were amended in 1852 and 1854. 


COMMON PLEAS, Court oF, In ENG- 
LAND, in ancient times followed the king’s person, 
and is distinct from that of the King’s Bench; but 
on the grant of Magna Charta by king John, 
in 1215, it was fixed at Westminster. In 1833 the 
mode of procedure in all the superior courts was made 
uniform. In England, no barrister under the degree 
of serjeant could plead in the court of common pleas; 
but in 1846 the privilege was extended to barristers 
practising in the superior courts at Westminster. 
Sat last, July,1875. The Common Pleas division of 
the high court of justice now consists of the chiet 
justice and four judges. See Supreme Court. 


CHIEF JUSTICES. (England.) 

Sir Anthony Browne. 

Sir James Dyer. 

Sir Edmund Anderson. 

Sir Francis Gawdy. 

Sir Edward Coke. 

1613. Sir Henry Hobart. 

1626. Sir Thomas Richardson. 

. Sir Robert Heath. 

. Sir John Finch. 

. Sir Edward Lyttleton. 

. Sir John Bankes. 

. Oliver St. John. 

. Sir Orlando Bridgman, afterwards lord keeper. 

. Sir John Vaughan. 

. Sir Francis North, afterwards lord keeper Guildford 

. Sir Francis Pemberton. 

», Sir Thomas Jones. ~ 

. Sir Henry Bedingfield. :: 

. Sir Robert Wright. 

», sir Edward Herbert. 

. Sir Henry Pollexfen: 

. Sir George Treby. 

. Sir Thomas Trevor, afterwards lord Trevor. 

. Sir Peter King, afterwards lord chancellor King. 

. Sir Robert Eyre. 

. Sir Thomas Reeve. 

. Sir John Willes. . 

. Sir Charles Pratt, afterwards lord chancllr. Camden 

. Sir John Eardley Wilmot. 

. Sir William de Grey, afterwards lord Walsingham 

. Alexander Wedderburne, aft. ld. ch. Loughborough 

. Sir James Eyre. 

. Sir John Scott, afterwards lord chancellor Eldon. 

. Sir Richard Pepper Arden (lord Alvanley) 22 May. 

. Sir James Mansfield, 21 April. 

. Sir Vicary Gibbs, 24 Feb. 

. Sir Robert Dallas, 5 Nov. 

. Sir Robert Gifford, 9 Jan. ; (lord Gifford) ; after 
wards master of the rolls. 

;, Sir William Draper Best, afterwards lord Wynford 
15 Aprik 

. Sir Nicolas C. Tindal, 9 June ; died July, 1846. 

. Sir Thomas Wilde, 11 July ; afterwards lord chan 
cellor Truro. 

1850. Sir John Jervis, 16 July ; died 1 Noy. 1856. 

1856. Sir Alex. Cockburn, Noy. ; ch. j. Q. B. June, 185¢ 


1558. 
1559- 
1582. 
1605. 
1606. 


COMMON PRAYER. 


; 8 : Sir William Erle, June ; retired Nov. 1866. 
7866. Sir William Bovill, 29 Nov. ; died 1 Nov. 1873. 

3. John Duke Coleridge, Lord Coleridge, Nov. ; re- 
ns moved to queen’s bench, Nov. 1880. 
_ The abolition of the distinct divisions of common pleas 
and exchequer was recommended by the judges, 30 Nov. 
and ordered by the privy council 16 Dec. 1880. 
The last Chief Justice of the common pleas (see 
Supreme Court of Judicature Act, 1881). 


% 


is CHIEF JUSTICES. (Ireland). 
1691. Richard Pyne, 5 Jan. 
1695. Sir John Hely, 10 May. 
tjor. Sir Richard Cox, 4 May. 
1703. Robert Doyne, 27 Dec. 
1714. John Forster, 30 Sept. 
1720. Sir Richard Levinge, 13 Oct. 
1724. Thomas Wyndham, 27 Oct. 
1726. William Whitshed, 23 Jan. 
1727. James Reynolds, 8 Noy. 
1740. Henry Singleton, 11 May. 
1754. Sir William Yorke, 4 Sept. 
1761. William Aston, 5 May. 
1765. Richard Clayton, 21 Feb. 
(770. Marcus Patterson, 18 June. 
. Hugh Carleton, afterwards viscount Carleton, 
me 30 April. 
1800. John Toler, afterwards lord Norbury, 22 Oct. 
1827. Lord Plunket, 18 June. 
1830. John Doherty, 23 Dec. 
1850. James Henry Monahan, 23 Sept. 


1878. 
1876. Michael Morris, Jan. 


COMMON PRAYER, Book of, was ordered 
by parliament to be printed in the English language 
‘ont April, 1548. It was voted out of doors by parlia- 
ment, and the Directory (which see) set up in its 
room in 1644, and a proclamation was issued against 
itin 1647. With a few changes the English Com- 
mon Prayer-book is used by the episcopal churches 
in Scotland, Ireland, and North America. 


: died 8 Dec. 


The King’s Primer published odie ESES 
First book of Edward VI. printed . - 7 March, 1549 
Second book of Edward VI. n : m Bs 
First book of Elizabeth (revised) . 4 : - 1559 
King James’s book ee ee eee 
Scotch book of Charles I. . ’ : ‘ : - 1637 
Charles II.’s book (Savoy Conference)nowinuse . 1662 


‘The State services (which had never formed part of the 


* See note * p. 206, rst column. 


ig ‘lala 


205 
AEE anes Se Se Fe ee 


COMMONS. 


Prayer-book, but were annexed to it at the beginning of 
every reign) for 5 November (Gunpowder treason), 30 
Jan. (Charles I.’s execution), and 29 May (Charles II.’s re- 
storation), were ordered to be discontinued ; 17 Jan. 1859. 
Changes in the Lectionary or calendar of lessons 
Were recommended in the third report of the 
Ritual Commission, 12 Jan. 1870. A bill for 
sanctioning these changes passed the house of 
lords, but was dropped in the house of commons 
through want of time, Aug. ; passed 13 July 
[The old tables might be used till x Jan. 1879.) 
The fourth report of the Ritual Commission dis- 
closed great difference of opinion amongst the 
commissioners : : . : . Aug. 
Shortened services and other changes were autho- 
rized by the New Uniformity Act, passed 18 J uly, 
Public Worship Regulation Act (to check ritual- 
ism) passed 4 H : “ : - Aug. 
The Wesleyan Methodists who had used the Prayer- 
book appoint a committee to revise it . Aug. 
The Prayer Book revision society petition the Abp. ‘6 
Canterbury for changes . Jan.-Feb. 1883 


.COMMONS, Hovse£ or, originated with 
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who by the 
Provisions of Oxford ordered returns to be made of 
two knights from every shire, and deputies from 
certain boroughs, to meet such of the barons and 
clergy as were his friends, with a view thereby to 
strengthen his own power in opposition to that of 
his sovereign Henry IIT., 1258. Stow; see Parlia- 
ment. In 1859 Mr. Newmarch estimated the con- 
stituency of England and Wales at 934,000. It was 
largely increased by the reform act of 1867 :—Regis- 
tered parliamentary electors, 1872: England and 
Wales, boroughs, 1,250,019; counties, 801,109. 
Scotland, burghs, 49,025; counties, 79,919. Ire- 
land, boroughs, 171,912; counties, 175,439. Total, 
2,526,423. By the Franchise Act ‘of 1884, the 
electors of the United Kingdom were increased to 
about 5,000,000, and many changes were proposed 
by the Redistribution Bill of 1885. See under 
Reform. 


Parliamentary electors: England and Wales: 1875, 
2,301,266; 1878, 2,416,222; 1879 (May), 2, : - 
1883, 2,632,223. Scotland, 1875, 289,789 ; 1878, Ba 
1879, 307,941; 1883, 226,511. Ireland, 1875, 230,436 3 
1878, 231,515; 1879, 231,289; 1883, 322,967; total, 
1875, 2,821,491 ; 1878, 2,952,005 ; 1879, 2,999,229 ; 1883, 
3,181,701. 


1871 


1870 
1872 


1874 


Old House. By the Reform Act of 1832.* By the Acts of 1867 and 1868. 
ENGLAND. Members. ENGLAND. Members. _ ENGLAND. Members. 
202 Cities or boroughs . . 403 | 187 Cities or boroughs. - 323 | 186 Cities or boroughs} . 286 
40 Counties 7 z 82 40 Counties .. 5 E eres 40 Counties. ; : . 217% 
2 Universities . : ! 4 r Isle of Wight . Santen 1 Isleof Wight . é en ty 
2 Universities 4 = aoa’ | 3 Universities 5 
244 489 | 230 472 | 230 463 
WALES. WALES. _. WALES. 

12 Citiesorboroughs . . 12 14 Cities or boroughs 14 14 Cities or boroughs 15 
‘(imeCounties *. . 12 12 Counties 14 12 Counties 15 
2 24 24 26 28 26 30 
y SCOTLAND. SCOTLAND. Members. _ SCOTLAND. Members 

15 Citiesorburghs. . 15 21 Citiesorburghs . . . -23 22 Cities or burghs. 26 

33 Counties Pies 2.30 33 Counties | : . ao 33 Counties — 3 32 

4 Universities ‘ > 

48 45 | 54 53 | 59 60 
IRELAND. TRELAND. _ IRELAND. 

33 Cities or boroughs . ABS 33 Cities or boroughs . 39 33 Cities or boroughs ft 39 

32 Counties ; : ae, 04 32 Counties A 64 32 Counties . Pr ; a ae 

University . : tag Cia x University . 4 role. rt University . : a 

100 66 105 66 105 

Total 658 376 Total 658 381 Total 658 


oe 


¢ See note f p. 206, rst column. 


COMMONS. 


206 


COMPANIES. » 


By the reform Act of 1884, the county franchise was 
made uniform with that of the boroughs, and about 
2,000,000 voters were added. 


COMMONS. In 1685, of the 37,000,000 acres 
of land in England, about 18,000,000 were moor- 
land, forest, and fen. In 1727, about 3,000,000 
acres more had been brought into cultivation ; and 
from that time to 1844, by means of 4000 private 
acts of parliament, about 7,000,000 acres more 
were enclosed. Since the Inclosure Act of 1845, 
which established commissioners, another 1,000,000 
acres have been enclosed. 

Act for improvement, protection, and management 

of commons near the metropolis, passed . Aug. 1866 
The Commons Preservation Society elected Wm. 

Cowper, president A : : ; Feb. 1867 
<‘ Six Essays on Commons Preservation,” were pub- 

lished. ; - ‘ A : : : é 
It is stated that there are goo,ooo acres of common 

land capable of cultivation in England and Wales, 

Aug. 

Act for the regulation of commons, passed rr Aug. 
Mr. de Morgan, active opponent of enclosures, im- 
prisoned for contempt of court (The Rolls) . Jan. 
Metropolitan Board of Works authorised to secure 
commons, &c. by act passed 7 16 Aug. ,, 


COMMONWEALTH or ENGLAND, the 
term applied to the interregnum between the death 
of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. A 
republic was established at the execution of 
Charles I., 30 Jan. 1649,—a new oath called the 
‘¢Engagement”? was framed, which all officials 
were obliged to take.t Salmon. Oliver Cromwell 
was made protector, 16 Dee. 1653; succeeded by his 
son Richard, 3 Sept. te Monarchy was restored 
8 May, and Charles II. entered London, 29 May, 
1660. 

COMMUNALISTS, or CoMMUNISTS, pro- 
pose to divide France into about a thousand small 
thoroughly independent states, with councils elected 


3? 


1874 
1876 


1878 


by all the population, Paris to be the ruling head. 


They declare that capital and its holders must be 
adapted to nobler uses, or cease to exist. Their 
creed is stated to be atheism and materialism. 
They are intimately connected with the Interna- 
tional Society of workmen (see Workmen), and 
with the communists or socialists (1871-3).|] 


COMMUNES, in France, are territorial divi- 
sions under a mayor. In the 11th century the 
name was given to combinations of citizens, favoured 
by the crown, against the exactions of the nobles. 
In 1356 Stephen Marcel, during the English inva- 
sion, vainly endeavoured to establish a confederation 


* In 1844 Sudbury, and in 1852 St. Alban’s, were dis- 
franchised for bribery and corruption; each having 
previously returned two members ; the aggegate number 
of the house then became 654. In 1861, the forfeited 
seats were thus distributed by act of parliament—two 
additional to the west riding of York, one additional to 
South Lancashire, and one to a newly-created borough, 
Birkenhead. 

+ Disfranchised and replaced, 1867: Lancaster, Yar- 
mouth, Totnes, and Reigate. — Disfranchised, 1870: Be- 
verley and Bridgwater, each two members ; Cashel and 
Sligo, each one member : 652 members, 1878 ; 12 members 
short, through void elections, Aug. 1880, 

t By this oath they swore to be true and faithful to 
the Commonwealth, without king or house of lords. 
The statues of Charles were next day demolished, par- 
ticularly that at the Royal Exchange, and one at the 
west end of St. Paul’s; and in their room the following 
inscription was conspicuously set up: —‘Exit Tyrannus 
Regum ultimus, Anno Libertatis Anglie Restitutce Primo, 
Anno Dom., 1648. Jan. 30.” 

|| M. Dufaure, in opposing the amnesty, 17 May, 1876, 
asserted that the outbreak was organised by about 7000 
communists and rsoo foreigners; 40,000 persons were 
inculpated ; 10,000 tried ; 25,000 dismissed, See France. 


of sovereign cities, having Paris as the governin 
head ; and for six months it was really governed b 
acommune in 1588. After the insurrection of July 
1789, the revolutionary committee which replaced th 
city council took the name of ‘‘ commune of Paris, 
Péthion being mayor. It met at the Hotel ¢ 
Ville, and was definitively constituted, 21 May 
1791. It had great power under Robespierre, an 
fell with him 17 July, 1794; being replaced b 
twelve municipalities. The commune of Paris we 
proclaimed 28 March, 1871, during the insurrectior 
which began 18 March, and ended with the captm 
of the city by the government troops, 28 May follow 
ing. 2245 communists were pardoned by decre 
issued 17 Jan. 1879; and many others afterward: 
A number re-entered Paris, 4 September following 
For the events of the communal rule in Paris, se 
France, 1871. - 


COMMUNION, aname given to the ordinance 
of the Lord’s supper, I Cov. x. 16. Communicatin 
under the form of bread alone is said to have ha 
its rise in the west, under pope Urban II., 1096. Th 
cup was first denied to the laity by the council 
Constance, 1414-18. The fourth Lateran counci 
1215, decreed that every believer should receive tk 
communion at least at Easter. The communion se 
vice of the church of England was set forth in 154 


COMMUTATION, see TZithes. 
COMORN, see Komorn. 
COMPANIES.* Among the earliest con 


mercial companies in England may be named tk 
Steel-yard society, established 1232. The secor 
company was the merchants of St. Thomas a Becke 
in1248. Stow. The third was the Merchant Adve1 
turers, incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. The fo 
lowing are the city companies of London; the fir 
twelve are the chief, and are styled ‘‘ the Honow 
able.’? Many companies are extinct, and many dat 
are doubtful. An inquiry into their affairs was pa 
tially resisted by them in 1835. In 1869 the gro 
income of the endowed charities of the city con 
panies was stated to be above 99,000/. A motion i 
the Commons for inquiry into the revenues an 
other affairs of 89 companies, by Mr. W. H. Jame 
withdrawn, 23 May, 1876. A commission of inquil 
was appointed (the earl of Derby, duke of Bedfor 
lords Coleridge and Sherbrooke, sir R. A. Cros 
&e.),'14 July, 1880. 

In 1884, 7319 liverymen and about r1o,o0co freeme 
estimated annual income about 750,000l., expended ° 
maintenance, education, and charities ; about 75,000! 
spent in entertainments; five reports issued with recor 
mendations for reform, 1884-5. 


. Mercers 


I - 1393 | ro. Ironmongers 14 
2. Grocers . ¢ « 1345 | rr. Vintners 5 13 
3. Drapers : . 1438 | 12. Cloth-workers 14 
4. Fishmongers (salt, —— 
1433;Stock,1509); 13. Dyers 14 
united . . . 1537] 14. Brewers 14 
5. Goldsmiths . _._ 1327] 15. Leather-sellers . 14 
6. Skinners . iis ys 16. Pewterers ee 
7. Merchant Taylors. 1326 | 17. Barber-Surgeons . 14 
8. Haberdashers  . 1448] 18. Cutlers . a 
g. Salters - 1558 | 19. Bakers . 15 


* Bubble companies have been formed, commonly } 
designing persons. Law’s bubble, in 1720-1, was pe 
haps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the Sou 
Sea Bubble, in the same year, was scarcely less memo 
able for its ruin of thousands of families. Many cor 
panies were established in these countries in 1824 ar 
1825, and turned out to be bubbles. Immense loss 
were incurred by individuals, and the families of thor 
sands of speculators were totally ruined. Many railws 
enterprises (1844-5) were termed bubbles. See Lau 
Bubble ; South Sea; Railways ; Joint-Stock Companies. 


oa 


COMPANIK®S’ ACT. 207 CONCHOLOGY. 
go. Wax-chandlers . 1483 | 57. Loriners _ - 1712 | Composite Portraits. By means of photography in 1877-8, 
21. Tallow-chandlers. 1462 | 58. Apothecaries . . 1617 Mr. Francis Galton combined from 2 to g separate 
22. Armourers and 59. Shipwrights . 1605 portraits ; the result was generally an improvement 
Braziers - 1453 | 60. Spectacle-makers. 1629 on the features of the components. 
23. Girdlers f - 1448 | 6x. Clock-makers  . 1631 F 
= Butchers . + 1606 | 62, Glovers eeRTOSG COMP OUND HOUSEHOLDERS (in 
25. Saddlers . . 1272/63. Comb-makers  . 1635 | regard to the payment of rates) were constituted 
26. Carpenters . 1477 | 64. Felt-makers . 1604 by the Small Tenements act of 1851. ‘Their posi- 
27. Cordwainers . 1438 | 65. Framework knit- tion, with regard to the suffrage, caused much 
28. oO : oe 3 Rie STS ae discussion during the passing of the Reform act in 
a9. Curriers . 160 . Silk-throwsters . 1629 : a ee ROPE) Ser 
= eons Pré77i\'67.. Sille-men iRaack 1867; and their claims were rejected. 
31. Plumbers . 1611 | 68. Pin-makers - 1636 | COMPOUND RADICAL, in organic chem- 
32. Inn-holders - 1515 | 69. Needle-makers . 1656 | istry, is a substance which although containing 
33- ai BS EEA) 70. ees - 7005 | two or more elements, in ordinary circumstances 
SS Diese | ie) Tinblateswoekena ceo. | performs the part of an element. ~The Radical or 
35. Cooks . 5 - 1482 | 72. Tinplate-workers. 1671 : : 
36. Coopers . ._. x50r | 73. Wheelwrights . 1670 | Binary theory was propounded by Berzelius, 1833, 
37. Tilers and brick- 74. Distillers . . 1638 | and by Liebig, 1838; and modified in the nucleus 
layers, —.-_:1568 | 75. Hatband-makers . 1664 | theory of Aug. Laurent, 1836. ‘The first compound 
38. meyer . . Ee 76. Aen ime . Or radical isolated was cyanogen (which see), by Gay- 
39. Fletchers . 1536 | 77. Glass-sellers 1664 ae = 
40. Blacksmiths - 1571 | 78. Tobacco - pipe Shae a: Efi 1815; see dmyl, Lthy 4, and Meth ryt as 
41. Joiners. . 1571 makers. . T6I9 picid “ened 
er tn 80 Hare, COMPREHENSION BILL, see Addenda, 
43- - 1484 aker PuLOW7 
44. Scriveners . . 1617/80. Gunmakers . . 1637 COMPROMISE, see Breda. 
5. Fruiterers . - 1606 | 8r. Gold and Silver a 
4 Plasterers . I5OI wire-drawers . 1693 COMTE PHILOSOPHY, see Positive 
47. Stationers - 1556 | 82. Bowstring-makers 1440 Philosophy. 
48. Broderers . 1561 | 83. Card-makers . 1628 : 
49. Upholders . 1626 | 84. Fan-makers . 1709 CONCEPTION ) IMMACULATE. A festival 
‘oi pee Ne (on 8 Dec.) appointed in 1389, observed in the 
50. Musicians - . 1604 | 85. Wood-mongers . 1605 f Z aes 
51. Turners - . 5, | 86. Starch-makers . 1632 | Roman Catholie Church in honour of the Virgin 
52. Basket-makers . 1569 | 87. Fishermen . 1687 | Mary’s having been conceived and born immacu- 
53. Glaziers - 1631 | 88. Parish clerks —. 1223 | late, or without original sin. Opposition to this 
Es ponets . . ee 89. ent yee - 1606 | doctrine was forbidden by decree of pope Paul V. 
55. - 1684 | go. ' . pets Ayo : un é 
2 Paviors Dacian aWutermon Bycce. /20 1617, confirmed by Gregory XV. and Alexander 


COMPANIES’ ACT, passed 1862, was 
amended and continued, 20 Aug. 1867; both 
‘amended by acts, 2 July, 1877, and 15 Aug., 1879. 
: By the last act, unlimited banking companies were 


regulated in regard to their issue of notes, audit of 
accounts, &c. 


The acts of 1862, 1867, 1877, and 1879 were amended by 
43 Vict. c. 19 (1880), and again in 1883. 
COMPASS, MARINER’S, said to have 
been early known to the Chinese, 1115 3.c., and 
brought to Europe by Marco Polo, a Venetian, 
I260, A.D. Flavio Gioja, of Amalfi, a navigator, of 
Naples,* is said to have introduced the suspension 
of the needle, 1302. The compass is also said to 
have been known to the Swedes in the time of 
king Jarl Birger, 1250. Its variation was discovered 
first by Columbus, 1492; afterwards by Sebastian 
Cabot, 1540. The compass box and hanging com- 
ass used by navigators were invented by William 
_ Barlowe, an English divine and natural philosopher, 
in 1608; see Magnetism. The measuring compass 
was invented by Jost Bing, of Hesse, in 1602. 
COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS, see 
Civil Service. 

COMPIEGNE, a French city north of Paris, 
the residence of the Carlovingian kings. During 
the siege, Joan of Are was captured by the Bur- 
-gundians, 25 May, 1430, and given up to the English 
for money. The emperor Napoleon III. and the king 
of Prussia met here on 6 Oct. 1861. 

COMPLUTENSIAN BIBLE, see Polyglot. 
, COMPOSING-MACHINES, see Printing 


and Times. 


COMPOSITE ORDER, a mixture of the 
Corinthian and Ionic, and also called the Roman 
order, is of uncertain date. 


by 


ne Ea 
EO The statement that the fleur-de-lis was made the 


ornament of the northern point of the compass in com- 
, pliment to Charles, the king of Naples at the time of 
the discovery, has been contradicted. 


VII. Hénault. On 8 Dec. 1854, pope Pius IX. 
promulgated a bull, declaring this dogma to be an 
article of faith, and charging with heresy those who 
should doubt it or speak against it.—The Concrr- 
TIONISTS were an order of nuns in Italy, esta- 
blished in 1488; see Santiago. 


CONCERTINA, a musical instrument in- 
vented by prof. afterwards sir Charles Wheatstone, 
about 1825, and improved by Mr. G. Case. The 
sounds are produced by free vibrating metal springs. 


CONCERTS. The Filarmonia gave concerts 
at Vicenza in the 16th century. The first public 
subscription concert was performed at Oxford in 
1665; the first in London is said to have been in 
1672, by John Banister, afterwards by Thomas 
Britton till his death, 1714. The Academy of 
Ancient Music, which introduced concerts in Lon- 
don, began in 1710; the Concerts of Ancient Music 
in 1776; and the present Philharmonic Society in 
1813; see others, under Music; Crystal Palace; 
and Handel. Colossal peace concerts were held at 
Boston, U.S., 15 June, &c. 1869; 17 June to 
4 July, 1872; see Boston. 

Concerts Spirituels at Paris, organized by Anne Dannican 
Philidor, began in Passion week, 18 March, 1725: 
closed in 1791; re-established, 1805; replaced by the 
Concerts du Conservatoire, begun 9 March, 1828. 

Jullien’s Popular Concerts, with monster quadrilles, began 
at Drury Lane Theatre 8 June, 1840; a farewell 


series, 1859. He greatly promoted the taste for classi- 
eal music. 


Promenade Concerts revived at Covent Garden Theatre, 
autumn, 1880, 


CONCHOLOGY, the science of shells, is 
mentioned by Aristotle and Pliny. It was first 
reduced to a system by John Daniel Major, of 
Kiel, who published his classification of the Zes- 
tacea in 1675. Lister’s system was published in 
1685; and that of Largius in 1722. Johnson’s 
Introduction (1850) and Sowerby’s Manual of 
Conchology (1842), are useful. Forbes and Han- 
ley’s ‘‘ British Mollusca and their Shells” (1848-53) 


CONCILIATION COUNCILS. 


208 


is a magnificent work. ‘ British Conchology,” by 
J. G. Jeffreys, published in 1862-9. 


CONCILIATION COUNCILS, see 
Councils. 

CONCLAVE. Arrange of small cells in the 
hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope of Rome, 
where the cardinals usually meet to elect a pope, 
and also the assembly of the cardinals shut up for 
the purpose. Clement IV. having died at Viterbo 
in 1268, the cardinals were nearly three years 
unable to agree in the choice of a successor, and 
were on the point of breaking up, when the magis- 
trates, by the advice of St. Bonaventura, shut the 
gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals till 
they agreed, 1271. 

CONCORD (Massachusetts, N. America). Near 
here was fought the battle of Lexington (which 
see), 19 April, 1775. ; 

CONCORDANCE. An index or alphabetical 
catalogue of all the words and also a chronological 
account of all the transactions in the Bible. The 
first concordance was made under the direction of 
Hugo de St. Caro, who employed as many as 500 
monks upon it, 1247. Abbé Lenglet. Itwas based 
on one compiled by Anthony of Padua. Thomas 
Gibson’s ‘‘ Concordance of the New Testament ”’ 
published, 1535. John Marbeck’s “ Concordance 
(for the whole Bible), 1550. Two Concordances (with 
royal privileges), by Rob. F. Herrey, appeared in 
1578. Oruden’s Concordance was published in 
London in 1737. Dr. Robert Young's valuable 
“Analytical Concordance to the Bible,”’ 1879-80. The 
Index to the Bible, published by the Queen's prin- 
ters, prepared by B. Vincent, editor of this volume, 
was completed in May, 1848. 

Verbal indexes accompany good editions of the 
ancient classics. An index to Shakspeare, by Ayscough, 
appeared in 1790; another by Twiss in 1805; and Mrs. 
Cowden Clarke’s (late Mary Novello) concordance to 
Shakspeare’s Plays (on which she spent 16 years’ labour) 
in 1847. Shakspeare-Lexicon by Dr. A. Schmidt, 2 vols. 
1874-5. Mrs. Horace Furness's concordance to Shak- 
speare’s Poems, 1874. Todd’s verbal index to Milton, 1809. 
Gleveland’s concordance to Milton, 1867. Brightwell’s 
concordance to Tennyson, 1869. Abbott's concordance 
to Pope, 1875. Dunbar’s concordance to Homer, 1880. 


CONCORDAT. An instrument of agree- 
ment between a prince and the pope, usually con- 
cerning benefices. The concordat between the em- 
peror Henry V. of Germany and pope Calixtus IL., 
in 1122, has been regarded as the fundamental law 
of the church in Germany. ‘The concordat be- 
tween Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., signed 
at Paris, 15 July, 1801, re-established the Catholic 
church and the papal authority in France. Napo- 
leon was made in effect the head of the Gallican 
church, as bishops were to have their appointments 
from him, and their investiture from the pope. 
Another concordat between the same persons was 
signed at Fontainebleau, 25 Jan. 1813. These were 
almost nullified by another, 22 Noy. 1817. A con- 
cordat, signed 18 Aug. 1855, between Austria and 
Rome, by which a great deal of the liberty of the 
Austrian church was given up to the papacy, 
caused much dissatisfaction. In 1868 it was vir- 
tually abolished by the legislatures of Hungary 
and Austria. ¥ 

BINES were tolerated among the 
na hel and Romans, but strictly forbidden 
to Christians (Mark x., 1 Cor. vii. 2). They are 
mentioned as having been allowed to the priests, 
1132; see Morganatic Marriages. 


CONDENSATION, see Gas, Beer, Milk. 
CONDOTTIERI, conductors or leaders of 


|e 


CONFESSIONS. 


mercenaries, termed free companies or lance; 


which became so troublesome in Italy, that th 
cities formed a league to suppress them in 134: 
Many ravaged France after the peace of Bretigny 
in 1360. 

CONDUITS. Two remarkable conduit: 
among a number of others in London, existe 
early in Cheapside. The “ great conduit”? was th 
first cistern of lead erected in the city, and wa 
built in 1285. At the procession of Anna Boley 
on the occasion of her marriage, it ran with whit 
es claret wine all the afternoon, 1 June, 153: 

tow. : 


CONFEDERATE STATES or Nort 
America. The efforts of the Southern States fo 
the extension of slavery, and the zeal of the Norther 
States for its abolition, with the consequent politic: 
dissensions, led to the great secession of 1860-1. O 
4 Nov. 1860, Abraham Lincoln, the Republican c 
Abolitionist candidate, was elected president of th 
United States. Hitherto, a president in the intere: 
of the South had been elected. On 20 Dec., Sout 
Carolina seceded from the Union; and soon afte 
Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisian: 
Texas, Virginia (except West Virginia), Arkansa: 
Tennessee, and North Carolinaalso. Jefferson Dav’ 
was inaugurated president of the Southern Cor 
federacy at Montgomery in Alabama, 18 Feb. 186: 
For the events of the war which ensued, and th 
restoration of the Southern States to the Unior 
see United States, 1861-5. Jefferson Davis's ** Ri: 
and Fall of the Confederate Government,” 2 vols 
published June, 1881. : 


CONFEDERATION At Parts, 14 July 
1790; see Champ de Mars, and Bastille. 


CONFEDERATION oF THE RHINE, th 
League of the Germanic States, formed by Nap« 
leon Bonaparte, 12 July, 1806, when he abolishe 
the Holy Roman Empire, and the emperor of Get 
many became emperor of Austria. In Dec. | 
consisted of France, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Saxon} 
and Westphalia; seven grand duchies; six duchies 
and twenty principalities. The princes collectivel 
engaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in case < 
war, and established a diet at Frankfort. Thi 
league terminated with the career of Bonaparte i 
1814; and in 1815 it was replaced by the German 
Confederation (which see, and Germany). 


CONFERENCES, EcciEsrastican. On 
was held at Hampton -Court palace, between th 
prelates of the church of England and the purita 
ministers, in order to effect a general union, at th 
instance of the king, James I., 14,16, 18 Jan. 160. 
It led to the new translation of the Bible, now i 
general use in England; executed in 1607-1: 
Some alterations in the church liturgy were agree 
upon; but these not satisfying the dissenter: 
nothing more was done.—Another conference of th 
bishops and presbyterian ministers, with the sam 
view, was held in the Savoy, 15 April to 25 ea 
1661. The dissenters’ objections were general 
disallowed, but some alterations were recommende 
in the Prayer-book. See WVesleyans and Congresse 


CONFESSIONAL, see Auricular Confessio1 


CONFESSIONS or FAITH, or CREEDS 
see Apostles’, Nicene (325), and Athanasian (abot 
34) Creeds. J. R. Lumby’s “History of th 
reeds,”’ published 1874. 


The confession of faith of the Greek church was 
presented to Mahommed II. in 1453. This gave 
way in 1643 to one composed by Mogila, metro- 
politan of Kiev, which is the present standard 
of the Russo-Greek church. 


CONFIRMATION. 


The creed of Pius [V., composed of the Nicene creed, 
with additional articles which embody all the 
peculiar dogmas of the Roman Catholic church, 

published by the council of Trent 


: . - 1564 
The church of England retains the Apostles’, 
Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, with articles :— 
42 in 1552; reduced to 39 . 1563 


The confession of Augsburg (that of the Lutherans) 
was drawn up principally by Melancthon, in 
1530, and has since undergone modifications, the 
last of which is called the ‘‘ Form of Concord.” . 1579 

The Westminster confession was agreed to in 1643; 
and adopted by the presbyterian church of Scot- 


land; see Westminster J : < bm sh LOLZ 
The congregational dissenters published a declara- 
tion of faith io, ; . 1833 


CONFIRMATION, or laying on hands, was 
practised by the Apostles in #4 and 36 (dets viii. 
17; xix. 6), and was general, according to some 
Beech authorities, in 190. In the church of Eng- 
land it is the public profession of the Christian 
religion by an adult person, who has been baptized 
ininfancy. It is made a sacrament by the church 
of Rome. 


CONFLANS (near Paris), TREATY oF, 
between Louis XI. of France and the dukes of 
Bourbon, Brittany, and Burgundy, ; Oct. 1465. 
By its provisions Normandy was ceded to the duke 
of Berry, and an end was put to the ‘‘ War of the 
Public Good.” It was confirmed by the Treaty of 
Peronne, 1468. 


CONGE D’ELIRE (permission to elect), the 
licence given by the sovereign as bead of the church, 
to chapters and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, 

articularly bishops; the right asserted by Henry 

Il., 1535. After the interdict of the pope upon 

_England had been removed in 1214, king John 
‘Inade an arrangement with the clergy for the 
election of bishops. 


CONGELATION, the act of freezing. Ice 
was produced in summer by means of chemical 
mixtures, by Mr. Walker, in 1783. Quicksilver 
was frozen without snow or ice, in 1787. In 1810 
Leslie froze water in an air-pump by placing a 

vessel of sulphuric acid under it. Numerous freez- 
ing mixtures have been discovered since. Intense 
cold is produced by the aérification of liquefied 
carbonic acid gas. In 1857 Mr. Harrison patented 
a machine for manufacturing ice for commercial 
Peporee, by means of ether and salt water, and 
made large blocks. In 1860, M. Carré devised a 
method of freezing to 60° below zero by making 
_ water in a close vessel absorb and give off the gas 
-ammonia. Siebe’s ice-making machine, exhibited 
at the International Exhibition of 1862, excited 
‘much admiration. 
_In R. Reece’s ice-making machine (made known Dec. 
; 1868), liquefied ammonia is vaporised in a close vessel 
__ surrounded by water to be frozen. 
; Mr. Harrison’s method of freezing was applied to preser- 
yation of meat in Australia; a cargo of carcases was 


shipped from Norfolk, Australia, 13 July, 1873. Not 


successful. See Ice, Provisions. 

CONGO RIVER, S8.W. Africa. The mouths 
‘of the Congo were discovered by the Portuguese in 
1481, and they have ever since claimed territories 
,onits banks. The natives on its bank and on the 
reeks having rifled the Geraldine, and committed 
inte acts of piracy, were chastised by an expedition 


ander commodore sir Wm. Hewett, 3-11 Sept. 1875. 
Several villages and chiefs’ houses were destroyed. 


For Mr. H. M. Stanley’s expeditions in connection 
with the Belgian government, and his settle- 
ments, see Africa, 1876, et seq. 
. de Brazza’s expedition; his treaty with the 
king of Congo ratified by the French govern- 
ment , s - - P , . 2t Noy. 1882 


209 


CONGRESS. 


Colonies formed ; national jealousies excited ; regret 
of the disinterested king of the Belgians; the 
British government partly recognize the rights"of 
the Portuguese, Jan., with certain modifications 
(afterwards set aside) : - March, 

Sir F. Goldsmid, chief of an expedition connected 
with the International African Association fa- 
voured by Belgium, starts summer, : - 

The French seize fresh territories, 28 March, 1883 ; 
burn a village, March, et sey. 

Mr. Stanley had peaceably founded 12 stations and 
opened up 4500 miles of rivers to trade and civi- 
lization, reported 12 July ; he advocates a British 
protectorate, Sept. ; M. de Brazza’s settlements 
reported unsuccessful - : é wt DODUamee 

Circular from the Portuguese government assert- 
ing rights over the mouth of the Congo, published 
in T'vmes ‘ - 2 i : 5 NOV tsa 

Sir F. Goldsmid ill; returns to England ; reports; 
Gen. (Chinese) Gordon appointed by the king of 
Belgium to act on behalf of the International 
African Association on the Congo for the sup- 
pression of slavery, and support of commerce, 
Jan. ; but is sent by the British government to 
the Soudan ‘ - 5 C . 18 Jan. 

Mr. Stanley returns to Stanley Pool . 2T id Bilal ty 

British agreement with Congo, announced 5 Feb. 

British interest secured by treaty with Portugal ; 
signed . ; : z : - eee Dunes 

The International African Association (captain 
Strauch, president), aiming at the suppression of 
slavery, has 30 stations, announced g April; its 
flag recognized by United States, 22 April; it 
formulates itself as a federal state, and is said to 
enter into engagements with France, regarded as 
presumptuous, but justified by the Association, 

May-June, ,, 

Recognized by Great Britain, Italy, and other 
powers, Dec. 1884, e# seq. 

Colonel sir Francis de Winton appointed adminis- 
trator-general of the Congo territories JUNC, 7.5 

Free trade in the Congo valley declared by the 
West African conference (which see) Deceae. 

The Mouth of the Congo occupied by the Portuguese 


1883 


15 Jan. 1885 
Treaty between the Association and France respect- 
ing the delimitation of territory, signed 5 Feb. ,, 


CONGREGATION oF THE LorpD, a name 
taken by the Scotch reformers, headed by John 
Knox, about 1546. Their leaders (the éarls of Glen- 
cairn, Argyle, Morton, and others) called ‘‘lords of 
the congregation,”’ signed the first bond or covenant 
which united the protestants under one association, 
3 Dec. 1557. Tytler. 


: CONGREGATIONALISTS, see Indepen- 
ents. “ 


CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or min- 


isters for the settlement of the affairs of nations or 


of a people. The following are the most remark- 
able congresses of Europe 

Miinster ‘ 1643-8 
Nimeguen . 1676-8 
Ryswick 1697 
Utrecht 1713 
Soissons ; : : 4 2 1728 
Antwerp . A ; é 8 April, 1793 
Rastadt : : < - . g Dec. 1797-9 
Chatillon . P 3 Z - § Feb. 1814 
Vienna 3 ¢ : : 3 Nov. 5 
Aix-la-Chapelle g Oct. 1818 
Carlsbad 2 r Aug. 1819 
Troppau 20 Oct. 1820 
Laybach 6 May, 1821 
Verona : . 25 Aug. 1822 
Paris’)? 2 A ; iy 16 Jan.—22 April, 1856 
Frankfort (see Germany) . : : 16-31 Aug. 1863 
Constantinople 23 Dec. 1876—20Jan. 1878 
Berlin 13 June—13 July, ,, 


See Alliances, Church, Conventions, £c. 


The first general concress of the UNITED STaTEs 
of AMERICA, preparatory to their declaration of 
independence, when strong resolutions were 
passed, alsoa petition to the king, and an address 


AY 


CONGREVE ROCKETS. 


to the people of England, was held, 5 Sept. 1774. 
The second was held, 10 May, 1775; the third, 
when the independence was declared 4 July, 

The first federal American congress, under the con- 
stitution, was held at New York ; George Wash- 
ington, president. : : : March, 

The first congress of the seceding southern states 
was held at Montgomery, Alabama, 4 Feb. ; it 
elected Jefferson Davis president of the con- 
federate states on 9 Feb. For political reasons it 
adjourned on 24 May, to meet at Richmond, in 
Virginia, on . : : : : 20 July, 

In 1863, the emperor Napoleon invited the sove- 
reigns of Europe to a congress ; which was de- 
clined by England 25 Noy., and only conditionally 
acceded to by other powers. He proposed a con- 
gress on the affairs of Italy and Rome in Nov. 1867, 
without effect. 


CONGREVE ROCKETS, see Rockets. 
CONIC SECTIONS. Their properties were 


robably known to the Greeks, four or five centuries 
berore the Christian era, and their study was culti- 
vated in the time of Plato, 390 B.c. The earliest 
treatise on them was written by Aristzus, about 330 
B.c. Apollonius’s eight books were written about 
240 B.c. The parabola was applied to projectiles 
by Galileo, the ellipse to the orbit of planets by 
Kepler, and to comets by Newton. 


CONJURATION, see Witcheraft. 
CONNAISSANCE DES TEMPS, the 


French nautical almanack, continuing Hecker’s 
Ephemerides, was first published by Picard, 1679. 


CONNAUGHT, W. Ireland; long a nominal 
kingdom, divided into counties, 1590. Prince 
Arthur was created duke of Connaught, 23 May, 
1874; being the first royal prince whose leading 
title was Irish. 

Fhe Duke of Connaught’s Establishment Act, passed 8 Aug., 
1878, made the same provision for the duke, as for his 
brother Alfred; see Edinburgh. The duke was mar- 
ried to the princess Louise Margaret of Prussia, 13 
March, 1879. 


CONNECTICUT granted to lord Say and 
Broke, 1630; see America and United States. 


CONNOR, Ireland. The bishopric was united 
to that of Down, 1442. The first prelate, Angus 
Macnisius, died 507. The united sees were added to 
Dromore on the death of its last bishop, 1842,in accord- 
ance with the Irish Church Temporalities act, 1833. 


CONQUEST, the era in British history, when 
William duke of Normandy overcame Harold II. at 
the battle of Hastings, 14 Oct. 1066, and obtained 
the crown which he asserted had been bequeathed 
to him by Edward the confessor (Edgar being the 
rightful heir). William hasbeen erroneously styled 
the Conqueror, for he succeeded to the crown of 
England by compact. He defeated Harold, who 
was himself a usurper, but a large portion of the 
kingdom afterwards held out against him ; and he, 
unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the 
laws and customs of the realm, in order to induce 
the submission of the people. Formerly our judges 
were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the 
bar who said casually William the conqueror, 
instead of William I. Selden. Maclise exhibited 
forty-two drawings on the events of the Norman 
conquest, in May, 1857. E. A. Freeman’s “‘ History 
of the Norman Conquest,’ 6 vols, 1870-9, is highly 
esteemed. 

CONSCIENCE CLAUSE, see Education. 

CONSCIENCE, Courts oF, or OF RE- 
QUESTS for recovery of small debts, constituted by 
a stat. of Hen. VII. 1493, and re-organised by stat. 
9g Hen. VIII. 1517. These courts were improved 


1776 


1789 


1861 


210 


CONSERVATIVES. 


and amended by various acts; their jurisdiction in 
London reached to 5/. and (until superseded by 
county-courts) to 40s. in other towns. The practice 
was by summons, and if the party did not appear, 
the commissioners had power to apprehend and 
commit; see County Courts. 


CONSCIENCE, LiIsErty Of, 2a principle 
of genuine Christianity (1 Cor. x. 29); repudiated 
by Romanism, proclaimed by James II. for political 
purposes, 1687. 


CONSCIENCE MONEY. In the year 
ending 31 March, 1873, 9,847/. were sent to the 
chancellor of the exchequer for unpaid income tax; 
1874, 8,588/.; 1877, 14,8357. ; 1878, 5,572/.; 1879, 
6,7322.; 1880, 5,8017. — . 

CONSCRIPT FATHERS (patres  con- 
scriptt) the designation given to the Roman sena- 
tors, because their names were written in the regis- 
ters of the senate. 


CONSCRIPTION, a mode (derived from the 
Romans) adopted for recruiting armies on the con- 
tinent. On 5 Sept. 1798, a military conscription 
was ordained in France, comprehending all the 
young men from 20 to 25 years of age: from whom 
selections were made. A conscriptiofi for 350,00C 
men took place in Jan. 1813, after the disastrous 
Russian campaign, and in Dec. same year, another 
for 300,000 after the battle of Leipsic. Estimated 
conscription, 1793-1813, 4,103,000. The law of 1818 
(modified in 1824, 1832, and 1868) required a certair 


annual contingent for each department. The con- 
scription was enlarged and modified by the army 
bill which was enacted in Feb. 1868. The re- 


organisation of the army began in 1871, after the 
fatal war with Germany. Substitutes were allowed 
under certain conditions. Conscription for Great 
Britain was advocated and strongly opposed in 1875. 
See Militia. 


CONSECRATION. Aaron and his sons were 
consecrated priests, 1490 B.c. (Lev. viii.) The 
Jewish tabernacle was dedicated, 1490 B.c., anc 
Solomon’s temple, 1004 B.c. (1 Kings viii.) The 
consecration of churches began in the 2nd century. 
Anciently the consecration of popes was deferrec 
until the emperor had given his assent to thei! 
election. Gregory IV. desired to have his election 
confirmed by the emperor Louis, in 828. Hénault 
The consecration of churches, places of burial, &e.. 
is admitted in the reformed religion. An act re- 
lating to the consecration of churchyards, passe: 
20 Aug. 1867, was amended in 1868. A form 0: 
consecration was adopted by convocation, but no‘! 
sanctioned by the crown, April, 1712. It is gene. 
rally used but is not compulsory.—Burn. The forn 
of consecrating bishops in the church of Englan¢ 
is set forth in the prayer-book of 1549.—Stow. 


CONSERVATION OF FORCE. The doc: 
trine that no physical force can be created or de- 
stroyed, but may be transferred, is maintained by 
Faraday, Grove, Helmholtz, Tyndall, and othe 
philosophers; see Correlation. 


CONSERVATIVES, a name said to hay 
been invented by John Wilson Croker, an earnest 
Tory, in 1831, assumed by a party, whose leading 
principle is the preservation of our national institu- 
tions. It was termed a new cant word by T. B. Ma. 
caulay in Edinburgh Review, July, 1832. Sir Rober 
Peel acknowledged himself a conservative wher 
reproached by the Irish party in parliament wit! 
being an Orangeman; but the party that afterward: 
separated from him called their principles conserva 
tive in contradistinction to his,—his policy am 


CONSERVATOIRES. 


211 CONSTABLE OF SCOTLAND. 


measures being changed.—The Conservative Club 
was founded in 1840; see Protectionists and Clubs. 
The party in the north of the United States which 
supported the president in his conciliatory efforts to 
re-establish the Union, Jan. 1866, were termed 
*‘ Conservatives.’’ A great meeting of the National 
Union of Conservative Associations was held at the 
Crystal Palace, 24 June, 1872. The party in the 
minority at the elections in 1868 obtained a majority 
at those in Feb. 1874, and came into office. They 
were again in a minority at the general election, 
and resigned 22 April, 1880. The marquis of 
Salisbury was elected leader of the party, 9 May, 
1881, succeeding the earl of Beaconsfield, who died 
19 April previous. Constitutional club (central) 
formed in London, President, marquis of Salisbury. 
House opened 8 Aug. 1883. See Derby and Dis- 
rueli, Fourth Party, National Union. 


CONSERVATOIRES, a name given to es- 
tablishments for the cultivation of music and the 
arts on the continent. One was established at 
Naples in 1537. The singing school at Paris, 
founded in 1754, and closed in 1789, was re-opened 
in 1793 as the “ Institut National de Musique,’”’ and 
after being reorganised, was re-named ‘‘ Conserva- 
toire de Musique’’ in 1795, and flourished under 
Cherubini (1822-42). ‘The Conservatoire des 
Arts et Métiers’”’ was established in 1784. It in- 
cludes a museum and library, and lectures are given 
to workmen there. 


CONSERVATORS or THE PuBtic Lip- 
ERTIES. Officers chosen in England to inspect the 
treasury and correct abuses in administration, 
28 Hen. III. 1244.—Rapin. Conservators were 
appointed to see the king’s peace kept.—Pardon. 
Conservators were formerly appointed in every sea- 
port to take cognisance of all offences committed 
against the peace upon the main sea out of the 
liberty of the Cinque Ports. —Bailey. 


CONSISTORIES for regulating ecclesiastical 
iscipline and divine worship in the Lutheran 
church in Germany, were established at the refor- 
mation—the first at Wittenberg in 1542; other 
consistories were established after the peace of 
Augsburg in 1555. 
_CONSISTORY COURT, anciently joined 
with the hundred court; and its original, as divided 
therefrom, is found in a law of William I., 1079, 
quoted by lord justice Coke. The chief and most 
ancient consistory court of the kingdom belongs to 
the see of Canterbury, and is called the Court of 
Arches (which see). 


CONSOLIDATED FUND was formed by 
combining the ‘‘aggregate,’’ ‘‘general,”’ and 
South Sea funds,” 1786. On 5 Jan. 1816, the ex- 
thequers of Great Britain and Ireland, previously 
‘eparate, were amalgamated, forming ‘‘ the consoli- 
lated fund of the United Kingdom.” 


| CONSOLS, see Stocks. 
gS ONSORZIO NAZIONALE, see Italy, 


: 

~ CONSPIRACIES. Among the recorded con- 
‘piracies, real or supposed, the following are the most 
emarkable: see Rebellions. 


)f the duke of Gloucester against Richard II. . 1397 
{the earl of Cambridge and others against Henry V. I415 
.f Anthony Babington and others against Elizabeth. 
' (See Babington) 3 ‘ : : - 1586 
Mf Lopez, a Jew, and others : ‘ 3 Beret 
f Patrick York, an Irish fencing-master hired by 
_ the Spaniards to kill the queen. : . L 
‘f Walpole, a Jesuit, and Edward Squyer to poison 

the queen . . 4 3 ; . F - 1598 


Tyrone’s insurrection in Ireland 

The Gunpowder plot (which see) . A : iy ke 

Tyrone’s conspiracy to surprise the castle of Dublin. 

Of Penruddock (1655) and of Syndercombe and 
others to assassinate Oliver Cromwell Jan. 

Insurrection of the Fifth-monarchy men against 

Charles II.  . : SoA : : : 2 
Of Blood, who seized the duke of Ormond, wounded 

him, and would have hanged him, Dec. 1670; and 

who afterwards attempted to steal the regalia, 
May 
The pretended conspiracy of the French, Spaulahe 
and English Jesuits to assassinate Charles Mf 
revealed by the infamous Titus Oates, Dr. Tongue, 
and others : : : Aug. 
The Meal-tub plot (which see) f 2 ; ‘ 
The Rye-house plot to assassinate the king on his 
way to Newmarket. (See Rye-house Plot). abe 
Of lord Preston, the bishop of Ely, and others to 
restore James II. : é : : Jan, 
Of Granville, a French chevalier, to murder king 

William in Flanders 5 : ; 3 - « L692 
The Assassination plot (which see) frustrated . - 1696 
Of Simon Fraser, lord Lovat, against queen Anne. 

(See Rebellions) . : : 2 Mie 
Of the marquis Guiscard : : 2 March? 
Of James Sheppard, an enthusiast, to assassinate 

George I. : , : : 2 : 3 ; 
Of counsellor Layer and others, to bring in the 

Pretender . : . ; : : ; Ma BG EE. 
Of the Corresponding Society, &c. (which see) . 1796-8 
Of colonel Despard ; : : ; c - 1802 
Of Robert Emmett, in Dublin, when lord Kil- 

warden was killed . ‘ ‘ : 23 July, 1803 
Of Thistlewood and others, to assassinate the king’s 


1671 


1678 
1679 


1683 


1691 


1703 
1711 


1718 


ministers. (See Cato-street) . : ; . 1820 
Of the Sepoys in India. (See India) to May, 1857 
Of the Fenians 1858-68 


See Rebellions, Chartists, &c. 


CONSPIRACY AND PROTECTION 
TO PROPERTY ACT, passed 13 Aug. 1875; 


relates to trade disputes, breaches of contract, &e. 


CONSTABLE or ENGLAND, Lorp HicH. 
The seventh great officer of the crown, and, with the 
earl marshal, formerly a judge of the court of 
chivalry, called, in the time of Henry 1V., curia 
militaris, and subsequently the court of honour. 
The power of this officer was so great, that in 1389 
a statute was passed for abridging it, and also the 
power of the earl marshal (which see). The office 
existed before the conquest, after which it went by 
inheritance to the earls of Hereford and Essex, and 
next in the line of Stafford. In 1521 it was for- 
feited by Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, 
attainted for high treason, and has never since been 
granted to any person, otherwise than pro hde vice 
(for this occasion), to attend at a coronation or trial 
by combat. ‘The only instance of a trial by combat 
being ordered since this office fell into the hands of 
the crown, was that commanded between lord Reay 
and Mr. David Ramsey, in Nov. 1631; but the king 
prevented it. 


LORD HIGH CONSTABLES AT CORONATIONS. 
Queen Anne, Wriothesly, duke of Bedford 


. 1702 
George I., John, Duke of Montague «E7tS 
George II., Charles, duke of Richmond . 1727 


George III., John, duke of Bedford ~ 1762 


George IV. : 1821 
William IV. } Arthur, duke of Wellington 1831 
Victoria 18338 


CONSTABLE oF Scornannp, Lorp Hien. 
The office was instituted by David I. about 1147. 
The holder had the keeping of the king’s sword, 
which the king, at his promotion, delivered to him 
naked (and hence the badge of the lord high con- 
stable is a naked sword); and the absolute com- 
mand of the king’s armies while in the field, in the 
absence of the king. The office was conferred 
heritably in 1321 on sir Gilbert Hay, created earl of 
Erroll, by Robert Bruce, and with his descendants 


P 2 


CONSTABLES. 


212 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACT. 


oa 


it still remains, being expressly reserved by the | 


treaty of union in 1707, The present earl of Erroll | 


is the twenty-second lord high constable (1885). 
CONSTABLES of Hundreds and Franchises, 


instituted in the reign of Edward I., 1285, are now 
called high constables. There are three kinds of 
constables, high, petty, and special ; the high con- 
stable’s jurisdiction extends to the whole hundred ; 
the petty constable’s to the parish or liberty for 
which he is chosen; and the special constable is 
appointed for particular emergencies (as in April, 
1848, on account of the Chartists). The general 
appointment of parish constables was made un- 
necessary by an act passed Aug. 1872. See Special 
Constables and Tower. 


CONSTABULARY FORCE. For that of 
London, see Police. The Constabulary of Ireland 
act passed in 1823, when this species of force was 
embodied throughout the country, Several subse- 
quent acts were consolidated in 1836. 


CONSTANCE, a city in Baden (S. Germany). | 


Here was held the seventeenth general council, 1414- 
18, which condemned John Huss; and here he was 
burnt, 6 July, 1415; see Hussites. 


CONSTANTINA, the ancient capital of 
Numidia, was taken by the French, 13 Oct. 1837. 
During the assault on 12 Oct. the French general 
Damremont was killed. Achmet Bey retired with 
12,000 men, as the victors entered Constantina. 


CONSTANTINOPLE (formerly Byzantium) 
(which see), now Stamboul, derives its name from 
Constantine the Great, who removed the seat of the 
Eastern Empire here, dedicating it 11 May, 330. 
See Kastern Empire. 


General ecclesiastical councils against heresy were held | 


1789-91; 1795, 1799, (charter) 1814, 1848, 1852, 
1875. 


here in 381, 553, 680, and 869. 

Seized by Procopius . : ; : : ‘ . 

The city suffered much from religious dissensions, 
and was burnt during the ‘‘ Nika” conflicts 

Rebuilt by Justinian with great splendour 

St. Sophia dedicated . : . : 

Resisted the Saracens successfully 

And the Russians 7 

Taken by the Latins 4 1203, 1204 

Recovered by the Greeks : : ; ; . 1261 

Vainly besieged by Amurath the Ottoman, June— 

Aug. 

Taken by Mahomet II. after 53 days’ siege, 29 May, 

CONFERENCE on Turkish Affairs ; representatives : 
Great Britain, marquis of Salisbury; Russia, 
general Ignatieff; France, Chaudordy ; Austria, 
Zichy ; Germany, Von Werther ; Italy, Corti; or- 
dinary meetings began . r : - 23 Dec. 

Turkey rejected the propositions and the confer- 
ence closed ; : : : 20 Jan. 

Treaty of peace with Russia: 12 articles; Turkey ac- 
cepted modifications of treaty of San Stefano 
(which see); an indemnity of about 802,500,000 
franes to be paid by Turkey (settlement deferred); 
Russian troops to quit within 4o days, &c. ; signed 
‘ 8 Feb. 

By the falling down of a barracks at Beykoi about 
200 soldiers said to be killed, about 9 Feb. 

Conference ot Eurupean powers respecting Egypt 
constituted (see Hgypt) . = ~ - 23 June, 

Great fire, thousands homeless - 5 Oct. 

See Turkey. 

Era or ConsTANTINOPLE has the creation placed 5508 
years B.c. It was used by the Russians until the time 
of Peter the Great, and is still used in the Greek church. 
The civil year begins 1 Sept., and the ecclesiastical year 
in March; the day is not exactly determined. To 
reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January 
to August, and 5509 from Sept. to the end. Nicolas. 


CONSTELLATIONS. Arcturus, Orion, the 
Pleiades, and Mazzaroth are mentioned _in Joé ix. 
g, and xxxviii. 31, about 1520 B.c. Homer and 
Hesiod notice constellations; but our first direct 


365 
532 
2 e887 

675, 718 


- 865, 904, 941, 1043 


1422 
1453 


1876 


1877 


1879 
1880 


1882 
1883 


| superior in the law. Sheridan. 


knowledge was derived from Claudius Ptolemzus, 
about A.D. 140. Hipparchus (about 147 B.C.) made a 
catalogue of forty-eight constellations, and others 
were added by Tycho Brahe, Hevelius, Halley, and 
others. The number at present acknowledged is 29 
northern, 45 southern, and 12 zodiacal. 


CONSTITUENCIES, see Commons, House of. 
CONSTITUENT, see National Assembly. 


CONSTITUTION or ENGLAND. It com- 
prehends the whole body of laws by which the British 
people are governed, and to which it is presump- 
tively held that every individual has assented. 
Lord Somers. This assemblage of laws is distin- 
guished from the term government in this respect— 
that the constitution is the rule by which the sove- 
reign ought to govern at all times ; and government 
is that by which he does govern at any particular 
time. Lord Bolingbroke. The king of England is 
not seated on a solitary eminence of power: on the 
contrary, he sees his egwals in the co-existing 
branches of the legislature, and he recognises his 
Hallam’s ‘‘ Con- 
stitutional History of England” was first published 
in 1827; May’s in 1861-3. 


CONSTITUTIONALIST PARTY, a name 
assumed by a combination of Conservatives and 
seceded Whigs, Aug. 1867, and used during the 
severely contested elections, Novy. 1868. The Con- 
stitutional Union held its first anniversary 20 June, 
1881. 


Constitutional Press Corporation.—An active conservative 
body, autumn, 1881. 


| Constitutional Club.—President marquis of Salisbury, 


established 1883. 
CONSTITUTIONS oF FRANCE, enacted 


CONSUBSTANTIATION, see Zransubstan- 


tiation. 


CONSULS (meaning colleagues), RoMAN: al 
the expulsion of the Tarquins, a republic was esta- 
blished, to be ruled by two consuls elected annually : 
the first being Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius 


| ‘larquinius Collatinus, husband of the injured Lu- 


cretia, 509 B.c._ The consular power was in emer- 
gencies superseded by dictators and tribunes. 


Government of the Decemviri : B.C. 451—44¢ 
Three Military Tribunes with consular power . . 44s 
A Plebeian elected consul a > ° -) et EDE 
[In the reign of Tiberius the consuls were nomi- 
nated by the senate, and the appointment be- 
came henceforth honorary. ] 

The French consulate established when the direc- 
tory was abolished : Bonaparte, Sieyés, and Roger 
Ducos made provisional consular commissioners, 
1o Nov.; Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Lebrun 
made consuls . ‘ : . : - #3. Deg, 

Bonaparte was made first consul for 10 years, 6 May, 
and for life, 2 Aug. 1802 ; emperor 18 May, 

Commercial agents were first distinguished by the 
name of consuls in Italy. Lorenzo Strozzi was ap- 
pointed by Richard III. - 148: 

i - 163; 


1796 


180z 


A British consul first appointed in Portugal _ 


CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACT for nava 
and military stations passed June 1866; amended 
1869-71; one for animals passed 1866; renewet 
1867; amended 1869. Although the operation o 
the first act was reported to be successful, it ha 
been much opposed. <A royal commission appointer 
to inquire, reported, July, 1871; and alteration 
have been proposed. Its repeal negatived in th: 
Commons (308-126), 23 June, 1875; (224-102) 
19 July, 1876. A new act for animals was passe 
16 Aug. 1878; amended, 1884. See Cattle. 


~ ee 


CONTINENTAL SYSTEM. 


213 


xu 


CONVOCATION. 


CONTINENTAL SYSTEM, the name given 
to Napoleon’s plan to exclude the British merchan- 
dise from the entire continent. It began publicly 
with his Berlin decree in 1806, and occasioned the 
Orders in Council (which see). 


CONTINUITY, Mr. (after sir) W. R. Grove, in 
his address as president of the British Association, on 
22 Aug. 1866, at Nottingham, expounded the opinion 
held by many philosophers, that all the past changes 
in the world have been produced by the continuous 
action of the causes now in operation—that “ con- 
tinuity is a law of nature, the true expression of the 
action of Almighty Power.” 

‘Those who hold this opinion are termed Uniformita- 
rians ; their opponents are termed Cataclysmists, who 
Beene the changes to the violent action of fire and 
water. 


CONTRABAND oF War, a term said to 
have been first employed in the treaty of Southamp- 
ton between England and Spain in 1625. During 
the struggle between Spain and Holland, both 
powers acted with much rigour towards ships of 
neutrals conveying goods to the belligerents. This 
provoked the resistance of England. A milder policy 
was adopted by the treaty of Pyrenees, 1650; and 
by the declaration of Paris, 26 April, 1856. The 
subject was much discussed during the North Ameri- 
ean conflict, 1861-4. 


CONTRACTORS with Government, disquali- 


fied from sitting in parliament, 1782. 


 CONTRE-DANSE (English, country-dance), 
a dance, so called from the dancers being opposite 
each other, was introduced into France (probably 
from England) about 1715, e¢ seq. 


CONTRIBUTIONS, VotuntTary, to a vast 
amount have been several times made by the British 
people in aid of the government. One, in 1798, to 
ee’ ort the war against France, amounted to two 

ions and a half sterling. Several men of wealth, 
among others sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, 
subscribed each 10,000/.: and 200,000/. were trans- 
mitted from India in 1799; see Patriotic Fund. 
For India, §c., see Mansion House. 


CONTROL, Boarp oF. Mr. Pitt’s bill, esta- 
blishing this board for the purpose of aiding and 
controlling the executive government of India, and 
of superintending the territorial concerns of the 
company, was passed 18 May, 1784. Act amended 
and the board remodelled, 1793. The president of 
the board was a chief minister of the crown, and 
necessarily one of the members‘of the cabinet. This 
board was abolished in 1858, when the government 
of India was transferred from the company to the 
srown; see India Bills, and India. 


CONTROL DEPARTMENT, in the British 
army, was divided into the commissariat and trans- 
sort department, and the ordnance store depart- 
‘nent; the old title was abolished; order issued 
((I Dec. 1875. 


CONVALESCENT INSTITUTION (Me- 
ropolitan), at Walton-on-Thames, with children’s 
»ranches at Hendon and Mitcham, was established 
a 1840 ; a branch at Bexhill, Sussex, was 
ounded in 1880. A convalescent hospital for the 
‘ast of London was founded at Snaresbrook in 1866, 
} weatly due to the exertions of Mr. and Mrs. Charles- 
| vorth, Mrs. Gladstone, and Miss Catherine Marsh. 
che principle has been since much adopted. Homes 
4 Ramsgate, 1866; Waltham, 1867; Margate, 
875, &c. See Bartholomew, St., 1881. Convalescent 
Tome for Middle Classes proposed by Mr. Burdett 
nd others, Feb. 1885. 


CONVENTICLES, private assemblies for 
religious worship, held by Dissenters from the esta- 
blished church; but first applied to the schools of 
Wickliff. 35 Elizabeth, c. 1 (1593) passed “ to pre- 
vent and suppress seditious conventicles,’’ was re- 
enacted by 16 Charles II. c. 4 (1664) and by 22 
Charles I. c. 1 (1670). Persons attending them 
were liable to severe punishment. The statutés 
were repealed by the toleration act, 24 May, 1689. 


CONVENTION PARLIAMENTS, as- 
sembled without the king’s writ upon extraordinary 
occasions. One on 25 April, 1660, voted the restora- 
tion of Charles II. A second met 22 Jan. 1689; 
offered the crown to William and Mary 13 Feb.; and 
dissolved in Feb. 1690; see National Convention. 


CONVENTIONS, see Treaties. 


CONVENTS were first founded, according to 
some authorities, 270. The first in England was 
erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald, in 630. Camden. 
The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, where 
Kthelreda took the veil in 670. They were founded 
earlier in Ireland. They were suppressed in Eng- 
land in various reigns, particularly in that of Henry 
VIII. A very great number have been suppressed 
in Europe in the present century. ‘The king of 
Prussia secularised all the convents in the duchy of 
Posen. Dom Pedro put down 300 convents in Por- 
tugal in 1834; and Spain abolished 1800 convents. 
Many were abolished in Italy and Sicily in 1860, 
1861, and 1866, and many in Russia 31 July, 1832, 
and Noy. 1864. 

In 1597 lady Mary Percy founded a convent at Brussels, 
which flourished there till 1794, when the nuns were 
compelled to remove to England. They were received 
by bishop Milner, and placed at Winchester, at which 
place they remained till their removal to Hast Berg- 
holt, in Suffolk, June, 1857. This was the first English 
conventual establishment founded on the continent 
after the Reformation. 

By the Emancipation act of 1829, 10 Geo. IV., the 
establishment of convents and other religious 
communities in the United Kingdom was prohi- 
bited, butthis enactment has been a dead letter . 

There were in 1832, 16 convents in England ; in 1870, 
233; and 70 monasteries in Great Britain. 

A select committee to investigate into the revenues 
of British convents appointed by the commons, 
to May, 1870; reappointed z : . Feb. 1871 

The committee reported the evidence heard . June, ,, 

Mr. Newdegate’s motion for an inquiry respecting 
these institutions was negatived . x2 June, 1874 

Large convent at Bournemouth, in connection 
with Church of England, opened 3 Oct. 1875 

A Carmelite convent, specially patronised by the 
duke of Norfolk and family, at St. Charles’s 
Square, Notting Hill, London, W., opened by 
Cardinal Manning : 5 : . 29 Sept. 1878 

Many convents in France abolished, by decree 

29 March, 1880 


CONVEYANCING ACT (Scotland) passed 
7 Aug. 1874. The Conveyancing and Law of Pro- 
perty Act (England), 44 & 45 Vict. c. 41, passed 22 
Aug. 1881. 


‘CONVICTS, see Transportation. 
CONVOCATION, a general assembly of the 


clergy of the nation, convened by the sovereign’s 
writ, to consult on the affairs of the church; the 
writ is directed to the archbishop of each province, 
requiring him to summon all the bishops, arch- 
deacons, &c. The convocation is divided into two 
houses, the upper, consisting of bishops ; and lower, 
of deans, prebendaries, archdeacons, and members 
elected from the inferior clergy. The clergy were 
summoned to meet the king by writ, 23 Edw. I. 
1294. The power of the convocation was limited 
by a statute of Henry VIII., in whose reign the 


1829 


4 is ee Tie 4 ney 
. : 


CONVOLVULUS. 214 - COPERNICAN SYSTEM. 


a eee nc ene es aoa 
convocation was reorganised. The two houses of COOPERAGE, an ancient art, probably sug- 
convocation were deprived of various privileges | gested for preserving wine. The coopers of London 
in 1716, and ceased to meet. Formal meetings of | were incorporated in I50I. 


the clergy have been held annually during the CO-OPERATIVE SOCTETIES are com- 
sitting of parliament since 1854, and fruitless at- posed of working men, having for their object the 
tempts have been made to obtain the power of | sale of articles of daily consumption to the members 
dealing summarily with ecclesiastical affairs; but | at low prices. The Rochdale Equitable Pioneers 
in Feb. 1872, convocation was authorised to deli- | Society hecan in £844. owt eeenen 282.40 
berate respecting alterations in the Liturgy; upon | 169 ‘the business dana pare 2s 152 0632., the 
which it acted, 5 March; again in 1879. Petition | profits being 15,9062. These societies (332 in 1862) 
to the queen for reform of convocation, Nov. 1882. are registered pursuant to 13 & 14 Vict. c. IIs 
CONVOLVULUS. The Canary Convolvulus | (1849). On 31 Dee. 1866, 749 industrial, provident 
(Convolvulus canariensis) came to England from | _ eR eget yn: Piste Legg tye 
: n i ==g, | act passed in 1867 they are boun 
cagheramt tas dr oe aaa niet 79 | The fourth congress i at Bolton, April 1, 1872. 
COOKERY, an art connected with civilised | fifth at Newcastle, 12 April, 1873; sixth at Halifax 
life. Animals were granted as food to Noah, 2348 | 6 April, 1874; seventh in London, 29 March, 1875 
B.C., the eating of blood being expressly forbidden ) eighth at Glasgow, 17 April, 1876; ninth at Leices 
(Gen. ix. 3, 4). In 1898 B.c. a calf was cooked by | ter, 2 April, 1877; twelfth, Newcastle, 17 May, 1880 
Abraham to entertain his guests (Gen. xviii. 7, 8). | thirteenth, at Leeds, 6 June, 1881; fourteenth 
** The Forme of Cury”’ (¢.e. cookery) is dated 1390. | Oxford, 29 May, 1882; fifteenth, Edinburgh, 1 
An English cookery-book was printed 1498; see | May, 1883; sixteenth, Derby (co-operation in pro: 
Cottager’s Stove. | duction proposed), 2 June, 1884. A national trad 
The Cooks’ Company, London, chartered 1482, celebrated society in opposition to co-operation was forme 
the anniversary Aug. 1882. Since 1877 the company in 1872. 
ae ingirechion to gin, are) ie ee Co-OPERATIVE COTTON-MILLS in south Lancashire wer 
Military Cookery.—Capt. Grant devised a system of cook- Pat ken prsepeergkn 5 GINEERING Works, estab 


ing for the camp at Aldershot, which has continued in ES “2 his 
successful operation for the service of between 12,000 lished 187, failed through want of capital : wound 


: : 3 875. 

and 14,000 men. From April to August, in 1857, theplan | ,,*°79. 

was subjected to the severe test of cooking for 92,000 | eran nn ae i ee ot accu 
men, who marched in and out of the encampment | % “© NUMELOS COC ee eno 


during that period. The consumption of fuel requisite | (COORG, a province, S. India. War broke ou 
for this system of cooking was one half-pound of coal | between the rajah and the East India Company 1832 


per man per day, and the official report states the cost = = j 
to be one halfpenny per man per week for the three which ended by col. Lindsay defeating and deposin: 
daily meals. the rajah, 10 April, 1834, and his territories wer: 
Self-supporting Cooking Depéts for the working classes | soon after annexed by the British. In 185 th 
were set up at Glasgow (by Mr. Thomas Corbett), 2: | rajah brought his daughter to be educated in | 
Sept. 1860; and proved successful in Manchester, | land, where she was baptized. She married a col 
Campbell, and died a few years after. 


London, and other places soon after. 
Three medals were awarded to the Norwegian self-acting z 
cooking apparatus (Sorenson’s patent) at the Paris Ex- COPENHAGEN (Denmark), built by Walde: 
hibition, 1867. Cooking is effected by boiling water, | mar I., 1157, made the capital, 1443; the universit| 
the wen of Ane sive tin! maintained by enclosing it in a | foynded 1 479. In 1728, more than seventy of it 
non-conducting substance. pa 
A sph ees of femoris was opened at ae? international ex- ee - KY Rrauapih net, 
ibition, Sout ensington, 14 April, 1873. ? Saas 
A National Training School “for jj Pea tiharh proposed Feb. 1794, when 100 persons lost their lives. In: 
17 July, 1873, was established in 1874. fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the mt 
; admiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed, June 
COOK S VOYA GES. som Cook, secom- 795- A ‘new national theatre was founded by th 
panied by Mr. (afterwards sir) Joseph Banks, sailed | 1472" 18 Qct. 1 872,—Copenhagen was bombarded b’ 
from England in the Endeavour on his first voyage, the Enclish under lord Nelson and admiral Parker 
30 July, 1768; and returned home after having | ,n4 in their engagement with the Danish fleet o 
circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Deal 12 June, | twenty-three ships of the line, eighteen were take: 
1771. The chief object of the expedition, at the | or destroved by the British 2 April 1801. Again 
request of the Royal Society, was the observation of | a aE sedatarnet. owe of tires days, ‘the city an 
the transit of Venus over the sun's disk, which was | Danish fleet surrendered to admiral Gambier an 
effected, 3 June, 1769. Captain Cook sailed to ex-— lord Catheart, 7 Sept. 1807. The capture consistet 
asda egge arm a here, 13 July, 1772, and of eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs 
returned 30 July, 1775. In his last expedition snd “twenty-five cun-boats, and immense nava 


gun 12 July, 1776) he was killed by the savages : . 
of Owhyhee, 14F eb. 1779. His ships, the Resolution : ie peat ass with suburbe, 1550) 270i | 
’ 


nd Discovery, arrived at Sheerness . 1780. | 
. 4s 1H Oct ee The czar and the kings of Denmark and Greece, an 


COOLIES, the hill tribes of India, have been other royal persons, breakfast with Mr. Gladstone 
recently much ‘employed as labourers in Australia cise dt. and others on board the Pembroke Cast/¢ 
18 Sept. 1883. 


and California, especially since 1861; and about P ope - Thorwaldsen’ 
30,000 of them were conveyed by M. Kootmanschap, et pion me Co Oct. da a 


to assist in making the great Pacific railway. His 
proposal in 1869 to replace the negroes in the COPENHAGEN FIELDS . oe 
Southern States of North America for the cultiya- | Here the Corresponding Society met on Th 
tion of cotton, was not accepted. ‘The Coolie, his | 179°> and the Trades’ Union, 21 A sig Pata ia 
Rights and Wrongs,” by E. Jenkins, was published | fields are now chiefly occupied by the Metropo 
1871. Coolie emigration has been the subject of | Cattle-market, opened 13 June, 1855. 

negotiation between the British and Chinese govern- COPERNICAN SYSTEM, s0 called fron 
ments since 1855. : its author Nicolas Copernicus, born at Thorn, & 


@ : 


COPLEY MEDAL. 


215 


COPYRIGHT. 


Feb. 1473, died 24 May, 1543. A few days before 
his death, the printing of his book on the ‘** Reyolu- 
tion of the Celestial Bodies’’ was completed. The 
system, which resembles that attributed to Pytha- 
, was condemned by a decree of pope Paul Y. 

in 1616; not revoked till 1818 by Pius VII. 


COPLEY MEDAL, see Royal Society. 
COPOPHONE, 2 musical instrument, con- 


sisting of a series of glass tumblers, connected with 
a sounding board. The sounds are produced by 
‘moving wet fingers along the edge of the glasses. 
It was played on at parties in London in June, 
1875, by Chevalier Furtado Coelho, the inventor. 


COPPER. One of the six primitive metals, 
said to have been first discoveredin Cyprus. Pliny. 
We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine 


copper (or brass), ‘‘ precious as gold,” 457 B.c. 
era viii. 27). The mines of Fahlun, in Sweden, 
are most surprising excavations. In England, cop- 
‘per-mines were discovered in 1561, and there are 
upwards of fifty mines in Cornwall, where mining 
has been increasing since the reign of William III. 
In 1857, 75,832 tons of copper ore were imported, 
and 25,241 tonsextracted. In 1865, 198,298 tons of 
copper ore were extracted from British mines, and 
11,888 tonssmelted : 82,562 tons were imported. In 
1856, 24,257 tons of pure copper (worth 2,983,611/.), 
in 1869, 8291 tons (worth 644,065/.) ; in 1875, 4593 
tons (worth 413,284/.); in 1876, 4694 tons (worth 
391,130/.); in 1879, 3462 tons (worth 222,507/.) ; 
1882, 3,464 tons (worth 252,872/.) were produced in 
the United Kingdom. ‘The Burra-Burra copper- 
mines, in §. Australia, discovered 1842, brought 
great prosperity. 
CopreR Money. The Romans, prior to the reign of Ser- 
Tullius, used rude pieces of copper for money ; see 
oin. ; 
In England copper money was made at the instance of 
sir Robert Cotton, in 1609 ; but was first really coined 
.(when Miss Stewart sat for the figure of Britannia) 1665 
lis regular coinage began in 1672, and it was largely 
issued in . : j 4 ‘ ‘ < ‘ - 1689 
Tn Ireland, copper was coined as early as 1339; in 
_ Scotland in 1406 ; in France in : : i 
Wood's coinage (which see) in Ireland commenced in 
The copper coinage was largely manufactured at 
Birmingham, by Boulton and Watt, in. Z 
Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively issued 
The half-farthing was coined, but disused (see 
Farthing) . 3 5 : < é 2 ae 
Io,o00l. voted towards replacing the copper coinage, 
July, 
Bronze coinage (which see) issued oe pales. 
CopreR-PLATE PRINTING was first invented in Ger- 
Many, about 1450; and rolling-presses for work- 
ing the plates, about ‘ » F ‘ AS 
Messrs. Perkins, of Philadelphia, invented a mode 
of engraving on soft steel, which, when hardened, 
will multiply copper-plates and fine impressions 
indefinitely (see Engraving) . 3 4 : : 
Copper SHEATHING first applied to the bottom of 
H.M.S. Alarm, at Woolwich, 1761 ; all the navy 


1580 
1723 


1792 
1797 


1843 


1855 
1860 


1545 


1819 


copper-bottomed by . s J 2 : orzo 
Electrotyping with copper printing types and casts 
from woodcuts, began . . about 1850 


Coprer-zinc CoupLe, a Voltaic arrangement made by 
Dr. J. H. Gladstone and Mr. A. Tribe in 1872, in 
which a mixture of the two metals is finely sub- 
divided, with the points of junction exposed, so as to 
promote the decomposition of any binary liquid into 
Which small pieces are immersed ; the resistance of 
_ the liquid being greatly reduced. The couple is 
formed by immersing zinc foil in a solution of sul- 
| phate of copper; the copper being deposited on the 
zinc in minute particles. By this couple impurities 
in water are readily detected, many peculiar analyses 
have been made, and new organic bodies formed. 


-— COPPERAS, a mineral composed of copper or 
‘iron combined ‘with sulphuric acid (vitriol), found 


= ee 


in copper-mines, commonly of a green or blue 
colour ; said to have been first produced in England 
by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. 


COPPERHEADS, a name given about 1863 
to such members of the Democrat party in the 
United States as were in favour of peace with the 
South on any terms.— Copperhead is a poison- 
ous serpent, also named dumb-rattle snake, red 
viper, &c. 


COPTIC CALENDAR, see Diocletian. 


COPTS, in Egypt, the supposed descendants of 
the ancient Egyptians, mingled with Greeks and 
Persians. Their religion is a form of Christianity 
derived from the Eutychians. 


COPYHOLDERS, who hold an estate by a 
copy of the rolls of a manor made by a steward of 
the lord’s court. They were enfranchised by 5 Vict. 
e. 35, 1841. By the Reform act in 1832, copy- 
holders to the amount of I0/. became entitled to 
a vote for the county. The copyhold acts were 
amended by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 94 (1858). 


COPYING-MACHINES (for letters, &c.) 
were invented by James Watt in 1778; patented in 
May, 1780; and 150 machines were suld before the 
end of the year. Wedgwood’s ‘‘ manifold writer ”’ 
was patented in 1806; and in 1855 Terry patented 
a copying machine to be combined with the cover 
of a book. Other inventions patented since. 
Zuccato’s papyrograph is much esteemed. 


COPYRIGHT. Decree of the Star-chamber 
regarding it, 1556. Every book and publication 
ordered to be licensed, 1585. 

Ordinance forbidding the printing of any work with- 

out the consent of the owner a : : a 
The first copyright act (for 14 years, and for the 

author’s life if then living), 8 Anne . : “nee 
This act confirmed by a decision of the house of 

lords, and the claim of perpetual copyright over- 
ruled : . A 4 : 22 Feb. 
Later acts extended the author’s right to 28 years, 
and if living at the end of that time, then to the 
remainder of his life. 
Protection of copyright in prints and engravings, 

17 Geo. III. H : - = = : ae 
Copyright protection act (for 28 years, and the re- 

mainder of the author’s life if then living), 

54Geo. III. . J ‘ ; ‘ F ‘ : 
Dramatic authors’ protection act, 3 Will. IV. e. 15. 
Act for preventing the publication of lectures with- 
out consent, 6 Will. IV. c. 65 . : 
International copyright bill, x Vict. c. 59 : : 
5 & 6 Vict. c. 45 (Talfourd’s or lord Mahon’s act), 
to amend the copyright act passed . : ae 
(By this act, the right is to endyre for the life of the 
author, and for seven years after his death ; but if 
that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is 
still to endure for 42 years, for which term also any 
work published after the author’s death is to con- 
tinue the property of the owners of the manu- 
script) 
The colonies’ copyright act, 10 & 11 Vict. ¢. 95, 
passed ; 4 - Z a ; 3 .\ . 5aee 
Canada copyright act, passed . A - 2Aug. 1875 
Royal commission on copyright nominated : earl 
Stanhope, chairman, 22 Sept., 1875; report 
(signed 24 May) issued . 3 ; . autumn, 


1649 


1799 


1878 


COPYRIGHT FOR DESIGNS. 


Protection granting security for two months to new 
designs applied by printing to linens, calicoes, 
and muslins . ‘ ‘ - = - - 1787 

Extended to three months . ; d : - - 3 

A copyright of 14 years conferred on eee 1798 

and 181 

The designs act of Geo. ITI. made to embrace printed se 
designs on wool, silk, and hair ; and 12 months’ 
copyright granted to designs applied to all tissues 
except lace and those already provided for ; for 
the modelling, embossing, and engraving of any 


CORBIESDALE. 


manufacture not being a tissue ; and for the shape 
or configuration of any article : : - 1839 
By 5 &6 Vict. c. roo, all existing designs acts re- 
pealed (except that for sculpture), and provision 
made for including all ornamental designs under 
73 Classes, and conferring upon them terms 
of protection, varying from nine months to three 
years . > * : : : : : aire 
[Fees on registration vary from rs. to xl.] 
The ‘“‘non-ornamental designs act,” securing the 
configuration of articles of utility (fee 1ol.), 
passed in , . A ; ‘ : : 5 
By the ‘‘ designs act,” the Board of Trade is em- 
powered to extend the copyright for an additional 
term of three years . : ; 5 ; we 
Copyright of photographs secured by the act pro- 
tecting works of art, passed in July, 
Another copyright of designs act passed 13 Aug. 
Registration of designs and trade marks, amal- 
gamated with the patent office SEDL. iss 


INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. 

Acts passed to secure to authors, in certain cases, 
the benefits of international copyright (x & 2 Vict. 
c. 59, and 15 Vict. c. 12), and conventions have, 
in consequence, been entered into with France, 
Prussia, &c. : : : : 1838 and 

The question of a foreigner possessing a copy- 
right in this country was finally decided in the 
negative by the house of lords, who reversed the 
decision of the court of exchequer, on an appeal 
by the defendant in the case of Boosey v. Jeffrey. 
(In 1831, Mr. Boosey purchased the copyright of 
Bellini’s opera, La Sonnambula, from which Mr. 
Jeffrey published a cavatina. Six of the judges 
were for protecting foreign copyrights, and seven 
of a contrary opinion.) . * ; ; . Aug. 

International copyright bill introduced into Ameri- 
can house of representatives . 21 Feb. 

In the case of Routledge v. Low, the house of lords 
on appeal decided in favour of the copyright of a 
foreign author * ‘ : ; » 20a ees 

Copyright Association of England, founded by emi- 
nent London booksellers : . 19 March, 

The subject discussed at the Literary Congress, 
Paris, opened ; ; ‘ . 18 June, 

International copyright congress at Berne opened, 

8 Sept. 1884 

Another (artistic) Brussels . 29 Sept. ,, 


CORBIESDALEH, Caithness (N. Scotland). 
Here, on 27 April, 1650, the gallant marquis of Mon- 
trose was defeated by the Covenanters. He was 
taken soon after, treated with great contumely, and 
hanged at Edinburgh, on 21 May. 


CORCYRA (now Corfu, chief of the Ionian 
Isles), a colony founded by the Corinthians about 
734 B.C. It had frequent wars with the mother 
country ; one about the possession of Epidamnus 
(431 B.C.) led to the Peloponnesian war. It was 
subdued by the Spartans in 373, and by the 
Romans, 230. At the decline of the eastern empire 
it fell into the hands of the Venetians about A.D. 
1149. The Turks attacked Corfu in 1716, but were 
gallantly repulsed. It was taken from the French 
by the allied Russian and Turkish fleets 3 March, 
1799, and formed (with the other isles) into the 
Ionian republic ; see Lonian Isles. 


CORDELIERS, friars of the order of St. 
Francis d’Assisi (the Minorites) instituted about 
1223. They are clothed in coarse grey cloth, having 
a girdle of cord, hence the name, first given to 
them by St. Louis of France, about 1227. Several 
members of the French revolutionary party, termed 
‘“Cordeliers,” established at Paris Dec. 1790 (He- 
bert, Cloots, &c.), were executed 24 March, 1794. 


CORDOVA, the Roman Corduba (S. Spain), 
founded about 152 8.c., taken by the Goths a.n. 
572, and made the capital of an Arab kingdom by 
Abderahman in 756, who founded the great mosque 
(now the cathedral) 786. It was the birthplace of 


1852 


1872 
1878 


216 


CORINTHIAN ORDER. 


Seneca and Lucan, and of the Arabian physician 
Averrhoés. It was rescued from the Arabs by 
Ferdinand ITI. of Castile in 1236, was taken by 
the French under Dupont and disgracefully ravaged 
7-9 June, 1808; surrendered to Joseph Bonaparte 
Jan. 1810; abandoned by the French in 1813; 
plundered by the Carlists, Oct. 1836. 


COREA, a peninsula, E. Asia, tributary to 
China, and from which foreigners were rigidly ex- 
cluded, till June, 1882, when four ports were 
opened to commerce by the agency of the United 
States of America and China by treaty. For the 
ea with Americans see United States, June, 
1871. 

Anti-foreign insurrection ; outrages, 11 of the Ja- 
panese legation killed, 23 July; Japanese prepa- 
rations for war with Corea on account of 


injuries, announced F : : ‘ Aug. 1882 
War averted by compensations, reparation, and 

peace . 5 5 : 5 ‘ DCD be) a5 
The king reinstated, announced 5 BS ED be hcss 
Treaty with Great Britain signed, 26 Nov. 1883; 

ratified 1884 


Another insurrection; the king attacked in his 
palace, and his ministers massacred by Coreans 
and Chinese, 4-6 Dec.; peace restored by inter- 
vention of Japanese . : . about 13 Dec. ,, 

Difficulty between Japan and China settled by 
European: mediation, Jan.; Japan predominant 


Feb. 1885 
CORFU, see Corcyra. 


CORINTH (Greece), a city said to have been 
built 1520 B.c. and named Ephyra. It was de- 
fended by an elevated fortress called Acrocorinth, 
surrounded with strong walls, and Cicero named it 
the Eye of Greece.—For Corinth, in North America, 
see United States, 1862, 1863. 


The Isthmian games instituted, it is stated by Sisy- 
phus, who founded a kingdom A - B.C. 1326 
Return of the Heraclidze, or Dorians . . 1107 
Their dynasty established by Aletes - E . 1074 
The Corinthians invent ships called triremes (with 
three benches of oars) : é . 786 or 758 
Reign of Bacchis, 925 ; oligarchy of Bacchide = 747-657 
Thelestes deposed ; the government of Prytanes 
instituted ; Automenes, the first, . about 745 
The Corinthian colonies of Syracuse and Corcyra 
founded . : - - : ‘ - about 734 
Revolt of the Corcyreans: they defeat the Corin- 
thians at sea . : 4 : ‘ é 664 
Cypselus, a despot, sets aside the Prytanes . 65g 
His son Periander rules, and favours learning. 627-585 
Psammetichus deposed, and a republic formed . 1580 
The Corinthians engaged in the Persian war - 480 
435 
395 
344 


Defeated in war with the Corcyreans : 
The Corinthian war (which see) . : . . 
Timoleon kills his usurping brother Timophanes 
Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus, and annexed 
to the Achean League . ‘ i ; ‘: . 
The Roman ambassadors first appear at Corinth . 
Greeks defeated at Cynoscephale 5 ‘ ie 
Corinth sacked by Lucius Mummius, who sends to 
Italy the first fine paintings there seen (Livy) . 
Rebuilt by Julius Cesar . : 5 F : - 46 
Visited by St. Paul (Acts xviii.) . x 3 A.D. 54 
His two Epistles to the Corinthians . « about 59, 60 
Ravaged by Alaric : ; 3 ‘ yeh 
Plundered by Normans from Sicily . F ‘ : 
Taken by Turks, 1446; by Venetians, 1687; by 
Turks, June, 1714; from whom it was finally 
taken by the Greeksin . . ‘ ‘ a. 4 2883 
Nearly destroyed by an earthquake . 21 Feb. 1858 
A concession granted for gg years to a French com- 
pany to cut the isthmus for a canal; to be com- 
pleted in six years, by MM. E. G. Piat and Chollet, 
April, 1870; concession transferred to baron de 
Lesseps and gen. Turr . a : - 28 May, 
Cutting begun in presence of the king and queen 
5 May, 1882 


CORINTHIAN ORDER, the richest of the 


orders of ancient architecture, called by Scamozzi 


1881 


CORINTHIAN WAR. 


he virginal order, is attributed to Callimachus, 
40 B.C.; see Abacus. 


CORINTHIAN WAR, began 395 B.c.; re- 
eived this name because mostly in the neighbour- 
wood of Corinth; waged by a confederacy of the 
\thenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, 
gainst the Lacedemonians. It was closed by the 
eace of Antalcidas, 387 B.c. The most famous 
attles were at Coronea and Leuctra (which see). 


CORIOLI, a Latin city, capital of the Vol- 
sians, taken by the Romans, 493 B.c. The exploits 
f Caius Marcius or Coriolanus against it are deemed 
ythical. 

CORK (S. Ireland), built in the 6th century. 
he principality of the M‘Cartys was converted 
ito a shire by king John, as lord of Ireland. The 
undation of the SEE is ascribed to St. Barr, or 
inbarr, early in the 7th century. About 1431, 
is see and Cloyne were united ; but in 1678 they 
ere separated, Ross having been added to Cork 
82. Cork and Cloyne were reunited (by the act 


1833) 1835. 


urisoned by Henry II. - 1172 
rst charter, from Henry II. : : : - 1185 
ipported Perkin Warbeck, who landed here . - 1492 
large part of the town burnt : . 1627 


iken by Cromwell . ‘ ; : : A on TE 
ulborough besieged and took Cork from king 
James, when the duke of Grafton, a son of 
Charles II., was slain : fs ; ; ke 
¢ cathedral was rebuilt by the produce of a coal 
luty, between the years : 1725 & 1735 
plosion of gunpowder here ‘ to Nov. 1810 
e of the three colleges, endowed by government 
pursuant to act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66, passed 31 July, 
(845, Was inaugurated in this city (see Queen’s 
Jolleges) . 4 , : é 7 Nov. 1849 
ilway to Dublin finished : : * 2) IG50 
rk industrial exhibition opened, 10 June, and 
slosed . : % ‘ : : - «1 Sept. 1852 
ra seditious speech in favour of the Fenians 
which see), on 27 April, 1869, the mayor was com- 
yelled to resign (an act for his disability having 
een introduced into parliament) 11 May, 1870 
ts, partially connected with a strike, suppressed 
26,28June, ,, 
w protestant cathedral consecrated SOuNOVE mies 
lustrial exhibition opened, 3 July; closed 
13 Oct. 1883 


CORK-TREE, Quercus suber, a species of the 
<; part of its bark used for stopping bottles. 
e Egyptians made coffins of cork. The tree 
ws in great abundance on the Pyrenean moun- 
ns, and in other parts of Spain, in France, and 
the north of New England. It was brought to 
gland about 1690. <A cork carpet company was 
med in 1862. 


SCORN. The origin of its cultivation is attri- 
ted to Ceres, who, having taught the art to the 
yptians, was deified by them, 2409 B.c. -Arun- 
tan Marbles. ‘The art of husbandry, and the 
thod of making bread from wheat, and wine 
m rice, is attributed by the Chinese to Ching 
ung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch 
Jhina, 1998 B.c. Univ. Hist. Corn provided a 
amon article of food from the earliest ages of the 
‘ld, and baking bread was known in the patri- 
halages; see Exodus xii. 15. The first impor- 
on of corn, of which we have a note, was in 
7. A law restricting it was made in 1361, and 
ilar legislation followed. Bounties were granted 
its importation into England in 1689. See 
eat. 


1690 


CORN LAWS. 
restrictions on the importation of corn felt, in 
msequence of the increase of manufactures, 
vouti1770; relaxed . . ‘ : + 1773 


217 


CORNWALL. 


Mr. Robinson’s act passed, permitting importation 
when wheat is 80s. a quarter , s oa es 
During the discussions on this bill, mobs assembled 
in London, and many of the houses of its sup- 
porters were damaged, 28 Jan.: and a riot in 
Westminster continued . : 6-9 March, ,, 
A corn bill, after passing in the commons, defeated 
in the lords, by a clause proposed by the duke of 
Wellington, carried by a majority of 4 1 June, 
The act (called the sliding scale) whereby wheat was 
allowed to be imported on payment of a duty of 
rl. 5s. 8d. per quarter, Whenever the average price 
of all England was under 62s. ; from 62s. to 635., 
rl. 4s. 8d. ; and so gradually reduced to 1s., When 
the average. price was 73s. and upwards, passed 
15 July, 
The act 5 Vict. c. 14, the second sliding seale act,” 
regulated the duty on wheat as follows, with 
sliding duties, also, on other articles of corn, 
passed ‘ 3 ‘5 : - 29 April, 1842 
Average per quarter. Duty. 
Shillings. Shillings. 1s: 
under 51 : ° 
51 and under 52 . 19 
52 and under 55 18 
55 and under 56. 17 
56 and under 57 16 
57 and under 58 . 15 
58 and under 59 
59 and under 60 . 
60 and under 61 
6x and under 62 . 
62 and under 63 
63 and under 64 . 
64 and under 65 
65 and under 66 . 
66 and under 69 
69 and under 70 . 
zo and under 71 
71 and under 72 . 
7z2andunder73  . 
73 and upwards . : : é : 
See Anti-Corn Law League. 
The Corn Importation Bill (introduced by sir 
Robert Peel), 9 & ro Vict. ¢. 22 (by. which the duty 
on wheat was reduced to 4s. when imported at or 
above 53s., until rst Feb. 1849 ; after which day 
the duty became rs. per quarter only, on all kinds 
of grain imported into the United kingdom, at 
any prices), received the royal assent . 26 June, 
The 1s. duty repealed by act passed 24 June, 
CoRN EXCHANGE, Mark-lane, London, erected at an 
expense Of go,oool. (replacing one established in 
1747), Was opened . : 3 . 24 June, 1828 
Corn Exchange Benevolent Society, founded . . 1864 
The Society of Arts gave a prize to Mr. W. A. Gibbs 
for his essay on harvesting corn in wet weather 
23 Nov. 1868 


CORNELL UNIVERSITY, Ithaca, New 
York: for the study of the applied sciences, agri- 
culture, engineering, &c.; partially on a self-sup- 
porting system; founded by Ezra Cornell in 1868, 
that ‘any person may find instruction in any study.’ 
He had risen from poverty to wealth by patenting 
his inventions. 


CORNER, a term applied in America to the 
paralysis of trade and manufactures, produced by 
speculators purchasing in anticipation grain, petro- 
leum, cotton, &c. (termed futures). The cotton 
corner at Liverpool in Sept. 1881 led to the stopping 
of looms in Lancashire, &¢., by way of counteraction. 
The corner ended 30 Sept. 1881. Mr. Morris Ranger, 
a great cotton speculator, failed 31 Oct. 1883, 
causing much disaster. 


CORNWALL, S. W. extremity of England, 
originally called Kernou, a term connected with 
the Latin cornu, a horn, probably in allusion to its 
numerous promontories. On the retreat of the 
ancient Britons, Cornwall is said to have been 
formed into a kingdom, and to have existed many 
years under different princes, among whom were 
Ambrosius Aurelius, and the celebrated Arthur, 


a 


1815 


1827 


1828 


COD0DDDD0CCOO0O0O0000OO On 
HoH 
Ow 

ooh ci ood oMoM odo Molo M oll oN oll clo ollo Moll olt—" 


HNWAM AN OOO 


1846 
1869 


~ CORONATION. 


218 


CORPULENCEH. ‘ 


Cornwall is said to have been made an earldom by 
Alfred. The eldest son of the British sovereign is 
born duke of Cornwall. See Stannary Courts. 


Bishopric of Cornwall, founded, 909; united to 
Devonshire, ro40 ; removed to Exeter . : ‘ 
Cornwall given by the conqueror to Robert de 
Mortein, his half-brother, 1068 ; killed LOG 7 
William, his son, dispossessed by HenryT. . . 1104 
Reginald de Dunstanville, natural son of Henry I., 
earl . K 4 bs i : : Bg Ne i of; 
John Plantagenet, son of Henry II., earl, about . 1189 
Richard Fitz-Count, son of Reginald, earl, rats ; 
resigned . : : . : : ‘ 2 
Richard, son of king John, 1225; elected king of the 
Romans, 1256 ; died . ; ; : 2 April, 
Edmund, son, earl, 1272 ; died without issue . 1300 
Piers de Gaveston, earl, 1308 ; beheaded, 19 June, 1312 
John, son of Edward II., earl, 1330; died with issue 1336 
Cornwall made aduchy, by Edward III., for Edward 
his eldest son, afterwards created prince of Wales 
17 March, 
Insurrection of Cornishmen under lord Audley, 
Thomas Flammock, and others, against taxes ; 
they march to London; defeated at Blackheath 
22 June, 
Insurrection in Devon and Cornwall against the 
Protestant liturgy, defeated by lord Russell, Aug. 
Dolly Pentreath, said to have been the last person 
who spoke Cornish, died aged roz2 [contradicted] 
Rey. R. Polwhele’s ‘‘ History of Cornwall” published 
1803-8 
Prince and princess of Wales visit Cornwall, July, 13865 
Stoppage of the Cornish Bank (Tweedy & Co.) es- 
tablished 1771 . - : : : - 4Jdan. 
Receipts from the duchy, 1866, 77,7551.; 1877, 
87,895/.—paid to the prince of Wales, 1866, 
53,4031. ; 1877, 69,3391. 


CORONATION. LeolI., emperor of the East, 
was crowned by Anatolius, patriarch of Constan- 
tinople, being the first instance of a Christian 
sovereign receiving his crown from the hands of a 
priest, 457. Majorian, emperor of the West, is said 
to have been crowned in the same year in a similar 
manner. 


Charlemagne crowned emperor of the west by the 
pope Leo III. (using the words ‘‘ coronato a Deo,” 
“‘crowned by God”) . : a 25 Dec. 

Edward I., son of Alfred, crowned 16 May, 

William I. crowned at Westminster. . 25 Dec. 

Anointing at coronations introduced into England 
872, and Scotland ‘ 4 - s es 

Coronation of Henry III., in the first instance 
without a crown, at Gloucester. A plain circle 
was used on this occasion in lieu of the crown, 

‘which had been lost with the other jewels and 
baggage of king John, in passing the marshes of 
Lynn, or the Wash, near Wisbeach 28 Oct. 

William and Mary crowned by Compton, bishop of 
London, as Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, 
would not take the oaths . iz April, 1689 

George IV. crowned . : : : 19 July, 1821 

William IV. crowned, with his queen . . 8 Sept. 183, 

Victoria crowned . 28 June, 1838 


CoRONATION CHAIR. In the cathedral of Cashel, formerly 
the metropolis of the kings of Munster, was deposited 
the Lia Fail, or Fatal Stone, on which they were 
crowned. Tradition says, that in 513 Fergus, a prince 
of the royal line, having obtained the Scottish throne, 
procured the use of this stone for his coronation at 
Dunstafinage, where it continued until the time of 
Kenneth I., who removed it to Scone ; and in 1206 it 
was removed by Edward I. from Scone to West- 
minster ; the present chair being made to receive it. 

A CoRONATION OATH was administered by Dunstan, 
archbishop of Canterbury, to Ethelred II., in 978. An 
oath, nearly corresponding with that now in use, was 
administered in 1377. The oath prescribed by x Will. & 
Mary, ©. 6 (1689) was modified in 1706, and again in 
1821 on account of the union of the Churches of England 
and Ireland. 


CORONEA, BATTLEs oF, I. (or Cheronea),. 
The Athenians were defeated and their general 
‘Tolmides slain in a battle with the Boeotians at 
Coronea near Cheronea, 447 B.c. II. The Athe- 


1046 


1220 


1272 


1337 


1497 


1549 
1778 


1879 


800 
go2 
1066 


1097 


1216 


nians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians hay 
entered into a league, offensive and defensi 
against Sparta, Agesilaus, after diffusing the ter 
of his arms, from his many victories, even u 
Upper Asia, engaged the allies at Coronea, a to 
of Beeotia, and achieved a great victory over th 


394 B.C. 


CORONERS, officers of the realm, mentior 
in a charter, 925. Coroners for every count 
England were first appointed by statute of We 
minster, 3 Edw. I. 1275. Stow. ‘They are cho 
for life by the freeholders, and their duty is 
inquire into the cause of unnatural death, u 
view of the body. By an act passed in I 
coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act 
them in case of illness. Laws respecting coron 
amended 1860. — 20,531 coroners’ inquests w 
held in England and Wales in 1859:— 


1860 . 21,178 | 1870 « 25,370 | 1879 . 27, 
1861 . 21,038 | 1871 . 25,898 | (18,233 male 
1862 . 20,591 | 1872 . 25,705 | 1886 . 26, 
pence yc 22,757 | 1873 - 26,427 (18,131 male 
1864 . 24,787 | 1874 . 27,184 188 173 
1865 . 25,011 Is 27; 
1866 . . 24,926 O8.75 ee (18,548 male 
1867 . = 245645) 1a75 oe 28,587 | 1882 . 27, 
1868 . . 24,774 | 1876 . 26,845 | (18,673 male 
186q.. = 245709 1 26770 26,287 | 198. . , 98 
(17,191 males.) (1878 . 27,628 > 


CORONETS, caps or inferior crowns of 
nobility. . The coronets for earls were first alloy 
by Henry III.; for viscounts by Henry VIII.; : 
for barons by Charles II. Baker. But authori 
conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, > 
the first of the degree of earl who wore a coror 
1604. Itis uncertain when the coronets of du 
and marquises were settled. Beatson. 


CORPORATE REUNION. See Order. 
CORPORATIONS. Numa, in order to br 


the force of the two rival factions of Sabines : 
Romans, is said to have instituted sepa 
societies of manual trades. Plutarch.—Municu 
CoRPORATIONS IN ENGLAND. Bodies poli 
authorised by the king’s charter to have a comn 
seal, one head officer, or more, and members, v 
are able, by their common consent, to grant 
receive in law any matter within the compass 
their charter. Cowell. Charters of rights w 
granted by the kings of England to various tow 
first by Edward the Confessor. Henry I. gran 
charters, 1100: and succeeding monarchs gaye ¢ 
porate powers to numerous communities throu; 
out the realm, subject to tests, oaths, and conditio 
Blackstone. The Corporation and Test act, pas 
in 1661, was repealed in May, 1828. The Corpo 
tion Reform act, for the regulation of munici 
corporations in England and Wales, 5 & 6 Will.. 
c. 76 (1835 , was amended in 1869. The It 
Municipal Corporation act, 4 Vict. c. 108, passed 
1840, was amended in 1861. The Corrupt Practi 
(Municipal Elections) act, was passed 6 Aug. 18 
The law relating to municipal elections amen¢ 
by act passed 19 July, 1875. Municipal Electio 
Corrupt and Illegal Practices Act passed 14 At 
1884, Royal commission on 110 unreformed mu 
cipal corporations appointed in 1876; report isst 
17 Feb. 1880. Bill for their reform introduced 
Sir Charles Dilke, 2t Feb. 1883. A consolidat 
act passed 1882. An association of municipal c 

orations met 5 Dec. 1884. Property qualificat: 
pill rejected in commons (173—167), 2 April, 18 


CORPULENCE. 


Mr. Bright, a tallow-chandler and grocer, of Maldon, 
in Essex, who died in his 29th year. Seven per- 


CORPUS CHRISTI. 


sons of the common size were with ease enclosed 
in his waistcoat ; buried at All Saints, Maldon 
12 Novy. 

Daniel Lambert, supposed to have been the heaviest 
man that ever lived, died in his goth year, at 
_$tamford, in Lincolnshire, weighing 52 stone 
iz pounds; (ro stone 4 pounds more than Mr. 
Bright) . ; : : : ' . 21 June, 
James Mansfield, died at Debden, aged 82, weigh- 
ing34stone . é : , . - 9 Nov. 
Mr. Wm. Banting published a letter on corpulence, 
recommending, from his own experience, us a 
remedy, great moderation in the use of sugar and 
starch in diet. 50,000 copies of this letter were 
speedily sold or given away . : : . 1863 


CORPUS CHRISTI (te Dieu in France), 
i festival in the Roman church, in honour of the 
Lord’s supper, kept on the Thursday after Trinity 
Sunday (which see). It was instituted by pope 
Jrban IVY. between 1262 and 1264, and confirmed 
ry the council of Vienne in 1311. 


4 CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS, see Justinian 


ode. 


“CORRELATION or THE PHYSICAL 
FORCES,” a book by Mr. (afterwards Sir) W. R. 
rove, F.R.S., who in 1842 enunciated the theory 
f the correlation or mutual dependence and con- 
ertibility into each other of all the forces of nature 
yiz. heat, light, electricity, magnetism, chemical 
iiinity, and motion). 


CORRESPONDING SOCIETY or 
4ONDON, was formed about 1791, to spread 
iberal opinions and check the severity of the 
sritish government, then much alarmed by the 
‘rench revolution. Horne Tooke and other mem- 
ers were tried for treason and acquitted, Oct. 1794 ; 
ee Trials, 1794. The meetings of the society at 
Jopenhagen-tields and elsewhere, in 1795 and 1796, 
vere termed treasonable.—On 21 April, 1798, Messrs. 
YConnor, O’Coigley, and others, were tried for 
‘orresponding with the French directory; and James 
‘YCoigley was executed as a traitor (protesting his 
‘anocence) on 7 June. 


. CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE, see Mercury. 
CORRUPT PRACTICES ACTS, respecting 


lections for members of parliament, were passed in 


See 


1809 
1856 


854, and continued in following years. 
iribery and Corporations. 
. ¥ an act passed in 1881 elections at Boston, Can- 
_ terbury, Chester, Gloucester, Macclesfield, and 
Oxford, were ‘temporarily suspended; and 
’ Messrs. May and Main (Macclesfield), Mr. Edwards 
) (Deal), Mr. Oids (Sandwich), and others were 
sentenced to imprisonment varying from 2 to 9 
months : 5 2 : : 29 Noy. 
tition for their release signed (in vain) by 43,841 
) persons . ; ; Z about 23 Dec. 
1e act 46 & 47 Vict. ¢. 51, passed 25 Aug. 1883, 
oa prohibits hiring carriages and illegal pay- 
‘ments. 


CORSICA, an island in the Mediterranean Sea 
alled by the Greeks Cyrnos), held by the French. 
ae ancient inhabitants had the character of 
| bbers, liars, and atheists, according to Seneca. 
-rsica Was colonised by Phocwans 564 B.c., and 
terwards held by the Carthaginians, trom whom 
was taken by the Romans, 231 B.c. It has been 
\ ld by Vandals, a.p. 456; by Saracens 852; by 
sans, 1077. It was dependent upon Genoa from 
59 till 1768, when it was ceded to France. 

‘ring a revolt erected into a kingdom under Theo- 

lore Neuhoff, its first and only king . - 1736 
+ came to England, was imprisoned in the 
Sing’s Bench prison for debt, and long subsisted 

/ nm private friends, but released ; he gave in his 


1881 


>B] 


: 


| 


219 


1750 | The earl of Orford wrote the following epitaph, for 


COSSACKS, 


schedule the kingdom of Corsica to his creditors, 
and died in Soho 


1756 


a tablet near his grave in St. Anne’s church, 
Dean-street :— 


** The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings 
Heroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kings. 
But Theodore this moral learn’d ere dead ; 
Fate pour’d its lesson on his living head, 
Bestow’d a kingdom and denied him bread.” 
Pascal Paoli chosen for their general by the Cor- 
sicans . : , : 2 : : : é 
Defeated by the count de Vaux, he fled to England 
Napoleon Bonaparte born at Ajaccio (5 Feb. 1768, 
baptismal register ; doubtful) 15) AUS ies 
The people acknowledge George IIL. of England for 


king. : : : - : . 17 June, 1794 
Sir Gilbert Eliott made viceroy, and opened a par- 

liament . 5 e : : : See TOS 
A revolt suppressed, June ; the island relinquished 

by the British, 22 Oct. ; the people declare for the 

French P : é : ‘ : . 1796 
A statue to Napoleon I. inaugurated by prince 

Napoleon Jerome : - ‘ ‘ 15 May, 1865 
Visit by the empress and imperial prince . 4 Sept. 1869 


CORTE NUOVA, near Milan, N. Italy. Here 
the emperor Frederic II. defeated the Milanese 
after a severe conflict, 27 Nov. 1237. 


CORTES, the Spanish parliament, originating 
in the old Gothic councils. ‘the cortes were as- 
sembled after a long interval of years, 24 Sept. 
1810; and settled the new constitution, 16 March, 
1812, which was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who 
banished many members of the assembly in May, 
1814. The cortes were reopened by him March, 
1820, dissolved Oct. 1823; again assembled April, 
1834, and have since been regularly convened. The 
cortes of Portugal assembled by virtue of dom 
Pedro’s charter, 30 Oct. 1826; they were sup- 
pressed by dom Miguel in 1828, and restored in 1833. 


CORUNNA (N. W. Spain). The British army, 
about 15,000 men, under the command of sir John 
Moore, had just accomplished their retreat when 
they were attacked by the French, whose force ex- 
ceeded 20,000: the enemy were completely re- 
pulsed, but the loss of the British in the battle was 
immense, 16 Jan. 1809. Sir John was struck by a 
cannon-ball, which carried away his left shoulder 
and part of the collar-bone, and he died universally 
lamented. The remains of the army embarked at 
Corunna, under sir David Baird, 17 Jan. 


CORUS (Corupedion, or Cyropedium), a plain 
in Phrygia, Asia Minor, where the aged Lysi- 
machus was defeated by Seleucus, and slain, 281 
B.c. These two were the only survivors of Alexander 
the Great’s generals. 


CORVEE, forced labour and service under the 
feudal system in France, was partially reduced by 
Louis XVI., at the instigation of Turgot, 27 June, 
1787; by the constituent assembly, 18 March, 1790; 
and totally abolished by the convention, 17 July, 
1792. 

CORYPHUS, the principal person of the 
chorus in ancient tragedy. The name was given to 
Tysias, or Stesichorus, who first instructed the 
chorus to dance to the lyre, 556 B.c. 


COSMOGRAPHY, see Astronomy and 
Geography. 


COSPATRICK, emigrant vessel, burnt, see 
Wrecks, 1874. 
COSSACKS, warlike people inhabiting the 


confines of Poland, Russia, T'artary, and Turkey. 
They at first lived by plundering the Turkish 
galleys and the people of Natolia; but were formed 


COSSOVA. 


220 


COTTON. 


into a regular army by Stephen Bathori, about 
1576, to defend the frontiers of Russia from the 
Tartars. They joined the Russians in 1654, and 
ia the great war against France (1813-15) formed a 
valuable portion of the Russian army. 


COSSOVA, a plain in Servia. Here AmurathI. 
totally defeated the Christian army (Servians, Hun- 
garians, &c.), Sept. 1389; but was himeelf killed 
by an expiring soldier. Here John Huniades was 
defeated by a Turkish army four times larger than 
his own, 17 Oct. 1448. 


COSTA RICA, a republic in Central America, 
part of Guatemala, established independently Nov. 
1848. It has been much disturbed by the American 
filibusters, see Nicaragua and America, Central. 
Constitution, 27 Dec. 1859. On 14 Aug. 1859, the 
president Juan Mora was suddenly deposed, and Dr. 
José Montealegre made president; Dr. J. Ximenes 
elected president 3 April, 1863, was succeeded by 
Dr. Joseph Castro, 8 May, 1866; deposed ; J. Jimenez, 
governor, Nov. 1868; Vicente Quadra proclaimed 
president 12 March, 1871; J. M. Guardia, presi- 
dent, elected 1871 for 1872-6; Aniceto Esquivel, 
elected 8 May 1876; Vicente Herrera, 31 July, 
1876, resigned: succeeded by Thomas Guardia, 
Oct. 1877; died July, 1882, succeeded by Prospero 
Fernandez; death announced 14 March, 1885. 
Population 1880, estimated, 185,000. 


COSTERMONGERS, itinerant dealers in 
fruit, vegetables, fish, &c., deriving their name, it 
is said, from costard, a favourite apple. The Lon- 
don costermongers are useful in relieving the 
markets when glutted; and it was said in 1860, 
that 3,000,000/. passed through their hands an- 
nually. Previous to fasting and thanksgiving days, 
they sell the appointed forms of prayers in great 
numbers. On 22 Nov. 1860, they held a meeting 
in order to represent to the city authorities the 
hardships they felt by the police restricting their 
means of livelihood; and the Metropolitan Streets 
Act was modified, 7 Dec. 1867. 

Their moral and physical condition has been much im- 
proved of late years, greatly through the instrumen- 
tality of the earl of Shaftesbury, who constituted 
himself a costermonger, and owned a barrow in 1874. 


COSTUME, see Dress. 
COTOPAXI, see Andes. 


COTTAGE. The term was originally applied 
to a small house without land, 4 Edw. I. 1275. 
‘“No man may build a cottage, except in towns, 
unless he lay four acres of land thereto,” &e., 31 
Eliz. 1589. This statute was repealed, 15 Geo. III. 
1775. By returns to the tax office, in 1786, the 
number of cottages was 284,459. The number in 
1800 was 428,214; the number in 1840 was about 
770,000. In 1860 the public attention was much 
drawn to the deplorable state of cottages in many 
parts of the country, and the law of settlement was 
altered in 1865. Mr. Disraeli (afterwards lord 
Beaconsfield) said that “ every cottage should have 
a tank, an oven, and a porch.” 

Cottage Improvement Society, founded 12 April, 1861, 

7, Adam-street, Strand. Some of the society’s 

models appeared in the International Exhibitions 

—in London, 1862 ; in Paris - 1867 

See Shaftesbury Park. 
The Cottager’s Stove, designed by captain John Grant, 
registered and presented by him to the metropoli- 

tan association for improving the dwellings of the 

industrious classes Dec. 1849 


COTTAGE HOSPITALS: much advocated 
by Dr. Horace Swete in 1870. Many since then 
have been established: one by the baroness Bur- 
dett Coutts, 1878. 


COTTON, a vegetable wool, the produce of t 
Gossypium, a shrub indigenous to the tropic 
regions of India and America. Indian cotton elo 
is mentioned by Herodotus, was known in Arat 
in the time of Mahomet, nae and was brought in 
Europe by his followers. It does not appear 
have been in use among the Chinese till the 13 
century; to them we are indebted for the cott 
fabric termed nankeen. Cotton was the mater 
of the principal articles of clothing among t 
Americans when visited by Columbus. It w 
grown and manufactured in Spain in the Io 
century; and in the 14th century was introduc 
into Italy. Indian muslins, chintzes, and cotto 
were so largely imported into England in the 17 
century, that in 1700 an act of parliament w 
passed, prohibiting their introduction. Cotton h 
came the staple commodity of England in t 
present century. About 1841 the ‘‘cotton” 
‘Manchester’? interest began to obtain politic 
influence, which led to the repeal of the corn la 
in 1846. Failure of Mr. Morris Ranger, a gre 
cotton speculator, and others at Liverpool announc 
31 Oct. 1883. Strike in the N.W. districts, oppositi 
to the reduction of wages, 18,500 persons on strik 
18 Dec. 1883; the men yield under conditions abo 
oly 1884. See Calico, Muslin, Corner, Strik 
1884. 


Fustian and Velveteen made of cotton, about 1641. 

Calico sheeting, dc. The fly-shuttle was invented 
John Kay, of Bury, 1738; the drop-box by Robert K: 
1760; spinning by rollers (also attributed to Jo 
Wyatt) patented by Louis Paul, 1738; the spinnil 
jenny, by Hargreaves, 1767; the water-frame, by A! 
wright, 1769; the power-loom, by Rev. Dr. Edmu 
Cartwright, 1785; the dressing machine, by Johns 
and Radcliffe, 1802-4 ; another power-loom, by Horroe! 
1803-13. A combing machine was patented by Josh 
Heilmann, in 1845. 

British muslin (totally superseding that of India) is 4 
mainly to the invention of the MULE (which see) 
Samuel Crompton, 1774-9 ; and to the self-acting mt 
of Mr. Roberts, 1825. 

Calico Printing commenced 1764. 

The Steam-Engine first applied to the cotton manufactt 
(by Boulton and Watts), 1785. 

Bleaching by means of chloride of lime introduced by } 
Tennant, of Glasgow, 1708. : 

Stockings. The stocking-frame was invented by Willi 
Lee, in 1589. Cotton stockings were first made by ha 
about 1730; Jedediah Strutt obtained a patent | 
Derby ribbed stockings in 1759 ; and Horton patent 
his knotter frame in 1776 ; Crompton’s mule was ¢€ 
ployed in making thread for the stocking manufacti 
about 1770. 

Cotton-Lace—Bobbin-net. The stocking-frame of Lee ¥ 
applied to lace-making by Hammond, about 1768; 1 
process perfected by John Heathcoat, 1809. 


COTTON FIBRE IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDO! 


Ib. 1b. 
1697. 1,976,359 | 1863 670,084, 
1710 715,008 | 1864 . ~~ Sodstoes 
1730- 1,545,472 | 1865 i - 978,502, 
1765 3,870,392 | 1866 . - + + 5,377,5aa ie 
1782. 11,828,039 | 1868 - 1,328,761, ¢ 
1790 31,500,000 | 1870 . - 1,339,3075: 
1800. 56,000,000 | 1872 - - 1,408,837, 
1810 - 132,500,000 | 1874 . - « 1,566,864, 
1820. - 151,500,000] 1875. - 13492, 351 # 
1830 . 264,000,000 | 1876 . - 1,487,858,° 
1840 - 592,500,000] 1877. + ‘25355, 2018 
1860 . - 1,390,938,752 | 1879 . s = 17400; 4508 
1861 + 1,256,984,736 | 1881 “ + 1,679,068, 
1862 . 523,973,296 | 1883 . + 1,7345333»: 


American Cotton. Previous to 1795, our cotton fi 
came from the East and West Indies, the Levant, a 
alittle from the United States. About 1786, the groy 
of cotton began in Georgia. In 1793, Eli Whitney, 
American, invented the saw-gin, a machine by wht 
cotton wool is separated from the pod and cleaned w 


eee 


COTTON. 


221 


COUNCILS. 


; great ease and expedition.* This led to such increased | In June, 1865, Mr. Farnall, the special commissioner 


cultivation that the United States soon exported 
1,500,000 Ib. of cotton :— 


From the United States, N.A. 


1795 5,250,000 Ib. 1871 1,038,677,920 Ib. 
is 89,999,174 1872 | 625,600,080 
1830 =. 210,885,358 1873 832,573,616 
1840 487,856,504 1874 874,926,864 
1847 364,599,291 1875 841,333,472 
1859 «=. 9 61, 707,264 1876 932,800,176 
1860 1,115,890,608 1877. 12,244,592 
186r 819,500,528 1879 1,082,462,080 
1866 520,057,440 1881 1,210,980,288 
1870 §=- 716, 248,848 1883 1,239,410,592 


lotton imported from India: 1856, 463,000 bales ; official 
yalue, 3,572,329l.; in 1865, 1,266,520 bales; value, 
25,025,856l. ; in 1866, 1,847,770 bales; value, 25,270,5471. ; 
in 1874, 412,025,040 Ib. ; In 1876, 275,856,336 Ib. ; in 
1877, 193,856,320 Ib.; in 1879, 181,347,601 Ib. ; 1881, 
198,577,080lb. ; 1883, 260,698,480 Ib. 

australian Cotton said by Manchester manufacturers to 
be superior to the best American cotton, Jan. 1861. 

, company formed at Manchester to obtain cotton from 
‘India, Africa, and other places (arose out of the Cotton 
‘Supply Association, formed in 1857), Sept. 1860. 

ince 1861, the cultivation of cotton in India, Egypt, 

Italy, &c. has greatly increased. 

otton imported from Egypt in 1856, 34,399,008 tb.; in 
1870, 143,710,448 Ib. ; in 1876, 199,245,312 Ib. ; in 1877, 

176,558,256 Ib.; in 1879, 158,232,032 tb.; 188:, 
175,317,072 Ib. ; 1883, 170,685,200 Ib. 

et for collection of cotton statistics passed 25 June, 
1868. ° 


IXPORTS OF COTTON GOODS, YARN, &C., FROM UNITED 


KINGDOM. 

Official Value. Official Value. 
qy, = . £5,915 | 1862 . -£36,750,971 
OTF 4 A 23,253 | 1864 . - 54,882,329 
Shee 45,986 | 1866 74,505,426 
i a 355,000 | 1870 . 71,416,345 
90. 1,662,369 | 1874 731247,625 
00, 5,406,501 | 1876. 67,641,286 
Weer - 20,509,926 | 1877. . - - 69,228,073 
47s + 23,333,225 | 1879. + 63,974,053 
60. 5 Pep 2,O02,430 ;180L; « wi 2+ 7257445531 
OE 6 «+ + 46,872,489 | 1883 . * 79;445)757 


COTTON FAMINE. 
_@ supply of cotton from North America nearly ceased, 
“1 consequence of the secession of the southern states 
rom the union in 1860-61. In 1852, Mr. T. Bazley 
‘warned the country on the danger of trusting to this 
source. 
ailure the loss of the labouring classes was 12,000,0001. 
sterling a year, and estimated the loss, including the 
mploying classes, at nearly 40,000,000l. a year. 
 & meeting of noblemen and gentlemen, connected with 
he cotton manufacturing districts, at Bridgewater- 
‘louse, St. James’s, on 19 July, 1862, the earl of Derby 
a the chair, 1o,oool. were subscribed to the Cotton 
istrict Relief Fund. The viceroy of Egypt, in London 
it the time, gave 1oool., and the queen gave 20001. on 
r July. Liberal subscriptions flowed in from all 


arts. On 28 Aug., the lord mayor had received 
) 1,902. 

the Lancashire district (population about 4,000,000) 
here were receiving parish relief, Sept. 136r, 43,500 
_ersons ; in Sept. 1862, 163,498. LHarl of Derby, 2 Dec. 
| 862. 


, July, 1863, about the value of 700,000/. remained of 
ae donations which had been received in money and 
»00ds, amounting to about 1,900,0001, 

. 9 Feb., 1863, the ‘‘ George Griswold” arrived, con- 
-uning contributions of provisions, &c., from North 
,Merica, for the relief of the sufferers in Lancashire. 

| Union Relief Act (passed Aug. 1862, and continued 
.{ 1863) gave much relief by enabling overseers to 
drrow money to be expended in public works to be 
-cecuted by the unemployed workmen. 

det. 1864, much distress still existed, and fears were 
itertained for the approaching winter—go,oco more 
‘mupers than ordinary in cotton districts. Times, 
i dan. 1865. 

_ A trial of various kinds of cotton gins, under the di- 
‘ion of Dr. Forbes Watson, took place at Manchester, 
lov,-23 Dec. 1871. 


In May, 1862, he stated that through its |- 


(appointed in May, 1862) was recalled by the poor-law 
board, and the famine was declared ‘to be ended. 
1,000,000], had been expended in two years. The 
executive of the Central Relief Fund held their last 
meeting, 4 Dec. 1865. 

The account of the fund was made up in 1873. The 
balance, above 130,000l., was proposed to be appro- 
priated to the foundation of a convalescent hospital for 
Lancashire. 

A memorial window (the gift of the cotton operatives of 
Lancashire, who subscribed to commemorate the muni- 
ficence of the metropolis to them during the cotton 
famine, 1861-4) placed in Guildhall and uncovered, 
15 July, 1868. 

Corton Factories regulated by acts of parliament passed 
in 1825, 1831, 1833, and 1844. The hours of labour were 
limited, and the employment of children under nine 
years of age prohibited. In 1846, 1724 cotton mills 
employed 197,500 persons. In 1862, the persons em- 
ployed were stated to be 451,000; 315,000 in Lanca- 
shire. Excitement through 5 per cent. reduction of 
wages in Lancashire, &., Sept. 1883; strike ; dispute 
settled, 27 Sept. 1883. 


COTTONIAN LIBRARY, formed by sir 
Robert Bruce Cotton, 1600, et seg. He died 6 May, 
1631. It was rescued from the republicans during 
the protectorate, 1649-60, and was secured to the 
public by a statute in 1700. It was removed to 
Hssex-house in 1712; in 1730 to Dean’s-yard, 
Westminster (where on 23 Oct. 1731, a part of the 
books sustained damage by fire); to the British 
Museum in 1757. 


COTTON OIL, largely manufactured from 
the seede in the south of the United States: year 
1876-7, 3,316,000 gallons; 1878-9, 8,175,000 gallons, 


COTTON WOOL, see Respiration. Dr. 
Percy, in 1874, applied cotton-wool to purify the 
air for ventilating the houses of parliament. 


COULMIERS, a village ten miles west of 

rleans, central France. Here the Bavarians, 
under general Von der Tann, were defeated by the 
French army of the Loire, under general d’ Aurelle 
de Paladines, who took about 2000 prisoners, 9 Noy. 
1870, and regained Orleans. 


COULOMB. See Electricity. 


COUNCILS. King Alfred, in about 886, is 
said to have so arranged the business of the 
nation, that all resolutions passed through three 
councils. The first was a select council which con- 
sidered all affairs to be laid before the second council, 
bishops and nobles appointed by the king, like the 
present privy council. The third was a general 
assembly of the nation, called, in Saxon, Wittena- 
gemét, in which quality and offices gave a right to 
sit. In these three councils we behold the origin of 
the cabinet, privy councils, and parliaments; see 
Cabinet, Common and Privy Councils, &c. 


COUNCILS or THE CHURCH. The follow- 
ing are among the most memorable. Those num- 
bered are the Geuwmenical or General Councils. Sir 
Harris Nicolas in his ‘Chronology of Histor a 
enumerates 1604 councils, and gives an alphabetical 
list. 

Of the church at Jerusalem (Acts xv.) . - An | Se 
Of the western bishops at Arles, in France, to sup- 
press the Donatists ; three fathers of the English 

church attended . 


. . - . . ° I 
I. First Gicumenical or General, at Nice (Constan- one 
tine the Great presided), decreed the consubstan- 
tiality of the Son of God, condemned Arianism, 
and composed the Nicene creed . a is « 325 
At Tyre, against Athanasius : . ° + 4 i335 
The first at Constantinople, when the Arian heresy 
gained ground ° « - 337 


At Rome, in favour of Athanasius a - atic Ye 


COUNCILS. 


At Sardis: 370 bishops attended; Arians con- 
demned . : : ‘ : : , : : 
At Rimini: 400 bishops attended; Constantine 
obliged them to sign a new confession . : : 
II. Constantinople: oriental council; 150 orthodox 
bishops present when it met; presided over 1st 
by Meletius, 2nd by Gregory Nazianzen, 3rd by 
Nectaritis ; added to the Nicene creed ; declared 
the bishop of Constantinople next in rank to 
Rome; Constantinople being New Rome . : 
III. Ephesus: Cyril of Alexandria presided; an- 
athematised and deposed Nestorius ; protested 
against any addition to the original Nicene creed 
{V. Chalcedon: 520 bishops present ; declared the 
two natures of Christ, Divine and Human, as de- 
fined by Leo of Rome; accepted and decreed 
the Constantinopolitan addition to the Nicene 
creed i. - - ; : > ; : : : 
V. Constantinople: Eutyches, patriarch of Con- 
stantinople, presided; condemned the three 
chapters (written by Theodore of Mopsuestia, 
Theodoret, and others); Vigilius, bishop of Rome, 
protested, but afterwards assented + is 
VI. Constantinople: pope Agatho presided ; against 
Monothelites Nov. 680, to 16 Sept. 
Authority of the six general councils re-established 
by Theodosius ; ‘ : : : “Ot ie 
VII. Second Nicene: 350 bishops attended ; against 
Iconoclasts : é : 24 Sept. to 23 Oct. 
VIII. Constantinople : the emperor Basil attended ; 
against Iconoclasts and heresies 
5 Oct. 869, to 28 Feb. 
At Clermont, convened by Urban II. to autho- 
rise the crusades : 310 bishops attended : 
[X. First Lateran: right of investiture settled by 
treaty between pope Calixtus IT. and the emperor 
Henry V. 3 : : 18 March to 5 April, 
X. Second Lateran: Innocent II. presided ; pre- 
servation of temporalities of ecclesiastics, the 
principal subject ; 1ooo fathers of the church 
attended . : : : : : 20 April, 
XI. Third Lateran, against schismatics 
5 to 19 March, 
XII. Fourth Lateran: 400 bishops and 1000 abbots 
attended; Innocent III. presided ; against Albi- 
genses, Xe. : 2 : tr to 30 Nov. 
XIII. Lyons; under pope Innocent IV. : emperor 
Frederick II. deposed 28 June to 17 July, 
XIV. Lyons; under Gregory X. : temporary union 
of Greek and Latin churches 7 May to 17 June, 1274 
XV. Vienne in Dauphiné: Clement V. presided, and 
the kings of France and Aragon attended ; order 
of Knights Templars suppressed 
16 Oct. 1311; 3 April and 6 May, 1312 
XVI. Pisa: Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. de- 
- posed ; Alexander elected 5 March to 7 Aug. 1409 
XVII. Constance: Martin V. elected pope; and 
John Huss and Jerome of Prague condemned to 
be burnt . : - . . - 1414-1418 
XVIII. Basel. . : i ; : 1431-1443 
XIX. Fifth Lateran’: begun by Julius IT. L512 
Continued under Leo X. for the suppression of the 
pragmatic sanction of France, against the council 
of Pisa, &c., till. : ‘ ; F : SA: 
XX. Trent: held to condemn the doctrines of the 
reformers, Luther, Zuinglius, and Calvin. (See 
Trent.) . : : . 13 Dec. 1545, to 3 Dee. 1563 
XXI. Rome: summoned by an encyclical letter, 
8 Sept. 1868 ; met ‘ : ; 8 Dec. 1869 
Present: 6 archbishop-princes, 49 cardinals, x1 
patriarchs, 680 archbishops and bishops, 28 
abbots, 29 generals of orders—8o3 in all : 
There were held four public sessions, and between 
go and 100 congregations. New canons were 
issued 24 April, 1870, and after much discussion 
and opposition, the infallibility of the pope 
as head of the Church was affirmed by 547 
placets against 2 non-placets, and promulgated, 
18 July, 1870 
Many bishops withdrew from the discussion. The 
council then adjourned to 11 Nov. (see Rome.) 


COUNCILS, FrEencH. The Council of 
ANcIENTS, consisting of 250 members, together 
with the council of FrvE HUNDRED, instituted at 
Paris, 1 Nov. 1795: the executive was a Directory 
of Frvn. “Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five 


347 
309 


431 


45% 


553 
681 


715 
787 


870 


1095 


1123 


I139 


1179 


I215 


1245 


I517 


222 


COUNTY-COURTS. 


hundred at St. Cloud, 9 Nov. 1799, declaring hi 
self, Roger Ducos, and Siéyés, consuls provesotr 
see France. 


COUNCILS oF CoNcrILIATION, to adj 
differences between masters and workmen, may 
established by licence of the secretary of state, 
virtue of an act passed 15 Aug. 1867. 


COUNSEL are supposed to be coéval with 
curia regis, Advocates are referred to the time 
Edward I., but are mentioned earlier. Counsel y 
were guilty of deceit or collusion were punisha 
by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 12 
Counsel were allowed to persons charged w 
treason by act 8 Will. III. 1696. An act to ena 
persons indicted for felony to make their defe 
by counsel, passed Aug. 1836; see Barristers : 
King’s Counsel. 


COUNT, Latin comes, a companion; Frei 
comte; equivalent to the English earl (whose ¥ 
is still termed a countess), and to the German gr 
see Champagne and Toulouse. 


COUNTERPOINT (in music), writing 
chords toa melody. ‘The earliest known specir 
of contrapuntal writing is by Adam de la Hall 
the 12th century. 


COUNTESS or HUNTINGDON’S C 
NEXION; see Whitefieldites. 


COUNTIES or Surres._ The division of 
kingdom into counties began, it is said, with k 
Alfred; but some counties bore their present na: 
aboveacentury before. The division of Ireland: 
counties took place in 1562. Lord-lientenants ¥ 
appointed in 1549 in England, and in 1831 in Irela 
Counties first sent members to parliament, be 
which period knights met in their own count 
1285. CuHanpos Craussz, Sect. 20 of the Ref 
act, 2 Will. IV. c..45 (1832), inserted by the mot 
of the marquis of Chandos. By it occupier: 
tenants of land notsituate in a borough, paying 
annual rent of 50/., became entitled to a vote 
the knight of the shire. It increased the num 
of tory voters, and in consequence several atten 
were made to repeal it. It was superseded by 
Reform act of 15 Aug. 1867. 


By the Winter Assizes Act, 1876, certain counties ¥ 
united (by order in council, first time, 23 Oct. 1 
to facilitate more speedy trials of prisoners. 


COUNTRY DANCE, see Contre-Danse. 
COUNTRY PARTY, see Court Party. 
COUNTY-COURTS or schyremotes, in 


time of the Saxons, were important tribun 
Alfred is said to have divided England into co 
ties, and counties into hundreds; but county-co 
seem to have existed much earlier. 


County-Courts, for the recovery of debts under 2ol., 
superseding courts of requests, instituted by 9 & 
to Vict. c. 95 . ‘ P ; : 26 Aug. 

The counties of England and Wales are divided into 
sixty districts, each district having a county- 
court, with a barrister as judge, and juries when 
necessary. Their jurisdiction extended by 13 & 14 
Vict. ¢. 61, to sums not exceeding sol. : a. 

Their proceedings facilitated in 1852 and 1854; 
60 county-courts in England and Wales . . 18€ 

In 1850 plaints entered at the courts of the sixty 
circuits were 306,793, for 1,265,r15/. ; in 1857, 
744,652 plaints for 1,937,7451.; of the 217,173 
causes tried, 4297 were for sums between 2ol. 
and sol. 

From 1847 to 1858 judgment was obtained in these 
courts for 8,309,2361. 

Equity powers, like those of the court of chancery, 
in cases relating to sums under sool., conferred on 
these courts, to begin . 2 , ‘ z Oct. 


a A / 
- , 


COUNTY FRANCHISE. 223 COVENANTERS. 


heir jurisdiction still further enlarged | . 20 Aug. 1867 
dmiralty jurisdiction conferred on them by act 

passed July, 1868, amended . . Aug. 1869 
ounty Court Acts amended by act passed 2 Aug. 1875 
County Boards Bill, withdrawn . : July, 1879 


COUNTY FRANCHISE, a bill for giving 
ytes to labourers and others, annually brought in 
yMr.G. 0. Trevelyan. See Household Suffrage. 


COUNTY OFFICERS AND COURTS, 
eland: an act to amend the law respecting them 
ssed 14 Aug. 1877. 


COUP D’ ETAT, in France; Pronunciamiento 

Spain; changes in the government effected by 
ree, either by the ruler, the ,army, or the 
pulace. The Speaker’s Coup d’état, see Parlia- 
nt, 2 Feb., 1881. 


COURIERS. Xenophon attributes the first to 
rus; and Herodotus says that they were common 
long the Persians; see Esther iii. 15, about 510 
3. The Greeks and Romans had’ no regular 
iriers till the time of Augustus, when they tra- 
led in cars, about 24 B.c. Couriers or posts are 
d to have been instituted in France by Charle- 
igne about A.D. 800. Couriers for letters were 
ployed by Louis XI. of France, 1463. -Henauit. 
e Post-office. 


SOURLAND, a duchy of Livonia, conquered 
Danes, 1218; by Teutonic knights, 1239; sub- 
ted to Poland in 1561, conquered by Charles XII. 
Sweden in 1701; Ernest Biren, duke, 1737; his 
» Peter, 1769; annexed to Russia, March) 1795. 


JOURT BARON, an ancient court which 
ty lord of a manor may hold by prescription. In 
duties, heriots, and customs ‘are received, and 
ates and surrenders are passed. Its jurisdiction 
s restricted in 1747 and 1833. By the Small 
ots Act, 1856, lords of the manor may give up 
ding these courts. 


JOURT CIRCULAR, conservative weekly 
er; established 26 April, 1856. 


JOURT DRESS, see Dress. 


JOURT JOURNAL, fashionable journal, 
blished 1829. 


(OURT LEET, an ancient court of record, 
mging to a hundred, instituted for punishing 
roachments, nuisances, fraudulent weights and 
sures, &c. The steward is judge, and all per- 
‘residing within the hundred (peers, clergymen, 
ae ted) are obliged to do suit witbin this 


OURT PARTY—COUNTRY PARTY, 
ticians in the parliaments of England, beginning 
it 1620. At the end of the 17th century the 
r embodied toryism and high church principles, 
otained the rights of ‘‘the land,” as opposed 
vhiggism and the trading interests. Its most 
nguished statesman was sir Thomas Hanmer 
Montalto of Pope’ s Satires), who died in 1746. 
e 


JURT OF HONOUR. In England the 
tof chivalry, of which the lord high constable 
ajudge, was called Curia Militaris, in the time 
enry IV., and subsequently the Court of Honour. 
avaria, to prevent duelling, a court of honour 
instituted in April, 1819. Mr. J oseph Hamil- 
or many years ardently laboured to establish a 
ar institution in Britain. 


JURT OF JUSTICIARY, HIGH, in 
and, constituted by a commission under the 
‘Seal, 1671, ratified 1672. The present lord- 
*e-general, the right hon. John Inglis, was ap- 


pointed, Feb. 1867, and the lord justice-clerk the 
right hon. James Moncrieff, Noy. 1869; made lord 
Moncrieff, Dec. 1873. The procedure in this court 
was amended by an act passed in 1868. 


COURT OF REQUESTS (or Court of Con- 
science), first instituted in the reign of Henry VII. 
1493, and remodelled by Henry VIII. in 1 517. Stow. 
Established for the summary recovery of small debts 
under forty shillings; but in the city of London 
the jurisdiction extended to debts of five pounds. 
Ashe. The courts of requests superseded in 1847 
by the County Courts (which see). 


COURT OF REVIEW, see Bankruptey. 


COURT OF SESSION, the highest civil 
tribunal in Scotland, was instituted by James V. by 
statute, 17 May, 1532. It consisted of I4 judges 
and a president, and replaced a committee of parlia- 
ment. In 1830 the number of judges was reduced : 
and the court now consists of the lord president, the 
lord justice-clerk, and 11 ordinary judges. In 1867 
the necessity of renovating this court was asserted 
by high legal authority; and an act to amend its 
procedure was passed 31 July, 1868. The present 
lord president, the right hon. John Inglis, was ap- 
pointed, Feb. 1867. 


COURT THEATRE, Sloane-square, Chelsea, 


opened 25 Jan. 1871; Miss Litton first manager, 
COURTRAI (Belgium). Here Robert, count 


of Artois, who had defeated the Flemings in 1297, 
was defeated and slain by them, 11 J uly, 1302. The 
conflict was named the “ Battle of Spurs,” from the 
number of gilt spurs collected. 


COURTS MARTIAL are regulated by the 
Mutiny act, first passed in 1690. The powers of 
these courts were much discussed in 1867, in conse- 
quence cf the measures used to suppress the negro 
insurrection in Jamaica, Oct. 1866. 


COURTS OF JUSTICE were instituted at 
Athens, 1507 B.c. (see Areiopagus) ; by Moses, I49I 
B.C. (xed. xviii. 25), and in Rome. For these 
realms, see Chancery, Common Pleas, Exchequer, 
King’s Bench, &¢. The citizens of London were 
privileged to plead their own cause in the courts of 
Judicature, without employing lawyers, except in 
pleas of the crown, 41 Hen. III. 1257. Stow. The 
rights of the Irish courts were established by the 
British parliament in April, 1783. 


COURTS OF LAW FEES ACT, passed 20 
Aug. 1867, directs the application of surplus fees 
towards providing new courts of justice. Acts for 
building these courts were passed in 1865 and 1866. 
See Law Courts. 


COURTS OF SURVEY, consisting of a 
judge and two assistants, for appeals respecting un- 
seaworthy ships, were directed to be appointed in 
certain ports and districts by the Merchant Ship- 
ping Act, 39 & 4o Vict. c. 80 (15 Aug. 1876). They 
sat in 1877. 


COUTRAS (S. W. France). Here Henry of 
Navarre totally defeated the duc de Joyeuse and the 
royalists, 20 Oct. 1587. 


COVENANTERS, those persons who in the 
reign of Charles I. having signed the solemn league 
and covenant, engaged to stand by each other in 
opposition to the projects of the king in 1638. The 
COVENANT or league between England and Scotland 
(the preceding one modified), solemnly adopted by 
the parliament, 25 Sept. 1643; was accepted by 
Charles IT. 16 Aug. 1650, but repudiated by him on 
his restoration in 1661, when it was declared to be 


+ 


COVENT GARDEN. 


illegal by parliament, and copies of it ordered to be 

burnt. See Cameronians and Bothwell Bridge. 

The covenant consisted of six articles : 

x. The preservation of the reformed church in Scotland 
and the reformation of religion in England and Ireland. 

2, The extirpation of popery, prelacy, schism, &c. 

3. The preservation of the liberties of parliament and the 
king’s person and authority. 

4. The discovery and punishment of all malignants, &c. 

5. The preservation of ‘‘a blessed peace between these 
kingdoms ;” 

6. The assisting all who enter into the covenant : 

“‘ This will we do as in the sight of God.” 


COVENT GARDEN (London), corrupted 
from ‘Convent Garden,” having been the garden 
of St. Peter’s convent. The square was built abont 
1633, and the piazza on the north side and the chureh 
were designed by Inigo Jones. The fruit and vege- 
table markets were rebuilt in 1829-30, from designs 
by Mr. Fowler (the ground belonging to the duke 
of Bedford). 


COVENT GARDEN THEATRE sprang 
out of one in Lincoln’s-inn-fields, through a patent 
granted 14 Chas. IT. 1662, to sir William Davenant, 
whose company was denominated the ‘‘ duke’s ser- 
vants,”’ asa compliment .to the duke of York, after- 
wards James II. ;see under Theatres.—The theatre 
was burnt down 5 March, 1856, during a bal masqué 
held by Mr. Anderson, the wizard of the north. 
The present theatre by E. Barry was opened 15 May, 
1858. The Floral Hall adjoining it was opened 7 
March, 1860, with the volunteers’ ball. 


COVENTRY ACT passed, to prevent malicious 
maiming and wounding, 6 March, 1671, in conse- 
quence of sir John Coventry, K.B., M.P., being 
maimed in the streets of London, by sir Thomas 
Sandys and others, adherents of the duke of Mon- 
mouth, 21 Dec. 1670. Repealed 1828. 


COVENTRY (Warwickshire). Leofric, earl 
of Mercia, lord of Coventry, is said to have relieved 
it from heavy taxes, at the intercession of his wife 
Godiva, on condition of her riding naked through the 
streets, about 1057. Processions in her memory took 
place in 1851 ; 23 June, 1862; 4 June, 1866; 20 June, 
1870; and 4 June, 1877; 6 Aug. 1883. The legena 
is probably fabulous. A parliament was held here 
in the reign of Henry IV. called parliamentum in- 
doctum, or the unlearned parliament, because lawyers 
were excluded, 1404; and in the reign of Henry VI. 
another met, called parliamentum diabolicum, from 
the acts of attainder passed against the duke of York 
and others, 20 Nov. 1459. The town was sur- 
rounded with strong walls, three miles in circum- 
ference, and twenty-six towers, which were de- 
molished by order of Charles II. in 1662. The 
ribbon makers here suffered much from want of 
work in the winter of 1860-1. An industrial exhi- 
bition here was opened by earl Granville, 19 June ; 
closed by the earl of Clarendon, 21 Oct. 1867. 
The prince and princess of Wales were warmly 
received 7 Noy. 1874. The BisHopric was 
founded by Oswy, king of Mercia, 656, and had 
the double name of Coventry and Lichfield, 
which was reversed by later bishops. It was 
so wealthy, that king Offa, by the favour of 
pope Adrian, made it archiepiscopal; but this title 
was laid aside on the death of that king. In 1075 
the see was removed to Chester ; in 1102 to Coventry; 
and afterwards to its original foundation, Lichfield, 
but with great opposition from the monks of Co- 
ventry. Coventry merged into the bishopric of 
Lichfield (which see). 

Rioting on the levying of the ‘‘vicar’s rate” 
iz Sept. 1882 
New park, gift of Mr. D. Spencer, opened 11 Oct. 1883 


* 224 


CRANWORTH’S ACT, 
COW-POCK INOCULATION ; see 5%: 


Pox and Vaccination. 


CRABS. The size at which they are to be: 
is determined by the Fisheries Act, 1877. 


CRACOW, a city in Austrian Poland. | 
Poles elected Cracus for their duke, who built ( 
cow with thespoilstaken from the Franks about ’ 
It was their capital, 1320-1609. Cracow was ta 
by Charles XII. in 1702, and taken and reta 
several times by the Russians and other conf 
rates. The sovereign was crowned at Cracow u 
1764. The Russians, who had taken it 1768, ¥ 
expelled by Kosciusko, 24 March, 1794; but it: 
rendered to the Prussians, 15 June same year, 
in 1795 was awarded to Austria. Cracow was for 
into a republic, June, 1815. Occupied by 10 
Russians, who followed here the defeated Px 
Sept. 1831. Its independence was extinguish 
and it was seized by the emperor of Austria, 
incorporated with his empire, 16 Nov. 1846, wl 
was protested against by England, France, Swe 
and Turkey; see Poland. A dreadful fire laid 
greater part of the city inashes, 18 July, 1850. 
discovery on 22 July, 1869, of Barbare Abryk, a1 
secluded for 21 years ina conyent cell, led to vio 
rioting. 

CRANES are of very early date, for the eng 
of Archimedes may be so called. In 1857 a © 
had been erected at Glasgow capable of liftin; 
tons. One in Woolwich arsenal in 1881 lifted 
tons. See Derricks. 


CRANIOLOGY (or PHRENOLOGY), 
study of the external form of the human sku 
indicative of mental powers and moral quali 
Dr. Gall, the propounder, was a German physic 
born March, 1758, and his first observations > 
among his schoolfellows. Afterwards he stu 
the heads of criminals and others, and eventu 
reduced his ideas to a system, marking out the s 
likea map. His first lecture was given at Vic 
in 1796; but in 1802 the Austrian government 
hibited his teaching. In 1800 he was joined b 
Spurzheim ; and in 1810-12 they published at I 
their work on the ‘* Anatomy and Physiology o! 
Nervous System, and of the Brain in particul 
Gall died in 1828. The researches of Gall 
Spurzheim led to increased study of the b 
Combe’s ‘‘ Phrenology,”’ first published in 181 
the popular English work on this subject. Phr 
logical societies were formed early in London 
Edinburgh. 

Pbrenology was refuted by Lord Jeffrey in the Edin! 
Review, in 1826, and more recently by Dr. W 
Carpenter. Professor Ferrier reported the resul 
researches tending to prove localisation of ce 
eon in the brain to the British Association, 
1073- 

CRANMER, LATIMER, AND RIDLEY, 


tyrdom of, see Protestants, note. 


CRANNOGES, see Lake-dwellings. 
CRANNON or CRANON, Thessaly, N. Gr 


Near here the Macedonians under Antipater 
Craterus defeated the confederated Greeks, twi: 
sea, and once by land, 322 B.c. The Athenian 
manded peace, and Antipater put their orato 
death, among whom was Hyperides, who, th: 
might not betray the secrets of his country | 
under torture, cut out his tongue, and Demostl 
is said to have taken poison shortly after. 


CRANWORTH’S ACT, LORD, tosim 


the practice of conveyancers, 23 & 24 Vict. ¢ 
(1860). : ‘ 


CRAONNE. 


CRICKET. 


RAONNE (N. France). Here Victor and 
Ney defeated the Prussians under Bliicher after 
a severe contest, 7 March, 1814. 


CRAPH. It is said some crape was made by Ste. 
Badour, when. queen of France, about 680. ° It is 
said to have been first made at Bologna. 


CRAVANT, see Crevant. 


CRAYFORD (Kent). Hengist the Saxon is 
said to have defeated the Britons here, 457. 


CRAYONS, coloured substances made into 
paste, and dried into pencils, were known in France 
about 1422 ; and improved by L’Oriot, 1748. 

CREASOTEH, or KREASOTE (discovered by 
Reichenbach about 1833), a powerful antiseptic and 
eoagulator of albuminous tissue, is obtained by the 
destructive distillation of wood and other organic 
matters. It has been used for the preservation of 
meat, timber, &c. 


CREATINE (from the Greek ‘reas, flesh), the 
chemical principle of flesh, was discovered in 1835 
oy E. Chevreul, and has been investigated by Liebig, 
Gregory, and others. 


CREATION or THE WorRLD. The date 
ziven by the English bible, and by Usher, Blair, 
ind some others, is 4004 B.c. There are about 140 
lifferent dates assigned to the Creation, varying 
BS 3616 to 6984 B.c. Dr. Hales gives 5411; see 

as. 


daydn’s Creation (oratorio), composed 1796—8; first 
performed (in London, at Covent Garden Theatre), 
28 March, 1800; in Paris, 24 Dec. same year. 


-CRECHES, establishments for temporarily re- 
eiving the young children of working mothers; 
‘egun at Paris, about 1844; in London (in Rath- 
one-place, &c.) about 1863. 


CRECY, or Cressy (N. France), where Ed- 
rard III. and his son, Edward the Black Prince, 
ndan army of about jslione obtained a great victory 
ver Philip, king of France, with about 1 30,000, 26 
ug. 1346. John, king of Bohemia (nearly blind) ; 
ames, king of Majorca; Ralph, duke of Lorraine 
sovereign princes) ; and a number of French nobles, 
igether with 30,000 private men, were slain, while 
te loss of the English was very small. The crest 
‘the king of Bohemia (three ostrich feathers, with 
le motto Jch dien—in English, ‘‘I serve’) has 
nee been adopted by princes of Wales. 


\ 

_CREDIT FONCIER, &c. A plan of pro- 
ding loans to landowners was introduced by Frede- 
ok the Great of Prussia, in 1763, in some of the 
“ssian provinces, as the best method of alleviating 
/e distresses of the landed interest caused by his 
ws. The system consists of lending money to 
-idowners on the security of their estates, and pro- 
ling the loan capital by the issue of debentures 
arged upon the aggregate mortgaged estates. 
iere are two modes of carrying out this scheme : 
| by means of an association of landowners; (2) 
| Ineans of a proprietary public company. The 
mer obtains in Eastern Prussia, but the latter is 
y:lusively found in Western Europe. 
\ dit Foncier companies have been founded in Hamburg 
\t782), Western Prussia (1787), Belgium (1841), France 
»1852), England (1863). Similar companies were formed 
a2 all the states of Europe, in India, and in our colonies 
nd dependencies. Henriques. 


JREDIT MOBILIER: a joint-stock com- 
1y with this name was established at Paris by 
,a¢ and Emile Péreire, and others, 18 Noy. 1852. 
ook up or originated trading enterprises of all kinds, 


‘pplying to them the principle of commandité, or 
mited liabilities ; and was authorised to supersede or 


| 


buy in any other companies (replacing their shares or 
bonds with its own scrip), and also to carry on the ordi- 
nary business of banking. - The funds were to be ob- 
tained by a paid-up capital of 2% millions sterling, the 
issue of obligations at not less than 45 days’ date or 
sight, and the receipt of money on deposit or current 
account. The society apparently prospered ; but was 
considered by experienced persons a near approach to 
Law’s bank of 1716. 


Several of the directors failed, Sept. 1857, no diyvi- 
dend paid : F é : : , May, 1858 
Many companies based on its principles established 
in London . : : : : : “ Ee dyep: 
Emile and Isaac Péreire withdrew from the manage- 
ment; the company failed, and the capital was 
' said to have disappeared : : - Oct. 
The high court of appeal decided that MM. Péreire 
and other directors were responsible for their acts, 
and that damages should be given to the share. 
holders . ‘ : 6 . - ¢ zr Aug. 1868 
Emile Péreire died 6 Jan., 1875; Isaac died 12 July, 1880 
CREHEDS, see Confessions of Faith. J. R. 
Lumby’s History of the Creeds appeared 1874. 


CREMATION, see Burning the Dead. Cre- 


mation halls have been erected at Milan and Gotha. 
CREMERA, BATTLE of, see Fadii. 


CREMONA (NX. Italy), a city founded by the 
Romans, 221 B.c. It became an independent re- 
public in 1107, but was frequently subjugated by its 
neighbours, Milan and Venice, and partook of their 
fortunes. In Noy. 1859 it became part of the king- 
dom of Italy. Cremona was eminent for violin 
makers from about 1550 to 1750. 


CRESCENT, a symbol of sovereignty among 
the Greeks and Romans, and the device of Byzan- 
tium, now Constantinople, whence the Turks 
adopted it. The Crescent has given name to three 
orders of knighthood; founded by Charles I. of 
Naples, 1268; by Réné of Anjou, in 1448; by the 
sultan Selim, in 1801. 

CRESPY (N. France). Here was signed a 
treaty between Charles V. of Germany and Francis 
I. of France, 18 Sept. 1544. The former renounced 
Burgundy, and the latter Italy. 


CRESTS are ascribed to the Carians. Richard 
I. (1189) had a crest on the helmet resembling a 
plume of feathers. The English kings had gene- 
rally crowns above their helmets; that of Richard 
II. 1377, was surmounted by a lion on a cap of dig- 
nity; see Crecy. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, 
had a plume of feathers ; and the helmet of Robert 
I. was surmounted by a crown, 1306; and that of 
James I. by a lion, 1424. In the 15th and 16th 
centuries, the crest was described to be a figure 
placed upon a wreath, coronet, or cap of mainten- 
ance. Gwiellim. 


CRETE, now CANDIA (which see). | 
CREVANT-SUR-YONNE (N. France), was 


besieged by John Stuart, earl of Buchan, with a 
French army, July, 1423, and relieved by the earl of 
Salisbury with an army of English and Burgundians. 
Rata severe contest, the French were totally de- 
feated. 


CREVELDT, near Cleves (W. Prussia). Here 
on 23 June, 1758, prince Ferdinand of Brunswick 
defeated the French under the count of Clermont. 


CRICKET, an ancient English game, said to be 
identical with the ‘club ball’’ of the 14th century. 
Rules were laid down in 1774 by a committee of 
noblemen and gentlemen, including the duke of 
Dorset and sir Horace Mann. In 1861 the All 
England Eleven gained and lost games in Australia ; 
in Sept. 1868, they beat the New York Twenty-two. 
In 1873-4 they were beaten at Melbourne, 


Q 


1867 


\ 


CRIME. 


Eleven Australians visited England, and after gain- 

ing ten games and losing five, gained one against 

‘‘Players of All England,” . : - 3 Sept. 1878 
Thirteen Australians visited England in May 1880; 

they won 21 out of 37 matches, and lost 4; the 

others were drawn or indecisive; they were vic- 

tors in a match with the “ Players of England” 

at the Crystal Palace 27, 28, 29 Sept. 1880 
The Australians, previously victorious, were de- 

feated at Manchester by the north of England 

team : 3 z - ; 5 . 16 Sept. 1882 
England teats Australia A ; 23 July, 1884 
Australia wins 12 out of 20 matches in 
North of England beat Australians 
English ericketers in Australia victorious 


CRIME. About 1856 it was computed that a 
fifteenth part of the population of the United King- 
dom lived by crime. The increase in education and 
manufactures is gradually reducing this proportion. 
From 1848 to 1865 there had been no coimitment 
for political offences, such as treason or sedition. 
The returns of thirty-two years showed that crime 
absolutely and relatively diminished (Sept. 1866). 
See Murder, Executions, Trials, Poisoning, France, 
PO7T, VCR. 


CONVICTIONS (BY TRIAL) IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 


3 Sept. ;, 
. Jan. 1885 


Persons, Cap. Off. Executed. 
1847. 21,542 _- 8 
1849 21,001 66 12 
1850. 20,537 49 15 
1851 21,579 70 6 
1852. 21,304 61 Io 
1853 20,756 55 9 
1854. 23,047 49 8 
1855 19,971 50 5 
1856. 14,734 69 15 
1857. 15,307 54 13 
1858. 13,246 53 II 
1859 12,470 52 9 
1860. 12,068 48 12 
1861 13,879 50 15 
1862. 15,312 29 16 
TOOSeu te 15,799 29 22 
1864. . “ <1 8453720 32 I9 
1865 = . . é I4,740 20 8 
1866. 14,254 26 I2 
1867 14,207 27 Io 
1868. 15,033 21 12 
1869 14,340 18 Io 
1870. 12,953 I5 6 
1871 11,946 13 4 
1872 10,862 30 II 
1873 11,089 18 II 
1874 ° I1,509 26 16 
1875 10,954 33 18 
1876 12,195 32 22 
1877 11,942 34 23 
1878. 12,473 20 25 
1879 12,525 34 16(3,fm) 
1880. I1,214 2 19 
1881 11,353 23 13 
1882. 11,699 22 I2 
1883 11,347 23 13 


See Hxecutions. 

Convictions, in 1847: Scotland, 3558; Ireland, 15,233. In 
1861: Scotland, 2428 ; Ireland, 3271. 

Act for improving the administration of criminal justice 
passed 7 Aug. 1851. 

The Criminal Justice Act authorises justices, with the 
consent of prisoners, to pass sentence for short periods, 
instead of committing them to trial, 1855. 

In 1856, the expenses for criminal prosecutions in Eng- 
land and Wales were 194,912l. 4s. Sd.; in 1878, 
148,1031. os. 8d. ; in 1879, 128,4131.$ in 1880, 115,703. ; 
in 1883, 144,0261. 

15 persons were executed for murder in 1856 (four 
foreigners), 13 in 1857, 11 in 1858 (four foreigners), 
and g (four for wife-murder) in 1859. 2666 persons 
were liberated on tickets-of-leave in 1856. 

On 17 Feb. 1857, of 126 persons thus liberated, 58 were 
believed to be living honestly. 

In 1861, 1862, and 1863, the system was considered to 
have failed through the numerous crimes committed 
by ticket-of-leavers; it was modified by the Penal Ser- 
vitude act, in 1864. 


226 


“Statistical Criminal Act” passed . 
«‘Prevention of Crimes Act” passed 
Great decrease in crimes of violence in relation to 


Confirmed by lord Coleridge for 1874-84 


CRIMINAL LAW. 


Sentences to penal servitude, 1869, 2006; in 1870, 178€ 


1879, 1502. 


Criminal classes in England and Wales : estimated nun 


ber, 1869-70, 45,800; 1878-9, 35,469; 1879-80, 33,893. 


The ‘‘ Judicial Statistics” of crime, police, and law, wit 


a report, have been annually published by governmen' 
commenced with 1856. 

rr Aug. 18 
ar Aug. 18: 


5 1861-18: 
19 Jan. 18 

Reported felonies : 1871, 10,653 ; 1877, 12,573; burglarie 
1871, 614 ; 1877, 1344. 

CrimeE— International Congress for the prevention 
and repression of crime met in the Middle Temple, 
London . 4 ‘ ; F . 3 July, 18 

Prevention of Crime Act, passed 15 Aug. 18 
CRIMEA, or Crim TARTARY, a peninsula ‘ 

the Euxine or Black Sea, the ancient Zaurica Che 

sonesus, colonised by the Greeks about 550 B. 

The Milesians founded the kingdom of Bosporu 

now Kertch, which about 108 B.c. formed part 

the dominion of Mithridates, king of Pontus, who 
descendants continued to rule the country und 

Roman protection till the irruption of the Goth 

Huns, &c. about A.p. 258. About 1237 it fell in 

the hands of the Mongols under Genghis Khar 

soon after the Venetians established commerci 
stations, with a lucrative trade, but were supplant 
by the Genoese, who were permitted to rebuild ar 
fortify Kaffa, about 1261. In 1475 Mahomet ] 
expelled the Genoese, and subjected the peninsu 
to the Ottoman yoke; permitting the governme 

to remain in the hands of the native khans, b 

closing the Black Sea to Western Europe. In 177 

by the intervention of the empress Catherine L 

the Crimea recovered its independence: but on t. 

abdication of the khan in 1783, the Russians to 

possession of the country, after a war with Turke 
and retained it by the treaty of Jassy, 9 Jan. 17¢ 

‘The Crimea (now Taurida), was divided into eig 

governments in 1802. War having been declar 

against Russia by England and France, 28 Marc 

1854, large masses of troops were sent to the Ea 

which, after remaining some time at Gallipoli, a: 

other places, sailed for Varna, where they diser 

barked 29 May. An expedition against the Crim 
having been determined on, the allied Briti: 

French, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,¢ 

men (25,000 British), commanded by lord Rag] 

and marshal St. Arnaud, sailed from Varna, 3 Se] 
and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th, witho 
opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 
miles from Sebastopol. On the 20th they attack 
the Russians, between 40,000 and 50,000 stro: 

(under prince Menschikoff), entrenched on t 

heights of Alma, supposed to be unassailable. Aft 

a sharp contest the Russians were totally rout 

See Alma and Russo-Turkish War. Peace w 

proclaimed in April, 1856, and the allies quitted t 

Crimea 12 July following. 


CRIMINAL LAWS or ENGLAND. Th 
great severity, pointed out by sir Samuel Romil 
sir James Mackintosh, and others, about 1818, 
considerably mitigated by sir R. Peel’s acts, pass 
1826-8. ‘The criminal law was consolidated by 
and 25 Vict. cc. 94-100, 1861. Some defects wt 
amended by an act passed in 1867. 

Sir J. F. Stephen’s ‘‘ Digest of the Criminal Laws ” 
published, 1877 ; and ‘‘ History of the Criminal 
Law of England,” published. r : ; pe 

Bill for amending law relating to indictable offences 
(resembling a digest and code) brought in by sir 
John Holker, attorney-general A . 14 May, 1 

Referred to royal commission (justices Blackburn 
and Lush and sir James F, Stephen) ; ane 

Y > 

The bill brought in and withdrawn . “ <u a 


the increase of population 


CRIMISUS. 


moleon defeated the Carthaginians, 339 B.c. 


CRIMPING-HOUSES were used to entrap 
persons into the army; hence the name of “ crimp 
sergeant.’ Some of them in London were destroyed 
by the populace, in consequence of a young man 
who had been enticed into one being killed in en- 
leavouring to escape, 16 Sept. 1794. 


CRINAN CANAL, Argyleshire, cut through 
Kintyre peninsula, 1793-1801: 15 locks; saves about 
[15 miles. 


CRINOLINE (a French word, meaning stuff 
nade of crin, hair) is the modern name of the “ far- 
lingale”’ of the time of queen Elizabeth, hoop-like 
etticoats made of whalebone, &c., revived in France 
md England since 1855. ‘They have frequently 
ecasioned loss of life, by coming in contact with 
ire and machinery. In No. 116 of the Tatler, pub- 
ished 5 Jan. 1710, is an amusing trial of the hoop- 
etticoat then in fashion. 


CRIPPLEGATE (London), was so-called 
rom the lame beggars who sat there, so early as the 
ear 1010. The gate was new built by the brewers 
f London in 1244; and was pulled down and sold 
or ai in July, 1760. The poet Milton was buried 
1 the church near it, 12 Nov. 1674. See London. 


CRIPPLES’ HOME, Marylebone-road, es-. 
wblished 1851, for crippled girls to be taught suit- 
ble trades. The Cripples’ Nursery, Old Quebec- 
reet and Margate, was established 1862. 


CRISPIN’ AND CRISPIANUS are said to have 

2en two saints, born at Rome, from whence they 
‘avelled to Soissons, in France, to propagate the 
hbristian religion. They worked as shoemakers; 
it the governor of the town discovering them to be 
aristians, ordered them to be beheaded, about 288. 
heir day is 25 Oct. 


CRITERION THEATRE, Regent’s Circus, 
lecadilly, opened by Spiers and Pond, 21 March, 
7: 


CRITH (from the Greek krithé, a barleycorn or 
iall weight,) a term suggested by Dr. A. W. Hof- 
ann (about 1864) to express the volume-weight of 
es; a cube containing 1 litre of hydrogen (0'0896 
amme) to be the unit. Hydrogen being 1 crith, 
ygen will be 16, nitrogen 14 criths. 


CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 
6 B.c. Blair. Varro, Cicero, Apollonius, and 
‘istarchus were ancient critics. In modern times 
> Journal des Sgavans was the earliest periodical 
tical work. It was originated by Denis de Sallo, 
‘lesiastical councillor in the parliament of France, 
1 was first published at Paris, 30 May, 1655, and 
‘still continued. Jean Le Clere’s “ Ars Critica,” 
blished 1696, is said to be the earliest systematic 
jatise. The first work of this kind in England 
8 the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term being 
vented by himself), published in Feb. 1703. The 
rks of the Learned began 1710, and the Waites 0 of 
erature in 1714; discontinued in 1722. See 
Mews. 

legality of fair criticism was established in the Eng- 
‘sh courts, in Feb. 1794, when an action that excited 
‘reat attention, brought by an author against a re- 
ewer for a severe critique upon his work, was deter- 
‘ined in favour of the defendant on the principle that 
‘iticism is allowable, however sharp, if just, and not 
, alicious. See Trials, 1875. 


SROATIA, conquered by Coloman, king of 


“agary, in 1102, was with that country united to 


itria in 1526.. 


227 
ee 
-CRIMISUS, a river in Sicily, near which Ti- 


CROQUET. 


The Croatian diet abolished : : Nov. 186r 
The Croats protest against incorporation with 
Hungary : ; , é . 25 May, 1867 
Their diet (iucluding Croatia and Sclavonia), at 
Agram dissolved ; : é 27 May, ,, 
The union of Croatia with Hungary recognised by 
a Croatian deputation . : : . 27 May, 1868 
Croatian delegates enter the Hungarian diet 24 Nov. 
The emperor and empress visit Agram g-1o March, 
Riots in Agram and other places against the Jews, 
complicated with Sclavonie jealousy of Hungary, 
and desire for autonomy, Aug. ; the ban super- 
seded by gen. Ramberg, special commissioner 
about 6 Sept. 
Conflicts with the military, 8-10 Sept. ; ten rioters 
killed P . P : ; ; . 20 Sept. 
Agitation increasing ; demand for separation from 
Hungary . 7 . F . about 22 Sept. 
38 rioters sentenced to imprisonment, &e. 30 Sept. 
Count Khiin-Hedervary, appointed ban AWDeciws 
The diet opened at Agram—important meeting 
17 Dec. 


29 


1869 


Continued political disagreements . : Q 
Diet dissolved 22 Jan. 
Again dissolved 27 Aug. 


CROCKERY-WARE, see Pottery. 
CROCODILES were reverenced as divinities 


by the Egyptians. The emperor Augustus is said 
to have collected twenty-five at one time in his 
amphitheatre, where they were killed by gladiators. 


CROEFTERS and Cottars, the holders of small 
portions of land, and the labourers in the high- 
lands and islands of Scotland. 

A royal commission appointed 22 March, 1883 
(Francis baron Napier and others) to inquire 
into their condition, issue their report and 
describe their state as not being worse than for- 
merly, but acknowledge the existence of many 
startling grievances relating to the tenure of 
land, high rents, the deficiency of education, of 
postal communication, of roads, &e. They 
recommend, among other remedies, the revival 
of the ancient highland townships with common 
privileges, limiting the power of the superior 
lordss'éc. 42 28 April, 

Highland Land to work 

March, 

Agitation begun at Dingwall by the Highland Land 
Law Association, 2 ‘ : . Sept. 

Seditious circulars threatening violence; troops 
conveyed to Skye; tranquillity restored by free 
church ministers ‘ ‘ : A 15 Nov. 

Meeting at Inverness of chief landlords; concilia- 
tory favourable changes proposed . . 14 Jan. 1885 
CROIX, ST., a W. India Island, purchased 

from the French by Christian VI. king of Denmark, 

in 1733; taken by sir Alexander Cochrane, 22 Dec. 

1807 ; restored in 1814. 

CROMLECHS, ancient monuments, formerly 
considered to be Druidical altars, but now believed 
to be connected with burials. One still exists in 
Anglesey: similar structures have been found in 
Ireland, India, Arabia, and other countries, 


CRONSTADT, Russia, founded by Peter the 
Great, 1710, and received its name (Crown-town) 
in 1721. It was not attacked by the fleets in the 
war with Russia, 1854-5. 

CROOK, a bishop’s pastoral staff or crook, dis- 
tinct from the crosier. Nine pastoral staffs have 
been recently presented to English bishops; one to 
the bishop of Hereford, Dr. James Atlay, in Jan. 
1872. 

CROPREDY BRIDGE, near Banbury, Ox- 
fordshire. Here the royalists defeated sir William 
Waller and the army of the parliament, 29 June, 
1644. 

CROQUET. This game, which became common 
in Britain about 1850, is said to be a revival of the. 


Q 2 


° . ° 


Reform Association began 


CROSIER. 


228 


_ CRUSADES. 


old Pall Mall (which see). It has been much 
superseded by Lawn Tennis, 1877-85. 


CROSTIER, a staff surmounted by a cross, borne 
before an archbishop, was in use in the 4th century. 
The bearing a crosier before ecclesiastics is mentioned 
in the life of St. Caesareus of Arles about 500. 


CROSS. That on which the Redeemer suf- 
fered on Mount Calvary, was said to have been 
found at Jerusalem, with two others, deep in the 
ground, by St. Helena, 3 May, 328 (termed the Jn- 
vention of the Cross); Christ’s being distinguished 
from those of the thieves by a sick woman being 
cured by touching it. It was carried away by 
Chosroes, king of Persia, on the plundering of Jeru- 
salem; but was recovered by the emperor Heraclius 
(who defeated him in battle), 14 Sept. 615, and 
that day has since been commemorated as ‘‘ the 
festival of the Exaltation of the Cross,” established 
in 642. ' 


It is asserted by church writers that a great shining 
cross was seen in the heavens by Constantine, 
and that it led him to adopt it on his standard, 
with the inscription ‘‘Jn hoc signo vinces ;” 
‘*Under this, sign thou shalt conquer.” With 
this (Labarum) he advanced to Rome, where he 
vanquished Maxentius, 27 Oct. 312. Lenglet. 

Signing with the Cross was first practised by Chris- 
tians to distinguish themselves from the Pagans, 

about 

In the time of Tertullian, it was deemed efficacious 
against poison, witchcraft, &c. E 4 ae 

Crosses in churches and chambers were introduced 
about 431 ; and set up on steeples about : 

Crosses in honour of queen Eleanor were set up in 
the places where her hearse rested, between 1296 
(when she died) and : é : ‘ : 

Crosses and idolatrous pictures were removed from 
churches, and crosses in the streets demolished 
by order of parliament . ; ; : eRe OAT 

Maids of the Cross were a community of young 
women who made vows of poverty, chastity, and 
obedience, instituted in i A 4 3 - 1625 

The order of Ladies of the Star of the Cross was 
instituted by the empress Eleonora di Gonzaga, 
wife of Leopold I., in : - 1668 


CROSSED CHEQUES, see Drafts. 


CROTONA (S. Italy), a city founded by the 
Achean Greeks about 710 B.c. Here Pythagoras 
taught about 520. The Crotons destroyed Sybaris, 
510. 


CROWN. AnAmalekite brought Saul’s crown 
- to David, 1056 B.c. (2 Sam. i.) ‘The first Roman 
who wore a crown was Tarquin the Elder, 616 B.c. 
The crown was first a fillet tied round the head; 
afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and 
also of stuffs adorned with jewels. See Ziara. 


The crown of Alfred had two little bells attached (872) ; 
it is said to have been long preserved at Westminster, 
and may have been that described in the parliamentary 
inventory taken in 1640. 

Athelstan’s crown resembled an earl’s coronet, 929. 

William I. wore his crown on a cap, adorned with points, 
1066. 

Richard III. introduced the crosses, 1483. 

Henry VII. introduced the arches, 1485. 

The crown and regalia of England were pledged to the 
city of London by Richard II. for 2000l. in 1386; see 
the king’s receipt on redeeming them. Rymer. 

The crown of Charles II., made in 1660, is the oldest ex- 
isting in England ; see Blood’s Conspiracy. 

The Imperial State Crown of England was made by Run- 
dell and Bridges, in 1838, principally with jewels taken 
from old crowns. It contains one large ruby, 1 large 
sapphire, 16 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 4 rubies, 1363 
prilliants, 1273 rose diamonds, 147 table diamonds, 4 
drop-shaped pearls, and 273 pearls. Professor Tennant. 


CROWN OF INDIA, Imperial Order of, in- 


stituted by Queen Victoria (to commemorate the 


110 
260 


568 


1307 


assumption of the title of empress, I Jan. 1877), fo 
princesses of the royal family, distinguished Indiaz 
and British ladies, and wives of viceroys and go. 
vernors and secretaries of state for India ; 3! Dec 
1877. Twelve ladies (the marchioness of Salisbury 
and others) invested, 29 April, 1878. 


CROWN LANDS. Therevenue arising fron 
those in England is now nearly all subject to par 
liament, which annually provides for the suppor 
of the sovereign: and government about 375,000! 
The revenue of the duchy of Cornwall belong 
to the prince of Wales even during his minority 
Henry VII. (1485) resumed those lands whic! 
had been given to their followers by the sove 
reigns of the house of York. The hereditar 
estates of the crown were largely bestowed o 
their courtiers by the sovereigns — especially b 
the Stuarts. 


CROWNS And HALF-cROWNS of silver wer 
coined in England by Edward VI. in 1553. Non 
were coined in 1861, and they were gradually with 
drawn from circulation. The coinage of half-crown 
was resumed in 1874, after an inquiry as to thei 
utility. 

CROWS. An act passed for their destructio 
in England, 24 Hen. VIII. 1532. Crows wei 
anciently employed as letter-bearers, as carriet 
pigeons are now. 


CROYDON, Surrey, granted to Lanfran 
archbishop of Canterbury, about 1070. Archbishe 
Whitgift’s hospital was foundedin 1596. The fin 
old parish church was burnt, 5, 6 Jan. 1867. Croy 
don incorporated by charter, 15 Feb. 1883. 


CROZIER, see Crosier. 


CRUCIFIX, the cross with the figure of Chri 
attached to it, first known in the fourth, came int 
general use in the eighth century. 


CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution con 
mon among the Assyrians, Egyptians, Persian 
Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans. Ariarathe 
of Cappadocia, aged 80, vanquished by Pei 
diccas, and discovered among the prisoners, wé 
flayed alive, and nailed to a cross, with his princip: 
ofticers, 322 B.c. Jesus Christ was crucified 3 Apri 
A.D. 33. Usher. (15 April, A.D. 29, Clinton; 2 
March, A.D. 31, Hales). Crucifixion was ordered! 
be discontinued by Constantine, 330. Lenglet. 


CRUELTY TO ANIMALS, see Animei 
and Vivisection. 

CRUSADES (French Croisades), wars unde 
taken to drive the infidels from Jerusalem and tl 
‘Holy Land.’ Peter Gautier, the Hermit, 2 
officer of Amiens, on his return from pilgrimage i 
cited pope Urban II. to expel infidels from the cit 
where Christ had taught. Urban convened 
council of 310 bishops at Clermont in France, | 
which the ambassadors of the chief Christia 
potentates assisted, and gave Peter the commissit 
to summon Europe toa general war, 1094. ‘Jl 
first crusade was published ; an army of 300,000 me 
was raised, of which Peter had the direction, at 
Godfrey de Bouillon the command, 1095. ‘II 
warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulder 
and their motto was Volonté de Dieu, ** God’s will. 
—The French government have published some | 
the Historians of the Crusades in a magnificent for 
(1844-84). 

I. Crusade (z095) ended by Jerusalem being taken | 
assault, 15 July, rog9, and Godfrey de Bouillon ma 


king. 

Ly Preached by St. Bernard in 1146, headed by emper 
Conrad II., and Louis VII. of France. Crusaders d 
feated ; Jerusalem lost in 1187. 


CRUZ. 


lil. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, &c., in 1188, joined 
by Philip Il. of France and Richard I. of England, in 
1190. Glorious, but fruitless. 

IV. 1195, by emperor Henry VI.: successful till his 
death in 1197. . 

Y. Proclaimed by Innocent III., 1198. Baldwin, count 
of Flanders, attacked the Greeks, and took Constanti- 
nople in 1203. His companions returned. 

VI. In 216. In 1229, emperor Frederick II. obtained 
possession of Jerusalem on a truce for ten years. In 
1240, Richard, earl of Cornwall, arrived at Palestine, 
but soon departed. 

Vil. By Louis IX. (St. Louis), 1248, who was defeated 
and taken prisoner at Mansourah, 5 April, 1250 ; re- 
leased by ransom ; truce of ten years. 

Vil. and last, in 1270, by the same prince, who died of 
a contagious disease, at Carthage, in Africa, 2 Aug. 
Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I. of England, was 
at Acre, 1271. In 1291, the soldan took Acre, and the 
Christians were driven out of Syria. 


CRUZ, see Santa Cruz. 


CRYOLITE, a Greenland mineral, a fluoride 


ofaluminium and sodium, employed in procuring 
metallic aluminium in 1855. 


CRYOPHORUS, an instrument (invented by 
Dr. Wollaston about 1812) to demonstrate the re- 
lation between evaporation at low temperatures 
and the production of cold. 


CRYPTOGRAPH, an apparatus for writing 
in cipher, invented by sir Charles Wheatstone, and 
made known in 1868, in which different key-words 
may be employed, and it is said, absolute secrecy 
ansured. A cryptographic machine was patented, 
1860. See Cipher. 

A system of secret writing described in “‘ Archiv 

. der Mathematik” .* . : 5 ‘ : - 1795 
foseph Ludwig Kluber published “ Kryptographik ” 1809 
Professor J. F. Lorenz published a system at Mag- 
- deburg .. - a : J : ‘ : 
Messrs. Thos. De la Rue published Mr. Wm. 

Henry Rochfort’s systém of secret writing 
__termed ‘‘ Arcanography,” resembling Lorenz’s . 1836 
Mr, A. L. Flamm patented an improvement upon 
| this system , A about Oct. 1875 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY is the science re- 
ating to the symmetrical forms assumed by sub- 
tances passing from the liquid to the solid state. 
‘tomé de Lisle published his “‘ Essai de Cristallo- 
waphie,”’ in 1772; but René-Just Haiiy is regarded 
8 the founder of the modern school of crystallo- 
raphy (1801). Whewell. Dana, Dufresnoy, and 
‘filler, are eminent modern writers on this subject. 


CRYSTAL PALACE, Hyde Park, London ; 
2e Hehibition of 1851. 
CRYSTAL PALACE, Sydenham. The Ex- 


ibition building of 1851 having been surrendered 
» Messrs. Fox and Henderson on 1 Dee. 1851, the 


1806 


g. 1853 


‘interior of the model of the iguanodon, con- 
structed by Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins 31 Dec. 
le palace opened by the queen . ro June, 


bP] 
; 1854 
‘and musical féte on behalf of the Patriotic Fund, 


28 Oct. , 
\\e palace visited by the emperor and empress of ; 
the French, &. : 20 April, 1855 


rst grand display of the great fountains, before 
the queen and 20,000 spectators 18 June, 1856 


‘229 


CRYSTAL PALACE. 


The receipts were rx 5,6271. ; the expenditure, 
87,872l., not including payments for preference 
shares, &c., in year ending r . 30 April, 1857 

The preliminary Handel festivals (see Handel), 15, 
17,19 June, 1857; and. : : . 2duly, 1858 

On the Fast day (for the Indian mutiny) rev. C. 
Spurgeon preached here to 23,000 persons ; 4761. 
were collected, to which the C.P. company added 
20ol. . c : : : 5 ; - 7 Oct. 1857 

Centenary of the birth of Robert Burns celebrated : 
the directors awarded sol. to a prize poem on the 
subject, which was obtained by Miss Isa Craig, 

25 Jan. 1859 

The Handel festival : : - 20, 22, 24 June, ,, 

Festival kept in honour of Schiller, 10 Nov. 


1859; 
of Mendelssohn : : 4 May, 1860 
London charity children sing here 6. June, 4, 


3000 Orpheonistes (French musical amateurs) per- 
form choral music, 25 June; the Imperial band of 
Guides perform, 26 June ; both dinein the palace, 

30 June, ,, 

115 brass bands perform io July, ,, 

Annual rose show began, 4 : : SO Cee 

North wing injured by a gale of wind, 20, 2x Feb. . 1861 

Haydn’s ‘‘ Creation” performed (Costa, conductor) 

I May, 2”? 

Blondin’s performances on an elevated rope begin 
here (he plays on violin, cooks, simulates falling, 

&e.) . : ; : : : : oay ULC ME 3 

Successful Handel festival : a new arched roof con- 
structed for the orchestra; about 4000 vocal 
and instrumental performers 23, 25,27 June, 1862 


Successful Handel festival 26, 28, 30 June, 1865 

North wing, containing tropical department, the 
Alhambra, and other courts, destroyed by fire 
(about 150,000l. damage) ; 30 Dec. 1866 

Prince of Wales present at a grand concert to raise 
funds to restore the palace 26 June, 1867 


Visit of the viceroy of Egypt (gives sool.), July ; of 
the sultan (gives roool.) . 4 : 16 July, ,, 
Conservative working men’s demonstration 


11 Nov. 
Meeting of shareholders decide by ballot that free 
tickets shall not be issued to admit non-share- 
holders on Sundays : : am BUMDOC Rie 
North wing restored and re-opened to the Sa 
15 Feb. 
An Aéronautical Exhibition opened 25 June, ,, 
Protestant meeting to defend the Irish Aare 
EF AUSI es 
Reception of the vicomte de Lesseps . July, 
Death of Mr. Robert K. Bowley, fourteen years 
manager of the company : SR AUST Is 
Successful Handel festival . IQ, 21, 23 June, 
The grand duke Wladimir of Russia entertained 
here by the prince of Wales 26 June, ,, 
Cat show, native and foreign . . 13 July, 2 Dec. ,, 


Dividend on stock, 14 per cent. . : : Dec,.%35 
Inauguration of the great aquarium by professor 
Owen . ; : : , $ Jan. 1872 
Lecture by professor Flower . 12 Jan. ,, 
Bird show opens to Feb. ;, 


Thanksgiving festival for the recovery of the prince 
of Wales - ; of FMLA oe 
Dog show opens , A 3 : 4June, ,, 

Meeting of National Union of Conservative and Con- 
stitutional Associations - . 24June, ,, 

National music meetings ; competition and concerts, 
27 June—6 July, ,, 


Scottish southern gathering ; highland sports, 
25 July, 3, 
National cat show 26—29 Oct. ,, 


Bird show : ; : : : aa 22) Kebsrisedg 
Grand commemoration of the opening of the palace; 
the Paxton memorial unveiled . io June, ,, 
Visits of the shah of Persia 30 June, 3 July; 4, 
National music meetings 9345518, i105 0T 2 U1 Ynmee 
Resignation of Mr. George Grove, many years sec- 
retary, announced Sept., succeeded by capt. 
Flood Page - . : ; ° . 
Visit of the czar ; 
Handel festival ; successful 
Visit of the sultan of Zanzibar . 
National. music meeting z 3 1-10 July, 
Visit of the king and queen of Greece and prince 
and princess of Wales : - 19 July, 1876 
Great clock completed . 5 : . oe ONC ais 


: Deci anys 
5 16 May, 1874 
- 22, 24, 20 Jane, a 

. 19 June, 1875 


9? 


CTESIPHON. 
Handel festival] 25, 27, 29 June, 1877 | 
Handel festival ; suecessful 21, 23, 25 June, 1880 , 


Great damage done by bursting of a water tank, no 
lives lost : 30 Sept. ” 
International Woollen exhibition, “opened by the 


duke of Connaught . 2Jdune, 1881 
Half-year’s report, “receipts 17,159L sid DULY, 55 
33,3001. (expenditure less) . July, 1882 
Handel festival 15, 18, 20, 22 June 1883 


London International Universal Exhibition opened 
by the lord mayor 23 April 


CTESIPHON (afterwards Al Madayn), on the 
Tigris, the splendid capital of Parthia, was taken by 
Trajan in 116; and by Septimius Severus (who 
made 100,000 captives), 198. Its defences deterred 
Julian from the siege, 363. It was taken by 
Omar and the Saracens, 6 7, and utterly destroyed, 
and Cufa near it built with the remains. 


1884 


CUBA (its original name), an island (W. 
Indies) discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, 


28 Oct. 14 ‘ settled by Velasquez, I51I-12. Popu- 
lation, 1880, 1,521,684. 

The buccaneer Morgan took the Havannah; see 
Buccaneers . - 1669 


A British expedition lands and remains, 20 od uly— 
20 Nov. 
The Havannah taken by admiral Pococke and lord 
Albemarle, 1762 ; restored at the peace of Paris, 
to Feb. 
““Tone Star” society (which see), for the acquisition 
of Cuba, &c. formed 
The president of the United States (Taylor) pub- 
lished a strong proclamation, denouncing the 
object of the invaders II “Aug. 
Expedition of general Lopez and a large body of 
Americans, with the view of wresting “this island 
from the dominion of Spain, landed at Cuba, (de- 
feated) . ser 7 DLay. 
Cuba again inv aded by Lopez and others 13 Aug. 
They are defeated and taken ; 50 shot, and Lopez 
garotted at Havannah 7 2 BEpieais, 
The president of the United States again issued a 
proclamation against an intended expedition 
against Cuba 31 May, 
Messrs. Buchanan, Mason, and Soulé, United States 
envoys, met at Ostend and Aix-la- Chapelle, and 
reported, recommending the purchase of Cuba, 


1741 


1763 
1848 


1849 


1850 
1851 


Oct. 

The Spanish minister in cortes declared that the 
sale of Cuba would be ‘“‘the sale of Spanish 
honour itself” rp Dec,, 


Insurrection of Creoles, headed by Carlos Manuel de 
Cespedes, for expulsion of Spaniards after the 
revolution in Spain—Volunteer force raised to aid 
Lersundi, the governor. : Sept.—Noy. 

A filibusters’ attack on Cuba repelled 17 May, 

The United States decide not to recognise the in- 
surgents as belligerents June, 

About 2000 lives lost by a hurric ane, about 14 Oct. 

The captain-general De Rodas resigned, and left 
Cuba. 15 Dec. 

Insurrection subdued, but enduring ; the volunteers 
very insubordinate ; military despotism ; 3 occa- 
sional reign of terror; massacres Jan.—Nov. 

Don Gonzalo Castaiion ‘murdered by Cubans; his 
tomb desecrated by medical students, 25 Nov. 
eight tried and shot at Havannah 27 Noy. aS 

Mr. KF Delano sent by the United States rovetariett 
to report on the state of Cuba 9 Dee. 


1872 
The merciless war still continues ; no qusktere giv a, 


BE) 


Suspended hostilities through the eatablishnient: of 
the Spanish republic : 4 Feb. 
Much fighting reported . . June, 
The Virg ginius, American schooner, while conveying 
men and arms from New York to the insurgents 
in Cuba, is captured by the Spanish gun- boat 
Tornado, 31 Oct.; conveyed to Cuba; above go 
insurgents and sailors (some British and Ameri- 
cans) tried ; many insurgents, and about 6 British 
and 30 Americans shot 4-7 Nov. 
After much correspondence the Virginius Was sur- 


1873 


> 


3? 


230 


CULDEES. 


rendered to the Americans, 19 Dec.; she foun- 
dered on her way to New York about 26 Dec. 


' Bascones defeats the marquis Santa Lucia and s000 


insurgents at Naranjo Feb. 
Gen. Martinez Campos appointed governor, with 

plenary powers Oct 
The struggle going on, but more subdued, summer 187 
A “Cuban league” in the United States, said to be 

formed to obtain recognition of the insurgents 


as belligerents, &c. Sept. \,, 
Estrada, the Cuban pr esident, said to be “captured 
Oct:. B 


Reported surrender of many insurgents 23, 24 Dec. ,, 
Surrender of the insurgent government; end of 
the insurrection announced : 21 Feb. 
Amnesty declared, with freedom to slaves present- 
ing themselves before 31 March (slavery to be 
abolished gradually) ‘ - March, 
Campos and Jovellar enter Havannah triumphantly 
t4 June, % 
Insurrection, state of siege; amnesty promised, 
19 Sept. 
Insurgents totally defeated at Placeta ; an 
3 VEC. 5, 
Bill for gradual emancipation of the slaves passed 
by the Spanish Senate, 21 Dec., 1879; by cham- 
bers of Deputies (230—10, 21 Jan.) ; promulgated 
18 Feb. 
Cuba reported tranquil i Sept. | 
Surrender of gen. Maceo and ‘other insurgents to 
the Spaniards at Gibraltar (see Spain), Aug. and 
Dec. 1882, and March, 
Aguerro calls on Cubans to revolt about 26Sept. ,, 
Unsuccessful American filibustering expeditions 
Spring, 
Gen. Aguerro at the head of forces in Cienfuegos 
April, ,, 
Some insurgents defeated é . about 23 April, ,, 
CUBIT, a measure by which the ark of Noal 
was measured (2448 B.c.). It was the distan¢e 
from a man’s elbow to the extremity of the middl 
finger. According to Arbuthnot, the Hebrew cubi 
was a little under 22 inches, the Roman cubit 17 
inches, and the English cubit 18 inches. 


CUCKING-STOOL (or DucKING-sTOOIL) 
for shrews: one at Kingston-on-Thames was use 
in April, 1745; and another at Cambridge in 1780 
Chambers. 


CUCUMBERS, noticed by Virgil and othe 


ancient poets, were brought to England from th 
Netherlands about 1538. 


CUDDALORE (India), on the coast of th 
Carnatic, was acquired by the English in 1681. I 
was reduced by the French in 17 58, but recapture 
in 1760 by sir Eyre Coote. Again lost in 1781, i 
underwent a destructive siege by the British unde 
general Stuart, in 1783, which was continued unti 
peace was signed, when it reverted to them, 1784. 


CUENCA, New Castile, Spain, 80 miles fron 
Madrid, attacked by the Carlists 13 July, am 
captured 14 July, 1874. The garrison and th 
inhabitants were Purbacoaane used. General Lope 
Pinto rescued the prisoners, 19 July. 


CUIRASS, a part of Greek and Roman armour 
The skins of beasts, and afterwards tanned leather 
formed the cuirass of the Britons until the Anglo 
Saxon era. It was afterwards made of iron an 
brass. The cuirass was worn by cavalry in th 
reign of Henry III. 1216 et seg. Napoleon ha 
several regiments of cavalry wearing cuirasses 5 al 
most European armies have picked corps of such. 


CULDEEHS, said to derive their name fror 
cultores Dew , worshippers of God, monks in Scotlan 
and Treland, who had their principal seat at Si 
Andrew’s. It is said that in 1185 at Tipperar 
there was a Culdean abbey whose monks were “ at 
tached to simple truth and pure Christian worship 


CULLEN’S-WOOD. 


and had not yet conformed to the reigning super- 
stition.”” They were eventually subjected to the 
papal yoke. 


CULLEN’S-WOOD (Ireland). An English 
colony from Bristol inhabiting Dublin, went to 
divert themselves at Cullen’s-wood, when the 
O’Byrnes and O’Tooles fell upon them, and 
destroyed 500 men, besides women and children, 

0 March, 1209 (on Easter, afterwards called Black, 
Tesdsy). 


CULLODEN, near Inverness, where the Eng- 
lish, under William, duke of Cumberland, defeated 
the Scottish headed by the young Pretender, the 
last of the Stuarts, 16 April, 1746. The Scots lost 
2500 men in killed upon the field, orin the slaughter 
which occurred in the pursuit, while the loss of 
the English did not far exceed 200. Prince 
Charles, who wandered among the wilds of Scotland 
for six months, while 30,000/. were offered for 
taking him, at length eseaped from Uist to Mor- 
laix, and died at Rome, 3 March, 1788. 


CULTURE, according to Mr. Matthew Arnold 
(“The Apostle of Culture’’), is the knowledge of 
“the best that has been thought and said in the 
world’ (1880). Cultur-Kampf, see Kultur-Kampf. 


CULVERIN, cannon so called from the French 
couleuvrine, said to have been introduced into 
England from a French model in 1534. It was 
originally five inches and a quarter diameter in the 
bore, and carried a ball of eighteen pounds. Bailey. 


CUM Zi (S. Italy), a Greek colony, 1050 B.c., 
said to have been the residence of the ancient Sibyl, 
was taken by the Samnites 420 B.c., and annexed 
by the Romans 338 B.c. 


CUMBERLAND, aN.W. county of England, 
was granted to Malcolm I. of Scotland in 945, 
by king Edmund, ‘‘ on condition that he should be 
his fellow-worker.’’ It was seized by William I., 
but restored to Malcolm III., ‘‘ who became his 
man,’ 1072. William the Lion, after his defeat at 
Alnwick, resigned Cumberland to Henry IL., and it 
was finally annexed to England in 1237. 


DUKES. 
(726. William Augustus, second son of George II., died 
13 Oct. 1765. 
1766. Henry Frederic, son of Frederic, prince of Wales, 
| died 18 Sept. 1790. 
1799. Ernest Augustus, fifth son of George IIT. ; became 
king of Hanover, 20 June, 1837; died 18 Nov. 


i 1851. 
851. George V., the ex-king of Hanover; died 12 June, 
/ 1878. 
- $878. Ernest Augustus, son ; born 21 Sept. 1845, married 
princess Thyra of Denmark, 21 Dec., 1878. Issue, 
Mary-Louisa, born 11 Oct. 1879; son, 28 Oct., 
1880. 
See Brunswick. 


| CUMBERLAND, THE, see Naval Battles, 
‘SII. 


CUMULATIVE VOTE, in_parliamentary 
‘lections, proposed by Mr. Robert Lowe,* 4 July, 
uring the debates on the reform bill; and rejected, 
July, 1867, by 314 to 173. By the act passed 1§ 
“ug. 1867 (30 & 31 Vict. c. 102), it was enacte 
aat at a contested election for any county or 
orough represented by three members, no person 


*** At any contested election for a county or borough 
presented by more than two members, and having 
ore than one seat vacant, every voter shall be entitled 
") a number of votes equal to the number of vacant seats, 
id may give all such votes to one candidate, or may 
Stribute them among the candidates as he thinks fit,” 


231 


CURLING. 


shall vote for more than two candidates. The 
cumulative vote was used in the election of the 
London school board, 29 Nov. 1870. 


CUNAXA, in Mesopotamia, near the Euphrates, 
where Cyrus the younger was defeated and slain by 
his brother Artaxerxes II., against whom he had 
conspired (401 B.C.), narrated in Xenophon’s 
Anabasis. His Greek auxiliaries were successful ; 
see Retreat of the Greeks. 


CUNKEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS (from 
cuneus, Latin for a wedge), in characters resembling 
arrow-heads, inscribed on bricks or clay-tablets, 
found at Babylon, Behistun, &c., have lately been 
deciphered by English and foreign scholars, who 
date some of them as far back as 2000 B.c. See 
Assyria, Babylon, Behistun. 


CUNNERSDOREF (in Prussia). On 12 Aug. 
1759, Frederick II. king of Prussia, with 50,000 
men, attacked the Austrian and Russian army of 
90,000 in their camp near this place, and at first 
gained considerable advantages ; but pursuing them 
too far, the Austrians and Russians rallied, and 
gained a complete victory. The Prussians lost 200 
pieces of cannon and 30,000 men in killed and 
wounded. 


CUPOLA SHIPS, see Navy of England, 1861. 


CUPPING, a mode of blood-letting. Theskin 
is scarified by lancets, and a glass cup in which the 
air has been rarified by heat, is immediately applied 
to it, when the blood usually flows into the cup. 
This operation was well known to the ancients, and 
is described by Hippocrates (413 B.C.) and Celsus 
(20 B.c.). It was common in England about 1820. 


CURACOA (correctly, Curagao), an island in 


the Caribbean sea, settled by the Spaniards about 
1527, was seized by the Dutch in 1634. In 1800 
the French, settled on part of this island, quarrelled 
with the Dutch, who surrendered it to a British 
frigate. It was restored to the Dutch in 1802; 
taken from them by the British in 1807, and again 
restored in 1814. 


CURATES were of early appointment as coad- 
jutors in the Romish church, and are mentioned in 
England in the 7th century. Among the acts 
passed for the relief of this laborious class of the 
clergy are the 12th Anne, 1713, and 36th, 53d, and 
58th Geo. III., and especially the beneficent act, 2 
Will. 1V. Oct. 1831. It appeared by parliamentary 
reports on ecclesiastical revenues, that there were 
in 1831, 5230 curates in England and Wales, whose 
stipends amounted to 424,6957. The greatest num- 
ber of curates in one diocese was Lincoln, 629; and 
the smallest that of St. Asaph, 43. The Pastoral 
Aid Society was established in ier the Society 
for promoting the Employment of Additional 
Curates, in 1837; the Curates’ Augmentation Fund, 
1866. The Curates’ Alliance, a reforming body, 
issued its first annual report, Dec. 1882. 


CURFEW BELL (from the French couvre 
feu), was revived or introduced in England by 
Will. I. 1068. On the ringing of the curfew at 
eight o’clock in the evening all fires and candles 
were to be extinguished under a severe penalty. 
Rapin. The curfew was abolished 1 Hen. I. 1100. 
A so-called curfew bell was rung at West Ham so 
lately as Noy. 1859. 


CURIATILI, see Rome, 669 B.c. 


CURLING, 2 Scotch national game with stone 
on the ice, said to have been introduced from th 
Low Countries in the 16th century. The Dudding 


CURRAGH. 


232 


CYCLE. 


stone curling club was instituted 1795. The royal | The customs in Ireland, a sack of wool, 3d.; a last 


Caledonian curling club, founded in 1838, owns a 
large artificial pond at Strathallan, Perthshire. 


CURRAGH, see Kildare. 


CURRANTS, from Corinth, whence, probably, 
the tree was first brought to us about 1533. The 
name is also given toasmall kind of dried grape, 
brought from the Levant and Zante. The duty 
on these currants (44s. 4d. per cwt. in 1834) has 
been reduced to 7s. The hawthorn currant (Zibes 
Oxyacanthoides) came from Canada in 1705. 


CURRENCY ACTS. Those of sir Robert 


Peel were passed in 1819 and in 1844. 
CURSITOR BARON. This office, formerly 


attached to the court of exchequer, was abolished in 
1856, on the death of the right hon. George Bankes. 


CURTATONE, near Mantua, N. Italy. Here 
the Austrians, under Radetzky, crossed the Mincio, 
and defeated the Italians after a severe conflict, 29 
May, 1848. 


CUSHEE PIECKS, invented by Richard 
Leake, the master-gunner of the Royal Prince man- 
of-war, renowned for bravery shown in the engage- 
ment with the Dutch admiral Van Tromp, in 1673. 


CUSTOM isa law not written (dex non scripta), 
established by long usage and consent, and is dis- 
tinguished from lex scripta, or the written law. It 
is the-rule of law when it is derived from 1189 
downwards. Sixty years’ custom is binding in the 
civil law, and forty years’ in ecclesiastical cases. 


CUSTOMS were collected upon merchandise in 
England, under Ethelred II. in 979. The king’s 
claim to them by grant of parliament was estab- 
lished 3 Edw. I. 1274. The customs were farmed 
to sir Thomas Smith for annual sums varying from 
14,0002. to 50,0007. in the reign of Elizabeth. Stow. 
They were farmed by Charles II. for 390,000/. in 
1666. Davenant. In 1671 commissioners were 
appointed. The customs were consolidated by Mr. 
Pitt in 1787. Between 1820 and 1830 so many 
reductions and consolidations were made in the 
customs department, that above a quarter of a 
million was saved in salaries, though the work had 
enormously increased.—Acts consolidating the cus- 
toms duties were passed in 1853, 1854, and 1860, 
whereby the number of articles in the tariff and the 
amount of the customs were greatly reduced. Many 
changes have been made since; see Revenue. The 
disqualification of custom-house officers and officers 
of excise from voting for the election of members 
of parliament in 1782, was removed in 1867-8. 

The laws respecting the customs were amended by 


an act passed 21 Aug. 1871, and consolidated 
by acts passed é 24 July, 1876 


Customs in Customs in year ending 

1580 £14,000 31 March. 

1592 50,000 | 1867. £22,299,306 
1614 148,000 | 1869 , 22,434,737 
1622 168,000 | 1870 21,449,843 
1642 500,000 | 1871 . 20,238,880 
1684 - 530,000 | 1872 20,225,892 
1720 - 1,555,600 | 1873 . 20,976,236 
1748 + 2,000,000 | 1874 20,323,325 
1808 + 91973,240 | 1875 . 19,349,280 
1823 11,498,762 | 1876 20,196,691 
1830 17,540,323 | 1877 . 19,896, 386 
1835 18,612,906 | 1878 20,043,180 
1840 19,915,296 | 1879 . 20,348,064 
1845 20,196,856 | 1880 . 19,169,605 
1850 20,442,170 | 1881 , 19,210,466 
1855 21,630,081 | 1882 19,275,068 
1860 24,391,084 | 1883 . 19,682,671 
1864 23,234,350 | 1884 19,653,412 


of hides, 6d.; a barrel of wine, 2d. “ . - 
The Customs business of Ireland was transferred to 
the London board. : : 6 Jan. 183 


Custom-house. A custom-house was erected in 
London on a large scale, 1304; and a yet larger in 
1559; burnt down in 1666; anew one, built by 


122 


18z 
181 


Charles II., burnt down in 1718, again rebuilt; 

and once more burnt down, and immense property 
and valuable records destroyed . 12 Feb. 

The present edifice opened 12 May, 

Dublin Custom-house commenced in 1781 ; opened 

in 1791. The eastern wing of its warehouse was 

destroyed by fire, with property to the amount 

Of 400,000l.  . 5 * - “ “ 9g Aug. 183 

CUSTOMS PARLIAMENT, see Zollvereir 

CUSTOS ROTULORUM, keeper of th 
rolls or records of the sessions of the peace, pre 
viously nominated by the lord chancellor, was i: 
1545 directed to be appointed bya bill signed by th 
king. The act was confirmed in 1689. 

CUSTOZZA, near Verona, N. Italy. Here th 
Italians were defeated by marshal Radetzky, 2 
July, 1848; and here they were again defeated, 2 
June, 1866, after a series of desperate attacks on th 
Austrian army. The Italians were commanded b: 
their king, Victor Emmanuel, and the Austrians b 
the archduke Albrecht. The Italian loss was com 
puted to be 720 killed, 3112 wounded, and 431 
missing; the Austrian loss, 960 killed, 
wounded, and nearly a thousand prisoners. T 
Italians soon recrossed the Mincio. 

CUTCH (Kachh), W. India, a _principalit: 
under the government of Bombay. In consequenc 
of the depredations of the natives, the East Indi 
government resorted to hostile measures, whic] 
resulted in a stringent treaty with the rao in Jan 
1816. In 1819 he was deposed for misgovernment 
and replaced by his infant son, supported by : 
British contingent. The traffic in children, detectes 
in Dec. 1835, was suppressed by the British. Man: 
persons perished by an earthquake in July, 1819 
Thornton. 

CUTLERY, see Stee/. 

CUTTACK (Katak), E. India, a British pro 
vince eeded to the E. I. company in 1803. Cuttack 
the capital, was taken by col. Harcourt, 14 Oct 
same year. The Mahrattas conquered it in 1750 
Thornton. 

CUTTING-OUT MACHINES. Wearin; 
apparel was first cut out by machinery in Englan¢ 
by Messrs. Hyams in 1853. The machine, inventet 
by Mr. Frederick Osbourn, consists of a recipro: 
cating vertical knife working through a slot in the 
table that supports the pile of cloth to be cut. The 
cloth being pressed up to the edge of the knife bj 
the attendant, the knife will sever it in the directior 
of the lines marked on the upper layer. 

CUZCO, capital of Peru, was entered by Pizarrc 
in Nov. 1533, and taken by him in Aug. 1536, afte 
five months’ siege. 

CYANOGEN, a colourless gas (composed «: 
nitrogen and carbon), irritating to the nose ant 
eyes, derived from Prussian blue, was first obtaine¢ 
in the free state by Gay Lussac in 1815, being the 
first instance of the isolation of a compound radical 

CYCLE of the sun, the twenty-eight year: 
before the days of the week return to the same days 
of the month; that of the moon is nineteen lunar 
years and seven intercalary months, or nineteer 
solar years. The cycle of Jupiter is sixty oa 
The Paschal cycle, or the time of keeping Easter, 


CYCLISTS. 


233 


CYRENE. 


vas first calculated for the period of 532 years by 
fictorius, 463. law. See Metonic Cycle, Calippie 
Period. 

CYCLISTS, see Velocipede. 


CYCLONES, circular whirlwinds, or hur- 
icanes, common in the East and West Indian and 
Jhinese seas, varying from 200 to 500 miles in 
iameter. Many details respecting them will be 
ound in Reid’s ‘‘ Law of Storms,’’ published 1838. 
sy a great cyclone immense damage was done on 

sea and land ; about roo ships are said to have 

been lost, and about 60,000 persons perished, and 
whole towns nearly destroyed ; see Calcutta, 5 Oct. 
aptain Watson, of the Clarence, observing the 
barometer falling, and foretelling the approach of 
the cyclone, saved his ship by steering out of its 

Tange. , : ; , : 4 ; ; 
eat cyclone in the Bahamas, at Nassau, New 

Providence, above 600 houses and many churches 

and other buildings thrown down; between 60 

and 70 ies killed, and a great many ships dis- 

mantle : , : : . ‘ 1, 2 Oct. 1866 
nother cyclone at Calcutta, not so destructive, 

1 Nov. 1867 
.eyclone desolated Antigua, St. Kitts, and other 
isles; religious and manufacturing buildings de- 

stroyed, and thousands made homeless, 21 Aug. 1871 
estructive cyclone near Madras ; ships lost, 1 May, 1872 
Jestructive cyclone, 8. E. Bengal; Calcutta barely 

escaped ; about 215,000 persons perished, 31 Oct. 1876 

See Virgin Isles. 


CYCLOPZAIDIA, see Encyclopedia. 
CYCLOPEAN MASONRY, a term given 


) very ancient buildings in Greece, Italy, and Asia 
Ginor, probably the work of the Pelasgi, more than 
000 B.C. 


CYDER, see Cider. 


CYMBAL, the oldest known musical instru- 
tent, made of brass. Xenophon says the cymbal 
‘as invented by Cybele, and used in her feasts 
dout 1580 B.C. 


CYMMRODORION SOCIETY was estab- 
shed in Sept., 1751, to instruct the ignorant and 
‘lieve distressed Welsh. It was suspended in 
781, and revived 24 June, 1820, for literary pur- 
yses. ‘The society was re-established in 1877 for 
‘omotion of literature and the arts in Wales. 


CYMRI or Kymrt (hence Cambria), the great 

altie family to which the Britons belonged, and 
hich came from Asia and occupied a large part of 

urope about 1500 B.c. About a.p. 640 Dyvnwal 

; wet reigned ‘* King of the Cymry;’’ see 
ales. 


‘CYNICS, a sect of philosophers founded by 
atisthenes (about 396 B.c., Diog. Laert., Clinton), 
‘ho professed to contemn all worldly things, even 
‘lenees, except morality ; and lived in public with 
‘tle shame. Diogenes, the eminent cynic, died 
3 Bc. 


\CYNOSCEPHALAS (dogs? heads, so named 
‘mi the shape of the heights), in Thessaly, where 
‘lopidas and the Thebans defeated Alexander 
rant of Phere and the Thessalians, 364 B.c. 
‘lopidas was slain. Here also the consu aes 
4s totally defeated Philip V. of Macedon, 197 B.c., 
d ended the war. 


CYPRESS, Cupressus sempervirens, a tree 
md in the isle of Cyprus. The Athenians buried 
-roes in coffins made of this wood, of which 
yptian mummy-chests were also fabricated. The 
cients planted it in cemeteries. ° The cypress was 
ught to England about 1441. The deciduous 
press, C. disticha, came from North America before 
10. 


1864 


» 


CYPRUS, a large island in the Mediterranean, 
near the coasts of Asia Minor and Syria; present 
capital, Levkosia or Nikosia; sea-ports, Larnaka and 
Famagosta. Here the ancients found copper (@s 
Cyprium), silver, and precious stones. The country 
was fertile, and abounded with trees in ancient 
times; and under Venice its commerce was im- 
portant. Population in 1881, 186,173: under 
Venice, said to have been a million, probably ex- 
aggerated. 


The Pheenician colonists introduced the worship of 
Ashtaroth (the Greek Astarte or Aphrodite, the 
Roman Venus) : 2 ‘ : “ : ; 

Conquered by Amasis, king of Egypt; revolted at 
the invasion of Cambyses, and submitted to 
Persia 


. . . . . - B.C. 2 

Revolted, and subjected ; F : : bss 
Partly independent under Evagoras and Nicocles, 

kings of Salamis : : . 387 et seq. 
Supported Alexander the Great. , : 333 
Taken from Demetrius by Ptolemy of Egypt 295 
Became a Roman province 2 : : - 5s 
Visited by Paul and Barnabas (Acts xiii.) A.D...“ 45 
Great revolt of the Jews . : F : : 117 
Seized by the Arabs, 646; recovered by Greeks 648 
Isaac Comnenus, king A : - 1184 


Seized by Richard I. of England, r19z1; given by 
him to Guy de Lusignan, as king ; g . 1192 
“Order of the Sword” established (ceased with 8th 
king) : ; . : 5 - ° : e II95 
Guy’s descendant, Catherine de Cornaro, sold it to 
Venice s. : : : : : : : - 1487 
Cyprus conquered by the Turks with great barbarity 1570-1 
Insurrections suppressed, 1764; with massacre . 1823 
General di Cesnola, a Genoese, the American con- 
sul, by excavations, discovers many Babylonian, 
Egyptian, Phoenician, and Greek gold and silver 
ornaments, and other relics (sold to the New 
York museum) 3 : : : : 1866 et seq. 
His work, ‘‘Cyprus: its Ancient Cities, Tombs, 


and Temples,” published in London Dec. 1877 
The island given upto Great Britain for administra- 
tion by the Anglo-Turkish convention 4 June, 1878 


Possession taken by admiral lord John Hay, 12 
July; by sir Garnet J. Wolseley, as lord high 
commissioner ; ; : : 22 July,’ '5; 

Much sickness, with deaths, reported Aug.—Sept. 

Orders for the government by a lord high commis- 
sioner, given at court : - a D4 DEPUse ss 

Sir G. J. Wolseley’s decree for compulsory labour 
on public works, dated . ; : a) TO) DGC-ay ss 

He is sent to 8. Africa; succeeded by sir Robert 
Biddulph - , : : : - June, 

The British buy the Government lands, except the 
Sultan’s estates, early in : é 5 3 : 

Increased general prosperity reported (in Blue 
Book) . = : é 4 : Aug. 1880 

Sir R. Biddulph reports that the British govern- 
ment is popular, but the finances depressed, 
Aug.; 78,0001. voted for Cyprus . 28 Aug. 

New pier at Limasol opened by Sir R. Pete 

6 Oct. 

New constitution announced 24 March, 

Elective legislative council opened by sir R. Bid- 
dulph . <piin « : . 5 July, 

Long continued destructive ravages of locusts, 
greatly checked by the skill and energy of Mr. 8. 
Brown, reported : : : 5 « dept. 

Sir R. Biddulph reports great prosperity and in- 
creased revenue (194,051/., expenditure 111,685/.). 
General health goo ° : 3x March, 


CYR, StT., near Versailles. Here a college for 
ladies was founded by madame De Maintenon, in 
1686, and here she died, 15 April, 1719. It was 
made a military college in 1803. 


CYRENAIC SECT, founded by Aristippus 
the Elder, 365 8.c. They taught that the supreme 
good of man is pleasure, particularly that of the 
senses; and that even virtue ought to be com- 
mended only because it gave pleasure. 


CYRENE (N. W. Africa), a Greek colony, 


1879 


2? 


1881 
99 
1882 
1883 


1884 


1884 


CYROPEDIUM. 


founded by Battus about 630 B.c. Aristeeus, who 
was chief of the colonists here, gave the city his 
mother’s name. It was also called Pentapolis, on 
account of its five towns; namely, Cyrene, Ptole- 
mais, Berenice, Apollonia, and Arsinoé. It was 
conquered by Ptolemy Soter I., who placed many 
Jews here (286 8B.c.). Cyrene was left by Ptolemy 
Apion to the Romans, 97 B.c. It is now a desert. 
Some Cyrenaic sculptures were placed in the 
British Museum in July, 1861. 


CYROPEDIUM, see Corus. 
CYZICUS (Asia Minor). In the Peloponnesian 


war, the Lacedemonian fleet under the command 
of Mindarus, assisted by Pharnabazus, the Persian, 


234 


CZECHS. 


was encountered by the Athenians under Alcibiac 
and defeated with great slaughter, near Cyzic 
Mindarus being slain: 410 B.c. Plutarch. 


CZAR (the title of the emperor of Russi 
probably .derived from Cesar, a title said to hi 
been assumed by Ivan Basilowitz after defeat: 
the Tartars, about 1482. The empress is tern 
czarina, and the eldest son ezarewitch. 


CZECHS, the native race of Bohemia : 
Moravia (which see). The antagonism betwi 
the Germans and Czechs is milder in Moravia tl 
in Bohemia. Their representatives entered 
reichsrath at Vienna, 8 Oct., 1879. 


1D y 


DACCA. 


DACCA, N. E. India, a province acquired by 
the Kast India Company in 1765, and ruled under 
them by a Nawab till its annexation in 1845. 
Thornton. 


DACTIA, a Roman province (included Temeswar 
and parts of Hungary, Transylvania, Wallachia, 
Moldavia, and Galicia), after many contests, was 
subdued by Trajan, 106, when Decebalus, the 
Dacian leader, was killed. Dacia was abandoned 
50 the Goths by Aurelian, in 270; subdued by the 
Huns, 376; by Scythians, 566; by Charlemagne, 
md by the Magyars, in the 9th century. 


DACOITS, hereditary robbers of North India, 
formerly employed in war by native sovereigns. 
itis stated that between 1818 and 1834, one tribe alone, 

in 118 ‘‘ dacoitees,” or expeditions, killed 172 persons, 

and obtained plunder valued at r15,o00l. In 1838 lord 

Auckland did much to suppress the dacoits, and many 

settlements were broken up, but they are not quite 

extinct in Bengal and Burmah. Several dacoitees were 

suppressed in 1879. 


DAFOUR, see Soudan, 1884. 
DAGHISTAN (a mountain country S. W. 


isia), was conquered by the czar Peter, 1723; re- 
tored to Persia, 1735; re-annexed to Russia by 
\lexander I., 1813. 


DAGUERREOTYPE PROCESS, invented 
y Daguerre, and published 1838; see Photo- 
raphy. 

DAHLIA, a flower discovered in Mexico by 
‘incent Cervantes in 1784, and brought to Europe 
bout 1787, and cultivated by the Swedish botanist, 
Jahl. About 1814 it was introduced into France 
nd England; André Thouine suggested improve- 
1ents in its culture, and it soon became a favourite. 
‘eorgi introduced it at St. Petersburg ; hence it is 
nown in Germany as the Georgina. 


DAHOMEY, a negro kingdom, West Africa, 
ecame known to Europeans early in the last 
mtury, when Trudo Andati or Guadjor Trudo, a 
tan of energy and talent, was king. He died in 
732, and was succeeded by a series of cruel tyrants, 
large part of whose revenue was derived from the 
ave-trade. Abbeokuta, a robbers’ haunt in 1825, 
48, Since 1829, become a strong-walled town, inha- 
ted by free blacks; and was consequently opposed 
y the king of Dahomey. His army has been 
verely defeated in its attacks on this place, and 
.one on 16 March, 1864, a great number of his 
mazons were slain. During the last few years 
ahomey has been visited by captain Burton and 
her travellers, who have described the royal 
nguinary customs. 
te king ordered to pay a fine (for an outrage on 
Mr. Turnbull at Whydah, 23 Jan.) March, 1876 
2 refuses in insulting terms, April; the coast about 
to be blockaded ; : ; : PeeLULLY Ss oe 
1e king threatens massacre of Europeans if at- 
ae : : 5 ae ANY A 
2 makes concessions; blockade removed x2 May, 1877 
*mewed massacres of natives (“customs”) and 
outrages on foreigners at Whydah; reported 

26 Sept. 1878 
DAHRA (Algeria). On 18 June, 1845, above 
0 Kabyles at war with the French were suffo- 


\ 


DAMASCUS. 


cated in a cave, a fire having been kindled by order 
of general Pelissier, afterwards duke of Malakoff. 
They had fired on a messenger bearing an offer of 
a truce. The massacre was condemned by marshal 
Soult, the minister of war, but justified by marshal 
Bugeaud. 


DAILY NEWS, liberal commercial news- 
paper, now Id., established 21 Jan. 1846. In the 
number for 23 June, 1876, the letter from Mr. 
MacGahan, its correspondent at Constantinople, 
first drew attention to the atrocities in Bulgaria. 
The first Bulgarian parliament expressed its grati- 
tude for this, 4 April, 1879. 


DAILY TELEGRAPH, penny paper, liberal, 
established 29 June, 1855. It became a conservative 
paper, 1876. 


DAIRY FARMERS’ ASSOCIATION, 
British, established 24 Oct. 1876. No. I of a 
journal published Sept. 1877. Exhibitions at 
Agricultural Hall, 1877 and following years. 


DAKOTA (North America), organised as a 
territory of the United States, 2 March, 1861. 


DALECARLIANS (Sweden), revolted against 
Christian of Denmark, 1521, and placed Gustavus 
Vasa on the throne of Sweden. 


DALMATIA, an Austrian province, N. E. of 
the Adriatic Sea, conquered and made a province 
by the Romans, 34 B.c. The emperor Diocletian 
erected his palace at Spalato (erroneously written 
Spalatro), and retired there, A.D. 305. Dalmatia was 
held in turns by the Goths, Hungarians, and Turks, 
till its cession to Venice in 1699. By the treaty of 
Campo Formio in 1797 it was given to Austria, but in 
1805 it wasincorporated with Italy, and gave the title 
of duke to marshal Soult. In 1814 it reverted to 
Austria, An insurrection opposed to the new mili- 
tary law broke out at Bocche di Cattaro, and a con- 
flict with the troops at Dragali took place, 10 Oct. 
1869. Several regiments were sent there, but the 
insurgents obtained several successes during the 
month. A deputation offered submission, 2 Nov., 
and the operations against them were suspended 
about the end of the month. 


DALTONISM, see Colowr, note. 


DAMASCUS (Syria), a city in the time of 
Abraham; I9I3 B.C. (Gen. xiv.), now the capital 
of a Turkish pachalic. 


Taken by David (z040 B.c.), but retaken shortly 
after ; made the capital of Syria under Benhadad 


and his successors . . 2 ° a B.Cg ons 
Recovered by Jeroboam II. : rs about 822 
Taken by Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria. Boks 
From the Assyrians it passed to the Persians, and 

from them to the Greeks, under Alexander = 333 
To the Romans . : : : Be about 64 
Paul, converted, preaches here (Acts ix.) . . A.D. 5 
Taken by the Saracens, 633 ; by the Turks in 1075; 

destroyed by Tamerlane . - ¢ Jan. 1401 


Taken by Ibrahim Pacha . aie. 0 4 5 . 
The disappearance of a Greek priest, named father 
Tommaso, from here, r Feb. 1840, led to the 
torture of a number of Jews, suspected of his mur- 


DAMASK. 


236 


DANGEROUS ASSOCIATIONS. 


der, and to a cruel persecution of that people 
which caused remonstrances from many states of 
Europe . A . s 3 é . 1840 
Damascus restored to Turkey . > . weeelodr 
In consequence of a dispute between the Druses 
and Maronites, the Mahommedans massacred 
above 3000 Christians and destroyed the houses, 
rendering vast numbers of persons homeless and 
destitute ; a large number were rescued by Abd- 
el-Kader, who held the citadel 9, 10, 11 July, 
Justice executed for these crimes by Fuad Pacha: 
160 persons executed, including the Turkish gover- 
nor ; and 11,000 persons made soldiers, Aug.-Sept. ,, 


DAMASK Linens and Sixxs, first manu- 
factured at Damascus, have been beautifully imi- 
tated by the Dutch and Flemish. The manufacture 
was brought to England by artisans who fled from 
the persecutions of Alva, 1571-3. The DAMAsK 
Rosk was brought here from the south of Europe 
by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., about 
1540; 


DAMIENS’ ATTEMPT. Louis XV. of 
France was stabbed with a knife in the right side 
by Damiens, a native of Arras, 5 Jan. 1757. The 
culprit endured the most excruciating tortures, and 
was then broken on the wheel, 28 March. 


DAMIETTA (Lower Egypt), was taken by 
the crusaders, 5 Nov. 1219; lost 1221; retaken by 
Louis IX., 5 June, 1249; surrendered as his ran- 
som when a prisoner, 6 May, 1250. The present town 
was built soon after. See Lyypt, Sept. 1882. 


DAMON Aanp PYTHIAS (or Phintias), 
Pythagorean philosophers. Damon was  con- 
demned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syra- 
cuse, about 387 B.C. He obtained leave to go and 
settle some domestic affairs, promising to return at 
the appointed time of execution, and Pythias be- 
came his surety. When Damon did not appear, 
Pythias surrendered, and was led to execution ; but 
at this critical moment Damon returned. Diony- 
sius remitted the sentence, and desired to share 
their friendship. 


_DANAT: an ancient name of the Greeks de- 
rived from Danaus, king of Argos, 1474 B.C. 


DANCE oF DEATH. The triumph of death 
over all ranks of men was a fayourite subject with 
the artists of the middle ages, and appears in rude 
carvings and pictures in various countries. 


The Chorea Machabeorum or Danse Macabre, the 
first printed representation, published by Guyot 
Marchand, a bookseller of Paris . . 5 Ne 

Holbein’s Dance of. Death (concerning the author- 
ship of which there has been much controversy), 
printed at Lyons in 1538, and at Basil . + aes BLEOS 

Many editions have since appeared ; one with an 
introduction and notes published by Mr. Russell 
Smith é ; é ; : : J ek 

The term Dance of Death was also applied to the 
frenzied movements of the Flagellants, who had 
sometimes skeletons depicted on their clothing, 
about the end of the r4th century. 

Dancing mania, accompanied by aberration of 
mind and distortions of the body, was very 
prevalent in Germany in 1374, and in the 16th 
century in Italy, where it was termed Tarantism, 
and erroneously supposed to be caused by the 
bite of the Tarantula spider. The music and 
songs employed for its cure are still preserved. 


DANCING was invented by the Curetes, 1534 
B.c. Husebius. The Greeks combined the dance 
with their dramas, and pantomimic dances were 
introduced on the Roman stage, 22 u.c. Usher. 
Dancing by cinque paces was introduced into Eng- 
land from Italy, a.p. 1541. In modern times the 
French introduced ballets analogues in their musical 
dramas. The country dance (contre-danse) is of 


1860 


1485 


1849 


French origin, but its date is not precisely knov 
Spelman. See Morice Dance, Quadrille, a 
Waltz. 


Establishment of a national training school for 
dancing, by Mr. Mapleson; second annual dis- 
tribution of prizes, &ec. . 2 21 Sept. 1 


DANE-GELD, or DANEGELT, a tribute p 
to the Danes to stop their ravages in Englar 
first raised by Ethelred II. in 991, and again 
1003; and levied after the expulsion of the Dai 
to pay fleets for clearing the seas of them. 1 
tax was suppressed by Edward the Confessor 
1051; revived by William I. 1068; and forn 

art of the revenue of the crown, until abolisl 
ty Stephen, 1136. Every hide of land, 7.e. as m 
as one plough could plough, or as Bede says, 
much as could maintain a family, was taxed at f 
Is., afterwards as much as 7s. Camden says t 
once 24,360/. was raised. E 


DANES, or NORTHMEN ; see Denma 
During their attacks upon Britain and Irel: 
they made a descent on -France, where, in 8 
under Rollo, they received presents under the wi 
of Paris. They returned and ravaged the Frei 
territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attace. 
Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the kin; 
France to Rollo and his Normans (North-me 
hence Normandy, in 911. The invasions of E 
land and Ireland were as follows:— 


First hostile appearance of the Danes 
They land near Purbeck, Dorset . “ : - 
Descend ‘in Northumberland : destroy the church 
at Lindisfarne ; are repelled, and perish by ship- 
wreck . ; j 2 5 : b 8 Jan. 
They invade Scotland and Ireland : 795» 
They enter Dublin with a fleet of 60 sail, and pos- 
sess themselves of Dublin, Fingal, &c. A é 
They take the Isle of Sheppey . ; 3 
Defeated at Hengeston, in Cornwall, by Egbert 
They land in Kent from 350 vessels, and take Can- 
terbury and London . ; A 3 , F 
They descend on the north, and take York . 
They defeat the Saxons at Merton - - 
They take Wareham and Exeter ‘ ‘ 3 2 
They take Chippenham: but 120 of their ships are 
wrecked  . : : - : : 3 Pais 
Defeated: Guthrum, their leader, becomes Chris- 
tian, and many settle in England . . 
Alfred enters into a treaty with them . A F 
Their fleet destroyed by Alfred at Appledore . 
Defeated near Isle of Wight. . ‘ - : 
They invade and waste Wales . x : . 5, 
Defeated by Edward the Elder 
They defeat the people of Leinster . ; : 
Ravage Cornwall, Devon, and Dorset . . f 
And ravage Essex and Suffolk . A 5 
Said to assume the title lord dane about . “ise 
Their fleet defeated after a breach of treaty, pur- 
chased by money ; : 4 ‘ ; t 
Anlaf and Sweyn ravage Kent and the south (erro- 
neously said to have been paid 16,ooo0l. for peace) 
A general massacre of the Danes, by order of 
Ethelred II. : : : 2 . 13) Novem 
Sweyn revenges it, and receives 36,oool. (as an 
annual tribute) to depart . . . j re 
Their fleet anchors at Isle of Wight . . : Ey? 
They make fresh inroads, and defeat the Saxons in 
Suffolk, roro ; sack Canterbury, and kill the in- 
habitants, rorz ; receive 48,oool. as tribute, and 
murder Alphege, archbishop : ; + Gane 
Vanquished at Clontarf, Ireland (see Clontarf) oe 
Conquest of England completed ; Canute king . . : 
They settle in Scotland fas? + tate fi: 
They land again at Sandwich, carrying off much 
plunder to Flanders . é . . , < ee 
Defeated by Harold II. at Stamford-bridge, 25 Sept. : 
They burn York, and kill 3000 Normans . : 4 
Once more invade England to aid a conspiracy ; 
but compelled to depart . 2 : ee 


DANGEROUS ASSOCIATIONS (IE 
LAND) BILL; see Roman Catholic Associat 


é 


DANGEROUS GOODS. 


237 


DANGEROUS GOODS : act regulating 


heir deposit and carriage passed 6 Aug. 1866. 


DANGEROUS PERFORMANCES, see 
Nildren. 


DANNEWERKEH, or DANNAWIRKE, 2 series 
yf earthworks, considered almost impregnable, 
‘tretching across the long narrow peninsula of 
Sehleswig, Holstein, and Jutland—said to have 
jeen constructed during the ‘‘stone age,”’ long before 
he art of metal-working. It was rebuilt in 937 
Ny Thyra, queen of Gormo the Old, for which she 
vas named ‘‘Dannabod,’’ the pride of the Danes. 
twas repaired by Olaf Tryggveson between 995 
nd 1000. Near here the Prussians, helping the 
uchies, defeated the Danes, 23 April, 1848. The 
etreat of the Danes from it, 5 Feb. 1864, occa- 
toned much dissatisfaction at Copenhagen. 


DANTE’S DIVINA COMMEDIA was 
rst printed in 1472. He was born 14 May, 1265, 
ied at Ravenna, 14 Sept. 1321. A festival in his 
onour, at Florence, was opened of the king, 14 
Tay, 1865, when a large statue of Dante by Pazzi 
f Ravenna was uncovered. 


DANTZIC (N. Germany), a commercial city in 
97; according to some authorities, built by 
Valdemar I. in 1165. Poland obtained the 
wereignty of it in 1454. It was seized by the 
ing of Prussia, and annexed in 1793. It sur- 
mdered to the French, May, 1807; and by the 
eaty of Tilsit was restored to independence, under 
1e protection of Prussia and Saxony, July, 1807. 
antzic was besieged by the allies in 1812; and 
irrendered 1 Jan. 1814. By the treaty of Paris it 
verted to the king of Prussia. By the Vistula 
‘eaking through its dykes, 10,000 head of cattle 
id 4000 houses were destroyed, and many lives 
st, 9 April, 1829. 


DANUBE (German, Donau; anciently Ister, in 
3 lower part), the largest river in Europe, except 
 Wolga, rises in the Black Forest and falls into 
e Black Sea. Trajan’s bridge at Gladovya was 
stroyed by Adrian, to prevent the barbarians 
tering Dacia. Steam navigation was projected 
| this river by count Szechenyi, in 1830, and in 
at year the first steam-boat was launched at 
enna, and the Austrian company was formed 
ortly after. The Bavarian company was formed 
36. A canal between the Danube and the 
aine was completed by Louis I. of Bavaria. 
larlemagne, in the 8th century, contemplated 
iting the Danube and Rhine by a canal. At the 
ace of 30 March, 1856, the free navigation of the 
mube was secured, and an independent European 
‘mmission appointed to make it navigable from 
iktchi to the sea, which has worked with good 
ect. The British government, in 1868, lent 
5,000/. to complete the works. The treaty re- 
»cting the navigation of the Danube renewed for 
elve years, 13 March, 1871. The river suddenly 
»k possession of a new bed near Vienna, 17 April, 
ich was formally opened 30 May, 1875. 


the Russo-Turkish war the Russians crossed the 
Janube and entered Bulgaria. (See Russo-Turkish 
Var, Il.) . : . : : a : June, 1877 
© navigation of the Danube was regulated by 
Articles s0—54 of Berlin treaty 13 July, 1878 
onference of the powers respecting the Danube 
eld in London, 8 Feb. et seq. ; treaty signed re- 
toring rights to Russia, 10 March: ratified 
15 Aug. 1883 


DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES; 
-ALLACHTA and MoLpAVIA (capitals, Bucha- 
_tand Jassy) were united and named ROUMAN TA, 


DARMSTADT. 


1859. Population of the two, 1860, 3,864,848; 1866, 

4,424,961 ; 1880, 5,376,000. These provinces formed 

part of the ancient Dacia (which see). 

Part of Moldavia ceded to Russia A Aes 

The provinces having participated in the Greek in- 
surrection in 1821, were severely treated by the 
Turks ; but by the treaty of Adrianople were 
placed under the protection of Russia . ‘ z 

The Porte appointed as hospodars prince Stirbey 
for Wallachia, and prince Ghika for Moldavia, 


June, 
They retire from their governments when the Rus- 


sians enter Moldavia. See Russo-Turkish War. 


: ; j 2July, 1853 
The Russians quit the provinces and the Austrians 


enter, Sept. 1854; retire March, 


The government of the principalities finally settled 
at the Paris conference: (there were to be two 
hospodars, elected by elective assemblages, and 
the suzerainty of Turkey was to be preserved), 


19 Aug. 1858 
Alexander Couza elected hospodar of Moldavia, 

17 Jan.;of Wallachia . J - - 5 Feb. 
The election acknowledged by the allies 6 Sept. 
The definitive union of the provinces (under the 

name of Roumania) proclaimed and acknowledged 

by the Porte ‘ Dec. 1861 


[For continuation, see Roumania.] 


DARDANELLES. Two castles (Sestos, in 

oumania, and Abydos, in Natolia), built by the 
sultan Mahomet IV. in 1659, commanding the 
entrance of the strait of Gallipoli, named Dar- 
danelles from the contiguous town Dardanus.—The 
passage of the strait was achieved by the British 
squadron under sir John Duckworth, 19 Feb. 1807 ; 
but he repassed them with great loss, 3 March, the 
castles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down stone- 
shot upon the British ships. The allied English 
and French fleets passed the Dardanelles at the 


sultan’s request, Oct. 1853; see Hellespont and 
Xerxes. 


DARIC, a Persian gold coin, issued by Darius, 
hence its name, about 538 B.c. About 556 cents. 
Knowles. It weighed two grains more than the 
English guinea. Dr. Bernard. 


DARIEN, Istumus of, central America, dis- 
covered by Columbus, 1494. In 1694, William 
Paterson, founder of the Bank of England, pub- 
lished his plan for colonising Darien. A company 
was formed in 1695, and in 1698-9, three expedi- 
tions sailed thither from Scotland, where 400, 0004. 
had been raised. The first consisted of 1200 young 
men of all classes, besides women and children. 
The enterprise not having been recognised by the 
English government, the settlements were threat- 
ened by the Spaniards, to whom they were finally 
surrendered, 30 March, 1700. Paterson and a few 
survivors from famine and disease, had set off 
shortly before the arrival of the second expedition. 
Several years after, 398,0857. were voted by parlia- 
ment to the survivors as ‘ Equivalent money.”’ 
18,000/. were also voted to Paterson; but the bill 
was rejected in the house of Lords. See Panamd. 
The average breadth, 40 miles; least breadth, 30 
miles. : 


DARK AGES, a term applied to the Middle 
Ages; according to Hallam, comprising about 1000 
years—from the invasion of France by Clovis, 486, 
to that of Naples by Charles VIII., 149s. During 
this time learning was at a low ebb. 


DARLINGTON, see under Railways, 
and 1875. 


DARMSTADT, see Hesse Darmstadt. 


1812 


1829 


1849 


1857 


1859 


bP 


1825 


° 


DARTFORD. 2 


DARTFORD (Kent). Here commenced the 
insurrection of Wat Tyler, 1381. A convent of 
nuns, of the order of St. Augustin, endowed here 
by Edward III. 1355, was converted by Henry VIII. 
into a royal palace. The first paper-mill in Eng- 
land was erected at Dartford by sir John Spielman, 
a German, in 1590 (Stow), and about the same 
period was erected here the first mill for splitting 
iron bars. The powder-mills here were blown up 
four times between 1730 and 1738. Various ex- 
plosions have since occurred, in some cases with 
loss of life to many persons: 12 Oct. 1790; I Jan. 
1795 ; and others recently. 

DARTMOOR PRISON, founded Mar. 1806. 
Seven prisoners of war were shot 6 April, 1815, 
after an insurrection, The autumn military ma- 
neeuvres at Dartmoor, Aug. 1873, were unsuccessful 
through bad weather. 

A mutiny here was checked with loss of life of one 
prisoner . ; : - . 12 Nov. 1880 
DARTMOUTH (Devon). Burnt by the 

French in the reigns of Richard I. and Henry IV. 

In a third attempt (1404), the invaders were de- 

feated by the inhabitants, assisted by the valour of 

the women., The French commander, Du Chastel, 
three lords, and thirty-two knights, were made 
prisoners. In the war of the parliament, Dart- 
mouth was taken after a siege of four weeks, by 
prince Maurice, who garrisoned the place for the 
king (1643); but it was retaken by general Fairfax 
by storm in 1646. 


DARWINISM, sce Development and Species. 


DATES were affixed to grants and assignments 
18 Edw. I. 1290. Before this time it was usual at 
least to pass lands without dating the deed of con- 
veyance. Lewis. Numerous instruments of assign- 
ment enrolled among our early records establish 
this fact. The date is determined by the names of 
the parties, particularly that of the grantor: the 
possession of land was proof of the title to it. 
Hardie. A useful glossary of the dates given in old 
charters and chronicles will be found in Nicolas’s 
‘¢ Chronology of History.”” J.J. Bond’s ‘‘ Handy- 
Book for Verifying Dates,” published 1866. 


DAUPHINE;® S.E. France, successively held 
by the Allobroges, Burgundians, and Lombards ; 
was, about 732-4, delivered from the invading 
Saracens by Charles Martel. After forming part of 
the kingdom of Arles, it was_much subdivided 
among counts. One of these, Humbert II., ceded 
Dauphiné and the Viennois to Philip VI., in 1343, 
for his eldest son, on the condition that the prince 
should be styled dauphin, which took effect in 
1349, when Humbert became a monk. Louis 
Antoine, duke of Angouléme, son of Charles X., 
the last dauphin who assumed the title at his 
father’s accession, 16 Sept. 1824, died 3 June, 
1844. 

DAVENTRY, Northamptonshire. Near here 
Lambert, having escaped from the Tower, was de- 
feated and retaken, in his attempt to enkindle the 
war, by Monk, 21 April, 1660. The dissenting 
academy removed* here from Northampton in 1752, 
was transferred to Wymondley in 1789, thence to 
London as Coward College, and finally united with 
Homerton and Highbury Colleges as New College, 
in 1850. 

DAVID’S, Sr. (S. W. Wales), the ancient 
Menapia, now a poor decayed place, but once the 


De a Ed Oe ee ee eee 

* One of the counts of Vienne placed a dolphin 
(danphin) in his coat-of-arms, and assumed the title of 
dauphin. 


38 


DEACONESSES. 


metropolitan see of Wales, and archiepiscop 
When Christianity was planted in Britain, th 
archbishops’ seats were appointed, viz. Lond 
York, and Caerleon upon Usk, in Monmouthshi 
That at Caerleon being too near the dominions 
the Saxons, was removed to Mynyw, and call 
St. David’s, in honour of the archbishop who ; 
moved it, 522. ‘St. Sampson was the last ar 
bishop of the Welsh; for he, withdrawing hime 
on account of a pestilence to Déle, in Brittar 
carried the pall with him. In the reign of Henry 
the archbishops submitted to the see of Canterbu 
Beatson. Present income 45000. 
BISHOPS. 

Lord George Murray, died 3 June, 1803. 
Thomas Burgess, trans. to Salisbury, June, 182: 
John Banks Jenkinson, died 7 July, 1840. 
Connop Thirlwall; resigned June, 1874; d 

27 July, 1875. 
Wm. Basil Jones, consecrated 24 Aug. 


1800. 
1803. 
1825. 
1840. 


1874. 
DAVID’S DAY, St., 1 March, is annua 


commemorated by the Welsh, in honour of 

David. Tradition states that on St. David’s bir 
day, 540, a great victory was obtained by 1 
Welsh over their Saxon invaders; and that 1 
Welsh soldiers were distinguished, by order of 
David, by a leek in their caps. 


DAVIS’S STRAIT (N. America), discove: 
by John Davis, 11 Aug. I 585) on his voyage to f 
a N. W. passage, 1585-87. He made two m 
voyages for the same purpose, and five voyages 
the East Indies. In the last he was killed 
Japanese pirates, on the coast of Malacca, 27 or 
Dec., 1605. 


DAVY LAMP, &c., see Safety Lamp. 


The Davy Medal, furnished by the sale of Sir Hump! 
Davy’s plate, was first awarded by the Royal Soci 
to Professors Bunsen and Kirchhoff for their discov 
of spectrum analysis (which see). 


DAV YUM, a new metal, discovered by Serg 
Kern, 28 June, 1877, in the residuum of platim 
ore; said to be hard, infusible, and rather duct 
It has been suspected to be ruthenium. 


DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of 
northern nations, at sunset among the Atheni: 
and Jews; and among the Romans at midnight 
with us. The Italians in some places, reckon 1 
day from sunset to sunset, making their clo 
strike twenty-four hours round. The Chin 
divide the day into twelve parts of two hours ea 
The astronomical day begins at noon, is divic 
into twenty-four hours (instead of two parts 
twelve hours), and is the mode of reckoning used 
the Nautical Almanac. Thus the astronomical « 
8 Dec. begins at noon of 8 Dec. and ends at ne 
9 Dec, At Greenwich, from 1 Jan. 1885, the ¢ 
of 24 hours began at midnight; the reckoning 3 
recommended for railways, &c. The Washing 
Prime Meridian Conference adopted a resolut: 
declaring the universal day to be the mean 60 
day, beginning, for all the world, at the moment 
mean midnight of the initial meridian, coincid: 
with the beginning of the civil day, and t 
meridian to be counted from zero up to 24 hov 
21 Oct. 1884. 


DEACONS (literally servants), an order 
Christian ministers, began with the Apostles, ab 
53. (Acts vi.) Their qualifications are given 
St. Paul (65), 1st Timothy iii. 8—14. 


DEACONESSES, or ministering widows, b: 
their qualifications given in 1 Zim. v. 9, 10 ( 
Their duties were to visit the poor and sick, as 


| acre re 


DEAD. 


£ the agapz or love feasts, admonish the young 
vomen, &c. The office was discontinued in the 
Vestern church in the 5th and 6th centuries, and 
n the Greek church about the 12th, but has been 
ecently revived in Germany. The appointment of 
eaconesses, subject to the parochial clergy, was 
dyocated by the bishop of Ely about 1853, and 
ome were appointed. The Diocesan Deaconess 
nstitution, London, was established in 1861. 


DEAD. Prayers for their benefit were pro- 
ably offered up in the 2nd century, being referred 
» by Tertullian, who died 220. The practice was 
rotested against by Aerius, and defended by Epi- 
hanius, who died 403. It is generally objected to 
y the church of England, but is not expressly for- 
idden; so decided by sir Herbert Jenner in the 
ourt of Arches (Phillimore, Eccl. Law, 1873-6). 


DEAD WEIGHT LOAN acquired its name 
om its locking up the capital of the Bank of 
ngland, which in 1823 advanced 11,000,000/. to 
te government (to construct new ordnance, &c.). 
Wadctinr engaged to give an annuity of 585,740/. 
T 44 years, which ceased in June, 1867. 


DEAF AND DUMB. The first systematic 
tempt to instruct the deaf and dumb was made 
7 Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, 
1 Jerome Cardan’s system, about 1570. 


met, a monk, published a system at Madrid - 1620 
*. Wallis published a work in England on the 
subject 1650 


ie first regular academy for the deaf and dumb in 
Britain opened in Edinburgh . ; : Ate 
‘Iodern times the abbé de I’Epée (1712-89), and 
his friend and pupil the abbé Sicard of Paris (1742— 
1822); the rey. Mr. Townsend and Mr. Baker, of 
London; Mr. Thos. Braidwood of Edinburgh ; 
and surgeon Orpen of Dublin, have laboured with 
‘much success in promoting the instruction of the 
‘leaf and dumb. 
e asylum for deaf and dumb children, opened in 
London through the exertions of Mr. Townsend 
‘2 1792; one in Edinburgh by Mr. J. Braidwood, 
‘1 r8x0 ; and one in Birmingham by Mr. T. Braid- 
wood. ‘ 2 : i F e ' i re1s 
‘e asylum at Claremont, Dublin, opened . Le EGLO 
leaf and dumb debating club (Wallis club) closed 
‘ts third session = K % . April, 
e foundation stone of St. Saviour’s church, near 
-)xford street, London, for the deaf and dumb, laid 
dy the prince of Wales : : 5 July, 
1851, there were in Great Britain, 12,553 deaf and 
lumb out of a population of 20, 9593477- 
Ww Teaching.—Mr. Wm. Van Praagh introduced 
he so-called German system into this country in 
uly, 1867; published his ‘‘Plan for the Estab- 
ishment of Day Schools [in preference to board- 
‘ng-houses] for the Deaf and Dumb” (in which 
‘hey are to be taught by speech and lip teaching 
‘nly; the finger alphabet and artificial signs 
veing rigidly excluded), in 1871. By the help of 
he baroness Meyer de Rothschild and others, the 
‘ Association for the Oral Instruction of the Deaf 
nd Dumb” was founded in 1871, and a day- 
chool opened at 12, Fitzroy-square . 16 J uly, 
ernational congress at Milan ; great majority in 
iwour of oral teaching of deaf-mutes . Sept. 1880 
ernational congress at Brussels. 1 3 Sept. et seg. 1883 


DEAL, a cinque port with Sandwich, 1229; a 
ting village in the reign of Henry VIII. ; its 
“mg castle built 1 539 by Henry VIII. Deal was 
orporated and made independent of Sandwich, 
“19. 


TTS 


1869 


1870 


1872 


JEAN, Forest oF, Gloucestershire, an- 
atly wooded quite through, and in the last 
tury, though much curtailed, was twenty miles 
.ength and ten in breadth. It was famous for its 
8, the material of our ships of war. Riots in 
3 district, when more than 3000 persons as- 


239 


DEBTORS. 


sembled in the forest, and demolished upwards of 
fifty miles of wall and fence, throwing open 10,000 
acres of plantation, took place on 8 June, 1831. 
The Dean forest (mines) act passed 16 Aug. 1871. 


DEAN (decanus), a name commonly given to 
the arch-presbyter, or eldest presbyter, in the 12th 
century; originally a military title, an officer over 
ten soldiers. In the church of England the dean 
and chapter of a cathedral nominally elect the 
bishop and form his council. By 13 & 14 Car. II. 
(1662), a dean must be in priést’s orders; pre- 
viously the office had occasionally been held by a 
layman, with special dispensation. The ancient 
office of “rural dean”’ has been much revived since 
1850. The Deans’ and Canons’ resignation act 
passed 13 May, 1872. The Five Deans’ memorial 
and counter memorial, see Church of England, 1881 
See Arches, 


DEATH, ordained as the 
der, 2348 B.c. (Gen. ix. 6.) 


The Jews generally stoned their criminals (Lev. 
Xa Sue. b : A 7 “ : - B.C. 1490 

Draco’s code punished every offence with death . 621 

It was limited to murder by Solon . : + 504 

Drowning in a quagmire was a punishment among 
the Britons (Stow), about - : ‘ A : 

Mithridates, a Persian soldier, who boasted that he 
had killed Cyrus the Younger, at the battle of 
Cunaxa, was by order of Artaxerxes exposed to 
the sun for eighteen days. : F : : 

Maurice, the son of a nobleman, was hanged, drawn, 
and quartered for piracy, the first execution in 
that manner in England, 25 Hen. ITI. Spa) ea 

The punishment of death was abolished in a great 
number of cases by sir Robert Peel’s acts, 4 to 10 
Geo: IV, ©. - 2 , : ° : - 1824-9 

By the criminal law consolidation acts, death was 
confined to treason and wilful murder : 86r 

The commission on capital punishment (appointed 
1864) issued their report (recommending that 
penal servitude be substituted for death in some 
cases where murder was unpremeditated, and 
that executions should not be public) Dec. 

Capital punishment restricted in Italy April, 

Its proposed abolition in Belgium was negatived, 

18 Jan. 

‘Capital Punishment within Prisons Bill” passed. 
May, 1868. First case, 13 Aug. 1868 : see Execu- 
tions. 

Abolition of the punishment of death in Great 
Britain proposed by Mr. Gilpin in the commons ; 
negatived (127 to 23), 21 April, 1868; negatived 
(x18 to 58), 29 July, 1869 ; negatived (167-54), 24 
July, 1872; (155-50), 12 June, 1877; (263-64), 13 
March, 1878; proposed by Mr. Pease, negatived 
(175-79), 22 June, 1881; again to May, 

Capital punishment abolished in Saxony, 1 April, 

Vote for its abolition in Switzerland, 18743; for its 
restoration (191,197—177,263 . : May, 1879 

Capital punishment abolished in Russia by Cathe- 
rine II., except for treason : = = “ 

Practically ceased in Belgium, Prussia, Bavaria, 
Denmark, and Sweden, though not abolished. 

In France 126 convictions for murder—4 executed, 
in one year ; similar proportion in Italy. 

Abolished in some of United States. Maine, 1876; 
Rhode Island, Michigan, and Wisconsin, since ; 
in others, virtually ceased. 

See Beheading, Ravaillac, Damiens, Boiling, Burn- 
ing, Hanging, Forgery, and Camupbell’s Acts. 


DEATHS, REGISTERS oF, see Bills of Mor- 
tality, Public Health, and Registers. 


DEBATING SOCIETIES; several formed 
in the last century. The celebrated Oxford Union 
Society was founded in 1823, and many orators 
have been trained by it. 


DEBTORS have been subjected to imprison- 
ment in almost all countries and times. In the 


punishment for mur- 


450 


401 


1241 


1865 


2 


1867 


1882 
1868 


1767 


DEBUSSCOPE. 


240 


DEEP-SEA SOUNDINGS. 


eighteen months subsequent to the panic of Dec. 
1825, as many as 101,000 writs for debt were issued 
in England. In the year ending 5 Jan. 1830, there 
were 7114 persons sent to the several prisons of 
London; and on that day, 1547 of the number 
were yet confined. On the Ist of Jan. 1840, the 
number of prisoners for debt in England and Wales 
was 1732; in Ireland the number was under 1000 ; 
and in Scotland under 100. The operation of 
statutes of relief, and other causes, considerably 
reduced the number of imprisoned debtors. When 
the new Bankruptcy act (abolishing imprisonment 
for debt except when fraudulently’ contracted) 
came into operation in Noy. 1861, a number of 
debtors who had been confined were released. 
Arrest of Absconding Debtors bill, 14 & 15 Vict. 
c. 52,1852. In 1863 nearly 18,000 persons were 
imprisoned by order of the county courts: average 
time, 15 days, amount of debt, 3/. 10s. By an act 
passed 9 Aug. 1869, the imprisonment of fraudulent 
debtors was abolished, with certain exceptions, and 
nearly a hundred debtors were released by a judge’s 
order in Jan. 1870. An act to facilitate the arrest 
of absconding debtors, passed 9 Aug. 1870. In- 
prisonment for debt in Ireland was abolished by an 
act passed 6 Aug. 1872, and in Scotland (after 31 
Dec.) by Dr, Cameron’s Act, passed 7 Sept. 1880. 
See Arrest, King’s Bench, Bankrupts, Insolvents, 
and National Debt. 

7978 persons were committed to gaol by the county 
eourts in 1871; 4438 in 1874. Imprisonment for debt 
was virtually abolished by the Bankruptcy Act of 1883, 
which relieved small debtors. 


DEBUSSCOPE, an instrument of French 
origin, somewhat-similar to the kaleidoscope, said 
to be useful for devising patterns for calico-printers, 
&c., made its appearance in 1860. 


DECAMERONE (io days), see Boccaccio, 
DECAPITATION, see Beheading. 


DECCAN (Dekhan or Dakhan), S. India, was 
invaded by the Mahometans in 1294. The first 
independent sultan was Alaudin. The natives re- 
volted, and the dynasty of Bahmani was founded 
by Hasan Ganga in 1347. About 1686-90, Aurung- 
zebe I. recovered the Deccan, but soon lost great 
part of it to the Mahrattas. The Nizam al Mulk, 
his viceroy, became independent in 1717. A large 
part of the Deccan was ceded to the English in 
1818. 


DECEMBER (from decem, ten), the tenth 
month of the year of Romulus, commencing in 
March. In 713 B.c. Numa introduced January 
and February before March, and thenceforward 
December became the twelfth of the year. In the 
reign of Commodus, A.D. 181I—192, December was 
called, by way of flattery, Amazonius, in honour 
of a courtesan whom that prince had loved, and had 
had painted like an Amazon. The English com- 
menced their year on the 25th December, until the 
reign of William I.; see Year. For 2 Dec. revolu- 
tion see France, 1851. 


DECEMVIRI, or Ten Men, appointed to 
draw up a code of laws, to whom for a time the 
whole government of Rome was committed, 451 B.c. 
The laws they drew up were approved by the 
senate and general assembly of the people, written 
on ten metallic tables, and set up in the place where 
the people met (comitiwm). Two more tables were 
added, 450 B.c. The Decemviri at first ruled well, 
but the conduct of Appius Claudius towards 
Virginia occasioning an insurrection, they were 
forced to resign; and consuls were again ap- 
pointed, 449 B.c. 


DECENNALITIA, festivals instituted by / 
gustus, I7 B.c., celebrated by the Roman emper 
every tenth year of their reign, with sacrific 
games, and largesses. Livy. Celebrated by / 
toninus Pius, A.D. 148. 


DECIMAL SYSTEM or Corns 
WEIGHTS, &c., see Metric System. 3) ee 


DECIPIUM, a new metal found by M. De 
fontaine in the same earth with Philippium (wh 
see); announced Nov., 1878; said to be combi 
with Samarium, a new oxide, 1881, 


DECLARATION oF RIGHTS, see Right 
DECORATED STYLE, see Gothic. 


DECORATIVE ART. Its principles, em 
ciated by A. W. Pugin, in his “‘ Designs,”’ in 18 
have been ‘advanced by Owen Jones, Redgrave, « 
others. Owen Jones’s elaborate ‘* Grammar 
Ornament,’’ was published in 1856. A Decorat 
Art society, founded in 1844, existed for a sh 
time only. ’ 


DE COURCY’S * PRIVILEGE, that 
standing covered before the king, granted by k 
John to John de Courcy, baron of Kingsale, : 
his successors, in 1203. He was the first h 
nobleman created by an English sovereign, 
Hen. II. 1181, and was entrusted with the gove 
ment of Ireland, 1185. The privilege was alloy 
to the baron of Kingsale by Will. III., Geo. I 
and by Geo. IV. at his court held in Dublin, in A 
1821. The present baron is the 3Ist in success! 


DECRETALS. They formed the second 7 
of the canon law, or collection of the pope’s ed 
and decrees and thedecrees of councils. Thet 
acknowledged to be genuine is a letter of Siri 
to Himerus, a bishop of Spain, written in the 1 
year of his pontificate, 38 5: LHowel. Certain fi 
decretals were used by Gregory IV. in 837. The 
cretals of Gratian, a Benedictine (a collection 
canons), were compiled in 1150. Henawlt. I 
books were collected by Gregory IX. 1227; asi 
by Boniface VIII. 1297; the Clementines by 
ment V. in 1313; employed by John XXII. in 13 
the Extravagantes range from 1422 to 1483. 


DEDICATION of the Jewish tabernacle t 
place 1490 B.c.; of the temple, 1004 3B.c.; of 
second temple, 515 B.c. The Christians under C 
stantine built new churches and dedicated th 
with great solemnity, in A.D. 331, e¢ seq. | 
dedication of Booxs (by authors to solicit patron 
or testify respect) existed in the time of Mecer 
17 B.C., the friend and counsellor of Augustus, ; 
a patron of Horace (Ode I. 1). 


{ 


DEED, a written contract or agreement. - 
formula, ‘‘I deliver this as my act and dee 
occurs in a charter of 933. Fosbrooke. Deeds 
England were formerly written in Latin or Fren 
the earliest known instance in English is the 
denture between the abbot of Whitby and Rol 
Bustard, dated at York in 1343; see Lnglish L 
guage. 

DEEP-SEA SOUNDINGS. Much new: 
interesting information respecting the animal 
and temperature of the deep sca has been acqut 
by the dredgings on the coast of Norway by 
Sars, and by those of Dr. W. B. Carpenter : 
prof. (aft. sir) Wyville Thomson on our own coa 
near the Faroe isles, in 1868 and 1869, and in 
Mediterranean by Dr. Carpenter in 1870. Liv 
animals have been found at a depth of three m1 
On 21 Dec. 1872, Dr. Wyville Thomson and a pa 


cn 


DEER. 


241 


DELHI. 


of scientific men sailed in H.M.S. Challenger 
(Capt. G. S. Nares), to examine into the physical 
ud biological condition of the great ocean basins 
ind the direction of their currents. Deepest sound- 
ng then known was taken in the Atlantic, north 
f Bt. Thomas’s, 3875 fathoms (4 miles, 710 yards), 
4 March, 1873. On 10 Dee. 1874, capt. Thompson 
ueceeded capt. Nares, who took the command of 
he new Arctic expedition. The Challenger re- 
urned, with valuable collections, 2 May, 1876, 
fter a voyage of above 80,000 miles. The “ Voyage”’ 
vas published by sir C. Wyville Thomson in Dec. 
877; and twelve volumes of reports had been pub- 
ished, Jan. 1885. A Norwegian expedition explored 
he northern seas 16 July—18 Aug. 1877; an Italian 
oO in the Mediterranean started 2 Aug. 
I. 


DEER are mentioned in a will of one Athel- 
an, dated 1045. Professor Owen thinks that fallow 
er are not native, but were introduced here at an 
wly period. There are now in England 334 deer 
tks, the oldest being probably lord Abergavenny’s 

Eridge, Sussex. See Evelyn Shirley’s ‘* Account 
Deer Parks,” July, 1867. 1658 deer in the 
yal parks, 1873. 


DEERHOUND, an English yacht, while 
nveying arms to the Carlists, scized by the 
vanish government vessel Buenaventura, off Biar- 
i, and captain and crew imprisoned, 13 Aug.; 
‘eased about 18 Sept. 1873. 


DEFAMATION is punishable by fine and 
pHsonment by statute of 1843. The jurisdiction 
_ the ecclesiastical courts on this subject was 
olished by 18 & 19 Vict. ¢. 41 (1855). 


DEFENCE ACT, a complete conscription act, 

thorising a levy en masse, 1503, was unsuccessful; 

W measures were taken in 1807-8. The Defence 
the Realm Act passed 28 Aug. 1860, in conse- 
ence of the unsettled state of Europe, and the 
ibtful policy of the emperor Napoleon; see For- 
cation and Colonies. 


‘DEFENCE GOVERN MENT ” in France, 

med on 4 Sept. 1870, when the emperor was 
ised and a republic proclaimed, gen. Trochu 
‘sident; it included Gambetta, Simon, &. It 
gned, after Paris had capitulated, 5, 6 Feb. 
‘I. See France. 


JEFENDER oF tue Farru (Fidei De- 
Jor), a title of the British sovereign, conferred 
‘Leo, X. on Henry VIII. of England, 11 Oct. 
(, for the tract against Luther on behalf of the 
teh of Rome (then accounted Domiciliwn jider 
olice), 


IHFENDERS, a faction in Ireland, which 
‘@ out of a quarrel between two residents of 
“Ket-hill, 4 July, 1784. Each was soon aided 
large body of friends, and many battles ensued. 
Whit-Monday, 1785, an armed assemblage of 
of the parties (700 men), called the Nappagh 
‘, prepared to encounter the Bawn Fleet, but 
“mgagement was prevented. They subsequently 
,me religious parties, Catholic and Presbyterian, 
‘Ooguished as Defenders and Peep-o' -day-boys : 
| atter were so named because they usually visited 
‘wellings of the Defenders at daybreak in search 
“ms; see Diamond, 


(EGREES. Eratosthenes attempted to deter- 
) the length of a geographical degree about 250 
| See Geodesy, Latitude, and Longitude. Col- 
te degrees are coeval with universities. Masters 
| octors existed, 826. Those in law are traced 


He died at Calcutta . 


up to 1149; in medicine, to 1384; in music, to 
1463. Middle class examinations for degrees were 
instituted at Oxford, 18 J une, 1857; at Cambridge, 
24 Nov. 1857; and girls were allowed to compete 
for degrees, Oct. 1863. Bill to enable Scotch uni- 
versities to grant degrees to women rejected by the 
Commons, 3 March, 1875. See Women. 


DEI GRATIA, see Grace of God. 


DEIRA, a part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of 
Northumbria ; see under Britain. 


DEISM, THEIsm, or Monornetsm (Latin, 
deus ; Greek, theos, God), the belief in one God, in 
opposition to polytheism and to the doctrine of the 
‘Trinity. About the middle of the 16th century 
some gentlemen of France and Italy termed them- 
selves devsts, to disguise their opposition to Chris- 


‘tianity by a more honourable appellation than that 


of Atheism (which see). The most distinguished 
deists were Herbert, baron of Cherbury, in 1624; 
Hobbes, Tindal, Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Gibbon, 
Hume, Holcroft, Paine, and Godwin. 


A high-caste Brahmin, Rémmohun Roy, founded a 
Brahmin monotheistic church in 1830, termed the 
Brahmo Somaj. He died at Bristol 27 Noy. 1833. 
His reforming work was revived in 1842 by 
Debendra Nath Tangore. In 1858 Baboo Keshub 
Chunder Sen joined the society, and became a 
most energetic propagandist, advocating also 
social reform; being much opposed, he formed 
the new Brahmo Somaj of India in. 2 oats 

Keshub Chunder Sen was received at a public 
meeting in London as a reformer, 12 April, and 
subsequently preached in a Unitarian chapel, 
Finsbury, London 5 : ‘ d See 

Schism in his church ; new church formed (Society 
of God) : : : - « 1880 

8 Jan. 1884 


1866 
1870 


See Unitarians and Voysey. 


DELAGOA BAY, S.E. Africa, claimed by 
Great Britain and Portugal. Having been referred 
to arbitration, it was awarded to Portugal by mar- 
shal MacMahon, Aug. 1875. 


DELAWARE, one of the United States of 
North America, named after lord de la Warre, go- 
vernor of Virginia, who entered the bay 1610. It 
was settled by Swedes, sent there by Gustavus in 
1627; acquired by the Dutch, 1655; ceded to the 
English, 1664. 


DELEGATES, Court or. Appeals to the 
pope in ecclesiastical causes having been forbidden 
(see Appeals), such causes were for thefuture to be 
heard in this court, established by Henry VIII. 
1533. Stow. This court was abolished in 1832, 
and appeals now lie to the Judicial Committee of 
the Privy Council, according to 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 
41 (1833); and6 & 7 Vict. c. 38 (1843). See Arches, 


DELFT (S. Holland), a town founded by God- 
frey le Bossu, about 1074; famous for “ Delft 
earthenware ;”’ first manufactured here about 1310. 
The sale of delft greatly declined after the introduc- 
tion of potteries into Germany and England. Gro- 
tius, jurist, was born here, 10 April, 1583; tercen- 
tenary celebrated 10 April, 1883. And here Wil- 
liam, the great prince of Orange, was assassinated 
by Gerard, 10 July, 1584; tercentenary celebrated 
10 July, 1884. 


DELHI, the once great capital of the Mogul 
empire, and chief seat of the Mahometan power in 
India; it was taken by Timour in I 398. It is now 
in decay, but contained a million of inhabitants in 
1700. In 1739, when Nadir Shah invaded Hin- 
dustan, he entered Delhi; 100,000 of the inhabitants 
perished by the sword, and plunder to the amount of 


R 


“DELICATE INVESTIGATION.” 


62,000,000/. sterling is said to have been collected. 
Similar calamities were endured in 1761, on the 
invasion of Abdalla, king of Candahar. In_ 1803, 
the Mahrattas, aided by the French, took Delhi; 
but were defeated by general Lake, 11 Sept., and 
the aged Shah Aulum, emperor of Hindostan, was 
restored to his throne with a pension; see India, 
1803. On 10 May, 1857, a mutiny arose in the 
sepoy regiments at Meerut. It was soon checked ; 
but the fugitives fled to Delhi on 11 May, and, 
combined with other troops here, seized the city ; 
proclaimed a descendant of the Mogul king, and 
committed frightful atrocities. The rebels were 
anxious to possess the chief magazine, but after a 
gallant defence it was exploded by order of lieut. 
Willoughby, who died of his wounds shortly after. 
The other heroes of this exploit were lieutenants 
Forrest and Rayner, and the gunners Buckley and 
Scully. Delhi was shortly after besieged by the 
British, but was not taken till 20 Sept. following. 
The tinal struggle began on the 14th; brigadier 
(since sir) Archdale Wilson being the commander. 
Much heroism was shown; the gallant death of 
Salkeld at the explosion of the Cashmere gate 
created much enthusiasm. The old king and his 
sons were captured soon after: the latter were 
shot, and the former after a trial was sent for life to 
Rangoon, where he died 11 Nov. 1862. See India, 
1857. A camp formed at Delhi by the earlof Mayo, 
the viceroy, Dec. 1871, was visited by the king of 
Siam, Jan. 1872. The prince of Wales visited 
Delhi, 11 Jan. 1876. Queen Victoria was proclaimed 
empress of Indiahere with much magnificence, many 
Indian princes being present, I Jan. 1877. Great 
fire, 2000 houses burnt, 19 April, 1883. 


“DELICATE INVESTIGATION?” into the 
conduct of the princess of Wales (afterwards queen 
of England, as consort of George IV.), was com- 
menced by a committee of the privy council, under 
a warrant of inquiry, dated 29 May, 1806. The 
members were lord Grenville, lord Erskine, earl 
Spencer, and lord Ellenborough. The inquiry, of 
which the countess of Jersey, sir J. and lady Doug- 
las, and other persons of rank, were the prompters, 
led to the publication called “‘The Book ;”’ after- 
wards suppressed. The charges against the princess 
were disproved in 1807 and in 1813; but not being 
permitted to appear at court, she went on the conti- 
nent in 1814; see Queen Caroline. 


DELIUM, Beotia, N. Greece, the site of a 
celebrated temple of Apollo. Here, in a conflict 
between the Athenians and the Beotians, in which 
the former were defeated, Socrates the philosopher 
is said to have saved the life of his pupil Xenophon, 
424 B.C. 

DELLA CRUSCA ACADEMY of Florence 
merged into the Florentine in 1582.—The DELLA 
Crusca ScHOoL, a term applied to some English 
residents at Florence, who printed inferior senti- 
mental poetry and prose in 1785. They came to 
England, where their works, popular for a short 
time, were severely satirised by Gifford in his ‘‘ Ba- 
viad” and ‘‘ Meviad”’ (1792-5). 


DELOS, a Greek isle in the /Egean sea. Here 
the Greeks, during the Persian war, 477 B.C., estab- 
lished their common treasury, which was removed 
to Athens, 461. Excavations, resulting in inter- 
esting discoveries, were made in the island by the 
French in 1883. 


DELPHI (N. Greece), celebrated for its enig- 
matical oracles delivered by the Pythia or priestess 
in the temple of Apollo, which was built, some say, 


242 


DEMOCRATIC FEDERALS. 


by the council of the Amphictyons, 1263 B.c. T 


Pythian games were first celebrated here 586 8B 
The temple was burnt by the Pisistratide, 548 B 
A new temple was raised by the Alemzonide. T 
Persians (480 B.c.) and the Gauls (279 B.C.) we 
deterred from plundering the temple by awful p 
tents. It was, however, robbed and seized by t 
Phocians 357 B.c., which led to the sacred war, a 
Nero carried from it 300 costly statues, A.D. | 
The oracle was consulted by Julian, but silenced 
Theodosius, 


DELPHIN CLASSICS, a collection of thir 
nine Latin authors in sixty volumes, made for 1 
use of the dauphin (in wswm Delphini) son of Lo 
XIV., and published in 1674-91. Ausonius ¥ 
added in 1730. The duc de Montausier, the you 
prince’s governor, proposed the plan to Huet, bis! 
of Avranches, the daupbin’s preceptor ; and he, w 
other learned persons, including Madame Dacie 
edited all the Latin classics except Lucan. EH 
author is illustrated by notes and an index of wo. 
An edition of the Delphin classics, with additio 
notes, &c., was published by Mr. Valpy of Lond 
1818, et seq. 


DELUGE. The deluge was threatened in 
year of the world 1536; and began 7 Dec. 1656, : 
continued 377 days. Genesis vi. vii. and vill. * 
ark rested on Mount Ararat 6 May, 1057 ; and N: 
left the ark 18 December following. The year 
responds with that of 2348 B.c. Blair. The: 
lowing are the epochs of the deluge, according 
Dr. Hales :— 


Septuagint B.C. 3246 | Clinton - BC 
Jackson . 3170 | Playfair . : ae 
Hales . 3155 | Usher and Eng. Bible : 
Josephus . 3146 | Marsham Pe 
Persian . . 3103 | Petavius 

Hindoo . 3102 | Strauchius 

Samaritan . 2998 | Hebrew. : 
Howard . 2698 | Vulgar Jewish 


In the reign of Ogyges, king of Attica, 1764 B.c., a de 
so inundated Attica, that it lay waste for nearly 
years. Blair. Buffon thinks that the Hebrew 
Grecian deluges were the same, and arose from 
Atlantic and Bosphorus bursting into the valley ot 
Mediterranean. 

The deluge of Deucalion, in Thessaly, is placed 1503 
according to Eusebius. It was often confounded 
the ancients with the general flood: but considere 
be merely a local inundation, occasioned by the a 
flowing of the river Peneius, whose course was stor 
by an earthquake between the mounts Olympus 
Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned in Thessaly, 1 
his wife Pyrrha, and some of their subjects, are st 
to have saved themselves by climbing up mount. 
nassus. 

A general deluge was predicted to occur in 1524, and 
were built ; but the season happened to be a fine 
dry one. 


DEMERARA, EssEQuiso, AND BERs: 
colonies in British Guiana, South America, foun 
by the Dutch, 1 ee were taken by the British, ur 
major-general Whyte, 22 April, 1796, but were 
stored at the peace of Amiens, March, 1802. 
again surrendered to the British under gen 
Grinfield and commodore Hood, Sept. 1803, 
became English colonies in 1814. John Scott 
appointed governor, 31 Dec. 1868; James R. Lo 
den, 1874; Cornelius Henderickson Kortright, 1é 
sir Henry Turner Irving, 1882. 


DEMOCRATIC FEDERALS, 2 ie 
party, proposed by Mr. Joseph Cowen, a, 


0 eS eee 
* This beautiful and gifted woman translated 0 

machus at the age of 23; and also Anacreon, Sap 

Plautus, Terence, and Homer. She died in 1720. 


¢ 


oe 


RL Scene 


DEMOCRATS. 


Newcastle, opposed to the policy of the government 


of Mr. Gladstone, 5 April, 1881. 


DEMOCRATS, advocates for government by the 
people themselves (demos, people, and kratein, to 
govern), a term adopted by the French republicans 
in 1790 (who termed their opponents aristocrats, 
from aristos, bravest or best). The name Democrats 
was adopted by the pro-slavery party in N. America 
(the southern states), and the abolitionists were 
Into these two great parties a 


ealled Republicans. 
number of smaller ones were absorbed at the presi- 


dential election in 1856. In 1860, the Republicans 


formed ‘‘ Wide-awake” clubs for electioneering pur- 
poses, and succeeded in getting their candidate, 
Abraham Lincoln, elected president, 4 Nov., which 
led to civil war; see United States, 1860. 

In the autumn of 1874, the democrats, free-traders, 
and opponents of negro-rule, once more obtained the 
majority in the elections for the next congress 3 a re- 
action in their favour against the republicans, protec- 
tionists, then powerful; see United States, 1875-7. Go- 
vernor Cleveland, democrat, elected president, 4 Nov. 
1884. 


DEMONOLOGY, see Devil Worship. 


DENAIN (N. France). Here marshal Villars 
defeated the Imperialists, 24 July, 1712. 


DENARIUS, the chief silver coin among the 

mans, weighing ;the seventh part of a Roman 
yunce, and value 72d. sterling, first coined about 
269 B.C., when it exchanged for ten ases (see As). 
'n 216 B.c. it exchanged for sixteen ases. A pound 
veight of silver was coined into 100 denarii. Digby. 
{ pound weight of gold was coined into twenty 
lenarii aurei in 206 B.c.; and in Nero’s time into 
orty-five denarii aurei. Lempriere. 


-DENHAM MURDERS, see Zrials, 1870. 


DENIS, S8t., an ancient town of France, near 
aris, famous for its abbey and church; the former 
bolished at the revolution, the latter the place of 
epulture of the French kings, from its foundation 
y Dagobert, about 630; the remains of the saint 
‘enis were placed there in 636. On 6, 7, 8 Aug. 
793 the republicans demolished most of the royal 
mibs, and in Oct. following, the bodies were taken 
‘om coffins and cast into a pit ; the lead was melted, 
jad the gold and jewels taken to Paris. By a de- 
ee of Bonaparte, dated 20 Feb. 1806, the church 
which had been turned into a cattle-market) was 
‘dered to be cleansed out and redecorated as “‘the 
‘ture burial-place of the emperors of France.’ On 

.e return of the Bourbons, more restorations were 
fected, and the duc de Berri and Louis XVIII. 
re buried here. The damage sustained in the 
ar of 1870-1 has been well repaired. Near St. 
mis the Catholics defeated the Huguenots, but 
st their leader, the constable Montmorency, 10 
Fv. 1567. 


DENISON’S Acr (18 & 19 Vict. c. 34), pro- 
les ‘* for the education of the children of persons 
receipt of out-door relief: ’’ passed 26 June, 18 ee 


|DENMAN’S Act, Lorn, 6 & 7 Vict. c. 85 


| 343), relates to juries and witnesses. 


|DENMARK (N. Europe). The most ancient 
jiabitants were Cimbri and Teutones, who were 
ven out by the Jutes or Goths. The Teutones 
tled in Germany and Gaul; the Cimbrians in- 
led Italy, where they were defeated by Marius. 
e peninsula of Jutland obtained its name from 
 Jutes; and the name of Denmark is supposed to 
derived from Dan, the founder of the Danish 
narchy, and mark, a German word signifying 


243 


DENMARK. 


country. For their numerous invasions of Britain, 
&c., see Danes. Population of the kingdom of Den- 
mark in 1860, 1,600,551; of the duchies of Schles- 
wig, Holstein, and Lauenburg, 1,004,473; of the colo- 
nies, 120,283. By the treaty of peace, signed 30 
Oct. 1864, the duchies were taken from Denmark ; 
Schleswig and Holstein were to be made indepen- 
dent, and Lauenburg was to be incorporated, by 
its desire, with Prussia. For the result, see Gastein 
and Prussia, 1866. Population of the monarchy, 
1870, 1,784,741; 1876, 1,903,000 ; 1880, 1,969,039; 
of the colonies, 1860, 127,401 ; 1876, 129,000; 1880, 
127,200. 


Reign of Skiold, alleged first KID ee «8 Oued 
The Danish chronicles mention 18 kings to the time 
of Ragnor Lodbrog, killed in an attempt to invade 


England ., X 5 : . : A.D. 704 
Canute the Great conquers Norway . : - 1016-28 
By the union of Calmar, Denmark, Norway, and 

Sweden made one kingdom under Margaret, 

12 July, 1397 
Copenhagen made the capital 3 : ‘ - 1440 
Accession of Christian I. (of Oldenburg), from whom 

the late royal family sprang : 4 ew lAdd 
Christian IT. deposed ; independence of Sweden 

under Gustavus Vasa acknowledged : #1529 
Lutheranism introduced in x 527; established by 

Christian ITT. ‘ : : : E Ela oe 
Danish East India Company established . : - 1612 
Christian IV. chosen head of the Protestant league 

against the emperor . : : ; d oh 2) 1020 
Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades Denmark, be- 

sieges Copenhagen, and makes conquests . 1658 
The crown made hereditary and absolute - 1665 
Frederick IV. takes Holstein, Schleswig, Tonningen, 

and Stralsund ; reduces Weismar, and drives the 

Swedes from Norway : Z 1716 et seq. 
Copenhagen nearly destroyed by fire Pepa 
The peaceful reign of Christian VI. 1730-46 
Plot of the queen dowager against the ministers and 

Matilda (sister of our George III. and queen of 

Christian VII., a weak monarch). Matilda, en- 

trapped into a confession of criminality to save the 

life of her supposed lover, Struenzee, condemned 

to imprisonment for life in the castle of Zell, 

18 Jan. 1772 
Count Struenzee and Brandt beheaded 25 AVE seer. 
Queen Matilda dies, aged 24. 5 . 2 Seem l 77S 
Christian VII. becomes deranged, and prince Frede- 

rick is appointed regent. : : 5 ; - 1784 
One-fourth of Copenhagen burnt . g June, 1795 
Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard Copenhagen 

(which see). (Confederacy of the North, see Armed 

Neutrality, dissolved.) y : : 2 April, 1801 
Admiral Gambier and lord Cathcart bombard Copen- 

hagen ; the Danish fleet surrenders . 7 Sept. 1807 
Peace of Kiel: Pomerania and Riigen annexed tu 

Denmark for Norway . ‘ : - «4dan. 1814 
Pomerania and Riigen ceded to Prussia for Lauen- 

burg . ‘ : ; ‘ ? : F LOLs 
Commercial treaty with England ; 1824 
Frederick VI. grants a new constitution . So Sete: 
Christian VIII. declares the right of the crown to 

Schleswig, Holstein, &e. % 3 11 July, 1846 
Accession of Frederick VII. 20 Jan. ; he proclaims 

a new constitution, uniting the duchies more 

closely with Denmark : 28 Jan. 1848 


Insurrection in the duchies : a provisional govern- 
ment founded 5 3 : ees Marcha 
The rebels seize fortress of Rendsburg 24 March, ,, 
They are defeated near Flensburg 9. Aprils erg 
The Danes defeated by the Prussians (helping the 
duchies) near Dannawerke, Schleswig . 23° April aie 
The North sea blockaded by Denmark r Augie 
Hostilities suspended : the European powers recom- 
mend peace ; E P 26 Aug. 
Hostilities reeommence : f - 25 March, 
Victory of the Danes over the Holsteiners and Ger- 
mans 3 ‘ E 3 : “1 TOVAPYiL aes 
Several conflicts with varying success June, ,, 
The king sanctions a new liberal constitution, 


5June, ,, 
Armistice renewed at Malmo ZO Uys 
Separate peace with Prussia . 2 July, 1850 


Hee 


DENMARK. 


tere 


Integrity of Denmark guaranteed by England, France, 
Prussia, and Sweden . . : ! July, 
Battle of Idstedt, and defeat of the Schleswig-Hol- 
steiners by the Danes. ; : 25 July, 
Protocol signed in London by the ministers of all 
the great powers. : 2 . . 23 Aug. 
Bombardment of Friedrichstadt by the Holsteiners, 
and the town almost destroyed, but not taken, 
29 Sept. to 6 Oct. 

Proclamation of the stadtholders of Schleswig-Hol- 
stein, placing the rights of the country under the 
protection of the Germanic confederation 10 Jan. 
The integrity of the Danish monarchy and the inde- 
pendence of Schleswig and its old union with Hol- 
stein guaranteed by treaty ; ‘ 18 Feb. 
Austrians evacuate Holstein, &c. . 2 March, 
Treaty of European powers. [The succession in 
the line of Sonderburg-Gliicksburg settled, and 
the integrity of the Danish kingdom guaranteed. 
Christian, duke of Augustenburg-Holstein, re- 
nounced his rights for a compensation in money. ] 

8 May, 

The king promulgates a new constitution, 29 J uly, 
1854; adopted : ; - 5 3 r Oct. 
The sound dues abolished for a compensation (see 
Sound) : ; - : rk . 14 March, 
Dissension between the governmentand the duchies, 


244 


39> 
1855 
1857 


Oct. 1857-62 


Fortification of Copenhagen decreed 27 March, 
New ministry appointed 3 Dec. 1859 ; resigns 9 Feb. ; 
bishop Monrad forms a ministry . 24 Feb. 
The assembly of Schleswig complain that the pro- 
mise of equality of national rights in 1852 has not 
been kept, 11 Feb. ; protest against the annexa- 
tion to Denmark . : : - 
The Prussian chamber of deputies receive 
from Schleswig, and declare that they will aid the 
duchies, 4 May ; at which the Danish government 
protests ‘ : 4 ; ; 16 May, 
Correspondence ensues between the Prussian, 
Danish, and British governments ; the Danish 
government declare for war, if German forces 
enter the duchies : Jan. 


Warlike preparations in Denmark . Feb. 
Decimal coinage adopted : : June, 
Agitation in favour of union of Denmark with 


Sweden, June; the king of Sweden visits Den- 
mark, and is warmly received . 17 July, 
Earl Russell recommends the government to give 
to Holstein and Lauenburg all that the Germanic 
confederation desire for them, and to give self- 
government to Schleswig : . 24 Sept. 
M. Hall, the Danish minister, declines to accede ; 
stating that to do so would imperil the existence 
of the monarchy itself ; : A 20 Nov. 
Princess Alexandra of Denmark married to the 
Prince of Wales at Windsor . : ro March, 
The king grants, by patent, independent rights to 
Holstein, but annexes Schleswig 30 March, 
Austria and Prussia protest against it . 17 April, 
Further diplomatic correspondence . May, 
The king accepts the crown of Greece for his rela- 
tive, prince William-George, and gives him sound 
political advice . 4 c : : 6 June, 
Death of the crown prince Frederick-Ferdinand, 
the king’s uncle a : ‘ 29 June, 
The German diet demands annulment of the patent 
of 30 March ; (Holstein and Schleswig to be united 
with the same right;) and threatens an army of 
occupation 4 é ri i 4 9 July, 
The king replies that he will consider occupation to 
be anactofwar . : : : 27 Aug. 
Vain efforts for alliance with Sweden . Aug. 
Extra levy for the army decreed sp eer wane: 
New constitution (uniting Schleswig with Denmark) 
proposed in the rigsraad . 29 Sept. 
Death of Frederick VII. and Christian 
Oe ; : ‘ eee . 15 Nov. 
Prinee Frederick of Augustenburg claims the 
duchies of Schleswig and Holstein . 16 Nov. 
Great excitement in Holstein ; many officials refuse 
to take oath to Christian 21 Nov. et seq. 
Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse, and other German powers 
resolve to support the prince of Augustenburg, 
26 Nov. et seg. 

New constitution affirmed by the rigsraad, 13 Nov. ; 
signed by king, 18 Nov. ; published, . 1, 2 Dec. 


accession of 


. r March, © 
a petition 


1858 
1860 


39 


>? 


DENMARK. 


| The Austrian and Prussian ministers say that they 
1850 | 


will quit Copenhagen if the constitution of 18 
Nov. isnotannulled . : Dec. 


| Great excitement in Norway : proposals to support 


Denmark . ; 2 5 ; sae Dec. 
Prince Frederick’s letter to the emperor Napoleon, 
2 Dec. ; an ambiguous reply . 3 
Denmark protests against federal occupation 
19 Dec. 
goo representatives of different German states meet 
at Frankfort, and resolve to support prince Frede- 
rick as duke of Schleswig and Holstein, and the 
inseparable union of those duchies . ar. Dec,” 
The federal execution takes place ; a Saxon regiment 
enters Altona, 24 Dec. ; and the federal commis- 
sioners assume administrative powers . 25 Dec. 
The Danes retire from Holstein, to avoid collision 
with federal troops é A . 24 Dee. et seq. 
Prince Frederick enters Kiel, as duke of Schleswig 


and Holstein . : F F pe een FORWeCs 
The Danes evacuate Rendsburg ‘ =gegr Dec. 
Ministerial crisis; Hall retires, and bishop Monrad 


forms a cabinet . : : : lee hCG 
Dissension among Germans: the Austro-Prussian 
proposition rejected by the diet 14 Jan. 
Austria and Prussia demand abrogation of the con- 
stitution (of 18 Nov.) in two days, 16 Jan. ; the 
Danes require six weeks’ time ‘ - 10 Jan. 
The German troops under marshal Wrangel enter 
Holstein az Jan. 


The Prussians enter Schleswig, and take Eckenforde, _ 


1 Feb. 
They bombard Missunde, 2 Feb. ; which is burnt, 
3 Feb. 


ro Dec. , 


The Danes abandon the Dannewerke to save their 


army, 5 Feb. ; great discontent in Copenhagen, 
6 Feb. 


The Danes defeated by Wrangel at Oecever-see ; 
Schleswig taken ; pr. Frederick proclaimed, 6 Feb. 
The allies occupy Flensburg, 7 Feb. ; commence 
their attack on Diippel . J F 13 Feb. 
The federal commissioners protest against the Prus- 
sian occupation of Altona , : Ae 2 yep: 
The Prussians enter Jutland ; take Kolding, 18 Feb. ; 
Danes fortify Alsen ‘ . 18 Feb. et seq. 
A conference on Danish affairs proposed by Eng- 
land ; agreed to by allies . $ 2 23 Hew 
A subscription for the wounded Danes begun in 


London . é ‘ ; : . - 24 Vebs 
De Gertach, general of the Danes ~ sora 
Defeated at Sonderbygaard and Veill ~ 8 Mar. 


The rigsraad vote a firm address to the king, 26 
Feb. ; adjourned : d . . 22 Mar. 
The Prussians bombard and take the village of Diip- 
pel, or Dybbél, 16, 17 March, and bombard Fred- 
ericia, 20 March; repulsed in an attack on the 
fortress : : ; b A 28 Mar. 
The opening of the conference adjourned from 12 
to 20 April, 

The Prussians take the fortress of Diippel, by assault, 
with much slaughter . E : . . 18 April, 
Meetings of the conference at London: result un- 
favourable to Denmark . 25 April, et seq. 
The Danes retreat to Alsen; evacuate Fredericia 
and fortresses of Jutland . ; . » 29 Apri 
Agreement for an armistice for one month from 12 


May . : d Fs : : - 9g May, 
Jutland subjected to pillage for not paying a war 
contribution to Prussians . : 6 May, et seq. 
The Danes defeat the allies in a naval battle off 
Heligoland : ‘ z " - - » go Alay 
The armistice prolonged a fortnight 9 June, 
The conference ends . : . 22June, 


Hostilities resumed, 26 June; the Prussians bom- 
bard Alsen ; take the batteries and 2400 prisoners, 


29 June, 
The Monrad ministry resigns; count Méltke 
charged to form an administration 8-10 July, 


Alsen taken ;—Jutland placed under Prussian ad- 
ministration :—Prince John of Denmark sent to 


negotiate at Berlin : ‘ ; 9 July, 
Formation of the Bluhme ministry . . 11 July, 
Armistice agreed to : ‘ . «July, 


Conference for peace at Vienna . A . 26 July, 
Treaty of peace signed at Vienna ;—the king of Den- 
mark resigns the duchies to the disposal of the 
allies, and agrees to a rectification of his frontier, 


at 


DENMARK, 


and to pay a large sum of money to defray the 
expenses of the war. ; : - 30 Oct. 1864 
Proclamation of the king to the inhabitants of the 
duchies, releasing them from their allegiance, 
TOANOY, 1/55 
Project of a new constitution presented to the 
chambers, 21 Dec. ; rejected 25 Feb. 1865 
New ministry formed under count Frijsenborg, 
6 Nov. ; a new constitution proposed, 7 Nov. 186s; 
approved by the two chambers, 19 and 27 July; 
sanctioned by the king : u : 28 July, 1866 
Princess Dagmar married to prince Alexander of 
Russia a - : wkONOVeTD 5 
New rigsraad opened ., F . g 
The king visited England . , ‘ . March, 
The Danish West Indies, St. Thomas and St. John, 
proposed to be sold to the United States for 
1,500,000l. — proclamation in the islands pee 
PA OY eh SAS 
Proposed sale of St. Thomas’s to the United States 
approved by the assembly (not carried out), 
30 Jan. 
Marriage of the crown prince Frederic to the prin- 
cess Louisa of Sweden 3 : ; 28 July, 
New ministry formed by M. Holsteinborg, 20 May, 
Denmark remains neutral in the Franco-Prussian 
war; fruitless visit of the duc de Cadore to 
Copenhagen A 4 ‘ E 4-11 Aug. ,, 
Birth of a son to the crown prince . 27 Sept. ,, 
Destructive hurricane over the kingdom ; loss of life 


and property . ‘ 7 12, 03 NOVie.5; 
Parliament opened . - < t Oct. 1871 
War budget reduced ‘ . : sitodes B Tere we 
Meeting of the International at Copenhagen forbid- 

den; chiefs arrested ; 5 May, 1872 


(ndustrial exhibition opened : ‘ 13June, ,, 
Statue of Frederick VII., at Copenhagen, solemnly 
inaugurated 5 : : é ‘ yO, OGG .18 
{ communistic party in the assembly (folkething) 
defeat the ministry, 4 Dec. ; the king refuses to 
dismiss it . : A 3 3 3 exo: Deciir., 
Yew ministry under Fonnesbeck . - «x4duly, 1874 
the king visits Iceland (which see), J uly-Aug. ; 
Edinburgh : : Z 4 2TeP TOPATIO S 
everal ministerial changes . 4 f , ee 75 
. B.S. Estrup, president of the ministry, 11 J uzie, .;, 
‘he folkething, defeating the government on the 
question of fortifications, is dissolved 29 March, pA 
lew assembly meets, 15 May ; votes no confidence 
in the ministry, r2 June ; is adjourned, 24 June, 1876 
ontinued contest between the king and senate and 
the lower house : : : Octien., 
risis respecting the supplies . : , . Dec. 
he session closed without settling the budget, 
‘ 4 April, 1877 
rovision made by the king for it in accordance 
with the constitution . : ‘ era ATi nays 
olitical crisis ; an armistice agreed to . 8 Nov. yA 
arriage of princess Thyra with the duke of Cum- 
berland . - : 4 3 A - «1 Dec. 1878 
1 lower house dismissed by the king as incapable 
and idle . 4 : a : . about ro May, 1881 
ma Kristiane Ludvigsen, author of patriotic 
songs, dies, aged 90 . 5 : : 27 July, 1884 
‘position of the lower house continues ; legisla- 
tion greatly stopped . ; - é 3 1881-4 
ections : lower house, 82 liberals (opposition) ; 
20 conservatives - F ‘ - June, 1884 
king recommends unity in providing national 
lefence : ‘ : = - about 30 Oct. ,, 
e king refuses to dismiss his ministry, 2x March; 
sloses parliament ; decrees financial arraugement, 
rt April, 1885 


> 


iy 
i4. Sigurd Snogoje. 
3. Hardicanute. 


SOVEREIGNS. 


jo. Eric I. 
1,4. Eric IT. 
| 3. Gormo, the Old ; reigned 53 years, 
| 1. Harold, surnamed Blue Tooth. 

t. Suenon, or Sweyn, the Forked-beard. 

_4- Canute II. the Great, king of Denmark and 

England. 
‘5. Canute III., son (Hardicanute of England). 
2, Magnus, surnamed the Good, of Norway. 
7. Suenon, or Sweyn II. (Denmark only). 
3. [Interregnum. ] 


245 


1076. Harold, called the Simple. 


DENNEWITZ. 


Canute IV, 

Olaus IV. the Hungry. 

Eric I., styled the Good. 

({Interregnum. } 

Nicholas I. killed at Sleswick,. 

Eric II., surnamed Harefoot. 

Eric III. the Lamb. 

{ Suenon, or Sweyn III. : beheaded. 

Canute V. until 1157 (civil war). 

Waldemar, styled the Great. 

Canute VI., surnamed the Pious. 

Waldemar II. the Victorious. 

Eric IV. 

Abel: assassinated his elder brother Eric ; killed 
in an expedition against the Frisons, 

Christopher I. : poisoned. 

Eric V. 

Eric VI. 

Christopher IT. 

[Interregnum of seven years. ] 

Waldemar III. 

[Interregnum. ] 

Olaus V. 

Margaret, styled the “Semiramis of the North,” 
queen of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. 

Margaret and Eric VII, (Erie XIII. of Sweden.) 

Eric VII. reigns alone; obliged to resign both 
crowns. 

[Interregnum. ] 

Christopher III. king of Sweden. 

Christian I. count of Oldenburg; elected king of 
Denmark, 1448 ; of Sweden, 1457 ; succeeded by 
his son, 

John ; succeeded by his son, 

Christian II. called the Cruel, and the “Nero of 
the North ;” he caused all the Swedish nobility 
to be massacred : dethroned for his tyranny in 
1523 ; died in a dungeon in 1559. 

[Sweden separated from Denmark. ] 


1080. 
1086. 
1095. 
I103. 
II05. 
TESS: 
DL37. 


1147. 


1157. 
1182. 
1202. 
I24t. 
1250. 


1252. 
1259. 
1286. 
1320. 
1334. 
1340. 
1375- 
1376. 
1387. 


1397- 
I412. 


1438. 
1440. 
1448. 


r48r. 
1513. 


DENMARK AND NORWAY. 

Frederick I. duke of Holstein, son of Christian I. ; 
a liberal ruler. 

Christian III. son of Frederiek ; established the 
Lutheran religion ; esteemed the ‘‘ Father of his 
People.” 

Frederick II. son of Christian III. 

Christian IV. son. 

Frederick III. ; changed the constitution from an 
elective to an HEREDITARY MONARCHY, vested in 
his own family, 166s. 

Christian V., son of Frederick III. ; succeeded by 
his son. 

Frederick IV. ; leagued with the czar Peter and the 
king of Poland against Charles XII. of Sweden. 

Christian VI. his son. 

Frederick V. his son : married the princess Louisa 
of England, daughter of George II. 


1523. 
1533- 


1559. 
1588. 
1648. 


1670. 


1699. 


1730. 
1746. 


1766. Christian VII. his son. See p. 243. 
1784. Prince Frederick declared regent, in consequence 


of the mental derangement of his father. 
Frederick VI. previously regent, now king. 
Norway annexed to Sweden, 14 Jan. 


1808. 
1814. 


DENMARK. 

Christian VIII. (son of Frederick, brother of 
Christian VII.) 

Frederick VII. son of Christian VIII. ; 20 Jan. ; 
born 6 Oct. 1808 ; separated from his first wife, 
Sept. 1837; from his second wife, Sept. 1846; 
married morganatically Louisa, countess of 
Danner, 7 Aug. 1850; died 15 Nov. 1863. 

Christian IX. son of William, duke of Schleswig- 
Holstein-Sonderburg-Gliicksburg ; 15 Nov. (suc- 
ceeded by virtue of the protocol of London, 8 
May, 1852, and of the law of the Danish succes- 
sion, 31 July, 1853.) He was born § April, 1818 ; 
married princess Louisa of Hesse-Cassel, 26 
May, 1842. [He is descended from Christian III. 
and she from Frederick V. ; both from George II. 
of England. ] F 

Heir: Frederick (his son), born 3 June, 1843; married 

princess Louisa of Sweden, 28 July, 1869. Son: 
Christian, born 26 Sept., 1870. 


DENNEWITZ (Prussia), here a victory was 
obtained by marshal Bernadotte (afterwards 


18309. 
1848. 


1863. 


DENOMINATIONS. 


246 


DERBY ADMINISTRATIONS. 


Charles XIV., king of Sweden), over marshal Ney, 
6 Sept. 1813. The loss of the French exceeded 
13,000 men, several eagles, and cannon; of the 
allies, 6000. The defeat of Napoleon at Leipsic, on 
the 18th of October following, closed this disastrous 
campaign. 


DENOMINATIONS, THE THREE (pres- 
byterians, congregationalists or independents, and 
baptists), were organised in 1727 as an association, 
with the privilege of direct appeal to the reigning 
sovereign of Great Britain. 


DENTISTS, an act for regulating their educa- 
tion and registration, passed, 22 July, 1878. 
The Odontological Society (of Dentists), established 1856. 
The Dental Hospital of London, Leicester-square, was 
established 1858. See Odontology. 


DEODAND (Latin, “‘ to be given to God’’): 
formerly anything which had caused the death of 
a human being became forfeit to the sovereign or 
lord of the manor, and was to be sold for the benefit 
of the poor. The forfeiture was abolished by 9 & 
To Vict. c. 62 (1846). 


D’EON, CHEVALIER, who had acted in a 
diplomatic capacity in several countries, and been 
minister plenipotentiary from France in London, 
was affirmed to be a female, at a trial at the King’s 
Bench in 1771, in an action to recover wagers as to 
his sex. He subsequently wore female attire ; but 
at his death he was proved to be a male. 


DEONTOLOGY, the knowledge of what is 
right, or the science of duty (from the Greek to deon, 
that which is proper), an element of the Utilitarian 
philosophy propounded by Jeremy Bentham in his 
*¢ Deontology,”’ published by Dr. Bowring in 1834. 


DEPARTMENTS, see France. 
DEPTFORD (near London). The hospital 


here was incorporated by Henry VIII. about 1512, 
and called the Trinity-house of Deptford Strond; 
the brethren of Trinity-house hold their corporate 
rights by this hospital. The dockyard, founded 
about 1513, was closed 31 March, 1869, having been 
purchased by Mr. T. P. Austin for 70,000/. Hesold 
part of it to the corporation of Iondon for 94,640/., 
for a market for foreign cattle, which was opened 
for use, 28 Dec. 1871. On4 April, 1581, Queen 
Elizabeth dined at Deptford on board the Golden 
Hind, the ship in which Drake had made his 
voyage round the globe. The Deptford victualling- 
office was burnt 16 Jan. 1748-9; the store-house, 2 
Sept. 1758; the red-house, 26 Feb. 1761; and the 
king’s-mill, 1 Dec. 1755. Peter the Great of Russia 
lived at Evelyn’s house, Say’s-court, while learning 
ship-building, &c., in 1698. 

DEPUTIES, CHAMBER OF, the title borne 
by the French legislative assembly, from the resto- 
ration of the Bourbons in 1814 till Jan. 1852, when 
it was named ‘‘ Corps Législatif.”’ 

DERBY was made a royal burgh by Egbert 
(about 828). Alfred expelled the Danes from it and 


Say a colony in 880. His heroic daughter, 


thelfleda, again expelled the Danes in 918. 
William I. gave Derby to his illegitimate son 
William Peveril. Lombe’s silk-throwing machine 
was set up in 1718; and in 1756, Jedediah Strutt 
invented the Derby ribbed stocking-frame. The 
young Pretender reached Derby, 3 Dec. 1745, and 
retreated thence soon after. The new town-hall was 
opened 29 May, 1866. The midland counties fine 
art exhibition was held here, and was opened by the 
duke of Devonshire, 5 May, 1870. Mr. M. T. Bass 


gives 25,000/. for a museum and library,and an en 
dowment of 3000/. for an art gallery announced, Jar 
1882. Art gallery, the giftof Mr. M. Bass and other: 
opened 4 Noy. 1882. 


DerBy Trias. Brandreth, Turner, Ludlam_senio 
Ludlam junior, Weightman, and others, Luddites, co 
victed at a commission of high treason, 15 Oct. 1817 
and Brandreth, Turner; and the elder Ludlam ex: 
cuted, 7 Nov. following. 23 were tried, and 12 nx 
tried. 3 \ 

21 prisoners indicted at Derby for the murder of sever: 
miners in the Red-soil mine ; but were acquitted on th 
ground that the mischief was not wilful, 23 Marel 


1834. 
DERBY ADMINISTRATIONS: the fir 


formed after the resignation of lord John Russel 

21 Feb. 1852 (facetiously termed the ‘‘ who wi 

administration,’ from the duke of Wellington 

inquiry). 

FIRST ADMINISTRATION, 27 Feb. 1852. 

First lord of the treasury, Edward, earl of Derby.* 

Lord chancellor, lord St. Leonards (previously sir Edwai 
Sugden). 

President of the council, earl of Lonsdale. 

Lord privy seal, marquis of Salisbury. 

Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries, Spencer Horat 
Walpole, earl of Malmesbury, and sir John Pakingto1 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. 

Board of control, John Charles Herries. 

Board of trade, Joseph Warner Henley. 

Postmaster-general, earl of Hardwicke. 

Secretary-at-war, William Beresford. 

First commissioner of works and public buildings, 1o1 
John Manners. j 

Robert Adam Christopher, lord Colchester, &c. 

[Defeated on the budget, 16 Dec. ; resigned 17 Dec. 185: 
succeeded by the Aberdeen adininistration. ] 


SECOND ADMINISTRATION, 25 Feb. 1858. 

First lord of the treasury, earl of Derby. 

Lord chancellor, lord Chelmsford (previously sir | 
Thesiger). 

Chancellor of the exchequer, B. Disraeli. 

Secretaries—foreign, earl of Malmesbury ; home, Spenc 
H. Walpole (resigned March, 1859), T. Sotheron Es 
court ; colonies, lord Stanley; in June, 1858, sir | 
Bulwer Lytton ; war, col. Jonathan Peel. 

Presidents—of the council, marquis of Salisbury ; of boo? 
of control (India), 1, earl of Ellenborough (who resigneé 
in May, 1858 ; he had sent a letter, on his own auth 
tity, censuring the proclamation of lord Canning to tl 
Oude insurgents ; the government hardly escaped 
vote of censure); 2, in June, 1858, lord Stanley ;- 
board of trade, Mr. Joseph W. Henley (resigned i 
March, 1859); earl of Donoughmore ;—board of work 
lord John Manners. 

Lord privy seal, earl of Hardwicke. 

First lord of the admiralty, sir John 8. Pakington. 

Postmaster, lord Colchester. 

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, duke of Montrose. 

[This ministry resigned in consequence of a vote of wal 
of confidence, 11 June, 1859; it was succeeded by tl 
Palmerston-Russell cabinet (which see). ] 


THIRD ADMINISTRATION, CONSTITUTED 6 July, 1866. 

First lord of the treasury, Edward, earl of Derby. 

Lord chancellor, Frederick, lord Chelmsford. 

President of council, Richard, duke of Buckingham 
succeeded by John, duke of Marlborough, 8 Marel 
1867. 

Lord aon seal, James, earl of Malmesbury. 

Secretaries—home, Spencer Horatio Walpole, resigned 
Gathorne Hardy, 17 May, 1867 ;—foreign, Edward, lot 
Stanley ;—colonies, Henry, earl of Carnarvon, resigned 
Richard, duke of Buckingham and Chandos, 8 Marel 
1867 ;—war, lieut.-gen. sir Jonathan Peel, resigned 
sir John Somerset Pakington, 8 March, 1867 ;—Indiu 
Robert, lord Cranborne, resigned ; sir Stafford Hent 
Northcote, 8 March, 1867. 

a ee Eee 

* Born 1799; M.P. for Stockbridge (as hon. E. G. 

Stanley) in 1820; chief secretary for Ireland, 1830-34 

secretary for the colonies, 1833-4, and 1841-5 ; termed 

‘“‘ Rupert of debate” by lord Lytton in ‘‘the New Timon, 

1845 ; succeeded his father as earl of Derby, 30 Jum 

1851 ; resigned 25 Feb. 1868; died 23 Oct. 1869. 


DERBY DAY. 


247 


DEVIL WORSHIP. 


Chancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. 

First lord of admiralty, sir John 8. Pakington; suc- 
ceeded by Henry Thomas Corry, 8 March, 1867. 

Chief commissioner of works, &c., lord John Manners, 

President of board of trade, sir Stafford Northcote ; sue- 

_ eeeded by Charles Henry, duke of Richmond, March, 

* 1867. 

‘Chief Berccry for Ireland, Richard, lord Naas (afterwards 
earl of Mayo) 

President of poor-law bowrd, Gathorne Hardy ; succeeded 

' by Wm. Reginald, earl of Devon (not in cabinet), 17 

May, 1867. 

Horatio Spencer Walpole, without office. 

| The above formed the cabinet, Feb. 1868. 

Postmaster-general, James, duke of Montrose. 

Lord chamberlain, Orlando, earl of Bradford. 

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, William, earl of 

Devon; succeeded by colonel John Wilson Patten, 

June, 1867. 

Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, James, earl (afterwards mar- 

quis) of Abercorn. 

(‘The earl of Derby resigned through ill-health, 25 Feb. 

_ 1868; and Mr. Disraeli reconstituted the ministry, 
see Disraeli. ] 


DERBY DAY (see Races), generally (not 
always) the Wednesday in the week preceding 
Whitsunday, the second day of the grand spring 
meeting at Epsom. Mr. Henry Hall, who painted 
43 consecutive winners of the Derby, died 22 April, 
[002. 


RECENT WINNERS OF ‘‘ THE DERBY” AT EPSOM, 


846. Pyrrhus. 1869. Pretender (26 May). 
847. Cossack, 1870. Kingcraft (1 June). 
848. Surplice. 1871. Favonius (24 May). 
‘849. Flying Dutchman, 1872. Cremorne (29 May). 
850. Voltigeur, 1873. Doncaster (28 May). 
- 85x. Teddington. 1874. George Frederick 
852, Daniel O’Rourke. (3 June). 

853. West Australian. 1875. Galopin (26 May). 
854. Andover. 1876. Kisber, or Mineral 
855. Wild Dayrell. Colt (Hungarian, owner, 


. Ellington. 
. Blink Bonny. 
. Beadsman. 


Alex. Baltazzi), 31 May. 
1877. Silvio (30 May). 
1878. Sefton (5 June). 


. Musjid. 

860, Thormanby. 

86r, Kettledrum. 

862. Caractacus. 

863. Macaroni. 

364. Blair Athol. 

365. Gladiateur, 31 May 
(a horse reared in France, 
- the property of the comte 
de la Grange. He also 
won the St. Leger at Don- 
caster, 13 Sept.). 

366. Lord Lyon (16 May). 

167. Hermit (22 May). 

}68. Blue Gown (27 May). 


'. D. Bishop, in 1857. 


1879. Sir Bevys (Baron 
Rothschild’s) 28 May 

1880. Bend Or (duke 
Westminster’s) May 26. 

1881. Iroquois (Mr. Loril- 
lard’s, an American), 1 
June. 
1882. Shotover (Duke of 
Westminster’s), 24 May. 
1883. St. Blaise (sir Fredk, 
Johnstone’s) 23 May. 

1884. St. Gatien (J. Ham- 
mond’s), and Harvester 
(sir J. Willoughby’s), 28 
May. 


of 


-DERRICKS are lofty, portable crane-like 
.Tuctures, used on land and water for lifting enor- 
| ous loads, and in some cases depositing them at an 
evation. They are extensively used in the United 
“ates, and were introduced into England as floating 
rricks for raising sunken vessels, by their inventor, 


DERRY (N. Ireland), a bishopric first at Ard- 
ath ; thence translated to Maghera; and in II 58 
Derry. The cathedral, built in 1164, becoming 
) mous, wasrebuilt by Londoners, who settled here 
_ the reign of James I. The see is valued in the 
ng’s books at 250/. sterling ; but ithas been oneof 
| © richest sees in Ireland. Beatson. The see was 
ited to Derry, 1834 ; see Bishops ; Londonderry. 


| DESCENT OF MAN, see Development. 


“DESERTED VILLAGE,” a poem, by Dr. 
lver Goldsmith, first published, May, 1770. 


| DESIGN, Scroots or, established by go- 


vernment, began at Somerset-house, London, 1 Jan. 
1837. In 1852 the head school was removed to 
Marlborough-honse, and became eventually ‘the 
department of science and art,’’ transferred to South 
Kensington in 1857. Itis under the direction of the 
committee of council on education. See Copyright. 


DESPARD’S CONSPIRACY. Colonel Ed- 
ward Marcus Despard, a native of Ireland, Brough- 
ton, Francis, Graham, Macnamara, Wood, and 
Wratten, conspired to kill the king, and establish a 
republic, on the day of opening parliament, 16 Nov. 
1802. Above 30 persons including soldiers were 
taken in custody; of those tried, 20 Jan. 1803, 
Despard and six others were executed, 21 Feb. He 
had been a distinguished officer under Nelson. 


DESTITUTE CHILDREN’S DINNER 
SOCIETY, established in 1867, to give weekly 
meat dinners. 16,822 dinners given in 1869; 
147,858 dinners in 58 dining rooms in 1870; 114,000 
dinners in 42 dining rooms, year 1876-7; 170,000 
dinners in 49 rooms, 1878-9; since about 200,000 
annually. 


DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS (to crops), an 
act passed to prevent their introduction and spread- 
ing in Great Britain, 14 Aug. 1877. See Colorado. 


DETECTIVE POLICH, see Police, and 
Trials, 1877. 


DETROIT (N. America), the oldest city in the 
west, was built by the French about 1670, 


DETTINGEN (Bavaria), BATTLE oF, 16 (or 
27 O.8.) June, 1743, between the British, Hano- 
verian, and Hessian army (52,000), commanded by 
king George II. of England and the earl of Stair, and 
the French army (60,000), under marshal Noailles 
and the due de Grammont. The French passed a 
defile, which they should have merely guarded. 
The due de Grammont with his cavalry charged the 
British foot with great fury, but was received with 
such intrepidity, that he was obliged to give way, 
and to repass the Maine, losing 3000 men. Handel’s 
‘Dettingen Te Deum,’’ first performed, 27 Noy. 


1743. 
DEUTERONOMY. See Bible, note. 
DEVELOPMENT (or Evolution). Wolff put 


forth a theory of epigenesis in 1759; Lamarck, the 

naturalist, in 1809, propounded a theory that all 

animals had been developed from ‘‘monads,”’ hiving 
minute particles; see Species and Vestiges. Buffon 
held a similar doctrine. In 1827 Ernst von Baer of 

Konigsberg demonstrated that all mammals are de- 

veloped from a minute egg not a hundredth of an 

inch in diameter. Mr. C. Darwin’s views are given 
in his ‘‘ Origin of Species,’’ 1859; and ‘‘ Descent 
of Man,’’ 1871. He supposes that man was gradu- 
ally evolved from the lowest created form of animal 
life. Heeckel, his most advanced follower, pub- 

lished in German a “ History of Creation,” 1873; a 

translation in English, 1875. Mr. Alfred Wallace 

published his work on Natural Selection in 1870. 

See Evolution. 

The theory of the development of living beings out of 
the substance of the earth was put forth by Lucretius 
in his ‘‘ De Rerum Nature,” about 57 B.c. 

“<We cannot teach, we cannot pronounce it to be a con- 
quest of science, that man descends from the ape or 
from any other animal. We can only indicate it as a 
hypothesis. ”—Professor Virchow, 1877. 

“The primitive monads were born by spontaneous 
generation in the sea.”—~ Professor Hwckel, 1878. 


DEVIL WORSHIP. Devil, Greek, diabolos, 


false accuser; Hebrew, satan, an adversary; abad- 


° 


SP sen ne ENUNeS Sm | 


DEVIZES. 


don, destroyer, &c. The worship of devils is fre- 
quently mentioned in the Bible (Lev. xvii. 7; 
2 Chron. xi. 15; 1 Cor. x. 20; Rev. ix. 20, &c.) 
Mr. Layard describes the Yezidees as recognising 
one supreme being, yet reverencing the devil as a 
king or mighty angel, to be conciliated (1841). 

Mr. Moncure Conway’s ‘‘ Demonology and Devil-Lore,” 

first published Dec. 1878. 


DEVIZES, Wilts; at Roundway Down, near 
here, sir William Waller and the parliamentarians 
were defeated, 13 July, 1643. 


DEVONPORT, see Dockyards and Plymouth. 
DEVONSHIRE, the country of the Dam- 


nonii or Dumnonii. Odun, earl of Devon, in 878, 
defeated the Danes, slew Ubbo or Hubba their chief, 
and captured his magic standard. A bishopric of 
Devonshire was founded in 909; see Exeter. 


Richard de Redvers, first earl of Devon, son of Baldwin, 
sheriff of Devonshire, died 1137. 

William Courtenay, the present earl, is descended from 
Robert de Courtenay and Mary de Redvers, daughter 
of William de Redvers, earl of Devon in 1184. 

William Cavendish, created first earl of Devonshire, 1618. 

William Cavendish (his great grandson), created first duke 


of Devonshire, 1694, from him is descended William | 


Cavendish, the present duke (1885). 


DEVONSHIRE anv PITT ADMINIS- 
TRATION, formed 16 Nov. 1756; dismissed 
5 April, 1757. 

First lord of the treasury, William, duke of Devonshire. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, hon. Henry Bilson Legge. 
Lord president, earl Granville (lord Carteret). 

Privy seal, earl Gower. 

Secretaries of state, earl of Holdernesse and Wm. Pirr 

(afterwards earl of Chatham, the virtual premier). . 
George Grenville, earl of Halifax, dukes of Rutland and 

Grafton, earl of Rochfort, viscount Barrington, &c. 

The great seal in commission. 


“DEVOUT LIFE.” “Introduction 4 la Vie 
dévote,’’ written by St. Frangois de Sales, and 
published 1608. He was born 21 Aug. 1567; bishop 
of Geneva, 1602; died, 28 Dec. 1622. 


DEW, the modern theory respecting it was put 
forth by Dr. Wells in his book, 1814. 


DEWANGIRI, see India, 1865. 


DIADEM, the band or fillet worn by the 
ancients instead of the crown, and consecrated to the 
gods. At first it was made of silk or wool, set with 
precious stones, and was tied round the temples and 
forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and 
let fall on the neck. Aurelian was the first Roman 
emperor who wore a diadem, 272. Zvllemont. 


DIALECTICAL SOCIETY, Lonpon, for 
the philosophical consideration of all subjects, with 
a view to the discovery and elucidation of truth, 
was established in 1865. The report of their 
ee on spiritualism was published in Nov. 
1871. 


DIALS. ‘The sun-dial of Ahaz,’” 713 B.c. 
(Isa. xxxviil. 8). Adial invented by Anaximander, 
550B.c. Pliny. The first dial of the sun seen at 
Rome was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. 
Papirius Cursor, when time was divided into hours, 
293 B.c. Blair. Dials set up in churches about 
A.D. 613. Lenglet. Mrs. Alfred Gatty’s ‘‘ Book of 
Sun Dials’? was published in 1872. 


DIALYSIS, an important method of chemical 
analysis, depending on the different degrees of 
diffusibility of substances in liquids, was made 
known in 1861, by its discoverer, professor Thomas 
Graham, then master of the mint. 


248 


DIAMONDS. 


DIA-MAGNETISM, the property posses 
by nearly all bodies of behaving ays ao to ir 
when placed between two magnets. The phe 
mena, previously little known, were reduced t 
law by Faraday in 1845, and confirmed by Tyne 
and others. 


DIAMOND, a hamlet, Armagh, N. Irela 
where was fought the ‘‘ battle of the Diamond,” 
Sept. 1795, between the ‘‘ Peep-o’-day-boys”’ ¢ 
the ‘‘ Defenders,’’ and many of the latter were kill 
To commemorate this conflict the first Ora 
Lodge was formed immediately after. See - 
Senders. 


DIAMONDS were first brought to Eur 
from the East, where the mine of Sumbulpoor 1 
the first known. Golconda, in India, now in rui 
was a celebrated diamond mart. The mines 
Brazil were discovered in 1728. From th 
last a diamond, weighing 1680 carats, or fourt 
ounces, was sent to the court of Portugal, and > 
valued by Mr. Romeo de l’Isle at 224 millio 
by others at 56 millions, and at 3} millions ; 


| true value (not being brilliant) was 400,000/. 


The great Russ1an diamond weighs 193 carats, or r 
12 dwts. 4 gr. troy. The empress Catherine II. offt 
for it 104,166l. 13s. 4d., besides an annuity for life 
the owner of ro4rl. 13s. 4d., Which was refused ; bu 
was afterwards sold to Catherine’s favourite, co 
Orloff, for the first-mentioned sum, without 
annuity, and was by him presented to the emp: 
on her birthday, 1772; it is now in the sceptre 
Russia. 

The Pirr diamond weighed 136 carats, and after cutt 
106 carats: it was sold to the king of France 
125,000l. in 1720. 

The Picorr diamond (bought by Mr. Pitt, grandfat 
of Wm. Pitt) was sold for 9500 guineas, 10 May, 18 

The diamond called the Konrnoor, or MOUNTAIN 
Licut, was found in the mines of Golconda, in 1 
and is said to have belonged in turn to Shah Jel 
Aurungzebe, Nadir Shah, the Afghan rulers, and af 
wards to the Sikh chief Runjeet Singh. Upon the 
dication of Dhuleep Singh, the last ruler of the F 
jab, and the annexation of his dominions to the Bri 
empire, in 1849, the Kohinoor was surrendered to 
queen. It was accordingly brought over and presen 
to her, 3 July, 1850. It was shown in the Great E> 
bition, 1851. Its original weight was nearly 800 car 
but it was reduced by the unskilfulness of the art 
Hortensio Borghese, a Venetian, to 279 carats. 
shape and size resembled the pointed half (rose cut 
a small hen’s egg. The value is scarcely computa 
though two millions sterling have been mentioned : 
justifiable price, if calculated by the scale employe: 
the trade. This diamond was re-cut in 1852, and 1 
weighs 102} carats. 

The Sancr diamond, which belonged to Charles 
Bold, duke of Burgundy, was bought by sir 
Jejeebhoy from the Demidoff family for 20,o000l. 
Feb. 1865. 

Mr. Porter Rhode’s great diamond (weighing 150 cars 
alleged value 60,000l.) found at Kimberley 12 F 
1880, exhibited by Mr. Streeter, Bond-street, Lond 
Nov. 188r. 

Ancient diamond said to have belonged to the Mo 
emperors of India, date of engraved characters possi 
1200, Shown by Mr. Bryce Wright, Jan. 1882. 

A diamond, termed the Star oF THE SOUTH, was brou 
from Brazil in 185s, weighing 254% carats, half of wh 
was lost by cutting. 

Diamonds were discovered in Cape Colony, 8. Africa 
March, 1867. A fine one, termed the ‘‘Star of So 
Africa,” brought to England in 1869, was purchased 
Messrs. Hunt and Roskell. After cutting, it weig 
464 carats, and was valued at 25,oool., in June, 1: 

Rich diamond fields recently discovered near the V 
and Orange rivers, Sept. 1870. 

Great influx of diggers, and many fine diamonds fou 
Nov. Value of 141 diamonds found in 1869, 74051. 
566x found in 1870, 124,910l. ; about 2,000,000. said 
be exported in 1877. See Griqua-land, West. 

The largest African diamond found, weighing 


, 


DIANA. 


249 


DICTIONARY. 


_earats, at Kimberley, named “ Victoria,” 27 March, 
— 1884. 
be NECKLACE AFFAIR.—In 1785, Boehmer, the 
court jeweller of France, offered the queen Marie An- 
toinette, a diamond necklace, for 56,o00l. The queen 
‘desired the necklace, but feared the expense. The 
‘countess de la Motte (of the ancient house of Valois) 
‘forged the queen’s signature, and by pretending that 
‘the queen had an attachment for him, persuaded the 
cardinal de Rohan, the queen’s almoner, to conclude a 
‘bargain with the jeweller for the necklace for 56,000l. 
De la Motte thus obtained the necklace and made away 
with it. For this she was tried in 1786, and sentenced 
to be branded on the shoulders and imprisoned for life. 
She accused in vain the celebrated Italian adventurer, 
Cagliostro, of complicity in the affair, he being then 
‘intimate with the cardinal. She made her escape and 
came to London, where she was killed by falling from 
a window-sill, in attempting to escape an arrest for 
debt.—De Rohan was tried and acquitted, 14 April, 
1786. The public in France at that time suspected the 
‘queen of being a party to the fraud. Talleyrand wrote 
‘at the time, that he should not be surprised if this 
miserable affair overturned the throne. 
‘amond Robbery. See Trials, 1871. 
lamonds valued at 50,000/. stolen from the post-office 
at Capetown about 20 March, 1880. 
rtificial Diamonds ; those prepared by Mr. MacTear of 
Glasgow, examined by Mr. Story Maskelyne, and de- 
clared not to be diamonds, 30 Dec. 1879; acknowledged 
by Mr. MacTear, Jan. 1880. 
amonds said to have been made by J. Ballantine 
Hannay at Glasgow, announced in Times, 20 Feb. 1880. 
amonds said to have been made at Paris, 1880. 


. INFLAMMABILITY OF DIAMONDS. 
vetius de Boot conjectured that the diamond was in- 
flammable, 1609. When exposed to a high temperature 
t gave an acrid vapour, in which a part of it was dis- 
jipated, 1673. Boyle. 

* Isaac Newton concluded from its great refracting 
‘power, that it must be combustible, 1675. 
‘erani demonstrated, by concentrating the rays of the 
jun upon it, that the diamond was exhaled in vapour, 
ind entirely disappeared, while other precious stones 
‘nerely grow softer, 1695. 

has been ascertained by Guyton, Davy, and others, 
that diamonds contain nothing but pure charcoal, or 
‘arbon. Diamonds were charred by the intense heat 
if the voltaic battery—by M. Dumas, in Paris, and by 
yrofessor Faraday, in London, in 1848. 


DIANA, TEMPLE oF (at Ephesus), accounted 
€ of the seven wonders of the world, was built at 
» common charge of all the Asiatic states, 552 
5 the chief architect being Ctesiphon. Pliny 
's that 220 years were employed in completing it. 
was 425 feet long, 225 broad, and was supported 
127 columns (60 fect high, each weighing 150 
‘is of Parian marble), furnished by so man 
igs. It was set on fire, on the night of the birth 
Alexander the Great, by Herostratus or Erato- 
tus, who confessed that his sole motive was the 
ire of transmitting his name to future ages, 356 
The temple was rebuilt, but again burnt Be 
Goths, in their naval invasion, 4.D. 256 or 262. 
“April, 1869, Mr. J. T. Wood discovered the site 
the second temple; and since then sculptured 
ble columns have been removed to the British 
seum. Diana was the Roman name of the 
ek Artemis. 


j 

‘JICK. The invention of dice is ascribed to 
‘amedes, of Greece, about 1244B.c. The game of 
_ and tessera among the Romans was played with 
2. Stow mentions two entertainments given by 
_ eity of London, at which dice were played. Act 
vegulate the licences of makers, and the sale of 
2,9 Geo. IV. 1828. 

1357, the kings of Scotland and France, being 
‘ysoners, and the king of Cyprus on a visit to 
dward IIT., a great tournament was held in Smith- 
ald, and afterwards Henry Picard, mayor of London 

Kept his hall against all comers that were willing to 


play at dice and hazard. The lady Margaret, his wife, 

did keepe her chamber to the same intent.” The 

mayor restored to the king of Cyprus 50 marks which 

he had won from him, saying, ‘‘My lord and king, be not 

fara ; for I covet not your gold, but your play,” 
c. Stow, 


DICHROOSCOPE, an optical apparatus, de- 
scribed by the inventor, professor Dové of Berlin, 
in 1860, who intended it to represent interferences, 
spectra in coloured lights, polarisation of light, &c. 


DICTATORS were supreme and absolute magis= 
trates of Rome, appointed to act in critical times, 
Titus Lartius Flavius, the first dictator, was ap- 
pointed, 501 B.c. Caius Marcius Rutilus was the 
first plebeian dictator, 356 8.c. This office became 
odious by the usurpations of Sylla and Julius 
Cwsar; and after the death of the latter, the Roman 
senate, on the motion of the consul Antony, passed 
a law forbidding a dictator to exist in Rome, 44 8.c. 


DICTIONARY. Astandard dictionary of the 
Chinese language, containing about 40,000 charac- 
ters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representa- 
tions, somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was 
perfected by Pa-out-she, who lived about 1100 B.c. 
Morrison ; see Encyclopedias, Music, &e. 

A Latin one was compiled by Varro, born © ahlop 
Varro’s work ‘‘ de Lingua Latina”; he died . 
The ‘‘Onomasticon,” a collection of vocabularies 

in Greek, by Julius Pollux, was published about a.D.177 
The ‘‘ Catholicon,” an attempt at a Latin Lexicon, 

by Friar Johannes Balbus Januensis, printed at 

Mentz . : : t : ; : : : 
The first noted polyglot dictionary, perhaps the 

first, is by Ambrose Calepini, a Venetian friar, in 

Latin ; he wrote one in eight languages. Niceron. 

about 1500 
John E, Avenar’s Dictionariwm Hebraicum was pub- 
lished at Wittenberg in 1589. Buxtorf’s great 

work, Lexicon Hebraicum, &c., appeared 4 
The Lewicon Heptaglotton was published by Edmund 

Castell, in . F : 7 : . A ALY 
The great English dictionary by Samuel Johnson 

appeared in : 3 ; 3 ; : - 
Francis Grose’s Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue 

was compiled in: : : ; : s we 
The following academies have published large dic- 
tionaries of their respective languages : the French 

academy, (the first, edited by Vaugelas,) 1694; 

new editions, 1718, 1740, 1762, 1835, and 1878 ; 

the Spanish, 1726; the Italian academy (della 

Cruseca) 1729; and the Russian. z - 1789-94 
Schwan’s great German-French dictionary appeared 1782 
Richardson’s English dictionary appeared . 1836 
Lempriére’s Classical Dictionary, which first ap- 

peared in 1788, is now superseded by Dr. W. 

Smith’s classical series . . 4 : . 1842-57 
The Philological Society of London issued ‘‘ pro- 

posals for a New English dictionary,” on the his- 

torical method, 1859; after some delay the work 

was vigorously revived ; editor, Dr. J. H. Murray 1879 
[About 5000 authors, dating from 1150 to 1883, have 

been read by about 13,000 persons (British and 

American), who made about 3,000,000 extracts. 

Part I., published Feb. 1884, was considered 

highly successful, and a specimen of the grandest 

lexicographical work ever produced. ] 
The great German dictionary, by Jacob and Wilhelm 

Grimm ; : : F ; ; - 1854 et seg. 
Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood’s Dictionary of English 

Etymology . : ? ; ‘ ; . 1859-67 
Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible was published 1860-3 
The earliest known English-Latin dictionary is the 

Promptorium Parvulorum, compiled by Galfridus 

Grammaticus, a preaching friar of Norfolk, in 

1440; and printed by Pynson, as Promptorius 

Puerorum, in 1499. A new edition, carefully 

edited by Mr. Albert Way, from MSS., was pub- 

lished by the Camden Society wiles - 1843-65 
The great French dictionary, by E. Littré, 1863-72 ; 

supplement : 2 ‘ ; eae een cee 
The ‘‘ Bona Fide French and English Dictionary” ' 

(44 inches by 2%, weight 4 0z.), printed by Bellows, 

1873 et seq. 


116 
28 


1460 


1621 
1669 


1755 
1768 


DIDYMIUM. 


The Imperial Dictionary of the English Language, 
by John Ogilvie. New edition by Charles An- 


nandale, 4 vols. published . “| : : . 1882 
Rev. W. W. Skeat’s ‘‘Etymological Dictionary of 
the English language” published . 1882-4 


DIDYMIUM, a rare metal, discovered by 
Mosander in 1841. It appears to be always asso- 
ciated with lanthanum and cerium. 


DIEPPE (N. France). This town was bom- 
barded by an English fleet, under admiral Russell, 
and laid in ashes, July, 1694. It was again bom- 
barded in 1794; and again, together with the town 
of Granville, by the British, 14 Sept. 1803. 


“DIES IRA” (“Day of Wrath’’), a Latin 
mediaval hymn on the day of judgment, is ascribed 
to various authors, amongst others to pope Gregory 
the Great (died about 604) ; St. Bernard (died 1153) ; 
but is generally considered to have been composed 
by Thomas of Celano (died 1255), and to have been 
used in the Roman service of the mass before 1385. 


DIET oF THE GERMAN EMPIRE (in which 
the supreme court of authority of the empire may 
be said to have existed) was composed of three 
colleges: one of electors, one of princes, and one of 
imperial towns, and commenced with the edict of 
Charles IV. 1356; see Golden Bull; Wurzburg 
180) ; Nuremberg (1467) ; Worms (1521) ; Spires 

1529); Augsburg (1530); Ratisbon (1541); Hrank- 
Sort (1806, et seg.) ; and Germany. 


DIETHEROSCOPEH, an apparatus for 
geodesy and teaching optics, constructed by G. 
Luvini, of Tunis, and announced, April, 1876. 


“DIEU-DONNE,” the name given in his in- 
fancy to Louis le Grand, king of France, the queen, 
his mother, having been barren for 23 years pre- 
viously, 1638. Also to the comte de Chambord,son of 
the duchess of Berri, born 29 Sept. 1820, died 24 Aug. 
1883. His father was assassinated,14 Feb.1820. One 
of the popes(672) was named Adeodatus or God’s gift. 


DIEU ET MON DROIT (“God and my 
right’’), the royal motto of England, was the parole 
of the day, given by Richard I. of England to his 
army at the. battle of Gisors, in France, 20 Sept. 
1198, when the French army was signally defeated. 
*¢ Dieu et mon droit’’ appears to have been first 
assumed as a motto by Henry VI. (1422-1461) ; see 
Semper Eadem. 


DIFFERENTIAL ENGINE, see Caleula- 
ting Machine. 


DIFFUSION oF Gaszxs. In 1825, Dobereiner 
observed the transmission of hydrogen gas through 
a crack in a glass vessel, and professor Thomas 
Graham discovered the passage of gases through 
porous porcelain, graphite, and other substances, 
and established laws in 1832, and to him we are 
indebted for the discovery of Atmolysis and Dia- 
lysis. He died 16 Sept. 1869. 


DIFFUSION oF UsEFruL KNOWLEDGE 
SocreTY, which published a number of books 
relating to history, science, and literature, and an 
atlas, in a cheap form, ridiculed as the ‘‘Sixpenny 
Sciences,’ was established by Lord Brougham, Mr. 
William Tooke, Mr. Charles Knight, and others. 
It published its ‘‘ Library”’ 1827-48, and patronised 
the publication of the Penny Magazine and the 
Penny Cyclopedia. Its proceedings weve suspended 
in 1846. The Royal Institution of Great Britain 
was established in 1799, for ‘‘the Promotion, Dif- 
an and Extension of Science and Useful Know- 
edge.” 


DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws 


250 


DIOPTRIC SYSTEM. 


under this title was prepared by Alfrenus Varus, t 
civilian, of Cremona, 66 B.c. Qwintid. The ‘J 
gest,’ so called by way of eminence, was t 
collection made by order of the emperor Justinix 
529: it made the first part of the Roman lawa 
the first volume of the civillaw. Quotations from 
are marked with a ff. Pardon. The ‘Digest 
Law”? commissioners signed their first rep: 
13 May, 1867, recommending the immediate prey 
ration of a digest of the English common law, stat 
law, and judicial decisions. 


DIGITS (digitus, finger), any whole numl 
under 10: I, 2, &c., are the nine digits; see dri 
metic. In astronomy, the digit is a measure used 
the calculation of eclipses, and is the twelfth part 
the luminary eclipsed. 


DIJON, E. France, the ancient capital of Bi 
gundy, is said to have been founded by Jub 
Cesar, fortified by the emperor Marcus Aureli 
and named Divio, about 274. It has been seve: 
times captured in war; and a castle was erect 
here by Louis XI. Dijon became the capital of t 
dukes of Burgundy about 1180. It was attacked 
the Germans, under general Beyer, 30 Oct. 18; 
The heights and suburbs were taken by pri 
bee of Baden, and the town surrendered 
31 Oct. 


DILAPIDATIONS, see Zeclesiastical. 


DILETTANTI, Society oF, established 
1734 by the viscount Harcourt, lord Middlesex, du 
ot Dorset, and others who had travelled and w 
were desirous of encouraging a taste for the fine a 
in Great Britain. The society published, or aided 
publishing, Stuart’s Athens a 762-1816), Chandle 
Travels (1775-6), and several other finely illustrat 
works. The members dine together from time 
time at the Thatched-house tavern, St. James 
Mr. R. P. Pullan, on behalf of this society, ex: 
vated the temple of Bacchus at Teos, of Apo 
Smintheus in the Troad, and of Minerva Polias 
Priene, between 1861-70. Published ‘‘ Antiquit 
of Ionia,’ 4 parts, 1769-1881. 


DIMITY, the term is derived from the Gre 
dis, twice, and mitos, thread. 


DINAS, see Accidents under Coal, and Mans 
House. 


DINNERS, see Destztute. 
DIOCESE. The first division of the Rom 


empire into dioceses, at that period civil govei 
ments, is ascribed to Constantine, 323; but Stra 
remarks that the Romans had the departme! 
called dioceses long before. In England the prin 
pal dioceses are coeval with the establishment 
Christianity ; of 28 dioceses, 20 are suffragan to ‘ 
diocese of Canterbury, and six to that of York; | 
Bishops, and the sees severally. Diocesan conf 
ences of the clergy and laity now frequent. 


DIOCLETIAN ERA (called also the era 
Martyrs, on account of the persecution in his reig 
was used by Christian writers until the introducti 
of the Christian era in the 6th century, and is s| 
employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It da 
from the day on which Diocletian was proclain 
emperor at Chalcedon, 29 Aug. 284. 


DIOPTRIC SYSTEM (from the Greek, @ 
through, and optomai, I see), an arrangement 
lenses for refracting light in lighthouses, devi: 
by Fresnel, about 1819, based on the discoveries 

| Buffon, Condorcet, Brewster, and others; see Lig. 
| houses. 


DIORAMA. 


251 


DISRAELI ADMINISTRATIONS. 


DIORAMA. This admired exhibition was first 


yened by MM. Bouton and Daguerre in Paris, | 
t July, 1822; in London, 29 Sept. 1823. It was | 


ot successful commercially here, and was sold in 
348. The building in Regent’s-park was pur- 
1ased by sir S. M. Peto, in 1855, to be used asa 
aptist chapel. 


DIPHTHERIA (from the Greek diphthera, 
ather), a disease resembling croup which has 
ie essential character of developing a false mem- 
‘ane on the mucous membrane connected with the 
roat. It was named diphtheritis by Brétonneau 
‘Tours in 1820. From its prevalence in Boulogne, 
has been termed the Boulogne sore-throat ; many 
sons were affected with it in England at the be- 
nning of 1858. The princess Alice, grand-duchess 

Hesse-Darmstadt, died of this disease, 14 Dec. 
'78, after nursing her husband and children. 


DIPLOMACY, the art of managing the rela- 
ms of foreign states by means of ambassadors, 
yoys, consuls, chargés d’affaires, &c.; see_Ambas- 
dorsand Consuls. Newregulations for the British 
plomatic service were issued 5 Sept. 1862. 


DIPLOMAS. The wholesale fraudulent sale 

diplomas of M.D., &c., for 1o/., by a Dr. 
whanan, dean of the American University of 
iiladelphia, and others, was detected in 1880. He 
tempted escape by a sham suicide, but was cap- 
red, prosecuted, and imprisoned. 


DIPLOMATICS, the foreign term for the 
ence of paleography or ancient writings. Valu- 
le works on this subject have been compiled by 
abillon (1681), De Vaines (1774), Astle (1781), 
» Wailly (1838), and other antiquaries. 


“DIRECTORY ForTHE PusLic WoRsHIP 
* Gop” was drawn up at the instance of the par- 
‘ment by an assembly of divines at Westminster 
1644, after the suppression of the Book of Common 
‘ayer. The general hints given were to be man- 
ed with discretion; for the Directory prescribed 
form of prayer or manner of external worship, 
d enjoined the people to make no responses except 
nen. It was adopted by the parliament of Scot- 
id in 1645, and many of its regulations are still 
served by presbyterians. 


DIRECTORY, THe FRENCH, established 
the constitution of the Sth of Fructidor, an. III. 
| Aug. 1795), and nominated 1 Nov., was com- 
ied of five members (MM. Lépeaux, Letourneur, 
-wbel, Barras, and Carnot). On 18 Fructidor, 
ep. 1797, two directors (Carnot and Barthélemy) 
re deposed, and afterwards, with other officials, 
-nsported to Cayenne for favouring royalty. The 
ectory ruled in conjunction with two chambers, 
! Council of Ancients and Council of Five Hun- 
.d (which see), till the revolution of the 18th of 
mmaire (9, 10 Nov. 1799). It was deposed by 
fae who, with Cambacérés and Lebrun, as- 
aed the government as three consuls, himself the 
't, 13 Dec. 1799; see Consuls. 


)JIRECTORY, the first Lonpon, is said to 
ve been printedin 1677. The ‘‘ Post-office Direc- 
.y”’ first appeared in 1800. 


‘DISCIPLES OF CHRIST” (also called 


; MPBELLITES)* profess adherence to pure Scrip- 


» The term Campbellite originated through their first 
-rch at Brush Run, in America, having been set up 
|. Scotch presbyterian preacher from Ireland, named 
mas Campbell, and his son Alexander. In 1812 they 


tural doctrine and practice, reject human creeds 
and formularies, and admit to their communion all 
who recognise Christ’s obedience and death, as 
“the only meritorious cause of the sinner’s accept- 
ance with God;” and are baptized (by immersion) 
in his name. 


DISCIPLINE, ecclesiastical, originally con- 
ducted spiritually according to the divine commands 
in Matt. xviii. 15, 1 Cor. v., 2 Thess. iii. 6, and 
other texts, was gradually changed to a temporal 
character, as it now appears in the Roman, Greek, 
and other churches. The ‘ First Book of Disci- 
pline” of the presbyterian church of Scotland was 
drawn up by John Knox and four ministers in 
Jan. 1560-1. The more important ‘‘ Second Book ”’ 
was prepared with great care in 1578 by Andrew 
Melville and a committee of the leading members 
of the general assembly. It lays down a thoroughly 
presbyterian form of government, defines the posi- 
tion of the ecclesiastical and civil powers, &c. 


DISCOUNT, see under Bank of England. 
DISESTABLISHMENT. See Church of 


Ireland. 


DISPENSARIES, to supply the poor with 
medical advice and medicines, began in London. 
The Royal General Dispensary, London, was estab- 
lished in St. Bartholomew’s Close, in 1770. It 
relieved about 20,000 persons in 1861 ; about 17,000 
in 1866. Western Dispensary, 1789. Garth’s satirie 
poem, ‘*‘ The Dispensary,”’ published 1699. 


DISPENSATIONS, ecclesiastical, were first 
granted by pope Innocent III. in 1200. These 
exemptions from the discipline of the church, with 
indulgences, absolutions, &c., led eventually to the 
Reformation in Germany in 1517. 


DISPENSING POWER or THE Crown 
(for setting aside laws or their power) asserted by 
some of our sovereigns, especially by Charles II. 
(in 1672 for the relief of nonconformists) and by 
James II. principally to enable Roman Catholics to 
hold civil and military offices, in 1686-8, was 
abolished by the bill of rights, 1689. It has been 
on certain occasions exercised, as in the case of 
embargoes upon ships, the Bank Charter act, &c. ; 
see Indemnity. 


DISRAELI ADMINISTRATIONS.* On 
the resignation of the earl of Derby throughill-health, 
25 Feb., 1868, Mr. Disraeli reconstituted the minis- 
try, 29 Feb. (see Derby Administrations, III.). As 
the elections gave a large majority to the liberal 


mersion. Their number in America is said to be about 
600,000; and in the United Kingdom, where the move- 
ment began independently and simultaneously, about 
sooo. They have also churches in the British colonies. 
* Benjamin Disraeli (son of Isaac Disraeli, author of the 
*‘Curiosities of Literature,” &c.,) born 21 Dee. 1805 ; 
published ‘‘ Vivian Grey,” 1825; M.P. for Maidstone, 
1837-41 ; Shrewsbury, 1841-7; Bucks, 1847-76. Chancel- 
lor of Exchequer (see Derby administrations), Feb. 1852 ; 
Feb. 1858; July, 1866; installed lord rector of Glasgow 
university, 19 Noy. 18733; created earl of Beaconsfield, 
Aug. 1876; plenipotentiary at the Berlin Congress, 13 
June—13 July, 1878; K.G. invested by the queen, 22 
July, 1878; received freedom of London, 3 Aug. 1878 ; 
(‘at the pinnacle of ministerial renown; the favourite 
of his sovereign, and the idol of society,’—Times, 8 Aug. 
1878); see People’s Tribute; resigned (through liberal 
majority in elections), 22 April, 1880 ; published ‘‘ Endy- 
mion,” Dec., 1880; died 19 April, 1881, buried at Hugh- 
enden; prince of Wales and many present, 26 April; 
monument in Westminster abbey voted, g May, 1881. 
Mrs. Disraeli created viscountess Beaconsfield, 28 Nov. 


) anced infant baptism, and were rebaptized by im- | 1868 ; died 15 Dec. 1872. 


DISSECTION. 252 “DIVERSIONS OF PURLEY.” 
party, Mr. Disraeli’s ministry resigned 2 Dec. He | to more than 554. (The Church of England | 


declined to take office with the then house of 
commons when Mr. Gladstone resigned, 12 March, 
1873, and the latter resumed office. 


FIRST ADMINISTRATION, 29 Feb. 1868. 

First lord of treasury, Benjamin Disraeli. 

Lord chancellor, Hugh MacCalmont, lord Cairns. 

Lord president of the council, John, duke of Marlborough. 

Lord privy seal, James, earl of Malmesbury. 

Secretaries—home, Gathorne Hardy ;—foreign, Edward, 
lord Stanley ;—colonies, Richard, duke of Buckingham 
and Chandos ;—war, sir John 8. Pakington ;—Jndic, 
sir Stafford Henry Northcote. 

Chancellor of exchequer, George Ward Hunt. 

First lord of admiralty, Henry Thomas L. Corry. 

Chief commissioner of works, lord John Manners. 

President of bourd of trade, Charles Henry, duke of Rich- 
mond, 

Chief secretary for Ireland, Richard, earl of Mayo; made 
viceroy of India, Oct. ; succeeded by col. J. Wilson 
Patten, 7 Nov. 1868. 

President of poor-law board, Wm. Reginald, earl of Devon. 

The above formed the Cabinet. 

Postmaster-general, James, duke of Montrose. 

Lord great chamberlain, Orlando, earl of Bradford. 

Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, col. John Wilson Patten ; 
succeeded by col. Thos. E. Taylor, 7 Nov. 1868. 

Lord lieutenant of Ireland, James, earl (afterwards mar- 
quis) of Abercorn. 

Mr. Disraewi’s LETTER of 30 Oct. 1873, to lord Grey de 
Wilton, severely censuring the Gladstone ministry as 
having ‘‘ harassed every trade, worried every profession, 
and assailed or menaced every class, institution, and 
species of property in the country ;” and also stating 

that the country has ‘‘made up its mind to close this 

career of plundering and blundering ;”’ was published 

7 Oct. 1873. (See Gladstone Administration.) 


SECOND ADMINISTRATION, received seals, 21 Feb. 1874. 

First lord of the treasury, Benjamin Disraeli (earl of 
Beaconsfield, 16 Aug. 1876),— and lord privy seal, Aug., 
1876 to Jan. 1878). 

Lord chancellor, Hugh, lord Cairns. 

Lord president of the council, Charles Henry, duke of 
Richmond. 

Lord privy seal, James, earl of Malmesbury ; resigned, 
12 Aug. 1876; earl of Beaconsfield, Aug. 1876; Alger- 
non, duke of Northumberland, 4 Feb. 1878. 

Secretary of state for foreign affairs, Edward, earl of 
Derby ; resigned ;—Robert, marquis of Salisbury, 28 
March, 1878. 

Secretary of state for India, Robert, marquis of Salis- 
bury ;—Gathorne Hardy, created viscount Cranbrook, 
2 April, 1878. 

Secretary of state for the Colonies, Henry, earl of Carnar- 
von; resigned, 24 Jan. 1878; sir Michael Hicks-Beach, 
4 Feb. 1878. 

Secretary of state for war, Gathorne Hardy ; col. Fred. 
Arthur Stanley, 2 April, 1878. 

= Aleem of state for home department, Richard Assheton 
ross, 

First lord of the admiralty, George Ward Hunt, died 
29 July, 1877; Wm. Henry Smith, 7 Aug. 1877. 

President of board of trade, sir Charles Adderley, re- 
signed, created baron Norton, April, 1878 ;—Dudley 
Ryder, viscount Sandon. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Sir Stafford Northcote. 

Postmaster-general, lord John Manners. 

(The above formed the Cabinet.) 

Lord lieutenant of Ireland, James, duke of Abercorn, 

resigned Dec. 1876 ; John, duke of Marlborough, Dec. 


1876, 

Chief secretary for Ireland, sir Michael Edward Hicks- 
Beach (entered the cabinet, Noy. 1876) : succeeded by 
James Lowther, Feb. 1878. 

Vice-president of cowncil (education), Dudley, viscount 
Sandon ; lord George Hamilton, April, 1878. 

Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, col. Thos. K. Taylor. 

Commissioner of woods and forests, lord Henry Lennox, 
resigned July, 1876; Gerard James Noel, 14 Aug. 1876. 


DISSECTION, see Anatomy. 
DISSENTERS, the modern name of the 


Puritans and Nonconformists (which see). In 
1851, in London, the number of chapels, meeting- 
houses, &c., for all classes of dissenters amounted 


458; Roman Catholics, 35°) The great act (9 G 
. ¢. 17) for the relief of dissenters from civil : 
religious disabilities was passed 9 May, 1828. 
this act, called the Corporation and Test Repeal : 
so much of the several acts of preceding reigns 
imposed the necessity of receiving the sacramen 
the Lord’s Supper as a qualification for cert 
offices, &c., was repealed. By 6 & 7 Will. IV.c. 
(1836), dissenters acquired the right of solemnis 
marriages at their own chapels, or at a regis 
office ; see Worship. 

A Burials Bill to permit the ministers of dissenter: 
officiate at funerals in churchyards several times 
jected ; in the commons 248 to 234, 21 April, 18 
279 to 248, 3 March, 1876; earl Granville’s resolut 
in the lords rejected 148 to 92, r5 May, 1876. 

Lord. Harrowby’s additional clause to the governm 
burials bill (permitting dissenters to have religi 
services in churchyards), was supported by the a1 
bishops, and carried against government, (127-1 
18 June; the bill withdrawn, 25 June, 1877. 

Mr. Osborne Morgan’s resolution for reforming bu 
laws (i e. permitting other services), rejected (242-2 
15 Feb. 1878. 

Act to amend the burial laws, permitting dissenter 
have their own service or no service in churchyai 
passed commons (258-79), 13 Aug., royal assent 
Sept. 1880. 

The Rev. W. H. Fremantle having proposed to pre 
at Dr. Parker's city temple, and the bishop of Lon 
having disapproved, the opinion of two cou 
(Messrs. Fitzjames Stephen and Benjamin 8ha 
was taken. They declared it to be illegal for 
clergy of the English church to take part in wors 
of dissenters, June, 1875. 

Several episcopal clergymen take part in the dedicat 
services of Christ church (formerly Surrey cha 
Blackfriars, middle of July, 1876. 


DISSOLVING VIEWS. Henry Lang: 
Childe, the alleged inventor, died 15 Oct. 18 
aged 92. 


DISTAFF (or Rock), the staff to which flax 
any substance to be spun is fastened. The art 
spinning with it at the small wheel, first taught 
English women by Anthony Bonavisa, an Italii 
Stow. St. Distafi’s or Rock day, was formerly | 
first free day after the Epiphany (6th Jan.) beca' 
the Christmas holidays were over and women’s w 
was resumed. 


DISTILLATION, and the various proces 
dependent on it, are believed to have been int 
duced into Europe by the Moors about 1150; | 
Alcohol, Brandy. The distillation of spirituc 
liquors was in practice in Great Britain in the 1( 
century. Burns. The processes were improved 
Adam of Montpellier in 1801. M. Payen’s we 
(1861) contains recent improvements. An act 
prevent the use of stills by unlicensed pers¢ 
was passed in 1846. 118 licences to distillers w 
granted in the year ending 31 March, 1858, for 1 
United Kingdom. 

M. Raoul Pictet announces a method of distillation 

use of ice made by the air-pump, April, 1881. 


DISTRICT AUDITORS ACT, 42 Vict, 
6 (28 March, 1879), regulated their appointme 
duties, and payment. 


DISTRICT CHURCHES ACTS. By 1 
one passed in 1865 certain new churches were 
stituted rectories, and by another act, passed in 1é 
(the Bishop of Oxford’s act) the new parishes 1 
rectories were ordered to be styled vicarages. 


DITCH, see Expedition. 


“DIVERSIONS OF PURLEY” (“Z 
Pteroenta”’ flying words) a collection of gramm 


DIVIDENDS. 


al treatises by John Horne Tooke, published in 
named from the residence at Purley, near 
andsworth, Surrey. 


DIVIDENDS or Pustic Srooxs. By an 
t passed 11 Aug. 1869, these may be paid by post 
the recipients desire it, as railway dividends are. 


DIVINATION was forbidden to the Jews, 
3. 1451. (Deut. xviii. 9.) It was common among 
sir neighbours: and is described by Ezekiel 
xi. 21) 493 B.C. 


DIVINE RIGHT or Kinas, the absolute 
d unqualitied claim of hereditary sovereigns to the 
sdience of their subjects, a doctrine which is gene- 
ly considered to be foreign to the genius of the 
glish constitution, was defended by many persons 
otherwise opposite opinions, ¢.g., by Hobbes the 
e-thinker (1642), by Salmasius (1640), by sir 
bert Filmer (about 1653), in his Patriarcha, 
blished in 1680, and by the High Church party 
ierally about 1714; but opposed by Milton (1651), 
sernon Sydney, and others. The comte de Cham- 
d, the last of the elder branch of the Bourbons, 
1 the last consistent holder of the divine right of 
igs, died 24 Aug. 1883. See France, 1872, et seq. 


DIVING-BELL (first mentioned, though ob- 
rely, by Aristotle, about 325 B.c.) was used in 
rope about A.D. 1509. It is said to have been 
‘don the coast of Mull, in searching for the 
ek of part of the Spanish Armada, before 1662. 
lley (about 1716) greatly improved this machine, 
| was, it is said, the first who, by means of a 
ing-bell, set his foot on the ground at the bottom 
‘he sea. Smeaton made use of the diving-bell 
improving Ramsgate harbour, 1779-88. Mr. 
Iding and his assistants going down in a diving- 
.in Ireland were drowned, I June, 1783. The 
yal George man-of-war, which was sunk off 
_tsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of 
Ying-bell in May, 1817. Latterly it has been 
»loyed in submarine surveys and harbour works. 
)“talpa marina,” or sea-mole, a diving machine 
laying down torpedoes, &c., being a cylinder 
co with compressed air sufficient for two per- 
3 for 50 hours, was invented by Toselli, a 
-etian, and was successfully tried in the bay of 
les, 26 Aug. 1871. Diving Dress, a close dress 
‘le by Mr. Siebe about 1836; used by sir C. W. 
te as 1838. M. Cabirol, maker of one, died 
» 1074. 

.Fleuss invented a helmet with a mouthpiece, into 
1ich he introduced enough oxygen to last five hours, 
d thus was enabled to remain under water several 
‘urs. He exhibited his method at the Polytechnic 


‘stitution, London, Noy. 1879, and at the Society of 
‘ts, 6 May, 1880. 


‘IVINING ROD (virgula divina, bacula- 
48), formed of wood or metal, was formerly be- 
od, even by educated persons, to havethe property 
idicating the position of minerals and springs of 
x. Instances were alleged in 1851 by Dr. H. 
0, in his work on ‘‘ Popular Superstitions.” 


| IVINITY, see Theology. 


| IVORCE was permitted by the law of Moses 
| #. Xxiv. 1), 1451 B.c., but forbidden by Christ 
| pt for unchastity (Matt. vy. 31, 32). It was put 
wractice by Spurius Carvilius Ruga at Rome, 
B.C. At this time morals were so debased that 
) prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Di- 
es are of two kinds; one, d vinculo matrimonii 
il divorce); the other a mensd et thoro (from 
dand bed). Divorces were attempted to be made 
ore easy obtainment in England in 1539. The 


253 


? 

? 

See Supreme Court and Probate. 

Bill to prevent women marrying their seducers 
brought into parliament : f b A . 1801 

The commissioners on the law of divorce issued 
their first report . : ; “ ‘ . April, 

In 1857 there had been in England, since the Re- 
formation, 317 divorces by act of parliament ; in 
Scotland, by the law, 174 divorces since 1846 ; 
1858-67, 1279 dissolutions of marriage, 213 judicial 
separations. 

From the establishment of the divorce court, to 
March, 1859, 37 divorces had been granted out 
of 288 petitions ; from Nov. 1860 to July, 1861, 164. 

By 20 & ar Vict. c. 85, the jurisdiction of the eccle- 
siastical courts respecting divorce, &c., was 
abolished, and the Divorce and Matrimonial 
Causes court instituted, to consist of three 
judges, the judge of the Probate court to be one 
(if possible) ; 2 i “ ~ : 3 

A full court sat—lord Campbell, chief baron Pollock, 
sir Cresswell Cresswell (judge of the Probate court) 
when five marriages were dissolved . to May, 1858 

The act, amended by acts passed in consequence of 
the increase of the business of the court 

An act respecting divorces in Scotland passed 

Sir C. Cresswell died in July ; sir James P. Wilde 
(afterwards lord Penzance) successor . Sept. 1863 

Lord Penzance retired, Oct. ; succeeded by sir James 
Hannen . 4 : : ‘ : : Nov. 

The Divorce Amendment act passed 21 July, 1868. 

Between 1856 and 1867 1279 dissolutions of mar- 
riage and 213 judicial separations were decreed. 

On appeal, the House of Lords decide that proceed- 
ings may be taken for divorce from a wife insane 
(see Mordaunt case, Trials, 1870) 22 June, 

Divorce legalized by the French Republic ; about 
7000 (livorces in Paris alone 1793-4 ; prohibited by 
the civil code, yet Napoleon I. divorced Josephine 
16 Dec. 1809 ; again prohibited 1816; again lega- 
lized (with conditions) by M. Naquet’s bill, passed 
July ; many suits instituted . C Aug. 1884 


DIZIER, Sr. (N.E. France). Here a siege 
was sustained for six weeks against the army of the 
emperor Charles V., 1544. The allies here defeated 
Napoleon, 27 Jan. and 26 March, 1814. 


DOBRUDSCHA, the N.E. corner of Bulgaria; 
in 1854, the scene of the earlier incidents of the 
Russo-Turkish war (which see), Atthe close of the 
war of 1877-8 it was given to Roumania in ex- 
change for the part of Bessarabia restored to Russia, 
and occupied 26 Dec. 1878. 


DOCET A, a sect of the 1st century, said to have 
held that Jesus Christ was God, but that his body 
was an appearance, not a reality. 


DOCKS oF ENGLAND. The following are 


the principal commercial docks :— 


Commercial Docks, Rotherhithe, originated about 1660. 

West India Docks commenced 3 Feb. 1800; opened 
27 Aug. 1802, when the ‘‘ Henry Addington,” West 
Indiaman, first entered them, decorated with the 
colours of the different nations of Europe. 

London Docks were commenced 26 June, 1802, and 
opened 20 Jan, 1805. 

Kast India Docks commenced 1803; opened 4 Aug. 1806. 

St. Katharine’s Docks began 3 May, 1827; and 2500 men 
were daily employed on them until they were opened, 
25 Oct. 1828. 

Royal Victoria Docks (in Plaistow marshes) completed 
and opened Noy. 1855; great enlargement proposed, 
July, 1876; completed and named Royal Albert Docks 
by the duke and duchess of Connaught, 24 June, 1880. 

Magnificent docks at Liverpool and Birkenhead erected 
1810-57. 

Wiliwall Dodks near London, formally opened, 14 March, 
1868. 

A great floating iron dry dock, which cost 250,000/., was 
launched at North Woolwich, 3 Sept. 1868; and 
towed from the Medway by two ships of war, 23 June, 
1869, and arrived at the Bermudas (in thirty-six days), 
30 July. 


1857 


1872 


1874, 


254 


DOGGETT’S COAT AND BADGE. 


DOCTOR. 


Erection of docks at Tilbury determined .on 30 Sept. 
1881 ; begun 8 July, 1882, 


ROYAL DOCK-YARDS. 

Woolwich, an extensive one in 1509; closed 1 Oct. 1869. 

Deptford dock-yard founded about 1513, closed 31 March, 
1869. 

Chatham dock-yard was founded by queen Elizabeth. 
Three grand docks constructed at a cost of about 
2,000,o00l. independent of cost of convict labour, 
1866-83. 

Portsmouth dock-yard established by Henry VIII. 

Plymouth dock, now Devonport, about 1689. Great fire 
here, by which the Talavera, of 74 guns, the Imogene 
frigate, of 28 guns, and immense stores, were des- 
troyed; the relics and figure-heads of the favourite 
ships of Boscawen, Rodney, Duncan, and other naval 
heroes, which were preserved in a naval museum, 
were also burnt: the loss was estimated at 200,000l., 
27 Sept. 1840. Great fire, damage 20,000l. 8 Feb. 1882. 

Sheerness dock-yard was built by Charles LI. after the 
insult of the Dutch, who burnt our men-of-war at 
Chatham in 1667. A fire occurred at Sheerness dock- 
yard, on board the Camperdown, 9 Oct. 1840. 

Milford-Haven dock-yard, 1790; removed to Pembroke 
in 1814.—See Hull. 


DOCTOR. Doctor of the Church was a title 
given to Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, 
and Chrysostom in the Greek church; and to 
Jerome, Augustin, Ambrose, and Gregory the Great 
in the Latin church; see Fathers. Afterwards the 
title of doctor only was conferred on certain persons 
with distinguishing epithets, viz. : Thomas Aquinas 
(Angelicus), Bonaventura (Seraphicus), Alexander 
de Hales (Irrefragabilis), Duns Scotus (Subtilis), 
Roger Bacon (Mirabilis), William Occam (Singu- 
laris), Joseph Gerson (Christianissimus), Thomas 
Bradwardine (Profundus), and so on. Doctor of the 
Law, was a title of honour among the Jews. The 
degree of doctor was conferred in England, 8 John, 
1207. Spelman. Some give it an earlier date, 
referring it to the time of the Venerable Bede and 
John de Beverley, the former of whom, it is said, 
was the first that obtained the degree at Cam- 
bridge in the 8th century. 


DOCTORS’ COMMONS, the college for the 
professors of civil and canon lawin the 8th century. 
In February, 1568, Dr. Henry Hervie, dean of the 
arches and master of Trinity-hall (a seminary 
founded at Cambridge chiefly for the study of the 
civil and canon laws), procured from the dean and 
chapter of the diocese of London a lease of Montjoy- 
house and buildings in the parish of St. Benet, 
Paul’s wharf, for the accommodation of the society. 
Other courts being held here, the whole place re- 
ceived the appellation of ‘‘ Docrors’ Commons.” 
The original college was destroyed in the great 
fire of 1666; in 1672it was rebuilt on the old 
site. After the great fire, until 1672, the society 
held its courts at Exeter-house in the Strand. It 
was incorporated by charter in June, 1768. Coote. 
The buildings of the College of Advocates, which 
included all the courts of Doctors’ Commons, (arches, 
admiralty, consistory, &c.) were purchased by the 
Metropolitan Board of Works, and were pulled down 
in April, 1867, for the new Queen Victoria Street ; 
some new buildings were erected. ‘Till 1857 the 
eauses taken cognizance of here were blasphemy, 
divorces, bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, 
mortuaries, probate of wills, &c.; see Ecclesiastical 
Courts, Civil Law, &e. 

The building in Knightrider-street being dilapidated and 
too small, the wills were removed to Somerset-house, 

where the office was opened 24 Oct. 1874. 


DOCTRINAIRES, a name given since 1814 
to a class of politicians in France (Guizot, Molé, 
the duc de Broglie and others), who upheld con- 


stitutional principles, in opposition to arbit: 
monarchical power. The party came into offic 
1830 under Louis-Philippe, and fell with him 
1848. The term has been applied in this cour 
to the writers in the ‘‘ Westminster Review” (18 
et seg.), Bentham, Molesworth, and others. 


DODONA, Epirus. The temple of Jup 
here, renowned for its ancient oracle, delivered 
the sound of wind in a grove of trees, was destro 
by the Atolians, 219 B.c. The foundations of 
temple, with other relics, were discovered in 18 
by the excavations of M. Carapanos, 


DODSON’S ACT (brought forward by | 
John G. Dodson, and passed 1 Aug. 1861) provi 
that votes for electing members of parliament 
the universities may be recorded by means of poll 
papers. The act was amended in 1868. 


DOG. Buffon considers the shepherd’s dog 
‘* the root of the tree,’’ assigning as his reason tha 
Sag ERE] from nature the greatest share of instin 

r. Gall mentions that a dog was taken fr 
Vienna to England; that it escaped to Dover, 


_ on board a vessel, landed at Calais, and, after acco 


in 


panying a gentleman to Mentz, returned to Vien: 


Statute against dog stealing, ro Geo. III. F a 
Dog-tax imposed, 1796; and again in 1808 ; r2s. a year 
realised 219,313/., in . : ; : Pak 
Assessed taxes on dogs repealed, 29 Mar. 1867; an 
annual excise duty of 5s. imposed on all dogs 
more than six months old, to begin on 5 April, 
1867; increased to 7s. 6d. . a . 1 June, fr 

Employment of dogs in drawing carts, &c., abol- 
ished in London, 1839; in the United Kingdom . r 

Several clubs have been formed to improve the 
breeds. 

Dog shows held in London in 1861; since 1862 at ~ 
the Agricultural Hall, Islington, at the Crystal 
Palace, and other places. 

““Dogs’ temporary home” opened, Hollingsworth- 
street, London, N., 1861 ;sremoved to Battersea 
in 1871 ; about 2200 animals have been sheltered in 
ayear ; adapted for cats, 1882. 

As a nuisance, dogs at large unmuzzled in the 
metropolis were ordered to be seized by the 
police,» ‘ ‘ = , July to 27 Nov. 

A new act, more stringent, passed 24 July, 

Master McGrath, an excessively fleet hound, the 
property of Lord Lurgan, thrice won the Waterloo 
cup; was sent for the queen to see, 1 Mar., and 
died . p F ‘ : - 2 24 Dees @ 

“Help,” the railway dog (a colley), by mute appeals, 
collected above 2ool. for the railway men’s orphan 
fund * : : : . Jan.—Sept. 

Dog licences issued in financial year 1871-2, produced 
279,4251.; in 1875-6, 343,2571.; in 1876-7, 349,6131. ; 
in 1877-8, 372,699l. ; In 1881-2, 342,8361.; in 1883-4 
336,6650. : 

Number of dogs licensed in United Kingdom: in 
1866, 445,656; 1n 1876, 1,362,176. 


DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days n¢ 
commence on 3 July and end 11 Aug. The risi 
and setting of Sirius or the dog-star with the s 
has been erroneously regarded as the cause of ¢€ 
cessive heat and of consequent calamities. 


DOGE or DUKE: Venice was first governed | 
a doge named Anafesto Paululio, or Paoluccio, 69 
see Venice. The Genoese chose their first dog 
Simone Boccanegra, in 1339. Jwuratori. 


DOGGER-BANK (German Ocean). Here 
gallant but indecisive battle was fought betwe 
the British, under admiral sir Hyde Parker, a 
the Dutch, 5 Aug. 1781. 


DOGGETT’S COAT ann BADGI 
Thomas Doggett, an eminent actor of Drury-lan 
at the first anniversary of the accession to 


I 


rf 


dame | 


DOIT. 


hrone of George I., 1 Aug. 1715, gave a water- 
nan’s coat and silver badge to be rowed for by six 
‘oung watermen in honour of the day, and be- 
ueathed at his death, in 1722, asum of money to 
‘ontinue the custom. 


DOIT. The ancient silver Scottish penny, 
vhich twelve were equal to a penny sterling. 
‘he circulation of ‘“‘doydekyns’’ (small Dutch 
oins) was prohibited by statute in 1415. 


“DOLLAR, the German thaler. Stamped 
panish dollars (value 4s. 9d.) were issued from 
he Mint in March, 1797, but called in Oct. fol- 
owing. The dollar is the principal silver coin in 
ie United States of North America, value 4s. 4d. 
ritish money. 


~DOLLY’S BRAE, see Riots, 1849. 
DOM and Duomo, see Cologne and Milan. 


“DOM-BOC or Doom-Boox (Liber Judicialis), 
ie code of law compiled by king Alfred from the 
"est-Saxon collection of Ina and other sources. 
‘lfred reigned from 871 to gor. 


DOME’S-DAY BOOK or DOOM’S-DAY 
Domus Det book, Stow] (Liber Censualis Anglia), 
book of the general survey of England, com- 
enced in the reign of William I., 1080 (some say 
$5), and completed in 1086. It was intended to 
 aregister to determine the right in the tenure 
estates*; and from it the question whether lands 

ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still de- 
led. The book, formerly kept in the Chapter- 
iuse of Westminster, is now in the Public Record 
fice. Itconsists of two volumes, a greater and less, 
terein all the counties of England, except North- 

‘aberland, Durham, Westmorland, and Cumber- 
ad, are surveyed. ‘‘ This Dome’s-day book was 
-e tax-book of kinge William.’’ Camden. ‘The 
xes were levied according to this survey till 

Hen. VIII., 1522, when a more accurate survey 
is taken, called by the people the New Doom’s- 
iy-Book. It was printed in four vols. folio, with 
troductions, &c., 1783-1816, Photo-zinco-graphic 
pies of various counties have been published 
ce 1861. In Sept. 1872, government ordered a 
urn of all the owners of land in England and 

-ales—in fact, anew Dome’s-Day-Book ; the work 

be done by the Local Government Board. 

.¢ return for Scotland 1872-3, was published by go- 

ernment, April, 1874; for England and Wales (ex- 

‘lusive of the metropolis) in 1875 ; for Ireland, 1876. 


DOMESTIC ECONOMY, or the study of 
d and clothing, was introduced into the govern- 
nt educational department in 1874; the congresses 
sun at Birmingham, 16 July, 8 see and others 
ce. 


DOMINGO, Sr., see Hayti. 
DOMINICA (W. Indies), discovered by 


lumbus in his second voyage, on Sunday, 3 Nov. 
i. It was taken by the British in 1761, and 
firmed to them by the peace of Paris, Feb. 1763. 
'¢ French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it 
‘the subsequent peace in 1783. Their admiral 
leneuve ineffectually attacked it in 1805. It 
| ered great damage by a hurricane in 1806, and 
}) 4-5 Sept. 1883. 


OMINICAL LETTER, noting the Lord’s 


}, or Sunday. The seven days of the week, 
as Sadie aan seal eeaaeneaie 


“Sir Martin Wright says, “‘to discover the quantity of 
| 'Y Inan’s fee, and to fix his homage,” i.e., the question 
nilitary aid he was bound to furnish. 


255 


DORCHESTER. 


reckoued as beginning on the 1 Jan., are desig- 
nated by the first seven letters of the alphabet, 
A (1 Jan.), B, C, D, E, F, G@; and the one of these 
which denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If 
the year begin on Sunday, A is the Dominical 


of | letter; if on Monday, G; on Tuesday, F; and so 


on. Generally to find the Dominical letter call 
New Year’s day A, the next B, and go on thus 
until you come to the first Sunday, and the letter 
that answers to it is the Dominical letter; in leap 
years count two letters. The letters for 1884, F-E; 
1885, D; 1886,C; 1887, B; 1888, A-G. The letter 
or its number (figure of 1 for A, &c.) used in 
ancient charters. 


DOMINICALS. See Exeter, 


DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, see Hayti, 
1844-61. 

DOMINICANS, formerly a powerful religious 
order (called in France, Jacobins, and in England, 
Black friars), founded to put down the Albigenses 
and other heretics by St. Dominic, approved by 
Innocent III. in 1215, and confirmed by Honorius 
III. in 1216, under St. Augustin’s rules and the 
founder’s particular constitution. In 1276 the 
corporation of London gave the Dominicans two 
streets near the Thames, where they erected a 
large convent, whence that part is still called 
Blackfriars. A Dominican establishment at Haver- 
stock hill, near London, was consecrated 10 Oct. 


1867. 
DOMINION oF CANADA, see Canada. 


DOMINOKES, “‘a sport imported from France 
a few years back.” Strutt’s Sports, 1801. 


DONATISTS, an ancient strict sect, formed 
about 313-318, by an African bishop, Donatus, who 
was jealous of Cxcilian, bishop of Carthage: it 
became extinct in the 7th century. The Donatists 
held that the Father was above the Son, and the 
Son above the Holy Ghost. Their discipline was 
severe, and those who joined them were re- 
baptized. 


DONAUWERTH (Bavaria). Here the 
French and Bavarians were defeated by the duke of 
Marlborough, after a severe conflict, 2 July, 1704. 


DONCASTER (Yorkshire), the Roman 
Danum, the Saxon Donne ceastre. The races here 
(held annually in September) began about 1703; 
see Laces. 


DONKEY SHOW. An exhibition of donkeys 
and mules belonging to the upper and lower classes 
took place at the Agricultural Hall, Islington, 9 
Aug. 1864; and since. 


DON QUIXOTE, by Saavedra Miguel de 
Cervantes (born 1547; died 1616). ‘The first part 
of this work appeared in 1605, and the second part 
in 1608. It is said that upwards of 12,000 copies of 
the first part were circulated before the second was 
printed. Watts. 


DOOMS-DAY BOOK, see Dome’s-day Book. 
DORADO, see El Dorado. 


DORCHESTER (Oxfordshire) was once a 
bishopric, founded about 636. The first bishop 
Birinus, the apostle of the West Saxons (which see), 
was succeeded in 650 by Agilbert. In 659 the 
see was divided by the king. Dorchester remained 
with Agilbert, and Wina, established at Winchester, 
in 660 obtained the whole. The see of Dorchester 
was revived about 764. In 1072 the bishop Remigius 
de Feschamp removed the see to Lincoln. 


DORCHESTER. 
DORCHESTER (Dorsetshire), the Roman 
Durnovaria, the Saxon Dornceaster. Here are 
found remains of a Roman theatre and of a British 
camp. Here Jefferies held his ‘‘bloody assize’’ 
(after Monmouth’s rebellion) 3 Sept. 1685. Much 
excitement was caused by six labourers of Dor- 
chester being sentenced to transportation 17 March, 
1834, for administering illegal oaths. 


DORIANS, Greeks, who claimed descent from 
Dorus, son of Hellen; see Greece. The return of 
the Dorians, named Heraclide, to the Peloponnesus 
is dated 1104 8.c. They sent out many colonies. 
To them we owe the Doric architecture, the second 
of the five orders. 


DORKING, Surrey, an ancient town; the | 


manor haying been given by the Conqueror to earl | : ee ap) ia) = 
| At Dover, king John resigned his kingdom to Pan- 


Fitzwarren. Animaginary battle of Dorkingin which 
the German invaders totally defeat the British army 
is the subject of a clever article, attributed to 
col. George Chesney, in Blackwood’s Magazine for 
May, 1871. It provoked much controversy, and 
caused the publication of several pamphlets. 


DORMANS (N. E. France). 


and their allies, under Montmorency, were here 
defeated by the duke of Guise, 10 Oct. 1575. 


DORT, or DORDRECHT, an ancient town in 
Holland. Here happened an inundation of the 
Meuse in 1421, throughthe breaking down of the 
dykes. In the territory of Dordrecht 10,000 persons 
perished; and more than 100,000 round Dollart, in 
Friesland, and in Zealand. The independence of 
the thirteen provinces was declared here in 1572, 
when William Prince of Orange was made stadt- 
holder. A Protestant synod sat at Dort 13 Noy. 
1618, to 25 May 1619; to which deputies were sent 
from England, and from the reformed churches in 
Europe, to settle the difference between the doctrines 
of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, principally upon 
points of justification and grace. This synod con- 
demned the tenets of Arminius. 


DORYLZAUM (Phrygia). Soliman, the 
Turkish sultan of Iconium, iavie retired from the 
defence of Nicza his capital, was here defeated with 
great loss by the crusaders I July, 1097. Michaud. 


DOTEREL, H.M.S., destroyed by explosion, 
26 April, 1881. See under Navy. 


DOUAY (N. France), the Roman Duacum, was 
taken from the Flemings by Philip the Fair in 
1297; restored by Charles V. in 1368. It reverted 
to Spain, from which it was taken by Louis XIV. in 
1667. It was captured by the duke of Marlborough 
in June, 1710; and retaken by the French 8 Sept. 
1712. This town gives its name to the Roman 
Catholic English version of the Bible authorised by 
the pope, the text being explained by notes of 
Roman divines. The Old Testament was published 
by the English college at Douay in 1609; the New 
had been published at Rheims in 1582. ‘The English 
college for Roman Catholics was founded in 1568 by 
William Allen, afterwards cardinal. Dodd. 


DOURO, a river (separating Spain and Portu- 
gal), which, after a desperate struggle between 
Wellington’s advanced guard under Hill, and the 
French under Soult, was successfully crossed by the 
former on 12 May, 1809. Sosudden was the move- 
ment, that Wellington at 4 o’clock sat down to the 
dinner prepared for the French general. Alison. 


DOVER (Kent), the Roman Dubris. Near 
here Julius Cesar is said to have first landed in 


256 


The Huguenots | 


| A submarine telegraph laid down between Dover 


DRAFTS. 


have been built by him soon after; but this 
disputed. The works were strengthened by Alf 
and succeeding kings, and rebuilt by Henry 
The earliest named constable is Leopoldus de Ber 
in the reign of Ethelred II., followed by « 
Godwin, Odo the brother of William I., &e. 
modern times, this office, and that of warden of 
Cinque Ports, have been frequently conferred 
the prime minister for the time being,—e. 7.; | 
North, Mr. Pitt, lord Liverpool, and the duke 
Wellington. The earl of Dalhousie, late govern 
general for India, appointed in Jan. 1853, died 
Dec. 1860. Lord Palmerston, appointed const 
March, 1861, died 18 Oct. 1865. Earl Grany 
appointed Dec. 1865. See Tunnels. 
The priory was commenced by archbishop Corboyl, 

or Corbois, about . ‘. 

dolf, the pope’s legate ‘ 2 F 13 May, 1 
The pier projected by Henry VIII. : : 3 
Charles II. landed here from his exile . 26 May, 
Iniquitous secret treaty with France signed here 


we i 


May, x 

| The foot barracks burnt by accident . joJduly, x 

Admiralty pier commenced . : . - aa 
Railway to London opened 7 Feb. 


and Calais by Brett : 3 ‘ : 
A telegraph between Dover and Calais 


Part of the cliff fell, 27 Noy. 1810; and 13 Jan. 
Easter volunteer review here . 22 April, 
Suffragan bishop, Edward Parry, D.D. . : 3 
Dover College inaugurated by earl Granville 4 Oct. 
Dover and Deal railway begun by earl Granville, 

29 June, 1878; opened . ‘ f é June, 1 
New municipal buildings and park opened 14 July, 3 

DOWHE, the gifts of a husband toa wife bef 
marriage (Genesis xxxiv. 12). The portion 
a man’s lands or tenements which his wife enj 
for life after her husband’s death. By the law 
king Edmund, a widow was entitled to a moiety 
her husband’s lands or tenements for her life, 9 
The widows of traitors, but not those of felons, ; 
debarred their dower by statute 5 Edw. VI. 15 
By the Dower act passed in 1833, the power of | 
wife over her dower was much diminished. 


DOWN (N.E. Ireland). An ancient see, f 
bishop St. Cailan, in 499. At the instance 
John de Courcy, the conqueror of Ulster, the cat! 
dral, consecrated to the Trinity, was re-dedicatec 
St. Patrick about 1183. The sepulchre of St. Patr 
(buried here in 493, in the abbey of Saul, foun: 
by himself) brought this place into great repu 
The see was united with that of Connor in i 
(see Connor) ; and the see of Dromore was united 
both by the Irish Church Temporalities act, 3 ¢ 
Will. IV. c. 37, Aug. 14, 1833. The cathedral 
Downpatrick was destroyed by lord Grey, | 
deputy of Ireland; for this and other crimes he ¥ 
impeached and beheaded in 1541. Beatson. 


DOWNS, see Naval Battles, 1052-3. 
DRACO’S LAWS (enacted by him wl 


archon of Athens, 621 B.¢.), on account of th 
severity, were said to be written in blood. Idlen 
was punished as severely as murder. This code v 
set aside by Solon’s, 594 B. Cc. 


DRAFTS (or cheques). In 1856, drafts cros: 
with a banker’s name were made payable only to 
through the same banker. This act was passed 
consequence of a decision to the contrary in ‘ 
case of Carlon v. Ireland, 12 Dec., 1855. - In 1é 
the crossing was made a material part of a cheq 
but bankers are not held responsible when ‘ 
crossing does not plainly appear, and a penny sta! 


28 Aug. 1 
opened, 
13 Noy. 


a eee” 


England, 26 Aug., 55 B.c., and its original castle to | was ordered to be affixed to drafts on bankers, co 


¢ 


_ . DRAGONNADES. 


lencing 25 May. In the case of Simmonds ». Taylor, 
fay, 1858, it had been decided that the. crossing 
med no part of the draft. The crossing had been 
vased, and the money paid to the holder of the 
raft, who had stolen it. 

1e “ Cheque-bank,” established for issuing drafts for 
limited amounts, opened 23 July, 1873. 

ae payment of a stolen draft crossed on one banker 
and presented by another banker declared legal ; Smith 
v, Union Bank of London : verdict for defendants, 29 
Nov. 1875. 

ossed Cheques act passed, 15 Aug. 1876. 


DRAGONNADES. The fierce persecution of 
e Protestants in the reign of Louis XIV. by 


agoons, by the minister Louvois, 1684, was con- 
mmated a the revocation of Henry [V.’s edict 


Nantes, 22 Oct. 1685, which drove 50,000 families 
m France. Dzau. 


DRAGOONS. The name is supposed to have 
2m derived from dragon, ‘‘because mounted on 
rseback with lighted match he seemeth like a 
ty dragon.” Meyrick. The Draconarit were 
rse-soldiers, who bore dragons for ensigns. The 
it regiment of dragoons was raised in England, it 
believed, in 1681. ‘‘King Charles II. at the 
storation established a regiment of Life Guards, 
which he added a regiment of Horse Guards, and 
) regiments of Foot Guards; and a third regiment 
Foot Guards was raised at Coldstream, on the 
‘ders of Scotland.’ Captain Curling. 


JRAINAGE oF Lanp, in England, is of 
ly date—remains of British works being still 
ant in the Fens district. Cornelius Vermuyden, 
Dutch engineer, was invited to England in 1621, 
amidst much opposition, he and his successors 
ined the districts termed the Great Levels; see 
vels. In the present century great progress has 
mmade in drainage. In 1861 was passed ‘an 
to amend the laws relative to the drainage of 
d for agricultural purposes;” see Sewers. 


JRAKE’S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir 
neis Drake sailed from Falmouth 1 3 Dec. 1577, 
umnayigated the globe, and returned to England 
rmany perils, 3 Nov. 1580. He was vice-admiral 
ler lord Howard, high admiral of England, in the 
flict with the Spanish Armada, 19 J uly, 1588. 

died at Panama, 28 Jan. 1596, during an 
edition against the Spaniards. 


RAMA, ANCIENT. Both tragedy and comedy 
am with the Greeks. 


first comedy performed at Athens, by Susarion 
id Dolon, on a movable seaffold : B.C. 
chorusintroduced . ; 3 : : ; 
vedy first represented at Athens by Thespis, on 
Waggon (Arund. Marb:) . ’ : : ss i 
pis of Icaria, the inventor of tragedy, performed 
Athens ‘ Alcestis,” and was rewarded with a 
at (tragos). Pliny . 4 2 4 3 4 
aylus introduced dresses and a stage . “rs 
drama was first introduced into Rome on oc- 
sion of a plague which raged during the consu- 
e of C. Sulpicius Peticus and C. Licinius Stolo: 
2 magistrates, to appease the deities, instituted 
‘mes called the “‘ Scenici ;” actors from Etruria 
aced, after the Tuscan manner, to the flute 
‘andrides, first dramatic poet who introduced 
vigues upon the stage; composed about zoo 
ys, of which ro obtained the prize; died B.C. 340 
3 Were represented by Livius Andronicus, who, 
adoning satires, wrote plays with a regular 
‘1 connected plot ; he gave singing and dancing 
different performers 


562 
556 


536 


486 


: : - : - 240 
‘greatest ancient dramatic writers were— 
~ek, Hschylus, Sophocles, Euripides (tragedy), 
1 Aristophanes (comedy), 525—427; Latin, 
‘tus and Terence (comedy), 184—160; Seneca 
——s 7B.0.—A.D. 65 


257 


DRAMATIC COLLEGE. 


Acted in Greek at Cambridge ; “‘ Agamemnon” of 
4Eschylus and “ Ajax” of Sophocles, Nov. 1882 : 
* Birds.” Of Aristophanes, 28 Nov. 1883, 


DRAMA, MOopeErRn, arose early in the rude 
attempts of minstrels and buftoons at fairs in France, 
Italy, and England, and also in the performance of 
classical lays at the universities, still represented 
by the Westminster play. Stories from the Bible 
(Mystery Plays), represented by the priests, were 
the origin of sacred comedy. Warton. 

Gregory N azianzen, father of the Church, is said to 

have constructed a drama on the Passion of 

Christ, to counteract heathen profanities about 364 
Ancient Mahometan miracle-play of ‘‘Hasan and 

Husan,” sons of Ali; published by sir L. Pelly . 
Fitzstephen, in his “Life of Thomas 4 Becket,” 

asserts that—‘‘London had for its theatrical 

exhibitions holy plays, and the representation of 
miracles, wrought by holy confessors ;” he died 
about rr90 
about 1270 


1879 


The Chester Mysteries performed 3 
The Coventry, Chester, Townley, and other mysteries 
have been printed during the present century. 
Plays performed at Clerkenwell by the parish clerks, 
and ‘‘miracles” represented in the fields. 25239 
The “Passion of Christ” a miracle-play, still fre- 
quently performed at Ober-Ammergau in Bavaria, 
is said to have had its origin after a pestilence in 
This play was witnessed by the prince of Wales and 
other distinguished persons in the summer and 
autumn 4 “ - - : : : . 1871 
Performance . x 3 -_ 17-26 May, 25 Sept. 1880 
Its proposed performance at the Westminster aqua- 
rium, 4 Nov., was stopped by the disapprobation 
of many 5 2 ; - ; ‘ -. Oct. 1878 
[The ‘‘ Passion-play” is still performed in Spain, 
with painful realism. ] 
econ characters introduced in the x 5th cen- 
ury, 
Skelton and others wrote ‘ Moralities ” about 1500 
The first regular drama acted in Europe was the 
““Sophonisba” of Trissino, at Rome, in the pre- 
sence of pope Leo X. (Voltwire) ; : Bead 
First royal licence for the drama in England (to 
master Burbage, and four others, servants to the 
earl of Leicester) to act plays at the Globe, Bank- 
side ; ; ‘ 3 : : - 1574 
Shakespeare began to write L " - about 1590 
A licence granted to Shakespeare and others . - 1603 
Plays opposed by the Puritans in 1633, suspended 
during the commonwealth, 1649 ; restored - 1660 
Two companies of regular performers were licensed 
by Charles II., Killigrew’s and sir William Dave- 
nant’s. The first was at the Bull, Vere-street, 
Clare-market, which was immediately afterwards 
removed to Drury-lane; the other in Dorset- 
gardens, 1662. Till this time, boys performed 
women’s parts; but Mrs. Coleman (the first 
female on the stage) had performed J anthe, in 
Davenant’s “‘ Siege of Rhodes,” in ; ; ‘ 
Sir William Davenant introduced operas, and both 
companies united, 1684, and continued together 
till 1694, when a schism under Betterton led to the 
opening of a theatre in Lincoln’s-inn-fields, the 
parent of Covent-garden - : é : 
Act for the revision of plays and for licensing them 
previously to being performed ; - ‘ 1737 
Authors’ Dramatic Copyright Protection act, 3 Will. 
IV. c, t5, rod une, 1833 ; extended to operas, 1 July, 1842 
School of Dramatic Art, Argyle-street, London, W., 
opened . : : ‘ - ! 7 4 Oct. 1832 
See Theatres, Covent-garden, Drwry-lane, and Copyright. 


DRAMATIC COLLEGH, for the benefit of 
distressed actors and their children, was proposed 
21 July, 1858, at the Princess’s theatre, by Messrs. 
C. Dickens, Thackeray, C. Kean, B. Webster, and, 
others. Mr. Henry Dodd’s offer of land and money,. 
with certain stipulations, was declined Jan. 1859. 
The first stone of the buildings at Maybury, near 
Woking, was laid by the prince consort, r J une, 
1860; and on 29 Sept. 1862, seven annuitants were 
installed. The central hall was opened by the 
prince of Wales, 5 June, 1865. The queen was the 


8 


1633 


1666 


169 


- 


a 


\ 
! ' 


DRAMATIC REFORM. 


258 


DRINKING-FOUNTAINS. | 


patron. The viceroy of Egypt was present at the 
annual féte at the Crystal Palace, July 1867, and 
gave 500/. to the college. The scheme was unsuc- 
cessful. On 12 Nov. 1877, it was determined to 
close the college, and provide for the inmates. 
The buildings were sold by private contract about 
23 July, 1880. 


DRAMATIC REFORM ASSOCIATION, 
started at Manchester, Jan. 1878. 


DRAPIER’S LETTERS, by dean Swift, 
published in 1723-4 against Wood's Halfpence 
(which see). 


DREADNOUGHT. In this ship, which was 
engaged in the battle of Trafalgar, 21 Oct. 1805; 
was established a hospital for the seamen of all 
nations, by the Seamen’s Hospital Society estab- 
lished 1821. The old vessel was replaced by others. 
The removal of the men to Greenwich hospital was 
proposed in 1867; effected, April, 1870. 


DREAMS are mentioned in Scripture, e. g., 
Joseph’s and Pharaoh’s, 1715 B.c. (Gen. xxxvii. 
and xli.), and Nebuchadnezzar’s, 603 and 570 B.C. 
(Daniel ii. and iv.). The first attempt to interpret 
dreams and omens is ascribed to Amphictyon of 
Athens, 1497 B.C. 

Thomas, lord Lyttelton, dreamt that a young female, 
dressed in white, solemnly warned him of his dissolution 
in three days from that time. On the third day his 
lordship had a party to spend the evening with him, and 
about the time predicted, he observed to the company 
present, that ‘he believed he should jockey the ghost ;” 
but in a few minutes afterwards he was seized with a 
sudden faintness, carried to bed, and rose no more. He 
died 27 Nov. 1779, aged 35. [The whole story is now dis- 
credited]. 


ee SCOTT CASE; sce United States, 
1857. 
DREDGING; see Deep Sea. 
DREPANUM (Sicily). Near this place the 


Carthaginian admiral Adherbal totally defeated the 
Roman fleet under Publius Claudius, 249 B. c. 


DRESDEN, termed the German Florence, 
became the capital of Saxony in 1548.* 


Alliance of Dresden between Saxony and Denmark 


and Russia Z ‘ ‘ : : 28 June, 1709 
Peace of Dresden between Hungary, Prussia, and 


Saxony . ; : ; 5 é 25 Dec. 1745 
Taken by Frederick of Prussia in 1756; by the 

Austrians . ‘ ; : ‘ : ene 7SO 
Bombarded in vain by Frederick : July, 1760 
Held by Austrians : ; June—July, 1809 


Severe contests between the allied army under the 
prince of Schwarzenberg, and the French com- 
manded by Napoleon A : 26, 27 Aug. 

The allies, 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his 
position at Dresden, and the event had nearly 
proved fatal to them, but for an error in the con- 
duct of general Vandamme. They were defeated 
with dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat 
into Bohemia ; but Vandamme pursuing them too 
far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself 
and all his staff made prisoners. In this battle, 
general Moreau received his mortal wound, while 
in conversation with the emperor of Russia 27 Aug. 

Marshal St. Cyr, and 25,000 French troops, sur- 
rendered Dresden to the allies : ti, Nov; %; 

During a political commotion the king abdicated, 
and prince Frederick, his nephew, was declared 
regent ; : : : - 9 Sept. et seg. 1830 

An insurrection 3 May ; suppressed 6 May, 1849 


1813 


3? 


* Dresden china was invented by John Frederick 
Bottger (or Bottcher), an apothecary’s boy, about 1709. 
He died 13 March, 1719. A costly service, each piece 
exquisitely painted, with battles, &c.,: was presented to 
the duke of Wellington by the king of Prussia, in 1816. 


DRESS. The attire of the Hebrew wome1 
censured in Jsaiah iii., about 760 B.c. Excess 
dress among the early Romans was restrained 


| sumptuary laws: and also in England by numer 


statutes, in 1363, 1465, 1570, &e. (see Cap). Ste 

F. W. Fairholt’s ‘*Costume in England”’ (184 

contains a history of dress with numerous illust 

tions derived from MSS., the works of Strutt, < 

J.R. Planché’s elaborate ‘‘Cyclopeedia of Costum 

first appeared in 1876. A ‘‘dress-making ¢o 

pany’”’ was established in London, 6 Feb. 18 

with the view of improving the condition of 1 

workwomen. 

Sir Walter Raleigh wore a white satin-pinked vest, cl 
sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a doublet fin 
flowered, and embroidered with pearls, and in — 
feather of his hat a large ruby and pearl drop at_ 
bottom of the sprig in place of a button. His breech 
with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at 
end, all white ; and buff shoes, which, on great co 
days, were so gorgeously covered with precious sto. 
as to have exceeded the value of 6600l. ; and he ha 
suit of armour of solid silver, with sword and t 
blazing with diamonds, rubies, and pearls. 

King James’s favourite, the duke of Buckingham, had 
diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose 
shake a few off on the ground, he obtained all the fa 
he desired from the pickers-up, who were generally 
Daines de la Cour. 

The court dress of civilians, previously that of the tim: 
the Georges, was modified by the lord chamberla 
lord Sydney, in 1869. 

The BLoomMerR CostuME, introduced into America 
1849, by Mrs. Ann Bloomer, and worn there by mé 
of the women. It resembled male attire, being 
open-fronted jacket and loose trowsers, the latter w 
like those of the Turk, but gathered in at the ankl 
The Bloomer dress was adopted by a few females in 
west of London, in August, 1851 ; but though ree 
mended by some American ladies in popular lectw 
it was soon totally discontinued. 

Adress exhibition opened in Piccadilly, London, 19 M 
1883. 

Rational Dress Association active, May, 1883. 


DREUX (N. W. France). Here Montmore: 
defeated the Huguenots under Condé, 19 Dee. 15| 
Here is the burying-place of the Orleans fam 
since 1816. The duke of Guise, aged 18, the |; 
surviving child of the duc d’Aumale, was bur 
here 27 July, 1872. The bodies of king Lo 
Philippe and others of his family were broug 
here from England and buried, 9 June, 1876. 


DRILL REVIEW of children; see Edu 
tion, 1870. 


DRILLING-MACHINES, in agricultu 
One was invented by Jethro Tull, early in the |; 
century. 


DRINK, see Drunkards. 


DRINKING-FOUNTAINS. Several w 
erected in Liverpool in 1857. The Metropolit 
Drinking Fountain Association was formed in Le 
don in April, 1859, by lord John Russell, the e 
of Carlisle, Mr. 3 Gurney, and others. The fi 
of the numerous fountains since erected is that n¢ 
St. Sepulchre’s church, Skinner-street, 21 Ap! 
1859. The magnificent fountain in Victoria-pal 
London, was inaugurated by the donor, Miss (afte 
wards baroness) Burdett-Coutts, 28 June, 1862. 
remarkable drinking-fountain (the gift of the mal 
rajah of Vizianigram) was inaugurated in Hyé 
park, 29 Feb. 1868; another in Regent’s-park, t 
gift of a Parsee, Aug. 1869.—324 in the mea 
June, 1877; 392 fountains, 404 cattle-troughs, Ju 
1879; 437 fountains, 438 troughs, July, 1880. 
The fountain at the Royal Exchange, with the statue 

ee (cost, by subscription, rsool.), finished 0 

1079- 


1 


| DROGHEDA. 259 DUBLIN. 
‘DROGHEDA (ireland, E.), formerly Tre- 


Constantine, king of Scots, punished it with death, 
igh, a place of great importance, having the 


of 870. By 21 James I., c. 7, 1623, a drunkard was 
‘ivilege of coining money. Here was passed | liable to a penalty of tive shillings, or six hours in 
oynings’ law (which see) in 1494. In the reign of | the stocks. See Temperance and Tee-totaller. 
lward VI. an act was passed for the foundation | 4 commission to inquire into the prevalence of 

a university here. The town was besieged intemperance granted by the lords on the motion 
veral times in the contests between 1641 and of the archbishop of Canterbury, 30 June, 1876; 

gt, and Cromwell took it by storm, and put the 
vernor, sir A. Aston, and the whole of the garri- 


— 


report neutral respecting alcohol; recommends 
trial of modified Gothenburg system (which see), 


: : issued - é : 4 18 March, 1879 
He! to the ‘aed 12 ati 1649. More than Bont A society for promoting legislation for the control 
m, most o them nglish, perished. It sur- and cure of habitual drunkards formed . 22 Sept. 1876 
adered to William III. in 1690. The establishment of an industrial home for intem- 
perate females proposed at the Mansion 1 

DROMORE, BrsHorric or (N. E. Ireland), fondon se OS ye0g 
mded by St. Coleman, first bishop, about 556. | Habitual Drunkards bill, read 2nd time in commons, 
‘an extent returned 15 James I., this see was 3 July, 1878; passed. 3 , . 30 July, 1879 
tued in the king’s books at 507. Jeremy Taylor | Society for the study and cure of Inebriates, esta- 
Ss bishop of Down and Connor in 1660, and of oases Mr. Wm Hoyle computes Raine ae, 
| . : . eave : y s that 
8 a i = anes ee yp amain to nation in 1860 spent in intoxicating liquors, 
wn by the Iris ureh temporalities act of |  36,897,6831.; in 1876, 147,288,760l.; in 1879, 
33. 2a t43,80gt- In 1880, for beer, 67,881,673/. ; 
: ritish spirits, 28,457,486l.; foreign spirits, 
aU LEIM, capital of Norway, founded by 10,173,014. ; wine, 14,287, 1021. : British wines, &e., 

if I. about 998. iS estimated 1,500,000l. ; total, 122,299,275]. 
WN : : otal drink bill 1881, 127,074,460l.; 1884, 126,349,2561. 
fae fli eS Gi ee Peat: The On comparison, it was asserted that our drink pill 

ons Intiicted death by drowning in a quagmire, does not exceed that of France . 1882 


ore 450 B.C. 


Wwnings of the royalists in the Loire at Nantes, 


command of the brutal Carrier, Nov. 1793, were 
94 priests were drowned at one 


ned Noyades. 
e. He was condemned to death in Dee. 1794. 


ieties for the recovery of drowning persons were 


‘instituted in Holland, in 1767. The second 
ety is said to have been formed at Milan, in 
5; the third in Hamburg, in 1771; the fourth 
‘aris, in 1772; and the fifth in London, in 1774. 
motto of the Royal Humane Society in England 
Lateat scintitlula forsan—* A small spark may 
laps lie hid.” Francois Texier, of Dunkerque, 
‘T saving 50 lives at different times, was drowned 
“storm, Oct. 1871. 


med in inland waters in England and Wales, 18 77> 
32. In United Kingdom in 1880, 4044. 


RUGS, sales regulated by Sale of Food and 
ss Act, passed 11 Aug. 1875. See Pharmacy. 


‘RUIDS. Priests, among the ancient Ger- 
3, Gauls, and Britons, so named from their 
ration for the oak (Brit. derw). They ad- 
stered sacred things, were the interpreters of 
‘gods, and supreme judges. They headed the 
ns Who opposed Czsar’s first landing, 55 B.c., 
were exterminated by the Roman governor, 
mius Paulinus, A.p. 61. 


RUM: the invention is ascribed to Bacchus, 
according to Polyenus, “ gave his signals of 
)> with eymbals and drums.’ It was used by 
igyptians ; and brought by the Moors into 
|, 1713. The drum, or drum capstan, for 
ung anchors, was invented by sir S. Morland, 
(35. Anderson. 


\3UMCLOG (W. Scotland). Here the 
| anters defeated Graham of Claverhouse, on 
te, 1679. An account of the conflict is given 
| alter Scott, in ‘Old Mortality.” 
‘UMCONDRA, see Roman Catholic. 
‘UMMOND LIGHT; see Lime-light. 
VUNKARDS were to be excommunicated 


_ early church, 59 (1 Cor. v.11). In England, 
m law forbade drunkenness in the clergy, 747. 


Stow. It is said to have been in- 
ted on eighty intractable bishops near Nicome- 
j A.D. 370; and to have been adopted as a 
lishment in France by Louis XI. The wholesale 


Drink bill decreased in 1881-3 


DRURY-LANE THEATRE derives its 
origin from a cock-pit, which was converted into a 
theatre in the reign of James I. It was rebuilt 
and called the Pheenix; and Charles II. granted an 
exclusive patent to Thomas Killigrew, 25 April, 
1662. The actors were called ‘‘ the king’s servants,”’ 
and ten of them, called gentlemen of the great 
chamber, had an annual allowance of ten yards of 
scarlet cloth, with lace; see under Theatres. 
Drury-lane Theatrical Fund, established, 1766. 


DRUSKES, a warlike people dwelling among the 
mountains of Lebanon, derive their origin from a 
fanatical Mahometan sect which arose in Egypt 
about 996, and fled to Palestine to avoid persecution. 
They now retain hardly any of the religion of their 
ancestors: they eat pork and drink wine, and do 
not practise circumcision, pray, or fast. In the 
middle of 1860, in consequence of disputes (in 
which doubtless both parties were to blame), the 
Druses attacked their neighbours the Maronites 
(which see), whom they massacred, it was said, with- 
out regard to age or sex. Peace was made in July; 
but in the meantime a religious fury seized the 
Mahometan population of the neighbouring cities, 
and a general massacre of Christiansensued. Fuad 
Pacha with Turkish troops, and general Hautpoul 
with French auxiliaries, invaded Lebanon in Aug. 
and Sept. The Druses surrendered, giving up their 
chiefs, Jan. 1861. See Damascus and Syria. 


DUALIN, anew explosive substance (said to be 
from four to ten times more powerful than gun- 
powder), composed of varying proportions of cellu- 
lose (woody fibre), nitro-starch, nitro-mannite, and 
nitro-cellulose ; invented by Carl Ditmar, a Prus- 
sian, and made known in 1870. This name is also 
given to another explosive compound, invented by 
Mr. Nobel, composed of ammonia and sawdust, acted 
on by nitro-sulphuric acid. 


DUALISM, a term applied to the equaliy- 
matched conflicting powers of good and evil in tne 
Persian mythology, the Hormuzd and Ahriman 
of Zoroaster: is also applied to the principles 
of the advocates for a separate government of 
Hungary under the emperor of Austria; effected in 
1867. 

DUBLIN, capital of Ireland, anciently called 

8 2 


{ Z ay t " “ 
DUBLIN. 260 DUBLIN.  - 
ASKeled; said to have been built 140. Auliana, | Great custom-house fire. . g Aug. 1 
daughter of Alpinus, a lord or chief among the | Railroad to Kingstown . . . . .  .¢ 
Irish, having been drowned at the ford where now | British Association meethere . . . 6 Aug. x 
Dublin new police act 4d uly, x 


Whitworth- bridge i is built, he changed the name to 
Auliana, by Ptolemy called Eblana (after wards cor- 
rupted into Dublana). Alpinus is said to have 
brought ‘the then rude hill into the form of a 
town,” about 155; see Jreland and Trinity Colleges. 


Christianity established by St. Patrick, and St. 
Patrick’s cathedral founded about 448 
Dublin environed with walls by the Danes. 798 
Named by king Edgar in the preface to his charter 
af Nobilissima Civitas” 3 : ws G04 
Battle of Clontarf (which see) 3 5 23 April, 1014 
Dublin taken by Ramond le Gros, ue for Henry II. 


who soon after arrives F s) rr7t 
Charter granted by this king . Wit fe 
Christ church built by the Danes, 1038 ; rebuilt 


about . r180—1225 
Slaughter of 500 British by the Irish citizens near 

Dublin (see Cullens Wood) - 1209 
Assemblage of Irish princes, who swear “allegiance 


to king John E I21I0 
Foundation of Dublin castle laid by Henry de Loun- 

dres, 1205 ; finished : 1213 
John de Decer first provost ; Richard de St. Olave 

and John Stakebold first bailiffs (see Mayor) . . 1308 
Thomas Cusack, first. mayor 1409 


Besieged by the son of the earl of Kildare, lord 
deputy 


if I50c 
Christ church made a deanery and chapter | by 


Henry VIII. (see Christ Church) 1541 
Bailiff changed to sheriffs ; John todos and Thomas 

Comyn, first i - 1548 
Trinity college founded ; : s ‘ ‘i Aah sles 
Charter granted by James I. 1609 


Convocation which established the Thirty-nine 
articles of religion . 

Besieged by the marquis ‘of Ormond, defeated at 
battle of Rathmines (which see) . 2 Aug. 

Cromwell arrives in Dublin with ons foot and 400 
horse . Aug. 


1614 


1649 


Chief magistr ate styled lord mayor . 1665 
Blue coat hospital incorporated - 1670 
Essex bridge built by sir H. Jervis . - 1676 
Royal hospital, Kilmainham, founded 7 . 1683 
James II. arrives in Dublin, 24 March ; proclaimed 
4 May, 1689 
Great gunpowder explosion . P P z yi tog 
Lamps first erected in the city . 7 1698 
Infirmary, Jervis-street, founded. 1728 
Parliament-house begun - 1729 
Foundling hospital incorporated . . £739 
St. Patrick’s spire erected (see St. Patrick) - 1749 


Roy al Dublin Society tia ay 7a > : coma 
Hibernian society 

Marine society ' 

Queen’s bridge first er ected, 1684 ; destr oy ed by a 


39 
2 2765 
- 1766 


flood, 1763 ; rebuilt ; ‘ 1768 
Act for a general pavement of the city Seah ke) 
Royal exchange begun, 1769 ; opened 2 ET TO 
Order of St. Patrick instituted. F si L705 
Bank of Ireland instituted (see Bank) ‘ ter 
Police established by statute é o 1 n700 
Royal academy incorporated bee 
Custom house begun, 1781 ; opened . 1791 
Dublin library instituted . F Sey 
Fire at the parliament house - 1792 
Carlisle bridge erected - 1794 
City armed association . A - 1796 
New Four law courts opened . 35 
The rebellion ; arrest of lord Edward Fitzgerald, in 

Thomas-street 19 May, 1798 
Union with England (see Union) ‘ zr Jan. 1801 
Emmett’s insurrection . 3 23 July, 1803 
Hibernian Bible society : - 1806 
Bank transferred to College-green . 1803 
Dublin institution founded . , . 1811 
Riot at the theatre - 16 Dec. 1814 
Visit of George IV. : : : . 2 Aug. r82r 
Theatre Royal opened . . , : s eta gr 
The “Bottle riot” . ‘ i . . 14 Dec. 1822 
Hibernian academy  . 16 Aug. 1823 
Dublin lighted with gas . 5 Oct. 1825 


Rd. Whately made spehbighop (very activ ve in edu- 
eation) 4 LOST 


Cemetery, Mount Jerome, consecrated te Sept. 


Royal arcade burnt. = C 25 April, 
Poor-law bill passed * * 3 * \ 31 Jily, 
Awful storm raged 4 . Jan. 
O’Connell’s arrest (see Trials) . 4 Oct. 


He is found guilty, 12 Feb. 

His death at Genoa . 15 May, 

Arrest of Mitchell, of the “United Irishman” 
newspaper. - 13 May, 

State trial of Wm. Smith O’Brien and Meagher in 
Dublin 15 May, 

[These persons were afterwards tried at ‘Clonmel, 
and found guwilty. } 


Trial of Mitchell; guilty . A - 26 May, 


“Trish Felon” newspaper first published, x July, 
‘‘ Nation” and ‘‘ Irish Felon” suppressed, 29 July, 


: liber ated ay ‘Sept. 


Conviction of O’Doherty ¢ : Ov. 
The queen visits Dublin : ; 6 Aug. 
Royal exchange opened as a city hall . 30 Sept. 


Dublin industrial exhibition, which owed its exis- 
tence to Mr. Dargan, who advanced 80,oool. for 
the purpose, was erected by Mr. (afterwards sir) 
John Benson, in the Dublin society’s grounds, 
near Merrion-square. It consisted of one large 
and two smaller halls, lighted from above. It 
was opened y earl St. Germains, the lord-lieu- 
tenant is 12 May, 

Visited by the queen and prince Albert, 30 Aug. ; 
and closedon . t Noy 

Acts passed to establish a national "gallon 
museum, &c. o Aug. 1854; and 2 July, 

British Association meet herd (2nd time) . 26 Aug. 

Arrival of lord Eglinton—disgraceful contest be- 
tween the Trinity college students and the police ; 
the latter severely blamed . 12 March, 


Fine art exhibition proposed, 20 July, 1860 ; opened 


by the lord-lieutenant, the earl of Carlisle, 24 | 


May, 1861 ; visited by the prince of Wales, x J uly : : 
and by the queen and prince consort 22 Aug. 
National association for social science met, 14-22 Aug. 
Demonstration at the funeral of the rebel M‘Manus, 
10-12 Noy. 

Lord Rosse installed as chancellor of the university, 


17 Feb. 
Abp. Whately dies, 8 Oct.; succeeded by Rd. 
Chenevix Trench Noy. 


Statue of Oliver Goldsmith inaugurated by the 
lord-lieutenant, 5 Jan. ; who opens the national 
gallery of Ireland. . 30 Jan. 

New Richmond hospital, to be called the “ Carnal 
chael School of Medicine,” founded by lord Car- 


lisle (Mr. Carmichael, the surgeon, bene 


10,000l. to it) 9 March, 
Industrial exhibition opened by the lord chaneéilam 
25 May, 
The O’Connell monument founded . 8 Aug. 
St. Patrick’s cathedral restored by Mr. Benjamin 
L. Guinness ; re-opened . 24 Feb. 
The international exhibition opened by the ate | 
of Wales . 9 May, 
The newspaper “The Irish People » seized, and 
several Fenians takenin custody. (See Fenians, 
and Ireland.) ° - 15 Sept. 
International exhibition closed . Noy. 
Great fire: Mrs. Delany and five ‘others burnt ; fire- 
brigade blamed 
Great banquet to John Bright. ' - 30 
Meeting of Royal Agricultural Society of. my 4 


Aug. 
Two policemen shot (probably by Feit | A Oct. 


Funeral demonstration for Allen, Gould, and Larkin, 
the Fenians 5 . 8 Dec. 
Visit of prince of Wales (see Treland) 4 15 April, 
Sir Benjamin L. Guinness, benefactor, died r9 May, 
Church congress held 29 Sept.—2 Oct. 
Public entry of earl Spencer as lord-lieut. . 16 Jan. 
Smith O’Brien’s statue unveiled . . 26 Dee. 
State funeral of lord mayor Bulfin (died in office), 
16 June, 

Fine art and industrial exhibition opened by the 
duke of Edinburgh. June, 


5 
Closed by the lord-lieutenant, earl Spencer, 30 Nov. — 


_ 


DUBLIN. 261 DUELLING. 
encer dock inaugurated by the carnal : a duel, 1679.* Duelling was checked in the army, 
At TS, Apri’, 1°73 | 1792; and has been abolished in England, by the 
é , hd . . . . ? . 

eat fire rioting suppressed by the age! >, | influence of public opinion, aided by the prince 
nference on “Home Rule” in the Rotondo, ” consort, A society ‘for the discouraging of duel- 
18-21 Nov. ,, | ling”? was established in 1845. ‘The British Code 
ernational Rifle Match, Irish and Americans; of Duel,” published in 1824, was approved by the 
imericanbs Won. 8. . ll, 29 June, 1875 | duke of Wellington and others. See Battle, Wager 

tue of Henry Grattan unveiled 6 Jan. 1876 of, Combat, and Jarnac. 


try of the duke of Marlborough, new lord lieu- 


enant . A 5 : : ; ; ro Jan, 
edom of city given to Mr. W. E. Gladstone, 
7 Nov. 

‘ist church cathedral thoroughly restored by Mr. 
. E. Street, at the expense of Mr. Henry Roe 
bove 250,000l.), re-opened '. 4 a hp dune 
tish Association meet here (3rd time) . 14 Aug. 
wth of cardinal Paul Cullen, r.c. abp. of Dublin 
since 1851), 24 Oct.; successor, monsignor 
[eCabe, elected . - A F - 28 Noy. 
tenary of birth of Thomas Moore celebrated, 
28 May, 
atre Royal burnt down, Mr. Egerton, the mana- 


2r, and 5 others, perish . s a 9g Feb. 1880 
at convention of the land league ; Mr. Parnell 

sclares for abolition of landlordism 15 Sept. 1881 
znix park murders (see Ireland) . 6 May, 1882 


ime of D. O’Connell unveiled, and the Exhibition 
‘ Irish Arts and Manufactures (not patronised 
7 the queen and loyalists) opened by the lord 
ayor Dawson, 15 Aug. 1882, closed 6 Jan. 1883. 
iffection of the police, 1-2 Sept.; submission, 


3 Sept. 
‘overy of the assassination plot (see Ireland) 
Feb 


eb. 
tile attempt to blow up Ship-street barracks 
25 April, 
6 of the duke of Edinburgh with the Channel 
et warmly received end of Aug. 4 awe 
id review of the troops in the Phcenix park by 


2 duke of Cambridge . 4 - 308ept. ,, 
‘bishop Trench retires, 28 Nov. ; lord Plunket 
ieted archbishop : about 18 Dec. ,, 
h of cardinal M‘Cabe rz Feb. 1885 


prince and princess of Wales enthusiastically 
‘eived, 8 April; he lays foundation of Museum 
Science and Art, &c. : TOPADTILo Gs 


UBLIN, ARCHBISHOPRIC OF. It is sup- 
i that the bishopric of Dublin was founded by 
*atrick, in 448. Gregory, bishop in 1121, be- 
» archbishop in 1152. It was united to Glan- 
sh in 1214. George Browne, an Augustine friar 
»ndon (deprived by queen Mary in 1554), was 
first Protestant archbishop. Dublin has two 
odrals, Christ Church, and St. Patrick’s. The 
ue was valued, in the king’s books, 30 
'y VIII, at 5347. 15s. 2d. Irish. Kildare, on 
wt avoidance, 
shops, 


JCAT, a coin so called because struck by 
3 Johnson. First coined by Longinus, 
nor of Italy. Procopius. First struck in the 
y of Apulia, 1140. Du Cange. Coined by 
tt, king of Sicily, in 1240. 
JCKING-STOOL; see Cucking-stool. 


JDLEY GALLERY. The exhibition held 
1865 in the Egyptian Hall was removed to a 
vuilding in Piccadilly, under the direction of 
Judley Gallery Art Society, established in 


| Judley gallery society formed 


i 1883 
|\JELLING. took its rise from the judicial 


ts of the Celtic nations. The first’ forma] 
n England, between William count of Eu and 
'8y Baynard, took place 1096. Duelling in 
»Inatters was forbidden in France, 1 305. 
AsT. challenged the emperor Charles V. 1528 
ut effect. The fight with small swords was 
uced into England, 1587. Proclamation that 
son should be pardoned who killed another in 


was annexed to Dublin, 1846; | 


MEMORABLE DUELS. 


Between the duke of Hamilton and lord Mohun, 
fought 15 Nov. 


| Mr. Curran and major Hobart.  . 


[This duel was fought with small swords, in Hyde- 
park. Lord Mohun was killed upon the spot, 
and the duke expired of his wounds as he was 
being carried to his coach. ] 

Capt. Peppard and Mr. Hayes ; latter killed 

Messrs. Hamilton and Morgan ; former killed 

S. Martin wounded Mr. Wilkes, M.P. 16 Nov. 

Lord Byron killed Mr. Chaworth - 26 Jan, 

Lord Townsend wounded lord Bellamont, x Feb. 

Comte d’Artois wounded by duc de Bourbon, at 
Paris - : : - ; . 21 March, 

Mr. Donovan and capt. Hanson ; the latter killed, 

13 Nov. 

Charles James Fox wounded by Mr. Adam, 30 Nov. 

Col. Fullerton. wounded lord Shelburne, 22 March, 

Rev. Mr. Allen killed Lloyd Dulany . . 18 June, 

Col. Thomas killed by col. Gordon 4 Sept. 

Lord Macartney wounded by major-general Stuart, 

8 June, 

Mr. M‘Keon killed George N. Reynolds, 1787 ; exe- 
cuted : . ; p 3 3 16 Feb. 

Mr. Purefoy killed col. Roper. : 2 - Dec. 

Duke of York and col. Lennox, aft. duke-of Rich- 
mond (for an insignificant cause) 26 May, 

Sir George Ramsay and captain Macrea: sir George 
killed . 5 : ae 

x April, 

Mr. Macduff and Mr. Prince ; latter killed 4 June, 


| Mr. Harvey Aston and lieut. Fitzgerald ; the former 


‘severely wounded s . 5 
Mr. Anderson killed Mr. Stevens 
Mr. Julius killed Mr. Graham £ A 
Mr. John Kemble and Mr. Aiken; no 


25 June, 
20 Sept. 
19 July, 
fatality, 
x March, 
Karl of Lonsdale and captain Cuthbert ; no fatality 
9 June, 
8 Nov. 
- 27 May, 
. 28 June, 
20 Aug. 


M. de Chauvigny wounded Mr. Lameth 
Wm. Pitt and Geo. Tierney A : 
Lord Valentia wounded by Mr. Gawle 
Mr. Carpenter killed by Mr. Pride 
Henry Grattan wounded Isaac Corry I5 Jan. 
Lieut. Willis killed major Impey : .” 26 Aug. 
George Ogle and Bernard Coyle ; no fatality 
Sir Richard Musgrave and Mr. Todd Jones ; sir 
Richard wounded F : : : 8 June, 
Capt. Mac Namara killed col. Montgomery, 6 April, 
Gen. Hamilton and col Aaron Burr (in America) ; 
the general killed. : : - : AG 
Capt. Best killed lord Camelford 6 (died 10) March, 
Surgeon Fisher killed lieut. Torrens 22 March, 
Baron Hompesch wounded Mr. Richardson, 21 Sept. 
Sir Francis Burdett and Mr. Paull; both Pelee 
5 May, 
Mr. Alcock killed Mr. Colclough ; and lost his expe 
8 June, 
M. de Granpré and M. Le Pique, in balloons, near 
Paris, and the latter killed ; - 3 May 
Major Campbell and captain Boyd; latter killed 
(former hanged, 2 Oct. 1808) i 23 June, 
Lord Paget and captain Cadogan ; neither wounded 
30 May, 
Lord Castlereagh wounded Geo. Canning rx Sept. 
Mr. Clarke killed George Payne. . 6 Sept. 
Ensign de Balton killed capt. Boardman, 4 March, 
Lieut. Stewart killed lieut. Bagnal . : 7 Oct. 
Mr. Edward Maguire killed lieut. Blundell, 9 July, 
Captain Stackpole (of ‘‘ Statira” frigate) and lieut. 


1712 


29 
17096 
> 
” 
1800 
18014 


- 1802 


1803 
1804 


%? 
1806 


o% 


1807 


99 


, 1808 


93 
1809 


99 
1810 
1811 
1812 
1813 


panne) 


* “ As many as 227 official and memorable duels were 
fought during my grand climacteric.” —Sir J. Barrington, 
A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in which 63 indi- 
viduals were killed and 96 wounded ; in three of these 
cases both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the 


survivors suffered the sentence of the law. 


Hamilton, 


7 


DUKE. 


Cecil; the captain killed (arose on account of 


words spoken four years previously) April, 
Mr, D. O’Connell killed Mr. D’Esterre . 31 Jan. 
Colonel Quentin and colonel Palmer 7 Feb. 


Mr. O’Connell and Mr. Peel ; an affair, no meeting 
31 Aug. 

Major Greene and Mr. Price, in America ; the latter 
killed, greatly lamented , 4 
Hindes 


Lieut. Conroy killed lieut. " § March, 


Major Lockyer killed Mr. John Sutton to Dec. 
Mr. O’Callaghan killed lieut. Bayley . 12 Jan. 
Mr. Grattan and the earl of Clare . 7 June, 
Mr. Henshaw and Mr. Hartinger ; both desperately 

wounded 5 : 5 i : 18 Sept. 
Mr. Christie killed Mr. Scott . 16 Feb. 
M. Manuel and Mr. Beaumont : ; 9 April, 


Mr. James Stuart killed sir Alexander Boswell, 
26 March, 

The duke of Buckingham and the duke of Bedford ; 
no fatality . : : : ss . 2 May, 
Gen. Pepe wounded gen. Carascosa 28 Feb. 
Mr. Westall killed capt. Gourlay . 3 4 ach Ge 
Mr. Beaumont and Mr. Lambton : no result x July, 
Mr. Hayes killed Mr. Bric : : 26 Dec. 
Rev. Mr. Hodson wounded Mr. Grady Aug. 
Duke of Wellington and the earl of Winchelsea ; no 


injury . i A i : Z 21 March, 
Capt. Helsham killed lieut. Crowther 1 April, 
Mr. W. Lambrecht killed Mr. O. Clayton  . 8 Jan. 
Capt. Smith killed Mr. O’Grady . 18 March, 
Mr. Storey wounded Mr. Matthias 22 Jan. 


Sir John W. Jeffcott and Dr. Hennis; the latter 
wounded, and died on the 18th 5 to May, 
Lord Alvanley and Mr. Morgan O’Connell ; 2 shots 
each P P : : ; : «ig May, 
Sir Colquhoun Grant and lord Seymour ; no fatality 
29 May, 

Mr. Roebuck, M.P., and Mr. Black, editor of the 
** Morning Chronicle ;” 2 shots each . 19 Nov. 
Capt. Dickson wounded gen. Evans . 8 April, 
Mr. Ruthven and Mr. Scott ; and Mr. Ruthven and 
Mr. Close (Mr. Scott’s second) ; the latter wounded 
23 May, 

Emile de Girardin killed Armand Carrel (both jour- 
nalists) : , : : : 24 July, 
The earl of Cardigan and captain Tuckett ; 2 shots 
each; the latter wounded; (the earl was tried in the 
house of lords and acquitted, 16 Feb. 1841) 12 Sept. 
Captain Boldero and hon. Craven Berkeley; no 


fatality : , Fs : . = 15 July, 
Lieut. Munroe killed col. Fawcett 1 (died 3) July, 
Lieut. Hawkey killed lieut. Seton 20 May, 


Duc de Grammont Caderousse kills Mr. Dillon at 
Paris, for a newspaper attack . Oct. 
Paul de Cassagnae and M. Lissagaray, journalists ; 
(latter run through) : : , . 4 Sept. 
Don Enrique de Bourbon killed by the due de Mont- 

pensier, near Madrid, after much provocation, 
t2 March, 
Paul de Cassagnae (wounded) and M. Rance, Paris, 
July 
Prince Soutza kills N. Ghika at Fontainanteaee 
27 Nov. 

MM. Gambetta and De Fortou; neither hit 

21 Noy. 
Duels (often nominal) still frequent in France 
Capt. Fournier and H. Rochefort, for attack in 
Intransigeant; both slightly wounded 10 Oct. 


DUKE, from Latin duz, a leader. 


262 


1814 
1815 


1840 
1842 
1843 
1845 
1862 


1868 


1870 
1873 


9 


1878 


1875-84 


1884 


In England, 


during Saxon times, the commanders of armies 


were called dukes, duces. Camden. 
XXXVI. 


dukes. 


In Genesis 
some of Esau’s descendants are termed 
Duke-duke was a title given to the house of 


Sylvia, in Spain, on account of its possessing many 


duchies. 


Edward the Black Prince made duke of Cornwall 
17 March, 
Robert de Vere was created marquis of Dublin and 
duke of Ireland, 9 Rich. II. : “ : ap ae 
Robert III. created David, prince of Scotland, duke 
of Rothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to 
the king’s eldest son, 1398, and is now borne by 
the prince of Wales. 
Cosmo de’ Medici created grand-duke of Tuscany, 
the first of the rank, by pope Pius V. 


1337 


1385 


- 1569 


DUNDEE. 


The dukes of Buccleuch, Grafton, Richmond, and 
St. Albans are descendants of Charles II, 


DULCIGNO, a port in Albania on the A 


atic. 


Taken by Turks : b : . : 4 3 
In the 17th century a den of pirates, and the resi- 
dence of Sabbatai Zewi, a Smyrnese Jew, who 
declared himself to be the Messiah, became Maho- 
metan; anddied . : ; : h 2 
Taken by Venetians ; and held fora short time 
The Montenegrines take it by storm ; but give it up 
Assigned to them by the Berlin conference June, 


July, 

Seized by 8000 Albanians, who expelled the Turks 
about. 4 3 2 : s . 18 Sept. 
After much delay the Sultan signed the decree for 
its cession to Montenegro . . 2 Oct. 
After a slight conflict with Albanians 22 Nov., occu- 
pied by Dervish Pasha 24 Noy., and surrendered 
to the Montenegrines 26, 27 Noy. 


DULWICH COLLEGE (Surrey) ¢a 
God’s-gift college, founded by Edward Alleyn, 
eminent comedian, was completed and solen 
opened 13 Sept. 1619. Alleyn was its first mas 
and died in 1626. In 1686 Wm. Cartwright, 
actor, gave a library and some portraits, and 
20 Dec. 1810 sir Francis Bourgeois bequeathed 
collection of pictures, the gallery for which 
erected by sir John Soane, and opened in 1812. 
Francis died 8 Jan. 1811. In 1857, an act 
passed by which the college was reconstituted. 


! 


| schools were established; and the number of 


almspeople increased. In 1860 the annual inc 
was 11,4827. The new school buildings, four 
26 June, 1866, were opened by the prince of W: 
21 June, 1870. The Endowed Schools Com 
sioners put fortha draft scheme for remodelling 
charity about Oct. 1872; and another scheme 
issued in 1881. Four parishes are benefited by 
charity, St. Luke’s, Middlesex; St. Botolt 


| Bishopsgate; St. Saviour’s, Southwark; and 


Giles’s, Camberwell. 
DUMB, see Deaf and Dumb. 
DUMBLANE or DUNBLANE (Perth), 


ancient city, near which took place a conflict ca 
the battle of Sheriffmuir, between the royalist a 
under the duke of Argyle, and the Scots re 
under the earl of Mar, 13 Noy. 1715. Both elai 
the victory. 


DUNBAR, (Haddington). Here the Sco 
army and king John Baliol were defeated by 
renne, earl of Surrey, 27 April, 1296, and Seo 
was subdued. Near here also Cromwell obtain 
signal victory over the Scots, in arms for Charle 
3 Sept. 1650. 


DUNCIAD, the celebrated satirical 
Alexander Pope, was published in 1728. 


DUNCOMBE PARK, NN. R. Yorkshire, 
magnificent mansion of the earl of Feversham,’ 
valuable treasures (really a museum open 10 
public), was destroyed by fire, 11 Jan. 1879. 


DUNDALK (Louth, Ireland), On5Oct.1 
at Foughard near this place, was defeated and § 
Edward Bruce, who had invaded Ireland in 1 
The walls and fortifications of Dundalk were 
stroyed in 1641. It was taken by Cromwe 
1649. The first cambric manufacture in 
was established in this town by artisans 1 
France in 1727. | 


DUNDEE CE. Scotland), on the Tay. . 
site was given by William the Lion (reigned II! 
1214), to his brother David, earl of Hunting 


4 


1 


poem 
2 


4. ’ a Z 


' DUN ECHT. 


263 


DURHAM. 


‘ho built or strengthened the castle, and erected a 
irge church, the tower of which, 156 feet high, 
ill remains. The town was taken by the English 
1 1385; pillaged by Montrose, 1645; stormed by 
fonk in 1651; and visited by queen Victoria in 
344. It has thriven since 1815, through its 
ctensive linen manufactories; at one of these 
idwards’s) a steam explosion took place on 15 April, 
359, when twenty persons were killed. Claver- 
yuse, viscount Dundee (killed 1689), had a house 


sre. See Population. 

1e Baxter park, the gift of sir David Baxter, 
opened by earl Russell . ‘ g Sept. 1863 
ie British association met here 4 Sept. 1867 


hile preparing for building the great Tay bridge 
of the N. British railway six men were killed, 
27 Aug. 
ie Albert Institution opened by the earl of 
Dalhousie 4 : : ; seat SN Overy; 
ie Queen-street calendering works burnt, loss 
between 15,o00l. and 20,000l. —. ‘ 2OVUSCHET 5. 
»w wet dock (Victoria) opened by lord Strath- 
more - - 5 é : : - 16 Aug. 1875 
ie Tay bridge (which see) completed Aug. 1877 ; 
ypened, 31 May, 1878; destroyed by a gale; be- 
tween 80 and go lives lost, 7.15 p.m. 28 Dec. 1879 
atue of Burns unveiled . : . - 16 Oct. 1880 
mistead’s flax warehouse burnt, loss about 
10,0001, . : ; : : : 16 Jan. 1883 
’w university founded by sir D. Baxter; pro- 
fessor appointed Nov. 1882. Munificent addi- 
‘ions made to the funds by Miss Mary Ann 
Baxter, sister of sir David, 1882 [she died 19 Dec. 
1884] ; college opened by earlof Dalhousie 5 Oct. ,, 
eat demonstration in favour of the government 
ind franchise bill é é 20 Sept. 1884 


DUN ECHT, Aberdeenshire, seat of the earl 
(Crawford, who has erected an observatory here. 


3 Dec. 1881, it was discovered that the body 
#t the late earl had been stolen from the man- 
ioleum in the grounds; it was found near the 
pot, 18 July, 1882, through information given 
yy Chas. Soutar, who was convicted of stealing it. 


24 Oct. 1882 
DUNKS, see Dunkirk. 
DUNGAN-HILL (Ireland). Here the Eng- 


1 army, commanded by colonel Jones, signally 
ated the lrish, of whom 6000 are said to have 
m slain, while the loss on the side of the English 
8 inconsiderable, 8 Aug. 1647. 


JUN KELD (Perthshire) was made a bishopric 
avid I. in 1127; the ancient Culdee church, 
nded by king Constantine III., becoming the 
hedral, The beautiful bridge over the Tay, 
eted by Thomas Telford, was opened in 1809. 


JUNKIRK (N. France), founded in the 7th 
‘tury, was taken by the Spaniards, Sept. 1652, 
[retaken from them by the English and French 
x Turenne’s victory over them under Condé on 
dunes (or sands), 14 June, 1658, and put into 
hands of the English, 25 June following. It 
i sold by Charles II. for 500,000/. to Louis XIV., 
Oct.; restored 1662, and was one of the best 
ified ports in the kingdom; but the works were 
iolished in conformity with the treaty of Utrecht 
‘713. The works were ordered to be demolished 
he peace of 1763; but in 1783 they were again 
tmed. The English attempted to besiege Dun- 
c; but the duke of York was defeated by Hoche, 

forced to retire with loss, 7 Sept. 1793. It was 
lea free port in 1816. 


YUNMOW (Essex), famous for the tenure of 
manor (made by Robert Fitz-Walter, 1244), 
tat whatever married couple will go to he 
ry and kneeling on two sharp-pointed stones, 
Swear that they haye not quarrelled nor repented 


1873 


of their marriage within a year and a day after its 
celebration, shall receive a flitch of bacon.” 
The earliest recorded claim for the bacon was in 1445, 


since when to 1855 it is said to have been demanded 
only five times. 

The last claimants previous to 1855 were John Shake- 
shanks and his wife, 20 June, 1751; they made a large 
sum by selling slices of the flitch to witnesses of the 
ceremony (5000 persons), 

Flitches were awarded to Mr. and Mrs. Barlow, of Chip - 
ping-Ongar, and the Chevalier Chatelaine and his lady, 
19 July, 1855. 

The lord of the manor opposed the revival, but Mr. W. 
Harrison Ainsworth, the novelist, and some friends, 
defrayed the expense, and superintended the cere- 
monials, 

A flitch was awarded in 1860 and 9 July, 1873; on17 July, 
1876, to James Henry and Mary Boosey; to others 
23 July, 1877. 


DUNSE (S. Scotland). Here on 18 J une, 
1639, by treaty between the Scots commission and 
Charles I., their demands were acceded to, and they 
agreed to disband their army. Disputes arose, and 
the treaty was not carried into effect. 


DUNSINANE (Perthshire). On the hill was 
fought the battle between king Macbeth formerly the 
thane of Glammis, and Siward, earl of Northum- 
berland, 27 July, 1054. Edward the Confessor had 
sent Siward on behalf of Malcolm III., whose father 
Duncan, the usurper had murdered. Macbeth was 
defeated, and it was said was pursued to Lumpha- 
nan, in Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1056 or 10 ve 


DUOMO, see Milan, Florence. 


DUPES (day of), 11 Nov. 1630, when Richelieu 
energetically and adroitly frustrated the plan for 
his ruin, formed by the queen Marie de Medicis and 
Gaston, duke of Orleans, and others, during the 
king’s illness. 


DUPLEX TELEGRAPHY. See Electric 
Telegraph under Electricity. 


DUPPELorDypot. See underDenmark, 1864. 


DUPPLIN (Perthshire). Here Edward Balliol 
and his English allies totally defeated the Scots 
under the earl of Mar, 11 Aug. 1332, and obtained 
the crown for three months. 


DURBAR, an East Indian term for an audience- 
chamber or reception. On 18 Oct. 1864, a durbar 
was held at Lahore by the viceroy of India, sir John 
Lawrence, at which 604 of the most illustrious 
princes and chieftains of the north-west province 
were present, magnificently clothed. Similar ones 
were held in 1866, 1867, and on 27 March, 1869, at 
Umballah. 


Sir Seymour Fitzgerald, governor of Bombay, held 

a great durbar of the princes of Western India at 
Poona : . F ; F : - 6Oct. 1868 
The earl of Mayo, the viceroy, held a solemn durbar 
at Ajmere in Rajpootana . i é 22 Oct. 
The marquis of Ripon’s grand durbar (as viceroy) at 
Lahore (after Afghan war) . 5 7 rs, Nov: 
The earl of Dufferin, viceroy, held a grand durbar 
at Rawul Pindi, at which the Ameer of Afghanis- 
tan and the Duke of Connaught were present, 
8 April, 1885 
DURHAM, an ancient city, the Dunholme of 
the Saxons, and Dwréme of the Normans. The 
BISHOPRIC was removed to Durham from Chester- 
le-street in 995; whither it had been transferred 
from Lindisfarne, or Holy Island, on the coast 
of Northumberland, in 875, in consequence of the 
invasion of the Danes. The bones of St. Cuth- 
bert, the sixth bishop, were brought from Lin- 
disfarne, and interred in Durham cathedral. This 


1870 
1880 


DURHAM LETTER. 


‘see, deemed the richest in England, was valued in 
the king’s books at 28217. Present income 8000/. 


College founded (abolished at the Reformation) _. r290 
Near Durham was fought the decisive battle of Ne- 


ville’s cross (see Strikes) . ; . - 17 Oct. 1346 
Durham ravaged by Malcolm of Scotland, 10703 oc- 

cupied by the Northern rebels 5 - . 1569 
By theScots . : : : 3 : F . 1640 
Cromwell quartered his Scotch prisoners in the ca- 

thedral e 1656 


Cromwell established a college, 1657; which was 
suppressed at the Restoration . 4 : ; 
The palatine privileges, granted to the bishop by 
the Danish Northumbrian prince Guthrum, taken 
by the crown : § : June, 
Present University established in 1831, opened Oct. 
1833; chartered . 3 5 ‘ : . June, 
Certain new ordinances, recommended by a commis- 
sion, 1862, set aside x - z A : 
Cathedral renovated ; re-opene . 18 Oct. 


RECENT BISHOPS. 
1791. Hon. Shute Barrington, died in 1826. 
1826. Wm. Van Mildert (the last prince bishop), died 21 
Feb. 1836. 
1836. Edward Maltby, resigned in 1856; died 3 July, 
1859, aged go. 


1660 


1836 


1837 


1863 
1876 


1856. 
1860. 
1861. 


May, 1860. 
Hon. H. Montagu Villiers (translated from Car- 
lisle) ; died ro Aug. 186r. 


1870. 
1879. Joseph Barber Lightfoot. 


DURHAM LETTER, see Papal Aggression. 


DUST. A controversy respecting the connec- 
tion between dust and disease originated with 
a lecture on the subject by professor Tyndall at 
the Royal Institution, 21 Jan. 1870, when he de- 
monstrated the presence of organic matters in the 
dust of the atmosphere in conformity with the ex- 
periments of Pasteur and other eminent philosophers. 
See Germ Theory and Vivisection. The agency of 
dust in promoting fires and explosions was asserted 
by Faraday in relation to coal mines in 1845, and 
. by Rankine and Macadam in relation to flour mills 
in 1872. Professor F. A. Abel gave a discourse at 
the Royal Institution on Some of the Dangerous 
Properties of Dusts, 28 April, 1882. 


DUTCH PLAYS, “Annie Mie,’? by Rosier 
Faassen, and others, were performed at the Imperial 
Theatre, Westminster, 7 June et seg., 1880. Madame 
Catherine Beersman’s acting was much approved. 


DUTCH REPUBLIC, see Holland. 
DUTIES, see Customs, Excise, $e. 
DUTY, see Whole and Deontology. 


DUUMVIRI, two Roman patricians appointed 
by Tarquin the Proud 520 B.c. to take care of the 
books of the Sibyls, which were supposed to contain 
the fate of the Roman empire. The books were 
placed in the Capitol, and secured in a chest under 
the ground. The numberof keepers was increased 
to ten (the Decemviri) 365 B.c., afterwards to fifteen, 
the added five called guinque viri. 


DWARFS: ANCIENT. Philetas of Cos, dis- 
tinguished about 330 B.c., asa poet and grammarian, 
was said to have carried weights in his pockets, to 
prevent his being blown away. He was preceptor 

to Ptolemy Philadelphus. Atvian. Julia, niece of 
Augustus, had a dwarf named Coropas, two feet and 
a hand’s breadth high; and Andromeda, a freed- 
maid of Julia’s, was of the same height. Pliny. 
Aug. Cesar exhibited in his plays a man not two 
feet in stature. Sweton. Alypius of Alexandria, a 
logician and philosopher, was but one foot five 
‘inchesand a half high; ‘‘ he seemed to be consumed 
‘into a kind of divine nature.” Vos. Justit. 


Charles Baring, resigned 3 Feb., 1879; died 14 Sept. | 


264 


MopDERN 


Use of dynamite for 


DYNAMITE. 


Dwarrs.—John. d’Estrix, of Mechlin, ~ 
brought to the duke of Parma, in 1592, when he » 
35 years of age, having a long beard. He was ski 
in languages, and not more than three feet high. 


Geoffrey Hudson, an English dwarf, when a youth of 


inches high, was served up to table in acold pie, be’ 
the king and queen, by the duchess of Buckingham 
1626. He challenged Mr. Crofts to fight a duel, but 
latter came armed with a squirt. At another meet 
the dwarf shot his antagonist dead, 1653. 


Count Borowlaski, a Polish gentleman, of great acc 


plishments and elegant manners, well known in |: 
land, where he resided for many years, was bor 
Nov. 1739. His growth was at one year of age 
inches ; at six, 17 inches ; at twenty, 33 inches ; 
at thirty, 39. . He had a sister, named Anastasia, se 
years younger than himself, and so much shorter 
she could stand under his arm. He visited man 
the courts of Europe, and died in England in 1837. 


Charles Heywood Stratton (termed general Tom Thun 


an American, was exhibited in England, 1846. In I 
1863, in New York, when 25 years old and 32 in 
high, he married Lavinia Warren, aged 21, 32 inc 
high. He, his wife and child, and commodore N 
another dwarf, came to England in Dec. 1864, and 
mained there some time. Died 15 July, 1883. 


| Mr. Collard, aged 22, smaller than Stratton, sang at ¢ 
Charles Thomas Longley ; became archb. of York, | 


certs in London, and was termed the ‘‘ Pocket § 
Reeves,” May, June, 1873. 


Several dwarfs (said to be smaller than the preced 


exhibited at the Westminster Aquarium,July, 1878 


Che-mah, a Chinese, 42 years old, 25 inches high, e 


bited at the Westminster Aquarium, 11x June, 1880 


Lucia Zarate, born 2 Jan. 1863, in Mexico, heigh 


inches, weight 4# lbs., and general Mite, Francis Jos 
Flynn, born 2 Oct. 1864, in New York State, heigh’ 
inches, weight 9 lbs., exhibited in Piccadilly. 22) 
1880, et seg. Milly Edwards exhibited in London, J 
1882, 15 years of age, weighing 7 lbs. ; these two v 
married at Manchester, 28 May, 1884. 


DYEING is attributed to the Tyrians, ab 
1500 B.c. The English are said to have sent | 


goods to be dyed in Holland, till the art was bron 
to them probably in 1608. 


“Two dyers of Ex: 
were flogged for teaching their art in the north’’ 


England), 1628. A statute against abuses in dye 


passed in 1783. The art has been greatly impro 
by chemical research. A discovery of Dr. Stenho 


in 1848, led to M. Marnas procuring mawve fi 


lichens; and Dr. Hofmann’s production of anil 
from coal-tar, has led to the invention of a num 
of beautiful dyes (mauve, magenta, red, gre 


black, &c.); see Aniline. 


DYNAMITE, a new explosive compound, ¢ 
sisting of 25 parts of silicious earth saturated 
75 parts of nitro-glycerine (which see). Itis suite 
for mining purposes, and was tried and appro 
at Merstham 14 July, 1868. It was invented 
A. Nobel to obviate danger. Its manufacture 
very dangerous. 


Thirteen men killed by explosion of dynamite in 41 
way tunnel at Cymmer, 8. Wales, 21 April, 1876. 
A man named Thomson, Thomassin, or Thomas, ¢ 

signed a cask of dynamite to Bremerhafen, to be ( 
veyed by the North German Lloyd steamer Jf 
With it he sent a clock-work machine, which wé 
in eight days give the cask a blow powerful enoug! 
explode the dynamite and destroy the ship. 
some cause the machine went off and explode 
the dock, killing above 80 and wounding about 
persons, chiefly emigrants and their friends, rr I 
1875. Thomson committed suicide, dying 16 
1875, after confessing his crime, his object being 
obtain the paltry sum for which he had insured 
goods. It appears that similar machines were ku 
UU S7 5. ee 
killing oxen tried and advoca 
summer, 1877. 


Its use in fisheries prohibited by parliament, 14 4 


1877. 


A parcel containing 27 cartridges of dynamite placec 


| DYNAMITE. 


‘the London and N. W. Railway, between Bushey and 
Watford (perpetrators not discovered), night 12-13 

Sept. 1880. 

‘ailure of attempt at explosion at the Times office, 

1g Mar. 1883. 


: See Explosions and Glasgow, 1883. 


he violent Irish party in America termed Dynamitards, 
April, 1883. Many said to be settled in Paris. 
ortmanteaus, containing dynainite, with clock-work of 
American make, which had failed, found at Charing- 
cross and Paddington stations, 28 Feb., and at Lud- 
gate-hill station, 1 March, 1884. 
itzGerald arrested in London, ro April, 1884. 
jenman, or Daley, with three infernal machines, arrested 
at Birkenhead. 
umes Francis Egan and Patrick Hogan arrested at 
Bumingham, 11 April, 1884. 
[Treasonable papers about Irish republic, &e., dis- 
- covered in Egan’s garden. ] 
tm. M‘Donnell arrested at Wednesbury, 1 May, 1884. 


265 


DZOUNGARIA. 


Daley sentenced to penal servitude for life; Egan to 
20 years, for treason-felony ; M‘Donnell discharged on 
recognizances, 1 Aug. 1884. 

Explosion at Nobel’s dynamite factory near Stevenston, 
Ayr ; ten lives lost, 8 May, 1884. 


DZOUNGARTA, a region of Central Asia, N. 
of China, with about 2,000,000 inhabitants, fierce, 
warlike Mahometans. After being long tributary 
to China, they rebelled in 1864, massacred the 
Chinese residents, and set up their countryman 
Abel Oghlan as sultan. As he was unable to re- 
strain predatory attacks upon the Russians, the 
ezar declared war in April, 1871. After a brief 
campaign in May and June, and several conflicts 
in which the Russians were victors, the sultan 
surrendered himself to general Kolpakoviski, 4 
July, and the country was annexed to the Russian 
empire. 


Ki. 


EAGLE. 


EAGLE, an ancient coin of Ireland, made of a 
base metal, and current in the first years of Ed- 
ward I. about 1272, was so named from the figure 
impressed upon it. The American gold coinage of 
eagles, half eagles, and quarter eagles, began 6 Dec. 
1792; an eagle is of the value of Io dollars, or about 
2/. 1s.—The standard of the eagle was borne by the 
Persians, at Cunaxa, 401 B.c. The Romans carried 
gold and silver eagles as ensigns, and sometimes 
represented them with a thunderbolt in their talons, 
on the point of a spear, 102 B.c. Charlemagne 
added the second head to the eagle for his arms, to 
denote that the empires of Rome and Germany 
were united in him, a.p. 802. The eagle was 
the standard of Napoleon I. and Napoleon III. ; 
as well as of Austria, Russia, and Prussia; see 
Knighthood. 


EARL (Latin, comes), introduced at the con- 
quest, superseded the Saxon ealdorman, and con- 
tinued the highest rank in England, until Ed- 
ward III. created dukes in 1337 and 1351, and 
Richard II. created marquises (1385), both above 
earls. Alfred used the title of earl as a substitute 
for king. William Fitz-Osborn was made earl of 
Hereford by William the Conqueror, 1066. Gil- 
christ was created earl of Angus, in Scotland, by 
king Malcolm ITI. in 1037, and sir John de Courey 
created baron of Kinsale and earl of Ulster in Ire- 
land, by Henry II. 1181. 


EARL Marsnat of England, the eighth great officer of 
state. This office, until it was made hereditary, always 
passed by grant from the king. Gilbert de Clare was 
created lord marshal by king Stephen, 1135. The last 
lord marshal was John Fitz-Alan, lord Maltravers. 
Camden. Richard II. in 1397 granted letters patent to 
the earl of Nottingham by the style of earl marshal. In 
1672, Charles II. granted to Henry lord Howard the 
dignity of hereditary earl marshal. The earl marshal’s 
court was abolished in 1641. (See Howard.) 

EarRLt Mariscuat of Scotland was an officer who com- 
manded the cavalry, whereas the constable commanded 
the whole army ; but they seem to have had a joint 
command, as all orders were addressed to ‘‘ our con- 
stable and marischal.” The office was never out of the 
Keith family. It was reserved at the Union, and when 
the heritable jurisdictions were bought, it reverted to 
the crown, being forfeited by the rebellion of George 
Keith, earl marischal, in 1715. 


: EARL DE LA WARR’S ACT, see Chii- 
ren. 


EARLY CLOSING ASSOCIATION esta- 


blished 1842, to abridge the hours of labour, and to 


abolish Sunday trading. 


EARLY ENGLISH TEXT SOCIETY 
began to publish in 1864. 


EARRINGS were worn by Jacob’s family, 
1732 B.C. (Gen. XXxv. 4). 


EARTH, see Globe. ‘‘ Earth to Earth” discus- 
sion in 1875; advocacy of cremation, see Burials. 


EARTHENWARE, see Pottery. 
EARTHQUAKES. Anaxagoras supposed 


that earthquakes were produced by subterraneous 
clouds bursting into lightning, which shook the 
vaults that confined them, 435 B.c. Diog. Laert. 
Kircher, Des Cartes, and others, supposed that there 


EARTHQUAKES. 


were many vast cavities under ground which h 
a communication with each other, some of w 
abound with water, others with exhalations, aris 
from inflammable substances, as nitre, bitum 
sulphur, &ce. Dr. Stukeley and Dr. Priestley 
tributed earthquakes to electricity. They are p 
bably due to steam generated by subterraneous h« 
An elaborate Catalogue of earthquakes (from 1 
1606 to A.D. 1842), with commentaries on the p 
nomena, by R. and J. W. Mallet, was publis! 
by the British Association in 1858. In 1860. 
velocity of their propagation was estimated by | 
J. Brown at between 470 and 530 feet per secon 
See Seismometer. 
One which made Eubeea an island - BO. 
Helice and Bura in Peloponnesus swallowed up 
The chasm in the Roman Forum into which Quintus 
Curtius leaped, was probably an earthquake 
Duras, in Greece, buried with all its inhabitants: 
and 12 cities in Campania also buried . 7 3 
Lysimachia and its inhabitants buried about 
Ephesus and other cities overturned - AWD 
One accompanied the eruption of Vesuvius when 


Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried j F 
Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, and two in Ga- 
latia overturned 4 3 C 105 or 


Antioch destroyed . : : : : : 5 
Nicomedia, Czesarea, and Nicea overturned ay 
In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 cities and 
towns damaged . Z - 2 - - “ 
Nicomedia again demolished, and its inhabitants 
buried initsruins . 5 : : tae 
One felt by nearly the whole world . ; 2 3 
At Constantinople ; its edifices destroyed, and thou- 
sands perished . : 7 . x Pa 
In Africa ; many cities overturned . 4 : ly 
Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and Asia ; more than 
500 towns were destroyed, and the loss of life sur- 
passed all calculation 2 : A 3 . oe 
In France, Germany, and Italy ‘ ‘ dj 
Constantinople overturned ; all Greece shaken . . 
One felt throughout England . 4 A e 
One at Antioch ; many towns destroyed . Bo 
Catania, in Sicily, overturned, and 15,000 persons 
buried in the ruins. 4 3 : 5 7 mS 
One severely felt at Lincoln. ‘ : s aes 
In Syria, &c., 20,000 perished . . x A 5 
At Calabria; one of its cities and all its inhabitants 
overwhelmed in the Adriatic sea 7 . Sept. 
In Cilicia, 60,000 perished . : 3 Be 
One again felt throughout England ; Glastonbury 
destroyed . J ges S . ° 5 § 
In England ; the greatest known there . 14 Nov. : 
At Naples ; 40,000 persons perished 5 Dee. : 
Constantinople ; thousands perished . . 14 Sept. : 
At Lisbon ; 1500 houses and 30,000 persons buried 
in the ruins ; several neighbouring towns engulfed, 


26 Feb. 3 
One felt in London; part of St. Paul’s and the 
Temple churches fell < “ : . 6 April, 1 
In Japan ; several cities made ruins, and thousands 
perish . F ; : : 4 Z 2 July, 1 
In Naples ; 30 towns or villages ruined; 70,000 
lives lost . , BS : 3 ate 30 July, 1 
Awful one at Calabria. ; . 27 March, 1 


Ragusa ruined ; 5000 perished ‘ 6 April, 1 
At Schamaki, lasted 3 months ; 80,000 perished _ 
At Rimini ; above r500 perished . 14 April, 1 


*Mrs. Somerville states that about 255 earthqua 
have occurred in the British Isles ; all slight. To a1 
the effects of a shock predicted by a madman, for the 
of April, 1750, thousands of persons, particularly th 
of rank and fortune, passed the night on the 7th in tl 
carriages and in tents in Hyde-park. 


i EARTHQUAKES. 


67 


EARTHQUAKES. 


me severely felt at Dublin, &e. . ~ 17 Oct. 

ne at Jamaica, which totally destroyed Port hoy al, 

whose houses were engulfed 4o fathoms deep, and 
3oco perished. June, 
ne in Sicily, which overturned 54 ‘cities and towns, 

‘and 300 Villages ; of Catania and its 18,000 inhabi- 
tants, not a trace remained ; more than I00,000 
-lives were lost. Sept. 
quila, in Italy, ruined ; 5000 perished 2 Feb. 
sddo, Japan, ruined ; 200,000 perished. ae 
) the Abruzzi; 15,000 perished . 3 Nov. 
t Algiers ; 20,000 perished May & June, 
alermo nearly destroyed ; nearly 6000 lives lost 


t Sept. 
gain in China ; and 100,000 people swallowed up 
at Pekin . A - . 30 Nov. 

1 Naples, &e. ; 1940 perished < . 29 NOY 


ima and Callao demolished ; 18,000 persons buried 


in the ruins . : Z 28 Oct. 
1 London, &c., a slight shock - 19 Feb. 
ort-au-Prince, St. Domingo, ruined 21 Nov. 
drianople nearly overwhelmed . . 29 July, 
t Grand Cairo; half of the houses and 40,000 
persons swallowed Lhe Wine A Sept. 

uito destroyed. April, 


aschan, N. Persia, destroy ed ; 40,000 perished, 
7 June, 

reat earthquake at Lispon. In about eight ratnuten 
most of the houses and upwards of 50,000 inhabi- 
tants were swallowed up, and whole streets 
buried. The cities of Coimbra, Oporto, and 
Braga, suffered dreadfully, and St. Ubes was 

“wholly overturned. In Spain, a large part of 
Malaga became ruins. One half of Fez, in Mo- 
rocco, was destroyed, and more than 12,000 
Arabs perished there. Theisland of Madeira was 
_affected ; and 2000 houses in the island of Mete- 
line, in the Archipelago, were overthrown. This 
awful earthquake extended 5000 miles ; even to 
‘Scotland ; 1 Nov. 
Syria, extended over 10 000 square miles ; Baalbec 


destroyed ; here 20,000 ‘perished 30 Oct. 
morn, Pesth, &e. much damaged . 28 June, 
t Martinico ; 1600. persons perished P Aug. 


t Guatemala; Santiago, with its inhabitants, 
swallowed up A - 7 June, 
destructive one at Smyrna - : Ale uly, 
t Tauris ; 15,000 houses thrown down, and multi- 


tudes buried . 
essina and other towns in Italy and Sicily over- 
thrown : thousands perished . a - 5 Feb. 
tinghian, near Erzeroum ; destroyed, nd 5000 
persons buried in its ruins 23 July, 
. Lucia, W. Indies ; goo perished . 12 Oct. 
i Borgo di San Sepolero ; many houses and 1000 
persons swallowed up 30 Sept. 
_ Naples; Vesuvius overwhelmed the city tof 
Torre del ‘Greco s ; June, 


ie whole country between Santa Fé and Panama 


‘destroyed, including Cuzco and Quito; 40,000 
‘people buried in one second a ith Feb. 
imana, S. America, ruined 4 Dec. 


» Constantinople, which destroyed the royal palane, 


and many buildings E A - 26 Sept. 
om Cronstadt to Constantinople . 26 Oct. 
violent one felt in Holland end of Jan. 
‘; Frosolone, Naples ; 6000 lives lost . 26 July, 


the Azores; a village of St. Michael’s sunk, 
and a lake of boiling water appeared in its place, 
iz Aug. 
fal one at Caracas (which see) 26 Mar ch, 
veral throughout India ; district of Kutch sunk ; 
“2000 persons buried. - «iz6June, 
moa, Palermo, Rome, and many other towns 
greatly damaged ; thousands perish 
/eppo destroyed ; ‘above 20,000 perish ; shocks on 


to & 13 Aug., and 5 Sept. 
vast of Chili permanently raised . 19 Nov. 
ry violent at Palermo and other parts of Sicily 
i 5 March, 
olent shocks at Granada, in Spain; buildings 
_lestroyed 15-17 May 


land of. Ischia ; 28 men killed in “Casamicciola ; 
ymany buildings destroyed - 2 Feb. 
Spain ; Mureia and numerous villages devastated ; 
5ooo persons perish é . 2t March, 
-nton and neighbourhood ; above 6000 perished, 
26 & 27 May, 


| Manilla, Philippine isles ; 


In the duchy of Parma; 40 shocks at Borgotaro ; 
and at Pontremoli many houses thrown. down, 
14 Fe 
Concepcion, &c., in Chili; destroyed EY Feb. 
In Calabria, Cosenza and villages destroyed ; 1000 
persons bur ied . 29 April, 
In Calabria ; roo perish at Castiglione ‘ 12 Oct. 
At Martinique ; nearly half of Port Royal destroyed 3 
nearly 7oo persons killed, and the whole island 
damaged 3 xr Jan. 
At Ter nate ; the island madea waste, and eines, 
of lives lost Feb. 


| Awful and destructive ear thquake at mount ica 


in one of the districts of Armenia ; 3137 houses 
were overthrown, and several hundred persons 
perished 27 July, 
Great earthquake at Zante, “where many persons 
perished . - 30 Oct. 
At Cape Haytien, St. Domingo, which Geeieoned 
nearly two-thirds of the town; between 4000 
and 5000 lives were lost 5 - 7 May, 
At Point & Pitre, Guadaloupe, which was cata 
destroyed . . 8 Heb: 
At Rhodes and Macri, ‘when a mountain fell’ in at 
the latter place, crushing a Village, and destroying 
600 persons . 28 Keb.—7 March, 
At Valparaiso, where more than 400 houses were 
destroyed . 2 April, 
In South Italy ; Melfi almost laid in ruins; ; 14,000 
lives lost ame Taal ge. 
Philippine isles ; Manilla much i injur ed. eis Sept. 


In N.W. of England, slight 9 Nov. 
Thebes, in Greece, nearly destroyed . 18 Aug. 
St. Salvador, 8S. America, destroyed 16 April, 


Anasaca, in Japan, and Simoda, in Niphon, de- 
stroyed ; Jeddo much injured . - 23 Dee 
Broussa, in Turkey, nearly destroyed 28 Feb. 


Several villages in Central Europe destroyed, 
25, 26 July, 
Jeddo, Japan, nearly destroyed A § rt Nov. 
At the island of Great Sanger, one of the Moluccas, 
voleanie eruption and earthquake ; nearly 3000 
lives lost : 2 March, 
In the Mediterranean ; at Candia, 500 lives lost ; 
Rhodes, roo ; and other islands, 150 I2 Oct. 
In Calabria,* "Montemurro and other towns de- 
stroyed, and about 10,000 lives lost . 16 Dec 
Corinth nearly destroy ed or Feb. 
At Quito; about 5000 persons ‘killed, and an im- 
mense amount of property destr oyed, 22 March, 
Erzeroum, Asia Minor ; thousands perished, 
2 June—17 July, 
read buildings destroyed, no 
lives lost ‘ A 8 Dec. 
In Cornwall, slight . 21 Oct. 1859; 13 Jan. 
At Mendoza, South America; about two-thirds of 
the city and 7000 lives lost 20 March, 
In Perugia, Italy ; several lives lost A 8 May, 
In Greece sale Morea, Corinth, and other places 


At San Salvador ; 


injured - . 26 Dec. 
Guatemala; 150 buildings | and 14 churches de- 
stroyed . 19 Dec 


| Rhodes ; 13 villages destroyed, about 300 persons 


and much cattle and property lost, 
22 April, 
immense destruction of 
2, 3 July, 
and north-west of England, at 
3h. 22m. A.M. 6 Oct. 

At Macchia, Bendinella, &c., Sicily ; 200 houses 
destroyed, 64 persons killed 4 18 July, 
Slight earthquake near Tours and Blois, in Sele 
4 Sept. 

Argostoli, Cephalonia ; above 50 perished yi Feb. 
At Mitylene ; about 1000 killed 8, 9 March, 
Djocja, Java ; above 4oo perished ; town destroyed 
ro June, 

The cities of Arequipa, Iquique, Tacna, and Chencha, 
and many small towns in Peru and Ecuador 
destroyed ; about 25,000 lives lost, and 30,000 
rendered homeless ; loss of property estimated 
at 60,000,000l. , s 2 


perished, 


property ; about rooo persons perish 
Central, west, 


. 1862 


1863 


13-15 Aug. 1868 


* In the course of 75 years, from 1783 to 1857, the 
kingdom of Naples lost, at least, 111,000 inhabitants. by 
the ‘effects of earthquakes, or more than 1500 per year, 


out of an average population of 6,000,000 !—Lacuaita, 


/ ay 
‘ ‘ : 
EARTHQUAKES. ° 268 EASTERN EMPIRE. 

[About rz,o00l. collected in London to relieve the Woolwich, Sheerness, different parts of London, 

sufferers. ] Hampstead, &e. . 3 P : 22 April, 18 
Slight earthquake in W. England and §. Wales ; [See Mansion house Funds. ] 

felt at Bath, Swansea, &c. . z . 30 Oct. 1868 | Severe shocks for several days on Asiatic shore of 
In Santa Maura, an Ionian isle, the town Santa sea of Marmora; about 20 deaths. reported 

Maura destroyed; about 17 persons perished, 19 May, ,, 

28 Dec. 1869 | A violent shock on the Island of Kishin, near the 
At Quebec, not much damage . 5 . 20O0ct. 1870 mouth of the Persian Gulf ; 12 villages destroyed ; 
In Calabria ; several villages destroyed, early in Oct. ,, about 200 people killed : ‘ 19-20 May, ,, 
N. W. England ; houses shaken, crockery broken, Slight shocks in the Alban hills, near Rome 7 Aug. ,, 

evening, 17 March; slightin Yorkshire, 22 March, 1871 | Slight shocks throughout United States, from \ 
California ; several small towns destroyed ; about Washington to New York . + Io, 17 AUIS, , 

30 killed - 26, 27 March, 1872 | At Genoa, 27 Nov.; at Marseilles, Lyons, &e. 


Lehree, Eastern Catchi, Sind frontier, India, de- 
stroyed ; about 500 killed 14, 15 Dec. 
San Salvador nearly destroyed ; about so killed ; the 
rest escaped through timely warning 19 March 
North of Italy: at Feletto, near Conegliano, Vene- 
tia, church destroyed; about so killed; lives 
lost at Belluno, &c. ; shock felt at Venice, Verona, 


&e.. : : : : ? é 29 June, 
Azagra, Spain: 200 killed by alandslip 22 July, 


Antigua and other places in Guatemala destroyed ; 
great loss of life : ‘ . . 3 Sept. 
Kara Hissa and other places in Asia Minor ; great 
destruction of life : a - . 3-5 May, 
Smyrna, and neighbourhood ; many perish, 12 May, 
San José de Cucuta and other towns near San- 
tander on the boundary of Colombia, destroyed : 
about 14,000 lives said to be lost 16-18 May 
Lahore and vicinity, India; several killed 12 Dee. 
At Scheibs on the Danube, felt throughout Austrian 
empire - i 3 : ‘ 17 July, 
Earthquake and great tidal wave near Callao ; went 
southward; much shipping and several towns 
destroyed ; not much mortality . . 9, 10 May, 
Cua, Venezuela, nearly destroyed, about 300 killed, 
loss about 30,000l. . ! F : 14 April, 
Shocks felt at Cologne and other parts of Germany ; 
and Holland ; houses much shaken; bells rung, 
&C., 9-11 A.M. , : : é 2 QO AE. 
Aci Reale, Catania, Sicily, 5 villages destroyed, 1o 


persons killed : : 3 2 . 17 June, 
Severe shock at Briég in Switzerland, felt at Berne, 
. Zurich, Geneva, &c., several killed 4 July, 


Manilla, &c., Philippines, cathedral destroyed, seve- 
ral killed, many hurt A 18-24 July, 
Smyrna and neighbourhood, many houses destroyed, 


2persons killed. ; : + 29, 30, July, 
Valparaiso; at Ilapel, Chili, about 200 perish, 
13 Sept. 


South Austria, much damage with loss of life, at 
Agram, &c.  . 2 ! to-16 Nov.—8 Dee. 
Slight shocks at Inverary and other places W. Scot- 
land ~ ; - . C c 28 Nov. 
Berne, and other places, Switzerland, houses split 
Wp, eC. 0. ‘i ; . 27Jan. and 3 March, 
Severe shocks in South Italy, much destruction and 
loss of life at Casamicciola, a town in the Isle of 
Ischia, 289 houses destroyed, rrgq lives lost, about 
36,000l. loss, 4 March; more destruction by ano- 
ther shock f ‘ ; 15 March, 
Scio—the town and several villages destroyed, about 
4000 perish, much destitution ensues, successive 
shocks, beginning 1.30 P.M. : : 3 April, 
Panama; railway partially destroyed 7, 9, 10 Sept. 
A slight shock in Cornwall and Devon 25 June, 
Casamicciola, and several villages in the island of 
. Ischia, almost entirely destroyed, 1900 lives lost, 
28 July; slight shocks since ; one severe 3 Aug. 
[Great exertions of the military; many remark- 
able preservations. } 

Anatolia, coast of Asia Minor; Ischesne and about 
30 small towns and villages destroyed, about 100 
lives lost and 30,000 destitute ; Smyrna much 
shaken ’ : - about 16 Oct. 

Shocks felt at Gibraltar 20 Oct. et seq. 

Severe shocks in eastern counties of England, pro- 
ceeding from N.E, to 8.W., centre Colchester, 
where the congregational church steeple fell, as 
well as many chimneys; damage estimated at 
xo,oool, ; much destruction in neighbouring vil- 
lages ; many inbabitants rendered homeless; 
Langenhoe church wrecked; much damage at 
Abberton ; a child killed at Rowhedge; an invalid 
died ; the shock felt more or less distinctly at 


Coggeshall, Sudbury, Ipswich, Cambridge, 
Bishop’s Stortford, Northampton, Leicester, 


2 


29 Nov. ,, 
Severe shocks in Andalusia, Malaga ; many houses 
destroyed, about 266 persons killed ; felt at a 
? 25 Decam| 
Several towns destroyed : Alhama, Granada, many 
killed; Periana, about goo killed 26, 27 Dee.3,, 
Shocks, intermitting ‘ P 26-31 Dec. ,, 


Slight shocks in Carinthia and Styria - 28 De 
eb Seq. 5; 
Shocks, 1-27 Jan., mueh camping out 5 : rf 
Slight shocks in Styria - 27, 28 Jan. ,, 
Slight shocks at Alhama * ; = 12 Feb. ,, 

Alarming shocks at Malaga and other towns, 

-27 Feb. 

Stated number of victims in province of Granada, 
690 (see Spain, 1884) . Q ‘ - 29. Kens, 


EAST ANGLES, the sixth kingdom of t 
Heptarchy, commenced by Uffa, 526; ended wi 
Ethelbert in 792; see Britain. The bishop's s 
founded by St. Felix, who converted the E: 
Angles in 630, was eventually settled at Norwi 
(which see) about 1094. 


EASTBOURNE, a town on the coast 
Sussex. Roman remains found here. Incorporat 
July, 1883. Many great works have been erect 
by the duke of Devonshire. Town hall open 
9 Oct. 1884. 


EAST END JUVENILE MISSION est 
blished 1866, to reclaim destitute children. 
maintains homes, schools, an infirmary, &c. Ho 
director, Dr. T. J. Barnardo, see Barnardo's Hom 


EASTER, instituted about 68, the festival o 
served by the church in commemoration of © 
Saviour’s resurrection, so called in England frc 
the Saxon goddess Hoste, whose festival was 
April. After much contention between the easte 
and western churches, it was ordained by t 
council of Nice, 325, to be observed on the sat 
day throughout the whole Christian world. B 
the eastern and western churches generally diffe 
they coincided in 1882. ‘* Haster-day is t 
Sunday following that fourteenth day of t 
calendar moon which happens upon or next af 
the 2Ist March: so that, if the said fourteen 
day be a Sunday, Easter-day is not that Sund 
but the next.”  Easter-day may be any day 
the five weeks which commence with March 
and end with April 25. The dispute between t 
old British church and the new Anglo-Sax 


| church respecting Easter was settled about 664. 


Easter Sunday, 1884, 13 April; 1885, 5 Apr 
1886, 25 ean 1887, 10 April; 1888, 1 April. 

EASTER ISLAND, in the Pacific Oces 
| was discovered by Davis in 1686; it was visited 
| Roggewein, April 1722, and from him obtained t 
_name it now bears; it was visited by captain Coc 
March 1774. At the south-east extremity is t 
crater of an extinguished volcano, about two mil 
in circuit and 800 feet deep. 


 KASTERN (or GREEK) CHURCH, ! 
| Greek Church. 


EASTERN EMPIRE. After the death 
the emperor Jovian, in Feb. 364, the generals 


EASTERN EMPIRE. 


ice elected Valentinian as his successor, who, in 
ne, made his brother Valens emperor of the West; 
e final division was in 395, between the sons of 
ieodosins. The eastern empire ended with the 
pture of Constantinople, and death of Constan- 
ie XIII., 29 May, 1453; see Turkey. 


storius, the bishop, nominated the first patriarch 


of Constantinople g July, 38: 
eodosius the Great succours Valentinian II., the 
vestern emperor, and defeats the tyrant Maxi- 

nus, at Aquileia. - ; : f ’ - 388 
lentinian II. slain by Arbogastes the Frank, who 
nakes Eugenius emperor . : é : ARR Fer 
genius defeated and slain by Theodosius, who 
e-unites the two empires. 2 - 6S8ept. 394 
ath of Theodosius; the empire finally divided 
yetween his sons—Arcadius receives the east, 
donorius the west. : ‘ : - 17 Jan. 395 
astantinople walled by Theodosius II. ‘ ats 
wie the Goth begins toravage theempire . . ,, 
lent religious dissensions ; Theodosius II. estab- 

ishes schools, and revives learning ; + 425 
> Theodosian code promulgated =. : 5 438 
s councils of Ephesus, 431, 449; of Chalcedon 451 


quent sanguinary conflicts between the Blues 

ud Greens, circus factions at Constantinople, 498-520 
» Justinian code published : ye hS20 
r with Persia ; beginning of the victorious career 
fBelisarius, the imperial general - 529-531 
‘suppresses the ‘‘ Nika” (‘‘conquer”) insurrec- 
lon of the circus factions ; 30,000 Greeks slain, 
nd Constantinople burnt. 2 + 

lication of St. Sophia . i : : p . 
tories of Belisarius in Africa, Italy, and the East 


: , 933-541 
jealousy, 542; again, 


532 


talled through Justinian’s 


48; again, 549; disgraced A 562 
finning of the Turkish powerin Asia . 2 545 
} Slavonians ravage Illyria . ‘ i J 551 
‘ses defeats Totila and the Goths near Rome. 552 
affection of Narses 4 - ‘ : ,, 561 
‘th of Belisarius, aged 84 ; of Justinian (83) SoS 
tories of Maurice and Narses in the Hast, 579 et seq. 
ere contests with the Avars ‘ y - 594-62c 
‘ses burnt at Constantinople P E * - 606 
‘flight (Hejira) of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, 
here he establishes himself as a prophet and 
ince A : a : 2 rw6July, 622 
sorious career of Heraclius II. . P - 622 et sey. 
recovers his lost territories 5 x ave 627 
Saracens invade the empire, 632 ; defeat Hera- 
tus at Aiznadin, 633; at Yermuk, 636; take 
lexandria, 640; and the Greek provinces in 
fries. : . : A 5 ; Z - 648 
stans purchases peace with them . F fiw’ O60 
y besiege Constantinople seven times - 672-677 
Bulgarians establish a kingdom in Mcesia (now 
algaria), 678; they ravage the country up to 
ystantinople . Z ; A 5 A harry 
Saracens vainly invest Constantinople, 716, 718; 
‘feated . : : é t : A ; = 720 
II. the Isanrian, forbids the worship of 
‘lages: (this leads to the Iconoclast contro- 
Tsy, and eventually to the separation of the 
stern and western churches) . 3 j fn 2 9726 
-reat invading Arab force (90,000) defeated by 
ronius ; : A 2 x : : 739 
‘monasteries dissolved. é : ; oe e770 
ruction of images throughout the empire de- 
ed, 754 ; image-worship restored by the empress 
‘me (for which she was canonized) . .  . 787 
empire loses the exarchate of Italy, 752; Dal- 
itia, 825; Sicily and Crete . J S SPICE] 
-4e-worship persecuted, 830; restored, 842; for- 
‘Iden at Constantinople by one council, 869 ; 
‘stored by another Z 3 < - 879 
_h Italy annexed to the empire 890 
_ emperors reigning at one time. 928 
ies added to the empire . pla cial 3 
| subdues the Bulgarians - 987, 1014 
aria annexed to the empire ae xors 
Turks invade Asia Minor . : - » 1068 
Normans conquer South Italy é a LOGO 
first crusade ; Alexis I. recovers Asia - 1097 
Venetians victorious over the Greeks . eIETeS 


269 


~ 


EASTERN EMPIRE. 


The Hungarians repelled, rr52; peace made with 


the Normans in Sicily 


: F j f : Se a{s, 
Wars with the Turks and the Venetians - 1172 
Cyprus lost to the empire 4 « II90 


The fourth crusade begins : i : er 
Revolt of Alexis against his brother Isaac; the 


I202 


crusaders take Constantinople, and restore Isaac 


and his son Alexis IV : : : 
Alexis Ducas murders Alexis IV. and usurps the 


: 19 July, 1203 


throne ; the crusaders take Constantinople, kill 
Alexis, and establish the Latin empire, under 


Baldwin, count of Flanders . , ‘ 
Empire of Nice founded by Theodore Lascaris 
Kingdom of Epirus and Atolia established . E 
Constantinople recovered, and the empire re-estab- 

lished by Michael Paleologus 
Establishment of the Turkish empire in Asia, under 


9 May, 1204 


” 
1208 


25 July, 126r 


Othman I. . 


The Genoese trade in the Black sea . ; : 
The Turks ravage Mysia, &c., 1340 and 1345; and 
settle in the coast of Thrace ~, : : ERats 
The sultan Amurath takes Adrianople, and makes 
it his capital, 1362; and, by treaty, 
duces the emperor’s territories. 
All the Greek possessions in Asia lost Pia 
Sultan Bajazet defeats the Christians under Sigis- 
mund of Hungary, at Nicopolis 
The emperor Manuel vainly solicits help from the 
western sovereigns y : - 
A Turkish pacha established at Athens Aors, 
The Greek empire made tributary to Timour, 1402 ; 
who subjugates the 


+ 1299 
1303 


1353 


greatly re- 
- 1373 
1390 


28 Sept. 1396 


+ 1400 
I40L 


Turkish sultan, and dismem- 


bers his empire, 1403 ; death of Timour, on his 


way to China . ; : 3 : ; ‘ s 
Dissension amongst the Turks defers the fall of 
Constantinople, 1403-12; Mahomet I. aided by 
the emperor Manuel, becomes sultan 3 
Amuzath II. in vain besieges Constantinople, 
peace made . : 
John Paleologus visits 
soliciting help in vain é 3 ; = 
Accession of Constantine XIII., last emperor . 


1405 


- 1413 

1422 ; 

3 - 2 : - - 1425 

Rome and other places, 

» 1437-49 
1448 


Accession of Mahomet II. 1451 ; begins the siege of 


Constantinople, 6 April ; takes it 
(He granted the Christians 


29 May, 1453 
personal security and 


free exercise of their religion.) See Turkey. 


364. 
379. 
395: 
408. 
450. 
457: 
474. 


2) 


491. 
518. 
57. 
565. 
578. 
582. 


602. 


610. 
641. 


9? 


668. 
685. 


695. 
698. 
795: 


7II. 
713. 


716. 
718. 


EMPERORS OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE, 

Valens. 

Theodosius I. the Great. 

Arcadius, the son of Theodosius. 

Theodosius IT. succeeded his father. 

Marcian, a Thracian of obscure family. 

Leo I. the Thracian. 

Leo II. the Younger, died the same year. 

Zeno, called the Isaurian. 

Anastasius I. an Illyrian, of mean birth. 

Justin I. originally a private soldier, 

Justinian I. founder of the Digest. 

Justin 1I. nephew of Justinian. 

Tiberius IT. renowned for his virtues, 

Maurice, the Cappadocian: murdered with all his 
children, by his successor, 

Phocas, the Usurper, a centurion, whose crimes 
and cruelties led to his own assassination in 
610. 

Heraclius, by whom Phocas was dethroned. 
(Heracleonas) Constantine IIT. reigned a few 
months ; poisoned by his step-mother Martina. 

Constans II. ; assassinated in a bath. 

Constantine ITI. (or IV.) Pogonatus. 

Justinian IT. son of the preceding ; abhorred for 
his exactions, debaucheries, and cruelties: de- 
throned and mutilated by his successor. 

Leontius: dethroned and mutilated by Tiberius 
Aspimar. 

Tiberius IIT. Aspimar. 

Justinian II. restored. Leontius and Tiberius 
degraded in the Hippodrome, and put to death. 
Justinian slain in 7rr. 

Philippicus-Bardanes : assassinated. 

Anastasius IT. : fled on the election of Theodosius 
in 716 ; afterwards delivered up to Leo III. and 
put to death. 

Theodosius ITI, 

Leo III. the Isaurian. 

[In this reign (726) commences the great Icono- 


. John I. 


. Michael V. Calaphates, as his successor: 


. Andronicus I. 


EASTERN EMPIRE. 


clastic controversy; the alternate prohibition and 
restoration of images involves the peace of 
several reigns. ] 


. Constantine IV. (or V.) Copronymus, son of the 


preceding ; succeeded by his son. 
Leo IV. 


. Constantine V. (or VI.) and his mother Irene. 
. Constantine, alone, by the desire of the people, 


Irene having become unpopular. 


. Irene again, jointly with her son, and afterwards 


alone, 797; deposed for her cruelties and mur- 
ders, and exiled. 


. Nicephorus I. Logothetes : slain. 
. Stauracius : reigns a few days only. 


Michael I.: defeated in battle, abdicates the 
throne, and retires to a monastery. 


. Leo V. the Armenian: killed in the temple at Con- 


stantinople on Christmas-day, 820, by conspira- 
tors in the interest of his successor, 


. Michael II. the Stammerer. 
. Theophilus, son of Michael. 
. Michael III. Porphyrogenitus, and the Sot, son of 


the preceding ; murdered by his successor, 


. Basil I. the Macedonian. 
. Leo VI. the Philosopher. 
. Alexander and Constantine VI. (or VII.) Porphy- 


rogenitus, brother and son of Leo, the latter 
only six years of age ; the former dying in 912, 
Zoé, mother of Constantine, assumes the re- 
gency. 


. Romanus Lecapenus, usurper, associates with 


him his sons: 
Christopher, and 


. Stephen and Constantine VII. (or VIII.) 


[Five emperors now reign: Christopher dies, 
931; Romanus exiled by his sons Constantine 
and Stephen, who are themselves banished the 
next year. } 


. Constantine VII. (or VIII.) reigns alone : poisoned 


by his daughter-in-law, Theophania, 9509. 


. Romanus II. son of preceding: contrived his 


father’s death ; banished his mother, Helena. 


. Nicephorus II. Phocas: married Theophania, his 


predecessor’s consort, who has him assassi- 
nated. 

Zimisces, celebrated general; takes 
Basil II. and Constantine VIII. (or IX.), sons of 
Romanus II., as colleagues ; John dies, supposed 
by poison, and 


. Basil II. and Constantine VIIL. reign : the former 


dies in 1025 ; the latter in 1028. 


. Romanus III. Argyropulus: poisoned by his pro- 


fligate consort Zoé, who raises 


. Michael IV. the Paphlagonian, to the throne: on 


his death Zoé places 
Zoe 


dethrones him, has his eyes put out, and 
marries 


. Constantine IX. (or X.) Monomachus, and Zoé 


reign jointly: Zoé dies, 1oso. 


. Theodora, widow of Constantine. 

. Michael VI. Stratiotes, or Strato: deposed. 

. Isaac I. Comnenus: abdicates. 

. Constantine X. (or XI.) Ducas. 

. Eudocia, consort of the preceding, and Romanus 


IV. Diogenes, whom she marries, reign to the 
prejudice of Michael, Constantine’s son. 


. Michael VII. Parapinaces, recovers his throne, and 


reigns jointly with Constantine XI. (or XII.) 


. Nicephorus IIL. ; dethroned by 
. Alexis or Alexius I. Comnenus, succeeded by 
. John Comnenus, his son Kalos: died of a wound 


froin a poisoned arrow. 


. Manuel I. Comnenus, son of John. 
. Alexis II. Comnenus, son of the preceding, under 


the regency of the empress Maria, his mother. 
Comnenus, causes Alexis to be 
strangled, and seizes the throne; put to 


death by 


. Isaac II. Angelus-Comnenus, who is deposed, im- 


prisoned, and deprived of his eyes by his 
brother, 


. Alexis III. Angelus, the Tyrant: deposed, and his 


eyes put out; died in a monastery. 


. Isaac II. again, with his son, Alexis IV. ; deposed. 
. Alexis V. Ducas, murders Alexis IV.; is killed by 


the crusaders. 


270 


Ny ae 
te 


EBONITE. 


LATIN EMPERORS. 


1204. Baldwin I. earl of Flanders, on the capture 
Constantinople by the Latins, elected emper 
made a prisoner by the king of Bulgaria a 
never heard of afterwards. 

Henry I. his brother: dies in 1217. 

Peter de Courtenay, his brother-in-law. 

Robert de Courtenay, his son. 

Baldwin II. his brother, a minor, and John 
Brienne, of Jerusalem, regent and associ; 
emperor. 

[Constantinople recovered, and the empire of t 
Franks or Latins terminates. ] 


1206. 
1216. 
1221. 
1228. 


1261. 


GREEK EMPERORS AT NICE. 


Theodore Lascaris I. 

John Dueas Vataces. 

Theodore Lascaris II., his son. 

J pe Lascaris, and (1260) Michael VIII. Pala 
ogus. 


1204. 
I222. 
1255. 
1259. 


GREEK EMPERORS AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 


Michael VIII. now at Constantinople: puts o 
the eyes of John, and reigns alone. 

Andronicus II. Paleologus the Elder, son of pn 
ceding: deposed by 

Andronicus III. the Younger, his grandson. 

John Paleologus I. under the guardianship 
John Cantacuzenus: the latter proclaimed e 
peror at Adrianople. 

John Cantacuzenus abdicates. 

John Palzologus I. restored, 

Manuel IL. Palezologus, his son: succeeded by | 
son and colleague. 

John Paleologus II. The throne claimed by ) 
three brothers, 

Constantine Paleologus XII. (XIII. or XIV. sor 
of the other emperors being called Constanti 
by some writers) killed, when Constantinoy 
was taken, 29 May, 1453. 


EASTERN QUESTION ASSOCL! 
eeu ree the duke of Westminster, presiden 
ec. 1876. 


EASTERN ROUMELIA, see Rowmelia. 
EAST INDIA ASSOCIATION, for tl 


advocacy of the interests of all the inhabitants | 
ee founded 7 Nov. 1866. A journal is pul 
shed. 


EAST INDIA STOCK DIVIDEND RE 
DEMPTION ACT passed 15 May, 1873. It finall 
abolished the company on I June, 1874, and ma¢ 
needful arrangements, 


EAST INDIES, see India. 
EAST LONDON MUSEUM, see Bethii 


reen. 


EAST SAXONS, see under Britain. 


EBELIANS, a German revivalist sect, whic 
began at Konigsberg in Prussia, about 1836, i 
leaders being archdeacon Ebel and Dr. Dieste 
who were tried and condemned for unsound do 
trine and impure lives in 1839. The sentence wé 
annulled in 1842, it is said by royal influence. Th 
sect is popularly termed ‘‘Mucker,”’ German fe 
hypocrites. Their theory and practice of spiritu: 
marriage is described by Mr. Hepworth Dixon i 
his ‘‘ Spiritual Wives,’”’ 1868. 


EBIONITES, heretics, in the 1st century, 
branch of the Nazarenes, were of two kinds: on 
believed that Our Saviour was born of a virgil 
observed all the precepts of the Christian religiot 
but added the ceremonies of the Jews; the othe 
believed that Christ was born after the manner ¢ 
all mankind, and denied his divinity. Photinu 
revived the sect in 342. 


EBONITE (vulcanised india-rubber), % 
Caoutchoue. 


1261. 
1282. 
1328. 
1341. 


1347. 
1355- 
1391. 
1425, 


1448. 


EBRO. 


271 


ECLIPSES. 


@BRO, a river in Spain—the scene of a signal 
‘eat of the Spaniards by the French, under 
ones, near Tudela, 23 Nov. 1808; and also of 
‘eral important movements of the allied British 
1 Spanish armies during the Peninsular war 


(09—1813). 


ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSIONS: 
yointed by queen Elizabeth, 1559; by James I. 
Scotland, 1617; by the English parliament in 
I; and by James II. to coerce the universities 
(687. A Church Inquiry Commission, appointed 
June, 1832, reported June, 1835. The present 
lesiastical Commissioners (bishops, deans, and 
men) for the management of church property, 
e appointed in Feb. 1835 ; incorporated in 1836; 
their proceedings regulated in 1840 and 1841. 
: law relating to them was amended in 1868. 


ICCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There 
ited no distinction between lay and ecclesiastical 
cts in England until 1085, after the Norman con- 
st; see Arches and Consistory Courts. Till the 
blishment of the Divorce and Probate courts 
ich see) in 1857, the following were the causes 
uisable in ecclesiastical courts: blasphemy, 
itasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordina- 
s, Institutions to benetices, matrimony, divorces, 
ardy, tithes, incest, fornication, adultery, pro- 
of wills, administrations, &e. 
yal commission of inquiry respecting these courts 


reed to, house of lords; 7 March, 1881, appointed. 
‘port issued, Aug. 1883, 


CCLESTASTICAL DILAPIDA- 
JNS, law respecting, amended by acts passed 
871 and 1872. 


COLESIASTICAL GAZETTE, Church 
ingland semi-official journal; sent gratuitously 
ll dignitaries and incumbents ; established 10 


, 1838. 


CCLESIASTICAL STATE, or Srares 
‘HE CHURCH, see Rome, Modern. 


CCLESIASTICAL TITLES ACT, 14& 
Tiet. ¢. 60 (1851), repealed 24 July, 1871; see 
wW Aggression. 


CCLESIOLOGICAL SOCIETY, formed 
839, was originally the Cambridge Campden 
‘ty, mainly established by the 2nd earl of 
sborough (Charles George N oel) for the proper 
ration of ancient churches. 


SHO. The time which elapses between the 
ance of a sound and its return must be more 
| one-twelfth of a second, to form an echo. 
whispering gallery of St. Paul’s is a well- 
‘nexample. The Echo, independent evening 
', price 3d., established Dec. 1868. 


SKMUHL (Bavaria), the site of a battle 
he. the main armies of France (75,000) and 
‘la (40,000); Napoleon and marshal Davoust 
@ prince d’Eckmiihl) defeated the archduke 
les, 22 April, 1809. 

JLECTICS (from Greek, eklego, I choose), 
“nt philosophers (called Analogetici, and also 
wethes, the lovers of truth), who, without 
ting themselves to any sect, chose what 
judged good from each: of them was Potamon 
°xandria, about a.p. 1. Also a Christian sect, 
~onsidered the doctrine of Plato conformable 
2 spirit of Christianity. 


ULIPSE (the race-horse), see Races, 
JLIPSES. Their revolution was calculated 


by Calippus, the Athenian, 336 B.c. The Egyptians 
said they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of 
the sun, and 832 of the moon, in the period from 
Vulcan to Alexander, who died 23)B.ce AThe 
theory of eclipses is said to have been known to 
the Chinese before 120 B.c. The first eclipse re- 
corded happened 7 March, 721 B.c., at 8h. 40m. 
P.M., according to Ptolemy; it was lunar, and was 
observed with accuracy at Babylon. 


A list of eclipses to the year 2000 is given in “LL Art de 
Vérifier les Dates.” 

The Royal Astronomical Society published a volume of 
“Observations made during total solar eclipses,” 1880, 

ECLIPSES OF THE SUN. 

The Nineveh eclipse (recorded, according to sir 
Henry Rawlinson, on a Nineveh tablet in the 
British Museum) : , ; - 15 June, 

That predicted by Thales; see Halys (Pliny, lib. 
ii. 9), believed to have occurred F 28 May, 
[Sir G. B. Airy thinks the date should be 610; 

others say 603 or 584B.c. Itis the one recorded 
by Herodotus as interrupting a battle between 
the Medes and Lydians. ] 

Eclipse of Xerxes, when setting out on his expedi- 
tion against Greece 2 3 : 17 Feb. 

One at Athens (Thucydides, lib. iv.) é oN 

Eclipse of Agathocles (Airy) A - 15 Aug: 

Total one: three days’ supplication decreed at 
Rome (Livy) . ; ‘ : ‘ : Aes. 

One general at the death of Jesus Christ (Josephus) 

A.D. 3 April, 

One observed at Constantinople : : b 

At the battle of Sticklestadt : 29 July, 

In France, when it was dark at noon-day (Du 
Fresnoy) . ; 2 2 ; j - 29 June, 

In England: a total darkness (W. Malmsb.), 20 Mar. 

Again; the stars visible at ten in the morning 
(Camden) . “ 7 : : 23 June, 

The true sun, and the appearance of another, so 
that astronomers alone could distinguish the 
difference by coloured glasses : P : ‘ 

Observed in Scotland; termed the “black hour” 

7 June, 1433 

Observed in Scotland; termed “ Mirk Monday” 

8 April, 

Total eclipse, visible in England; the darkness so 
great that the stars shone, and the birds went to 
roost at noon A : : : . 3 May, 

Last total eclipse observed in England; seen near 
Salisbury : i : : . 22 May, 

Remarkable one, central and annularin the interior 
of Europe j : ‘ : : 7 Sept. 

Total eclipses—r7 July, 1833; 8 July, 1842; 28 
July, 1851. 

An annular eclipse; it was seen and photographed 
at Oundle; but not seen well at other places 

15 March, 1858 

Total eclipse of the sun; well seen by Sir G. B. 
Airy, astronomer royal, and others in Spain ; 

Mr. Warren de la Rue took photographs, 18 J uly, 1860 

Total eclipse of the sun of the longest possible dura- 
tion; (the Royal Society provided means for its 
observation in India, by col Walker, Mr. Herschel, 
and others) F : . 18 Aug. 

During the solar eclipse, 18 Aug. 1868, as observed 
in India, M. Janssen invented a method of study- 
ing the phenomena of the sun at any time, by 
employing several spectroscopes, whereby the 
spectrum is lengthened and the dazzling bril- 
liancy diminished. Mr. Joseph Norman Lockyer 
had suggested a similar method of observation 
in 1866, but did not use it till 20 Oct. 1868, being 
then not aware of M. Janssen’s discovery. 

The solar eclipse well observed in North ong ae 

7 Aug. 

Two expeditions to observe the solar eclipse of 
22 Dec. 1870, sent out by the British government, 
were not successful ; : «. 22 Dec, 

The solar eclipse well observed at Ceylon and in 
southern India, 12 Dec. 1871; and in North 
America, 29, 30 July, 1878 ; and in Egypt 17 May, 
[The same eclipses (about 70) recur in a period of 

18 years 10} days. ] 

Except the total eclipse, r2 Aug. r999, there can be 
no total eclipse of the sun visible in England for 
250 years: July, 1871. Hind. 


18638 


1869 


1870 


1882 


ECNOMUS. 
Grand eclipse, well seen by astronomersat Caroline island, 
&e., Pacific, 6 May, 1883. 


OF THE MOON. 
The first, observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon 


(Ptolemy iv.) . e ‘ 2 _ - » BC. 721 
A total one observed at Sardis (Thucydides, vii.) 413 
Again, in Asia Minor (Polybius) . sated me et ero 
One at Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius Gallus 

(Livy, xliv.) . : F 3 ‘ - toe 4268 
One terrified the Roman troops and quelled their 

revolt (Tacitus) . : 3 : ‘ se ADs postal 


ECNOMUS, see Himera. 
ECOLE POLYTECHNIQUE, 2 military 


academy at Paris, established in 1794, and reor- 
ganised and given its present name on I Sept. 1795. 
The *‘ Journal’? (which began in 1795) contains pro- 
found mathematical papers. The school was reor- 
ganised 4 Sept. 1816. ‘The pupils helped to defend 
Paris in 1814 and 1830. 

ECONOMIC MUSEUM (or Museum of 
Domestic and Sanitary Economy), at Twickenham, 
open free, was established chiefly by the agency 
of Mr. Thos. Twining, in 1860. It originated from 


the Paris exhibition of 1855. 


ECONOMIST, London weekly journal, de- 
voted to financial matters, first appeared 2 Sept. 


1843. 


ECONOMISTES, 2 philosophical sect, founded 
by Francois Quesnay (1694—1774), who exalted 
agriculture above all other arts; he asserted that it 
gave two things, the support of the labourer and an 
excess of value which belonged to the proprietor of 
the land (‘‘ product net’’), and which alone should. 
be taxed. He also favoured great freedom for in- 
dustry and trade. His ‘‘ Physiocratie” (1768), and 
other works, were at the time very popular, even 
at court, and are said to have influenced Adam 
Smith, author of “‘ The Wealth of Nations.” 


ECORCHEURS (Flayers), bands of armed 
_adventurers who desolated France and Belgium 
during the 15th century, beginning about 1435. 
Amongst their leaders were Chabannes, comte de 
Dammartin, the bastard of Armagnac, and Vil- 
landras; and they at one time numbered 100,000. 
They are said to have stripped their victims to their 
shirts, and flayed the cattle. They were favoured 
by the English invasion and the civil wars. 


ECUADOR, see Equator. 


EDDAS (thought formerly to mean Oldemoder, 
or “mother of mothers,” by others, “art,’’) two 
books of songs and sagas (prose and verse) contain- 
ing the Scandinavian mythology (or history of Odin, 
Thor, Frea, &c.), written by skalds or bards about 
the 11th or 12th centuries. Translations have been 
made into French, English, &c. MSS. of the 
Eddas exist at Copenhagen and Upsal. 


EDDYSTONE (or Epystonr) LIGHT- 
HOUSE, off the port of Plymouth, erected by 
the Trinity-house to enable ships to avoid the 
Eddystone rock. The first lighthouse was com- 
menced under Mr. Winstanley, in 1696; finished 
in 1699; and destroyed in the dreadful tempest 
of 27 Nov. 1703, when Mr. Winstanley and others 
perished. A wooden one, by Rudyerd, was built by 
order of parliament, and all ships were ordered to 
pay one penny per ton inwards and outwards towards 
supporting it, 1708. This lighthouse was burnt 4 
Dec. 1755; and one on a better plan, erected by 
Mr. Smeaton, finished 9 Oct. I / 59. The woodwork 
of this, burnt in 1770, was replaced by stone. 

The foundation having given way, a new one was de- 


272 


| Nur-ed-deen, in II 


/ 


EDINBURGH. 
signed by Mr. James N. Douglass, engineer of 
Trinity House. The foundation-stone was laid by 
duke of Edinburgh in the presence of the prince 
Wales, 19 Aug.,1879. The corner-stone was placed 
the duke on x June, 1881. Successfully lit, 3 
1882; opened by the duke, 18 May, 1882. 

Smeaton’s light-house memorial tower erected. at ] 


mouth ; founded by duke of Edinburgh, 20 Oct. 1! 
Inaugurated, 24 Sept. 1884. 


EDEN, ship burnt; see Wrecks, 1873. 


EDESSA (now Orfah), a town in Meso 
tamia, said by some, to have been built by Nimr 
by Appian, to have been built by Seleucus, It. 
came famous for its schools of theology in the. 
century. It was made a principality by the cru 
ders, and was taken by the Saracens, 1145; 
; and the Turks in 1184. 
ancient kings or rulers were named Abgarus < 
Mannus. 


EDGECOTEH, see Banbury. 
EDGEHILL FIGHT (23 Oct. 1642), W 


wickshire, between the royalists under prince I 
pert and the parliament army under the earl 
Essex, was the first important engagement in | 
civil war. Charles I. was present, and the earl 
Lindsay, who headed the royal foot, was morta 
wounded. The king lost 5000 dead. The acti 
was indecisive, though the parliament claimed { 
victory. 


EDICT oF NANTES, by which Henry IY, 
France granted toleration to his protestant subjec 
I 3 April, 1598, was confirmed by Louis 
1610, and by Louis XIV. in 1652. It was revol 
by Louis XLV. 22 Oct. 1685. This act cost Frat 
50,000 Protestant families, and gave to Engla 
and Germany thousands of industrious artisa 
It also caused a fierce insurrection in Langued 
See Camisards. Some ofthe refugees settled in Spit 
fields, where their descendants yet remain; oth 
settled in Soho and St. Giles’s, and pursued the | 
of making crystal glasses, and carried on the s 
manufacture and jewellery; then little underste 
in England. 


EDICTS, 


ublic ordinances and deere 
usually set forth by sovereigns; originated wi 
the Romans. The Prrprtuat Epict: Salvi 
Julianus, of Milan, a civilian at Rome (author 
several treatises on public right), was employed 
the emperor Adrian to draw up this body of la 
for the preetors, promulgated 132. 


EDINBURGH, the metropolis of Scotia 
derives its name—in ancient records Hdinbure 
Dun Edin, “the hill of Edin’’—from its cas 
founded or rebuilt by Edwin, king of North 
bria, who, having greatly extended his domini 
erected it for the protection of his newly acquit 
territories from the incursions of the Scots f 


Picts, 626. But it is said the castle was first b 
by Camelon, king of the Picts, 330 B.c. It m: 
a conspicuous appearance, standing on a rock 3 
feet high at the west end of the old town, and, be 
the use of great guns, was a fortification of ¢ 
siderable strength. See Population. 
Christianity introduced (reign of Donald I.) .  . 
City fortified, and castle rebuilt by Malcolm 
Canmore . 4 2 : F : aid 
St. Giles’s church, founded (845?) . 
Improved by David I. . : 2 . 
Holyrood abbey founded by David I. . 3 2 
Edinburgh constituted a burgh . . about 
Castle held by England P i 2 " «227 
A parliament held here under Alexander II. . ‘ 
City taken by the English . ; 4 . “- @ 
Grant of the town of Leith to Edinburgh . . 
Surrenders to Edward III. . , Fi . 


. . » I 
. 1124 tO1 
I 


EDINBURGH. 


‘ 273 EDINBURGH. 
5, Giles’s church destroyed . - 1385 | Lord Melville’s monument erected 3 “f) wuLOZe 
sebuilt : : ‘ ‘ : Z j -_. 1387 | Edinburgh and Dalkeith railway opened . July, 1831 
ity burnt by Richard IT., 1385; and by Henry IV. rgor | Statue of George IV. erected : : i aie) 1832 
ames IT. first king crowned here 4 : - . 1437 | Death of sir Walter Scott . 3 <2 2T Sepia 
xecution of the earl of Athol . Ae Chambers’s Edinburgh Journal published . Eich ait oe 
ual fair granted by James II. - 1447 | Association of the Fine Arts . : i : . 1833 

ity strengthened byawall . - 1450 | The British Association meets here. . 8 Sept. 1834 
harter of James III. . ‘ 3 ; - + 1477 | Edinburgh and Granton railway begun «42886 
dinburgh made the metropolis by James III. . 1482 | Art-union of Scotland : : : 1837 
oyal College of Surgeons incorporated - + 1505 | Monument to sir Walter Scott commenced . 1840 
aarter of James IV. : = 4 Z . 1508 | Society of Arts, founded 1821 ; incorporated . . 1842 
{The palace of Holyrood was built in the reign of Edinburgh and Glasgow railway opened Febiauee 
James IV.] Queen Victoriavisits Edinburgh, &c., 31 Aug.-15 Sept. a 
igh school founded, about A 2 i . . 1518 | Secession, and formation of the Free Church, 18 May, 1843 
British force, landing from a fleet of 200 ships, New College instituted . ; : ihe 
burns both Edinburgh and Leith May, 1544 | North British railway commenced ‘ : oh) oad 
ith is again burnt, but Edinburgh is spared - 1547 | The monument to the political martyrs of 1793-4 
‘booth built. : i A x i -RLSOX laid by Mr. Hume . 2 s : « 21, Ang. 33 
arriage of queen Mary and lord Darnley - 1565 | Granton pier, &c., constructed by the duke of Bue- 

iid Rizzio murdered Z : 5 : -7 Re TIBGO cleuch : A A . B é 1835-44 
wd Darnley blown up in a private house by gun- Sir Walter Scott’s monument completed . hints) 
powder . é : : 5 : 10 Feb. 1567 | Edinburgh Philosophical Association (established 
wy marries James, earl of Bothwell 15 May, ,, 1832) re-organised as the Edinburgh Philosophi- 

iry’s forced resignation ; civil war * i - 1570 cal Society s ; . 4 3 : oe OAS 
sath of John Knox fs : ; f . . 1572 | N. British railway opened . : 18 June, ,, 
tiversity chartered ; see Hd. University 14 April, 1582 | British Association (2nd time) meets - 31 July, 1850 
thwell’s attempt on Holyrood-house 27 Dec. 1591 | The queen again visits Edinburgh 20 Ang, "1. 
ot in the city; the mob attacks the king - 1596 | Prince Albert lays the foundation-stone of the 

mes VI. leaves Edinburgh as king of England, Scotch national gallery . : ab SOAR es 
5 April, 1603; he revisits it . : - 16 May, 1617 | Meeting to vindicate Scottish rights 2 Nov. 1853 
orge Heriot’s hospital founded by his will . . 1624 | Old buildings near Lawn-market burnt 5 Aug. 1857 
arles I. visits Edinburgh A . June, 1633 | Act passed for building new Post-office . - July, 1858 
‘Inburgh made a bishopric . F 4 F Ati National gallery opened : : - 21 March, 1859 
»ts in Greyfriars church at the reading of the Agitation against Ministers’ Annuity tax Sept. ,, 
Mnglish Liturgy . . ss - 23 July, 1637 | Lord Brougham elected chancellor of the university, 
liament house finished . A 5 A Wun peeve: Edinburgh ., : - a F : UN OW sae 
les again visits the city . : A - 164 | Ministers tax abolished, and other arrangements 

2 castle is surrendered to Cromwell Dec. 1650 maae Wluch did not give satisfaction: riots 
lereurius Caledonius,” first Edinburgh newspaper, ensued I ‘ ‘ : : Noy. 1860 
4 appeared 1661 | 20,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen in Queen’s 
Tee-houses first opened 2 r . 3 31 1677 Park $ i ‘ : i ZEUS see 
‘rehants’ Company incorporate . - - 1681 | Industrial museum act passed <S2OEA Uy aeee 
lege of Physicians incorporate F : spas sath Edinburgh visited by empress Eugénie, 20 Noy. ,, 
‘lof Argyll beheaded . ‘ - 30 June, 1685 | The prince consort lays foundation of new Post- 

‘ican and Kast India Company incorporated =. 1695 office and industrial museum 923 Oct, 186r 
ik of Scotland founded . : a s page Fall of a house in High-street, 35 persons killed, 

ion ofthe kingdoms . i a : oe sh. 2707 24 Nov. ,, 

yal bank founded . 4 “ 4 ‘ ; . 1727 | Accident on Edinburgh and Glasgow railway—r7 

‘wd of trustees of trade and manufactures killed ; above roo wounded . 08 e3 Och 71862 
‘ppointed . . : f . A Sle Lord Palmerston’s visit 31 March-4 April, 1864 
ral Infirmary incorporated . . 5 ; . 1736 | Theatre royal burnt: George Lorimer, dean of 

tir of Captain Porteous (see Porteous) 7 Sept. ,, guild, and seven persons, killed by fall of wall, 

lieal Society instituted . i s : id: an 8997 while endeavouring to extricate others, 13 Jan. 1865 
‘| young Pretender occupies Holyrood 17 Sept. 1745 | Statues of Allan Ramsay and John Wilson inaugu- 

tle of Preston Pans . - . ) 2cReptiw,, rated . y 2 ; F 3 25 March, ,, 
_lern improvements, ‘‘ New town,” commenced . 1753 | New Post-office opened. 5 y - 7May, 1866 
_fistrates assigned gold chains. - 1754 | National museum of science and art opened by 

val Exchange completed =. 4 - - 1761 prince Alfred (who is created duke of Edinburgh, 
‘ndation of the North Bridge . < . 21 Oct. 1763 &c., the first royal prince whose leading title was 

atre Royal erected . ; ; i a) TGG Scotch, 24 May) : = 4) cash) dA ah SQ DAREN oe 

it fire in the Lawn-market . 2 é - 1771 | Great reform demonstration . ; oy Ue TN OME aoe 

_ister-office, Princes-street, commenced . -. 1774 | Explosion in the Canongate, at Hammond’s, a fire- 

' on-hill observatory founded . 25 duly, 1776 work-maker’s ; 5 killed, many injured 9 Oct. 1867 
it commotion against popery . A 2 Feb. 1779 | Visit of Mr. Disraeli, chancellor of the exchequer, 

ety of Antiquaries . : 4 : i - 1780 conservative demonstration . - 29, 30 Octetir,; 
al Society of Edinburgh incorporated . . . 1783 | Meeting to propose restoration of St. Giles’s cathe- 

th Bridge commenced . : : rt Aug. 1785 dral b : ; : ; 7 le ONS La 

al College of Surgeons incorporated , . . 1788 | Visit of John Bright, made freeman fs 3 Nov. 1868 
t stone of present university laid 16 Noy. 1789 | The annuity-t&x abolition act passed 9 Aug. 1870 

ertson, the historian, dies here 11 June, 1793 | The prince of Wales installed as patron of the 
ewell, Calton-hill, erected . : : 4 E700 Freemasons of Scotland, 12 Oct. ; laid the founda- 

‘yrood, an asylum to Louis XVIII. and his tion of the new royal infirmary . 3 t3 OCt At 

other, afterwards Charles X. . - 1795 to 1799 | Meeting of British Association (3rd) .2 Aug. 1871 
‘Bank of Scotland commenced . - 3 June, 1801 | Scott centenary celebrated (9 for 1s) Aug. ,, 
linburgh Review” tirst published . “xo Oct. 1802 | Restoration of St. Giles’s cathedral begun, 17 June, 1872 
‘system of police established 3 . . + 1805 | Lady Burdett Coutts made a burgess 15 Jan. 1873 

ming riots here . : - - « 31 Dec. 1811 | The earl of Derby elected lord rector of the uni- 

‘on’s monument completed . - - Se LOLs versity 2 3 é F £ 3 14 Nov. 1874 
company incorporated . : 2 3 - 1818 | Theatre Royal destroyed by fire : « 6F¥eb. 1875 

2r company incorporated : - 4 - + 1819 | Advocates’ library injured by fire 4 3 March ,, 
essor Playfair dies . 3 20 July, ,, Southminster theatre burnt ; .. 14 Mareh,: -{, 

ety of Arts instituted . i x F - + 1821 | Freedom of city given to right hon. W. E. Forster, 

‘m Canal completed . ; F : : . 1822 5 Nov.itt;; 
ge IV.’s visit; foundation of the national Earl of Derby’s address as lord rector, ot? Deereg: 
yument . : 4 : 15-27 Aug. ,, Statue of Dr. Livingstone unveiled’. - 45 Aug. 1876 
il Institution erected . } i‘ ; - 1823 | Albert Memorial inaugurated by the queen, 17 Aug. _,, 
ructive fires . - : . dune and Nov. 1824 | Fire at Leith Walk, 7 killed through fall of a house, 
lish Academyfounded . . . . ~~. 1826 20 Dec. 1877 

T 


EDINBURGH, BISHOPRIC OF. 2 


Messrs. Nelson’s printing-office burnt ; great loss, 
ro April, 
Statue of Dr. Chalmers, by Steell, unveiled 27 July 
Marquis of Hartington installed lord rector, 31 Jan. 
New waterworks (Portmore reservoir at the Moor- 
foot Hills) opened by the lord provost 13 June, ,, 
St. Mary’s Cathedral (Episcopal) founded by the 
duke of Buccleuch, 1874; consecrated 30 Oct. |;, 
New dock at Leith opened by the duke of Edinburgh 
26 J uly, 
About 40,000 Scottish volunteers reviewed in the 
queen’s park by the queen . : 25 Aug. 
Fishery Exhibition opened 4 Ee April, 
Academy of Music for Scotland (at Edinburgh) 
founded S SeDie.. 
Freedom of the city giv en to the marquis os Salis- 
DUTY as INOVaer 5s 
A severe snow storm ; ‘locomotion stopped: frost 
9-18 Dec. ,, 
Death of William Chambers, bookseller, restorer 
of St. Giles’s [which is reopened 23 May] 20 May, 
Sir Stafford Northcote lord rector of the ae a tal 
OVs. 53 
Theatre Royal again destroyed by fire 30 June, 1884 
Mass-meeting to support the government “and the 
franchise bill ° ~ LS OLLY fas, 
Visit of the prince and princess and family 22 Aug. ,, 
Demonstration in favour of the government; 
speeches of Mr. Gladstone 30 Aug. and 
1-2Sept. ,, 
EDINBURGH, BisHopric oF, was created 
by Charles I. when in Scotland in 1633 ; ; and Wil- 
liam Forbes, minister of Edinburgh, first bishop. 
The king allotted the parishes of the shires of 
Edinburgh, Linlithgow, Haddington, and a part 
of Berwick and of Stir lingshire, to compose the see. 
The sixth and last prelate was Alexander Ross, who 
was ejected on the abolition of episcopacy, at the 
period of the revolution, in 1689. Edinburgh be- 
came a_ post- -revolution bishopric in 1720; see 
Bishops. 


EDINBURGH’S, DUKE oF, Annuity Act, 
passed 5 Aug. 1873. It gave power to the queen to 
grant an additional annuity to the duke of 10,000/. 
on his marriage to the grand duchess Marie Alex- 
androvna, and an annuity of 6,000/. to the grand 
duchess if she should survive the duke. The. mar- 
riage took place 23 Jan. 1874. 


EDINBURGH REVIEW (by Francis Jef- 
frey, rev. Sydney Smith, Henry Brougham, and 
other whigs) published first on 10 Oct. 1802. 


EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. Acollege 
was commenced by the town council of Edinburgh, 
in 1581, for which queen Mary had given the site 
of ancient religious houses, and Robert Reid, bishop 
of Orkney, the funds in 1 5 fe On 24 Oct. I 582 the 
university was chartered by James VI. afterwards 
James I. of England. The ‘inst principal was ap- 
pointed in I 585. The foundation-stone of the new 
buildings was laid by Francis, lord Napier, grand- 
master of the masons of Scotland, 1@ Noy. 1789. 
The constitution of the university was modified 


1883 


by Act of Parliament in 1858. In 1845, the 
library contained upwards of 80,000 volumes, 
besides numerous curious and rare MSS. and 


documents. Dr. Lyon Playfair elected the first 
M.P. for Edinburgh and St. Andrew’s univer- 
sities in conformity with the act of 1868, 4 Dec. 
1868. Great movement to extend the university ; 
meeting in London: large subscriptions, 7 Dec. 
1874. The ter centenary of the university was cele- 
brated by a distinguished assembly, 16—18 April, 
1884. 


EDMUNDS’ CASH, see under Patents, 
EDOM, see Idumea. 


EDUCATION, the art of developing the 
physical, intellectual, and moral faculties of man, 


4 EDUCATION. 


has occupied the greatest minds in all ages: Socrates 
Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, Bacon, Milton 
Locke, Rousseau, &c. In England the earlies 
schools for the lower classes were those attached.t 
the monasteries; for the higher classes halls an 
colleges were gradually founded ; see Arts, School: 
Oxford, Cambridge, Endowed ” Schools, Aschar 
Society, §c. 


William of Wykeham planted the school at Win- 
chester, whence arose his colleges at that place 
and Oxford. 7 5 “ 

Eton college founded by Henry VE at 

After the reformation, education was greatly pro- 
moted, and many grammar schools were erected 
and endowed by Edward VI. and Elizabeth . 1535-6 

Christ’s hospital, the bluecoat school, established, 155 

Westminster school founded by Elizabeth = + 156 

Foundation of Rugby school by Lawrence Sheriff, 
1567 ; of Harrow school by John Lyon . Pe 

The Charterhouse founded by Thomas Sutton On 

Many charity schools founded in opposition to 
Romish ones. . about 168 

Parish schools appointed by the parliament of Scot- 
land - 169 

Queen Anne, a zealous friend of education, founded 
the Greycoat school, Westminster, and cordially | 
supported parochial charity schools (one esta- 
blished at St. Margaret’s, Westminster, 1688)  . 169 

Nearly 2000 of these schools established in Great 
Britain and Ireland, principally by the instru- 
mentality of the Society for the Promotion of 
Christian Knowledge . - 1698-174 

Robert Raikes set up Sunday Schools about . 173 

In 1833 there were 16,828 of these schools, with 
1,548,890 scholars. 

J oseph Lancaster, a young Quaker, began toinstruct 
the children of the poor «ae G 

He had go pupils before he was 18 years old, and 
1ooo pupilsin ... , 5 .* ag 

Sunday School Union formed . - 180 

To provide teachers, Lancaster invented the moni- 
torial system. In consequence of his exertions 
the present British and Foreign School Society 
was founded with the name of the ‘‘ Royal 
Lancasterian Institution,” &e. . 180: 

This, being unexclusive, was followed. by the insti- 
tution of the Church of England “« National 


137 
- 144 


Society for Educating the Poor,” on Dr. Bell’s 
system . » A % : . 1811 
Infant Schools began : . about 181; 


The Charity Commission, appointed at the instance 
of Mr. (afterwards lord) Brougham, published 
their reports on Education, in 37 volumes folio, 1819-4 
Irish National School Sy stem (to accommodate both P 
Roman Catholics and Protestants) organised | 
mainly by archbishop Whately and the Roman ~ 


Catholic archbishop Murray . ‘ i - 1831 
City of London School, Honey-lane, opened c 1834 
The Home and Colonial School Society was insti- \ ; 

tuted 


Io38 
Practical technical instruction given ‘in the Chester , 
Diocesan Training College ene Arthur Rigg, _ 
principal) - 5839 
In 1834, the government began ANNUAL GRANTS (the 
tirst 20,000l.), which continued till the Committee 
of the Privy Council on Education was con- 
stituted for the distribution of the money . 183 
The Voluntary School Society and the Congrega- 
tional Board of Education formed . - about 18 
Ragged School Union established . “ . 18 
Educational Times, monthly, established "Oct. 184 
Out of a population of 17,927,609, there were 
2,466,481 day scholars . 18 
A ‘great educational conference took ” place at 
Willis’s Rooms, the prince consort in the chair, 
22-24 June, 18 
The Industrial Schools act passed in ” 
Middle Class Examinations from the university of 
Oxford began, June, 1858. The examiners grant 
the degree y of A.A. to many: persons at Liverpool, 
Leeds, &c.; similar examinations from Cam- 
bridge took place i in the autumn, and are to be 
continued 18 
Report of commissioners on popular education (ap- 
pointed 1858), published 18 March, 1861, led to 
the Minute of the Committee of the Privy Council - 


_ EDUCATION. 


m Education, establishing a Revised Code of Regu- 
ations, Mr, Lowe’s adopted 21 July, 1861, to come 
ntooperation,after 31 March, 1862. Itdecreed regu- 
ar examinations of the pupils, payment by results, 
wening schools for adults, and other changes, 
vhich raised a storm of opposition from the 
lergy and schoolmasters. The subject was much 
gitated in parliament (25, 28 March, 1862) ; but 
ventually a compromise was effected, 5 May, 
‘cial instructions for the administration of the 
tevised Code issued F . h . Sept. 
onscience-clause,” founded on the Endowed 
chools act, March, 1860, introduced by the Com- 
uttee of Council on Education for parishes where 
nly one school is required. It provided for the 
Inission of children of dissenters, and exempted 
1em from religious teaching, and attendance at 
ublie worship . é : - Nov. 1863 
(Report, 10 June, 1865.) 
as been much opposed by the clergy ever since, 
id created much controversy in : . 1866-7 
ege and Public School Commission Report, 
gned . : , é : 3 16 Feb. 1864 
al Commission appointed, to inquire into the 
ate of education in Scotland. First meeting at 
‘linburgh > Sr ae S1t4aNov:. 4, 
| Burdett Coutts proposes the establishment of 
iall village-schools, to be taught by ‘‘ambula- 
jry” teachers . ; : : ; . dan. 1865 
iamentary committee appointed to inquire into 
2 best mode of benefiting schools unassisted by 
he state . : ; é . ‘ . 28Feb. ,, 
vung ship established for homeless boys of 
ndon ; 50 boys placed there by Boys’ Refuge 
‘mmittee. See Chichester A - 18 Dec. 1866 
idation of the London College of the Inter- 
tional Education Society laid by the prince of 
eau. F p 4 ‘ - toJduly, 1867 
establishments in England, France, Germany, 
_l Italy proposed ; the idea is attributed to Mr. 
oden and Mr. Michel Chevalier . 2 - . 1862 
 nittee appointed at a meeting for establishment 
higher schools for middle classes in London, by 
ans of funds of lapsed charities, &c., 7 Nov. ; 
tly 28,o0ol. subscribed by end of Dec. 186s; 
| 3490. received . : : - - Oct. 1866 
| ubseribers incorporated by charter ; their first 
| ool opened by lord mayor and others in Bath- 
| set, St. Luke’s E : i . pap TOC 5. 
| prosperity reported at the annual meeting, 
: 18 March, 1867 
| utions moved in the lords by earl Russell (as- 
ing that every child has a right to education, 
_Yecommending appointment of a cabinet 
| ister of education), withdrawn eee y. 
| ‘tant report of schools inquiry commissioners 
ied 5..s : “ “ ‘ : 5 2 Dee. 
| rence at Manchester recommend compulsory 
cation, to be paid for by rates 15 Jan. 1868 
Schools bill brought into the commons 7 Feb. 
.} Elementary Education bill brought into the 
8 by duke of Marlborough, 24 March; with- 
vn 3 jy P 3 E . - 18 May, ,, 
\ ‘cal Education.—Minute of Committee of 
cation, recommending the foundation of 
larships for giving scientific instruction to 
iians . 2 ; 3 : ; eat DCCA. 
!) ow sir Joseph) Whitworth’s offer to found 30 
_larships of annual value of rool. each, for in- 
}) ction of young men in mechanics, &c., 18 
th, accepted by the lords of the council 27 Mar. ,, 
ation of the tirst new building for a middle 
school in London laid by the lord mayer, 
‘) tence (very successful, 1873) . oe LE CLICC.es 
Schools Act (modifying the government of 
|, Winchester, Westminster, Charterhouse, 
ow, Rugby, and Shrewsbury schools) passed 
uly, 1868; amendment acts  . g AUg. 1869-70-73 
tutes for them issued . Oct.-Nov. 1869 
al Education League (advocating compulsory 
} ‘ar education by the state), first met at Bir- 
ham (see below, 1877) D213 OCtue 45 
.w Education Union for supplementing the 
mt denominational system, first met at 
chester . 4 A ; A é SINOVie 
nce of masters of city companies at the 
| sion-house, to promote technical education, 
eS NOVe-55 


1862 


” 


”» 


» 


275 


EDUCATION. 


Conference at the Society of Arts to reconcile the 
League and the Union * : - 
Scientific instruction and advancement commission 
appointed : : J 3 5 oh NLO UMA V Sunes 
First ‘‘ drill-review ” of London charity schools, and 
others, at the Crystal Palace 3S =) 2n June; 3 
Elementary Education Bill introduced by Mr. W. E. 
Forster, 17 Feb. ; after much discussion, and op- 
position from the dissenters, it passed, and re- 
ceived the royal assent ‘ : s 9 Aug ay 
{Amended in 1872, 1873, and 1876. ] 
t0,000l. voted by the Christian Knowledge Society 
in aid of Church of England schools 20 Oct. ,, 
First election of Metropolitan school-board (lord 
Lawrence, chairman) . ‘ “ 7.20. NOME Wee 
National wniversity for industrial and technical 
training proposed . : A p OCT wae 
(Meeting held to promote it, 5 J uly, 1871. ] 
Regulations for school-boards issued a 20 DCC ouay 
New Revised Code discussed : F - March, 1871 
London School-board Education Scheme proposed, 
23\d une, |) 5, 
At the London school-board, after sharp discussion, 
the religious difficulty respecting payment for 
poor children at denominational schools settled 
forayear . ‘ 3 A * : AoUNOVN es 
Arrangements for erecting or adapting buildings for 
new schools made by London school-board, Dec. 
Conference of masters of grammar schools at High- 
gate. ; A i : F cau se 20-DeC. wt” 
Mr. Dixon’s and the nonconformists’ censure on 
the Elementary Education Act; negatived in the 
commons, 355-94. : ; : 5 March, 1872 
Scientific instruction: royal commission appointed, 
May, 1870; reported . April, 1871, April, ,, 
Education (Scotland) Act passed TOADS soe 
The London schooi-board determine to open separate 
schools for dirty unruly children . 20 Nov. 
“Society for Organization of Academical Study” 
proposed by sir B. C. Brodie, Dr. Carpenter, 
Prof. Rolleston and others at a meeting, 16 Nov. ,, 
Irish University Bill introduced by Mr. Gladstone, 
13 Feb. 
First London board-school (at Whitechapel) Gudred 
12 July, *,, 
College for northern counties at Knutsford ; foun- 
dation laid . 2 : : . : 24Nept.  ,, 
College for higher education of women, opened at ; 
Girton, which see . 5 g ; : me Octane s 
Great meeting for religious denominational educa- 
tion at St. James’s hall . - 3 oy OF NOV oe 
Second Metropolitan school-board elected ; religious 
party the strongest (Mr. (after sir) Charles 
Reed, M.P. chairman) ; : F 27 Nov. ,, 
The universities nominate a board for the examina- 
tion of pupils from public schools, 27 Dee. 
Domestic Hconomy.—Study of food and clothing in- 
troduced into government educational depart- 


” 


1873 


” 


ment 2 é : : : ‘ ; : « 187 
Mr. Dixon’s compulsory attendance Dill rejected 
(320-156) rJuly, ,, 


Result of first university examination of 221 schools : 
Winchester, 34 certificates; Manchester, 27; 
Marlborough, 15; Eton, 13; Sherborne, 11; Wel- 
lington college, 10; Rugby, 6, &c. ; Christ’s Hos- 
pital and others, 1: published . ni USOptarwes 

London school-board occupy their new building on 
Victoria Embankment . y 3 7) 30'Nept, 75; 

New code of raised standards for schools issued, 

March, 1875 

Nuneham college at Cambridge for women opened, 

18 Oct. 

First annual conference of teachers - 14 Jan. 1876 

Mr. Dixon’s bill for universal school-boards and 
compulsory education rejected by the commons 
(281-260) ‘ é ‘i : : ae Apprilé Ae 

Another Elementary Education act introduced 
by lord Sandon, 18 May ; a clause permitting un- 
necessary school-boards to be suppressed, intro- 
duced by Mr. Pell, carried, 24 July ; 3rd reading 
(119-46), 5 Aug. (considered reactionary) royal 


assent 2 é 5 3 5 er 5 ATS aes 
International congress on education at Philadelphia, 
; July, 

Third Metropolitan school board elected ; majority “ 


against denominational school systems(sir Charles 
Reed, chairman) : : : ; 30 Nov. ,, 
National Education League dissolved . 28 March, 1877 


r 2 


. 7 Feb. 1870 


EDUCATION, 


276 


+ 


Hlection of school attendance committees under 
the new act . April, 
Technical Education. —City and Guilds of London 
Institute for the advancement of Technical Edu- 
cation ; plan recommended by a committee, lord 
Selborne, chairman, published June; the institute 

formally constituted, 11 Nov. 1878; foundation 
of the building laid by prince Leopold, 10 May, 

Primary schools in Great Britain: in 1854, 3825; in 
1855, 4800; in 1860, 7272; in 1870, 10,949; in 
1877, 18,118 ; in 1878, 19,2913 in 1879, 20,169 ; in 
1880, 20,670; in 1881, 21,136; in 1882, 21,362; in 
1883, 21,632.' 

Annual raat for pr imary schools in Great Britain : 


in 1861, 813,442l. ; in 1865, 636,806l.; in 1870, 
840,335. ; in 1878, 2,463,283]. 5 in 1879, 2,732,0671.$ 
in 1880, 2,854,0671. ; 1881, 2,978,2241. 5 19882, 


3,101,0281. ; 1883, 33247,725|> : 1884, 3,403,674. 
Intermediate Education act for Iréland passed 
16 Aug. 
Education Act (Scotland) amended - 16 Aug. 
Kevised Code, 7 Feb. 1877; 2 April, 1878; April, 
z61st metropolitan board school opened by sir 
Charles Reed, at Portland town 23 June, 
The Queen v. sir Charles Reed ; the Queen’s bench 
decide that the school board has power to borrow 
money . 27 June, 
Metropolitan school board children on the rolls : 
1871, 31,1173; 1873, 50,606; 1876, 146,031; 1878 
(Christmas), 207,289 ; 1883, 293,811. 

Fourth Metropolitan school board elected (sir 
Charles Reed, chairman) : . 27 Nov. 
Technical College for North of England innagabaed 
at Newcastle - 24 Sept. 
Important decision r especting school fees and anes 
ance, see Trials . - 27 June, 
Death of sir Charles Reed, 25 March ; sapcceneal by 

Mr. Edward North Buxton : : : 
Changes in the code ; circular issued . - WATE: 
Royal commission on Technical Instruction ap- 

pointed, 5 Aug. 1881 (Mr. Bernhard Samuelson, 
prof. H. E. Roscoe, and four others), to inquire 
abroad and at home; 1st report, preliminar vy, 

17 Feb. 1882; 2nd report issued, reassuring as to 

English work, recommends advance in edu- 

cation, &e. . about 16 May, 
The grant for Public Edueation in Great Britain, 
in 1851, Was 150,o00l. ; 1856; 451,213. ; 1860, 
798,167l. ; 1861, She ; 1864, 705, 404l. ; 1867, 


705,865]. England, 1872, 1,554,560l.; 1877, 
I,910,000l. ; 1882, 2,749,863. : 1884, 3,016, 1671. 
For Treland, 1860, 270,722l. ; 1861, 285,3771. ; 


1863, 316,770l. From 1839 to 1860, 3,655,0671. 
were granted for education. The grant for educa- 
tion, science, and art, in 1861, Was 1,358,996/. ; for 
1867- -8, 1,487,554. ; 1874-5, 2 ,228,4701., (in addition, 
3,060, 5661., were locally raised) ; 1876- 7, England, 
707,055. ; ‘Scotland, 438,227/. ; Ireland, 649, 0401. : 
for year 1876-7 (United Kingdom), 3)349,3971- ; 
1879-80 (Great Britain), 2,854,9381. ; 1883-4, 

2,938,5871. 3 1884-5, 3,016, 1671. (for 18,540 schools, 
4,670,000 pupils), 


Epucation Socrery, formed in July, 1875, for ex- 
amining and propounding the principles upon 
which the practice of education should be founded, 
by professor Alexander Bain, Dr. J. H. Gladstone, 
and others. Branches have been formed in Dublin, 
and other places. 

Ascham Society (which see) formed. 

School board expenditure estimated : " 679, ‘595i, 
9 Feb. 1882; Feb. 1883, 801,210l. Debt, March, 
1882, 4,615,909. ; debt, March, 1883, 4,815, 5621. 
Expenditure, 1884, 948,746l. ; ; 1885, 950,804l. 

Lord Aberdare, Mr. W. E. Forster, sir John Lub- 
bock, and others form a committee to ee 
electors of school board : 3 Oct. 

Fifth Metropolitan school board elected (ola poling 
affirmed ; E. M. Buxton, chairman) . 24 Nov. 

The Boy’s ” Public Day school company foandedi 

5 Dec. 1882; first schoolopened . 12 Sept. 
tiie College, Finsbury, opened - 19 Feb, 

Art for School Societies formed in London and the 
provinces . 

New education code (much attacked) comes into 


operation 3 April, 
International Educational Conference Hy South 
Kensington opened A . : 4 Aug. 


1877 


1881 


1884 | 


- 1880 


” 


| Dr. Crichton Browne's report on over-pressure in 


primary and secondary schools, with Mr. Fitch’s 
memorandum against it, published - Sept. 


EGALITE (Z£quality), see Orleans. 


| EGGS. The duty on imported eggs was 
pealed in 1860, whereby the revenue lost al 
| 20,000. a year. Number imported into G 
Britain : in 1861, Co HI40 0; + AD 1805, 364,013, 
in 1869, 442,172,640 ; in I 70, 4 430,842,240; inI 


39% ,026,640 ; 1877, ist ,185,600; 1879, 766,707,§ 
| 1 040,436, ,160. Great quantities are now brot 
from "Ttaly y the St. Gothard railway. 


EGLINTOUN TOURNAMENT see 7 


nament. 


EGYPT.* The early seat of political civil 
tion. Ist epoch ; the dynasty of its Pharaohs 
“* creat kings,”’ commenced with Mizraim, the 
of | Ham, second son of Noah, 2188 3.c. to the | 
quest by Cambyses, 525 B. ’c. 2nd epoch, to 
death of Alexander the Great, and establishmer 
the Ptolemies, 323 B.c. 3rd epoch, to the deat 
Cleopatra and the subjogation by the Rom 


| 30 B.C., see Alexandria and Cairo. Popula 
of Egypt proper (1883), 6,798,230. The Khe 
is nominally subject to Turkey. 
Dynasty of Menes (conjectural) . B.C. 2717 or 
Mizraim builds Memphis (Blair) . 
Egypt made four kingdoms, viz., U pper Egypt, 


Blais) Egypt, This, and Memphis ao La 

air : : 

Athotes invents hier oglyphies x = “ s 

Busiris builds Thebes (Usher) . 

Osymandyas, the first warlike king, passes into 
Asia, conquers Bactria, and causes his exploits 
to be represented in sculpture and painting 
(Usher, Lenglet) . A 

The Pheenicians invade Lower Egypt, and hold it 
260 years (Usher); the dynasty of ge ae Kings 
begins. : . 

The Lake of Meris constructed . ; - oie 

The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt 

| Syphoas introduces the use of an alphabet (Usher) 

ee invents Egyptian characters? (Blair, Leng- 
et ‘5 

Amenophis , acknowledged king of all Egypt 
(Lenglet) . 

Joseph is sold into Egypt as aslave 

He interprets the king’s dreams 

His father and brethren settle here 

Rameses III., or Sesostris, reigns : he extends “ne 
dominion by conquest over Arabia, Persia, ite | 
and Asia Minor (Lenglet) uncertain A . 

Settlement of the Ethiopians (Blair) . ; 

Rameses, who imposed on his subjects the building 
of walls and pyramids, and other labours, dies ” 
(Lenglet) . 

The persecution of the J eWS ; 
Israelites 

Amenophis II. is overwhelmed in ‘the Red Sea, with 
aul his army (Lenglet, Blair) 

Reign of Hgyptus, from whom the country, hither- 
to called Mizraim, is now called Egypt (Blair) 

Reign of Thuoris (the Proteus of the Greeks) ; his. 
faculty of assuming whatever form he pleased, 
probably denoted his policy . ; 

Pseusennes (Shishak) enters Palestine, ravages | 
Judea, and carries off the sacred vessels - 

The dynasty of kings called Tanites begins with 
Petubastes (Blair) . A “ ° 

The dynasty of Saites (Blair) ; . 

Sebacon (the Ethiopian) invades Egypt, subdues ‘the 
king, Bocchoris, whom he orders to be roastetl 
alive (Usher) : z ‘ 4 A - 


- the exodus of the, 


* Three magnificent works on Egypt have been } 
lished: in France (commenced by Napoleon, and 
savans who accompanied him to Egypt), Descriptio 
VEgypte, 1809-22; in Italy, Rosellini’s Monwmenti ' 
Egitto, 1832-44 ; and in Prussia, K. R. Lepsius’ Denkm 

| aus Agypten, 1848-56. All these are in the Library of 
Royal Institution of Great Britain, London. 


f EGYPT. 277 EGYPT. 
‘ye Dodekarchy (x2 rulers) expelled by Psammeti- | Conquest of Alexandria g : 22 Dec. 640 
chus the Powerful . 650 | Cairo founded by the Saracens . . . «+ 969 
e invests Azoth, which holds out for 19 years, ‘the Conquest by the Turks a 1163-91 
longest siege of antiquity (Usher) 647 | Government of the Mamelukes established. - 1250 
echo begins the canal between the Arabian eulf Selim I., emperor of the Turks, conquers Egypt. 1567 
and the : Mediterranean sea (Blair). A 610 | It is gover ned by beys till a great part of the 
is eanal abandoned after costing the lives of country is conquered by the French, under poi 
120,000 men (Herodotus) . : 609 parte (see Alexandria) 1798-99 
buchadnezzar of Babylon deposes Apries 581 | The invaders dispossessed by the Br itish, and ‘ths 
‘ories taken prisoner and strangled in his palace Turkish government restored : . 1801 
‘(Diod. Siculus) 571 | Mehemet Ali massacres the Mamelukes, and obtains 
(if philosopher Pythagor as comes fr om. Samos into the supreme power 1 March, 1&xrx 
t, and is instructed in the mysteries of Arrival of Belzoni, 1815 ; he removes statue of Mem. 
Egyptian theology (Usher) : 535 | _ non, 1816; explores temples, &c. 1817 
ie line of the Pharaohs ends in the murder of | Formation of the Mahmoud canal, connecting “Alex- ” 
Psammenitus by Cambyses (Blair) 526 andria with the Nile . il . 1820 
eadful excesses of Cambyses ; he puts the children | Mehemet Pasha revolts and invades Syria Ss ESZE 
of the grandees, male and female, to death, and His son Ibrahim takes Acre, 27 May; overruns 
makes the country a waste (er odgtus) 524 | Syria; defeats the Turks at Konieh 21r Dec. 1832 
»e sends an army of 50,ooo men across the desert to He advances on Constantinople, which is entered 
destroy the temple of Jupiter Ammon, but they by Russian auxiliaries, 3 April; war ends with 
_all perish in the burning sands (Justin) ae4 convention of Kutayah 4 May, 1833 
sypt revolts from the Persians ; again subdued by Mehemet again revolts, claiming hereditary power ; 
‘Xerxes (Blair) . ‘ : : 487 Ibrahim defeats the Turks at Nezib 24 June, 1839 
/yevolt under Inarus (Blair) . 463 | England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia undertake 
‘ cecessful revolt under Amy rteus, who is pr 0- to expel Ibrahim from Syria; Napier bombards 
‘Claimed king (Lenglet) 414 Beyrout, ro Oct.; Acre taken by the British 
aypt again reduced by Ochus, king of Per sia, and and Austrian fleets, under sir R. Stopford, 3 Nov. ; 
‘its temples pillaged (Usher) . 350 the Egyptians quit Syria 21 Nov., et seg. 1840 
exander the Great “peng Egy pt and founds Peace restored by treaty ; Mehemet made hereditary 
Alexandria 332 viceroy of Egypt, but deprived of Syria x 5 Jwy, 1841 
| olemy I. (Lagus) " Soter, re-establishes the | Ibrahim Pacha dies (see Suez) : : o Nov. 1848 
‘monarchy 323 | The Suez canal begun 1858 
olemy IL Philadelphus (with his father) 285: : Hereditary succession and right of coining money 
uvione [the museum of Alexandria founded ; the granted ; but tribute raised from 400,0001. to 
Septuagint version of the Hebrew Scriptures 750, ook, 27 May, 186r 
‘nade ; the Pharos completed] . 283-247 | Malta and Alexandria telegraph opened “IPN Ves 
abassadors first sent to Rome 269 | The viceroy Said visits Italy, France, and England, 
olemy III. Kuergetes, reigns ou) 247 May to Sept. ; returns to Alexandria. r Oct. 1862 
-erruns Syria, and returns laden with rich spoils Sultan of Tur key visits Egypt A 7 April, 1863 
amd 2500 statues and vessels of gold and silver, Increased cultivation of cotton in Egypt 1863-67 
which Cambyses had taken fron. the E gyptian At the demand of the sultan, the viceroy sends 
temples (Blair) Z 5 p 246 troops to repress the insurgents in Arabia, May, 1864 
olemy IV. Philopator “Nov, 222 Opening of part of the Suez canal (which see), 
ttle of Raphia ; Ptolemy defeats Antiochus, king 15 Aug. 1865 
wf Syria . ; 5 217 | Direct succession to the viceroyalty granted by the 
olemy V. Epiphanes . ‘Nov. 205 porte 21 May, 1866 
abassy to Rome. - 5 - 200 | Egyptian legislative chamber opened with a speech 
| olemy VI. Philometor Oct. 18x from the viceroy . 27 NOV 55 
_ the death of Philometor, ‘his brother Physcon | Viceroy invested with Order of the Bath (as G.C.B.) 
Ptolemy VII. Euergetes) marries his queen, and | by lord Clarence Paget ‘ 30 Jan. 1867 
om. the day of his nuptials murders the infant son Designated ‘‘ sovereign” by the sultan g June, ,, 
of Philometor in its mother’s arms - Nov. 146 | The viceroy visits Paris . . 16 June-5 July, ,, 
} $ Subjects, wearied by his cruelties and crimes, He arrives in London 6 July; received by the queen 
sompel him to flee 130 at Windsor, 8; by lord Derby, 10; by the lord 
|} defeats the Egyptians and recovers his throne, mayor, rr; "departs ~ ) 18 July,.nss 
:28 ; dies 117 | The viceroy (now termed the Khediv e) visited 
lemy VIII. Soter II. and Cleopatra his mother, Pe England F . 22 June, 1869 
xxander I. and Cleopatra... . A - + 107 | Present at the inauguration of the ph canal, 
| Memy VIIT. restored. 89 Nov. 45 
| volt in Upper Egypt ; Thebes destroy ed after a The differences between the sultan and hitnself 
| lege of three years (Diod. Siculus) . 82 respecting prerogatives arranged, the viceroy 
| »xander II. and Cleopatra I. . : 81 giving up the power of imposing taxes and of 
| lemy IX. Auletes . 3 ‘ 80 contracting loans . Dee... 5, 
| venice and Tryphena . 58 | Sir Samuel Baker appointed sole commander of a 
sletes restored, 55: leaves his ‘kingdom to Ptolemy | military expedition to suppress the slave-trade 
| nd Cleopatra 5x | up the Nile, with absolute authority over the 
ring a civil war between Ptolemy and Cleopa- country south of Gondokoro (for four hia from 
ra Il., Alexandria is besieged by Cesar, and the | x April, 1869) 3 : “ R oMay, ,, 
. ibrary nearly destroyed by ‘fire (Blair) . 47 | Departure from Khartoum : "8 Feb. 1870 
sar defeats the king, who, in crossing the Nile, | Many delays and impediments 5 proceeds to Na 
$ drowned ; and the younger Ptolemy and Cleo- White Nile 7 AUR YS. 
vatra reign . . 46) Arrives at Gondokoro, I5 April; names it jismmnitis 
opatra poisons her brother, and reigns alone 43 and officially annexes it to Eg. ypt 26 May, 1871 
» appears before Mare Antony, to answer for this War with the warlike and treacherous Baris of 
rime ; fascinated by her eae he follows her Belinian; beats them in several engagements, 
ato Egypt . RLS AN cx peers te 4r July-Sept. ,, 
) Opatra in Syria 36 | Supported by his model corps, ‘‘the forty thieves, 
tony defeated by Octavius Cwsar at the battle of . he quells disaffection and mutiny in his troops, 
vetium (Blair) . . 2Sept. 31 Oct. 55 
‘avius enters Egypt ; . Antony and Cleopatra a Sends vessels with women, children, and sick, to 
hemselves ; and the ‘Kingdom becomes a Roman Khartoum 3 Novy. o> 
rovince : . Sept. 30 | Makes peace with the Bari is, and returns to Gondo- 
-ypt visited by Adrian, 122; “by Severus . A.D. 200 koro . : 19 Nov. ,, 
nachism begun in Egypt by Antony 305 | Advances south ; suffers much by negro treachery, 
struction of the temple and worship of Serapis, 38 and inefficiency of his Egyptian troops : heroism 
ypt conquered by Chosroes II. of Persia. 616 | of lady Baker . dan.-Feb. 1872 


‘asion of the Saracens under Amrou. J une, 


{ 


Arrives at the African Paradise, Faliko; meets 


EGYPT. 


there his enemy, Abou Saoud, the slave-dealer, 
6 March; at Masindi, in Unyoro 25 April, 
Received by Kabba Rega, the young king; who 
attempts to poison Baker’s party, and attacks 
them in the night; he is defeated, and Masindi 
burnt. 8 June, 
Baker marches to Foweera ; received by Raongi, 
enemy of Kabba Rega, 18 J uly; returns to Faliko, 
anda& suppresses an insurrection of slave-dealers, 
probably incited by Abou Saoud . 2 Aug. 
Slave-trade apparently subdued ; ‘‘peace and pro- 
spect of prosperity ” 1 Dec. 
Baker returns to Gondokoro, I ‘April; Hceives 
honours from the khedive at Cairo, 25 Aug. 
arrives in London 5 : 9 Oct. 
Col. Gordon appointed his successor ; Abou Baia 
his subordinate 
Baker’s work, ‘‘ Ismailia,’ “Nov 


published : 


The first stone of the new port laid by the khedive, 


15 May, 
The khedive’s son, prince Hassan, made i C.L. at 


Oxford ; 3 June, 
The khedive visits the sultan ; Constantinople 
rejoices . 25 June, 


The sultan, by a firman, renders the khedive prac- 
tically independent ; (he must not coin money, 
make treaties, or puild iron-clads) 8 June, 

First Egyptian budget produced ; asserted revenue, 
10,166,000l. ; expenditure, 9,040,000/. Oct. 

Mr. Acton and Mr, Pennell employed to arrange 
finances of Egypt spring of 

International court of justice opened by the khedive, 

28 June, 

The khedive’s shares of Suez canal (which see) pur- 

chased by the British government; announced, 
Nov. 

Egyptian expedition into Abyssinia surprised and 
defeated with much slaughter 16 Oct. 

Rt. hon. Stephen Cave sent on special mission to 


278 


1872 


9) 


» 
1873 
1874 
1871 
1872 


33 


1873 
»»> 
1875 


>? 


Egypt A : : : 5 - DCCs 
New (Gregorian) style adopted ; mixed courts 

opened - rJdang 1876 
Resignation of Nubar Pasha, able minister of com- 

merce, announced sy, : ‘ «4 Jays 
War with Abyssinia (which see) 1875-7 


Mr. Cave’s report—(refers to waste and extrava- 
gance ; great works undertaken with insufficient 
means 3 loss by adventurers ; military expenditure ; 
and necessity for intervention of superior power 
to restore credit and restrain expenditure) ; sent 
13 March; published in Times . . 4 April, 

The khedive decrees consolidation of his debt, 
91,000,000l., at 7 per cent., and a sinking fund, 
7 May ; decrees signed . 4 and 25 May 

His son Hassan received by the queen . 27 June, 

Decisions of the international law court not ac- 
cepted by the government; the court closed by 
M. Haakman; he is superseded ; July, 

Mr. Goschen with M. Joubert (on behalf of the 
khedive’s creditors), arrive at Cairo, 14 Oct. ; their 
scheme accepted (debt of about 91,000,000! to be 
reduced to about 59,000,000l., interest of 7 per 
cent. to be reduced to about 6 per cent.) ; agree- 
ment signed about 10 Noy. announced (termed 
since, ‘‘ “Goschen decree =) A 18 Nov. 

Ismail Sadyk, autocratic finance minister, suspected 
of conspiracy; resigns ema seized and 
banished a NOY. 

Mr. Goschen’s report approved | by a meeting in 
London . . 28 Nov. 

Col. Gordon, after successful ‘administration, re- 
turns to England 4 Feb 

Peace with Abyssinia negotiating by col. Gordon, 
June ; terms said to be “accepted Oct. 

Bad. report respecting Egyptian finances, Feb. ; 
commission appointed . - March, 

Egypt at peace; all soldiers at home . 20 April, 

Confidence restored by decree for payment of 
official salaries . 12 May, 

Nubar Pasha again minister : 5 Aug. 

The khedive accepts the terms of the Soimisetan : 
he and his family give up landed property to the 
state z Aug. 

Mr. Rivers Wilson appointed finance minister ; and 
M. de Bligniéres, minister of works, soon after, 

Sept. 

Attacks on them and Nubar Pasha by discontented 

officers at Cairo dispersed, 4 18 Feb, 


>” 


by ety bh 


>» 


1878 


” 


1879 | 


’ 


| Ministry resigns ; 


EGYPT. 


Nubar Pasha resigns 2 19 Hebe 
Definitive peace between the “khedive and "Abyel 
sinia, announced . ~ . Feb. 
Prince Tewfik, president of the council, and Nubar 
Pasha, foreign minister, about- . March, 
Mr. Rivers Wilson and M, de Bligniéres remonstrate 
with the khedive 3 . 6 April, 
He puts forth a new financial scheme ; Tewfik Pa- 
sha, Mr. Rivers Wilson, and M. de Bligniéres, dis- 
missed ; new ministry under Cherif Pasha lage 
about April, 
Col. Gordon's lieutenant, ‘Gessi (N ov. 1878) com- 
pletely defeats the rebel slave-dealers in Kee Sou- 
dan, Central Africa ay, 
England and France in a note require the ae pone 
ment of Eur opean ministers, about 5 May, 
England, France, Germany, Austria, and Italy, re- 
commend the khedive to abdicate, about 20 June, 
He refers to the sultan, who declines to interfere, 
the khedive offers to pay his debts in full 22 June 
The khedive deposed by the sultan, prince Tewfik, 
his son, proclaimed his successor 26 June, 
The khedive leaves for Naples . 
Tewtik succeeds as khedive 5 
Mr. Baring and M. de Bligniéres appointed comp- 
tr ollers-general a ¢ - 4Sept. 
New ministry, Riaz Pasha, &e., announced g Sept. 
Col. Gordon negotiating with Abyssinia to prevent 
war, repor ted successful Oct. 
He resigns governorship of the Soudan, Oct. oy LOT 
accepted . : Jan. 
Peace with Aby ssinia announced . end of J une, 
New ministry appointed, the khediy o president, 
ug. 
Public festivities at Cairo on anniversary of the 
khedive’s accession : : about 26 June, 
International committee on the debt appointed, 
4 April ; issue a report, on which is based, a law 
of liquidation in gg articles, ad by the 
khedive : .. xy Ualye 
General prosperity repor ted . j z .. Ove 
Miltary revolt(for pay) at Cairo vigorously checked 
by English and French consuls, Mr. Mallet and 


baron de Ring < . «-11 Feb. 
Decree for abolition of slavery . - end of July, 
Insurrection in the Soudan (which see) July, 


British pacific interference about 11 Aug. 
Ministerial crisis ; the khedive calls for Riaz Pasha 
Aug. 
Ahmed Arabi Bey and about 4,000 soldiers surround 
the khedive’s palace, demanding increased pay— 
agreed to; Cherif Pasha made minister 9 Sept. 
Negotiations of Cherif and the consuls with the 
troops succeed ; tranquillity restored 11-13 Sept. 
Envoys from the sultan received by une noe 
Oc 
Jealousy of England and France, the envoys eave 
Cairo A . x8 Oats 
Important letter from earl Granville to sir raya 
Malet . » 4 Nov. 
The khedive opens the chamber of delegates with 
excellent speech 26 Dec. 
Arabi Bey appvinted under-secretary of war . Jan. 
English and French note in support of the khedive 
about 7 Jan. 
Deputies demand entire control of the ministry, 
about 19 Jan. ; dead lock 27 Jan. 
Resignation of Cherif Pasha, 2 Feb. ; new ministry 
under Mahmoud Pasha. - 3 Feb. et seg. 
M. Bligniéres resigns . 3 . March 
Alleged conspiracy of Circassian officers to assas- 
sinate Arabi Pasha. . . about ro April, 
43 persons convicted of conspiracy to kill Arabi 
Pasha, and dethrone the khedive; exiled 28 April ; 
sentence confirmed by khedive g May, 
Political crisis continues, 9-13 May; the khedive firm ; 
ministry submits, about 16 May ; English and 
French squadron arrive at Alexandria, 20 May ; 
Arabi Pasha refuses to resign, 23 May ; ultimatum 
of English and French consuls ; Arabi Pasha to 
retire 5 khedive’s authority to be restored, &c. 
25 May, 
Cherif Pasha appointed, May; 
the officers resist ; Arabi Pasha reinstated, 
27-28 May; anarchy ; Europeans quitting the 
country, 29 May ; 6,o00 Bey ea soldiers said 
to be massacred 4 i June, 


ie 


1 


~ 
7 


EGYPT. 


Dervish Pasha and others sent to Cairo by the 
sultan, 4 June; well received at Cairo 8 June 
dommencement of a rebellion; riots at Alexandria ; 
Arabs attack Europeans; quelled by Egyptian 
troops, with great loss of life (about 60 Euro- 
-peans killed), town ravaged, and deserted 
tz June, 
Panic at Cairo and Alexandria; many arrests 
| 15, 16 June, 


About 37,000 Europeans in Egypt : 2 dads 
Ragheb Pasha forms a ministry; about 20,000 Ku- 
_ ropeans said te be leaving Egypt . . June, 
[he powers agree to a conference at Constantinople ; 
Turkey objects : ‘ - 19 June, 
Jonference opened. ‘ : 24 June, 
}reat emigration from Alexandria to Malta June, 
Dervish Pasha’s favourable report . 27 June, 
0,000 Arabs said to be starving at Alexandria 
. 29 June, 
\rabi Pasha decorated by the sultan . . about 
| 28 June, 
‘the English and French admirals protest against 
the fortifying of Alexandria about 4 July, 
3ritish subjects warned to quit Egypt yet 
. uly, 
3Zombardment of forts of Alexandria threatened by 
' adm, Seymour, if works threatening the British 
fleet are not stopped - c A . gJduly, 
‘Ships entering Suez canal cautioned by adm. Sey- 
mour - i 4 3 < : - roJuly, 
3ombardment begun by the Alexandra, 7.5 A.M. 5 
| yessels engaged: Monarch, Invincible, Penelope, 
Témérarie, and Injlexible ; gunboats, Condor, 
Cygnet, Bittern, Decoy, &c., very effective; forts 
_ Mexs, Marabout, &c., silenced; 10 sailors from 
Invincible land and spike guns of fort Mexs ; 
- object of bombardment fully obtained; the bom- 
bardment ceases 5.30 P.M. Egyptians fought 
- well; heavy loss in forts and part of the town. 
_ British loss, 6 killed, including lieut. Jackson of 
| the Inflexible, and 28 wounded. iz July, 
Jefiant letter of Arabi Pasha to Mr. Gladstone, 
2 July, received . F - about 12 July, 
‘he sultan protests against the bombardment ; 
Austria, Germany, and Russia said to approve 
about 12 July, 
jooo marines sent from Malta to Alexandria 
about 12 July, 
jaining time by a flag of truce, Arabi Pasha and 
of his army abandon Alexandria and retreat 
into the interior; he releases convicts, who with 
the Arab mob plunder and set fire to the city, 
and massacre, it is said, many christians, 12 July, 
onflagration increasing (about a mile long) ; about 
800 marines land to maintain order as police 
13 July, 
-uropean portion entirely destroyed , ELAS 
he khedive escapes assassination, and gains over 
part of Arabi Pasha’s army; views the city 
12, 13 July, 
nglish marines active . 4 . 14 July, 
ire dying out; order restored; shops re-opened ; 
_ foreign marines enter city ; q 15 July, 
| he khedive at his palace Ras-el-Tin guarded by 
British marines; degrades Arabi Pasha from his 
offices ; sends for Cherif Pasha, Riaz Pasha, and 
others 4 i . ‘ about 16 July, 
| bout 5,000 soldiers land at Alexandria . 17 July, 
| lentical note from the six powers inviting the 
Porte to intervene to support the khedive and 
_ restore order . 3 : ; : . 18 July, 
| rabi Pasha with his army said to be intrenched 
| at Kafr-Douar . A , - g 18 July, 
‘rabi Pasha attempts to cut off water supply ; 
denounces the khedive, and calls on the people 
about 20-21 July, 
declaring Arabi a 
about 
23 July, 
| kirmish with the Arabs by Sir A. Alison; he 
takes about 60 prisoners, and holds Ramleh 
! 24 July, 
rabi proclaims a Jihad or holy war, said to have 
Rog men  . ; . 2 about 24 July, 
Titish troops landed at Alexandria 24 July, 
roops sent to Egypt from England and India 
about 25 July, 


if roclamation of the khedive 
rebel, &c. ; reported anarchy at Cairo 


279 


EGYPT. 


1882 


”) 


Withdrawal of French'fleet ordered 
The duke of Connaught sails in the Orient for 


Egypt . é é : : A 31 July, 
Indecisive skirmish of outposts . . 2Aug. 
Sir Evelyn Wood sails for Egypt 3 Aug. 
Town of Suez occupied by British marines 3 Aug. 


Reconnaissance ; sharp skirmish near Mahmoudieh 
canal; Gen. Sir A. Alison commanding; British 
success ; lieut. Howard Vyse and 3 others killed ; 
about 30 wounded; Egyptian loss about 300 

Aug. 

Prof. Palmer, capt. Gill, and lient. Ohare netan 
start from Suez to buy camels of the Bedouins, 
&e. . : i 2 ‘ “ -. 7 Aug: 

Arrival of duke of Connaught and officers at Alex- 
andria . ‘ 4 3 : $ : to Aug. 

The conference agreesto the international protec- 
tion of the Suez canal, and adjourns sine die, 

14 Aug. 

Sir Garnet Wolseley lands at Alexandria and as- 
sumes the command ; the khedive gives up power 
to the British commanders to establish order 

Troops, &c., under gen. Willis embark as if for 
Aboukir, but proceed eastward, and occupy Port 
Said, Ismailia, and Kantara ; thus command the 
canal, 19-20 Aug. ; skirmishes near Mahmoudieh 
canal, sir Evelyn Wood successful; the enemy 
shelled out of Nefiche ss F - 20 Aug. 

Total British force in Egypt, 31,468 men of all 
ranks f ; ‘ ‘i A : 20 Aug. 

Chaloux-el-Terraba captured by sailors, &c., great 
Egyptian loss : 3 : é . 20 Aug. 

Twenty-six ironclads at Alexandria 20 Aug. 

Successful skirmishes; gen. Hamley, &c., from 
Ramleh ; capt. Hastings and maj. Kelsey repel 
Egyptians, who suffer heavy loss, 20 Aug.; sir 
G. Wolseley’s proclamation to the Arabs 

2r Aug. 

Arrival of gen. Macpherson with the Indian troops 
at Suez . : F : s F ar Aug. 

Advance from Ismailia of two squadrons of house- 
hold cavalry, with two guns, and detachment of 
rgth hussars, mounted infantry, &c., on Nefiche 
met by above 10,ooco Egyptians with much 
artillery . - : ; A ‘ 24 Aug. 

Cavalry and artillery engagement; enemy routed ; 
capture of 5 Krupp guns, and train of ammunition 
and provisions, Egyptian camps at Tel-el-Mahuta 
and Mahsameh occupied ; British loss, 6 killed, 
30 wounded . 2 : 2 ‘ 25 Aug. 

Suez canal held by the British . R 26 Aug. 

Kassassin occupied by Gen. Graham with above 
2,000 infantry ; 3 2 . 26 Aug. 

Mustapha Fehmy, Arabi Pasha’s second in com- 
mand, captured while reconnoitring (sent to the 
khedive) . : . . es : 27 Aug. 

Gen. Graham at Kassassin vigorously attacked by 
13,000 Egyptians ; signals for assistance, rendered 
by Gen. Drury Lowe with household cavalry ; 
brilliant charge and capture of 11 guns (after- 
wards lost), rout of the enemy ; disorderly flight ; 
British loss, 7 killed, 70 wounded 28 Aug. 


| Military convention with Turkey about to be 


signed. : : : ‘ z - 29 Aug. 
Arabi Pasha strengthening his intrenchments near 
Tel-el-Kebir (said to have about 28,000 men) 
about 31 Aug. 

Artillery duel at Ramleh, little result . 4 Sept. 
Arabi Pasha’s estimated forces: infantry, 44,600 3 
cavalry, 1802: guns, 143; Bedouins, 30,500 5 
Vigorous attack on the British camp at Kassassin 
repelled with severe loss, 4 guns taken, 6 British 


killed < : 4 ; ° A . 9g Sept. 
Siege train sent in the Copia 3 3 . 9 Sept. 
Capture of Tel-el-Kebir, which see; total defeat of 


the Egyptians ; flight of Arabi Pasha ; surrender 
of Zagazig with railway trains, &c. 13 Sept. 
The British enter Cairo; Arabi Pasha and his 
officers surrender unconditionally ; about 10,000 
Egyptian soldiers lay down theirarms — 14 Sept. 


Sir Garnet Wolseley and British troops enter Cairo ; 
warmly received . x - : 15 Sept, 
Surrender of Kafr Douar; about 500 Egyptians 
march to Damietta : . 16, 17 Sept. 

| The khedive dissolves the Egyptian army 17 Sept. 
Surrender of Aboukir, 17 Sept. ; re-establishment 

| of the khedive’s authority 2 3 19 Sept. 
| Abd-el-Al holding Damietta with about 7,000 men, 


31 July, 1882 


” 


280 


EGYPT. vd 


EGYPT. 
at Sept.; British expedition sent against him, 
22 Sept.; he surrenders to sir Evelyn Wood 


23 Sept. 

Triumphal entry of the khedive into Cairo, S Sept. 
Valentine Baker Pasha nominated commander of 
a new HEeyptian army (10,900) . end of Sept. 
Cairo railway station partly burned by explosion of 
shells, large amount of stores and aminunition 
destroyed ; 4 persons killed, about 15 wounded 
28 Sept. 

18,000 British troops ‘march past” the khedive 
at the Abdin palace . 30 Sept. 
12,000 British to remain in Egypt, sir ae Alison 
cominander : 30 Sept. 
Return of the troops; warnly received. in London 
21 Oct. et seq. 

The prophet said to hold all the country south of 
Khartoum : 25 Oct. 
Murder of prof. Palmer, capt. Gill and lieut Char- 
rington . . about to Aug. announced 26 Oct. 
Thanks of Parliament voted to army and navy :— 
Admiral John Miller Adye ; vice-admiral William 
Montagu Dowell; lieutenant-generals George 
Harry Smith Willis, sir Edward Bruce Hamley ; 
major-general sir Archibald Alison; rear-admirals 
sir William Nathan Wrighte Hewett, sir Francis 
William Snilivan, Anthony Hiley Hoskins; 
major-generals his royal highness Arthur duke 
of Connaught, William Earle, sir Henry Evelyn 
Wood, Gerald Graham, Geor ge Byng Harman, 
Drury Curzon Drury-Lowe, sir Herbert Taylor 
Macpherson 26 Oct. 
An amnesty of officers "signed by the khedive 


24 Oct. 
Lord Dufferin arrives at Cairo : : 7 Nov. 
Auglo-French control abolished 4 9 Nov. 


British troops and Indian contingent rev jawed. by 
the queen at St. James’s Park . E 18 Noy, 
Queen’s thanks published 21 Nov.; distributes 
medals, &c., at Windsor Wee DINO 
Trial of Arabi Pasha; secret examination of wit- 
nesses (his defence supported by Mr. Wilfred 
Blunt) . Nov. 
Pleads guilty of rebellion ; 4 ‘sentence of death com- 
muted to banishment for life : : 3 Dec. 


General amnesty and release of political pilkonend : 


about x Dee. 
Letter from Arabi Pasha to Mr. Wilfred Blunt, ex- 
pressing gratitude to, and confidence i in, England 


4 Dee. : Times, 5 Dee. 

Mahoud and other rebel lendens sentenced to 
banishment ‘ 7 Dec. 
Riaz Pasha resigns ; succeeded by N Moe Pasha 
8 Dec. 


Arabi Pasha and others to be sent to Ceylon 9 Dee. 
Sir Evelyn Wood, appointed commander of the new 
Egyptian army, arrives at Cairo 22 Dec. 


Nine of the murderers of professor Palmer and 
others captured about 30 Dec. 
Arabi and others sailed for Ceylon, 27 Dec. ; arrived 
ro Jan. 

End of the dual control . - ardan. 
British circular to the powers laid before the 
Porte, &c. (the Suez Canal to be free, with re- 
strictions in time of war; formation of Egyptian 
army, dc.) A rz Jan. et seq. 
All the powers accept proposals except France 
and Turkey < ‘ about 27 Jan. 
Sir Auckland Colvin ‘appointed financial pe 
24 Jan. 

Trial of professor Palmer’s murderers; several 
confess ; 5 executed ; = - - 28 Feb. 
Lord Dufferin’s report on reorganization of Egypt 
published . - 20 March, 
Constitution signed by the khedive, 30 April; pr 0- 


mulgated . 1 "May 7, 

Lieut.-gen. Alison: replaced by gen. F.C bats!) son 
a 

Major Evelyn Baring nominated resident iar 


Suleiman Sami convicted of the firing, massacre, 
and plundering at Alexandria (zx J une, 1882), 
hanged 9 June, 

Greatly improved condition of the countr y Ai une, 

The ex-khedive Ismail in London 28 June, 

Parliamentary grants to lord Alcester (Seymour), 
25,000l., lord Wolseley, 30,000l. ‘ 29 June, 

Eruption ‘of cholera (see Cholera) . . ; 


British army: total killed, 255; July 1882 a March, 
Resignation of Nubar Pasha in opposition to Mr. 


Mr. Clifford Lloyd leaves : 
Select committee by examination discovers serious 


Egyptian financial scheme ; 


British force reduced to 6,763 Z E - ANG. 78 
Council of state nominated. : 
The khedive grants a general amnesty, about ro Oct. 
New council of state opened by Cherif Pasha, 30 Oct. 
Departure of part of the British troops counter 


manded on account of the destruction of gen. 
Hicks’ army (see Soudan) . =) NOVonm, 


The khedive proposes reduction of his court ex- 


penses 4 - xrdan. 18 


The British government require a limitation of the 


line of defence in regard to the Soudan 6 Jan, 


Cherif Pasha and his ministry resign ; Nubar Pasha 


becomes minister - about 7 Jan, © 


Loan of g50,000l. to the khedive by Messrs. Roths- 


child . > about 30 Jan. ,. 


Disorder in the government. and finances ag Fas 


o March, 


Clifford Lloyd, 6 April; both remain in office, 


rx Aprily7s. 


Chaos at Cairo; sir Evelyn Baring comesto London ,. 
Conference of the powers, respecting Egyptian 


finance proposed by England, accepted by Ger- 
many, Austria, Russia, Italy, France, and Turkey, 
May, ,, 


Need of loan of 8,000,000. to meet several years’ 


deficits, indemnification for damages at Alex- 
andria (3,950,000l.), civil and Soudau war ex- 
penses, de. May, ,. 


Proposed relaxation of the international law of 


liquidation . ag - Mayyas 
May and June, ,, 


defects in the commissariat and transport systems 
during the war of 1882, announced . - June, ae. 


Conference of six great powers on Egyptian affairs 


meets (see London Conferences) - . 28 June, , 


Conference adjourns, without result, sine die,2 Aug. ,. 
Credit for 300,000]. voted to assist gen. Gordon, 


5 Aug. 4. 


Lord Northbrook, as high commissioner, and lord 


Wolseley as commander-in-chief, sail 31 Aug. 
arrive at Cairo . Sept. ,, 


Suspension of the international law of liquidation 


in regard to the sinking fund, from 18 Sept. to 
25 Oct. decreed, with consent of lord Northbrook 
20 Sept. — ,. 


France, Germany, Austria, Russia, and Italy pro- 


test, 25 Sept. et seq. but tacitly acquiesce Oct. ,, 


Lord John Hay and the fleet arrive at Alexandria, 


24 Sept. 4 

Egyptian army reduced to 4000 men, announced, 
24 Oct. t 
Lord Northbrook leaves Egypt . , 28 Oct. ,, 
Arrives in London . . 3 Novaw),| 


British force in Egypt and Soudan, about 16, ee men, 


Nov. 4 


Action of the caisse (commission) of the public 


debt against the Egyptian government for sus- 
pension of the sinking fund; the court condemns 
it to refund, 9 Dec. ; the khedive appeals Dee. ,, 


Reply of France and other powers to the British 


proposals respecting the financial condition of 
Egypt, 17 Jan.; English reply . : 24 Jan. 15 


Prince Hassan, brother of the khedive, appointed 


high commissioner in the Soudan about1s Feb. ,, 
convention agreed to 
by the Powers signed, 18 March {reduction of 
interest on debt, “loan of g,000,0001. on inter- 
national guarantee, &e.]; adopted by the Com- 
mons on Mr. Gladstone's resolution (294-246), 
27-28 March, 39 


KHEDIVES OR HEREDITARY VICEROYS 
(nearly independent). 


1806. 
1848. 
1854. 


1862. 


1879. 


Mehemet Ali Pasha; abdicated Sept. 1848; di 
2 Aug. 1849 

Ibrahim tadlanted son), Sept. ; dies 9 or 10 Nov. 184! 

Abbas (his son), ro Nov. ; dies 14 July, 1854. 

Said (brother), 14 July; dies 18 Jan. 1863. 

Ismail (nephew), 18 Jan. (born 31 Dec. 1830); d 
posed by the sultan at the request of Englan 
France and other powers, 26 June, 1879. 

Mechmet Tewfik, born 10 Nov., 1852, invested wit 
the star of India by the prince of Wales, 25 O¢ 
1875; proclaimed 26 June, invested 14 Aug. 

Heir, ‘Abbas, born 14 +a 1874. 


~ 
~ \ 
fis 


———— 


EGYPT EXPLORATION FUND. 2 


8 


1 ELECTORS. 


iGYPT EXPLORATION FUND, ori- 
ited by Miss Amelia B. Edwards, and promoted 
ir Erasmus Wilson, first president (died 8 Aug. 
.), and Mr. R. 8. Poole, secretary, 1881. 
Naville’s explorations began 19 Jan. 1883. Mr. 
|M. F. Petrie examined more than twenty sites in 
34, and made remarkable discoveries. Soine of the 
sults were given to british and foreign museums. 


GYPTIAN ERA, &c. The old Egyptian 
was identical with the era of Nabonassar, be- 
ing 26 Feb. 747 B.c., and consisted of 365 days 
. It was reformed 30 B.c., at which period 
commencement of the year had arrived, by 
inually receding to the 29 Aug., which was 
rmined to be in future the first day of the year. 
educe to the Christian era, subtract 746 years 
lays. ‘The canicular or heliacal period of the 
dtians and Ethiopians (1460 years) began when 
is or the dog star emerged from the rays of the 
on 20 July, 2785 .c., and extended to 1325 
This year comprised 12 months of 30 days, 
5 Re tamentury days. 


FYPTIAN HALL, Piccadilly, erected in 
by G. F. Robinson for Bullock’s natural history 
etions, which were sold in 1819; since used for 
bitions, concerts, &c. See Dudley Gallery. 


HRENBREITSTEIN (Honour’s broad- 
‘), a strong Prussian fortress on the Rhine, 
erly belonged to the electors of Treves. It 
ften besieged. It surrendered to the French 
tal Jourdain, 24 Jan. 1799. The fortifications 
destroyed on its evacuation, 9g Feb. 1801, at 
peace of Luneville. The works have been 
red since 1814. 


‘DER, 2a river separating Schleswig from 
ein, was passed by the Austrians and Prussians, 


». 1864. 
DOGRAPH, see Pantograph. 


KON BASILIKE (“the Portraiture of 
Sacred Majesty in his Solitudes and Suffer- 
*), a book of devotion formerly attributed to 
Charles I., but now generally believed to 
been written partially, if not wholly, b 

p Gauden, and possibly approved by the king : 
3 published in 1648, and sold quickly. 


SENACH DECLARATION, see Ger- 
» 1059. 

STEDDFOD, sce Bards. 

iAM, see Persia. 


4 ARISCH, Egypt, captured by the French 
‘ Reynier, 18 Feb. 1799. A convention was 
1 here between the grand vizier and Kleber 
e evacuation of Egypt by the French, 28 Jan. 
' He beat the Turks at Heliopolis on 20 March ; 
‘as assassinated on 14 June following. 


‘BA, ISLE oF (on the coast of Tuscany), 
, % admiral Nelson in 1796; but abandoned 
) Elba was conferred upon Napoleon (with 
itle of emperor) on his relinquishing the 
|} 2 0f France, 5 April, 1814. He secretly em- 
| 1 hence with about 1200 men in hired feluccas, 
|> might of 25 Feb. 1815, landed in Provence, 
ch, and soon after recovered the crown; see 
é, 1815. Elba was resumed by the grand 
‘of Tuscany, July, 1815. 


\CHINGEN, Bavaria. Here Ney beat the 
| ams, 14 Oct. 1805, and was made duke of 
| agen. 


CHO SHIELD, see under Volunteers. 


| KULDERS (in Greek, presbuteroi), in the early 
church équivalent with episcopo, or bishops (see 

I Tim, iii. and Titus i.), who afterwards became a 

distinct and superior order. Elders in the presby- 

terian churches are laymen. 

Elders’ Widows Fund, established by the East India Com- 
pany, in 1820, to provide for widows and orphans of 
some of its servants, was closed in 1860. In 1878 an 
act was passed to transfer the surplus money to the 
provident fund, &e. 


ELDON’S ACT, see Bankrupts. 
EL DORADO (the “ Gilded Man’’). When 


the Spaniards had conquered Mexico and Peru, 
they began to look for new sources of wealth, and 
having heard of a golden city ruled by a king or 
priest, smeared in oil and rolled in gold dust (which 
report was founded on a merely annual custom of 
the Indians), they organised various expeditions 
into the interior of South America, which were 
accompanied with disasters and crimes, about 1560. 
Raleigh’s expeditions in search of gold in 1596 and 
1617 led to his fall. 


ELEASA, Palestine. Here Judas Maccabeeus 
was defeated and slain by Bacchides and Alcimus, 
and the Syrians, about 161 B.c. (1 Jace. ix.) 


ELEATIC SECT, founded at Elea in Sicily, 
by Xenophanes, of Colophon, about 535 B.c., 
whither he had been banished on account of his 
wild theory of God and nature. He supposed that 
the stars were extinguished every morning and 
rekindled at night; that eclipses were occasioned 
by a partial extinction of the sun; that there were 
several suns and moons for the convenience of the 
different climates of the earth, &e. Strabo. Zeno 
(about 364) was an Eleatic. 


ELECTIONS PETITIONS, The laws 
respecting them were consolidated in 1828, 1839, 
and 1844. An act passed in 1848 was amended in 
1865. By the act of 1868, 3 new judges were ap- 
pointed, and three to be selected from all the judges 
to try election cases; justices Willes and Blackburn, 
and baron Martin were first appointed, Nov. 1868. 


ELECTOR PALATINE, see Palatinate. 


ELECTORS for members of parliament for 
counties were obliged to have forty shillings a-year 
in land, 8 Hen. VI. pes Among the acts relating 
to electors are the following: Act depriving excise 
and custom-house officers and contractors with 
government of their votes, 1782; see Customs. Act to 
regulate polling, 1828. Great changes were made 
by the Reform -Acts of 1832, 1867, and 1868. 
County elections act, 1836; see Bribery. The 
forty-shilling freeholders in Ireland lost their 
privilege in 1829. By Dodson’s act, passed in 
1861, university electors are permitted to vote by 
sending balloting papers. Hours of polling in me- 
tropolitan boroughs extended (from 8 A.M, to8 P.M.) 
by act passed 25 Feb. 1878. 


ELECTORS or GERMANY. In the reign of 
Conrad I. king of Germany (912-918), the dukes 
and counts, from being merely officers, became 
gradually independent of the sovereign, and sub- 
sequently elected him. In 919 they confirmed the 
nomination of Henry I. duke of Saxony by Conrad 
as his successor. In the 13th century seven princes 
(the archbishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, 
the king of Bibemin the electors of Brandenburg 
and Saxony, and the elector Palatine), assumed 
the exclusive privilege of nominating the em- 
peror. Robertson. An eighth elector (Bavaria) was 
made in 1648; and a ninth (Hanover) in 1692. 

| The number was reduced to eight in 1777 (by the 


ELECTRIC CLOCK. 


elector palatine acquiring Bavaria) and increase 
On the 


to ten at the peace of Luneyille, in 1801. 


282 


dissolution of the German empire, the crown of 
Austria was made hereditary, 1804-1806; see Ger- 


many. 


ELECTRIC CLOCK;; see p. 285. 


ELECTRICITY, from the Greek éektros, 
electrum, amber. The electrical properties of rubbed 
amber are said to have been known to Thales, 600 


B.c.; and Pliny, 70 a.pD.; see Magnetism. 


Electrical measurements : the following terms (after 
great electricians) were adopted by the electrical 
congress at Paris, 22 Sept. 1881: ohm, volt, 
ampere, coulomb, and farad. Important resolu- 
tions were passed by the International conference 
on electrical units at Paris (the ‘‘congress ohm” 
agreed to) 3 4 x : April-May, 


FRICTIONAL OR STATIC ELECTRICITY. 


Gilbert records that other bodies besides amber 
generate electricity when rubbed, and that all 
substances may be attracted 

Otto von Guericke constructed the 
machine (a globe of sulphur), about 

Boyle published his electrical experiments cree 

Stephen Gray, aided by Wheeler, discovered that 
the human body conducts electricity, that elec- 
tricity acts at a distance (motion in light bodies 
being produced by frictional electricity at a dis- 
tance of 666 feet), the fact of electric induction, 
and other phenomena 3 ; : : 

Dufay originated his dual theory of two electric 
fluids: one vitreous, from rubbed glass, &c., the 
other resinous, from rubbed amber, resin, We. ; 
and showed that two bodies similarly electrified 
repel each other, and attract bodies oppositely 
electrified, about ° s : : ; cod 

The Leyden jar (vial or bottle) discovered by Kleist, 
1745, and by Cunexus and Muschenbroek, of Ley- 
den; Winekler constructed the Leyden battery . 

Desaguliers classified bodies as electrics and non- 
electrics i . é : A : Abe 

Important researches of Watson, Canton, Beccaria 
and Nollet . “ 2 : ‘ 3 3 I 

Franklin announced his theory of a single fluid, 
terming the vitreous electricity positive, and the 
resinous negative, 1747; and demonstrated the 
identity of the electric spark and lightning, 
drawing down electricity from a cloud by means 
of a kite ‘ : ‘ 5 3 June, 

At a pie-nic, he ‘killed a turkey by the electric 
spark, and roasted it by an electric jack before 
a fire kindled by the electric bottle ” 3 eee 

Professor Richman killed at St. Petersburg, 
while repeating Franklin’s experiments Aug. 

Beccaria published his researches on atmospheric 
electricity, 1758; and Mpinus his mathematical 
theory . ‘ : : : : : : : 

Electricity developed by fishes investigated by 
Ingenhousz, Cavendish, and others, about 

Lichtenberg produced his electrical figures . : 

Electro-Statics: Coulomb applied the torsion balance 
to the measurement of elzctric force ee 

Electro-Chemistry — water decomposed by Caven- 
dish, Fourcroy, and others . : : pets 

Discoveries of Galvani and Volta (see Voltwic Elec- 
tricity, below) . A ; , > : 

Ersted, of Copenhagen, discovered electro-mag- 
netic action (see Electro-Magnetism, next page) 

Thermo - Electricity (currents produced by heat), 
discovered by Seebeck: it was produced by 
heating pieces of copper and bismuth soldered 
together, 1821; the Thermo-electrometerinvented 
by Wm. Snow Harris, 1827 ; the Thermo-multiplier 
constructed by Melloni and Nobili, 1831. [Marcus 
constructed a powerful thermo-electric battery in 
1865. ] 

Faraday produced a spark by the sudden separation 
of a coiled keeper from a permanent magnet (see 
Magneto-EHlectricity, next page) f Fi . 

Wheatstone calculated the velocity of electricity, 
on the double fluid theory, to be 288,000 miles 
a second; on the single fluid theory, 576,000 miles 
asecond Ft : < ‘ : 


‘first ; electric 


1884 


1720-36 


1733 | 


1746 


1742 


740-7 


1752 


1748 


1753 


1759 


- 1773 


1777 
1785 


787-90 
1791-3 
- 1819 


1831 


- 1834 


ES 
. - as: - 


ELECTRICITY. 


d | Armstrong discovered, and Faraday explained, the 


electricity of high pressure steam, which produces 
the hydro-electric machine : 4 


Extctric Macuines. Otto von Guericke obtained 
sparks by rubbing a globe of sulphur, about 1647; 
Newton, Boyle, and others used glass, about 1675 ; 
Hawksbee improved the machine, about 1709 ; 
Bose introduced a metallic conductor, 1733 ; 
Winckler contrived the cushion for the rubber, 
1741 ; Gordon employed a glass cylinder, 1742; 
for which a plate was substituted about 1770 ; 
Canton introduced amalgam for the rubber, 1751; 
Van Marum constructed an electric machine at 
Haarlem, said to have been the most powerful 
ever made, 1785 ; Dr. H. M. Noad set up at the 
Panopticon, Leicester-square, London, a very 
powerful electric machine and Leyden battery [in 
possession of Mr. Edwin Clark, 1862] . - 4 

The Hydro-Electric machine, by Armstrong, was 
constructed : é . ° : - F 

Holtz’s induction machine ; A t a .a 

The ELecrRopHORUS, a useful apparatus for ob- 
taining frictional electricity, was invented by 
Volta in 1775, and improved by him in im a 

C. F. Varley’s ‘‘ reciprocal electrophorus” invented - 

Sir William Thomson’s ‘“ electric replenisher” de-— 
scribed . : A - ; A 4 . dang 

Mr. Apps’s great inductorium, or induction coil, 
giving the largest sparks ever seen, exhibited at_ 
the Royal Polytechnic Institution 29 March, | 

Mr. James Wimshurst invents a ‘‘ continuous elec- 
trophorus” (very successful), and an “influence 
machine” E A ‘ ‘ A : 


ELECTROSCOPE and ELECTROMETER, as the terms 


The gold leaf electrometer was invented by rey. 
A. Bennet, 1789, and improved by Singer, about 
1810; Lane’s discharging electrometer is dated 
1767; Henley’s, 1772; Bohnenberger’s electro- 
scope, 1820; Peltier’s induction elertiee | 

abou 


GALVANISM, OR VOLTAIC-ELECTRICITY, ELECTROI Ys 
AND ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 


(See Electro-Physiology, p. 286.) 


Sulzer noticed a peculiar sensation in the tone 
when silver and lead were brought into contact 
with it and each other . F 3 ee ee 

Madame Galvani observed the convulsion in the 
muscles of frogs when brought into contact with 
two metals, in 1789 ; and M. Galvani, after study 
ing the phenomena, laid the foundation of the 
galvanic battery 3 , : ‘ - 2 4 

Volta announced his discovery of the “ Voltai¢ 
pile,” composed of discs of zine and silver, and 
moistened card : 2 3 A : ee 

By the voltaic pile, Nicholson and Carlisle decom- 
posed water, and Dr. Henry decomposed nitri¢ 
acid, ammonia, &c. . : ' 3 : mg 

Transfer of acids and alkalies by Hisinger an 
Berzelius : 

Behrens formed a 
copper, and gilt paper . ‘ a , 2 

By means of a large voltaic battery in the Roya 
Institution, London, Davy decomposed the 
alkali potash, and evolved the metal potassium, 
(soda and other substances soon after) . 6 Oct. 

Zamboni constructed a dry pile of paper dises, 
coated with tin on one side and peroxide 0: 
manganese on the other . “ 2 

Children’s battery fused platinum, &c. 2 

J. W. Ritter constructed his ‘secondary 


‘dry pile of 80 pairs of zinc, 


pile’ 
abow 
Davy exhibited the voltaic arc . é A wie ¢ 
Wollaston’s thimble battery ignited platinum wire 
Multipliers or rheometers, popularly termed “ gal 
vanometers,” invented by Ampére and b 
Schweigger, 1820; by Cumming, 1821; De 1 
Rive, 1824; Ritchie (torsion), 1830; Joule (mag 
netic), 1843. Sir William Thomson has mad 
many improvements since 1856 ; he deseribed hi 


reflecting galvanometer, and similar apparatus 
the report of the British Association in 1867. — 


Ta aS : “ ! 
meee - 
ELECTRICITY. 283 ELECTRICITY. 

[ 
vaday described his discovery of electro-magnetic Ruhmkorff’s magneto-electrie induction coil con- 
-otation . A : i ; ; : . Jan. 1822 structed, about ‘ ; P 4 “ : . 1850 
m enunciated his formule relating to the galvanic Siemens’ armature produced : é . eee! 
jurrent.. : : : : : ‘ . . 1827 | H. Wilde’s description of his machine (a powerful 
‘provement in constructing the Voltaic battery generator of dynamic electricity, by means of 
-aade by Wollaston, 1815 ; Becquerel, 1829 ; Stur- permanent magnets) and the magneto-electric 
‘eon, 1830; J. F. Daniell, 1836; Grove (nitric machine (constructed in 1865) sent to the 
eid, &c.), 1839 ; Jacobi, 1840; Smee, 1840; Bunsen Royal Society by professor Faraday and reported, 
zarbon, &c.), 1842; Grove (gas battery), 1842. 26 April, 1866 
aday read the first series of his ‘‘ Experimental The light (resembling bright moon-light) exhibited 
_tesearches on Electricity ” at the Royal Society, on the top of Burlington house 2 March, 1867 
\ 21 Nov. 1831 | Principle of accumulation by successive action dis- 
‘aday demonstrated the nature of electro-chemi- covered by Wilde; 1865, by mutual action (by 

al decomposition, and the principle that the which permanent steel magnets are dispensed 
uantity and intensity of electric action of a gal- with), independently by Wheatstone and Siemens, 1866 
anic battery depend on the size and number of Mr. W. Groves’ electro-induction balance ‘ 1879 


lates employed : = f 2 , Sei 
eatstone invented his electro-magnetic chrono- 
sopei«z : : : ; ‘ : ; ; 
_per-Zine Couple (which see) constructed by 
ir, J. H. Gladstone and Mr, A. Tribe . : 
\'ertes ; Bichromate of potash battery ; a modifica- 
on of Dr. Leeson’s ; very powerful ; now much 
3ed. (Gaston Plante’s lead battery, powerful, 
360.) Chloride of silver battery (14,400 cells)— 
“sults of its discharge published by Drs. Warren 
Ja Rue and Hugo Miiller. Powerful results 
\ hibited at Royal Institution, London, 21 Jan., 
 Byrne’s pneumatic battery (air blown in), very 
fective, announced . ‘ f A ; 2 
See under Electric Lighting. 
}CTRIC ACCUMULATOR, or secondary battery, a 
odification by M. Faure, of Gaston Plante’s 
ywerful lead battery of 1860, was exhibited at 
aris, May, 1881. In June a box, one cubic foot 
, Size, containing four cells, inclosing thin sheets 
lead surrounded with felt saturated with 
lute acid, &c., was conveyed from Paris to 
mdon. Sir Wm. Thomson found it to possess 
e electric energy of one million foot-pounds ; 
id said, in a letter to The Times of 9 June, 
81: ‘‘This solves the problem of storing elec- 
‘city in a manner. and in a state useful for 
any important applications” 6 June, 


ITRO-MAGNETISM began with Cirsted’s discovery 
the action of the electric current on the mag- 
tic needle, 1819; proved by Ampére, who 
hibited the action of the voltaic pile upon the 
ignetic needle, and of terrestrial magnetism 
on the voltaic current ; he also arranged the 
aducting wire in the form of a helix or spiral, 
vented a galvanometer, and imitated the mag- 
6 by a spiral galvanic wire . . F Oe 
0 magnetised a needle by the electric current, 
| Lattracted iron filings by the connecting wire 
agalvanic battery . é ‘ 3 3 

irst electro-magnet ‘ ‘ : ; ete 
ction of electric currents discovered by Fara- 
7 and announced R : 3 4 : 
uerel invented an electro-magnetic balance 

| lay discovered the electro-magnetic rotative 
ce developed in a magnet by voltaic electricity, 
13 experiments on the induction of a voltaic 
rent, &c. r ‘ u - 5 ; ; 
jeon made a bar of soft iron magnetic by sur- 
»mding it with coils of wire, and sending an 
stric current through the wire . ; é : 
(ction coil made by Professor G. C. Page of 
em, Mass. . F : F 4 ; ; : 
| h Henry announced his discovery of secondary 
rents: . ; A J = 2 Nov. 
tet used electro-magnetic force to manufacture 
thematical instruments, about . : : 


(ETO-ELEcTRiciITy (the converse of (rsted’s 
| Xovery of electro-magnetism), discovered by 
aday, who produced an electric spark by sud- 
| ly separating a coiled keeper from a perma- 
t magnet ; and found that an electric current 
sted in a copper disc rotated between the poles 
Magnet . . : 5 : 3; ; : 
| fagneto-Electric machine arose out of Faraday’s 
sovery, and was first made at Paris by Pixii, 


‘2; and in London by Saxton ‘ wivtd 
) aday as a Discoverer,” by Professor Tyndall, 
lished ‘ . March, 


. . > . . 


| eto-electricity applied to electro-plating by 
alwich Beg 


1834 
1840 


ato72 


1881 
1878 


1881 


1834-5 


1837 
>? 


1838 


1854 


1831 


1833 
1868 


1842 


International Electrical Congress at Paris with 
exhibition . F ‘ é . 15 Aug.-15 Nov. 1881 
{Medals and other honours awarded to England.] 
Dynamo-magneto-electric machines, by Wheatstone 
and Siemens, described at the Royal Society, 
14 Feb. ; by Ladd 4 : ? 14 March, 
Trial of Siemens’ dynamo-magneto eiectric light in 
the torpedo service at Sheerness reported suc- 
cessful é : % : 3 . 18 Dec. 
Two of Siemens’ machines ordered for the Lizards, 
announced . , a é : P . 1878 
Gramme’s magneto-electric machine described - 1875 
Mr. E. J. Atkins’ method of separating metals from 
their alloys by electrolysis, announced . Nov. 


1867 


1871 


1883 


APPLICATIONS—ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 


The transmission of electricity by an insulated wire 
was shown by Watson and others. : 4 
Telegraphic arrangements were devised by Lesarge, 
1744; Betancourt, 1787; Cavallo, 1795; Salva, 
1796; Scemmering, exhibited 29 Aug. 1809% 
Ronalds ‘ : : f : ~ 
Ampére invents his telegraphic arrangement, em- 
ploying the magnetic needle and coil, and the 
galvanic battery ES : 3 ; : 
F. Ronalds publishes an account of his electric 
telegraph (died, aged 85, 8 Aug. 1873). ie 
Professor Wheatstone constructs an electro-mag- 
netic apparatus, by which 3o0signals are conveyed 
through nearly four miles of wire . June, 
Telegraphs invented by Schilling, Gauss, and Weber 
(magneto-electric), 1833; by Steinheil and by 
Masson, 1837 ; by Morse (died1872). j ‘oye 
The magnetic needle telegraph patented by (aft. 
sir) Wm. F. Cooke and (aft. sir) Charles Wheat- 
stone. (The Society of Arts Albert gold medal 
was awarded to them in June, 1867) 12 June, 
Mr. Cooke set up the telegraph line on the Great 
Western Railway, from Paddington to West 
Drayton, 1838-9; on the Blackwall line, 1840; 
and in Glasgow. : : : “ : : 
Wheatstone’s alphabetical printing telegraph 
patented . ; F ; : 2 2 
The first telegraph line in America set up from 
Washington to Baltimore. ‘ 3 d : 
The murderer Tawell apprehended by means of the 
telegraph . : 4 2 ; : F wei 
The electric telegraph company established (having 
purchased Cooke and Wheatstone’s telegraphic 
inventions) : ‘ ; ‘ - : F 
Gutta percha suggested as an insulator by Faraday 
Professor Charles Wheatstone drew plans of a pro- 
jected submarine telegraph between Dover and 
Calais. : Z ‘ 3 ‘ : : 
Mr. John Watkins Brett (on behalf of his brother, 
Jacob Brett, the inventor and patentee), submit- 
ted a similar plan to Louis Philippe without suc- 


1747 


cess 4 : , ‘ . : . h - 1847 
He obtained permission from Louis Napoleon to 
make a trial, 1847 ; took place . 28 Aug. 
The connecting wires (27 miles long) were placed 
on the government pier in Dover harbour, and in 
the Goliath steamer were coiled about 30 miles in 
length of telegraphic wire, enclosed in a covering 
of gutta-percha, half an inch in diameter. The 
Goliath started from Dover, unrolling the tele- 
graphic wire as it proceeded, and allowing it to 
drop to the bed of the sea. In the evening the 
steamer arrived on the French coast, and the wire 
was run up the eliff at cape Grisnez to its termi- 
nal station, and messages were sent to and fro 
between England and the French coast. But the 


1850 


ELECTRICITY. 


wire, in settling into the sea-bottom, crossed a 
rocky ridge, and snapped in two, and thus the 
enterprise for that time failed. 

New arrangements were soon made, and on a scale 
of greater magnitude ; and the telegraph was 
opened ; the opening and closing prices of the 
funds in Paris were known on the London stock 
exchange within business hours, and guns were 
fired at Dover by communication from Rest 

3 Nov. 

Duplex Telegr aphy—two messages anantited along 
a single wire at the same time in opposite direc- 
tions “first accomplished by Dr. Gintl, Austrian, 
1853; by Messrs. Siemens, 1857; in the same 
direction, by Stark, of Vienna, 18553 apparatus 
perfected by Stearns, an American ; applied to 
British telegraphs . : 

Quadruplea Telegraphy—four messages along one 
wire ; successful experiments between London 
and Liverpool : 3 : P - 25 Sept. 


Communications complete between Dover and Os- 

tend and between Portpatrick and Donaghadee, 
May, 
June, 
Nov. 
May, 


Holyhead and Howth 4 - 

Paris and Bastia 

London and Constantinople 

Cromer and Emden °, 

Aden and Suez . 

Malta and Alexandria . : s 
England and Bombay, opened . ; 
Marsala, Sicily, and La Calle, Algeria. 


May, 

28 Sept. 

- t March, 
21 June, 


Over-house electric telegraphs (first erected at Paris) 
set up between their premises in the City and 
West-end by Messrs. Waterlow, in 1857, extended 
throughout London A . 

House’s printing telegraph, 1846: Bain’ R electro- 
chemical telegraph, 1846 ; Hughes’s system, 1855; 
the American combination system (of the pre- 
ceding), which can convey 
adopted by the American telegraph company, 

Jan. 

Wheatstone’s automatic printing Beit pa- 
tented 

It was stated ‘that ‘there are in work I 4000 ‘miles of 
electric telegraph wire in Great Britain ; 80,000 on 
the continent of Europe; and 48,000 in America : 
and altogether about 150,000 miles laid down in 
the world - July, 

Bonelli’s typo- electric telegr aph, made known and 
company established, 1860 ; ; and tried between 
Liverpool and Manchester, 1863 ; promised revival, 

June, 

An ‘electric telegraph” conference, at which 16 
states (not Great Britain) were represented, met 
at Paris March, 

Fhe Telegraph Act (see Telegraph) passed 31d uly. 

It enabled H.M.’s postmaster-general to acquire, 
work, and maintain electric pip iain postal 
telegraphy began . E 5 Feb. 

Messages rise from 6,000,000 to 20,000, 000 & year : 

he *§ ‘shilling telegr aph” said not to pay July, 

Society of Telegraph Engineers established, 28 Feb. 

Result of the ‘‘ Derby ” race sent to Caleutta in five 
minutes : 24 May, 

Statue of Morse at New York uncovered, Io ss une, 

Fourth international telegraph conference opened at 
Rome, under the auspices of the Italian govern- 
ment . ; 18 Dee. 

The jifth international telegr raph conference opened 
at St. Petersburg . 4 zr June, 

A new international telegraphic Sonventen came 
into operation . Jp aM 

Direct line between New Zealand and London, 
completed 18 Feb. ; communication between lord 
mayor and mayors of Wellington and Dunedin, 

23 Feb. 

ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. A plan to unite Europe 
and America by telegraph was entered at the 
government registration oftice in June, 1845, by 
Mr. J. Watkins Brett and Mr. Jacob Brett, who 
made proposals to the government, which were 
not accepted. . This plan was attempted to be 
carried out by a company in 1857 and 1858, with 
the concurrence of the British and American 
governments. 


284 


1851 


1859-73 


zooo words an hour, ° 


1859 


. 1860 


1862 


| 


AS 
| 127 C 
ELECTRICITY. 
2500 miles of wire were manufactured, and tested in 
March, 


The laying it down commenced at Valentia, in 
Ireland on: ’ 5 Aug. 

The vessels employed were the Niagara and Susu 
hanna (American vessels), and the Leopard and 
Agamennon (British vessels). After sailing a few 
miles the cable snapped. This was soon repaired ; 
but on rz Aug. after 300 miles of wire had been 
paid out, it snapped again (and the vessels 
returned to Plymouth) ‘ : iz Aug. 

A second attempt to lay the cable failed through a 
violent storm, . 2. 20-21 June, 

The third voyage was successful. The junction 
between the two continents was completed by the 
laying down of 2050 miles of wire from Valentia, 
in Ireland, to Newfoundland. The first two 
messages, on 5 Aug., were from the queen of 
England to the president of the United States, 
and his reply 


; 5 Aug. 
| This event caused great rejoicing in both countries’ 5 


but, unfortunately, the insulation of the wire 
gradually became more faulty, and the power 
of transmitting intelligence utterly ceased on 
4 Sept. 
A new company was formed : ‘ : <i 
The Great Eastern steamer, engaged to lay down 
2300 miles of wire, with 25,000 tons burden, sailed 
for Valentia, Ireland, from the Thames, com- 
manded by capt. Anderson, accompanied by pro- 
fessor Wm. Thomson and Mr. Cromwell F, 
Varley, to superintend the paying out the cable, 
15 July, 
After connecting the wire with the land, the Great 
Eastern sailed from Valentia 23 July, 
Telegraphic communication with the vessel (inter- 
rupted by two faults, due to defective insulation, 
caused by pieces of metal pressed into the gutta- 
percha coating, which were immediately repaired) 
finally ceased on 2 Aug. The apparatus for 
raising the wire proving insufficient, the vessel 
returned, and arrived at the Medway . 19 Aug. 
Atlantic telegraph company reconstituted as the 
Anglo-American telegraph company limited, 
March, 
The Great Eastern, with a new cable, sailed from 
the Medway, 30 June; the shore-end at Valentia 
was spliced with the main eable, and the Great 
Eastern sailed, 13 July ; 1200 miles of cable had 
been laid, 22 J uly ; the cable was completely laid 
at Heart’s Content, Newfoundland, and a message — 
sent to lord Stanley, 27 July ; message from the 
queen to president of the United States sent, 28 | 
July, ‘‘ From the queen, Osborne, to the presi-- 
dent of the United States, Washington. The 
queen congratulates the president on the success- 
ful completion of an undertaking which she hopes 
may serve as an additional bond of union between 
the United States and England.” To which he 
replied o July, 


30 4 
| The Veet cable of 1865 ‘recovered, 2 Sept. ; ai ~T 


laying completed at N ewfoundland Fy 

The Great Hastern arrived at Liverpool . - 

Messrs. Samuel Canning, Daniel Gooch, an 
Anderson knighted , 

[It was stated (in Sept. 1866) that the cugiileae a 
the cable passed signals through 3700 miles ot 
wire by means of a battery formed in a lady's. | 
thimble. ] 

The U. 8. congress voted a gold medal to Cyrus” 
Field, for his exertions connected with Atlantic 
telegraphs : 7 March, 

At a dinner given to Cyrus Field at Willis’s Rooms, ; 
London, telegraphic messages were exchanged 
between the company and lord Monck, pian 
of Canada and president Johnson - uly, 

French Atlantic Telegraph company formed ; French 
government grant concession for 20 years, from 
1 Sept. 1869, “to Julius Reuter and baron Emile 
d’Erlangen 8 July, 

Anglo-Danish telegr aph (Newbig gein to copeuaaae 
completed : 

European end of the French Atlantic cable Said et 
Brest, 17 June ; the American end at mek 
Massachusetts 3 July, 

Reported union between the ‘Anglo-American and 
French Atlantic telegraph companies . Jan 

Telegraph between Bombay and Suez completed 


. 
f 


A wie 


et ahs el tas WED | 
t : 


BAK f i. f } 


7) ELECTRICITY. 


ELECTRICITY. 


h between Adelaide and Port Darwin, 
ustralia, completed =. : ¥ . 22 Aug. 
sage from the mayor of Adelaide received by 
1e lord mayor of London, and replied to, 

at Oct. 
fowrth Atlantic telegraph. cable laid by the 
reat Eustern, from Valentia, Ireland, to Heart’s 
ontent, Newfoundland . 8 June-3 July, 
Brazil telegraph cable completely laid, 22 Sept. 
wraday,” a great electric cable ship, built for 
iemens Brothers, launched at Newcastle (see 
eam), 17 Feb. ; sails to lay the ‘‘ Direct United 
tates Company’s” cable, 16 May; laid shore-end 
. Nova Scotia, 31 May; in New Hampshire, 
June; connected with Newfoundland, July 
siath Anglo-American telegraph laid by the 
reat Hastern. 5 : : . Aug.-Sept. 
1. Cowper’s Writing telegraph: quick plain writ- 
g (36 miles), exhibited at Royal ee ea ce 
May, 
Sizth International telegraph conference opened 
._London . x 3 J E 18 June, 
‘h African line laid between Mozambique and 
atal, 23 Aug.; connected with Capetown ; tele- 
‘ams sent by the queen to sir Bartle Frere and 
hers, 25 Dec. ; opened to the public 29 Dec. 
new French Transatlantic Cable to be laid from 
rest to St. Pierre by the Faraday, sailed June; 
mnected with Halifax, Oct. 1879; line from 
aris to New York opened : A . r June, 
national Congress of Electricians opened at 
wis, 15 Sept. ; exhibition rr Aug.-20 Nov. 


+ Atlantic Cable laid by the Faraday 22 Aug. 
et seq. 
graph from England to Panama completed 
Sept. 


mational Sub-marine Conference, Paris 16 Oct. 
nwell Fleetwood Varley, electrical engineer, 
ho patented many inventions, died . 2 Sept. 
mnational Conference for protection of sub- 
arine cables, Paris, closed ; convention agreed 
, 26 Oct. 1883; signed at London, 14 March ; 
zned for 26 states at London, at Paris 26 March 


lover Ciock, &c. Professor Wheatstone in- 
‘nted an electro-magnetic telegraph clock in 
4o. Clocks worked by electricity, invented by 
r, Alexander Bain, Mr. Shepherd, and others, 
speared in the exhibition of 1851. An electric 
ek, with four dials, illuminated at night, was 
‘t up for some time in front of the office of the 
setric telegraph company, in the Strand, Lon- 
om, July, 1852. A time-ball was set up by Mr. 
vench, in Cornhill, in 1856. In 1860, Mr. C. V. 
‘alker so connected the clock of the Greenwich 
“servatory with that of the South-eastern station, 
mdon, that they could be controlled by elec- 


city. 


: 


Evecrric LIGut. 


iphry Davy produced electric light with carbon 
J EO SS 
aratus for regulating the electric light were 
‘ vised in 1846, and shown by W. Staite’s patents, 
46, 1849 ; Staite (at Sunderland, 25 Oct. 1847), 
d Petrie in 1848 ; by Foucault soon after. 
‘s Duboseq’s Electric Lamp (the most perfect of 
e kind) appeared at the Paris exhibition in 
55; and was first employed by professor Tyn- 
li, at the Royal Institution, London, for illus- 
‘vting lectures onlightand colours . . | 
works of new Westminster bridge were illumi- 
‘ted by Watson’s electric light. 3 
errin, of Paris, exhibited his improved 


electric 


 Magmeto-Electric light (the most brilliant artifi- 
‘\Llight yet produced), devised by Prof. Holmes, 
ecessfully tried at the South Foreland light- 
- use, Dover : . 4 ‘ - 1858 and 
French government ordered eight lighthouses 
} be illuminated by electric light . . April, 
‘ric Candle, invented by Paul Jablochkoff (an 
.etric current passed through two carbons side 
| side with a slip of kaolin between them, pro- 
ces a steady, soft, noiseless light; the carbons 
} rn like wax); reported to the Academy of 
‘iences, Paris, by M. Dénayrouze . Oct 

electric light successfully employed for photo- 
aphy by Mr. H. Van der Weyde LR rs 


1872 


1800 


1856 


1858 
1862 


1859 
1861 


. 1876 


2) 


SS 


Head, Wrightson, & Co., of Stockton-on-Tees, use 
Siemens’ electric light for bridge building . 

At the Magasin du Louvre, 8 electric lights replaced 
too Carcel gas-burners ; as manageable as coal 
gas supply ; tried at West India docks rs June, 

Tyndall’s experiments at S. Foreland, demonstrate 
superiority of Siemens’ dynamo-electric machine, 

f ; : Aug. 1876-July, 

Gramme’s machine (light equal to 758 candles) 

Serrin’s and Jablochkoff’s lights improved by Ra- 
pieff, a Russian; taken up by Mr. BE. J. Reed 
M.P.; a small magneto-electric machine, worked 
by steam ; conducting wires replace the gasworks 
and pipes ; : ; : : July, 

Mr, Stayton reports, that the light is much dearer 
than gas, and not suitable for street lighting in 
London. : ° : Z F - Sept. 

Electric light tried at Westminster palace, 28 March 

Two of Siemens’ dynamo-magneto-electric machines 
ordered for the Lizards lighthouses : ate 

The Gaiety theatre lit by light from Lontin’s 
machine and modification of Jablochkoff’s Aug. 

Hippolyte Fontaine’s treatise on Electric Lighting, 
1877 ; translated by Paget Biggs, published 

Mr. T. KE. Edison announces at New York his dis- 
covery of a method of producing a great number 
of lights and much mechanical power from a 
Ritchie inductive coil, a dynamo-electrie machine, 
which he terms ‘‘telemachon,” which may be 
worked by water-power or steam ; this causes a 
panic among gas companies in London, and de- 
pression in value of shares - Sept., Oct. 

Edison’s plans of subdividing lights filed at patent 
office. : = ; - - - 23 Oct. 

National Electric Light company forming Nov. 

Richard Werdermann’s electrie light subdivided ; a 
number of jets lit simultaneously ; shown by 
British telegraph company : - 2 Nov. 

Electric light used for large workshops at Woolwich, 
&e., throughout the country . Z « QNOVE 

Times machine-room lit by six lights from one cur- 
rent ; Rapieff system . A : - Oct. Nov. 

Three systems trying at New York by Edison, 
Sawyer, and Brush . : : = : Ov. 

Wallace lamp (American), introduced by Mr. Ladd, 

autumn, 

Jablochkoff candle tried at Westgate-on-Sea, by Mr. 
K. F. Davis, 2-26 Dec.; light successful; diffi- 
culty in practice ; given up ( Me 3 

Formation of nitric acid in the air by electric light ; 
announced by Mr. T. Wills, 13 Dec. 1878; of 
hydro-cyanic or prussic acid by prof. J. Dewar, 

autumn, 

Machines of Farmer & Wallace, Lontin, De Meri- 
tens, Browning, Carré, and others in use in Lon- 
don . “ : 5 : . ‘ : : : 

Light given up at Billingsgate market, about 30 Jan. 

Siemens’ light successful at the Albert Hall, 13 Feb. 

Edison obtains beautiful light from platinum which 
fuses ; used 600-horse power to obtain 20,000 
lights at one station; failure announced, March ; 
his patent registered . - : = 23-April, 

Exhibition of lights at Royal Albert Hall opened 
by the prince of Wales . : ° - 7 May, 

M. Jamin’s electric candle exhibited at Academy or 
Sciences, Paris : i - about 17 March, 

A continuous current dynamo -magneto-electric 
machine patented by lord Elphinstone and C. W. 
Vincent (since improved) . R s y 

A committee of the House of Commons appointed 
“to consider whether it is desirable to authorize 
municipal corporations or other local authorities 
to adopt any schemes for lighting by electricity ” 
(Dr. Lyon Playfair, chairman), reports: ‘‘ The 
energy of one-horse power may be converted into 
gaslight, and yields a luminosity equal to 12-candle 
power. But the same amount of energy trans- 
tormed into electric light produces 1,600-candle 
power. . . . Scientific witnesses considered that 
in the future the electric current might be exten- 
sively used to transmit power as well as light to 
considerable distances, so that the power applied. 
to mechanical purposes during the day might be 
made available for light during the night... . 
There seems to be no reason to doubt that the 
electric light has established itself for lighthouse 
illumination, and is fitted to illumine large sym- 
metrical places, such as squares, public halls, 


+? 


ELECTRICITY. 


286 


{ 
/ 


ELECTRIC LIGHTING ACT. 


railway stations, and workshops. . . . Compared 
with gas, the economy for equal illumination does 
not yet appear to be conclusively established. 
. . . Gas companies in the opinion of your com- 
mittee, have no special claims to be considered 
as the future distributors of electric light... 
Your committee, however, do not consider that 
the time has yet arrived to give general powers to 
private electric companies to break up the streets, 
unless by consent of the local authorities.”— 
Times... 5 4 é : 2 rg June, 
Electric light placed on Thames Embankment, in 
British Museum, at Victoria Station, &c. — Dec. 
System of C. F. Brush (American), exhibited in Lon- 
don, said to be simple and trustworthy —_23 Dec. 
Dr. C. William Siemens reports to Royal Society, 
that electric light acts like solar light on vegeta- 
tion é 2 4 : ; < 2 March, 
Electric lights set up for trial on Thames Embank- 
ment, north side (Jablochkoff system), 13 Dec. 
1878; Waterloo Bridge, 10 Oct. 1879 ; continued, 
April, 
Mr. J. W. Swan exhibits his system of dividing light, 
&c., at Newcastle-on-Tyne (aft. in London) 20 Oct. 
Trial of three systems in London : Lontin’s, South- 
wark bridge, &c.; Brush, Blackfriars’ bridge, &c. ; 
Siemens’, Guildhall, &c. 5 ae March, 
Swan’s incandescent lamp set up in Earnock 
colliery, Hamilton, Lanarkshire, 9 Aug.; also in 
the Savoy Theatre, London, successfully, opened 
to Oct. 
Godalming lit by electric light produced by water 
wheels driven by the Wey, Sept.; reported suc- 
cessful . 4 A 3 ? . 15 Dec. 
Junior Carlton Club first lit by the electric accu- 
mulator . : 5 . ° 16 Sept. 
New lamp (the sun) by Louis Clere, a combination 
of the are and incandescent systems June, 
The electric ‘‘sun”’ lamp and power company was 
formed . 5 F : July, 
Electric lighting act passed . - + » 18 Aug. 
The Ferranti system of electric lighting (invented 
by Sir William Thomson, Mr. 8. Ziani de Ferranti, 
and Mr. Alfred Thomson) successfully tried, Dec. 
International electrical and gaslight exhibition at 
the Crystal Palace opened . - cy gop! DYsY 
Electric light applied by Bell Brothers, Newcastle, 
to their mines . 4 3 ; : . Dec. 
Elphinstone and Vincent machine advertised for 
sale . : 4 4 < : 4 : : 
Mr. J. E. H. Gordon’s great dynamo machine ex- 
hibited at Woolwich . q , 2 25, Oct. 
Messrs. G. C. V. Holmes, F. E. Burke, and F. 
Cheesewright’s invention for the use of the elec- 
tric light in railways tried on Great Northern line, 
reported successful . 4 sees . 25 Oct. 
St. Matthew’s Church, Brixton, lit by electricity 
28 Oct. 
Gaulard-Gibbs’ system of secondary generators 
announced April; inaugurated on the Metro- 
politan railway. : 3 ee: Nov. 
H. T. Barnett’s secondary battery tried at the 
Great Western station ; Oct. et seq. 
M. O..C. D. Ross’s improved galvanic battery for 
light and motion . - ; : : 7 
Domestic electric lighting by the Beeman, Taylor 
and King system tried at Colchester rz June, 
Electric light employed in Liverpool and Man- 


chester trains . ‘ : oi vie ple aa 
Electric lighting successful at the Fisheries, 1883, 


and Health exhibitions. i ss : F : 
Brighton successfully lit by the Hammond-Wright 
system ; described : th NON, 
Evectric Loom. M. Boneili, of Turin, in 1854, de- 
vised a plan of employing magnets and electro- 
magnets in weaving, thereby superseding the 
tedious and costly Jacquard system of cards. 
His loom was set. up in London in 1859, and lec- 
tured upon at the Royal Institution by professor 
Faraday ; 2 ‘ : . : 8 June, 
Electric Pen (for copying, &c.), invented by Mr. 
T. Edison, an American ; an electric writing com- 
pany was established ; active in . : : 
Lamp-lighting by Electricity.—Mr. St. George Lane 
Fox’s invention tried at Fulham, and reported 
successful, autumn 1877; doubtful 


: ; arg 
ELECTROPHONE, invented by Dr. Strethill Wright, 


for producing sound by electric currents of high 


1880 


1883-4 | 
1884 | 


1860 


1877-8 


Society of Arts. See Telephone . 25 April, 
ELEcTRO-TinT. Mr. Palmer, of Newgate-street, 
London, patented inventions by which engravings 
may not only be copied from other engraved 
plates, but the engraving itself actually produced, 
by electrical agency, and one process he termed 
glyphography . 5 5 . 2 
ELectrro-TyPE oR Deposit. Mr. Spencer, in Eng- 
land, and professor Jacobi, in Russia, made the 
tirst successful experiments in this art in 1837 
and 1838. Since then, Mr. A. Smee and others 
have perfected the processes. In 1840, Mr. Rob. 
Murray applied black-lead to non-metallic bodies 
as a conducting surface. In 1840, Mr. Ruolz and 
Mr. Elkington applied it to gilding and silver 
plating. Since 1850, printing types and wood- 
cuts, and casts from them, have been electrotyped 
with copper, and the process is now largely 
adopted in the arts. 
Messrs. C. Wheatstone and F. A. Abel experiment on 
the application of electricity to military purposes. 
An Electric safety lamp made by MM. Dumas and 
Benoit ; exhibited at Paris <: . . 8 Sept. 
The Electro-block company established, 1860; by 
their processes the enlargement and reduction of 
engravings, obtained by india-rubber, can be 
immediately transferred to a lithographic stone, 
and multiplied. Leech’s engravings, so enlarged, 
were coloured by himself, and exhibited in 
OZONE, generated by a current produced by 
Wild’s magneto-electric machine, employed to 
bleach sugar, at Whitechapel (Edward Beane’s 
patent) F : i a : > > Aug 
Electric furnace, formed in the electric are, by C. 
Wm. Siemens, fuses platinum, iridium, etc., shown 


at Royal Institution . i a - 12 March, 
Electric light applied by him to grow vegetables 
and fruit in greenhouses : ° . 


ELectric Ratway by Werner Siemens and 
Halske, opened near Berlin 12 May, 
Siemens’ motive machines 6 inches square, 2 inches 
deep ; Tissandier’s electrically propelled balloon ; 
Menier’s ploughing machine, 1x1 Aug. ; electric 
tranvway set up in Paris A : ‘ Aug. 
Siemens’ new electric railway tried at Berlin 
about 7 Nov. 

International electrical exhibition, Crystal Palace, 
completed, inaugurated by the duke of Edinburgh, 


25 Feb.; closed ‘ : : June, 
First electric tramway cars run at Leytonstone, 

Essex . < 4 ‘ ; = - 4 March 
New electric railway opened at Berlin . 1 May,” 
Electric congress at Paris opened . - 2 Och 


A boat with screw-propeller moved by power, 
provided by electric accumulators (built by the 
Electrical Storage Company), sails from Millwall 
to London Bridge . ; : 3 28 Sept. 

Siemens’ electrical tramway between Portrush and 
Giant’s Causeway completed, Dec. 1882; opened 


by earl Spencer . ‘ P . . 28 Sept. 
Electric tramcars first run from Kew to Hammer- 
smith to Mar. 


Electrical exhibition at Westminster Aquarium 
opened . - 14 Mee 
International at Vienna 
16 Aug.-3 Noy. 

| Electric exhibition at Philadelphia opened, 8 Sept. 


ELrectro-PuysrioLoagy. Aristotle and Pliny refer 
to the powers of the torpedo; Walsh and 
Ingenhouss, the discoveries of Galvani in 1790, 
and the researches of Matteucci about 1830, have 
greatly advanced the science. 

Fowler experimented on animals with galvanism, 
1793; and Aldini, 1796, who produced muse 
contractions ina criminal recently executed, 1803; 
Ure did the same . 4 ‘ : : 4 : 

Du Bois Reymond lectured on animal electricity at 
the Royal Institution, and showed the existence 
of an electric current, developed by action of the 
human muscles, in . (> i 

Dr. Burdon Sanderson announced his discovery of 
electricity in plants to the British Association at 
Bradford : ; y £ . Sept. 


electric exhibition 


: Vict. c. 56, passed 18 Aug. 1882. 


’ 


tension: one laid before the Royal Scottish 


18 


184 


18 
18 


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18} 


13 
x 


18! 


” 


” 


18 


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15k 

oh 
a 
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187 


ELECTRIC LIGHTING ACT, 45 & 4 


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ipower sia 

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n 


as 


UECTROLYSIS, see Electricity, 282. 


VEGY. Elegiac verse (consisting of a hexa- 
r and pentameter alternately) was the first 
tion from the hexameter or epic measure, used 
rrte@us and other early poets. The elegies of 
and Catullus are celebrated. Gray’s ‘Elegy, 
en in a country churchyard,’”’ was published 


49. 


UEMENTARY EDUCATION ACT, 
34 Vict. c. 75, passed 9 Aug. 1870 ; amended 
72. Clause 25, which authorises payments to 
xt denominational schools, much objected to 
issenters; bill to repeal it rejected by the 
ions (373-128), 10 June, 1874. Another act 
igricultural districts, &c.,) brought in by lord 
m, 18 May, 1876; royal assent, 15 Aug. 1876. 


sEMENTS were formerly reckoned as four: 
, air, fire and water. Lavoisier enunciated 
yrinciple that all bodies which cannot be 
d to be compounded are elements, and to be 
dassuch. See Zad/e, and separate articles. 
hemical elements now are stated to be about 


381).* 


LIST OF 63 ELEMENTS, 1872 (Odling). 


ELECTROLYSIS. 287 


Gold . © 
Silver »)) 
Mercury $ 
Copper 2 
Iron 3 
Tin 2 
oc. Ct h 
Antimony . B. Valentine. 

‘Bismuth Agricola ? 
wine, Paracelsus. 

‘Carbon 

‘Sulphur. 

Phosphorus Brandt. 
Borax, boron. Homberg. 
Arsenic « 
Cobalt \ e G. Brandt. 
Platinum Woods. 
Nickel ‘ . Cronstedt, 
Soda -ium . >, Duhamel. 
Silex . : ; ; . (Bergmann, 
Alumina | and 
Magnesia / Scheele. 
Hydrogen. Cavendish. 
Fluor -ine . “ Scheele. 

Nitrogen Digicel, Rutherford. 

«_, ( (doubtful, see 

Chlorine d ( Chlorine) t Scheele. 

‘een. CC .SCSCté«(CS:C«s!SC#~@P rie stt dey <j 
; o_o Gahn. 
| yta-ium . By te cy 
Molybdenum i Scheele. 
‘Tungsten. Delhuart. 
— 4 Miller. 

ranium 
Zirconia -ium \ Klap moth. 
Titanium Gregor. 

Strontia -ium Hope. 

Yttria -ium . Gadolin. 


Chromium (eS - 
dlucina -um ahi Vauquelin. 
Tantalum Hatchett. 
fee ‘ : Klaproth. 
Pal jum. 
Rhodium Wollaston. 
. ridium Descotils & Smithson 
Jsmium Tennant. 
| odine Courtois. 


_ Joseph Norman Lockyer, in a paper read at 
al Society, 12 Dec. 1878, expressed doubts of the 
ary character of some of the following substances 

m his spectroscopic experiments. His views 
| tsupported by the researches of professors Dewar 
eing, 1880-81. See Chlorine. 


' 


ELGIN MARBLES. 

1817. Lithium Arfwedson, 

55 Selenium . Berzelius. 
1818. Cadmium Stomeyer. 
1826. Bromine Balard. 
1828. Thorinum Berzelius. 
1830. Vanadium . Sefstroin. 
1839. ( Lanthanum . 
1841. | Didymium Mosander. 
1843. ( Erbium. 
1844. Ruthenium Claus. 
1846. Niobium H. Rose. 
1859. § Cesium aD 

a Rubidium : y Bunsen. 
1861. Thallium . Crookes, 


1863. Indium 
1875. Gallium 


Reich and Richter, 

Lecoq de Boisbau- 
dran. 

Kern. 

Hermann. 


1877. Davyum (?) . 
+5 Neptunium 
a2 Ilnenium (?) 

1878. Philippium 

1879. Norwegium , 
»  Mosandrum(?) . 


Delafontaine. 
Tellef Dahll. 
Lawrence Smith. 


Pp Decipium (?) Delafontaine. 
f Scandium (?) 

»  YXtterbium (?) Marignac. 

: Holmium 

a Thulium Soret. 

_ Uralium A. Guyard. 


»»  Vesbium Scacchi. 


ELEPHANT, in the earliest times trained to 
war. The history of the Maccabees informs us, 
that ‘‘ to every elephant they appointed 1000 men 
armed with coats of mail, and 500 horse: and upon 
the elephants were strong towers of wood, &c.”’ The 
elephants in the army of Antiochus were provoked 
to fight by showing them the “‘ blood of grapes and 
mulberries.” The first elephant said to have been 
seen in England was one of enormous size, presented 
by the king of France to our Henry IIL. in 1238. 
Baker’s Chron. Polyenus states that Cvsar 
brought one to Britain 54 B.c., which terrified the 
inhabitants greatly. See Knighthood. 13 elephants 
in lord mayor’s procession, 9 Nov. 1876. 

Chunce, an elephant 13 feet high, in Cross’s menagerie, 
Exeter Change, London, becoming dangerous, was 
ote receiving 180 musket balls before he fell, r March, 
1620. 

A young elephant brought into Court of Exchequer to 
show his peaceful character, in a suit for damages for 
frightening a pony at the Alexandra Palace, 18 July, 


1879. 

Barnum, the American showman, bought, for 2,000l., 
the large male African elephant Jumbo, 6 tons weight, 
of the Zoological Society, Regent’s Park, London. - 
Jumbo refused to go 18 Feb. After much trouble he 
was removed in the night, 22-23 March, and placed in 
the Assyrian Monarch, 24 March; arrived at New 
York, 9 April, 1882. 

A so-called white elephant (little differing from others), 
named Toung Taloung, bought by Mr. Barnum from 
the king of Siam, arrived at Liverpool, 14 Jan., at 
Zoological gardens, London, 17 Jan.; left rz March, 
1884. 


ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. The insti- 
tution of these annual secret religious ceremonies 
(in honour of Ceres) at Athens, is attributed to 
Cadmus, 1550; to Erechtheus, 1399; or to Eumolpus, 
1356 B.c. If any one revealed them, he was to be 
put to death. They were introduced from Eleusis 
into Rome, lasted about 1800 years, and were abol- 
ished by Theodosius a.p. 389. The laws were—x. 
To honour parents; 2. To honour the gods with the 
fruits of the earth; 3. Not to treat brutes with 
eruelty. Ciceromakes the civilisation of mankind one 
of the beneficial effects of the Eleusinian mysteries, 


ELGIN MARBLES, derived chiefly from the 
Parthenon, a temple of Minerva, on the Acropolis at 
Athens, of which they formed part of the frieze and 
pediment, the work of Phidias, under the govern- 


ELGUETA. : 


988 


Ve i ee vay 
im ‘ + * oC he J 


| EMBANKMENTS. 


ment of Pericles, about 440B.c. Thomas earl of Elgin 
began the collection of these marbles during his 


ission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802; and from him | 
ad a | and grants of land; whereby it became the ri 


they were purchased by the British government for 
35,0002. and placed in the British Museum, in 1816. 
The ship conveying them was wrecked near Cerigo, 
and Mr. W. R. Hamilton, who was on_ board, re~ 
mained several months at Cerigo, and recovered 
them from the sea. 


took 600 prisoners, 5-6 Aug. 1873. 

ELIS, a Greek state termed the ‘‘ Holy Land,” 
in the Peloponnesus, founded by the Heraclide, 
1103 B.c. Here Iphitus revived the Olympic games, 
884, which were regularly celebrated after Corcebus 
gained the prize in 776. Elis surrendered many 
towns to the Spartans in war, 400. After varlous 
changes, Elis joined the Achzan league, 274; and 
with the rest of Greece was subjugated by the 
Romans in 146. 


ELL (so named from wna, the arm) was 
45 inches, by king Henry I. in IIol. 
French ell, or awne, was 46°790 inches. 


ELLISON GALLERY. In April, 1860, 
Mrs, Elizabeth Ellison (in conformity with the wish 
of her deceased husband, Richard), presented to the 
South Kensington Museum a series of 50 original 
water-colour drawings, by the first masters. 


ELLORA or ExorA, Central India ; remark- 
able for its very ancient rock-cut temple ; excavated 
according to Hindoo legends nearly 7000 years ago ; 
but more probably about 800 a.p. The town was 
ceded to the British by Holkar in 1818, and trans- 
ferred by them to the Nizam of the Deccan in 1822. 


ELMINA, and Dutch Guinea, W. Africa, 
were ceded by the Dutch government by treaty, 
signed Feb. 1872, and consolidated with the West 
African settlements; first governor, Mr.Pope Hen- 
nessy, April, 1872. See Ashantees. 


EL-OBEID, Battle of, 3-5 Nov. 1884. 


Soudan. 


ELOPEMENT. A wife who departs from her 


fixed at 
The old 


See 


husband, loses her dower by the statute of Westm. | 


1285—unless her husband, without coercion of the 
church, be reconciled to her. Earlier laws punished 
elopement with death when adultery followed. 


ELPHIN (Ireland). St. Patrick founded a 
cathedral near Elphin, ‘‘by a river issuing from 
two fountains,’’ in the 5th century, and placed over 
it St. Asicus, whom he created bishop, and who 
soon after filled it with monks. After many cen- 
turies, Roscommon, Ardcarn, Drumclive, and others 
of less note, were also annexed to Elphin, which 
became one of the richest sees in Ireland. It is 
valued in the king’s books, by an extent returned 
28 Eliz., at 1037. 18s. sterling. ‘The see was united 
to Kilmore in 1841, under the provisions of the 
Church Temporalities act, passed Aug. 1833. 


ELSINORE, Zealand, Denmark, formerly the 


station for receiving the Sound dues (which see). 
EL-TEB, Battle of, 29 Feb. 1884. See Soudan. 


ELY, an island in Cambridgeshire, on which a 
church was built about 673, by Etheldreda, queen 
of Egfrid, king of Northumberland ; she also founded 
a religious house, filled it with virgins, and became 
herself first abbess. The 1200th anniversary was 
celebrated 17-21 Oct, 1873; about 60,000/. had 
then been spent on the restoration of the cathedral. 


|The Danes ruined the convent about 870; I 


monastery was built in 879, on which king J} 
and succeeding monarchs bestowed great priyi 


in England. Richard, the eleventh abbot, wis 
to free himself from the bishop of Lincoln, : 
great interest with Henry I. to get Ely erected 
a bishopric, 1108, and his successor Hervecus 
the first prelate, 1109. It is valued in the k 


ELGUETA, N. Spain; near here the Carlists | books at 2134/7. 18s. 5d.; present stated inc 


defeated the republicans under gen. Sorna, and | 


5500/. 
RECENT BISHOPS. 
James York, died 26 Aug. 1808. 
Thomas Dampier, died 13 May, 1812. 
Bowyer Edward Sparke, died 4 April, 1836. 
Joseph Allen, died 20 March, 1845. 
Thomas Turton, died 7 Jan. 1864. 
Edward Harold Browne, translated to Winch 
Aug. 1873. 
1873. James Russell Woodford, Aug. 


ELY CHAPEL, Holborn, London, erecte 
the 14th century, sold for 5250/., 29 Jan. 1 
acquired by the K. C. fathers of the order of Cha 
1874; and finely restored at the expense of 


1781. 
1808. 
1812. 
1836. 
1845. 
1864. 


| duke of Norfolk and others, opened as St. E 


dreda’s chapel, 23 June, 1876. 


ELZEVIR, or ELSEVIER, a family of p 
ers, in Holland, whose reputation is based on 
pocket editions of the classics. 

Louis, the founder, was born in 1540; began busin¢ 

Leyden in 1580; he printed about 150 works, and 

4 Feb. 1617. His sons (especially Bonaventure) 

grandsons, were celebrated for their work. 


EMANCIPATION, see Roman Catholics 


Slavery. The Emancipation Society for s| 
lasted 1862-5. 


EMANUEL HOSPITAL, Westmin 
founded in 1594 by lady Anne Dacre for aged ps 
and children. Its original annual income hat 
creased from 360/. to about (q4ooo/. in 1870, \ 
changes in the disposition of the funds were 
posed by the Charity Commissioners, and : 
effected. 


EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians 
lieving that their souls, after many thousand y 
would reinhabit their bodies, if preserved en 
embalmed the dead. Some of the bodies, ¢: 
mummies, buried 3000 years ago, are still per 
‘<The physicians embalmed Israel,” 1689 B.¢. | 
1. 2; see Mummies. Carbolic acid was success 
employed by professor Seely in America, in 18f 
The most perfect specimens of modern embalming are 

served in the museum of the royal college of surg 

one being the body of the wife of Van Butchell, 
served by John Hunter by injecting campho 
spirits of wine, &c., into the arteries and veins | 

the other the body of a young woman, who died 4 

1780 of consumption, in the Lock hospital. The me 

of embalming royal personages in modern times i$ 

described in Hunter’s ‘‘ Posthumous Works.” He 

in 1793.-—-During the American War (1861-5), 1 

soldiers’ bodies were embalmed and sent home. 


EMBANKMENTS of earth were erecte 
the ancients for preservation from their ene 
and the inundations of the tide. Those of 
Egyptians and Babylonians are described by H 
dotus and Strabo. To the Romans are attrib 
the first dykes of Holland, and the embankmen 
Romney Marsh, considered to be the oldest in Bri 
In 1250 Henry III. issued a writ enforcing the: 
port of these works; and his successors followet 
example. James I. greatly encouraged the emb: 
ment of the Thames. Sir W. Dugdale’s ‘‘ His 
of Embanking”’ first appeared in 1662; see Jr 
age, Levels, and Thames. Since 1830, million 


ey 


al 


EMBARGO. 


EMLY. 


ee ee 
ounds haye been expended in embankments for | The “Society of the Sons of St. George,” at Phil- 


uilways. 

EMBARGO, from the Spanish embargar, to 
etain, applied to the restraining ships from sailing. 
his power is vested in the crown, but is rarely 
<ercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes as 
prelude to war. The most memorable instances 
f embargo were those for the prevention of corn 
axing out of the kingdom in 1766; and for the de- 
ntion of all Russian, Danish, and Swedish ships 
1 the several ports of the kingdom, owing to the 
med neutrality, 14 Jan. 1801; see Armed Neu- 
‘ality. 

EMBER WEEKS, instituted, it is said, by 
ype Callixtus I. (219-223), to implore the blessing 
' God on the produce of the earth by prayer and 
sting, in which penitents used to sprinkle the 
hes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. In 
e English church the Ember days are the Wed- 
sday, Friday, and Saturday, after the following 
s—the first Sunday in Lent, Whit-sunday, 14 
»pt. (Holy Cross), and 13 Dec. (St. Lucia). 


EMBROIDERY is usually ascribed to the 
irygians ; but the Sidonians excelled in it, and it 
mentioned in 1491 B.c. Ewodus xxxv. 35 and 
‘Xvill. 23. See Bayewx Tapestry. Vmbroidery is 
ww done bymachinery. The first embroidery ma- 
ine is said to have been invented by John Duncan 
Glasgow in 1804. Heilman’s embroidery machine 
is patented by kochlin. Berlin Wool-work has 
en much improved of late years by the production 

more elegant patterns, first published by Mr. 
ittich in Berlin, about 1810. 


EMERALD, aprecious stone, of a green colour, 
ind in the East and in Peru. It has been er- 
teousiy alleged that there were no true emeralds 
Europe before the conquest of Peru; but there is 
ein the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of 
pe Julius II. who died in 1513, and Peru was not 
aquered till 1545. It is stated that there were 
nes at Gebel Zabaira worked by Egyptians, 1800 


ve 


EMERGENCY MEN, a name given to the 
ire energetic members of the Irish Defence As- 
lation. See Mansion House Funds, 1881. 


EMESA, now Hems, Syria, renowned for a 
ple of the sun, the priest of which, Bassianus, 
3 proclaimed emperor with the name Heliogabalus 
Elagabalus, 218. His atrocities led to his assas- 
ation, 11 March, 222. 


IMMIGRANTS. The French aristocracy and 
‘sy (emigrés) began to leave their country in 
'y, 1789, at the breaking out of the revolution: 
lr estates were confiscated in Dec. A large num- 
| returned in 1802, by an amnesty granted after 

peace ofAmiens. Many were indemnified after 
restoration in 1815. 


[IG EATION. Phoenician and Greek emi- 


Black Sea; see Magna Grecia, Marseilles, &c. 
' discovery of America opened a vast field for 
‘gration, which was restrained by Charles I. in 
7. It has been greatly encouraged since 1819. 
‘ulations for emigration were made in 1831, and 
Jan. 1840, the Colonial Land and Emigration 
| td was established. Emigration much promoted 
ugh want of employment in London, 1869-70 ; 


|. from Great Britain and Germany to America, 
| 1-5. Fare of steerage passengers from Britain 
| America by steamers reduced to about 4/. Jan. 


ats colonised the coasts of the Mediterranean and | 


| 4 Ireland, by act passed, 1883. Much emigra- | 


adelphia, which was established to succour emi- 
grants, still exists. It published a letter dissuad- 
ing unsuitable emigration - 31 July, 
Meetings at the Mansion House to promote State 
directed emigration of the unemployed 5 April, 
A tax of 2s, per head levied in United States on 
immigrants ; act passed by congress in opposition 
to the government and steam ship companies 
Aug. 
Society formed to promote State-directed pap} i 
tion and colonization : - io Aug. 1883 
Emigration from the United Kingdom, in 18r 5, 2081; in 
1820, 25,729 ; in 1830, 56,907 ; in 1840, 90,743 ; in 1850, 
280,843 ; in 1860, 128,469 ; in 1866, 204,882; in 1867, 
195,953; IM 1868, 196,325; in 1869, 258,027; in 1870, 
256,940 ; 1n 1871, 252,435 ; 1872, 205,213; 1873, 310,6123 
1874,:241,014 ; 1875, 173,809. Of British origin only, 
1876, 109,469 ; 1877, 95,1953; 1878, 112,902; 1879, 
164,274; 1880, 227,542 3 1881, 243,002 3 1882, 279,366 ; 
1883, 320,118; 1884, 303,901. See Immigration. 


1874 
1882 


1846. 1851. 
From England . 86,611 254,970 
>, Scotland > R 3,427 18,646 
»» ireland . : . “ 38,813 62,350 
128,851 335,966 


Emigration to North American colonies, West Indies, 
Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales, Swan River, 
Van Diemen’s Land, &c., in 1820-30, 154,291; in 1830-40, 
277,095. 

To North American Colonies, in 1842, 54,123; in 1847, 
109,680; in 1856, 16,378; in 1861, 12,707; in 1863, 
18,083 ; in 1864, 12,721 ; in 1866, 13,255 ; in 1867, 15,503 ; 
In 1868, 21,062 ; in 1869, 33,891 ; in 1870, 35,295 3 1871, 
32,671; 1872, 32,205; 1873, 37,208: 1874, 25,450. Of 
British origin, 1876, 9335; 1877, 7720; 1878, 10,652; 
1879, 17,952; 1880, 20,902 ; 1881, 23,912; 1882, 40,441 5 
1883, 44,185. 

To United States, in 1842, 63,852; in 1847, 142,154; in 
1857, 126,905; in 1861, 49,764; in 1863, 146,813; in 
1864, 147,042 ; in 1866, 161,000; in 1867, 159,275; in 
1868, 155,532; in 1869, 203,001 ; in 1870, 196,075; 1871, 
198,843 ; 1872, 233,747; 1873, 233,073; 1874, 148,161. 
Of British origin, 1876, 54,554; 1877, 45,481; 1878, 
54,694 3 1879, 91,806; 1880, 166,570; 1881, 176,104 ; 
1882, 181,903 ; 1883, 191,573. 

To Australia and New Zealand, in 1842, 8534; in 184s, 
830; in 1850, 16,037; in 1852 (gold discovery), 87,881 ; 
in 1853, 61,421; In 1854, 83,237; in 1855, 52,309; in 
1856, 44,584; in 1857, 61,248 ; in 1861, 23,738; in 1863, 
53,054 ; in 1864, 40,942 ; in 1866, 24,097 ; in 1867, 14,466 ; 
in 1868, 12,809 ; in 1869, 14,901 ; in 1870, 17,065; in 1877, 
12,227; 1872, 15,876; 1873, 26,428; 1874, 53,958. Of 
British origin, 1876, 32,196 ; 1877, 30,1383; 1878, 36,479; 
1879, 40,959 ; 1880, 24,184; 1881, 22,682 ; 1882, 37,289 ; 
1883, 71,264. 

To other places, in 1854, 3366; in 1859, 12,427; in 1868, 
6922; in 1870, 8505; 1871, 8694; 1872, 13,385; 1873, 
13,903; 1874, 13,445; 1875, 173,809. Of British origin, 
1876, 13,384; 1877, 11,856; 1878, 11,077; 1879, 13,557; 
1880, 15,886; 1881, 20,304 ; 1882, 19,7333 1883, 13,096. 


Aiden ST. PIERRE, see United States, 
1862. 


EMINENCEH, a title conferred upon cardinals 
by pope Urban VIII. Jan. 10, 1631, as more honour- 
able than ‘* Excellency.” Previously cardinals had 
the title of [W/ustrissimt. Ashe. The grand-master 
of Malta also obtained this title. Pardon. 


EMIR, a title of the caliphs among the Turks 
and Persians, first awarded to the descendants of 
Mahomet’s daughter Fatima, about 650. To such 
only was originally given the privilege of wearing 
the green turban. 


EMISSION THEORY or Licut (advo- 
cated by Newton, about 1672), supposes that indi- 
vidual particles pass from the luminous body to the 
eye, and that each ray of light passes from the sun 
to the earth. It is opposed to the Undulatory 
Theory (which see) now generally received. 


EMLY, an Ivish see, said to have been founded 
U 


EMPALEMENT. . 


290 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


by St. Patrick. Emly was called Imelaca-Ibair: 
St. Ailbe was the first bishop in 448. In 1568, the 
see was united to Cashel (which see). It is now an 
ingonsiderable village. 


EMPALEMENT. This mode of executing 
criminals, mentioned by Juvenal, and often inflicted 
in Rome, is still used in Turkey and Arabia. In 
England the dead bodies of murderers were some- 
times staked in this manner, previously to being 
buried ; abolished, 1823. See Suicide. 


EMPEROR, from Imperator (ruler), a title 
conferred on victorious Roman generals. 


Augustus Ceesar the first Roman emperor < BO; | 327. 
Valentinian I. first emperor of the west, and Valens, 


first emperor of the east r : ‘ A.D 364 
Charlemagne first emperor of Germany, crowned by 
eo. Die : is 2 : : ; at getSOS 
Othman I. founder of the Turkish empire, the first 
emperor of Turkey. : : é : . 1299 
The Czar the first emperor of Russia 22 Oct. 1721 
Napoleon Bonaparte first emperor of the French 1804 
Napoleon III., his nephew, founded the second 
French empire, Dec. 1852, deposed 4 Sept. 1870 
Iturbide, ‘emperor of Mexico, Feb. 1822; shot 
19 July, 1824 
Dom Pedro IV. of Portugal the first emperor of 
Brazil . ; 3 : : ; A So ree5 
Faustin I. the first emperor of Hayti, in 1849; de- 
posed . 1859 


Maximilian rT emperor of Mexico, ro April, 1864 : 
shot 3 : : 19 June, 1867 
EMPEROR’S HYMN (of Austria), words by 

L. L. Haschka, music by Joseph Haydn, first sung, 

12 Feb:; 1797. 


EMPIRE CITY, a name given to New York. 


EMPIRE CLUB, Constitutional, established 
10 Oct. 1881, founded 1883. 


EMPIRICS, a sect of physicians, formed in the 
3rd century before Christ, who contended that all 
reasoning respecting the animal economy was use- 
less, and that experience and observation were the 
only foundations of medicine. The sect adopted 
the principles of Acron of Agrigentum, who flour- 
ished about 430 B.C. 


EMPLOYERS OF LABOUR, National 
Federation of Associated, formed in London about 
10 Dec. 1873. The founders were said to employ 
about 2,000,000, principally in N.W. and N. Eng- 
land. ‘Their object was to counteract the influence 
of trade unions. The first annual meeting held 
24 Feb. 1875. 

Iron trades employers, association issued a circular pro- 


posing increase in hours of labour, Dec. 1878. See 
Strikes. 


EMPLOYERS’ LIABILITY ACT (to 
make compensation for personal injuries suffered by 
workmen), passed for 7 years, 7 Sept. 1880; effects 
neutral (1884). 


EMPLOYERS AND WORKMEN ACT, 
passed 13 Aug. 1875, relates to legal settlement of 
disputes, &e. 


EMPRESS oF InpDIA (Imperatrix Indie), 
addition to the royal titles, proclaimed in London, 
I May, 1876. 


ENAMELLING was practised by the Egyp- 
tians, Chinese, and other nations, and was known 
in England in the time of the Saxons. At Oxford 
is an enamelled jewel, which belonged to Alfred, 
and which, as appears by the inscription, was made 
by his order, in his reign, about 887. Limoges 
enamelled ware was popular in the 16th century. 
Magnificent specimens by Lepec, Elkington, Eman- 


uel, and others, appeared at the exhibition at Pari 
1867. See Mosaic. On 19 June, 1862, madan 
Rachel (Levison or Leverson) sued captain Carneg 
for 928/. for enamelling his wife’s face, and w: 
nonsuited ; see Zrials, 1868. She was convict 
of fraud in 1878; and died in prison 12 Oct., 188 
See Zrials. 


ENCABNIA. Greek festivals kept on days 
which cities were built and temples consecrate: 
and in later times, as at Oxford, at the celebratic 
or commemoration of founders and benefactor 
Oldisworth. The public commemoration at Oxfo: 
suspended in 1875; restored, 21 June, 1876. Th 
were the origin of church-wakes in England, abo 
600. They were also feasts celebrated by the Jey 
on the 25th of the ninth month, in commemorati: 
of the Maccabees cleansing the temple, which b: 
been polluted by Antiochus Epiphanes, 131 B.¢. 


ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, enamelling | 
fire. Painting with burnt wax is said to have be: 
known to Praxiteles about 360 B.c. This art w 
revived by M. Bachelier, 1749, by count Caylu 
1765, and by Miss Greenland, 1785 and 1792. 


ENCLOSURE, see Jnelosure. 
ENCRATITES, followers of Tatian, about 17 


denounced marriage, and abstained from flesh, a1 
from wine even at the Lord’s supper. 


ENCUMBERED ESTATES. ACT, pass 
July 1849, to enable owners ef land or leases | 
Ireland, subject to encumbrance, to apply to con 
missioners appointed under it to direct a sale of suc 
property. These commissioners held their fit 
court in Dublin, 24 Oct. 1849, and their last 28 Jul 
1858, a new court being established under tl 
Landed Estates act. The number of estates sold, 1 
to 1858, was 2380, producing twenty-two millions | 
pounds. In 1854 a similar act was passed for tl 
West Indies. 


ENCYCLICAL LETTER, see Rome, 1864. 
ENCYCLOPAEDIA or CyYCLOPZADIA, 


general dictionary of art, science, and literatur 
This name has been given to a work by Abulphax 
gius in the 13th century. 


Alsted’s Encyclopedia . - : Z .- aa 
Louis Moreri’s Dictionnaire Historique . : ae @ 
Hofmann’s Lexicon Universale . “ . 136 
Corneille’s Dictionnaire des Arts . A . ae 


Bayle’s Dictionnaire . 2 ; é A , at 
Lexicon Technicum of John Harris (earliest English 
encyclopedia) 1704 ; supplements 1710, 171 
Ephraim Chambers’ Cyclopedia . : P . ee 
Zedler’s Universal Lexicon . . . . 1732" 
Encyclopédie (by Didérot and D’Alembert . » 751% 
[The contributors were termed ENCYCLOPEDISTES, 
and their daring writings are believed to have 
hastened the French revolution in 1789. ] : 
Encyclopedia Britannica (1st edition by William — 
Smellie) . é s : ‘ . ee a 
[The 8th completed, 186z ; oth begun, 1875. ] 
Encyclopédie Méthodique (by Pancoucke)  . 1782-18: 
Chambers’ Cyclopeedia (edited by Rees) . «- -1 
Rees’ Cyclopedia.  .  . | a 
Brockhaus’s Conversations Lexicon, rst edition . 18 
[New editions frequent.] 13th, 1883 et seq. 


Encyclopedia Metropolitana A A 5 . 18r7- 
Cabinet Cyclopedia (a collectian of treatises) . 1829- 
Penny Cyclopedia... |. ee 
Knight’s English Cyclopeedia (4 divisions) . 1853-61 
Chambers’ Cyclopedia . . : . 1859-68; 1874 
Ersch and Gruber’s Allgemeine Encyclopadie, began 
1818 ; 153 vols, published . . ae 


Chinese cyclopedia, 6109 vols. (all the valuable 
books then existing), printed by order of the 
emperor between . A A ; : . 1661-17! 

A copy bought for British Museum.  ., . eerg 


ENDERBY LAND. 


291 


ENGLAND. 


a 


erican cyclopedia, by Geo. Ripley and Charles 
Semerayvols. . ° . - ; 1873-8 
be encyclopedia, completed - 1879 


INDERBY LAND, sce Southern Continent. 
JINDOSMOSIS. M. Dutrochet, about 1826, 


ad that if two fluids, gases or vapours, of unequal 
sity, are separated by an animal or vegetable 
nbrane, the denser will attract the less dense 
ough the medium. This property he called 
ysmose, when the attraction is from the outside 
he inside, and exosmose when it operates from 
inside to the outside. Many natural phenomena 
thus more clearly understood. Brande, 


NDOWED SCHOOLS ACT, containing 
“Conscience Clause,”’ passed 1860; another 
lar act passed 2 Aug. 1869. 


NDOWED SCHOOL COMMISSION 
sisting of lord Lyttelton, canon Robinson, and 
rs), was appointed under the act 32-33 Vict. 
» (2 Aug. 1869). It threw open many endow- 
ts to the nation, and carried out reforms, being 
iently much opposed. By an act passed 7 Aug, 
, its duties were transferred to the charity 
nissioners, two new commissioners (Mr. Long- 
lord Clinton), and canon Robinson being ap- 
ted. The commissioners had dealt with 74 
dls; prepared schemes for 66; leaving about 
0 be dealt with; Aug. 1874. 


NERGY. Inman address to the British As- 
tion at York, 1 Sept. 1881, sir William Thom- 
leseribed the sources of all the energy in nature 
able to man for the production of mechanical 
i, as tides, food, fuel, wind and rain, all except 
ides derived from the sun. 


NFIDA CASE, see Tunis, 


NFIELD, N. Middlesex ; a manor belonging 
e duchy of Lancaster, is mentioned in Domes- 
and was given to De Mandeville by William I, 

1066. After various changes it became the 
tty of the crown by the marriage of Mary 
ss of the Bohuns, to Henry duke of Lancaster, 

wards king Henry IV. 1399. . Edward VI. gave 

‘ls sister Elizabeth, who resided here in 1552, 
alace, part of which still remains (1885). The 
nar Bicol was founded about 1586. The 
ot chase was dischased and enclosed, after 


1779. 
(FIELD MUSKET, see Fire-arms. 


TGEN, Baden. Here Moreau defeated the 
lans, 3 May, 1800. 


'GHIEN or STEENKIRK (S. W. Belgium). 
the British under William ILI. were defeated 
» French under marshal Luxemburg, 24 July, 
—The duc d’Enghien, a descendant of the 
Condé, was seized in Baden by order of Bona- 
conveyed to Vincennes, and, after a hasty 
shot by torch-light, immediately after con- 
ition, 21 March, 1804. The body was ex- 
l, 20 March, 1816. 


IGINEERS, Military, formerly called 
) i-masters. Sir Wiliam Pelham officiated as 
cInaster in 1622; the chief engineer was 
camp-master-general in 1634. Capt. Thomas 
/had the rank of chief engineer to the king 
1650. The corps of engineers was formerly 
- Corps, but was made a military force, and 
'd to rank with the artillery, 2 5 April, 1787. 
a colonel-in-chief, 16 colonels-commandant, 
5 colonels. Civil Engineering became im- 


portant in the middle of the last century, when 

Smeaton began the Eddystone lighthouse, and 

Brindley the Bridgewater canal. Since then the 

Rennies, Telford, the Stephensons and Brunels, 

Locke, and others have constructed breakwaters, 

| docks, bridges, railways, tunnels, &e., which are 

the marvel of our age. 

“Engineering is the art of directing the great 
sources of power in nature for the use and con- 
venience of man.” (Thos. Tredgold, died 1820.) 

The first society of Civil Engineers formed by Smea- 
ton and others, afterwards termed the Smeatonian 
Society of Civil Engineers . : ‘ : aye 

Institution of Civil Engineers established 2 Jan. 
1818 ; obtained a charter 3 June, 
4388 members 4 aes ; : é Be 

Institution of Mechanical Engineers, which had its 
head-quarters in Birmingham, moved to London, 
1877; established 3 : : : Jie 

Civil and Mechanical Engineers’ Society founded . 

| Isambard Kingdom Brunel, projector of the Great 
Eastern, aged 53, died 15 Sept. ; Robert Stephen- 
son, railway engineer, aged 59, died 12 Oct. 

Engineers’ Amalgamated Society, in 1867, consisted 
of above 30,000 members ; annual income, 86,oool. ; 
disbursed to disabled workmen, &c., about 50,0001. ; 
amassed capital, about 125,000l. 

Engineer, weekly journal, established 

Engineering, weekly journal, established Jan. 

Newcastle strike (see Newcastle) May—Oct. 

Strike of engineers in London (z8 firms) 7 Feb.— 

4 Oct. 

College of Practical Engineers, Muswell hill, near 
London, opened by sir Henry Bessemer, sir 
Joseph Whitworth, Dr.-C. Wm. Siemens, and 
others : : - : Z A ee Seber roc 

Engineering exhibition, Agricultural Hall, London 

5-21 July, 1883 


ENGLAND (from Angles and lond, land), so 
named, it is said, by Egbert, first king of the 
English, in a general council held at Winchester, 
829; or by Athelstan, 925. See Anglo-Saxons. 
England was united to Wales, 1283; to Scotland in 
1603; they have had the same legislature since 1707, 
when the three were styled Great Britain. James IJ. 
first adopted the title of king of England, Scotland, 
afterwards Great Britain, France, and Ireland; 
after the treaty of Amiens, signed 27 March, 1802, 
France was omitted from the royal style. Ireland 
was incorporated with them, by the act of legis- 
lative union,“I Jan. 1801, as the United Kingdom 
of Great Britain, France; and Ireland. The British 
empire is computed to contain about 7,000,000 square 
miles of territory, with 200,000,000 inhabitants. 
Statistical details are given under the respective 
headings ; Army,. Navy, Revenue, Population, &e. 
For previous history, see Britain. Histories of Eng- 
land, by Rapin (in English), 1725-31; Thomas Carte, 
1747-55; David Hume, 1755-62; Tobias Smollett, 
1757-65; John Lingard, 1819-30; Charles Knight, 
1856-62; J. R. Green, 1874-80. Parts by T. B. 
Macaulay, Earl Stanhope, J. A. Froude, Miss H. 
Martineau, and others. See Chronicles. 

Egbert, ‘‘ king of the English,” 828; defeats the 


4 Jan. 1856 
1866 


1871 


1879 


Welsh, Danes, &c., at Hengestdown deeb els 
Alfred, king, 871; after many vicissitudes, van- 

quishes the Danes . : ; é : 871-896 
He frames a code of laws, 890 ; forms a militia and 

navy, surveys ‘and subdivides the country, and 

promotes educatién .° . 5 : ; OOS 
Athelstan’s great victory over the Danes, Scots, &c. 

at Brunanburg ; 3 . : : é 
Predominance of Dunstan ; he promotes monachism 

and the celibacy of the clergy, about 952 
Ethelred compounds with the Danes for peace 99I 
Causes their massacre . , : «| 23 NOV. 11003 
Avenged by Sweyn, king of Denmark: Ethelred 

flees to Normandy . : é E hea + 1003 
Sweyn dies, and Ethelred returns, 1014; dies . . 1016 
Canute the Dane sole monarch . : . : - 1017 
Edward the Confessor king ; Saxon dynastyrestored ro42 


we2 


2 “* 
ENGLAND. 292 ENGLAND. 
Harold II. crowned, 6 Jan. ; defeats the Norwegians, Gardening introduced into mean a 
25 Sept. ; defeated and slain at Hastings by Wil- the Netherlands, about . : at. ® 


liam of Normandy 4 : 14 Oct. 1066 
Wiuiam I. crowned . Se eS ILIEC. 55 
The northern counties rebel; ravaged from the 


Humber to the Tyne 2 1069-70 
Introduction of the Feudal system, al about . . 1070 
Justices of peace appointed : . 1076 
Domesday book compiled . ; . 1085-6 

Wiis II. crowned. 26 Sept. 1087 

The crusades begin 4 ; < : : ADU E se rofele: 
Heynry I. .crowned, restores Saxon laws, &e. 

5 Aug. 1100 

Defeats his brother Robert, and gains Normandy . 1106 

Prince William and nobles drowned ~ 25 Now. 1120 

STEPHEN crowned 26 Dec. 1135 


Civil war between the empress Maud, Henry’s 
daughter, and Stephen ; her friends the Scots de- 


feated at the battle of the Standard . 22 Aug. 1138 
She lands in England, and is successful . 1139 
Crowned at Winchester 3 Mareh, II4I 
Defeated ; retires to France II47 
Concludes a peace with Stephen . 1153 

Henry II. crowned . “49 Dee. 11 54 
Constitutions of Clarendon enacted. Jan. 1164 
Arrogance of Becket ; murdered 29 Dee. 1170 
Conquest of Ireland TI7I, L172 


England divided into six cir cuits for the administr a= 


tion of justice. , 1176 
English laws digested by Glanville, about . 4 1181 
~Ricuarp I. crowned . 3 SPEe 1189 
He joins the crusades . 11QI 


Defeats Saladin . e 
Made prisoner by duke of Austria, « and sold to 
Henry VI. of Germany ; VJ OCiEaess 


1192 


Ransomed for about 300,000l. . 1104 

JOHN crowned A g “May, 1199 
Normandy lost to England : - 1204 
England put under an interdict . . 1208 


Magna Charta granted : i . 15 June, tars 


Henry III. crowned . 28 Oct. 1216 
The Barons’ war (which see) 1262-8 
The first regular parliament. : + 6 2265 

Epwarp I. crowned 20 Nov. 1272 
Wales subdued, united to England | - 1283 
Death of Roger Bacon (1292 


Scotland subdued, 1296 ; revolts . 
Epwarp II. crowned . 
Defeated by Bruce at Bannockburn _ 


‘ + « 1207 
- 8July, 1307 
24 June, 1314 


Insurrection of the barons against his favourites 1308, 
1315, 1325 

Epwarp III. crowned : « 25dan. 1327 
Defeat of the Scots at Hallidown-hill . ‘ aa) Jeeags 
Invades France ; victorious at Crecy . 26 Aug. 1346 
Takes Calais . . : PER EEG, 
Order of the Garter instituted . £ - 1349 
Victory at Poictiers . : 19 Sept. 1356 
Peace of Bretigny_ . . 8 May, 1360 
Law pleadings in English . 1362 


Ricuarp II. crowned. 
Insurrection of Wat Tyler supp essed . 
Death of Wickliffe . 3 . 1385 

Henry IV. crowned 30 ‘Sept. 1399 
Order of the Bath instituted by Henry Pie a Shoe 
Insurrection of the Percies and the Welsh . 1402-5 

Henry V. crowned 21 March, 1413 
France invaded by Henry V. who gains the battle of 


. 22June, 1377 
15 June, 1381 


Agincourt . ..25 Oct. 1415 
Treaty of Troyes ; the French crown gained - 1420 
Henny VI. crowned at Paris Dee. 1430 


Appearance of the maid of Orleans ; the > conquests in 


France lost, except Calais s . - 1429-32 
Cade’s insurrection. June, 1450 
War of the Roses (see Roses and Battles) © - 1455-71 


Epwarp IV. deposes Henry VI. 
Printing introduced by Caxton . - 
Epwanrp V. accession . 
Murdered in the Tower (soon after) _ : 
RicHarp III. deposes Edward V. 
Valuable statutes enacted Hs f aie an 859" 
Hewry VII. accession; Richard defeated and 
slain at Bosworth Field . 22 Aug. 1485 
Yeomen of the guard, the first appearance of a 
standing army in England instituted 


" ‘ee at 
9 April, ee 


: a, pen Ee 
25 June, ,, 


Henry inarries Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. . 1486 
Insurrection of Lambert Simnel quelled . 1486-7 
Court of Star-Chamber instituted : 1487 


_Insurrection of Perkin Warbeck quelled ry 1492-8 


Death of prince Arthur . 
Henry VIII. accession . E : 22 Aprile: I 
Rise of Wolsey ; 
Henry VIII.’s interview with Francis I. at ‘Ardreay 
(see ‘‘ Field of the Cloth of Gold”) . 4-25 June, 3 
First map of England drawn by G. Lilly, about 4 
Henry VIII. becomes ‘‘ Defender of the Faith”. . 1 
Fall of Wolsey ; he dies. - 29 Nov. 3 
Henry VIII. marries Anne Boleyn arvately. Noy. 
1532 or January 1533; divorced from Catherine, © 
23 May, 1 
Henry VIII. styled ‘‘ Head ofthe Church” .  .3 
The pope’s authority in England is abolished . . 


Sir Thomas More beheaded J ; - 6July, 1 
Queen Anne Boleyn beheaded x9 May, x 
Queen Jane Seymour dies ‘ es Oct. x 
Monasteries suppressed ; ‘ 3 he jam T 
Statute of Six Articles passed . 1 


Abbots of Glastonbury, Reading, &e. executed |. 
The first authorised edition of the Bible (Cranmer ) 


printed . é 2 
Cromwell, lord Essex, beheaded . 
Anne of Cleves divorced . = . ae J iy, 


Queen Catherine Howard beheaded . 
The title of ‘‘ king of Ireland” confirmed to the nah 
lish sovereigns . : bi 
Henry marries Catherine Parr . ‘ . r2duly, 
Epwarp VI. accession, 28 Jan. ; pron the 
Reformation (Somerset, protector) | 
Book of Common Prayer authorised 
Somerset deprived of power, 1549 ; beheaded. 
Mary, accession, 6 July ; restores popery; as 
Execution of lady Jane Grey and her friends . 
Mary marries Philip of Spain ; pete the Pro- 
testants 4 5 
Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer burnt . or 555 and 1 
Calais re-taken by the French . . 7 dan. 1 
ELIZABETH, accession ; the chureh of England 
re-established . 17 Nov. 
Mary, queen of Scots, lands in England, I sae exe- 


cuted . é : 8 Feb. 1 
The Spanish armada repulsed . * . . July, x 
Devereux, earl of Essex, beheaded 25 Feb. 1 


James I. accession ; ; union of the two crowns — 


24 March, 1 
Styled ‘‘ king of Great Britain” bone f iw 2 ee Oct. I 
The Gunpowder Plot Nov. 1 


The present translation of the Bible completed ; ; 


Baronets first created ; 4 As F ove ay, 
The Overbury murder... ©. ¢ x5 Sept. 
Shakespeare dies . . 23 April, 
Raleigh beheaded . aaleda 29 Oct. 
Book of Sports published z 2 24 a 
CHARLES I, accession . A . 27 March, 
Death of lord Bacon . ; 4 . g April, : 
Duke of Buckingham assassinated , 23 Aug. 


Hampden’s trial respecting ‘‘ ship money ” 
Contest between the king and parliament ; impeach 
ment and execution of lord Strafford . 


Attempted ‘‘arrest of the five members” 4 , Jan. 
Civil war begins ; see Battles . 4 - 23 Oct. 
Archbishop Laud beheaded . . . 10 Jal. : 
Charles defeated at Naseby 3 . 14 June, © 
He flees to the Scotch, 5 May ; is given up, 2r Sept. : 
Execution of Charles I. 4 . 30 Jan, 
Cromwell’s victory at Worcester. 3 Sept. 1 
OLIVER CROMWELL protector of the Countian 
wealth ‘ a : . 16 Dec. 
Naval victories of Blake 2 ‘ 6 I 


RICHARD CROMWELL, protector . 
Richard resigns 25 May, 
CHARLEs IT. : monarchy re-established, 29 May, 
Act of uniformity pease church of England re- 
stored. . - A : 4 
The great plague’ 
The great tire of London é 
Disgrace of lord Clarendon . 
Secret treaty with France signed at Dover 
Death of John Milton : . 
Oates’s ‘‘ popish plot ” creates a panic 38 
Sir Edmond Berry Godfrey found murdered, 170 
Many Roman Catholics executed . 
The Habeas Corpus act, for protecting ‘English sub-4 
jects against false arrest and imprisonment, ee, ; 
3 = 


"3 Sept. : 


2 3 Sept. 
Novy. 

May, 

7 Noy 


ENGLAND. 


dlent reaction, many protestants executed ; Lon- 
DEO ee 
zye-house plot ;” William, lord Russell (executed 
2 July), and Algernon Sydney executed. 
- James II. accession . : 2 a 6 Feb. 
tke of Monmouth’s rebellion defeated at Sedge- 
noor,6July; heis beheaded - x5 July, 


quittalofthe seven bishops . . 30June, 
idiecation of James lI. . ; * Set aeC: 
» WitxiAM IIT. and Mary proclaimed by the con- 

vention parliament. 3 = 13 Feb. 
tional debt begins . 


nk of England incorporated. : 27 July, 
‘ath of the queen regnant, Mary . - 28 Dec, 
‘ue of Ryswick . : / . ‘ r te 
ath of James II. inexile. R - 16 Sept. 
- ANNE, accession . ; s F 8 March, 
‘tory of Marlborough at Blenheim . 2 Aug. 
ion of the two kingdoms , i * - r May, 
heverell riots Jae 3 = 4 = ‘ 
aty of Utrecht, advantageous to Great Britain 
| rz April, 
GeorGE I. of Hanover, accession . . r Aug. 

: Scots’ rebellion quelled ; 
(th-sea bubble. ce sabe = ¢ ; : 
th of the duke of Marlborough A 16 June, 
er of the Bath revived (which see), . Pits 
| GEORGE II, accession . : ¥ rr June, 
ith of Newton . , <) wer. 20 Marghy 
age Il. at the victory of Dettingen . 16 June, 
ond Scots’ rebellion: prince Charles-Edward 
ins Edinburgh, 17 Sept. ; victor at Prestonpans, 
| az Sept. 
‘ory at Falkirk, 18 Jan. ; defeated totally at Cul- 
den. 2 ‘ 3 : : . 16 April, 
th of prince Frederick Louis, son of George II. 
ad father of George III. A - 20 March, 
style introduced into England, 3 Sept. (made 14) 
‘en years’ war begins , s ‘ . May, 
“quest of India begins,’under colonel (afterwards 
‘@muve(see India) 2 2 ww gs 
ory and death of general Wolfe (see Quebec), 
| GEorGE IIT. accession a 5 ates Wet: 
| Marriage with Charlotte Sophia, of Mecklen- 
irg Strelitz, 8 Sept. ; crowned s 22 Sept. 
2e of Paris; Canada gained . L - 10 Feb. 
of Man annexed to Great Britain ; : F 
th of the Old Pretender, the “‘ chevalier de St. 
“20rge”” 4 “hay . 30 Dec, 


al marriage act passed ‘ : : ‘ 
rican war begins (see United States). see 
thofearlof.Chatham . x tr May, 
') Popery”’ riots . : . 2-7 June, 


Jration of America from England . - 30 Nov. 
garet Nicholson’s attempt on the life of 
vorge IIT. . c 5 : 5 : 2 Aug. 
lof Warren Hastings begins : - 13 Feb. 
th of the Young Pretender, at Rome, 3 March, 
king’s illness made known. : 12 Oct, 
ecovers, and goes to St. Paul’s to make thanks- 
ing . - : : ; 5 . 23 April, 
|} Coalition against France. < 26 June, 
-2as Corpus act suspended . : - 23 May, 
e’svictory . 4 3 J s . 1 June, 
| lage of the prince of Wales with the princess 
| roline of Brunswick . ~ F - 8 April, 
en Hastings acquitted . 4 2s April, 
ess Charlotte of Wales born. . 9 Jan: 
‘payments suspended . : : 25 Feb. 
“L.of Edmund Burke . ‘ - - gduly, 
) rebellion . ; : ‘ ‘ - May, 
as Corpus act again suspended, : ane 
-e of the Nile ; Nelson victor . P . 1 Aug. 
| eld’s attempt on the king’s life. - 15 May, 
1 of Great Britain with Ireland .. - zdJan, 
in’s victory at Copenhagen 2 . 2 April, 
as Corpus act again suspended . 1g April, 
»of Amiens concluded —. : £ r Oct. 


-igainst France under Bonaparte . - 18 May, 
-u’s victory and death at Trafalgar . 2x Oct. 
of Mr, Pitt hae 3 i . 23 Jan. 
icate investigation” (which sce) . May, 
_ Melvilleimpeached, 29 April; acquitted r2 June, 
tof Charles James Fox . ; - 13 Sept. 
8 in council against Berlin decree . ~7 Jan. 


ition of the slave trade by parliament, 25 Mar. 
ty and death of sir J. Moore. (See Corunna) 
16 Jan. 


293 ENGLAND. 


1681 


1807 


9? 


1809 


Duke of York impeached by col. Wardle 
Jubilee celebrating king’s accession . 


- Jan, 1809 
BETOCEA aap 5 


Unfortunate Walcheren expedition . Aug.-Nov. ,, 


Sir Francis Burdett’s arrest, and riots 
Death of princess Amelia ; king’s malady 


Great commercial embarrassment. e 
REGEeNT—The prince of Wales 

Luddite riots : 7 : - 

Assassination of Mr. Perceval, premier 


Earl of Liverpool premier p gJune, ,, 
War with America commenced , «78 Nel aay 
Peace with France, &. . . . = - «zqtApril, 28r4° 
Visit of the emperor of Russia and king of Prussia 

to England . ‘ : 4 7 June; 55 
Centenary of the house of Hanover . TADS n Ss 
Peace with America (treaty of Ghent) 24, Decws3 
Battle of Waterloo (close of French war), 18 June, 1815. 
Princess Charlotte marries prince Leopold, of Saxe- 

Coburg A fe : : . 2 May, 1816 
Death of R. B. Sheridan g only, 53 
Spa-fields meeting (which see) aa 2 DOL.) vay 
Green-bag inquiry (which see) 2 Feb. 1817 
Habeas Corpus act suspended . 24 Feb. ,, 
Cash payments resumed . 5 i 22Sept. ,, 
Princess Charlotte dies in childbirth . 6 Nov. 


Queen Charlotte dies at Kew 

Queen Victoria born 4 : . - 

Manchester reform meeting (Peterloo) 

Duke of Kent dies. 3 : “ 
GEORGE IV. accession 


6 April, 1810 


returns, 
2 INOVe Ese 
Decit 33 
-5 Feb. 18x11 
INOVeE 


" a1 May, x8x2 


17 Nov. 1818 
24 May, 1819. 
TO) AMS Hi ,; 
23 Jan. 1820 
2gJdan. ,, 


Cato-street conspirators arrested, 23 Feb. executed, 


xe May; 755 


Trial of queen Caroline . . 19 Aug. to 10 Nov. 


Coronation of George IV. 7 3 
Queen Caroline dies at Hammersmith 
Lord Byron dies . 
Commercial panic 
Duke of York dies f : : 
Mr. Canning, premier, 30 April ; dies 
Battle of Navarino ; 
Roman Catholic Relief bill passed . 
Political panic in London ;—riots 
Wixtram IV. accession. : : 
Mr. Huskisson killed at the opening of tl 
pool and Manchester railway . 
Grey administration formed . 
King opens new London bridge . 
The cholera morbus in England 4 
Reform bill rejécted by the lords, 7 Oc 
Bristol riots . 4 : h : 
English Reform act passed . : 


. 1g July, 1821 


TAU SS ise 
19 April, 1824 
: . 1825-6 
5 Jan. 1827 
8 Aug. rr 
s 20, OCb. 4/34 
13 April, 1829 


Nov.’ 53 
26 June, 1830 
1e Liver- 


DS MCD alse 


NOVi Ta, 
Aug. 1831 


"26 Oct. ,, 


t.: fatal 
29 Oct. 
7 June, 1832 


Assault on William IV. by a discharged pensioner at 


Ascot. 4 : 
Sir Walter Scott dies 
S. T. Coleridge dies . : 
Slavery ceases in the colonie 
Corporation reform act passed . 


19 June, ,, 
21 Sept: | 3; 
25 July, 1834 
i DAAUS. sys 
9 Sept. 1835 


VICTORIA, accession ; Hanover separated from 


Great Britain OE 
Coronation of queen Victoria _ 


20 June, 1837 
28 June, 1838 


Beginning of war with China. “ . March, 1839 


Penny postage begins sagt Be - 5 

Marriage of the queen with prince Albert 
Coburg (see p. 2G9) : 4 

Oxford’s assault on the queen . 

Prince of Wales born ; 

King of Prussia visits England 

John Francis fires at the queen . 

Bean presents a pistol at her . 

Income tax act passed ; aap ye 

Queen embarks for Scotland (rst visit) . 

Peace of Nankin (with China) : 

Death of duke of Sussex 


: 29 AUg. |); 
Dec. 


"ox April, 1843 


to Jan. 1840 
of Saxe- 


“ITO MODs) vo, 


ro June, ,, 
o Nov. 1841 
24 Jan. 1842 


- 30 May, ,, 


3 July, ,, 
Aug. ” 


Queen’s visit to the Orleans family at Chateau dvEu, 


Emperor of Russia visits England 
King Louis Philippe’s visit A 
Tractarian or Puseyite controversy 
Anti-corn-law agitation 

Queen’s visit to Germany . mht Ar 
Peel’s new tariff, 1845 ; railway mania . 
Commercial panic A < ‘ 
Corn laws repealed 2 é : 
Chartist demonstration in London . 
Cholera re-appears in England in . ‘ 
Queen embarks on her visit to Ireland 
Adelaide, queen dowager, dies. - 


March, 1846 
26 June, 


. ro April, 1848 


1848 and 1849 
r Aug. 5, 
ane) Wemyss 


ENGLAND. 294 ENGLAND. 
** Exhibition of 1851” announced . 3 Jan. 1850 | The Jewish Disabilities bill passed . . 23 July, 
Death of Wordsworth (aged 80) 23 April, ,, The India bill passed 2 Aug. 
Pate’s assault on.the queen a7 dune, ,, The queen visits Birmingham, 15 June: Sherbourne 
Death of Sir Robert Peel (aged 2) a 2/July,- "5 4, 5 Aug. ; the princess royal (at Potsdam), re 
Duke of Cambridge dies S due tas, Aug. &e. ; and Leeds. Sept. 
Queen’s visit to Belgium ar Aug. ,, Excitement about the confessional ; public meet- 


Great excitement occasioned by the pope’ s establish- 
ment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy in England, 


Nov. 

Siath igi of United Kingdom (see Population) 
(27,637,761) . 30 March, 
The fir; “a %, Great Exhibition” opened I May, 
Australian gold arrives é Dec. 
Death of the poet Thomas Moore 26 Feb. 


John Camden Neild, an eccentric miser, bequeathed 
about 250,000l..to ‘the queen ; he died 30 Aug. 
Slight earthquake at Liverpool, &c. . - 9 Nov. 
Death of Wellington (aged 83), Sele 14} ea 
funeral . a 8 Nov. 
Camp at Chobham . “a4 I eis Aug. 
Death of sir Charles Napier, conqueror of Seinde, 
29 Aug. 
English and French fleets enter Bosphorus, 22 Oct. 
Protocol signed between England, France, Austria, 
and Prussia, for re- establishment of peace between 
Russia and Turkey 5 Dec. 
Many meetings on eastern question, favourable to 
Turkey . 5 Sept. to Dec. 
Great strike at Preston ; 14, 972 hands unemployed 
at one time : . 15 Oct. 1853, to x May, 
Queen reviews Baltic fleet A . 1x March, 
Treaty of alliance between England, France, and 
Turkey signed . I2 March,. 
War declared against Russia (see Russo-Turkish Wa r) 


28 March, 
Fast day on account of the war 26 April, 
Marquis of Anglesey dies . 28 May, 
King of Portugal visits England °. . June, 
Crystal Palace opened by the queen io June, 


Cholera prevails in the south and west of London, 

Aug. and Sept. 
Thanksgiving for abundant harvest t Oct. 
Great explosion and fire at Gateshead and Newcastle, 


6 Oct. 
Meeting of Parliament E 12 Dec. 
Resignation of Aberdeen ministry . 29 Jan. 
Formation of Palmerston ministry Feb. 
Death of Joseph Hume (aged 78) 20 Feb. 
Sebastopol inquiry committee named 23 Feb. 


16 to 21 April, 


_ Loan of 16 millions agreed to . April, 
Distribution of Crimean medals 18 May, 
Metropolitan cattle market opened . . 13 June, 


Agitation and rioting concerning Sunday trading 

bill, which is withdrawn % 2 July, 
The queen and prince visit Paris 18 Aug. 
Peace with Russia proclaimed, 19 April; thanks- 


giving day, 4 May ; illuminations, &c. 29 May, 
War with China(which see) . ‘ ana Oct; 
War with Persia (which see) Nov. 
Mutiny of Indian army begins (see I ndia) . March, 


Dissolution of parliament, 2x1 March; ney pire lia- 
ment meets . pril, 
Death of duchess of Gloucester (aged 81), fae iat of 
George ITI.’s children 30 April, 
Opening of the Fine Arts exhibition at Manchester, 
5 May, 
Educational conference in London, prince Albert j in 
the chair 22 June, 
Victoria crosses (which see) distributed by the queen 
in Hyde-park i 40 5 une, 
Meetings for relief of sufferers by the mutiny in 


India [by 15 Nov. 260,o000l. raised] 25 Aug. 
Great commercial panic ; relieved by suspension of 

Bank Charter Act of 1844 12 Nov. 
Parliament meets .. 3 Dec. 


Marriage of princess roy ral to prince Fr eerie Wil- 
liam of Prussia ‘ i Jan. 
Excitement respecting attempted Aasneuiaation of 
Louis Napoleon, 14 Jan. ; indiscreet addresses of 
French colonels, published. - 27 Jan. 
**Conspiracy to Murder” bill (intr oduced es lord 
Palmerston, 8 Feb.) rejected, 19 Feb. ; Palmerston 
ministry resigns . 22 Feb. 
Derby-Disraeli ‘administration formed 26 Feb. 
Dr. Simon Bernard acquitted of conspiracy against 
the life of-Louis Napoleon . 17 April, 


1856 


>» 
»”»> 
1857 
3) 
3? 


99 


1858 


>? 


ba 


~~ 
~~ 


ings held against it 12d uly and 18 Sept. 
The Association for the Promotion of Social Science 
meet at Liverpool . - 12 Oct, 
Excitement respecting the “‘Ttalian war ; proclama- 
tion for manning the navy . 30 April, 
Thanksgiving for suppression of Indian sth) 1 May, 
Declaration of neutrality of England . . 12 May, 
Proclamation for the organisation of volunteer rifle 
corps: many formed . . May-Oct. 
The Derby ministry defeated ‘on the Reform bill ; 
dissolve parliament, 23 April; again defeated, 
they resign 1z June; the Palmerston-Russell ad- 
ministration formed s r - 18 June, 
The Handel commemoration . . 20, 22, 24 June, 
The income-tax increased to oer for the defences 
of the country . . duly, 
Lord Macaulay dies (aged 59) - es Dee. 
Commercial treaty with France, signed 23 Jan. 
approved by parliament . 4 Marcle 
Sir Charles Barry dies (aged 65) : hie SEs May, 
The queen reviews 18,000 volunteers in Hyde 
3 June, 
National rifle ‘shooting match at Wimbledon (see 
Volunteers) : 7 July, 
The earl of Derby reviews about 11, 000 LancasHe 
volunteers at Knowsley . . r Sept. 
The queen and prince visit their daughter i in oe 
Se 
Peace with China signed 24 Oil 
Thos. Cochrane, earl of Dundonald, dies (age 82) 
Oct. 
Prince of Wales visits Canada and United Mtates, 


24 July-20 Oct.; returns . : 15 Noy, | 
Severe cold (see Cold) . s Dee. 1860, and Jan. 
Charter granted for Exhibition of 1862  . 14 Feb. 
Death of duchess of Kent (aged 75) 16 March, 


Excitement about ‘‘ Essays and Reviews” . . 
Seventh census taken (29,192,419) . 8 April, 
King of Sweden and his son visit London Au 
Great excitement through capt. Wilkes (of U. 
navy) forcibly taking Messrs. Slidell and Mason 
from the Royal British Mail steamer Trent (see 
United States) . 8 Nov. 
Death of the. prince ‘consort of “typhoid fever, 


duration 21 days,” 14 Dee. ; buried (see Albert 
Memorial) : 23 Dec. 
The United States’ government release Mesa | 
Slidell and Mason . . 28 Dee. 
Second great International Exhibition ope by the 
duke of Cambridge . . 1 May, 
Inundations in Norfolk (see Levels) . . May, | 


Marriage of princess Alice to Louis of Hesse, 1 July, 
Prince Alfred declared king of Greece at Athens 
(throne declined) . + 23 Oct. 
Final closing of international exhibition . 1 5 Nov. 
Remains of the prince consort transferred to the 

mausoleum at Frogmore . 18 Dee. 
Great distress in the cotton manufacturing districts 
begins, April: contributions received, central re- 
lief fund, 407,830/. ; Mansion-house fund, 236,9261. 


20 Dee. 
Rupture with Brazil F ‘ . dan. 
Prince Alfred elected king of Gr eece . Feb. 


Princess Alexandra of Denmark enters London, 
7 March; married to the prince of Wales, 
ro March, 
The British, French, and Austrian governments re- 
monstrate with Russia on cruelties in ae , 
April, | 
Inauguration of the Great Exhibition memorial to 
the prince consort in the Horticultural gardens, 
London . rr June, 
Arrival of captains Grant and Speke from exploring © 
the source of the Nile June, 
Great decrease of distress in cotton districts Oct. | 
Earthquake in central and N. W. England - 6 Oct. 
The government declines the deep emperor’ 8 pro- 


posal for a congress of sovereigns . : Noy. 
Death of William’ Thackeray (aged 52). 24 Dec. 
Birth of prince Albert-Victor of Wales . 8 Jan. 
Final judgment of the judicial committee the 


privy council that the government had no autho- 


Nite BG \ ei. 


ENGLAND. 


295 


ENGLAND. 


rity to seize the Alexandra (Confederate) steamer 


8 Feb. 1864 


aribaldi’s visitto England. . «4 3-27 April, 
he Ionian isles made over to Greece x June, 
uropean conference at London on the Seilidawigs 
‘Holstein question ; no result, 24 April—2zs5 June, 
reat excitement through the murder of Mr. Briggs 
in a first-class carriage on the North-London rail- 


way g July, 
reat explosion of ‘gunpowder at the Belvedere 
m ine, near Woolwich . ‘ wax Oct: 
eath of John Leech (aged 47). . 29 Oct. 


sath of Richard Cobden (aged 61) 
‘ince George of Wales born . - 3dune, 
»signation of lord-chancellor Westbury 4 duly, 
pl election ; majority for Palmerston adminis- 


tratio: ; - roJuly, &e. 
sit of aial.clsKader ; “departs 


6 Aug. 
evalence of a cattle plague, J une-Oct. ; royal 
commission appointed ; met . 10 Oct. 
iglish fleet visits Cherbourg, 15 Aug. ; French fleet 
visits Portsmouth. 29, 30 Aug. 


ne art and industrial exhibitions Pnekt in Lon- 


jon and the provinces . - July-Sept. ,, 
ath of lord Palmerston, 18 Oct. ; public funeral 
27 Oct... 5, 
rl Russell premier 3 a NOVEras> 
portant commercial treaty ‘with Austria 4 he 
76; Deci 3; 
Ww parliament opened by the queen . - 6 Feb. 1866 
‘w reform bill introduced by Mr. Gladstone, 
| a3 Mar..% 3 
mmercial panic in London . . 11 May, et seq. ,, 
vernational botanical congress opened . 22 May, ,, 


feat of the government. on the reform bill, 
“8 June ; resignation of ministers 26 June, 
Triage of princess Helena to prince Christian of 
jchleswig-Holstein  . 5 July, 
® third Derby cabinet formed . . 6July, 
@ Atlantic telegraph completely laid, 9 mes- 
ages sent to lord Stanley é 7 July, 
‘2 cable of 1865 recovered, and ponitanmenion 
'stablished with Valentia, 2Sept. ; and with New- 
oundland i 8 Sept. 
jected attack of Fenians on ‘Chester prevented 
‘y the authorities z 
2 queen laid foundation of the Albert hall of arts 
t §. Kensington . ; 5 . 20 May, 
‘it of the viceroy of Egypt . . 6-18 July, 
it of the Belgian volunteers (see Belgium), 

to-22 July, 

‘it of the Sultan (see Turkey) . » 12-23 July, 
‘arly Years of the Prince Consort,” published 
ndof . s . July, 

| v Reform act passed (see Reform) . - 15 Aug. 
ie Faraday, natural philosopher (nearly i) died 


25 

i iaektions for the expedition to Abyssinia lee 
byssinia) . Aug. 
ian outrages ; rescue of prisoners at Manchester 
"ee Fenians) . . 18 Sept. 
od of bishops at Lambeth (see Pan-Anglican) 

24-27 Sept. 
‘ting of parliament respecting Abyssinian war, 
19 Noy. 
‘fan explosion at Clerkenwell prison, Lanon, 


cial constables called for ; 113,674 (in Ae U re) 
‘vorn in by .. 28 Jan. 
‘aves from our Journal in Scotland, ” &e., by me 
teen, published. . 
ignation of earl of Derby, 25 Feb. ; the Distuel 
‘inistry formed . ‘ g Feb. 
: a een holds a drawing-room again I2 Racahs 
| Gladstone’s resolution for disestablishing the 
| ish church ; adopted by the commons, 30 April, 
‘th of lord Br ougham, aged 89_—i«yx. 7 May, 
val of the duke of adinburgh from hcatisiia 
| 26 June, 
Land Scotch reform acts passed 13 July, 
\ tly 21,000 extra deaths attributed to the hot 
_mmer (23 July said to be the hottest) 
E x July—3o Sept. 
-iament dissolved 11 N ov., hew parliament meets 
to Dee. 
gnation of Disraeli ministry, 2 Dec. ; Gladstone 
inistry take office . 9 Dec. 
vention with the United States ‘respecting the 


> 
3) 


>? 


2 April, 1865 


> 
Bd 


a) 
9? 


” 


2? 


11, 12 Feb. 1867 


> 


1868 


” 


- 
~ 


> 


. 


Alabama claim signed (afterwards rejected by the 
States) . 


New parliament meets for business 16 Feb. 
Irish Church bill introduced into the commons, 


14 Jan. 1869 


>» 


1 March ; royal assent. 26 J uly, of 
The earl of Derby dies (aged 70). 23 Octaias 
Parliament meets . . 8 Feb. 1870 
Charles Dickens dies (aged 58) . - gdJune, ,, 


Earl of Clarendon dies (aged 70) 27 June, 
Irish land bill brought in, r5 Feb., received royal 
assent < 8 July, 
Neutrality in Franco- Prussian war (which see) pro- 
claimed 19 July, 
2,000,0001. voted to i increase the army by 20,000 Men. 
rt Aug. 
Foreign enlistment act passed, 1x Aug. ; ; stringent 
proclamation of neutrality issued g Aug. 
Parliament prorogued Io Aug. 
Treaty with Prussia and France for nena of 
Belgium signed xu zr Aug. 
Long “drought : bad hay harvest : good wheat har- 
vest a Mar.—Aug. 
Earl Granville Yepels the charge of violating neu- 
‘tralities made by the Prussian government, 
1-15 Sept. 
The queen’s consent to the marriage of the princess 
Louise to the marquis of Lorne announced 
24 Oct. 
Foot and mouth disease prevalent among Raeue 
Aug. —Nov. 
Election of elementary school-boards Noy. 
Excitement through the Russian note respecting 
the Black sea (see Russia) ; A 
Foundation of new Post-office laid 
Resignation of Mr. Bright announced 
Parliament meets. 
Marriage of the princess “Louise and the raat of 
Lorne - 21 March, 
Royal Albert Hall, Kensington, opened by the queen 
29 March, 
Eighth census taken (31,817,108). 3 April, 
Death of sir John F. Herschel, astronomer and 
philosopher (aged 79) . ‘ t May, 
Death of George Grote, historian of Greece eed 77) 
18 June, 
First annual International Exhibition at South Ken- 
sington, opened z May, closed . 30 Sept. 
Black Sea conference met 17 Jan., closed (neutrali- 
sation of Black Sea abrogated, &c.) . 13 March, 
Disestablishment of the Church of England bill re- 
jected in the commons (374—8g), 1 May ; Le: 
ment prorogued . 2r Aug. 
Illness of the: queen at “Balmoral, 4 Sept. ; recovery 
3 Sept. 
Serious illness of the prince of Wales from typhoid 
fever, Dec. ; began to recover ‘ Dec. 
Letter from the queen and princess to the eopte: 
thanking them for sympathy . 26 Dec 
Thanksgivings for recovery of prince of Wales 


9 Feb. 1871 


>? 


>» 


9 


7 


PP 


bP) 


+P) 


»” 


a> 


21 Jan. 1872 


Excitement respecting the American claims under 
the treaty of Washington ‘ Feb. 
Meeting of parliament . . ~ . 6 Feb. 
The queen, prince and princess of Wales, and court 
and parliament go in state to St. Paul’s ; national 
thanksgiving for recovery of the prince of Wales ; 
London decorated ; illuminations, &e. ; a success- 
ful day . .  27-Feb. 
The queen in a public letter, gazetted I March, says, 
“‘Words are too weak for the queen to say how 
very deeply touched and gratified she has been 
by the immense enthusiasm and affection ex- 
hibited towards her dear son and herself,” aes 
e€ 
The qneen, while entering Buckingham Palace) 
threatened by Arthur O’ ‘Connor, aged about 18, 
who presents an unloaded pistol, with a paper to 
be signed ; immediately apprehended . 29 Feb. 
The queen sailed for Germany, and stayed several 
weeks. ‘ . _ 23 March—7 April, 
Strikes among agricultural labourers in Warwick- 
shire and other counties ; union formed, 29 March, 
Arthur O’Connor pleads guilty (sentenced to im- 
prisonment and flogging) . 9 April, 
Correspondence between the British and rie ican 
governments respecting the claims for indirect 
losses, which the former rejects . 3 Feb.—May, 
Supplemental treaty proposed ; accepted by U.S. 


+? 
a> 


he k 
: (Ave e : 
, - | 

ENGLAND. 296 ENGLAND. 

senate, 25 May ; further discussion in parliament ; Warlike policy of the ministry ; ; resignation of lord 

unsatisfactory: correspondence; the U.S. con- Carnarvon, 24 Jan. ; and earl of Derby (see Disraeli 

gress adjourns . ro June, 1872 Administration) ‘ 28 March, 18 
Strikes among builders and other trades . dune, ,;, Message of the queen, respecting calling out the 
Final meeting of arbitrators ; damages awarded ; reserves, &c., 2 April; adopted by aera 

see Alabama . Bike a Sept. oS April, , 

commercial treaty ‘with France ional at eee errs? phiceiver 4 ee La — of 

London : 5 Nov. an Stefano, 2 April; moderate reply of Gor 
Continued rain ; floods in Midland purities” Se Dec, I schakoff, printed 4 -- ro April, , 
Death of Edward Bulwer Lord Lytton, orator, poet, Indian troops ordered to Malta, about . 17 April, \ | 

and novelist, aged 66 . 18 dan. 1873 | Censured by the opposition ; debate in commons 5 
Strikes among colliers, Jan. : great dearth of coal ; for government, 347 ; against, 226 20-23 May, , 

the best, 52s. a ton in London . igs Feb. » | Harl Russell died, aged 85 .28 May , 

esignation of Mr. Gladstone on account of a defeat The ministry announce the meeting of a European 

in the Commons on the Dublin university bill congress on the eastern question, to meet on 13 

(287—284), 13 March; resumes office, 17 March, ,, June; the earl of Beaconsfield and the marquis 
Visit of the shah of Persia 18 June—s July, ,, of Salisbury to attend for England. (See Berlin), 
Proposed marriage of duke of Edinburgh to grand- if : ry pide ry une, , 

duchess Marie of Russia announced by the queen, Anglo-Turkish convention (see Turkey) signe \ 
17 July ; Annuity bill for the duke passed, 5 Aug. ,, Berli hich 45 une, ,; 
Judicature Act passed. > 3 Ang.” ;, The conference meets at Berlin (which see) 13 aay 
Severely contested elections : conservative reaction, treaty signed . Y, 4 
Sept.-Oct. ,, 10,000, a year voted for the duke of Connasate for 

: his proposed marriage with ee Louise Mar- | 

Marriage of duke and duchess of Edinburgh, 23 Jan. 1874 garet of Prussia . ; os July, , 
‘fay soya dissolved . a rhe 26 rs egal td, Debate on the Berlin “treaty, in the coma : 
eneral election; conservative “majori y about 50, great speech of Mr. Gladstone, 30 July ; majority 

Feb. ; Gladstone ministry resigns, 17 Feb. ; Dis- for government ( 38195) 29 July—3 Aug. 

raeli ministr y formed . or Feb. » | Parliament pr athe vi 36 Atle ; 
Close of the Tichborne trial (see Tr ials) . 28 Feb. ,, Meeting of parliament on a seonnbat ‘Afghan war, | 
Meeting of parliament . 5 March, ,, 5 Dec. , 
The duke and duchess of Edinbur eh enter London, Majority for ministers on vote of censure, lords (2or- 
x2 March, ,, 65), ro Dec.; commons (328-227)  . 13-14 Dec. , 
Sir Garnet Wolseley returns from his successful Death of princess Alice by diphitvent® at Darmstadt, 

expedition against the Ashantees —. 21 March, ,, atter attendance on her husband, the grand-duke, 
Visit of the czar of Russia. . . 13-21 May, ,, and children, 7.30 4.M. —. 14 Dec. , 
Public worship regulation act passed 7 Aug. ,, | Severe winter, maly persons unemployed Dec. , 
Fruitful season ; excellent corn crop . Aug.-Sept. ,, | Parliament adjourned (to 13 Feb.,) .  . 17 Dec. , 
The queen receives a testimonial of gratitude from The Queen in a letter thanks har subjects for their — 
_ the French nation for British assistance during sympathy with her loss of a dear child, who — 

the war (see France) . - 3Dec. ,, was “a bright example of loving tenderness, cou- 
Meeting of parliament 5 Feb. 1875 | —rageous devotion, and self-sacrifice toduty,” dated 
Moody and Sankey, American reviv -alists, aie ive in 26 Dec. , 

London, 9 March; sail from Liver pool (see Re- Edward Byrne Madden (?. lunatic) arrested for — 

vivals) . -4Aug. ,, threatening to attack the Queen in letters to the _ 
Parliament prorogued _ 13 Aug. » Home Office, 12 Dee. 1878; judged insane, 13 Jan. 18 

7 ; 
Railway jubilee at Darlington _ . 27S8ept. ,, | 1,500,000. voted for Zulu war. 27 Feb. , 


Departure of the prince of Wales for India, rz Oct. 
The khedive’s shares in the Suez canal bought by 
the British government (see a rt Nov., 
announced . 25 Nov. 
Parliament opened by the queen in person, 8 Feb. 
The queen sails for Germany (all her sons abroad), 
28 March ; returns 5 22 April, 
Royal titles ’pill received royal assent 27 April, 
The queen proclaimed ‘‘empress of India,” 1 May, 
Arrival of prince of Wales at Portsmouth, 11 May, 
Parliament prorogued . . 15 Aug. 
Great heat ; failure in fruit Crops $ ; harvest beneath 
average. . middle Aug. 
Great excitement and many public meetings respect- 
. ing the Turkish atrocities in Bulgaria, Aug.-Oct. 
Mr. Gladstone’s ‘‘ Horrors in Bulgaria wt published, 
6 Sept. 
National conference against war ie defend Turkey, 
St. James’s hall | : apouDee: 
Parliament opened by the queen . 8 Feb. 
Proclamation of neutrality in Russo-Turkish war, 
30 April, 
Debate on Mr. Gladstone’s resolutions bai That 
this house found much cause for dissatisfaction 
and complaint in the conduct of the Ottoman 
Porte, with regard to the despatch written by the 
earl of Derby, 21 Sept. 1876, and relating to the 
massacres in Bulgaria, (for the resolution, 225 ; 
against, 354) H x ; 3 - 7-14 May, 
Fleet sent to Besika bay . . 3 aly, 
Statue of king Alfred by count Gleichen, ae Wan- 
tage, unv eiled by the prince of Wales, his de- 
scendant . - 14 duly, 
Early meeting of ‘parliament on account of Oh at 
Turkish war Jan. 
Vote of 6,000,000l. asked for before engeriine into 
conference respecting eastern affairs, 24 “Jan. 
debate 130d) an. 
Liberal amendment withdrawn on report of earns 
advance on Cone 7 Feb. ; vote passed 
(204-124). ; a @ 8 Feb. 


Th, 
1877 


9? 


Expedition sent (between 8,o00 and 9,000 men, 1,800 


horses, &c.), Feb., March, 
Marriage of duke and duchess of Connaught at 
Windsor : 8 March, 


The ee at Paris, 26 March, arrives at *Raventl 


on Lago Maggiore Z ‘ - 28 March, 


Proposed censure of government respecting Zulu 


war, &c., negatived, lords ear 


25 March; 
commons (306-24 6 March-1 April, 


Great depression of trade (attributed to bad har- — 
vest, famine, pestilence, war, and over-trading, 18 


Commons debate on the -budget, for government, 
303; against, 230. . 28-29 April, 
Cold and very wet summer, little eanahined failure 
of corn and fruit crops . autumn, 
Severe weather, Nov. very cold, 3 1-12 Dec. and Jan., 
much fog 
Parliament opened by the Queen, 5 Feb., » dissolved 
23 Feb. 
General election, great liberal majority, 30 March— 


16 April ; resignation of ministry . 22 April, 
Gladstone ministry formed. 29 April, 
New parliament meets 29th April, " Bradlaugh diffi: 

culty (see parliaments) : - 3 May et seq. 
Fine autumn, good average harvest, impel — 

ct. 
Early meeting of parliament on account of en 
6 Jan. 


Successful review of about 52,000 volunteers by the 


queenat Windsor. . . . . gduly, 
Parliament prorogued . 27 Aug. 
Wet. autumn; deficient harvest ; ‘much depression 


P 
Court and general mourning for death of gen. 
Garfield, president ef United States 21-27 Sept. 
Gradual revival of trade . F . 1 July-30 Oct. 
Great hurricane throughout England, causing de- 


struction of life, properiyad and shipping, -15 Oct. 
Very mild winter . é ov.-Feb. 
Meeting of parliament. - 7 Feb. 


La) 


The queen shot at, at Great Western railway station, 


7 ENGLAND. 


Tindsor, by Roderick Maclean, aged 27; 2nd 
{arch ; he is committed for trial for high treason 
} to March, 
| queen’s letter of thanks for general sympathy 
‘ated s : : . , <| x2 March, 
sails for Mentone, 14 March; arrives, 16 
larch ; leaves it, 12 April; at Windsor, 14 April, 
/ queen dedicates Epping Forest to the use of 
ie people for all time . , * - 6 May, 
jiament adjourned, and meets on 24 Oct. 3; pro- 
gued =. : 4 , 4 ‘ . 2 Dec. 
‘7law courts, London, opened by the queen 4 Dec. 
‘at excitement through attempted explosion of 
socal Government office é A r5 March, 
section of secret manufacture of explosives at 
-irmingham, 4 April; arrest of Alfred White- 
vad, Thos. Gallagher, physician, Wm. Norman, 
.. H. Wilson, H. D. E, and Henry Dalton, other- 
iseJohn O’Connor . - s . 5-6 April, 
er arrests in Liverpool, Glasgow, and London 
| about 6-7 April, 
iament prorogued . x ‘< : 25 Aug. 
queen publishes *“‘More Leaves from my 
yurnal in the Highlands” . 4 .- iar Feb. 
at and the Soudan: censure of the government 
_r its “‘vacillating and inconsistent policy,” 
‘ted by the lords (181-81) 12 Feb. ; rejected by 
e commons (311-262) . f . 12-20 Feb. 
ce Leopold, duke of Albany, dies, age nearly 
, 28 March ; buried at Windsor . AFiGe sk Oude 
. queen starts for Darmstadt . 16 April, 
} queen in a letter expresses her deep sense of 
¢ loving sympathy of her subjects in all parts 
her empire and also of foreign countries with 
‘self and the duchess of Albany . 14 April, 
-queen present at the marriage of her grand- 
ughter princess Victoria of Hesse to prince 
juis of Battenburg at Darmstadt, 30 April; 
turned to Windsor . 2 3 . 7 May, 
1 of censure of the government for not support- 
-3 Gordon negatived in the commons (303-275) 
12-14 May, 
‘lament prorogued . . . . 14 Aug. 
| Lharvest, continued fine weather . July, Aug. 
lament meets . ‘ 4 23 Oct.—6 Dec. 
| chise bill passed . u 5 : . 6 Dec. 
| ce Albert Victor Edward of Wales comes of 
es : : os : < 4 oay8Jan, 
lament meets . s 4 ‘ 19 Feb. 
| red that the militia be embodied and soldiers 
| pped from entering the reserve . r8 Feb. 
| of censure on the government respecting 
| ypt, passed by the lords (189-58); negatived by 
/ 2 Commons (302-288) . . . 27, 28 Feb. 
| of mourning for general Gordon and the killed 
, the Soudan . 3 : 13 March,, 
Ives to be called out in prospect of war with 
issia ls ; - iy bY . 27 March, 
‘queen visits Aix-les-Bains . xr April et seq. 
(See Ireland, Parliament, and Revenue.) 


KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND. 


{ BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

» Egbert, styled “‘ king of England” in 828. 

. Ethelwolf; his son. 

Ethelbald ; his son. 

|. Ethelbert ; brother. 

. Ethelred ; brother. 

. Alfred the Great ; brother ; died 2x or 28 Oct. gol. 
Edward the Elder ; son; died gs. 

 Athelstan ; eldest son; died 17 Oct. g4o. 


from a wound received in an affray, 26 May, 946. 
_ Edred ; brother ; died 955. 


_ Edgar the Peaceable ; brother ; died x July, 975. 
» _ 18 March, 979. 

| Ethelred II. ; half-brother ; retired. 

| Sweyn, proclaimed king ; died 3 Feb. ro14. 

+ Canute the Great ; his son. 


ror6. 


reigned seven months. 


. Edmund 1, fifth son of Edward the Elder; died 


| Edwy, eldest son of Edinund ; died of grief in 958. 


. Edward the Martyr, his son, stabbed at Corfe 
Castle, at the instance of his step-mother Elfrida, 


. Ethelred restored in Canute’s absence ; died 24 April, 


) Edmund Ironside, his son, divided the kingdom 
with Canute ; murdered at Oxford, 30 Nov. 1016; 


1087. 


I10o. 


1135. 


II54. 


r189. 


IIgg. 


: Harold Re 
. Hardicanute, son of Canute and Emma; died of re- 


ENGLAND. 


. Canute sole king ; married Emma, widow of Ethel- 


red; died rz Nov. 1035. 
son; died 17 Mar. 1040. 


pletion at a marriage feast, 8 June, 1042. 


. Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred and Emma; 


died 5 Jan. 1066. 


. Harold II., son of earl Godwin; reigned nine 


months ; killed near Hastings, 14 Oct. 1066. 
THE NORMANS.* 


. William the Conqueror ; crowned 25 Dee, : died at 


Rouen, 9 Sept. 1087. 

Queen, Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, 
Flanders ; married in 1054; died in 1083. 

William Il. Rufus; reign began 26 Sept. ; killed by 
an arrow, 2 Aug. rroo. 

Henry I. Beauclere, his brother; reign began 
5 Aug. ; died of a surfeit, 1 Dec. 1135. 

Queens, Matilda, daughter of Malcolm ITI. king of 
Scotland ; married rz Nov. 1100; died 1 May, 
t1rg. 2. Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, earl of 
Louvaine ; married 29 Jan. 1129 ; died r151. 

Stephen, earl of Blois, nephew of Henry; reign 
began 26 Dee. ; died 25 Oct. 1154. 

Queen, Matilda, daughter of Eustace, count of 
Boulogne ; married in 1128 ; died 3 May, 1151. 
[Maud, daughter of Henry I. and rightful heir to 
the throne; born rror; betrothed, in r109, at 
eight years of age, to Henry V. emperor of Ger- 
many, who died 1125. She married, secondly, 
Geoffrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou, 1130. Was 
set aside from the English succession by Stephen, 
1135 ; landed in England and claimed the crown, 
z139. Crowned, but soon after defeated at Win- 
chester, 1141 ; concluded a peace with Stephen, 
which secured the succession to her son Henry, 

1153 ; died 1165. ] 
THE PLANTAGENETS. 


Henry II. Plantagenet,grandson of Henry I. and son 
of Maud ; reign began 19 Dec. ; died 6 July, 1180. 

Queen, Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis VII. 
king of France, and heiress of Guienne and 
Poitou ; married to Henry, 1151 ; died 26 June, 
1202 ; See Rosamond. 

Richard I. Cwur de Lion, his son; reign began 
3 Sept. ; died of a wound, 6 April, 1199. 

Queen, Berengaria, daughter of the king of Navarre ; 
married 12 May, r191 ; survived the king. 

John, the brother of Richard ; reign began 27 May ; 
died 19 Oct. 1216. 

Queens, Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester ; 
married in 1189; divorced. 2. Isabella, daughter 


earl of * 


* The REGNAL DATES are those given by sir H. Nieolas. 
The early Norman and Plantagenet kings reckoned their 
reigns from the day of their coronation ; the later Plan- 
tagenets from the day after the death of their prede- 


cessor. 


With Edward VI. began the present custom of 


beginning the reign on the day of the death of the pre- 
ceding sovereign. 


ROYAL ARMS OF ENGLAND. 


William I., William II., and Henry I.+-two lions or 
leopards passant. 

Stephen—sagittarius, the archer, one of the signs of the 
zodiac (traditional). 


Henry IT. to Edward IT. 


Three lions passant. 


Edward III. and his successors quartered the preceding 
with fleurs de lys, the arms of France. 

Henry V. used only 3 fleurs de lys. 

Mary I. quartered the preceding with the arms of her 
husband Philip II, of Spain. 


UNITED KINGDOM, 


James I. and his successors combined the arms ot Eng- 


land and France (1st and 4th quarter); 2nd, the lion 
rampant of Scotland; 3rd, the harp of Ireland. He 
introduced the unicorn as a supporter of the arms. 

George I., George II. and George III. introduced the arms 
of Brunswick. 


In r80r the arms of France were omitted. 


In 1816 the 


arms were modified through Hanover being made a 
kingdom. : 

Vicrorta. In 1837 the arms of Hanover were omitted, 
The arms are now: 1st and 4th quarters, 3 lions passant 
for England ; 2nd, lion rampant for Scotland ; 3rd, harp 
for Ireland. 


1216. 


1272. 


1307. 


1377: 


1399- 


1413. 


1422, 


1461. 


1485. 


ENGLAND. 


of the count of Angouléme: she was the young 
and virgin wife of the count de la Marche: 
married to John in 1200. Survived the king, on 
whose death she was re-married to the count de 
la Marche. 

Henry III. son of John; reign began 28 Oct. ; died 
16 Nov. 1272. 

Queen, Eleanor, daughter of the count de Pro- 
vence; married 14 Jan. 1236; survived the king ; 
and died in 1291, in a monastery. 

Edward I. son of Henry, surnamed Longshanks ; 
reign began 20 Nov. ; died 7 July, 1307. 

Queens, Eleanor of Castile; married in 1253; died 
of a fever, on her journey to Scotland, at Grant- 
ham, in Lincolnshire, 1290. 2. Margaret, sister 
of the king of France; married 12 Sept. 1299; 
survived the king, dying in 1317. 

Edward II. son of Edward I. ; reign began 8 July ; 
dethroned 20 Jan. 1327; murdered at Berkeley 
castle, 21 Sept. following. 

Queen, Isabella, daughter of the king of France ; 
married in 1308. On the death, by the gibbet, of 
her favourite Mortimer, she was confined for the 
rest of her life in her own house at Risings, near 
Lynn, and died in 1357. 


. Edward III. his son; reign began 25 Jan.; died 


21 June, 1377. 

Queen, Philippa, daughter of the count of Hainault ; 
married in 1326; died 15 Aug. 1369. 

Richard IJ. son of Edward the Black Prince, and 
grandson of Edward III. ; reign began 22 June ; 
dethroned 29 Sept. 1399; said to have been muwr- 
dered at Pomfret castle, 10 Feb. 1400. 

Queens, Anne of Bohemia, sister of the emperor 
Wenceslaus of Germany ; married in Jan. 1382; 
died 7 June, 1394. 2. Isabella, daughter of 
Charles V. of France ; married when only seven 
years old, 1 Nov. 1396. On the deposition of her 
husband she returned to her father. 


HOUSE OF LANCASTER, 


Henry IV. cousin of Richard II.; reign began 
30 Sept. ; died 20 March, 1413. 

Queens, Mary, daughter of the earl of Hereford ; 
she died before Henry obtained the crown, in 
1394. 2. Joan of Navarre, widow of the duke of 
Bretagne ; married 1403; survived the king; 
died 1437. 

Henry V. his son; reign began 21 March ; died 
31 Aug. 1422. 

Queen, Catherine, daughter of the king of France ; 
married 30 May, 1420. She outlived Henry, and 
was married to Owen Tudor, grandfather of 
Henry VILI., in 1423 ; died 1437. 

Henry VI. his son; reign began 1 Sept. ; deposed 
4 March, 1461; said to have been murdered by 
Richard, duke of Gloucester, in the Tower, 20 
June, 1471. 

Queen, Margaret, daughter of the duke of Anjou ; 
married 22 April, 1445; survived the king ; died 
25 Aug. 1481. 


HOUSE OF YORK. 
Edward IV. ; died 9 April, 1483. 
Queen, Lady Elizabeth Grey, daughter of sir Richard 
Woodville, and widow of sir John Grey, of Groby ; 
married 1463 or 1464. Suspected of favouring: 
the insurrection of Lambert Simnel; and closed 
her life in confinement, 8 June, 1492. 


. Edward V. his son; deposed 25 June, 1483, and 


said to have been murdered in the Tower ; reigned 
two months and thirteen days. 

Richard III. brother of Edward IV. ; began to reign, 
26 June; slain at Bosworth, 22 Aug. 1485. 

Queen, Anne, daughter of the earl of Warwick, and 
widow of Edward, prince of Wales, murdered 
1471. She is said to have been pvisoned by 
Richard (having died suddenly, 16 March, 148s), 
to make way for his intended marriage with prin- 
cess Elizabeth of York. 


HOUSE OF TUDOR. 


Henry VII. (son of Edmund Tudor, earl of Rich- 
mond, and Margaret, daughter of John Beaufort, 
duke of Somerset, legitimated descendant of 
John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster); began to 
reign 22 Aug. ; died 21 April, 1509. 

Queen, Elizabeth of York, princess of England, , 


298 


n A 49 oe. BS 
eae Ae 
ae ; N 4 


Joe | 
y 


ENGLAND. 


daughter of Edward IV. ; married 18 Jan. 1 
died 11 Feb. 1503. 
1509. Henry VIII. his son; began to reign, 22 April ; 
28 Jan. 1547. 
Queens, Catherine of Aragon, widow of He 

_ elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales ; may 
1x June, 1509; mother of queen Mary ; rep 
ated, and afterwards formally divorced, 23 } 
1533; died 7 Jan. 1536. 

2. Anne Boleyn, daughter of sir Thomas Bo] 
and maid of honour to Catherine ; privy: 
married, before Catherine was divorced, rq ] 
1532; mother of queen Elizabeth ; beheade 
the Tower, 19 May, 1536. 

3. Jane Seymour, daughter of sir John Seyi 
and maid of honour to Anne Boleyn; mai 
20 May, 1536, the day after Anne’s execut 
mother of Edward VI. of whom she die 
childbirth, 24 Oct. 1537. 

4. Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duk 
Cleves ; married 6 Jan. 1540; divorced 10] 
1540; died 1557. 

5. Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of | 
folk ; married 28 July, 1540; beheaded, 22. 


1542. 
6. Catherine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas f 
and widow of Nevill, lord Latimer; marrie 
July, 1543; survived the king, after whose d 
she married sir Thomas Seymour, created 
Sudley ; died 5 Sept. 1548. 

1547. Edward VI. son of Henry VIII. (by Jane Seymo 
died 6 July, 1553. 

1553. Jane, daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and wi 
Jord Guildford Dudley ; proclaimed queen on 
death of Edward ; ten days afterwards retu 
to private life ; was tried 13 Nov. 1553 ; beheé 
12 Feb. 1554, when but 17 years of age. 

1553. Mary, daughter of Henry (by Catherine of Arag 
married Philip of Spain, 25 July, 1554; die 
Nov. 1558. 

1558. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry (by Anne Bole 
died 24 March, 1603. 


HOUSE OF STUART. 
1603. James I. of England and VI. of Scotland, se 
Mary, queen of Scots ; died 27 March, 1625. 
Queen, Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter 
Frederick If. ; married 20 Aug. 1590; | 
March, 1619. = a <7 
1625. Charles I. his son; beheaded at Whitehall, 30. 
1649. 
ens Henrietta-Maria, daughter of Henry 
king of France; married 13 June, 160m | 
vived the king ; died in France 10 Aug. 1669 
1649. COMMONWEALTH. Oliver Cromwell made | 
tector, 16 Dec. 1653; died 3 Sept. 1658. : 
1658. Richard Cromwell, his son, made protectd 
Sept. ; resigned 22 April, 1659. 
1660. Charles II. son of Charles I. ; died 6 Feb. 1685. 
Queen, Catherine of Braganza, infanta of Porta 
daughter of John IV. and sister of Alfonso 
married 21 May, 1662; survived the king; 
turned to Portugal ; died 21 Dee. 1705. | 
1685. James II. his brother; abdicated by dight, i 
1638 ; died in exile, 6 Aug. 1701. * | 
Fae Wife, Ann Hyde, daughter of Edward 1, 
arl of Clarendon; married Sept. 1660; | 
. 1671; mother of queens Mary II. and Anne] 
Queen, Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, dau 
of Alphonso d’Este, duke; married ar } 
1673; in 1688 retired with James to Fral 
died at St. Germains, 1718. : 
1689. William III. prince of Orange, king, and M 
queen, daughter of James II.; married 4 } 
1677; began their reign, 13 Feb. 1689 ; Mary’ 
28 Dec. 1694. 
1694. William III. ; died of a fall from his horse, 8 Ma 


1702. 

1702, Anne, daughter of James II.; married Gee 
prince of Denmark, 28 July, 1683; succeecle 
the throne, 8 March, 1702; had thirteen child 
all of whom died young; lost her husbi 
28 Oct. 1708; died 1 Aug. 1774. 


HOUSE OF HANOVER. (See Brunswick and Este.) 
1714. George I. elector of Hanover and duke of Br 
wick-Luneburg ; son of Sophia, who was dal 

ter of Elizabeth, the daughter of James L. ; | 

rr June, 1727. ae | 


s 


«Ad) 


ENGLAND. 


Queen, Sophia-Dorothea, daughter of the duke of 
Zell ; died in prison, 2 Nov. 1726. 
17. George II. his son ; died 25 Oct. 1760. 
Queen, Wilhelmina Carolina Dorothea, of Branden- 
burg Anspach; married 17o5; died 20 Nov. 


1737- ' 
o. George III. grandson of George II. ; died 29 Jan. 


1820. 

Queen, Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke of 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz; married 8 Sept. 1761; 
died 17 Nov. 1818... 

o, George IV. his son; died 26 June, 1830. 
Queen, Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the 
duke of Brunswick ; married 8 April, 1795 ; died 
7 Aug. 1821 (See article Queen Caroline) 

9. William IV. brother of George IV. ; died 20 June, 


1837. 

Diiohe Adelaide Amelia Louisa Theresa Caroline, 
sister of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen ; married 
11 July, 1818 ; died 2 Dec. 1849. 

7. Victoria, the reigning queen, WHOM GoD PRE- 
SERVE. 

THE PRESENT ROYAL FAMILY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
|QuEEn,* Alexandrina Victoria, only daughter of 
‘Edward, duke of Kent, (fourth son of king George 

IIL. )t born 24 May, 1819; succeeded to the throne on 
the decease of her uncle, William IV. 20 June, 1837; 
crowned at Westminster, 28 June, 1838; married 

(ro Feb., 1840) to her cousin, 
ncis-ALBERT-Augustus-Charles-Emmanuel, duke of 

Saxe, prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha; born 26 
Aug. 1819, naturalized, 24 Jan. 1840; (ordered to be 
styled Prince Consort 25 June, 1857;) elected chan- 

cellor of the university of Cambridge, 28 Feb. 1847 ; 

died 14 Dec, 1861. 

ISSUE. 

‘rerorta-Adelaide-Mary-Louisa, princess royal, born 

at Nov. 1840; married to prince Frederick-William, 

of Prussia, 25 Jan. 1858 (dowry 40,o0ol. and annuity 

“Of 8000l.). Isswe: William, born 27 Jan. 1859; and 
-5 other children living. 

\\LBERT-EDWARD, prince of Wales, duke of Saxony, 
‘duke of Cornwall and Rothsay, earl of Chester, 
Carrick, and Dublin, baron of Renfrew, and lord of 
the Isles, bori 9 Nov. 1841; married princess Alex- 

andra of Denmark (born 1 Dec. 1844) 10 March, 

1863. Issue; Albert Victor, born 8 Jan. 1864; 
_ George, born 3 June, 1865 ; Louise, born 20 Feb. 1867 ; 

Victoria, born 6 July, 1868; Maud, 26 Nov. 1869; 

Alexander John, born 6 April, died 7 April, 1871. 

(See Wales). 

-LIicE-Maud-Mary, born 25 April, 1843; married 
prince Louis (since grand duke) of Hesse-Darmstadt 
‘(which see), x July, 1862 (dowry 30,000l., annuity 
-Goool.) ; d. of diphtheria, 14 Dec. 1878. Issue: Vic- 
toria, 5 April, 1863; and 5 other children. 
_LFRED-Ernest, born 6 Aug. 1844; entered the Huwr- 

yalus as midshipman, 31 Aug. 1858; created duke 

of Edinburgh, &ec. 24 May, 1866; visited Cape of 

Good Hope, Aug. ; Australia, Nov. 1867; escaped 

assassination by a Fenian at Port Jackson, 1:2 

March, 1868 ; visited Japan, China, and India, 1869 ; 

married archduchess Marie of Russia (born 17 Oct. 

1853), 23 Jan. 1874. Issue; Alfred, born i5 Oct. 1874; 

Mary, 29 Oct. 1875; Victoria, 25 Nov. 1876; Alex- 

andrina, x Sept. 1878; Beatrice, 20 April, 1884. 

_ ELENA-Augusta-Victoria, born 25 May, 1846 ; married 
to prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, 5 July, 
1866. Isswe: Christian Victor, born 14 April, 1867 ; 
md other children. 
2UISE-Carolina-Alberta, born 18 March, 1848; mar- 
ted to John, marquis of Lorne (born 6 Aug. 1845), 
2x March, 1871. 
| RTHUR-William-Patrick-Albert, born 1 May, 1850; 


| On x Nov. 1858, the queen was proclaimed through- 
ndia as ‘* Victoria, by the grace of God, of the united 
| lom of Great Britain and Ireland and of the colonies 
_ dependencies thereof, in Europe, Asia, Africa, 
| rica, and Australasia, QUEEN, defender of the faith,” 
“Empress of India” added to the royal style by 
amation, 28 April, 1876 (see Style, Royal). 
*He was born 2 Noy. 1767; and died 23 Jan. 1820; 
arried Victoria-Maria-Louisa (widow of the prince of 
| gen, sister of Leopold, king of the Belgians, and 
to the prince consort), 29 May, 1818. She was born 
4g. 1786; and died 16 March, 1861. 


299 


ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 


created duke of Connaught, earl of Sussex and 
Strathearn, 23 May, 1874; r10,o0ol. a year on his 
proposed marriage to princess Louise Margaret of 
Prussia ; agreed to, 25 July, 1878; married 13 March, 
1879, princess Louise Margaret of Prussia (born 25 
July, 1860). Issue: Margaret, born, 15 Jan. 1882; 
Arthur Frederick, born 13 Jan., 1883. 

8. Lropoip-George-Duncan-Albert, born 7 April, 1853; 
voted 15,o00/. a year by parliament, 23 July, 1874; 
created baron Arklow, earl of Clarence, and duke of 
Albany, 24 May, 1881: married princess Helene, 
4th daughter of the prince of Waldeck-Pyrmont, 27 
April, 1882. 10,o00/, additional income granted, 21 
April, 18825; died at Cannes, 28 March, 1884. Issue, 
Alice Mary, born 25 Feb., 1883; Leopold Charles, 
born 19 July, 1884. 

g. BEarrice-Mary-Victoria-Feodore, born 14 April, 18573 
Betrothed to prince Henry of Battenberg, Dec. 1884. 

First greatgrandchild ; Feodore, born 12 May, 18793 
daughter of Charlotte, daughter of princess royal 
Victoria, and prince Bernard of Saxe-Meiningen. 

THE QUEEN’s AUNT and Cousins, Augusta, duchess 
(widow 8 July 1850, of duke) of Cambridge, born 25 
July, 1797; married 1 June, 1818. 

Her son, George, duke of Cambridge, commander-in- 
chief, born 26 March, 1819 ; and 

Her daughters, Augusta, grand duchess of Mecklen- 
burg-Strelitz, bor 19 July, 1822; married 28 June, 
1843 ; and the princess Mary of Cambridge, born 27 
Nov. 1833 ; married to the prince Francis, now duke, 
of Teck, 12 June, 1866. Jsswe: Adolphus, and 3 
other children. 


ENGLISH CHURCH UNION, established 
1860, when it consisted of 210 members; there were 
21,000 in 1083 Its object is to defend the 
Church of England and its ancient constitution, 
doctrine and liturgy, and her right to regulate her 
own affairs; and has supported clergymen who have 
suffered for so doing. 


ENGLISH LANGUAGE is traced from the 
Frisian variety of the Teutonic or Germanic branch 
of the great Indo-European family. ‘‘ The English 
tongue possesses a veritable power of expression, 
such as, perhaps, never stood at the command of 


any other language of man.” Grimm. 

Celtic prevailed in England é A.D. I 
Latin introduced Z 5 bE : about I 
Saxon prevails (Beowulf ; Ceedmon ; Alfred) 450-1066 


Latin re-introduced by missionaries 5 ‘ i 500 
Norman-French combining with English 1066-1250 
William I. and his successors used English in their 
laws, &c. ; it was superseded by Latin in the 
reign of Henry IJ. Norman-French was not used 
in law-deeds till the reign of Henry III. 

Early English i ‘ : ‘ ; : 1250-1500 

The present English settled in the 16th century. 

Law pleadings were made in English by order of 
Edward III. instead of in French : eee t502 

The English tongue and English apparel were or- 
dered to be used in Ireland, 28 Hen. VIII. . 7 1530 

The English was ordered to be used in all law-suits, 
and the Latin disused é . May, 1731 

Per-centage of ANGLO-Saxon words in the English 
bible, 97 ; Swift, 89; Shakspeare and Thomson, 

85; Addison, 83 ; Spenser and Milton, 81 ; Locke, 
80; Young, 79; Pope, 76; Johnson, 75 ; Robert- 
son, 68 ; Hume, 65; Gibbon, 58. Marsh. 

Of 100,000 English words, 60,o00 are of Teutonic 
origin ; 30,000 Greek and Latin ; and 10,000 from 
other sources. 

Early English Text Society began publishing . 1864 

English Dialect Society, established to print old 
glossaries . P " : . , May, 1873 


PRINCIPAL BRITISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS, 


Born. Died. 
John Wickliffe, ¢. Saro24 1304 
Geoffrey Chaucer, p. ; s sul tg20 1400 
John Gower, p. 3 ° < about 1320 1402 
Paston Letters, 1460-1482 
Wm. Caxton . e » 142 1491 
Sir Thomas More, h. p. - 1482 1535 
Sir Philip Sidney, 2. p. . - 1554 1586 


ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 300 ENGRAVING. at 


Born. Died. 
Holinshed’s Chronicles, 1586. 


John Fox,éh . > - z pe TEL 1587 
Edmund Spenser, 7. * ? : a5 55 1598 
Richard Hooker, ¢. . J A eee L553 1600 
Wm. Shakspeare, d. . Fi A 5 . 1564 1616 
Walter Raleigh, h. p. . 4 A“ pes 1618 
Francis Bacon, ph. . E i : - 1561 1626 
George Herbert, pp. ¥ 5 : <HeLSO3 £633 
Ben Jonson, d. : i r 2 + X574 1637 
Philip Massinger, d@. . y ; RL Rat 54 1640 
Jeremy Taylor,t. . . : : - 1613 1667 
John Milton, yp. . - = 3 sh bet OOS 1674 
Isaac Barrow, t¢. B : ; - 1630 1677 
Thomas Hobbes, phil. . . ‘ See 5OO 1679 
Samuel Butler, p.  . ; ; ; A Scho 1680 
John Bunyan, t. . i 3 ran PS qopess| 1688 
John Dryden, p. : : : : aetOst 1700 
John Locke, ph. . F 4 ah eacoge 1704 
Joseph Addison, e. . “ 5 « 1672 1719 
Matthew Prior, p. G : H - « 1664 1721 
Richard Steele, e. . i A : - 1671 1729 
Daniel De Foe, 2. pol. . : rs ah ee FOR 1731 
John Gay, p. . “ A ; . . 1688 1732 
Alexander Pope, p. it : . Se aLOSG 1744 
Jonathan Swift, 7. p. 4 : : - 1667 1745 
James Thomson, p. . : ae OR 1748 
Henry Fielding, n. d. 4 : 2 «1707 1754 
Sam. Richardson, 2. . 3 A es) LOCO 1761 
Edward Young, p. . : : : - 168r 1765 
Laurence Sterne, 2. . 4 5 Se Sg 8} 1768 
Mark Akenside, p. . : : - - 1721 1770 
Thomas Gray, p. . é : . ap amy ine 1771 
Tobias Smollett, ». . : : : - 1720 1771 
Oliver Goldsmith, 7. p. 3 - BP A SUP He: 1774 
David Hume, h. ph. . : . ; eeI7IL 1770 
Samuel Johnson, @ 7”. p.  . i Sec 700 1784 
Benjamin Franklin, ph. pol. . : - 1706 1790 
William Robertson, h. : 5 sien LZE 1793 
Edward Gibbon, h. . ‘ é . SEG ey, 1794 
Robert Burns, p. . = . : of L750 1796 
Edmund Burke, pol. A i . - 1729 1797 
William Cowper, p.  . - : nig ax 1800 
Percy B. Shelley, p. A ; . 1792 1822 
George lord Byron, p. . F - Sy Se pets! 1824 
George Crabbe, p. . . ; - 1754 1832 
Walter Scott, x. p. : : : ARSE hye 1832 
Samuel T. Coleridge, p. ph. . ; 772 1834 
Charles Lamb, e. . : ‘ : ae ETTS 1834 
William Cobbett, pol. e. . L - 1762 1835 
Robert Southey, p. h. . 4 Mice ipl 1842 
Thomas Arnold, h. . 5 fs 4 - 1795 1843 
Thomas Campbell, p. . fs : ui tiee ty o77/ 1844 
Sidney Smith, e. pol. : 3 : = L775 1845 
Wm. Wordsworth, p. . 2 ; Aa ivf /s. 1850 
J. Fennimore Cooper, 2. . . 4 - 1798 1851 
Joanna Baillie, p. - . - sie cETO 1851 
Thomas Moore, p. 1. Ss - . - 1780 1852 
John Wilson, p. e. . 4 < Se L7OS 1854 
Samuel Rogers, p. : : ; sige 703 1855 
E. T. Channing, m. . - “ 4 « 1790 1856 
Henry Hallam, i. i 4 “ REE frge 1859 
Thomas de Quincey, e@ . é : - 1786 1859 
William Prescott, 2. . é R AD naan Le fal 1859 
Washington Irving, 2. h. ‘ 4 - 1783 1859 
T. B. Macaulay, h. p. . 5 ~ ee Saletes 1859 
Abp. Richd. Whately, ph. 2 : . 1787 1863 
Wm. M. Thackeray, ~ . ek Ore 1863 
W.S. Landor,m. . : - “1775 1864 
W. Whewell, m. i . ; * + 1794 1866 
Henry lord Brougham, pol. h. “ - £778 1868 
Charles Dickens,» . : . a eLOLe 1870 
Sir J. Herschel, ph. . : - 2 21702 1871 
George Ticknor, h. . . : a CREO 1871 
G. Grote, . : : : - - 1704 1871 
Edwd. Bulwer-Lytton, lord Lytton, p. ». 1805 1873 
John Stuart Mill, ph. . . : = e800 1873 
Bryan W. Procter (‘‘ Barry Cornwall”), ». 1790 1874 
Arthur Helps,e. . ‘ . : rors 1875 
Harriet Martineau, m. : “hike tL COs 1876 
“Marian Evans (‘‘ George Eliot”) n. ». =. 1820 1880 
Benjamin Disraeli, lord Beaconsfield, n. 1805 1881 
Thomas Carlyle, h. e. ‘ - : - 1795 1881 


—— + — 


d. dramatist; e. essayist; h. historian ; m. miscellaneous ; 
nu. novelist; p. poet; t, theologian ; pol. political ; ph. 
philosopher. 


; Born. “Di 
H. W. Longfellow, p . . 3 + 1807 . 
Anthony Trollope, 7. . . r Sue eLOeS I 
R. W. Emerson, @ 7.  . ; 7 - 1803 I 
George Bancroft, i, . : i 24 LBOO 
W. E. Gladstone, ii. - é - . 1809 


O. W. Holmes, e. p. 2. : . 3 at eee DOG 
Alfred Tennyson (lord, 1883), p. =. - 1809 
Thomas Trollope, 7. : i «fap OLS 
Robert Browning, p. . 3 ; Reber topes: 
Sir Theodore Martin, h. p. i. . - 1816 
Mrs. M. Oliphant, 7. . - 1818 


James Anthony Froude, h. ™ «3818 
J. R. Lowell, p. pol. . F : sie) XOXO 
John Ruskin, art critic . £ 3 - 1819 


Herbert Spencer, ph. . A «fis tLORO, 
John Tyndall, m. . ‘ ‘ « - 1820 
Matthew Arnold, p. m. : 5 oh te (LOSS 


KE. A. Freeman, hk. . ; 4 - « 1823 
T. H. Huxley, m. ‘ 4 s > Juinees 
Lord Lytton, p. m. . a : E Be gc'ch: 


“ENGLISHMAN,” «a newspaper edited 
Dr. Kenealy, published in April, 1874, soon after 1 
conviction of the claimant of the Tichborne esta 
(see Trials, 1873-4). For its libellous charact 
the editor was disbenched by the society of Gra 
Inn, 1 Aug. ite ordered to give up his cham) 
by vice-chancellor, 29 June, 1876. He died 
April 1880. 


ENGRAVING on signets is mentioned Ez 
XXVili. II (B.c. 1491). Engraving on plates a 
wood began about the middle of the 15th centu 
Engraving on glass was perfected by Bourdier, 
Paris, 1799. The copyright to engravings has be 
protected by several statutes ; among the princi 
are the acts 16 & 18 Geo. III. 1775 and 1777; 3 
the acts 7 & 8 Vict. 6 Aug. 1844, and 15 Vict. 
May, 1852. A process of enlarging and reduci 
engravings by means of sheets of vulcanised ind 
rubber, was shown by the electro-printing bl 
company in 1860; see Lithography and Pho 
Galvanography. In ‘*‘ Lyra Germanica,’’ publisl 
in 1861, are illustrations engraved upon blo 
photographed from negatives taken by John Leig 
ton, F.S.A. | 


ENGRAVING ON CopPER. Prints from engraved cop] 
plates made their appearance about 1450, and W 
first produced in Germany. Masso, surnamed 
guerra, is considered to have been the first Ital 
engraver, about 1440. (See Niello.) 

The earliest date known of a copper-plate engraving 
1461. 

Rolling-presses for working the plates were invented 


1545. 

Of the art of etching on copper by means of aqua-foi 
Francis Mazzuoli, or Parmegiano, is the reputed 
ventor, about 1532. De Piles. 

Etching was practised by Albert Diirer, and most ¢s 
cially by Rembrandt. Its revival began about x 
Eminent iodern etchers:—Messrs Lalanne, P. 
Hamerton, F. Seymour Haden, Bracquemond, Jacq 
mart, Martial, and others. The Etching Club 1 
established in 1838. 

Society of Painter-etchers formed ; opened an exhibiti 
April, 1881. 

ENGRAVING ON Woop, long known in China, began 
Europe with the brief-mahlers or manufacturers 
playing-cards, about 1400 (see Printing). The ar 
referred by some to a Florentine, and by others 
Reuss, a German ; it was greatly improved by Dt 
(1471-1528) and Lucas van Leyden (1497). It was nu 
improved in England by Bewick and his brother, : 
pupils, Nesbitt, Anderson, &¢., 1789, et seq. 
earliest wood engraving which has reached our til 
fs one representing St. Christopher carrying the inf 
Jesus over the sea ; it bears date 1423. 

ENGRAVING ON Sort STEEL, to be hardened afterwi 
was introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins : 
Heath, of Philadelphia, 1819. : 

John Pye, “ father of English landscape engraving,” D 
1782; died 6 Feb. 1874. 


. a 


ENLISTMENT. 


301 


EPIDAURUS. 


szOTINTO is said to have been discovered by col. von 
egen, who engraved a portrait of princess Amelia of 
‘esse in. mezzotinto in 1643; it was improved by 
rince Rupert in 1648 ; and by sir Christopher Wren, 
yout 1662. 

atinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is pro- 
iced, was invented by the celebrated French artist, 
;, Non, about 1662; he communicated his invention 
) Le Prince. Barabbe of Paris was distinguished for 
s improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. 
viar’-oscuro engraving originated with the Germans, 
1d was first practised by Mair, one of whose prints 
sars date 1491 (see Zinc, &c.) 


INLISTMENT. No persons enlisting as 


iers or sailors are to be sworn in before a magis- 
e in less than twenty-four hours after, and they 
then at liberty to withdraw upon their return- 
the enlistment or bounty money, and 21s. costs. 
istment is now entirely voluntary. In 1847 the 
a of enlistment was limited to ten years for the 
mtry, and twelve years for the cavalry, artillery, 
royal marines; and in 1867, to twelve years ; 
Army, 1867 and 1879, and Foreign Enlistment. 


INNISKILLEN (N. W. Ireland). This 
n made an obstinate defence against the army of 
sabeth, 1595, and resisted James II., 1689. 1500° 
liskilleners met his general M‘Carthy at Newton 
ler with 6000 men (of whom 3000 were slain, 
| nearly all the rest made prisoners), they losing 

twenty men, 30 July, 1689. The dragoon regi- 
at, the ‘‘Inniskillingers,” was originally re- 
ited here. 


INOCH, Book oF, an apocryphal work, 
‘ted by the fathers, disappeared about the 8th 
cury. A MS. Ethiopic version was found in 
issinia by Bruce, and brought» to England in 
3 Of this, archbishop Lawrence published an 
peg translation in 1821, and the Ethiopic text 
838. 

INSILAGEH (from si/o, a pit), a system of pre- 
‘ing corn and green fodder for cattle in pits 
le air and water tight, recently practised by 
neh agriculturists; described by M. Goffart and 
‘yrofessor Thorold Rogers, M.P., in his ‘‘ Ensi- 
” published 1883. Ensilage reported successful 
”eckforton, Cheshire, 27 Nov. 1883 ; commended 
‘the prince of Wales and others at a meeting of 
Institute of Agriculture, 17 March, 1884; en- 
ge has been found successful in India, 1884. 


INSISHEIM (E. France). Here Turenne 
vated the Imperial army, and expelled it from 
ice, 4 Oct. 1674. 


INTAIL of estates began with the statute of 
stminster, 1285. Subsequent legislation broke 
entail in cases of treason (I 534)» when the estate 
'y revert to the crown, and of bankruptcy (183 
1849), when it is to be sold. The law of entai 
\cotland was amended in 1875. 


‘Ty, for the very poor, held first concert at the 
‘d school room, Saffron-hill, London, Saturday, 
\pril, 1879. 


|} aly based upon the arrangement of Linnzeus, 
\). Ray’s ‘‘ Methcdus Insectorum,” 1705; ‘‘ In- 
jorum Historia,’”’ 1710. The Entomological 
| ety of London was instituted in 1833. A 
} ional Entomological Exhibition at the West- 
ster Aquarium was opened 9 March, 1878. 


INVELOPES for letters are mentioned by 
ft, 1726. Stamped adhesive envelopes came 
}. general use shortly after the establishment of 
| penny postal system, 10 Jan. 1840. 


INTERTAINMENT oF THE PEOPLE So- | 


INTOMOLOGY, the science of insects, now | 


| sure. 


Machinery | 


for their manufacture was patented by Mr. George 
Wilson in 1844; and by Messrs. E. Hill and Warren 
De La Rue, 17. March, 1845. 


ENVOYS at Courts, in dignity below am- 
bassadors, enjoy the protection, but not the cere- 
monies of ambassadors. Envoys extraordinary are 
of modern date. Wiequefort. The court of France 
denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to 
court in the royal carriages, 1639. 


EOZOON CANADENSE, asserted to be the 
earliest known form of life, is a species of foramini- 
fera, found by professor J. W. Dawson, of Montreal, 
in Laurentian limestone in 1858. 


EPACT (Greek, added) is the excess of the 
solar month above the lunar synodical month, 
1 day, II hours, 15 minutes, 57 seconds, the lunar 
month being only 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3 
seconds; and the excess of the solar year above the 
lunar synodical year (nearly 11 days), the lunar 
year being 354 days. The epact of any year in- 
dicates the moon’s age on the Ist Jan. in that year. 
The number of the Gregorian epact for 1884, 3; 
1885, 14; 1886, 25; 1887, 6; 1888, 17. 


EPERNAY (N.E. France), seat of the trade 
in champagne, was taken from the League by, 
Henry IV., 26 July, 1592, when marshal Armand 
Biron was killed. 


EPHESUS (in Asia Minor), a city founded by 
the Ionians about 1043 B.c. It was subdued by 
Cyrus in 544 B.c. ; revolted from the Persians, 501 
B.C. and was destroyed by an earthquake in A.D. 17. 
See Diana, Temple of, and Seven Churches. Paul 
preached here A.D. 55, 56 (dets xviii. xix.) His 
epistle to the Ephesians is dated a.p. 64. The third 
general council was held here in 431. After in- 
vestigation, begun in 1863, Mr. J. T. Wood dis- 
covered the site of the temple of Diana in April, 
1870; and about 60 tons of marble were shipped at 
Smyrna for the British Museum, Jan. 1872, part of 
which arrived in the summer. Mr. Wood published 
an illustrated account of his discoveries in 1876. 
The site of the temple was purchased for the British 
Museum. Mr. J.T. Wood resumed his excavations, 
summer, 1883. 


EPHORI, powerful magistrates of Sparta, five 
in number, said to have been first created by 
Theopompus to control the royal power, about 


757 B.C. 
EPIC POEMS (from Greek epos, a song), 


narratives in verse. Eminent examples :— 

Homer's “‘ Iliad” and ‘‘ Odyssey ” (Greek), between 
8th and roth century B.c. (see Homer). 

Maha-barhata, Sanscrit, very ancient; by several 
authors; the longest epic known (220,000 lines). 


Virgil’s ‘‘ Mneid ” (Latin) about : » BO. 19 
Ovid’s ‘‘ Metamorphoses” (Latin), about . A.D. 
Dante (died 1321), ‘‘ Divina Commedia” (Italian) 
published : : A ‘ s0t472 
| Ariosto, ‘‘ Orlando Furioso” (Italian) . 1516 
| Camoens’ ‘* Lusiad”’ (Portuguese). 4 - 1569 
| Tasso, ‘‘ Jerusalem Delivered ” ([talian) . 1581 
| Spenser’s “‘ Faery Queen” A 1590-6 
Milton’s ‘‘ Paradise Lost” . F “ . 1667 
Voltaire, ‘‘ Henriade ” (French) ; : ; . 1728 
Walter Scott, ‘‘ Lay of the Last Minstrel,” &c. . . 1805 


EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus 
of Gargettus, near Athens, about 300 B.c., taught 
that the greatest good consists in peace of mind 
springing from virtue, as tending to prevent dis- 
quiet: but the name epicurean is frequently given 
to those who derive happiness from sensual plea- 
(See Atoms.) 


EPIDAURUS (Greece), celebrated for the 


EPIDEMIC PREVENTION ACT. 


302 


temple of Asclepius, or Asculapius, god of medicine, 
and enriched by gifts from persons healed. The 
Romans sent an embassy to seek the help of the 
god during a pestilence, and his worship was in- 
troduced at Rome, 293 B.c. The temple was visited 
by Amilius Paulus, after his conquest of Mace- 
donia, 167 B.C. 


EPIDEMIC PREVENTION ACT, 46 & 
47 Vict. c. 59, passed 25 Aug. 1883. 


EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SOCIETY, esta- 
blished in 1850. 


EPIGENESIS, see Spontaneous Generation. 


EPIGRAMS. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the 
Latin epigrammatist, who flourished about A.D. 83, 
is allowed to have excelled all others, ancient or 
modern. The following epigram on Christ’s turning 
water into wine (John iii.) is an example :—“ Vidit 
et erubuit lympha pudica Deum.” ‘The modest 
water saw its God, and blushed.” Crashaw (died 
1650). 

‘‘The Epigrammatists,” a collection by rev. H. P. Dodd, 

published 1870 and 1875. 


EPIPHANY (appearance), a feast (Jan. 6), 


termed Twelfth Day, celebrates the manifestation 
of the Saviour, by the appearance of the star which 
conducted the Magi to the place where he was to be 
found; instituted 813. Whately. 


EPIRUS (Northern Greece). 


is very obscure. 


The first Pyrrhus (Neoptolemus) settled in Epirus, 
after the Trojan war, 1170 B.c., and was killed in 


Its early history 


the temple of Delphi . : . about B.c. 1165 
Pyrrhus the Great reigns, 295; he takes Macedon 

from Demetrius, 290; compelled to yield to Lysi- 

machus : - : : : : 4 chee OT, 
He invades Italy ; defeats the Romans, 280; again, 

279; subdues Sicily 278 


He invades Italy again, and is totally defeated by 


Curius Dentatus at Beneventum 275 
He takes Macedon from Antigonus : : e273 
He unsuccessfully invades Sparta; enters Argos, and 

is killedeby a tile, thrown by a woman e72 
Philip unites Epirus to Macedon 22c 
Its conquest by the Romans 167 

* * * * * % 
Epirus annexed to the Ottoman empire A.D. 1466 
An insurrection against the Turks put down . - 1854 


EPISCOPACY, see Bishops. 


EPISTLES or Lerrers. An Egyptian letter 
about 1300 B.c. is translated in ‘‘ Records of the 
Past,” vol. 6. A letter was sent to Joab by David 
by the hands of Uriah, about 1035 B.c. (2 Sam. xi. 
14); see under article Bible. Horace Walpole, re- 
nowned for his letters, was born 5 Oct. 1717; died 
2 March, 1797. The collection entitled ‘‘ Elegant 
Fpistles,’’? commencing with Cicero, was published 
in 1790. It ends with an essay on letter writing by 
Dr. Johnson. 


EPITAPHS were inscribed on tombs by the 
Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, and Romans. Mr. T. J. 
Pettigrew published a collection entitled ‘* Chroni- 
cles of the Tombs,”’ in 1857. 


EPITHALAMIUM, a nuptial song at mar- 
riage. ‘Tisias, the lyric poet, is said to have been 
the first writer of one. He received the name of 
Stesichorus, from the alterations made by him in 
music and dancing, about 536 B.c. Dosswet. 


EPOCHS, points of time made remarkable 
by some event, from which subsequent years are 
reckoned by historians and chronologers; see Eras. 


Creation , ; ; : : ‘ # B.C! Aco” 


rs 
ERAS. 
Deluge § ; ; ‘ : a B.G, 2: 
rst Olympiad 5 f 4 s é 


Building of Rome . Z 3 . . 
See Anno Domini, Hegira, &e. 


EPPING FOREST, see Forests, note. 


EPSOM (Surrey). The mineral springs w: 
discovered in 1618. The races began about 17; 
and have been held annually since 1730. 


EQUATOR or EovApor, a South Americ 
republic, formerly Quito and other provinces, p: 
of Columbia, 1821; independent in 1831, when t 
Columbian republic was divided into three; t 
other two being Venezuela and New Granada. T 
population of Equator is about 1,040,400, of whi 
76,000 are in Quito, the capital. 

Presidents: general Franco, 21 Aug. 1859; defeated 
in battle by general Flores ; ; AUgaaES 
G. G. Moreno ‘ : . ‘ A Jar. x6 
Geronimo Carrion, 4 Aug. 1865; disputes with the 
chambers; resigns . < : 3 .  Dechmes 
Dr. Xavier Espinosa was elected president, 13 Sept. , 
Dr. Gabriel Garcia Moreno, president, end of x 
President Moreno assassinated, 6 Aug.; state of 
siege proclaimed, Sept. 1875; Veintiinille, presi- 

dent . i . r : . : . Sept. 76 
Revolt; constitutionalarmy under Aparicio defeated 

at Galte . i 14 Dec, , 


Eruption of Cotopaxi a 25 June, r° 
Alfaro dictator . : H Jan. 18 
Jose Maria Placido Caamano, president r2 Feb. 18 


See Larthquakes, 1868. 


EQUESTRIAN ORDER in Rome beg; 
with Romulus, about 750 B.c.; see Knighthood. 


EQUINOX. When the sun in his progr 
passes through the equator in one of the equino 
tial points, the day and night are equal all oy 
the globe. This occurs twice in the year: abo 
21 March, the vernal equinox, and 22 Sept., tl 
autumnal equinox. The equinoctial points mo 
backwards about 50 seconds yearly, requiring 25,0% 
years to accomplish a complete revolution. Tis 
called the precession of the equinoxes, which 
said to have been observed by the ancient astron 
mers, 


EQUITY, Courts oF, are those of the lo 
chancellor, the vice-chancellors, and the master: 
the rolls, their office being to correct the operatioi 
of the literal text of the law, and supply its defee 
by reasonable construction not admissible in a cou 
of law. The supreme court of session in Sco 
land combines the functions of law and equity. ] 
1865 equity powers were conferred on the count 
courts for cases respecting sums under 500/. 8 
Supreme Court, in which law and equity 2 
combined. 


ERAS. The principal are more fully notict 
in their alphabetical order. 


Common Era (English Bible, Usher, &e.) . 
Era of the Jews : . : F F c 3 
Era of Constantinople, 1 Sept. 5508; of Antioch, — 
1 Sept. 54 
Era of Nabonassar, after which the astronomical 
observations made at Babylon were reckoned, — 
began 26 Feb. 7. 
Era of the Selewcide (used by the Maccabees), 
commenced 3: 
The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date 
from 1 July, 776 B.c.; they subsequently reck- 
oned by indictions, the first beginning A.D. 313; 
these, among chronologers, are still used (see 
Indictions). 
The Romans reckoned from the founding of their 
city, A.U.c. (anno urbiscondite) . ; : - 
Spanish Era (of the conquest of Spain), Varre, 752, 
Cato the Elder; the 16th year of the emperor — 
Augustus (see Cesars), long used by the Spaniards, — 
A.D.1dan. $ 


B.C, 40 
7! 


_ ERASTIANISM. 303 ESTE. 
© Diocletian or Martyrs, began . 29 Aug. 284 ESPARTO, from the Latin 8 eas stipa 
fahometans began their era from eae Gon | Lenacissima of ‘Linneus, a Deaittahee used tie 


light of their prophet from Mecca 
f te mdityo, used in India began B.c.  -. 57 
ee Creation, Cali Yuga, Anno Donini, Calendar. 


2ASTIANISM, the opinions of Thomas 
x (latinised Hrastws), a German physician 
-83), who taught that the church had no 
to exclude any person from church ordi- 
ss, to inflict excommunication, &c. Persons 
acknowledge the jurisdiction of the civil power 
iritual matters and the law of patronage are 
termed Erastians. 


2ASURES. By order of sir John Romilly, 
x of the rolls, in 1855, no document corrected 
rasure with the knife was to be henceforth 
red in his court. The errors must be corrected 
the pen. It is so in the army courts. 


,DINGTON ORPHANAGE, &c.; sec 


ans’ -houses. 


,FURT (Central Germany), was founded in 

and its university established about 1390. 
t was ceded to Prussia in 1802. It capitu- 
to Murat, when 14,000 Prussian troops surren- 
, 16 Oct. 1806. In this city Napoleon and 
mder met, and offered peace to England, 27 
1808. The French retreated to Erfurt from 
ic, 18 Oct. 1813. A German parliament met 
n March and April, 1850. 


tICSSON’S CALORIC ENGINE, see 


note. 


IVAN (Armenia), in the 16th century the 
nee of the shahs of Persia, was taken by the 
} in 1553 and 1582; but recovered by Abbas 
reat, 1604. After being several times cap- 
‘it was ceded to Persia, 1769. It was taken 
skiewitch in 1827, and annexed to Russia by 
‘in Feb. 1828. 


IZEROUM (Asiatic Turkey), a city built 
eodosius II., 415; taken by the Seljuk Turks 
a century, and by the Ottoman Turks in 
t was captured by the Russian general 
»witch, June, 1829, but restored in 1830. Itwas 
; totally destroyed by earthquakes, 2 June to 
y, 1859. 
CHEATS. Land or other property that 
io a lord within his manor by forfeiture or 
The escheator observes the rights of the 
a the county whereof he is escheator. Cowéel. 
adon a court of escheats was held before the 
ayor to recover the property of a bastard who 
atestate, for the king 16 July, 1771; such a 
had not been held in the city for 150 years 
. Phillips. 


SOMBRERA BAY, BATTLE OF; sce 
, II Oct. 1873. 


CURIAL, properly Escorran (25 miles 
of Madrid), the magnificent palace of the 
igns of Spain, termed the eighth wonder of 
orld, was commenced by Philip II. in 1563, 
mpleted in 1586, at a cost of about 10,000,000/. 
yuilt in the form of a gridiron in honour of 
wwrence, on whose day (10 Aug. 1557) the 
tds gained the victory of St. Quentin. Ac- 
3 to Francisco de los Santos the total length 
ts rooms and apartments is above 120 English 
The Escurial comprises a church, mauso- 
‘monastery, palace, library, and museum. It 
‘tuck by lightning and caught fire 11.30 p.m. 
1872, and was much damaged; but the 
library and other treasures were preserved. 


Romans for whip-thongs, and now largely employed 
in paper-making. In 1856 about 50 tons, in 1870 
above 100,000 tons, were imported into Britain. 
The price has risen from 4/. to rol. per ton, 
ae plants were received at Newcastle, July, 
1867. 


ESPIERRES (Belgium). At Pont-a-Chin, 
near this village, the French, under Pichegru, 
attacked the allied English and Austrian army 
(100,000 men), commanded by the duke of York, 
and were repulsed after a long and desperate en- 
gagement, losing the advantages gained by the 
victory at Turcoing, 22 May, 1794. 


ESPRIT, Sarnt (or Holy Ghost), the title of 
an order of knighthood, founded by Henry III. of 
France in 1578, and abolished in 1791. 


ESQUIRES, among the Greeks and Romans, 
were armour-bearers to, or attendants on a knight. 
Blount. In England the king created esquires by 
paeene about their necks the collars of SS, and 

estowing upon them a pair of silver spurs. John 
de Kingston was created a squire by patent, 13 
Richard IT., 1389-90. 


“ESSAYS anp REVIEWS,” by six clergy- 
men and one layman of the church of England (the 
Rey. Drs. Fred. Temple and Rowland Williams, 
Beth ae Baden Powell, H. B. Wilson, Mark 

attison, and professor B. Jowett, and Mr. C. W. 
Goodwin) were published in an 8vo vol. in March, 
1860. The book did not excite much attention at 
first, but having been severely censured for hetero- 
dox views by nearly all the bishops and many of 
the clergy, it created much excitement in 1861, 
and was condemned by convocation 24 June, 1864. 
The ecclesiastical courts sentenced the revs. R. 
Williams and H. B. Wilson to suspension for one 
year, and costs, 15 Dec. 1862; but on appeal the 
sentence was reversed by the judicial committee of 
the privy council, 8 Feb. 1864. The most remark- 
able amongst the works put forth in opposition (in 
1862) are the ‘‘ Aids to Faith,” edited by the bishop 
of Gloucester (W. Thomson, now abp. of York), 
and “Replies to Essays and Reviews,” edited by 
the bishop of Oxford (S. Wilberforce). The elec- 
tion of Dr. Temple to the see of Exeter was much 
opposed on account of his essay in this collection; 
see Church of England, 1869. 


ESSENES, an ascetic Jewish sect at the time 
of Christ. 


ESSEX, KINGDOM OF; see under Britain. 
EARLS OF ESSEX (from Nicolas). 


Geoffrey de Mandeville, created earl of Essex by 
Matilda, was slain : Z - 14 Sept. r1r44 
Humphrey de Bohun, succeeded by right of his mo- 
ther, Mary, sister of William, who died without heir x 189 
Humphrey de Bohun, died without heir 


. 1372 
Thomas of Woodstock, son of Edward III. 1372; "g 
murdered : : : ; : : 1307 
Henry Bourchier (grandson) : 3 ees ADE 
Henry Bourchier, grandson; died without heir 
(earldom extinct) . : : : ; 1539 
Thomas Cromwell, 1539; beheaded I540 
William Parr, 1543; attainted . 1543 
Walter Devereux, 1572; died ‘ : 21576 
Robert Devereux, lord lieut. of Ireland, 1509; cen- 
sured for misgovernment ; conspired against the 
government ; beheaded, 25 Feb. : 1601 
Robert, son ; died without heir . 1646 
Arthur Capel, ancestor of the present earl . 166r 


ESSLING, BATTLE oF, see -Asperne. 
ESTE, Hovssk or. Boniface, count of Lucca 


ESTELLA. 


and duke of Tuscany, about 811, is said to have 
descended from Odoacer, king of Italy. From 
Boniface sprang Albert Azzo II. maruiqs of Italy 
and lord of Este, born about 996, who married— 
first, Cunegonda of the house of Guelf, by whom he 
had Guelf, duke of Bavaria, the ancestor of the 
house of Brunswick (see Bavaria and Brunswick) ; 
and secondly, Gersonda, by whom he had Fulk, 
the ancestor of the Estes, dukes of Ferrara and 
Modena. 


ESTELLA, N. Spain. In a conflict at Petia 
Mura, near this place, 25-28 June, 1874, the repub- 
licans were repulsed, and their general, Manuel de 
Concha (aged 66), killed, by the Carlists, 27 June. 


ESTHONIA or REVEL, a Russian province, 
said to have been conquered by the Teutonic 
knights in the 12th century; after various changes 
-it was ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Oliva, 3 
May, 1660, and finally to Russia by the peace of 
Nystadt, 30 Aug. 1721, having been conquered by 
Peter in 1710. 

ETATS, see States. 

ETCHING, see Engraving. 

ETHER was known to the earliest chemists. 
Nitric ether was first diseovered by Kunkel, in 
1681; and muriatic ether, from the chloride of tin, 
by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was dis- 
covered by count Lauraguais, same year; and 
hydriotic ether was first prepared by Gay-Lussac. 
The phosphoric ether was obtained by M. Boullay. 
The discovery that by inhaling ether the patient is 
rendered unconscious of pain, is due to Dr. Charles 
T. Jackson, of Boston, U.S. Mr. Thomas Morton, 
of the same place, first introduced it into surgical 
practice, under Dr. Jackson’s directions (1846) ; see 
Chloroform, and Amylene. The term ‘‘ether’’ was 
applied to the transparent celestial space by the 
German astronomer Encke, about 1829, when 
studying the elements of Pons’ comet, discovered in 
1818. 


ETHICS (Greek term for Morals). The works 
of Plato, Aristotle, and Confucius, contain heathen 
systems ; the New Testament is that of Christianity. 
Paley’s Moral Philosophy appeared in 1785, and 
Whewell’s Elements of Morality in 1845. 


ETHIOPIA, The name was applied anciently 
rather vaguely to countries the inhabitants of 
which had sun-durnt complexions, in Asia and 
Africa; but is now considered to apply properly to 
the modern Nubia, Sennaar, and Northern Abyssinia. 
Many pyramids exist at Napata, the capital of 
Meroé, the civilised part of ancient Ethiopia. 

The Ethiopians settle near Egypt ; oh) B.C. rors 
Zerah, the Ethiopian, defeated by Asa . 5 a) Coys 
A dynasty of Ethiopian kings reigned over Egypt 
765 to 715 
Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, marches against Senna- 


cherib : : : : 2 ‘ 710 
Unsuccessful invasion of Cambyses 5 525-522 
Ptolemy III. Euergetes extended his conquests in 

Ethiopia . 5 : : - : A : + 225 
Candace, queen of Meroé, advancing against the 

Roman settlement at Hlephantine, defeated and 

subdued by Petronius : A.D. 22-23 


ETHNOLOGY, a branch of Anthropology, is 
detined as the science ‘‘which determines the dis- 
tinctive characters of the persistent modifications of 
mankind, their distribution, and the causes of the 
modifications and distribution.” The study of the 
relations of the different divisions of mankind to 
each other is of recent origin. Balbi’s Ethnographic 
Atlas was published in 1826, and Dr. Prichard’s 
great work, Researches on the Physical History of 


304 


ETRURIA. 


Mankind, 1841-7. The Ethnological | 
established in 1843, published transactions. 
Jan. 1871, it was amalgamated with the An 
logical Society, (eich see) and named the An 
logical Institute. Dr. R. G. Latham’s we 
the Ethnology of the British Empire, app 
1851-2. Professor T. H. Huxley gave co 
lectures on Ethnology at the Royal Inst 
London, May and June, 1866, 1867. 


ETHYL, a compound radicle, a colour! 
with a slightly ethereal odour, a compo 
carbon and hydrogen, first obtained in the fi 
by professor Edw. Frankland in 1849. Se 
its compounds with metals take fire on expr 
the air. 

ETNA, Movnt (Sicily). Here were th 
forges of the Cyclops: and it is called by 
the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are menti 
Diodorus Siculus as happening 1693 B. 
Thucydides speaks of three eruptions as o¢ 
"34, 477, and 425 8.c. There were eruptio 
I2I, and 43 B.c. Livy. 
Eruptions, A. D. 40, 254, and 420. 
One in ro12. Geoffrey de Viterbo. 
One overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000 inhabita 

perished in the burning ruins : i ; 

Eruptions, 1329, 1408, 1445, 1536, 1537, 1564, et st 

In 1669, when tens of thousands of persons peris! 
in the streams of lava which rolled over the wh 
country for forty days. 

Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and in M 
1830, when several villages were destroyed, : 
showers of lava reached near to Rome. 

The town of Bronte was destroyed . iN 

Violent eruption oecurred in . Aug. and Se 

An eruption began on 1 Feb., and ceased in July 

Violent eruption began a 28 N 

Another eruption began . . : 

Violent eruption - 26 May—7 Ju 

Eruption . 3 : . 22 March—4 Ap 


ETON COLLEGE  (Buckinghar 
founded by Henry VI. in 1440, and design 
nursery to King’s College, Cambridge. 
Stanbery, confessor to Henry VI. (bishop of - 
in 1448), was nominated the first provost. 
the provosts, William Waynflete, (bishop o 
chester, 1447) greatly promoted the erectior 
buildings. Besides about three hundred nob 
and gentlemen’s sons, there were seventy 
scholars on the foundation, who, when I 
qualified, were formerly elected, on the first 4 
in August, to King’s College, Cambridge, | 
moved there when there were vacancies, ac 
to seniority. The establishment of the Mo 
nearly coeval with the college. It consiste 
procession of the scholars, arrayed in fancy 
to Salt-hill once in three years; the donati 
lected on the road (sometimes as much a: 
were given to the senior or best scholar, their: 
for his support while studying at Cambridg: 
montem was discontinued in 154i, The 
system was modified by the Public Schools ac 
In 1873 election Saturday ceased, the schola 
students at Cambridge being chosen there. . 
there were 853 students. 


ETRURIA (or TuscrA, hence the 
name Tuscany), a province of Italy, whe: 
Romans, in a great measure, derived thei 
customs, and superstitions. Herodotus asse: 
the country was conquered by a colony of L 
The subjugation of this country forms an im 
part of early Roman history. It was most p 
under Porsena of Clusium, who attempted | 
state the Tarquins, 5063B.c. Veii was ta 
Camillus, 396 B.c. A truce between the | 
and Etrurians for forty years was concluded, 


Carrera. 


29 Al 


EUBGA. 


305 


HUXINE. 


he latter and their allies were defeated at the 
‘adimonian lake, 310, with the Boii their allies, 
$3 B.c., and totally lost their independence about 
6 B.c. The vases and other works of the Etrus- 
ans still remaining show the degree of their 
yilisation. Napoleon I. established a kingdom of 
truria, 1801, and suppressed it 1807, see Zscany.— 
The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria,’’ by George 
lennis, published 1848 and 1878. Ltrwria, Staf- 
wdshire, the site of Josiah Wedgwood’s porcelain 
orks, &c., was founded in 1771. 


EUBGSA, the largest island in the Meean sea. 
wo of its cities, Chalcis and Eretria, were very 
portant, till the former was subdued by Athens, 
4 B.C, and the latter by the Persians, 490. After 
te Persian war, Eubcea became wholly subject to 
thens, and was its most valuable possession. It 
volted in 4451 but was soon subdued by Pericles. 
fter the battle of Cheeronea, 338, it became subject 
-Macedon. It was made independent by the 
omans in 194; but was afterwards incorporated in 
@ province of Achaia. It now forms part of the 
ngdom of Greece. 


EUCALYPTUS GLOBULUS, or Blue 
um Tree, a very fast growing Tasmanian ever- 
een, of the order Myrtacee. From the extraor- 
nary power of its roots of absorbing moisture, and 
le salutary aromatic odour of its leaves, it has 
en found highly beneficial in counteracting the 
alaria of marshy districts of hot climates, and 
mee has been named the fever-destroying tree. 
. Ramel first sent seeds from Melbourne to Paris 
| 1854, and subsequently seeds were distributed 
er the south of Europe, the north and south of 
Es, and elsewhere. He died in 1881. 

So rapid is the growth of this tree, that a forest may 
‘formed in twenty years, it sometimes reaches the 
ht of 350 feet, with a circumference of 100 feet, 
g Wellingtonia gigantea, which see. 

le timber, bark, and oils of the Eucalyptus are 
thly valuable, and professor Bentley says that the 
hus is one of the most important to man in the vege- 
dle kingdom, In 1874 its medicinal value was said to 
ve been exaggerated. 

EUCHARIST, thanksgiving, an early name 


‘the Lord’s Supper; see Sacrament. 


EUCLID’S ELEMENTS. Euclid, a native 

Alexandria, flourished about 300 B.c. The 
ements are not wholly his; for many of the 
monstrations were derived from Thales, Pytha- 
tas, Hudoxus, and others; Euclid reduced them 
order, and probably inserted many theorems of 
‘own. The Elements were first printed at Basil 
Simon Grynzeus, in 1533. 


EUDIOMETER, an apparatus to ascertain 
+ purity of atmospheric air, or the quantity of 
‘ygen gas or vital air contained in it; one was 
rented by Dr. Priestley, in 1772. 


BUGENICS, see Heredity. 
HUGUBINE TABLES, seven tablets of 


(88, probable date about 400 B.c., (with inscrip- 
‘srelating to sacrifices, &c., four in Umbrian, two 
‘fin, and one partly in both dialects), were disco- 
‘fed in 1444 at Gubbio, the ancient Eugubium or 
ivium. € inscriptions are accurately given by 
pSius, in his ‘‘ Inscriptiones Umbrice et Osce,” 
| feet 

EUNUCHS, first mentioned among the Egyp- 
MS and Assyrians, and said to have been first 
ployed b emiramis, queen of Assyria, about 
%7%.c. Kunuchs frequently attained to political 
‘Ver in the later Eastern empire. 

Pe 
eS 


| 


EUPATORIA (Kos erp), a sea-port on the 
west coast of the Crimea. After the allied French, 
English, and Turkish armies landed in the Crimea, 
14 Sept. 1854, a detachment under captain Brock 
occupied this place, which was afterwards reinforced 
by the Turks. It was attacked 17 Feb. 1855, by 
40,000 Russians under Liprandi. The latter Were 
repulsed with the loss of 500 men by the Turks, 
whose loss was only 50, among which, however, 
was Selim Pasha, the commander of the Egyptian 
contingent. 


EUPHRATES Vauitey Rariway, as a 
speedy means of reaching India, has been much 
advocated, especially by the late gencral Chesney, 
who published his survey of the Euphrates and 
Tigris in 1850. A parliamentary commission reported 
on it, Aug. 1872, when it was also considered at the 
meeting of the British association at Brighton. 
The construction would cost from five to ten millions 
sterling, and its advantages are considered rather 
hypothetical by the best judges. 


EKUPHUISM, an affected style of language, 
prevalent in the time of Elizabeth, arose from 
‘*Euphues; the Anatomy of Wit,’ by John Lyly, 
published in 158r. 

EURASIAN PLAIN, the great central plain 


of Europe and Asia, so named by ethnologists 
(1865). 

EUROPE, the smallest of the three divisions 
of the old continent, really an appendage of Asia; 
area, nearly 3,800,000 square miles; population, 
301,700,000 (1872) ; 310,675,966 (1877) ; 330,321,680 
(1884). For the history, see Greece, Rome, and the 
modern kingdoms. 


EUROPEAN ASSURANCE Company, 


see Jnsurance. 


EURYDICE, H.M.S. frigate, foundered in a 
squall off Dunnose, near Ventnor, Isle of Wight, 
24 March, 1878; see Navy and Wrecks, 1878. 


EURYMEDON, a river in Pamphylia, near 


|; Which Cimon, son of Miltiades, destroyed the fleet 


of the Persians at Cyprus, and defeated their land 
forces, 466 B.C. 


EUSTACE, ST. (Lower Canada). The rebels 
were defeated here, 14 Dec. 1837, and compelled 
to surrender their arms. Their chiefs fled. 


EUSTATIUS, ST., a West India island, set- 
tled by the Dutch, 1632; taken by the French in 
1689; by the British in 1690; again by the British 
forces under Rodney and Vaughan, 3 Feb. 1781. 
It was recovered by the French under the marquis 
de Bouillé, 26 Nov. same year; captured by the 
British, 1801, 1810; restored to the Dutch, 1814. 


EUSTON SQUARE Mystury, see Zriais, 
July, 1879. 


EUTAW SPRINGS (S. Carolina). Here the 
Americans were defeated by the British under 


Arnold, 8 Sept. 1781. 
EKUTYCHIANS, so called from Eutyches, an 


abbot of Constantinople, who asserted in 446 that 
there was but one nature in Christ, the human 
having been absorbed in the divine. This doctrine 
was condemned by councils—at Constantinople in 
448, and at Chalcedon in 451. It has been also 
called Monophysite (of one nature), and Jacobite, 
from Jacobus Baradzeus, its zealous defender in the 
6th century. It is the form of Christianity now 
existing among the Copts and Armenians. 


EUXINE, see Black Sea. 
x 


EVACUATION TREATY. 


306 


EVACUATION TREATY, see France, 
Sept. 1871. 


EVANGELICAL, a term applied to a portion 
of the clergy of the church of England (also called 
the low church), who profess to preach the gospel 
more purely than their brethren termed the high 
church party; see Church of England. 


The Evangelical Alliance was founded by sir Culling 
Eardley Smith and others at Liverpool in 1845, with the 
view of promoting unity among all denominations of 
Protestant Christians against Romanism and infidelity. 
It holds annual meetings. It met in Sept. 1857, at 
Berlin, where it was well received by the king. The 
tgth meeting was held at Hull, 3 Oct. 1865; the 2oth at 
Bath, 16 Oct. 1866; the 21stat Amsterdam, Aug. 1867; 
at Derby, 23-28 Nov. 1869. Lord Ebury presided at a 
day of united prayer for the issue of the general election 
about to take place, 1 Oct. 1868. The proposed confer- 
ence at New York in Sept. 1870, deferred on account of 
the war, took place Oct. 1873. The Alliance met at 
Geneva, 23-28 Sept. 1872 ; at Brighton, 22-24 April, 1873 ; 
at Oxford, 29 Aug. 1874; at Constantinople, March, 1875 ; 
at Southport, 3 Oct., 1876; at Oxford, 25 Oct. 1877; at 
Basle, 2 Sept. 1878; and at Edinburgh, 28 Oct., 1879 ; 
Liverpool, 25 Oct. 1881 ; Norwich, 16 Oct. 1883 ; Copen- 
hagen, 30 Aug. 1884; Brighton, 28 Oct. 1884. 

The ‘‘ Evangelical Church” in Germany began with a 
fusion of the Lutherans and Calvinists in Nassau in 
1817; followed by similar movements in different parts 
of Germany, 1818-22. 


EVANGELISTS, preachers of the ‘‘ gospel,” 


or good news; see Gospels. 


EVELINA HOSPITAL, Southwark, esta- 
blished in 1869 by baron Ferdinand de Rothschild, 
in memory of his wife, and since maintained by 
eee Its enlargement by public aid was proposed 
in 1871. 


EVENING SCHOOLS for adults of the lower 
classes were strongly recommended by bishop Hinds 
in 1839, and by the committee of the Privy Council 
on Education in 1861. One was set up at Bala in 
Wales by the rey. T. Charles in 1811. 


EVESHAM (Worcestershire), where prince 
Edward, afterwards Edward I., defeated the barons 
headed by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, 
4 Aug. 1265, when the earl, his son Henry, and 
most of his adherents were slain. Henry III. at 
one period of the battle was on the point of being 
cut down by a soldier who did not know him, but 
was saved by exclaiming, ‘‘ Do not kill me, soldier; 
Iam Henry of Winchester, thy king!’ This vic- 
tory broke up the combination of the barons. 


EVIDENCH, Law of, regulated By 4&1 ° 
Vict., c. 99 (1851), 16 & 17 Vict., c. 83 (1853), 32 
33 Vict., c. 68 21869). 

Mr. Labouchere’s application for a mandamus of 
the Court of Queen’s Bench to compel sir Robert 
Carden to hear irrelevant evidence, refused 20 Noy. 1879 


EVIL MAY-DAY (1 May, 1517), thus called 
on account of the violence of the apprentices and 
populace, directed against foreigners, particularly 
the French. The rioters were headed by one 
Lincoln, who, with 15 others, was hanged; and 

oo more in their shirts, and bound with ropes, and 
halters about their necks, were carried to West- 
minster; but they crying ‘‘mercy, mercy!” were all 
pardoned by the king, Henry VIII. 


EVOLUTION THEORY includes the 
nebular theory and Mr. Darwin’s doctrine of natural 
selection; see Development, and Progressionists. 

In 1877 three forms of evolution were discussed :— 
x. That of all animals gradually from the lowest form 
the amoeba, up to man, in opposition to the Biblical 
account of the creation ; 2, that of every animal from 


EXCHEQUER. 


protoplasm in a cell, or egg; 3. that of all the | 
of an animal from its blood. 


EXALTATION, see Cross. 
EXAMINATIONS of candidates for emy 


ment in the civil service has been enforced s 
1855. Mr. Gladstone in 1862 said that the pr« 
might be termed the ‘‘age of examinations ;’’ 
Civil Service. 


EXAMINER, liberal weekly journal, e: 
lished Jan. 1808; extinct; last number, 26 
1881. 


EXAMINER OF STAGE PLAYS 
office under the lord chamberlain, now hel 
Mr. E. F. 8. Pigott, appointed 25 Aug. 1 
His more recent predecessors were, George Coll 
Chas. Kemble, and his son John Mitchell Ken 
and Mr. Wm. Bodham Donne (1857-74). 


EXARCHS, appointed by the Byzantine 
perors of the East, to govern central Italy afte 
conquest by Belisarius and Narses, 548. ‘They1 
Ravenna from 568 to 752, when Eutychus, the 
was overcome by Astolphus the Lombard. 
Exarch in the church was next in dignity to 
patriarch. 


EXCHANGE, formerly Bourse, the I 
Exchange being ‘‘ Britain’s Burse;’’ that at | 
is still named ‘‘ Za Bourse,” from bursa, a p 
One called Collegium Mercatorum existed at R 
493 B.o.. The Eexchenas at Amsterdam was 1 
oned the finest structure of the kind in the w 
Many edifices of this name in the United King 
are magnificent; see Royal Exchange, and Bil 
Exchange. 


EXCHEQUER, an ancient institution, 
sisting of officers with financial and judicial f 
tions: the chancellor of the exchequer, the fina: 
officer, formerly sat in the court of exchequer a 
the barons. The first chancellor was Eustae 
Fauconbridge, bishop of London, in the reig 
Henry III. about 1221. Sir Robert Walpole 
the last chancellor of the exchequer who ¢ 
judicially (in 1735). The legal function of 
chancellor was abolished by the Judicature 
Aug. 1873. The orci stopped payment : 
Jan. to 24 May, Charles II. 1673. Stow. 
English and Irish exchequers were consolidat 
1816; see Chancellors of the Exchequers, and 1 


Office. 


EXCHEQUER BILLs. The government securities, so ¢ 
said to have been invented by Montague, aftery 
earl of Halifax, were first issued in 1697, and firs 
culated by the bank in 1796. These bills, of v 
more than twenty millions sterling are often in ¢ 
lation, are in effect accommodation notes of go 
ment, that are issued in anticipation of taxes, at 
interest; and being received for taxes, and paid b 
bank in lieu of taxes, in its dealings with the exche 
they usually bear a premium. Amount in cireulé 
56,974,780l. in 1817; in 1854, 16,008, 70ol. 

Robert Aslett, a cashier of the bank of England, 
for embezzling exchequer bills, and found not 
on account of the invalidity of the bills, thoug! 
actual loss to the bank amounted to 342,697/., 13 
1803. 

Mr. Beantians Smith tried for forging exchequer bi: 
the amount of 350,000l. ; pleaded guilty; sentenc 
transportation, 4 Dec. 1841. 

EXCHEQUER Bonps, a species of public securities, 1 
duced by Mr. W. E. Gladstone, in 1853, have not 
well received. 

TELLERS OF THE EXCHEQUER. Besides chamberlai 
the exchequer, clerks of the pells, and auditor o 
exchequer (offices which have all been disconti 
since their last avoidance in Oct. 1826, or by surTt 
or abolition, in Oct. 1834), there were the four Incr 


_—s#HXCHEQUER. 


307 


EXCISE. 


offices of tellers of the exchequer, also abolished, 10 


Oct. 1834. f 

John Jeffreys Pratt, earl, afterwards marquis Camden, 
was appointed a teller of the exchequer, in 1780, and 
held the appointment until his death, in 1840. During 

_ nearly half of this long term he relinquished the income 
(amounting in the whole to upwards of a quarter of a 
million sterling) and placed it at the service of the state, 
as it annually accrued. 


COMPTROLLER-GENERAL OF THE EXCHEQUER. Thisoffice . 
was created on the abolition of the offices of the auditor | 
and the four tellers of the exchequer, and the clerk of | 
the pells, inentioned in the preceding paragraph. The | 
first comptroller-general was sir John Newport, ap- | 


pointed 11 Oct. 1834.—34,4381. per annum have been 
saved to the state by the retrenchments in this depart- 
ment of the government. 

JourT OF EXCHEQUER CHAMBER. Erected by Edward 
IIL, in 1357. It was remodelled by Elizabeth, in 1584, 
and then made to comprise the judges of all the courts. 
This court is for error from the judgments of the courts 

of queen’s bench, common pleas, and exchequer of 
pleas in actions commenced therein. Re-modelled by 
act2 Geo. IV. and x Will. IV. c. 70 (23 July, 1830). 

e Exchequer office, Westminster, was instituted by 

Henry IV. in 1399. 

CHANCELLORS OF THE EXCHEQUER. 
Tenry Addington (aft. lord Sidmouth) 21 March, 18or 
Win. Pitt (premier) . : 16 May, 1804 


word Henry Petty (afterwards marquis of Lans- 
downe 2 : si : : .10 Feb. 1806 
spencer Perceval ; A 31 March, 1807 
And premier 6 Dec. 1809 (assassinated 11 May, 1812) 
Vicholas Vansittart (aft. lord Bexley) g June, 1812 
red. J. Robinson (afterwards lord Goderich and 

earl of Ripon) A - 31 Jan. 1823 | 
teorge Canning (premier) . April, 1827 
ohn C. Herries . 4 5 . Tiree 
Tenry Goulburn : : ‘ = - 26Jan. 1828 
‘iscount Althorp (aft. earl Spencer) . 22 Nov. 1830 
ir Robert Peel (premier) . : : «© soWec,-1834 
hos. Spring Rice (aft. lord Monteagle) 18 April, 1835 
vancis T. Baring (afterwards baronet) . 26 Aug. 1839 
fenry Goulburn . : : : : 3 Sept. 1841 
harles Wood (afterwards baronet, lord Halifax, 

1866 4 5 E é > 6 July, 1846 
‘enjamin Disraeli i . 21 Feb. 1852 
Villiam Ewart Gladstone . A 26) DEC, 35 
ir George Cornewall Lewis. A 5 March, 1855 
enjamin Disraeli, again . : A 27 Feb. 1858 
filliam Ewart Gladstone, again 2 June, 1859 
enjamin Disraeli, again . A 6 July, 1866 
eorge Ward Hunt. - 29 Feb. 1868 
Obert Lowe . : 5 < 4 Olea... 
‘iliam Ewart Gladstone (and premier) - Aug. 1873 
r Stafford Northcote  . : : . 21 Feb. 1874 
‘illiam Ewart Gladstone (and premier) 28 April, 1880 
‘ugh Culling Eardley Childers . : - Dec. 1882 


EXCHEQUER, Court oF (Curia Regis), 
(stituted by William I. on the model of the Trans- 
arine Exchequer of Normandy, in 1079; according 

some authorities, by Henry I. It included the 
‘mmon pleas until they were separated, 16 John, 

115. Coke's Reports. ‘The exchequer is so named 
om a chequered cloth which anciently covered the 
ble where the judges and chief officers sat.* Here 

¢ tried all causes relating to the king’s revenue ; 
ch as are concerning accounts, disbursements, 
stoms, and fines imposed, as well as all matters at 
‘mmon law between subject and subject. The 
-dges are styled barons, first appointed 1234. There 

*re a chief and four puisne barons: the fifth judge 
‘ving been added 23 July, 1830. The office of 
‘wsitor Baron was abolished in 1 56. For changes, 
‘© Supreme Court. The ancient court sat for last 


'" In process of time the court of exchequer became 

y enlarged in its jurisdiction, until at length it 
S$ not merely a revenue court and one at common law 
“tween subject and subject, but one in which suits in 
itty were also.instituted. In fact, until the act 5 Vict. 
qi (1841), the court of exchequer possessed a triple 
‘isdietion ; but, by this statute its equity business was 

asferred to the court of chancery. 


time, 10 July, 1875. The Exchequer division was 
abolished in 1881. See Supreme Court Judicature 
Act, passed 27 Aug. 1881. 


CHIEF BARONS. 
Sir Robert Atkins. 10 April. 
Sir Edward Ward. 10 June. 
Sir Samuel Dodd. 22 Noy. 
Sir Thomas Bury. 11 June. 
Sir James Montagu. 9 May. 
Sir Robert Eyre. 5 Dee. 
Sir Geoffrey Gilbert. x June. 
Sir Thomas Pengelly. 29 Oct. 
Sir James Reynolds. 30 April. 
Sir John Comyn. 7 July. 
Sir Edmund Probyn. 24 Nov. 
Sir Thomas Parker. 29 Nov. 
Sir Sidney Stafford Smythe. 29 Oct. 
Sir John Skynner. 17 Dee. 
Sir James Eyre. 26 Jan. 
Sir Archibald Macdonald. 
Sir Vicary Gibbs. 8 Nov. 
Sir Alexander Thomson. 
Sir Richard Richards. 
Sir William Alexander. 9 Jan. 
John, lord Lyndhurst. 18 Jan. Previously lord 

chancellor ; again lord chancellor, 1834. 
Sir James Scarlett. 24 Dee. Created lord Abinger, 
Jan. 1835. 
Sir Frederick Pollock. 15 April. 
Sir FitzRoy Kelly. 16 July, [died 17 Sept. 1880.] 
The last of the chief barons. 


CHIEF BARONS OF EXCHEQUER IN IRELAND, 


John Hely. 5 Dec. 

Robert Doyne. 10 May. 

Nehemiah Donnellan. 27 Dec. 

Richard Freeman. 25 June, 

Robert Rochfort. 12 June. 

Joseph Deane. 14 Oct. 

Jeffrey Gilbert. 16 June. 

Bernard Hale. g June. 

Thomas Dalton. 2 Sept. 

Thomas Marlay. 29 Sept. 

John Bowes. 2r Dee. 

Edward Willis. xz March. 

Anthony Foster. 5 Sept. 

James Dennis (aftds. baron Tracton). 3 July. 

Walter Hussey Burgh. 2 July. 

Barry Yelverton (afterwards viscount Avonmore). 
29 Nov. 

Standish O’Grady (aft. viscount Guillamore) 5 Oct. 

Henry Joy. 6 Jan. 

Stephen Woulfe. 20 July. 

Maziere Brady. 11 Feb. 

David Richard Pigott; 1 Sept., died 22 Dec. 1873. 

Christopher Palles, Jan. 


1689. 
1695. 
1714. 
1716. 
1722. 
1723. 
1725: 
1726. 
1730. 
1738. 
1740. 
1742. 
1772. 
1777. 
1787. 
1793- 
1813. 
1814. 
1817. 
1824. 
1831. 


12 Feb. 


24 Feb. 
22 April. 


1834. 


1844. 
1866, 


1690. 
1695. 
1703. 
17006. 
1707. 
1714. 
1715. 
1722. 
1725. 
1730. 
1741. 
1757- 
1766. 
1777. 
1782. 
1783. 


1805. 
1831. 
1838. 
1840. 
1846. 
1874. 


EXCISE. The system was established in 


_ England by the Long Parliament in 1643, duties 


being levied on wines, beer, &c., and tobacco, to 
support the army against CharlesI. It was con- 
tinued under Charles II. The present system was 
settled about 1733. The old excise office was built 
on the site of Gresham college in 1774; the present 
is at Somerset-house. The officers of excise and 
customs were deprived of their votes for returning 
members to parliament in 1782; but received them 
again in 1868. In 1849 the boards of excise, 
stamps and taxes, were united, as ‘‘the board of 
commissioners of inland revenue.” Notwithstand- 
ing the abolition of the excise duty upon numerous 
articles, and the reduction of duty upon, Various 
others, of late years, the total excise revenue, so far 
from having decreased, has progressively advanced 
(1847 and 1861 excepted) in its aggregate annual 
amount. Additional excise duties were charged by 
17 & 18 Vict. c. 27, July 3, 1854. The excise duties 
were further modified in 1860; see Revenue. 


REVENUE FROM EXCISE. 
Great Britain. 


- £3,754,072 | 1808. - 


- £19,867,9174 
5,540,114 | 1820 


364,702 
<7 


1744 
1786 


° . 


EXCLUSION BILL. 


308 


1827 (United 1870 to Mar. 31. £21,879,238 

Kingdom)  . £20,995,324 | 1871 a 33 22;833,907 
1830. 2 18,644,335 | 1872 AD 32 23,386,064 
1834 16,877,292 | 1873 55, 45, 25,904,450 
1837 14,518,142 | 1874 » ” 27,115,969 
1840 . 12,607,766 | 1875 re 99. 27)254,132 
1845. 13,585,583 | 1876 ,, 5, 27,569,323 
1847 - 12,883,678 | 1877 ”» oy 27,681,523 
1848. 13,919,652 | 1878 > 9» 27,710,514 
1850 . 15,278,208 | 1879 s 3) 27,186,021 
1858 to Mar. “31. I7,901,545 | 1880 gy ty 2532185303 
TOO Sunes 9» 20,240,467 | 1881 ‘7 33 2593725003 
1865 ” »» 19,428,324 | 1882 ” 2 27,170,798 
1868 » 93 20,190,338 | 1883 ” > 26 ,982,916 
1869 As 95 20,475,740 | 1884 e 33 27,048,051 


EXCLUSION BILL (to exclude the duke of 
York, afterwards James II., from the throne), was 
passed by the commons, but rejected by the lords in 
1680. The revival of the question led to the disso- 
lution of parliament in 1681. 


EXCOMMUNICATION, or ‘separation from 
Christian communion (Matt. xviii. 17; I Cor. v., 
&ce.), was instituted to preserve the purity of the 
church. The Roman church excommunicated by 
Bell, Book, and Candle (which see). See Interdict. 
Gregory VII. excommunicated the emperor 

Henry IV., and absolved his subjects from 

their allegiance i. 

Innocent IL. excommunicated J ohn of England, 


placing the country under an interdict 1208-14 
Gregory IX. excommunicated the emperor 
Frederick II. four times between . 1228-45 | 


Louis XII. of France was excommunicated by 
Julius II. 1510; Luther by Leo X. 1521; Henry 
VIII. of England by Paul III. in 1535; and 
Elizabeth by ‘Pius V. . 25 April, 1570 

The emperor of France, the king ‘of Sardinia, and 
others, were virtually excommunicated (but not 
by name) on account of the annexation of the 
Romagna by Sardinia : 29 March, 


EXECUTIONS, see Crime. In the reign of 
Henry VIII. (38 years) it is said that no less a 
number than 72,000 criminals were executed. Stow. 
In the ten years between 1820 and 1830, there were 
executed in England alone 797 criminals; but as our 
laws became less severe, the number of executions 
decreased. In the three years ending 1820, the 
executions in England and Wales amounted to 
312; in the three. years ending 1830, they were 
I 178: ; in the three years ending 1840, they were 62. 
The place of execution in London (formerly gene- 

rally at Tyburn) was in front of Newgate from 1783 
to 1868, when an act was passed directing execu- 
tions to take place within the walls of prisons. The 
dissection of the bodies of executed persons was 
abolished in 1832, see Death, 1868. 


John Calcraft, born 1800, executioner for London, 1828- 
1871, died 13 Dec. 1879 ; his successor, Wm. Marwood, 
died 4 Sept. 1883. 

EXECUTIONS IN LONDON. 

1820, 43 ;—1825, 17 ;—1830, 6 ;—1835, o ;—1836, o ;— 
1837, 2 ;—1838, 0 ;— 1839, 2 ;—1840, 1 ;—1842, 2;—1843, 0; 
1844, 1 ;—1845, 3 ;—1846, 2. 

IN ENGLAND. 
England, London. 
8 Z 


1860 


England. Da a 


186 


1847 « - I Lie “1 L5 ic 
F945 4p) = ple < 2 TS62 Oi aro A 2 
1849 « By a ° 1863 . - 22 . 1 
1350 4 6 ° 1864 - - 19 8 
EOq} Pee ta ° 1865. PMs: 2 
1852 9 I E8660 aes LZ I 
1853 - 8 I 1867. Aya: 2 
E554 2 jeg 35 ° TOOG sane peeLe 2 
1855 . 7 A 2 1869 . . 10 3 
1856 15 2 OFOUA hs 6 2 
1857 13 I 1871. Smale: o 
TOSS cris Meal I | 1872 Halted ia ais I 
1859. Ace 5 I 1873. Vato 2 ° 
SOUG Mae ets “ x | 1874 - 22 i 5 


EXECUTIONS. 
England, London. | England. Lo 
1875. rare é I TSGO" Fs <3 
TSPOe Wee Lewes . 6 1881 . Pits ere : 
1877. . 23 ° 4 1882. Il F 
LORS ton eh . I 1883 Aes 
1879 . ey ‘ 3 1884 igs 


EXECUTIONS OF REMARKABLE CRIMINALS. * 


Gunpowder plot conspirators, Digby, R. Winter 
Grant, and Bates, 30 Jan.; T. Winter, Rookwood 
Keys, and Fawkes, 3rJan.; Henry Garnett, jesuit 
at London 3 3 May 

John Felton, mur der of duke of. Gackingham 


Tyburn : 28 Noy 
James, duke of Monmouth, "treason ; * Tower-hill 
15 July 


Charnock, King, and Keys, 18 March; sir Jo 
Friend, and sir Wm. Perkins c assassination 
plot”) . 3 April 

Capt. Wm. Kidd and three ‘others, piracy 23 May 

James, earl of Derwentwater, and William, earl o 
Kenmure, rebellion ; Tower-hill 24 Feb 

John Price, the hangman; murder, Bunhill-row 

21 May 

Jack Sheppard, highwayman ; Tyburn 16 Noy 

Richard Turpin, highwayman ; York 7 or 10 April 


Lord Balmerino and others, rebellion ; Tower-hil] 
18 Aug 

| Lord Lovat, rebellion ; Tower-hill . 9 April 
Richard Wm. Vaughan, first eh ap of Bank of Eng 
land notes ; F Il May 
Eugene Aram, murder ; York . 6 Aug 


Karl Ferrers, murder of his steward ; Tyburn, 5 May 
Theodore Gardelle, murder ; Haymar ket 4 April 
Jehn Perrott, fraudulent bankrupt ; Smithfield 
rr Noy 

John M‘Naughten, esq., murder of Miss A 
Strabane . Dec 


Elizabeth Brownrigg, murder of her apprenta 


Tyburn 3 14 Sept 
Danieland Robert Perreau, wine merchants, fore 
Tyburn . . Jan 
Rey. Dr. Dodd, found euilty of forging a bondl i 
the name of lord Chesterfield for 42001. ; ‘th 
highest influence was exerted to save him, bu 
when the case came before the council, th 
minister of the day said to George III, “I 
your majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will hay 
murdered the Perreaus ;” Tyburn 27 June 
Rey. Henry Hackman, murder of Miss Reay, mis 
tress of earl of Sandwich ; Tyburn . 1g April 
Capt. Johu Donellan, murder of sir Theodosiu: 
Boughton ; Warwick 2 April 
Christian Murphy (or Bowman), a woman ; ‘strange 
and burnt for coining 18 Mareh 
Richard Parker and others, mutiny at the Nore 
30 June 
ol Bailey 
11 Dee 

Sir Edward Crosbie, high treason ; Ireland, 4 June 
Messrs. Sheares, high treason ; Dublin 12 July 
Galloping Dick, highwayman ; Aylesbury, _ 4 April 
Governor Joseph Wall, murder of serjeant Arm 
strong ; Old Bailey 5 28 Jan 
Mr. Crawley, murder of two females ; Dublin 
to March 

George Foster, murder of wife and child ; Old we Y 
18 Jan 

Colonel Despard and others, high treason ; fi’ + 
monger-lane : 1 Feb 
John Hatfield (a rank impostor, who inertia Dy 
means of the most odious deceit, the celebrate 
‘Beauty of Buttermere”), forgery . a 
ep 

Robert Emmett, high treason ; Dublin 20 Sept 
Richard Patch, murder of Mr. Bligh ; Horsemonger 
lane ‘ 8 April 
John Holloway, Owen Haggerty, “murder of Mr 
Steele ; Old Bailey (28 of the spectators o 
this execution were trodden to death, and num 
bers were pressed, maimed and wounded), 23 Feb 
T. Simmons, the man of blood, murder; Hertford 
7 March 

Major Campbell, ere of capt. Boyd in a duel 
Armagh - 2 Oct 


Mrs. Phepoe, celebrated murderess ; 


° e . . e 


* For some other executions, see England, 1 
1618-41-45-83 ; and Oates’s Plot. 


_ EXECUTIONS. 


309 


Execution dock, 
29 June, 
24 June, 
Old 
Bailey : 18 } May, 
hilip ecison, murder of Mr. and Mrs. Bonar ; 


ie Sutherland, murder; 


ichard Armitage, forgery ; Old Bailey 
yhn en, murder of Mr. Perceval; 


Pennenden-heath 23 Aug. 
rancis Tuite, murder of Mr. Goulding ; Dublin. 
9 Oct. 


harles Callaghan, murder of Mr. Merry ; sets 
monger-lane 2 April, 
nia Sawyer, murder of J ack Hacket; old. Bailey, 

15 May, 
Old Rafer: 

26 July, 
Iniversally believed to be innocent ; she denied 
her guilt on the scaffold ; and thousands accom- 
panied her funeral. In the ‘Annual Register” 
for 1857, p. 143, it is stated on the authority of 
Mr. Gurney, that she confessed the crime to Mr. 
James Upton, a baptist minister, shortly before 
her execution. ] 

Cashman, Spa-fields riots ; 


i 
, derers of the Lynch family. 
affair; Ireland . : 
1e three Ashcrofts, father and sons, 
Lancaster . 8 Sept. 
randreth and others, high tr eason ; Derby, 7 Noy. 
harles Hussey, murder of Mr. Bird and his ores 
keeper ; Pennenden-heath : 3 Aug. 
yhn. Scanlan, esq., murder of Ellen Hanley ; Lime- 
ck . 16 March, 
rthur Thistlewood, John Brunt, James Ings, John 
Davidson, Richard Tidd (see Cato-strect) ; Old 
Bailey . 1 May, 
phn Chennell, Thomas Calcraft, murder of Mr. 
Chennell, senr.; Godalming 17 Aug. 
siah Cadman, forgery ; old Bailey 2r Nov. 
ymuel Greenwood, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, 


ima Fenning, administering poison ; 


Skinner-street, 

12 March, 
Wild-goose Lodge 
19 July, 
murder ; 


27 Dec. 

ohn. Thurtell, murder of Mr. Weare ; Hertford, 
9 Jan. 

yhn Wayte, forgery ; Old Bailey . 24 Feb. 
enry Fauntleroy, banker, forgery ; Old Bailey, 
30 Nov. 


m. Probert (an accomplice of Thuttell’ s in the 
murder of Mr. Weare; he became approver), 
horse-stealing ; Old Bailey , : 20 June, 
Ntalfields’ gang, highway robbery; Old Bailey, 
29 Nov. 
Ke Thos. White, arson ; Old Bailey an 
lward Lowe, coining (the last coiner drawn on a 
sledge to the scaffold) ; Old Bailey . 22 Nov. 
itherine Walsh, murder of her child ; des Bailey, 
4 April, 
illiam Rea, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, 4 tale 2 
ptain Charles Montgomery was ordered for exe- 
eution this day for forgery ; ; but he took a dose (an 
ounce and a half) of prussic acid, to save himself 
from the i ignominy of the gallows, and was found 
dead inhis cell . 4 July 4 
illiam Corder, murder of Maria Marten ; Bury st. 
Edmunds : We rr 
seph Hunton, quaker, forgery ; ; Ola Bailey, 8 Dec. 
m. Burke, murderer (see Burking) ; Edinburgh, 


28 Jan. 
ine Chapman, murder of her child; Old Bailey, 
30 June, 

ewart and wife, murder ; Glasgow 24 July, 


.omas Maynard, the last executed for forgery ; 
‘old Bailey . i : 3x Dec: 

. Comyn, arson ; Ennis" . 18 March, 
hn Bishop, Thomas Williams, murder of a poor 


‘{talian boy (see Burking); Old Baile R Dec. 
hn Smith, James Pratt, iownatncal” cr see Old 
Bailey . 58 April, 
‘uyanne Burdock, remarkable | case of poisoning . 

ristol . - 5 April, 
bre Pegsworth, mur der ; Old Bailey 7 March, 


| med Greenacre, murder of Hannah Brown ; Old 
Bailey . 2 May, 


ty Lees, murder of “his Wife ; ; Old Bailey, 

16 Dee. 
“an 3 Benj. eer, murder of lord W. Rus- 
‘e Old Bailey 6 July, 


siah. ott wounding Mr. -Mackreth j Shrews- 
oury 3 April, 


1809 
18x11 


1812 


1817 


EXECUTIONS. 


Robert Blakesley, murder of Mr. Burdon; Old 
Bailey . 15 Nov. 
John Delahunt, murder of Thomas Maguire ; Dublin, 
5 Fe b. 

Daniel Good, murder of Jane Jones; Old Bailey 
23 May, 
Old Bailey, 
27 May, 
James Tapping, murder of Eimma Whiter; Old 
Bailey 24 March, 
John Tawell, murder of Sarah Hart ; : re; lesbury, 
28 March, 

Thomas Henry Hocker, Delarue ; 
Old Bailey . 28 April, 
Joseph Connor, murder of Mary Brothers ; Old 
Bailey A mee June, 
John Platts, murder of Collis ; Derby rt April, 
Catherine Foster, murder of her husband ; Bury St. 
Edmunds oat 7 Apri, 
James Bloomfield Rush, murder of Messrs. J ermy, 
sen, and jun.; Norwich 21 April, 
Fred. George Manning, and his wife, Maria Manning, 

murder of 0’ Connor ; Horsemonger- lane, 

13 Nov. 
I5 Jan. 

. 15 Ja. 


William Crouch, murder of his wife ; 


murder of Mr. 


James Barbour, murder ; York ; ; 
Hy. Horler, murder of wife ; Old Bailey 


| Grant, Quin, and Coomey, murder of Thomas Bate- 


son ; Monaghan 
Emanuel Barthelemy, 
C. Collard ; Old Bailey 22 Jan. 
William Bousfield, murder of his wife and three 
children ; Old Bailey : 31 March, 
William Palmer (of Rugeley), murder of J. P. Cook 
by poison Stafford 7 )¥4 June; 
William Dove, murder of his wife by poison ; York 
g Aug. 
Joseph Jenkins, alias Robert Marley, iain of 
Cope, a shopman, in Westminster ; Old Bailey, 
15 Dec. 
Chester, 
20 Dec. 
Lagava, Bartelano, and Pettrick, murder of two 
officers and piracy ; Winchester 23 Dec. 
Dedea Redaines, murder of two girls at Dover ; 
Maidstone 1 Jan. 
Thomas Mansell (after sev en months’ respite), 
murder of a soldier ; Maidstone 6 July, 
Capt. H. Rogers, murder of A. Rose, a black, with 
great cruelty ; Liverpool 1r Sept. 
Thomas Davis, murder of wife ; Old: Bailey, 16 Nov. 
John William Beale, murder of Charlotte aes 
his sweetheart ; Taunton 2 Jan. 
John Thomson, alias Peter Walker, murder of hones 
Montgomery by poison—discovered by a child ; 
Paisley 4 14 Jan. 
Christian Sattler, a German, murder of inspector 
Thain ; Old Bailey : ‘ 8 Feb. 
Giovanni Lani, murder of Heloise Thaubin ; Old 
Bailey : : 26 April, 
John B. Bucknall, murder of his grandfather and 
grandmother ; Taunton Sa ed Ane 
Wm. Burgess, murder of his daughter ; Taunton, 
4 Jan. 
Bedford, 
31 March, 
William Youngman, murder of sweetheart, Mary 
Streeter, and mother and two brothers, on Aug. 
16; Horsemonger- lane 4 Sept. 
James Mullins, murder of Mrs. Emsley, at Stepney ; 
OldBailey 19 Nov. 
James Johnson, murder of two Tahes mallentined 
officers ; Winchester . . rdan. 
Matthew and Charles Wedmore, murder of their 
aunt ; Taunton é SS PAD is 
Martin Doyle, barbarous ‘attempted murder (last 
execution for this crime); Chester 27 Aug. 
Wm. Cogan, murder of wife; Old Bailey, 14 Oct. 
Thomas Jackson, a soldier, murder of sergeant 
John Dickson ; Winchester : 27 , Dee. 
Wm. Charlton, engine-driver, murdered Jane Em- 
merson, to obtain the money she had saved for 
her funeral ; Carlisle : 3 15 March, 
G. J. Gilbert, brutal murder of Miss M. 8. Hall, on 
her way to church ; Winchester 4 Aug. 
William Taylor, murder of Mr. Meller from payout 
he prev iously killed his own children ; Kirkdale, 
13 Sept. 


April, 


murder. of Mr. Moore and 


William Jackson, murder of two children ; 


Joseph Castle, murder of his wife ; 


1841 


EXECUTIONS. 


Catherine Wilson, murder of Mrs. Soames by poison 
[and of sey eral other persons]; Old Bailey, 


20 Oct. 
William Ockold (aged 70), murder of his wife, after 


50 years marriage ; Worcester .  2Jan. 
Noah Austen, murder of Mr. Allen; Oxford, 
24 Mar ch, 

Robert A. Burton, murder of a boy ; Maidstone, 
ir April, 

Edward Cooper, murder of his deformed son; 
Shrewsbury iz April, 


Dennis Delane, hired Beckham and Walsh to mur- 
der his landlord, F. Fitzgerald 5 bye yoedh 
John Ducker, murder of Tye, a policeman ; Ipswich, 
14 April, 

Wm. Hope, violation and murder of Mary Corbett ; 
Hereford SSSA pril, 
D. MacPhail and G. Woods, murder of Mrs. Wane: 


Kirkdale : 25 April, 
Joseph Brooks, murder of Day y, a policeman ; 
Old Bailey . 27 April, 
Joseph Kelly, mur der of Fitzhenry. , a Schoolmaster ; 
Wexford “le os Aug. 


Thomas, Alvarez, Hughes, ‘and ‘O’Brien, ferocious 


murder ers ; Liver pool. POULT TES Die 
Alice Holt, murder of her mother ; ; Chester, 28 Dec. 
Samuel Wright, murder of his paramour, 12 Jan. 
veohn Lyon “and four others (foreigners) ; ae 
and piracy ; Old Bailey s 2 Feb. 
Charles Bricknell, murder of his cy oeenentt 
I Aug. 

Franz Miller, murder of Mr. Briggs in a ages 
carriage (see Trials); Old Bailey 4 Nov. 
Ferdinand Kohl, mur der of M. Fublrkop ; Chane 
ford : 26 Jan. 
Edw. William Pritchar d, M. D., murder of wife 
and her mother ; Glasgow . 28 July, 


John Currie, murder of major De Vere ; Maidstone, 
12 Oct. 

Stephen Forward, alias Ernest Southey, ae of 
wife and four children ; Maidstone 1 Jan. 
Mary Ashford, of husband ; Uioter 
28 March, 
Brighton, 
Io “April, 
Robert Coe, murder of a young man for his wages, 
308. § Swansea Ae Le April, 
John Grant, a soldier, murder of a boy; ent 
5 Aug. 

J. R. Jeffreys, murder of his son (aged 7); Old Bailey, 
Oct. 

Jas. Langhurst, brutal murder of Harriet Sax 
(6 years old) 16 April, 
Hubbard Lingley, murder of his uncle, Benj. Black ; 
Norwich : - 26 Aug. 
George Britten, murder of ‘his wife ; Taunton, 
29 Aug. 

John Wiggins, murder of his SEE Agnes 
Oakes ; Old Bailey 5 Oct. 
Louis Bordier, murder of his concubine, Mare Ann 
Snow ; Horsemonger- lane - 15 Oct. 
Wm. O’Meara Allen, Wm. Gould (or O’Brien), and 
Michael Larkin, Fenians, for murder of Brett, a 
policeman ; Salford ; sees Noy. 
Frederick Baker, murder of a little” girl, sehen! he 
afterwards cut up; Winchester . 24 Dec. 
Wm. Worsley, murder of Wm. Bradbury ; Bedford, 


mur der 


John Wm. Leigh, murder of wife’s sister ; 


31 Mar ch, 
I’rances Kidder, murder of her husband child ; 
Maidstone . 2 April, 


Timothy Faherty, for “murder of his sweetheart, 
Mary Hanmer (for rejecting him), and 

Miles Weatherill, murder of Rey. Mr. Plow, of Tod- 
morden, and his maid (for revenge); Manchester ; 


4 April, 
Frederick Parker, murder of Daniel Driscoll York, 
} i April, 

John Mapp, murder of little girl ; Srewsbany, 
April, 


O'Farrell, for attempting to assassinate the doke of 
Edinburgh ; Sydney, N.S. Wales - 21 April, 

Richard Bishop ; murder of Alfred Cartwright ; 
Maidstone A 30 April, 

Michael Barrett, Fenian; for Clerkenwell Srnionint 


THE LAST PUBLIC EXECUTION IN Pepe ee Old 


Bailey 6 May, 


Thomas Wells, murder of Mr. Walsh, ating 


- a) 

310 EXECUTIONS. 
master at Dover; (the first private eare 
3 Aug. 
1862 | William Sherward, for murder of his wife, Norwich 
(see Norwich) : . 20 April, 
1863 | Josiah Detheridge, murder of warder in Portland 
prison ; Dorchester . - 12 Aug, 


3? 


Wim. Taylor, soldier ; murder of his corporal ; Exeter, 
1x Oct. 

Frederick Hinson, murder of his concubine, Maria 
Death, and of Wm. Douglas Boyd, her paramour, 
at Wood Green, Middlesex ; Old Bailey, 13 Dee. 
ALE Mobbs, purposeless murder of a child ; Ayles- 
ry 28 "March, 
Waltey Millar, murder of Rev. Elias Huelin and 
Ann Boss (at Chelsea) ; Old Bailey rt Aug. 
John Owen or Jones, for murder of a family (7 
persons) at Denham ; Aylesbury . 8 Aug. 
Thomas Ratcliffe ; murder of a warder in Posing 
prison ; Dorchester ; Aug. 
Margaret Waters ; murder of infants ; baby-farniias 


case ; Horsemonger-lane II Oct. 7 
Patrick Durr ; murder of his wife ; “Manchester, 
26 Dec. 

Wm. Bull; brutal murder of an old woman; Bed- 
ford 3 April, 


Michael Campbell ; " murder of Mr. Galloway at 
Stratford ; Springfield g: gaol, Essex . 24 April, 
Richard Addington ; murder of wife ; ore 


uly, 


Frederic Jones; murder of Emily Gananae 


through jealousy ; Gloucester 8 Jan. 
Edwar d. Roberts ; murder of Ann Merrick, who re- 
fused to marry him ; Oxford 18 March, 


Win. Fred. Horry ; murder of wife ; Lincoln, z April, 
Charles Holmes ; murder of wife ; Worcester, 12 Aug. 
Thomas Moore, murder of wife; James Tooth, sol- 
dier, murder of drummer ; Francis Bradford, 
soldier, murder of comrade ; “Maidstone, 13 Aug. 


Shristopher Edwards ; murder of wife ; Stafford, 
13 Aug. 
Wm. Lace ; murder of wife ; Taunton 26 Aug. 


Augustus Elliott ; murder of paramour ; Old Bailey, 
g Dec. 

Mich. Kennedy ; murder of wife ; Manchester,30 Dee 
Edwd. Handcock ; murder of wife ; Warwick, 7 Jan. 
Richard Spencer; murder of paramour; Liverpool, 
8 Jan. 

murder of Je oseph 
. 13 Jan. 


Hugh Slane and John Hayes ; 
Waine ; Durham 

Mary Ann Cotton ; murder of child (see Poisoning) 
Durham March 

Henry Evans, at "Aylesbury ; . and Benjamin Hud- 
son, at Derby, for murder of their wives 4 Aug. 

Thos. Hartley J Montgomery, murder of Mr. Glasse, 
Omagh - 26 Aug. 

James Connor ; murder of James Gaffney ; Liver- 
pool - §.Septs 

Charles Dawson, William Thompson, and Edward 
Gough ; murders ; Durham ; Thos. —, a 
of mother ; Liverpool : 

Edward C. Butt ; murder of Miss Phipp, tooouill 
jealousy ; Edwin Bailey and Ann Barry ; murder 


of child ; Gloucester . 2 Jan. 
Thos. Chamberlain ; murder ; : Northampton 

o March, 

James Godwin ; murder of wife ; Newsites 25 May, 

Frances Stewart ; murder of grandchild ; Newgate, 

29 June, 

Thos. Macdonald; murder of paramour; Exeter, 

ro Aug. 

Wm. Jackson; murder of sister; York . 18 Aug. 


James H. Gibbs ; 


Henry Flanigan ; 
murder of Nicholas Manning ; Liverpool, 31 Aug. 
John W. Coppen; murder of. wife : Horsemonger- 
lane , . 
Private Thos. ‘Smith, 2oth Hussars ; 5 Bie of 
Capt. Bird, in revenge for slight punishment ; 
Winchester. . 16 Nov. 
Robert Taylor ; m. of Mrs. Kidd; Stafford 29 Dec. 
James Cranwell; murder of Emma Bellamy ; New- 
gate. Michael Mullen, John men and Wm. 
Worthington ; Liverpool . Jan. 
Richard Coates ; murder of girl, 10 years old ; 
Chelmsford . : 29 March, 
John Morgan ; murder of comrade ; Maidstone ; 
John Stanton; m. of uncle; Stafford 30 Mareh, 


murder of wife; Usk . 24 Aug. 


murder of aunt; Mary Williams; 


EXECUTIONS. 


dll 


EXECUTIONS. 


xd T. Heap, qnack; murder of Margaret Mc- 
vett; Liverpool é . 19 April, 
Hole ; murder of wife ; Bristol . 26 April, 
miah Corkery ; ; murder of policeman ; Warwick, 
27 July, 

ugh, Gilligan, and Pearson oo ends murders ; 
wham . Ae Aug. 
r Blanchard ; murder of Louisa Hodgson ; 
neolnshire 9 rAug. 
ip Lebrun ; murder of sister ; J ersey, 12 Aug. 
MeCwlogh ; murder of Wm. Watson; and 
wk Fiddler ; murder of wife ; Lancaster, 16 Aug. 
Baker. and Edward Cooper ; ; murders ; Liver- 
ol ea Sept. 
ry Wainwright ; murder of Harriet Lane, his 
stress (see W hitechapel) ; ; Newgate, ax Dec. 


S$medley; murder of Elizabeth Firth, his 
stress ; Armley, near Leeds a1 Dec. 
1 William Anderson; murder of wife; New- 
stle-on-Tyne . . 22 Dec. 
ard Charlton ; m. of wife ; Morpeth 23 Dec. 
ge Hunter; murder of fellow wor kman ; Mor- 
“ - : 28 Mar ch, 

Fordred ; murder of Ann Bridger ; Maid 
er 4 April, 


ge Hill; murder of his illegitimate child: and 
arly of its mother; Hertfor di; 10 April, 
ard Deacon ; murder of wife ; Bristol, 24 April, 
1 Webber ; murder; Cardiff . 26 April, 
ry Webster ; murder of wife ; Norwich, 1 May, 
mnie” mutineers and murderers: Matteo Car- 
lis, Pascalis Caludis, George Kaida, and 
ovanni Carcaris ; Newgate . 23 May, 
1 Williams ; shot his brother-in-law ; Durham, 
26 July, 
es Parris ; murder of a child; Maidstone r Aug. 
. Fish ; murder ofa child (see Trials); Richard 
lompson, murder of J. H. Blundell ; Liverpool ; 
14 Aug. 
Baumbos (see Mutinies); and Crowe (see 
flan) Cork : earANS, 
1 Ebelthrift ; murder of wife : Newgate 26 Aug. 
rles O'Donnell ; murder of wife ; Newgate II Dec. 
ert Browning; murder of Emma Rolfe, aged 16; 
mbridge . - 14 Dec 
; Barlow ; murder of Ellen Sloper, paramour ; 
orsemonger-lane ; James Dalgleish ; murder of 


rah, Wright ; Carlisle . 19 Dec. 
1 Thomas Green ; murder of wife ; Toinester, 
20 Dec. 
, Flanagan; murder of paramour; Manchester 
21 Dec. 


e Marks, Jew; murder of Fredk. Barnard, for 
venge ; (Newington murder); Horsemonger-lane 
2 Jan. 
ry & Francis George Tidbury ; murder of two 
ilicemen ; Reading. : 12 March, 
Clark (or Slenderman) ; murder of Henry 
alker, gamekeeper ; Lincoln 26 March, 
1 McKenna ; murder of wife ; Manchester 
27 March, 
K Bannister ; murder of wife ; Chester 2 April, 
1 Henry Johnson; murder of Amos White ; 


rough jealousy ; 3 3 April, 
erick Baker ; murder of Mary Saruiders 
lousy ; Warwick . ; 17 April, 
L Henry Starkey ; murder of wife; Leicester ; 


mry Rogers ; murder of wife ; Stafford 31d uly, 
ry Leigh ; murder of child ; Chester 3 Aug. 
b Smith ’; murder of nominal wife (Eliza 
‘borne) ; Horsemonger-lane : A . 14 Aug. 
1 Goulding and Patrick McGovern ; murders ; ; 
verpool : ibys Aug. 
t Lynch ; murder of wife ; 'N ewgate . 15 Oct. 
i. Pratt ; murder of paramour ; Newgate 12 Nov. 


“Hussell ; murder of wife ; Exeter . 19 Nov. 
ry I March ; murder of employer and felon: 
orkman ; Norwich . 20 Nov. 


i, Gray ; murder of Ann Mellors, who refused 


mn; Nottingham . : - 21 Nov. 
vallader Jones; murder of paramour ; pylgelly, 
3 Nov. 


as Sachwell, John Upton, and John wn. Swift; 
‘utal murder of an old man ; Leicester 27 Nov. 
_ Pigott; murder of Florence honk eet ; Man- 
ester - 4 Feb. 
2s alam murder of Maria Barber ; aw inohea! 
+ ir Feb. 


e e . . . 


” 


James McGowan; murder of wife 
| 

| Henry Gilbert ; 
| Stephen Gambrill ; 


Enoch Whiston ; 


| Selina Wadge ; 


James Trickett; murder of wife ; Liverpool 12 Feb. 
John Brooks; murder of Caroline Woodhead ; 
Nottingham . 13 Feb. 
Harry Rowles ‘ Oxford 
rt April, 

; murder of woman; York, 
15 April, 

Charles J. Revell; murder of wife ; Se ease 

oJ uly, 

murder of Win. Wal- 
30 July, 
Notting- 
12 Aug. 
murder of illegitimate child ; Bod- 
15 Aug. 


murder of sweetheart; 


Vincent Knowles Walker 


Robert Vest; ship steward ; 
lace, a pilot ; Durham , 

Thos. Cholerton ; murder of paramour ; 
ham 


min 


| Thomas Smithers, “murder of woman, Wandsworth, 


8 Oct. 
Patrick John Byrne ; murder of two brother ser- 
geants ; Northampton . 12 Nov. 
J oseph Garei ia, Spanish sailor, murder of William 
Watkins and his wife and three children, Usk, 
18 Noy. 
; Manchester ; 
19 Noy. 
murder of illegitimate child ; Hun- 
25 Nov. 
murder of Arthur Gillow while 
defending his machinery (Wednesborough) Maid- 
stone 4 Feb. 
a Wor, 
cester : 10 Feb. 
Wm. McGuiness ; "murder of wife ; Lancaster rz Feb. 
Charles Peace ; murder of A. Dy son ; Leeds ; (see 
Trials, 1878-9) : : 2 ‘ ; : 25 Feb. 
James Simms; American seaman; murder of 
woman ; Newgate ss 24 March 
Edwd. Smart; murder of woman ; Gloucester, 12 May 
Wm. Cooper; murder of Ellen Mather; Manchester, 


tingdon . 


murder of Alfr ed Meredith : 


20 May, 
Catherine Churchill ; murder of husband ; Taunton, 
26 May, 

| John Darcey ; murder of Wm. Mitechalle ; atte 
ay, 
Thomas Johnson ; murder of Eliza Patten ; ives! 
pool 28 May, 


Catherine Webster ; : murder of Mrs. Julia Martha 

Thomas ; Wandsworth ; (see Richmond), 29 July, 
Annie Took ; murder of nurse- child ; Exeter 11 Aug. 
James Dilley ; ; murder of illegitimate child ; New- 


gate 5 25 Aug. 

| J fon Ralph 5 : murder of Sarah Vernon ; Birming- 
| 26 Aug. 
Henry Bedingfield ; murder of Eliza Rudd; Msi 
ec 


Charles Shurety ; murder of child ; Newgate, 5 Jan. 
Wm. Cassidy ; murder of wife ; Manchester, 17 Feb. 
Hugh Burns and Patrick Kearns ; murder of 


Patrick Tr acey at Widnes ; Liverpool 2 March, 

John Wingfield ; murder of his wife ; Newgate, 

22 March, 

| Wm. Dumbleton; murder of John Edmunds ; 

Aylesbury a LO May, ‘ 
John Henry Wood ; murder of J ohn Coe; York ; 

It May, 


| John Wakefield ; murder of a child ; Derby 16 Aug. 


Wm. Brownless ; murder of sweetheart ; Durham : 


16 Nov. 

Wm. J. Distin; murder of paramour; Bristol ; 
22 Nov. 

Thos Wheeler ; murder of Edward Anstee, near St. 
Albans . i Nov. 


, George Pavey ; 


murder of "Ada "Shepherd, EAA Etes 


and Wm. “Herbert, murder of Jane woth bed 
sister-in-law ; Newgate 2 : 3 Dec. 
| Wm. Stanway ; murder of Ann Mellor ; ; Chester - 
| e 
| James Williams; murder of Eliz. Bagnall; Stafford ; 
| 22 Feb. 
Albert Robinson ; murder of wife ; Derby 28 Feb. 
Albert Moore ; murder of old woman ; Maidstone ; 
| 17 May, 
| James Hall; murder of wife ; Leeds 23 May, 
Joseph P. McEntee ; murder of wife ; Liv ae 
May, 
Thos. Brown; murder of Eliza Caldwell; Navn 
ham 15 Aug. 


George Durling ; - murder ‘of Fanny ‘Musson, Maid- 
stone 23 Aug. 


1878 


EXETER. 312 EXETER CHANGE. 


John Aspinal Simpson; murder of girl; Man- 


chester . 2 . - . a . 28 Nov. 188 
Perey Lefroy Mapleton ; murder of F. T, Gold ina 
Brighton railway carriage ; Lewes . 29 Nov. ,; 


Alfred Gough; murder of a little girl; Derby 
Robert Templeton; murder of landlady; Man- 
chester . : ; miter she: : - 13 Feb. 1882 
Dr. G. H. Lamson; murder of Percy M. John (see 
Wimbledon); Wandsworth 2 j 28 April, 
Thos. Fury ; murder of Maria Fitzsimons in 1869 ; 
Sunderland. ‘ d a . 16 May, 
Wm. Geo. Abigale; murder of girl; Norwich, 
22 May, ,, 
Osmond Otto Brand; murder of apprentice at sea ; 
Leeds 2 : : 5 3 23 May, 
Charles Gerrish ; murder of fellow pauper; Wilts 
Wm. Turner; murder of wife; Liverpool, 2x Aug. ., 
Wim. Meager Bartlett; murder of infant; Bodmin, 

TUN OVeuys 
Edward Wheatfill; cruel murder of Peter Hughes, 
aged 16; York ! ; : : . 27 Nov. 
Bernard Mullarkey; murder of Thomas Cruise; 
Liverpool . ; ‘ : 3 : 4 4eDec. 
Charles Taylor; murder of wife; Wandsworth, 

12 Dee. ,, 

Louisa Jane Taylor; murder of Mrs. Tregillis ; 

Wandsworth . : 4 : : - 2dan, 1883 
Abraham Thomas, a butler; murder of Mrs. C. 
Leigh ; Manchester . 2 “ 5 12 Feb. 
James Anderson; murder of wife ; Lincoln, 19 Feb. 
Thomas Garry ; murder of John Newton ; Lincoln 
7 May ,, 
Patrick Carey, or John White ; murder of Thomas ! 
Eastam and Mary Moran ; Chester ov6sMa 
George White ; murder of wife ; and Joseph Wedlake, 


murder of Mark Cox: Taunton. : 2x May, ,, 
James Burton; murder of Elizabeth Sharpe; 
Durham . . z . u ‘ sip OATES Se 
Henry Powell: murder of master’s son, J. H. D. 
Bruton ; Wandsworth 4 ‘ : - O Novis, 
Thomas Lyons ; murder of his child . 13 Nov; 13; 
Peter Bray; murder of Thomas Pyle; Durham, 
to Nov. ,, 
Thomas Riley : murder of Elizabeth Alston ; Man- 
chester ©. . 26 Nov. 


Henry Dutton; murder of Hannah Henshaw; 
Liverpool . 5 : . : a3 Deen 
Patrick O’Donnell; murder of James Carey, the 
informer ; Newgate : A 5 ath. ee DGCN Vy, 
Charles Kite ; murder of Aibert Miles ; Taunton, 
25 Feb. 1824 
Michael Maclean ; murder of Spanish sailor ; Liver- 
pool . “ “ - : : ite Manes. 
Mary Leffley; murder of husband; Lincoln, 
: 26 May, ,, 
Joseph Lawson ; murder of sergeant Smith ; Durham, 
27 May, ,;, 
Peter Cassidy ; murder of wife; Liverpool, 19 Aug. 
Joseph Laycock ; murder of wife and 4 children ; 
Leeds: i. : : 5 . z pO UATE, Wa a, 
Thos. Henry Orrock ; murder of policeman Cole; 
Newgate . 4 é J . A ~. OCT 
Thomas Harris ; murder of wife; Newgate 6 Oct. 
Kay Howarth and Henry Hammond; Swindell’s 


murder; Manchester . : ; < ROANOVER is 
Ernest Ewerstadt and Arthur Shaw; murder of 
women - 8 Dec. 


Horace Robert Jay ; murder of a girl ; Wandsworth 


13 Jan. 1885 
Henry Kimberley; murder of Mrs. Palmer; Bir- 


mingham =. 5 4 - 17 March, ,, 


EXETER (Devonshire), said to have been 
named Augusta from having been occupied by the 
second Augustan legion commanded by Vespasian : 
its present name is derived from Eyxcestre. It was 
for a considerable time the capital of the West 
Saxon kingdom. The BisHopric anciently com- 
prised two sees: Devonshire (founded about 909) 
and Cornwall. The church of the former was it 
Crediton, of the latter at Bodmin, and afterwards at 
St. German’s. About 1040 the sees were united. 
St. Petroc was the first bishop of Cornwall, before 
900; Eadulphus, the first bishop of Devonshire, gos ; 
and Leofric, the first bishop of Exeter, in ro4g. 
The cathedral originally belonged to a monastery 


founded by Athelstan: Edward the Confessor r¢ 
moved the monks to his new abbey of Westminste 
and gave their church for a cathedral to the unite 
see, 1049; the see was valued in the king’s books ¢ 
5002. per annum. Present stated income, 4200. 
Alfred invested the city, held by the Danes, and — 


compelled them to capitulate . . - 877 & %& 
Exeter sacked by Sweyn . ‘ . - 4 + Ioc 
Besieged by William the Conqueror . . + +) tod 
The castle surrendered to king Stephen . : se 
The city first governed by amayor . «Damme, 
The celebrated nunnery founded . . . * a3 
The ancient bridge built . < : ° 2 sit 
Edward I. holds a parliament here . ; : - 126 
The Black Prince visits Exeter : 2 «ee 
The duchess of Clarence takes refuge in the city . 14 
Besieged by sir William Courtenay . : > ana 
City assaulted by Perkin Warbeck . 4 * + 14¢ 
| Exeter constituted a county of itself . ~ 153 


| The guildhall built . 4 


| The last of the ancient gates removed . 7 


} 
\ 


Welsh, the vicar of St. Thomas’s, hanged on ‘the 
tower of his church, as a Cornish rebel . 2 July, 154 
Annual festival established . ‘ : - 6 Aug. 


Prince Maurice takes Exeter for king Charles I. ~ 
Sept. 164 
It surrenders to the parliamentarians . April, 1 
The canal to Topsham cut . A - 2 > eee 
A mint established by JamesII. . : : . id 


| Water-works erected. ‘ c ‘ 5 - ae 


The sessions-house built . ° 2 ° . - a7 
The new bridge built . < < - : «lng 7 
The theatre erected . i 2 é P 4 By, 


| Lunatic asylum founded y 2 : Z - + 17 


County gaol built . f . 7 é 3 7 
Devon and Exeter institution for the promotion ~ 
of science established : - - . ots 18¢ 
Subscription library founded . - F . 18¢ 
New city prison built . : . oO 


<4 
The subscription rooms opened . : = . eae 
The public baths erected . : é E 2 ~ 18 
Mechanics’ institution opened . “ ; - ae 
| New ceinetery commenced : , 183 


Railway to Bristol opened . : : . I May, 184 
Great fire, 20 houses burnt 4 : . 2 Augie 
Another great fire . : : : 26 April, 184 
Inauguration of a statue of John Dinham, who © 
died June, 1864, bequeathing 24,000l. to charities, _ 
26 March, 186 
Bread and meat riots ; suppressed > 4-5 Nov. 18¢ 
Albert Memorial Museum given up to the town — 
council . : : : ; 2 . 2 April, 199 
A new reredos, by sir Gilbert Scott (see Reredos), — 
set up in the cathedral (1873): ordered to be re- 
moved by decision of the bishop and justice 
Keating, 15 April; this decision reversed by 
the court of arches (sir R. Phillimore), 6 Aug. 
1874; the privy council decided that the reredos 
should remain ; : é C . 24 Feb, 137 
The church-tax ‘‘ dominicals,” or ‘‘sacrament- 
money,” said to be of the nature of tithes; dis- 
traints for payment; much excitement . Oct. 
Destructive fire on the quay, of warehouses, &c. | 
22 Dec, 18 
RECENT BISHOPS. 
1803. John Fisher, translated to Salisbury in 1807. 
1807. Hon. George Pelham, translated to Lincoln, Seyi 
1820. 
1820. William Carey, translated to St. Asaph, March, 183 
1830. Christopher Bethell, translated to Bangor, 1830. 
1830. Henry Phillpotts, died 18 Sept, 1869. 
1869. Frederick Temple, elected 11 Nov., and enthror 
(after much opposition from some of the cler; 
29 Dec. 1869 ; translated to London, Jan, 188 
1885. BE. H. Bickersteth. 


EXETER CHANGE (London), was bui 
about 1680, on part of the site of Exeter hot 
the palace of Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exe 
and lord treasurer in 1319, beheaded by order of t 
queen-regent, Isabella, in 1326. It was entire! 
demolished at the period of the Strand impro 
ments, in 1829. The new Exeter Change, built | 
the marquis of Exeter near its site, opened in 18 
was pulled down in 1862, for the Strand Music-h 
now Gaiety theatre. 


dy 


5 
; 
re. 
ae 
~ 


Ree 


EXETER COLLEGE. 


XETER COLLEGE (Oxford) was founded 
alter Stapleton, bishop of Exeterin 1314. The 
re buildings mainly consist of a quadrangle in 
ater Gothic style. 


X<ETER HALL (Strand, London), erected 
30-1 for the meetings of religious and philan- 
ic institutions, concerts, oratorios, and musical 
ties, a large and magnificent apartment with a 
did orchestra and organ, and having rooms 
hed for committees, &c., opened 29 March, 
. See under Music. Religious services were 
here in 1856 by the Rev. C. Spurgeon, and 
357 by ministers of the church of England, on 
eye. 

Sacred Harmonic Society met here 1831-803 last 
cert, ‘‘ Israel in Egypt,” 30 April, 1880. 

iall was purchased for the Young Men’s Christian 
ociation for 25,0001. July 1880 ; re-opened (jubilee), 
March, 1881. 


XHIBITION oF 1851 (THE GREAT EX- 
TION). ‘The original idea of a National Ex- 
ion* isattributed to Mr. F. Whishaw, secretary 
e Society of Arts in 1844. It was not taken up 
1849, when prince Albert, president of the 
ty, said, ‘‘Now is the time to prepare for a 
{ Exhibition, an exhibition worthy of the 
ness of this country; not merely national in its 
and benefits, but comprehensive of the whole 
1; and I offer myself to the public as their 
5 jif they are willing to assist in the under- 
ge 

| commission appointed < - . 3dan. 1850 
scription list opened, headed by the queen for 


Ol. 

banquets in support of the plan, at London, 

22 March ; and at York : : eS OC Ess 
juildingt commenced ss 2 o SO\NEDUN 5s 
‘persons admitted into it in Jan. ; it is virtually 
nsferred to the royal commissioners by the 
tractors, Messrs. Fox and Henderson, Feb. 
ption of goods began 12 Feb., and the sale of 
son tickets . < é : 5 25 Feb. 
ixhibition opened by her majesty . 1 May, 
umber of exhibitors exceeded 17,000, of whom 
8 received prize medals and 170 council 
dals. The articles exhibited in arts, manufac- 
es, and the various produce of countries, defied 
culation. 

palace continued open above 23 weeks, alto- 


ndustrial exhibitions began with the French ; 
sitions having been organised and opened at Paris 
98, 1801, 1802, 1806, 1819, 1823, 1827, 1834, 1839, 1844, 
849, the last, being the eleventh, exceeding all the 
ding in extent and brilliancy. The first exhibition 
2 kind in this country was the National Repository, 
xd under royal patronage in 1828, near Charing- 
It was not successful. Other exhibitions were 
23d at Manchester in 1837, at Leeds in 1839, and at 
ingham in 1849. Exhibitions have since been held 
rk, Dublin, Manchester, New York, Paris, Montreal, 
nee, Constantinople, Bayonne, Melbourne, Vienna, 
delphia, and many other places (which see). 
‘he palace, with the exception of the flooring and 
, Was entirely of glass and iron. It was designed by 
since sir Joseph) Paxton (who died 8 June, 1865), 
he contractors were Messrs. Fox and Henderson, to 
1it was agreed to pay 79,800/., or 150,000l. if the 
ing were permanently retained. It cost1 76,0301. 138. 8d. 
ngth was 1851 feet, corresponding with the year ; 
‘idth 408 feet, with an additional projection on the 
i Side, 936 feet long, by 48 wide. The central por- 
was 120 feet wide and 64 feet high, and the great 
‘les ran east and west through the building ; the 
ept near the centre was 72 feet wide and 108 feet 
The entire area was 772,784 square feet, or about 
‘eres. Four galleries ran Jengthways, and others 
‘Ll the transept. The ground-floor and galleries con- 
1 1,000,000 square feet of flooring. There were 
ther 4ooo tons of iron in thestructure, and 17 acres 
ssin the roof, besides about 1500 vertical glazed 
8. 


13 


EXHIBITIONS. 


gether 144 days (1 May to 15 Oct.) within which 
time it was visited by 6,170,000 persons, averaging 
43,536 a day, whose admission at the respective 
prices of one pound, half-a-crown, and one shilling, 
amounted to 505,107l. including season tickets, 
leaving a surplus, after payment of expenses, of 
about 150,000l.* —. A é : é : “ 

The greatest number of visitors in one day was 
109,760 (8 Oct.) ; and at one time(2 o’clock, 7 Oct.) 
there were 93,000; these persons were assembled 
at one time, not in an open area, like a Roman 
amphitheatre, but within a windowed and floored 
and roofed building. There is no like vast assem- 
blage recorded in either ancient or modern annals, 
as having been gathered together, it may be said, 
in one room. 

The Exhibition was closed to the public . 11 Oct. 

A memorial statue of the prince consort by Joseph 
Durham, placed in the gardens of the Royal Hor- 
ticultural Society, uncovered in the presence of 
the prince and princess of Wales’. io June, 1863 

See Crystal Palace. 


EXHIBITION oF 1862 (INTERNATIONAL). 
A proposal in 1858 for another great exhibition, to 
be held in 1861, was withdrawn in consequence of 
the war in Italy in 1859, &c. The scheme was re- 
vived in April 1860, when the prince consort en- 
gaged to guarantee 10,000/. if 240,000/. should be 
subscribed for by other persons. 

A charter granted to the following commissioners : 
earl Granville, the marquis of Chandos, C. W. 
Dilke, jun., and Thomas Fairbairn 22 Feb. 

The guarantee fund amounted to 349,o00l. in Nov. 
1860, and to 452,300. . H 2 : 22 Aug. 

The building,+ erected at South Kensington, by 
Messrs. Kelk and Lucas, according toa design by 
capt. Fowke, made over to the commissioners, 

12 Feb. 

The Exhibition opened by the duke of Cambridge 
and royal commissioners , : a Nay, 

The fine arts department included a noble collec- 
tion of paintings and sculptures. 

The jurors’ award of nedals was announced in the 

. building 11 July, 


1851 


a? 


1861 
1862 


The Exhibition was closed 1 Nov., when the total 
number of visitors (exclusive of attendants) had 
been 6,117,450. 

The Exhibition reopened on 3 Nov. for the sale of 
goods exhibited ; was finally closed 15 Nov. 

The success of the Exhibition was much impaired 
by the decease of the prince consort, 14 Dec. 1861, 
and the breaking out of the civil war in the 
United States of America. The foreign exhibitors 
in 185r were 6566; in 1862, 16,456. 

Exhibitors at London, in 1851, 14,000; at Paris, in 
1855, 24,000; at London, in 1862, 29,000; at Paris, 
in 1867, 50,000. 


EXHIBITIONS, INTERNATIONAL. A 
meeting was held 4 April, 1870, the prince of 

- Wales in the chair, to promote annual international 

exhibitions at South Kensington, to commence 

I May, 1871. 

I. 1871. Fine arts, pottery, woollen and worsted manu- 
factures ; educational department; opened by the 
prince of Wales, 1 May ; closed 30 Oct. 

[34 countries contributed; total number of visitors, 
1,142,154; highest on one day (Whit-Monday, 29 May), 


21,946. | : 
II. 1872. Fine arts, cotton, jewellery, stationery, with 


> 


* This was placed in the hands of commissioners, who 
have promoted the South Kensington museum, and in 
1876 proposed the establishment of a science library. 

+ The main building occupied about 16 acres of 
ground, and the annexes 7 acres. The south front was 
r150 feet long and 55 feet high, and over the east and 
west fronts rose the two domes 260 feet high. The inte- 
rior was decorated by Mr. John G. Crace. The building 
was given up to Messrs. Kelk and Lucas on 31 Dee, 1862, 
the house of commons having refused to purchase it for 
80,000l. 2 July, 1863 ; and the pulling down commenced 
on 6 July. The domes and other parts of the structure 


were purchase! for erection in Alexandra-park Muswell- 
| hill, near London (north). 


“EXODUS. 


ol4 


EXTRADITION TREATY. — 


machinery ; and raw materials ; opened by the duke 
of Edinburgh, 1 May ; closed 19 Oct. 

Ill. 1873. Fine arts ; manufactures (silk, steel, surgical 
instruments, &c. ; carriages for rails or tramways ; 
food); scientific inventions and new discoveries ; 
opened 14 April; closed 31 Oct. 

IV. Fine arts; manufactures and raw materials, and 
engineering, and recent scientific inventions ; opened, 
6 April ; closed, 31 Oct. 1874. 

[The annual exhibitions having proved unsuccessful, the 
building was appropriated by the East India Museum]. 


Exhibition of 1884, held at the Crystal Palace, opened | 


on 23 April. 
See Fisheries, Forests, and Sanitary (1884). 


EXODUS (Greek, way out), a term applied to 
the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, 1491 B.C.; 
and described in the book of Exodus. 
vary in the date of this event: the LXX. give 1614; 
Hales, 1648; Wilkinson, 1495; Bunsen, 1320 or 
1314. : 

EX OFFICIO INFORMATIONS are 
those filed by the attorney-general, by virtue of his 
office, without applying to the court where they are 
tiled for leave, or giving the defendant an oppor- 


tunity of showing cause why they should not be | 


filed. Cabinet Lawyer. They were used by the 


Liverpool administration about 1817-19. William | 
Hone was tried on criminal information, 18-20 Dec., | 


1817, and acquitted. 
were thus tried, 1857. 


EXPEDITIONS. Many are described under 


their respective heads. 
Expedition of “the Nations” or ‘‘the Ditch”; the 


The British bank directors 


third expedition of the Koreish (which see) against | 


Mahomet, named from the nations who marched under 
their leader Abu Sophian, and from the ditch which was 
‘lrawn before the city. They were principally vanquished 


by the fury of the elements. Gibbon. 625. 
BRITISH EXPEDITIONS. 

France, near Port l’Orient zt Oct. 1746 
Cherbourg . ; : : = eR Tr 78S 9 
St. Malo ; 4000 men lost . F NeDtras, 
Quiberon Bay (French emigrants) see 7O0. 
Ostend (all made prisoners) : May, 1798 
Helder Point and Zuyder Zee. Sept. 1799 
Herrol, in Spain - Aug. 1800 
Egypt (Abercrombie) ‘ . March, 180z 
Copenhagen é 2 F A d : Sept. 1807 
Walcheren (unfortunate) . : July, 1809 
Bergen-op-Zoom : : 4 8 March, 1814 
Crimea . 4 4 : § é : . Sept. 1854 
Abyssinia . . ; : Oct. 1867-April, 1868 
Against the Ashantees (which see) 12 Sept. 1873 

EXPENDITURE, see under Revenue. 


EXPLOSIONS, see Borers, Coal. 


Explosion close to the local government office, Charles 
Street, Westminster ; great damage, no loss of life ; 

_9 P.M. 5 15 March, 1883. 

Criminal Explosions (by nitro-glycerine 2) 30 Oct. 1883, 
on Metropolitan District railway, between Charing 
Cross and _Westminster stations; some damage; no 
persons injured. Metropolitan railway, near Praed 
Street Station; two third class carriages shattered ; 
above 62 persons injured, 8.13 p.m. Capt. Majendie 
and prof. Abel consider it to have been caused by 
dynamite thrown trom a railway carriage. 

Victoria Station, Pimlico, building much injured, pro- 
perty destroyed, and two men hurt by 
in the cloak-room, 1.3 a.m., 27 Feb. 1884. 

9.20, 30 May, 1884. 
Yard, Whitehall ; wall blown down, windows broken ; 
public house wrecked, many persons injured, two 
seriously. 


some persons injured, 


Sixteen cakes of dynamite and fuse found at foot of | 


Nelson’s monument, Trafalgar Square, 30 May, 1884. 
Explosion at Genoa, 10 June ; at Madrid, 18 June, 1884. 
Failure of attempt to explode S8.W. end of London 

Bridge, about 6 p.m., 13 Dec., 1884, 


Chronologers | 


an explosion | 


Detective department, Scotland | 


se 9-20 p.m. Junior Carlton club house and | 
Sir W. W. Wynne’s, St. James’s Square, much damage, | 


ixplosion in Metropolitan railway near Gower Stree 
(by a bomb shell), about 9 p.m., 2 Jan. 1885. 
| Three explosions, see Parliament, Westminster Hall, an 
Tower, 24 Jan. 1885. 


| EXPLOSIVES: see Gunpowder, Gun Cotto; 
Nitro-Glycerine, Dynamite, Dualine, Lithofractew 
Glyoxiline, Blasting, Gelatine, §c. A committe 
to examine into the nature and properties of varia 
explosives was appointed by government in 187 
lixplosives have been much studied by sir F, 4 
Abel, of Woolwich (1881-5). 

Professor Osborne Reynolds produced a new explosiy 
75 parts chlorate of potash, 25 sulphuria, a product | 
coal gas; the ingredients kept apart till required 
announced 1878. 


EXPLOSIVES ACT, passed 14 June, 187 

_ amends the law with respect to the manufacturin; 

_ keeping, selling, carrying, and importing gut 

| powder, nitro-glycerine, and other explosive suk 

stances. Amendment act passed, 1883. 

In consequence of the attempt at explosion in Londe 
in March, a new act to watch over the manufacture \ 
explosives and punish possessors for felonious purpose 
&c., passed by both houses, g April; royal assen 
to April, 1883. 

EXPORTS, Edward III. by his encourage 
ment of trade turned the scale so much in favour 
English merchandise, that, by a balance taken i 
lis time, the exported commodities amounted t 
294,000/. and the imported to only 38,000/; s¢ 
Revenue. The declared value is of much le 
_ amount than the official. ‘ 


| OFFICIAL VALUE OF EXPORTS FROM GREAT BRITAIN 
TO ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD, VIZ, :— 


1700 £ 6,097,120 | 1830 - £66,735, 4: 
1750 . - 10,130,991 | 1835 . - 78,370,7 
1775 . 16,326,363 | 1840 97,402,73 
| 1800 . - 38,120,120 | 1845 . » 131,564,5¢ 
| 1810 ° 45,869,839 | 1850 175,126,7( 
| 1820 . - 51,733,hio osname ° - 190,397,081 
DECLARED VALUE OF BRITISH AND IRISH PRODUCE 
- EXPORTED, 

T8sx. 474,448,722 | 1868 179,677,831 
1853s 98,933,781 | 1869 . - 189,953.95 
1855 . - 95,688,085 | 1870 199,586,82 
1856 - 115,826,948 | 1875 . . 223,465, 
1857 . . 122,155,237 | 1876 200,639, 2¢ 
1859 + 130,440,237 | 1877 « 4 - 198,893,06 
1860 . . 135,891,227 | 1878 : - 192,848,91 
1861 125,102,814 | 1879 . . - 191,531,7! 
1862 . - 123,992,264 | 1880 7 « 223,060,4/ 
1863 - 146,602,342 | 1881 . . 234,022,067 
1865 . - 165,835,725 ; 1882 =. « 241,467,1 
1866 - £188,917,536 | 1883 . : +230,799 47 

1867 . - 180,961,923 
| Exports of all kinds to foreign countries, in 137: 
152,373,800l. ; in 1876, 135,779,980l. ; in 187 
128,969,715. 3 1878, 126,611,428/. ; 1879, 130,529,647). 


1880, 147,806, 2671. ; 1881, 154,658,0831. ; 1882, 156,640,7271 
| 1883, 156,321,921/.3; to British possessions in 187 
71,092,163/.; in 1876, 64,859,224l. ; in 1877, 69,923,350) 
1878, 66,237,4861. ; 1879, 61,002,1111. ; 1880, 75,254,179) 
188r, 79,364,595/. ; 1882, 84,826,435/. 5 1883, 83,477,552! 


EXTENSION, see University. 
EXTINCTEUR, see Fire- Annihilator. 
_ EXTRACT OF MEAT, obtained by Liebi 


_in 1847; a company was formed to manufacture. 
in South America in 1866. 


|. EXTRADITION TREATY, between Gre: 
_ Britain and France, 1843. In Dec. 1865, the Frene 
_ government gave notice of withdrawing from : 
/in six months. It was renewed, with modifica 
| tions, for six months, 21 May, 1866. A new at 
was passed, 9 Aug. 1870; amended in 187; 
Similar treaties have been concluded with oth 
powers; with Austria, 3 Dec. 1873; Switzerla 


EXTRADITION TREATY. 


315 


EYRE. 


pril, 1874; Holland, Aug. 1874; with Spain, 


1866, M. Lamirand, charged with forgery and fraud 
ist the Bank of France, fled to America. He was 
aed, and was arrested at Montreal, on 1 Aug., under 
overnor-general’s warrant. On 15 Aug., while his 
ination was still pending, he petitioned the gover- 
eneral not to warrant his surrender before he could 
; for a writ of habeas corpus, and was assured on 17 
that ample time should be allowed for this purpose, 
2 Aug. he was finally committed ; and on 24 Aug. 
etition for a writ of habeas corpus was presented to 
> Drummond, twenty-four hours’ notice having been 
. to the representatives of the crown and the Bank 
ance. After arguments had been heard and the case 
wned until the following day, he was surreptitiously 
ed off the same night by train to Quebec, and hurried 
sard a steamer bound for Europe, by virtue of an 
dition warrant, purporting to be signed by the 
mor-general at Ottawa, on 23 Aug. He was con- 
ito France, and on 5 Dec. was tried, found guilty, 
sondemned to ten years’ imprisonment. These cir- 
stances led to much discussion, and the Canadian 
orities were censured for irregularity and want of 
etion. The discussion ended by Lamirand declining 
sh intervention. 

Dispute with United States respecting the 
rrender of Ezra D. Winslow, a forger, by 
eat Britain, which is refused unless it is 
reed that the prisoner shall only be tried for 
s offence for which he has been committed 
‘cording to the treaty) April, 
damilton Fish, the American foreign secretary, 
inds on Ashburton treaty of 1842, wherein no 


1876 


stipulation is mentioned; although it is found 
in other treaties with other governments. 
Winslow was discharged, 15 June; and Brent, 
another fugitive, a few days after c . 1876 
The british Government yield, 27 Oct ; Brent recap- 
tured, Dec. 1876. Winslow, claimed by Swiss 
government, escapes through flaw in the treaty ; 
decision of queen’s bench d ‘ 2 Nov. 1877 
Stringent treaty, for anarchists and _ political 
offenders, between Russia and Prussia. 13 Jan. 1885 
Similar treaty between Germany and Russia pro- 
posed . : - c » raHeb. ta3; 


EXTRAVAGANTES, see Deeretais. 
EXTREME UNCTION, see Anointing. 


EY LAU (Prussia), where, on 7-8 Feb. 1807, the 
French defeated the Russians in one of the most 
bloody contests of the war. Napoleon commanded 
in person. Both armies by this and other battles 
were so much reduced, that the French retired to 
the Vistula, and the Russians on the Pregel. 


EYRE (old French for ve, to go on), the itine- 
rant court of justices, the justices in eyre, was in- 
stituted by Henry IJ. 1176; and when the forest 
laws were in force, its chief-justice had great 
dignity. These justices were to go their circuit 
every third year, and punish all abuses committed 
in the king’s forests. The last instance of a court 
being held in any of the forests is said to have been 
in 1671. Beatson, 


E'S. 


F's, Three (that is, ‘fixity of tenure, fair rents, 
and free sale’’), term much used respecting Irish 
land question in 1880-1. 


Sir Stafford Northcote | 


termed them ‘fraud, force, and folly,’’ and they | 


were much opposed by lord Dufferin and others. 
FABII. Anoble family at Rome, said to have 


derived their name from faba, a bean, because some 
of their ancestors cultivated this pulse; or to have 
descended from Fabius, a son of Hercules. They 
made war against the Veientes, and in an engage- 
ment near the Cremera, all the grown up males of 
the family (306 men) were slain in a sudden attack, 
477 B.C. From one, whose tender age had detained 
him at Rome, arose the noble Fabii of the following 
ages. Fabius Cunctator (the delayer) kept Hanni- 
bal in check for some time without coming to an 
engagement, 217-216 B.C. 


FABLES. ‘‘Jotham’s fable of the trees 
(Judges ix., about 1209 B.c.) is the oldest extant, 
and as beautiful as any made since.’ Addison. 
Nathan’s fable of the poor man (2 Sam. xii., about 
1034 B.C.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collec- 
tion of fables extant is of eastern origin, and pre- 
served in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo 
Sarma, or Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the 
most ancient in the world. Sir William Jones. 
Professor Max Miiller traced La Fontaine’s fable of 
the Milkmaid to a very early Sanscrit collection. 
ZEsop’s fables (which see) supposed to have been 
written about 565 or 6208.0., were versified by 
Babrius, a Greek poet, about 130 B.c. (Coray), and 
turned into prose by Maximus Planudes, a Greek 
monk, about 1320, who added other fables and ap- 
pended a worthless life of 7Asop. The fables of 


Pheedrus in elegant Latin-iambies (about a.p. 8), of | 


La Fontaine (1700) and of Gay (1727) are justly 
celebrated. 


FACIAL ANGLE (that contained by one 


line drawn horizontally from the middle of the ear 


to the edge of the nostrils, and another from the | 


latter point to the ridge of the frontal bone) was in- 
vented by Peter Camper to measure the elevation 
of the forehead. In negroes this angle is about 70°; 
in Europeans varies from 75° to 85°. Camper died 
7 April, 1789. His book on ‘‘ Characteristic Marks 
of Countenance’”’ was published in 1791. 


FACTIONS of the Circus among the Romans, 
were parties that fought on chariots in the circus, 
and who were distinguished by colours, as green, 
blue, red, and white; Domitian added gold and 
scarlet, about A.D. 90. 


Nika sedition.—In Jan. 532, a conflict took place at 


| 


Constantinople, lasting five days, when about 30,000 lives | 
were lost, and Justinian was mainly indebted for his life | 
and throne to the heroism of his empress Theodora. The | 


blues and greens united for a day or two against the em- 
peror, taking Nika! (overcome) for a watchword. The 
blues soon turned, and massacred nearly all the greens. 
The conflict was suppressed by Belisarius with d.tficulty, 
and the games were abolished for a time. 


FACTORIES, supplied with machinery for | 


producing manufactures, have immensely increased | 


in this country since 1815. The Factory act, recu- 
lating the hours of labour, &c., was passed in 1833 
and amended 1834 and 1844. Similar acts have 


_which the monks celebrated the festival of the 


| 


. Mr. David Macliver, and others, agriculturists amt 


_ and encouraged in England about 1071 by Willia 


FAIRS. 


been passed since; and an act for the extension o 
the principles of the Factory acts was passed ij 
1867 in relation to women and children employe: 
in manual labour; short time on Saturdays w; 


enacted. Other acts were passed in 1870-1878. 

The Act of 1878 (like that of 14 July, 1874) relates ¢ 
sanitary provisions, safety from machinery, hours ¢ 
employment, meal hours, women and children, hol 
days, education of children, accidents, &c., passed 2 
May, 1878. Consolidating act passed in 1883. 


FACULTIES, Court of, giving power 
to the archbishops of Canterbury and York, 2 
Hen. VIII. cap. 21, 1534. 


FAENZA, central Italy, the ancient Fayentia 
submitted to the emperor Frederick I., 1162; we 
taken by Frederick IL, 12 April, 1241; held by 
pope, 1275; by the Bolognese, 1282; by Casa 
Borgia, 1501; by Venice, 1504; by the papa 
1509; by the French, 1512. After various change: 
early in the 16th century it was acquired by th 
papacy and retained till the annexation by Sardinis 
1859. Faience pottery owes its name to this plac 
where it was invented. } 


“FAERIE QUEEN,” 
a part was published in 1590; 


by Edmund Spenser 
the whole, 1611. 


FAHRENHEIT, see Thermometer. 


FAINEANTS, see Mayors of the Palace. ‘ 
FAIRLOP OAK, with a trunk 48 feet i 


circumfereuce, the growth of five centuries, i 
Hainault forest, Essex, was blown down in Feb, 1820 
Beneath its branches an annual fair was long hek 
on the first Friday in July, which originate 
the eccentric Mr. Day, a pump and block makere 
Wapping, who, having a small estate in the vicinity 
annually repaired here with a party of friends, t 
dine on beans and bacon. py 


FATROAKS, near the Chickahominy, Virgiz 
the site of two sanguinary indecisive battles betwé 
the Confederates, under general Joseph Johnson 
and the Federal army of the Potomac, under genera 
M‘Clellan, 31 May and 1 June, 1862. 


FAIR TRADE LEAGUE, NATIONAL 


founded by lord Dunraven, Mr. Sampson Lloyd 


merchants, who issued a circular in Aug. 1881. 
is opposed to what it considers unfair free tr 
Active in Sept. 


FATRS anp WAKES, of Saxon origin, we 
instituted in Italy, about 500; in England by Alfret 
886. Spelman. Wakes were established by ord 
of Gregory VII. in 1078, and termed Feria, % 


patron saint: the vast resort of people occasion 
a great demand for goods, wares, &e. Fairs wé 
established in France about 800 by Charlemagn 


the Conqueror. Many statutes. were made for # 
regulation of fairs (1328—1868)¥ The ‘Fairs Act, 
passed 25 May, 1871, provides for the abolition 
fairs; in 1872, Charlton and Blackheath fairs, 
in 1873 Clapham fair, were abolished as nuisance 


vr | 


FAITH. 317 FARADAY. 


| 
‘old English fair” was opened at the Royal Albert | were declared impious, and George’s body and books 
ul by princess Christian, to aid the Chelsea Hospital | ordered to be burned by the hangman. In Eng- 
* Women, 9 June, 188r. | land a sect with a similar title was repressed by 
AITH, sce Defender. | Elizabeth, 1580; but existed in the following cen- 


. ‘tury. See Agapemone. 

LAWS, see Prussia, 1873. ‘ J 
Al ao 8, ; 3 A 2 ny AMINES. ; The as of the seven years in 
AL _OR HA WKING in England | Kgypt began 1705 B.c. sher ; Blair. 
iot be traced with certainty before the reign cf | Famine at Rome, when thousands of people threw 


: Ethelbert, the Saxon monarch, 858. Pennant. themselves into the Tiber. . BC. 436 
: grand seignior at one time kept six thousand | Awfulfaminein Egypt . .  . ey SP Kee) 


yners in his service. Juliana Berners’ book on | At Rome, attended by plague . . . ,. 
awkynge and Huntynge”’ was printed in 1496 ; In Britain ; people ate the bark of trees. . . 272 
Angling. Recent attempts have been made to In Scotland ; thousands died . , 

: : Re In England ; 40,000 perished , é 
ve falconry. Hawking was practised in Thrace. | Awful one in Phrygia 


e . 


o 


i eM alee sv. bay eee 
stotle. Ms he i pet cae rine snite ae (Dufresnoy) 450 
| : . | In England, Wales, and Scotlan ape coh Bate ae 

ALCZI, on the Pruth, Turkey : ied Ng | Again, when thousands starve. . .  . ., $33 
luded a Peace between Russia an urkey, | ‘Again, which lasts four years panes a F 
uly, 1711, the Russians giving up Azof, and all | Awful one throughout Europe. . - 1016 
possessions on the Black Sea tothe Turks. The | In England, 21 William I. 1087 


sians were saved from imminent destruction by | Iu England and France : this famine leads to a pes- 
address of Catherine the empress. In 1712 the | , tilential fever, which lastsfrom .  . 1193 to 1195 


: Another famine in England - ; 
: eeneweu, Raia by the peace of Again, so dreadful that the people devoured the flesh 
stantinople, ; 2 


of horses, dogs, cats, and vermin . - “ « 1315 


o at s One occasioned by long rains : 5 4 A Pose 

ALERT, a city of the Falisci, a aes tion One in England and France (Rapin) Z - . fees 
ile who joined the Veientes against Rome, parte | Again, one so great, that bread was made from fern- 

» beaten by Cornelius Cossus, 437 B.c. It is |“ Yoots (Stow) BENS atta ened s waitas SAA 
rded that when the city was besieged by Ca- | One throughout theseislands . . . - 1565 
‘us in 394, a schoolmaster offered to betray to | Awful one in France (Voltaire) tals - 1693 
the children of the principal citizens. On his | One general in these realms. 5 eso 2748 
sal, the citizens from gratitude surrendered. | Rt tnge devine se arene perish... pps 
y opposed Rome during the first Punic war; | One grievously felt in France NY oS aac 7986 
in 241 the city was taken and destroyed. | One severely feltin England... + 1795 


-__-, | Again, throughout the kingdom : F : ; - 1801 
‘ALERNIAN WINE, celebrated by Virgil | At Drontheim, owing to Sweden intercepting the 
Horace, was the produce of Falernus, or, as POS TS Lie he pa A UN PIRI Pag 
od by Martial, Mons Massicus, in Campania. | Scarcity of food severely felt by the Irish poor, 1814, 
ace in his Odes boasts of having drunk Falernian | 1816, 1822, 1831, 1846, in consequence of the 
that had been, as it were, born with him; or | failure of the potato crop. Grants by parliament, 


: s . |  torelieve the suffering of the people, were made 
ch reckoned its age from the same consuls, | in the session of 1847, the whole amounting to ten 


! 
| 
4c. | _ millions sterling. 


'‘ALKIRK (Stirlingshire, Scotland), the site | In N.W. India ; above 800,000 perish . . «© 1837-8 
i victory by bs aalich ear Edward I. over | In N.W. India ; thousands perish pits - 1860-1 
. eo 1 hint cwhne In Bengal and Orissa ; about 1,000,000 perish - 1865-6 
“Scots, commanded by Wallace, part of whose | 7, Rajpootana, &c.; about 1,500,000 perish . 1868-9 


| 

es deserted him. Itis said from 20,000 to 40,000 | In Persia very severe . : 4 : P . 1871-2 
48 were slain, 22 July, 1298. A battle wasfought | In Bengal, through drought. (SeeIndia). . 1874 
Jalkirk Muir between the royal forces under | InmAsia Minor . « «©  . wes 18745 
vley, and prince Charles Edward Stuart, in which | In Bombay, Madras, Mysore, &e.; about 500,000 


; a | perish (see India and Mansion-house) . . - 1877 
former ‘ashe defeated, | Jan. 1746. / In N. China; very severe ; 9,500,000 said to have ; 


'‘ALKLAND ISLANDS, 2 group in the | : pee Gs, 503/. poracea in England for relief) 18772 
th Atlantic, belonging to Great Britain, seen by | 47 Cashmere (which see) . +) + © +  « 1879 
, a Pick ae and visited by Davis, | Very severe in Tauris, &c., At Minor . July, 1803 
2; explored by Hawkins, 1594; taken possession | FAN. Used bythe ancients; Cape hoe flabei- 
_y France, 1764. The French were expelled by | dum, et ventulum huie sie facito, “Take this fan, 
| fieniard’ ; and in 1771, Spain resigned them to | and give her thus a little air.”’ Terence’s Eunuchus, 
‘and. Not having been colonised by us, the | 166 B.c.—Fans, together with muffs, masks, and 
iblic of Buenos Ayres assumed a right to these | false hair, were first devised by the harlots in Italy, 
‘nds, and a colony from that country settled at and were brought to England from France. Stow. 
t Louis; but owing to a dispute with America, | In the British Museum are Egyptian fan-handles. 
settlement was destroyed by the latter in 1831. | Great competitive exhibition of fans at Drapers 
(838 the British flag was cae a Port ae hall, London, opened AO a hadaly; 2879 
a British officer has since resided there. Gover- | ; 
';, Wm. Cleaver F. Robinson, 1866; col. George PL ea he he eens Se tee! 
, “0: Thos. F. Callaghan. 1876; | Michael Faraday, natural philosopher and chemist 
K. D'Arcy, 1870; : ous ““4™? | (see Electricity), died 25 Aug. 1867. A public meet- 
8. Kerr, 1880. ing was held at the Royal Institution, 21 June, 1869, 
‘ALLING STARS, see Jeteors, the prince of afalesin the chair, As take aeons to 
rovide a public monument to him. sufficient 
‘AMILY COMPACT, see Bourbon. a faite been subscribed, the production of a 
TAMILY or LOVE, 2 society, called also | statue was entrusted to Mr. Foley. The statue was 
ladelphians, from the love they professed to bear | placed at the Royal Institution, London, in 1876. 
Il men, assembled at Brew-house yard, Notting- | ‘The. “* Faraday Medal,” to be given to distinguished 
1. Their founder, David George, an Anabaptist, | foreign philosophers by the Chemical society, was 
Tolland, propagated his doctrines in Switzerland, awarded to M. Dumas, June, 1869; to Baia 
me he died in 1556. The tenets of the society | Cannizzaro, May, 1872; to Dr. A. W. Hofmann, 


- i 


FARADISATION. 


March, 1875; to professor A. Wurtz, and given to 
him after his lecture, 12 Nov. 1878; to professor H. 
Helmholtz, April, 1881. For “ Faraday,’ steam- 
ship, see Steam. 


FARADISATION, the medical application 
of the magneto-electric currents which Faraday 
discovered in 1837. Apparatus for this purpose was 
first made by M. Pixii, and employed by Dr. Neef 
of Frankfort. ‘* Farad,’ name taken for a unit of 
electric capacity, 1875. 


FARCE, a short comic drama, usually of one or 
two acts. One by Otway is dated 1677. The best 
English farces (by Foote, Garrick, Bickerstaff, &c.) 
appeared from about 1740 to 1780. This species 
of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll 
shows which were exhibited by charlatans and their 
buffoons in the open streets; see Drama. 


FARMERS’ ALLIANCH, an organization 
of agricultural reformers; held a provisional meet- 
ing 27 May, and a conference 2 July, 1879. It was 
active during the elections of April, 1880. <A 
Farmers’ Alliance for Scotland was founded at 
Aberdeen, 1 Dec. 1881. 


FARMERS-GENERAL, see Fermiers. 
FARMERS’ UNION, National, established 


at Leamington, by lord Walsingham and others, to 
oppose the Agricultural Labourers’ Union, June, 
1874. 

FARNESE FAMILY became important 
through the elevation of Alexander Farnese to the 
papacy as Paul III. He gave his naturalson Peter 
the duchy of Parma, and his descendants ruled till 
the death of Antony without issue in 1731. Alex- 
ander prince of Parma was governor of the Nether- 
lands in 1579. 


FARRINGDON-MARKET, erected by the 
corporation of London, near the abolished Fleet- 
market, was opened 20 Noy. 1829. 


FARTHING, an early English coin. Farth- 
ings in silver were coined by king John, in 
copper by James I. and Charles I.; the Irish 
farthing of John’s reign (1210) is rare. Farthings 
were coined in England in silver by Henry VIII. 
First coined in copper by Charles II. 1665; and 
again in 1672, when there was a large coinage of 
copper money. Half-farthings were first coined in 
1843; see Queen Anne’s Farthings. A single copy 
of the “ Pénny-a-week Country Daily Newspaper ”’ 
(conservative), No. 1, sold for jd., 25 June, 1873. 
The Farthings Act, 21, 22 Vict. c. 75, 1858, relates 
to the payment for portions of a mile travelled by 
third class railway trains. 


FARTHINGALE, see Crinoline. 
FASTI CAPITOLINI, marble tablets dug 


up in the forum at Rome, 1547, contain a list of the 
consuls and other officers from the year of Rome 250 
to 765. Other fragments were found in 1817 and 
1818. The ‘‘ Fasti Consulares,’’ from 509 B.c. to 
A.D. 235, are given at the end of Smith’s “* Dictionary 
of Greek and Roman Antiquities.’’ 


FASTS, observed by most nations from the re- 
motest antiquity; by the Jews (2 Chron. xx. 3); 
by the Ninevites (Jonah iii.) ; see Isat. lviii. A 
fast was observed by the Jews on the great day of 
atonement. Lev. xxiil. 1490 B.C. Moses fasted 4o 
days and nights on Sinai, Hvod. xxiv. 1491 B.c. 
The first Christian ministers were ordained with 
fasting (A.D. 45) dets xiii. 2. Annual fasts, as that 
of Lent, and at other stated times, and on particular 


018 


FEEJEE. - 


occasions to appease the anger of God, began it 
Christian church, in the second century, 138. 
Mahometan fast is termed Ramadan (which 
Fast days are appointed by the Reformed chu: 
in times of war and pestilence (as 21 March, 1 
for the Russian war, and 7 Oct. 1857, for the In 
mutiny) ; see Abstinence. 


FATHERS or THE CHURCH. The 


lowing are the principal :— 


FIRST CENTURY. (Greek. FOURTH AND FIFTH | 
Apostolical. TURIES. Greek. 
Hermas . Eusebius d. abt, 
Barnabas f Athanasius 7 d 
Clemens Romanus, d. 1oo | Ephrem Syrus, d. abt 
Ignatius . ; . d. 115 | Basil 5 : .o, 
Polycarp d. abt. 169 | Cyril of Jerusalem  d. 


Gregory Nazianzen . d. 
Macarius d. abt. 
Gregory Nyssen d. abt. 
Epiphanius d. 
John Chrysostom . d, 
Cyril of Alexandria 4d, 
Theodoret - d, 


SECOND CENTURY. Greek. 
Justin Martyr, d. abt. 166 
Irenwus d, abt. 200 
Athenagoras. 


THIRD CENTURY. Greek. 
Clemens Alexan- 


drinus d. abt. 217 
Hippolytus : d. 230 Latin. 
Origen . d. abt. 253 | Arnobius . - fi. 
Latin. Lactantius .  d. abt. 
Tertullian d. abt. 220 | Ambrose . ond 
Minutius Felix, fl. abt. 230 | Jerome. ce o Bas 
Cyprian , d. abt. 258 | Augustine Nemnld 


FATIMITES, see Adi and Mahometanism, 


FATS are oils solid at ordinary temperatu 
The researches of Chevreul since 1811 on t 
chemical nature are very important; see Candie 


FAUGHARD, see Foughard. 


FAUSTUS, a professor of magic, renowned 
chap books, flourished about the end of the 1 
century. Goethe’s dramatic poem, ‘ Faust,” 
peared in 1790. 


FEASTS Anp FEsttyats. The ‘ Feast 
the Lord,” viz., those of the Passover, Penteo 
Trumpets, and Tabernacles, were instituted 14901 
(Leviticus xxiii.) 2 
Feast of Tabernacles, celebrated upon the dedicatia 

the Temple of Solomon, roo4 B.c. 7 
Hezekiah (726 B.c.) and Josiah (623) kept the feast 

Passover in a most solemn manner. . 
In the Christian Church the feasts of Christmas, Eas 

Ascension, and the Pentecost or Whitsuntide (17 

see), are said to have been ordered to be obseny 

all Christians in the rst century. ; 
Rogation days appointed 469. 
Jubilees in the Romish Church were instituted by Be 

face VIII. in 1300 ; see Jubilees. j 
For fixed festivals observed in the Church of Englan 

settled at the Reformation, et seg., see Book of Conu 

Prayer. 

Feasts of Charity ; see Agape. 

FEBRUARY (from Februus, an Italian 
vinity), the second month of the year, in which 
celebrated Februa, feasts on behalf of the manes 
deceased persons. This month, with January, ¥ 
added to the year by Numa, about 713 B.c. J 
bruary 24, 25 Constitution, see France, 1875. 


FECIALES or FETIAxEs, twenty in numb 
heralds of Rome, to denounce war or proclaim pea 
appointed by Numa, about 712 B.c. 


FEDERAL STATES are those united 
treaty as one state, without giving up self-gover 
ment—as in Switzerland. The people of ft 
Northern United States of America during the gr 
conflict in 1861-5 were styled Federals ; their op 
nents Confederates. 


FEEJ EE, see Fiji. 


FELODESE. 


ELODESE, see Swicide. 


ELONY, in English law (says Blackstone, in 
), comprises every species of crime which occa- 
3 the forfeiture of land and goods. An act to 
ish forfeitures for treason and felony, and to 
rwise amend the law relating thereto, passed 4 
', 1870. 


EMALE MEDICAL SCHOOL, London, 
its first session in 1865, when courses of lec- 
s were given, Dr. Mary Walker attended Mid- 
sx hospital, in a modified female dress, in 1866. 
gaye an. autobiographical lecture at St. James’s 
, 20 Nov. 1866. In 1869 the decision that 
lies should be admitted to study medicine in the 
ersity of Edinburgh,”’ led to disturbances, 
ile Orphan Asylum, Beddington, Surrey, esta- 


shed . pe et 755 
ile Orphans’ Home, ‘Hampton, Middlesex ° 21855 
ile Servants’ Home Society . : Bier TO30) 
ile Aid Society . . 1836 


EMALE SUFFRAGE, ee see Women. 
ENCIBLE LIGHT DRAGOONS, a body 


avalry raised voluntarily in various counties of 
land and Scotland in 1794, to serve during the 
in any part of Great Britain. This force. (he- 
m 14,000 and 15,000), which did its duty with 
h judgment during a period of intense popular 
tement, was disbanded in 1800. 


ENCING was introduced into England from 
ice. Fencing-schools having led to duelling in 
land, were prohibited in London by statute 13 

rah. 1285. In 1859 there were eight teachers of 
ie in London ; in 1872, ten. 


ENIANS (the name of ancient Irish national 
tia), a ‘‘ brotherhood”’ in the United States and 
md united to liberate Ireland and establish a 
iblic.* The agitation was begun, it is said, by 
hens in March, 1858, and in 1864 enlistments 
secret drillings took place. A convention was 
ted in 1863 in America. The movement is 
ised by the Roman Catholic clergy. See Leland. 


between the Fenians and their opponents at 
3 Rotondo, Dublin : . 22 Feb. 1864 
sons arrested in Dublin, and the newspaper 
> Irish People (established Sept. 1863) seized, 15 


pt. ; others arrested at Cork, &c. 16-30 Sept. 1865 
Fenians in America publish an address, stating 

it officers were going to Ireland to organise an 

ny of 200,000 men ° - Sept. ,, 
ans arrested at Manchester * : 2x Sept. ,, 
ip with gunpowder seized at Liverpool Sept. ,, 


mation of the pope, condemning secret societies 
30 Sept. ,, 
ence that soool. and 2000 pike-heads had been 
vived from America in Sept. ,, 
novan and s others committed for high treason 
DOCT AM. 
-nians committed fortrial . uptor14 Oct. ,, 
nian provisional government at New York, and 
songress of 600 members held at Philadelphia 


Oct. _,; 
insi in United States said to have raised 200, eae 
Cc 3? 


jure of James Stephens, Irish head-centre, xz 
v.; he escapes from gaol. 24 Nov. eS 
; e disputes between the senate and 0’ Wa lashes 
': head-centre, who is charged with corruption 
ni deposed ; Mr. Roberts appointed his Was 
ec. 


‘00 Fenians reported in the United States Jan. 1866 
)as Corpus act suspended in Ireland ; about 250 
pected persons arrested immediately 17 Hepa, 


l- 

venian oath. ‘I promise by the divine law of God 
) all in my power to ohey the laws of the society 

_, and to free and regenerate Jreland from the yoke 
gland. So help me God.” 


319 


FENIANS. 


Great mass meeting at New York, threatening to 
invade Canada 4] Mar ch, 
Fenian schooner Friend captures British schooner 
Wentworth, and scuttles her near Eastport, N. A. 
I May 
James Stephens arrives at New York IO May, 
Col. O’Niel and Fenians cross the Niagara and enter 
Canada, 31 May ; a conflict ensued with the volun- 
teers, with bloodshed . 2dune, 
The American generals Grant ‘and Meade capture 
many retr eating Fenians . . 2 June et seq. 
Sweeny and others arrested 6 6, 7 June, 


President Johnson’s proclamation against the Fe- 
nians - 7 June, 
Spear and others cross the boundary near Variant 
7 June; the corps demoralised; many return 

9 June, 

Much dissension among the Fenians, July, et seq. 
They exercise much influence in the elections in 
America in : 2 Oct: 
TRIALS IN CANADA. —Col. Lynch and Rev. ey ohn 
MacMahon (sentenced to be hanged on 13 Dec.) 
reprieved - 24-26 Oct. 
James Stephens, “ central ‘organiser of the Irish 
republic,” said to sail from America 24 Nov. 
The British government offer 2o00ol. for ies appre- 
hension . - Nov: 
feaney, a dele gate, arrested in London . 1 Dee. 
Arms and ammunition seized in Dublin, Cork, and 
Limerick ; many arrests . : ee Dec: 


Gen. Millen, head of the Fenian military depart- 
ment, denounces Stephens ‘‘ as a cheat and a ras- 
cal,” and declares the cause for the present hope- 
less, but exhorts to watchfulness foran opportunity 


Dee. 

Sweeny (released) rejoins the U.S. army . z . Jan, 
22 convictions at Toronto . 4 eh 
67 Fenians from Liverpool arrested in Dublin 
12 Feb. 

Irruption of Fenians into Chester ; compelled to 
retire cf : 11, 12 Feb. 
Outbreak in Kerry ;_ Killarney threatened ; capt. 


Moriarty and others captured . .12 Feb. 
Attack on coastguard station, Cahirciveen, 12 Feb. ; 
movement collapsed J 6 Feb. 

Kilmallock police barrack defended for tlives Fates 
by 14 constables, who drove off 200 armed Fenians, 

with loss, by a sally : 3 : 5 March, 

General Massey captured : - 40r6 March, 

Rising at Midleton in Cork ; Daly, a leader, killed ; 

rails of South and Midland railway taken up 

6 March, 

Proclamation of the Irish ieee a sent to the Times 
and other papers : : 6 March, 
Fenian rising near Dublin ; telegraph destroyed ; 
attack on the police station at Tallaght repelled ; 

several shot, 208 prisoners taken into Dublin 

7 March, 

tooo Fenians hold market-place at Drogheda, but 
retreat at the approach of police ose ZeMarche 
Capt. Maclure captured 31 Mar ch, 

Special commission to try 230 Fenians ; Whiteside, 

ch.-just. ; Deasy and Fitzgerald, begin (Massey, 

Keogh, Corydon, and McGough, approvers) 

g April, et seq. 

Burke and Doran sentenced to death, x May; re- 
prieved ; 26 May, 

Many convictions ‘of treason (M’Afferty, M’Clure, 

and others) and treason-felony, and many dis- 


charged . - ° : 5 May, 
Trials at Limerick begin rr June, 
President Roberts retires ; the party i in the United 
States said to be demoralised July, 


Many Fenians tried and convicted J uly and Aug. 
Several imprisoned Fenians released and sent to 
America : Aug. and Sept. 
Fenian congress at Cleveland, Ohio . Sept. 
Kelly and Deasy, two Fenians, remanded for further 
examination, rescued from the prisoners’ van, 
near Manchester ; and Brett, a policeman, shot 
for refusing to give up his keys -18 Sept 
Many persons taken up; 23 committed on charg 
of murder—tried, 5 condemned to death (2 re- 
prieved); 7 sentenced to 7 years’ imprisonment 


29 Oct.-12 Noy. 
Allen, Gould, and Larkin executed at Salford, 
23 Noy, 


a, 


FENTIANS. 


Funeral demonstration in London 
Trials of Halpin and others at Dublin,  Oct.-Noy. 
Funeral demonstrations for Allen, &c., at Cork, 
rt Dec.; Dublin and Limerick 8 Dec. 
Address of the president and senate of the Fenian 
brotherhood of America to the ‘‘liberty-loving 
people of England,” dated New York, 12 Dee. 
Reunion of the Roberts and Stephens parties under 
a new president ; 4 about 20 Dec. 
Premeditated explosion of Clerkenwell house of 
detention, London, to release Burke and Casey, 
leading Fenians, at 3.45. (A cask of gunpowder 
was fired close to the prison wall ; Timothy Des- 
mond, Jeremiah Allen, and Ann Justice captured 
on suspicion) . r fs 4 ei 13 Dec. 
[Consequences of the explosion.—‘‘ Six persons were 
killed ‘ outright,’ six more died from its effects, 
according to the coroner’s inquests; five, in 
addition, owed their deaths indirectly to this 
means ; one young woman is in a madhouse, 4o 
mothers were prematurely confined, and 20 of 
their babes died from the effects of the explosion 
on the women ; others of the children are dwarfed 
and unhealthy. One mother is now a raving 
maniac ; 120 persons were wounded; 50 went 
into St. Bartholomew’s, Gray’s Inn-lane, and 
King’s College Hospitals; 15 are permanently 
injured, with loss of eyes, legs, arms, &c. ; besides 
20,0001. worth of damage to person and property. 
—Times, 29 April, 1868.] | 
Capt. Mackay and others rifle a Martello tower, 
27 Dec. 
Audacious seizure of arms and ammunition in a 


gunsmith’s shopin Cork. : - 30 Dec. 
r2 suspected Fenians captured at Merthyr of 
3r Dec. 


Mullany, a prisoner, turns queen’s evidence, and 
accuses Barrett or Jackson(captured at Glasgow, 
14 Jan.) of firing the barrel at Clerkenwell, 

28 Jan. 

Attack on Martello tower near Waterford 28 Jan. 

Capt. Mackay arrested at Cork, 7 Feb. ; much riot- 
ing there x : : : ; 11, 12 Feb. 

Conviction of Patrick Lennon, a leader, 12 Feb. 

Habeas corpus act susp. till 1 March, 1869 _Feb. 

Mullany and Thompson convicted as accessories in 
murder of Brett x 4 a x 18 March, 

Capt. Mackay convicted; sentenced to 12 years’ 
imprisonment i ‘ : : - 20 March, 

O’Farrell, a Fenian, wounds the duke of Edinburgh 
at Port Jackson, 12 March; sentenced to death, 

31 March, 

Mr. Darcy M‘Gee, M.P., shot dead by a Fenian at 
Ottawa , ‘ i : i e 7 April, 

Trial of Wm. and Timothy Desmond, Nicholas Eng- 
lish, John O’Keefe, Michael Barrett, and Ann 
Justice, for murder (Clerkenwell outrage) begun 
20; acquittal of Justice, 23 ; of O'Keefe, 24 ; and 
of the two Desmonds and English, 27. Conviction 
of Barrett * ‘ - : : . 27 April, 

Richard Burke, a leader, convicted oftreason-felony, 

30 April, 

Michael Barrett (for causing the Clerkenwell ex- 
plosion) executed e F : 26 May, 

O’Donovan Rossa and others released, behave 
violently : p ; : 4 March, 

The government declines to release others, 18 Oct. 

Manifesto from John Savage, executive officer, Dec. 

Fenian raid into Canada vigorously repelled by the 
militia, and their general, O’Neill, captured by the 
U. 8. marshal . : . 4 . 26 May, 

Michael Davitt and John Wilson convicted of 
treason-felony for endeavouring to transmit arms 
secretly to Ireland (detected March) 18 July, 

Captured Fenian generals (Thompson and Starr) in 
United States, sentenced to imprisonment for 
breach of neutrality laws : - = July, 

President Grant’s proclamation against Fenian raids 
into Canada : : : ies - 13 Oct. 

Letter from Mr. Gladstone announcing early release 
of Fenian convicts » ° - - 15 Dec. 

The convicts released . “ sh iA % Jan. 

The released convicts welcomed in the United 
States . : - R at Be ‘ a dans 

The Fenians favour the French in the war, 

Aug. 1870-Feb. 

Fenian raid into Manitoba suppressed by United 


MN 


20 FERMIERS GENERAUX., ~ 


. 24 Nov. 1867 


3? 


3) 


1870 


we ae SS eee 


States troops, and general Neill arrested; see 
Ireland ; : : ; about 12 Oct. 
Gen. Cluseret (a short time in the service of the 
Fenians) publishes an account of them in Fraser’s 
Magazine: he says, ‘‘Their insurrection was 
foolishly planned and still more foolishly exe- 
cuted,” and strongly advises reconciliation with 
England : : ; 4 E 
Great demonstration near Drogheda 


in the Catalpa, American ship, 17 April; arrived 
at New York é : . i : 19 Aug. 
O’Mahony, head-centre, dies at New York; grand 
funeral service. . , : 5 6 Feb. 
Davitt and other Fenian convicts released Jan. to 
Sept. 
Davitt prominent during the land league agitation, 13! 
Arrested and committed to prison 3, 4 Feb. 
Elected M.P. for co. Meath “ - 22 Feb. 
Seizure of arms and ammunition, St. John Street 
Road, Clerkenwell; Thomas Walsh arrested | 
17 June 
Committed for trial, 17 July ; sentenced to 7 years’ 
penal servitude - : -* 9 Ang. 
Detection of a murderous Fenian plot in Dublin, 
carried out by a band termed the ‘‘ Irish Invinei- 
bles,” said to be connected with the Land League 
19 Jan.—17 Feb, 
Plot to explode public buildings in England con- 
cocted in New York, by O’Donovan Rossa, a chief 
of the Fenian Brotherhood, Wm. J. Lynch (Nor- 
man) sent to England ; conveys explosives from 
Birmingham to London (see Birmingham), gives 
evidence at Bow-street .  . 19 April, 
Great convention at Philadelphia opened, 25 April ; 
denounced by O’Donovan Rossa, who revives the - 
Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood 4 May. | 
See Dynamite and Explosions. 
Centre of Fenian organization discovered at Paris ; 
Frederick Allen apprehended . Oct. | 
Capt. Thos. Phelan stabbed (not killed) as a sus- 
pected traitor by Richard Short—in Rossa’s 
house, in New York, 9 Jan.; O’Donoyan Rossa 
shot in the street by Lucilla Yseult Dudley, an 
English widow, aged 25, 2 Feb, ; Phelan and he 
recover, in the same hospital . ore PO 
Threatening Fenian manifesto sent to Mr. Glad- 
stone and others from Paris about 19 Feb. 
Great Fenian congress held in Paris 23 Feb. 
James Stephens expelled from France . March, 


FERE-CHAMPENOISE (France). | 
the French army under Marmont, Mortier, 
Arrighi, were surprised and defeated by the 
under the prince of Schwarzenberg, 25 Mat 
1814, after a heroic resistance. Paris surrende 
six days after. 


FERGHANA, see Khokand. 


FERIA LATINA, solemn Roman f 
said to have been instituted by Tarquin the I 
about 534 B.c. The principal magistrates of ft 
seven towns of Latium assembled on a mount 
Rome, and with the Roman authorities off 
bull to Jupiter Latialis. 


FERMENTATION, termed by Gay-I\ 
one of the most mysterious processes In natur 
showed that in the process, 45lbs. of suga 
resolved into 23 of alcohol and 22 of carbonic 
His memoir appeared in 1810. In 1861 Pa 
brought forward: evidence to show that ferme! 
tion depends on the presence of minute organi 
in the fermenting fluid, and that the source of 
such organisms is the atmosphere. For his 
searches he was awarded an annual pensio 
120,000 frances in 1874. 


FERMIERS GENERAUX, officers 1 
farmed the French revenues previous to 1789, : 
quently with much oppression. Lavoisier and 
of these were exonntae May, 1794. 


FERNDALE EXPLOSION. 3 


“ERNDALE COLLIERY EXPLO- 
; 8 Noy. 1867; about 178 lives lost. See 


ON 
ler Coal. 


‘ERNS (Ireland), an ancient bishopric, once 
uiepiscopal. St. Hden was seated here in 598. 
shlin and Ferns were united in 1600; and by 
Church Temporalities Act, passed Aug. 1833, 
ah were united to the bishopric of Ossory. See 
ory.—F ERNS, an order of cryptogamous plants, 
‘much cultivated in Wardian cases; which see, 
also Nature-Printing. 


‘EROZESHAH (India). The British, com. 
ded by sir Hugh Gough, attacked the en- 
ichments of the Sikhs, and carried their first 
of works, 21 Dec. 1845 ; but night coming on, 
operations were suspended till daybreak, when 
r second line was stormed by general Gilbert, 


21 


74 Suns captured. ‘The Sikhs advanced to re- 
: their guns, but were repulsed with great loss, 
retreated towards the Sutlej, 22 Dec.; and re- 
sed that river unmolested, 27 Dec. The British 
was reckoned at 2415. 


ERRARA, formerly part of the exarchate of 
enna, under the emperors of the East. It was 
lued by the Lombards in the 8th century, and 
n from them about 752 by Pepin, who gave it 
ope Stephen IT. About 1208 it fell into the 
Js of the house of Este (which see), and became 
principal seat of the literature and fine arts 
taly. Pope Clement VIII. obtained the sove- 
nty in 1598, on the death of the duke Alphonso 
the last legitimate male of the Este family. 
illegitimate nephew, Caesar, became duke of 
ena. The French under Massena took Ferrara 
796; but it was restored to the pope in 1814. 
Austrian garrison held it from 1849; it retired 
une, 1859, and the people rose and declared for 
»xation to Sardinia, which was accomplished in 


ch, 1860. 
ERRARS’ ARREST. In March, 1542, Mr. 


‘ge Ferrars, a member of parliament, while in 
idance on the house was taken in execution 
sheriff’ s officer for debt, and committed to the 
pter prison. ‘he house despatched their ser- 
t to require his release, which was resisted, 
an affray taking place, his mace was broken. 
house in a body repaired to the lords to com- 
1, when the contempt was adjudged to be very 
t, and the punishment of the offenders was 
red to the lower house. On another messenger 
g sent to the sheriffs by the commons, they 
ered up the senator, and the civil magistrates 
the creditor were committed to the Tower, the 
‘ior officers to Newgate, and an act was passed 
sing Mr. Ferrars from liability for the debt. 
king, Henry VIII., highly approved of all 
> proceedings, and the transaction became the 
_ of that rule of parliament which exempts 
bers from arrest. Holinshed. 


ERRO, see Canary Isles. 


HRROL (N.W. Spain). Upwards of 10,000 
sh landed near Ferrol under the command of 
ames Pulteney, in Aug. 1800. They gained 
ssion of the heights; but, despairing of suc- 
on account. of the strength of the works, sir 
'§ re-embarked his troops. His conduct was 
condemned. Soult captured Ferrol, 27 Jan. 
; insurrection of about 1500 men in the 
al here broke jout, headed by brigadier Pozas 
. ei Montojo, who raised the red flag, 11 
_ They dispersed or surrendered when about 
attacked, 17 Oct. 1872. 


FIELD. 
FESCENNINE VERSES were rnde extem- 


porary dialogues, frequently licentious, in favour 
among the ancient Etruscans at weddings, and still, 
popular in Italy. : 


FESTIVALS, see under Feasts, Clergy, Music. 
FETE DE DIRU, 2 feast of the Roman church’ 


in honour of the real presence in the Lord’s Sup- 
Bae kept on the Thursday after Trinit Sunday. 

ee Corpus Christi. Berengarius, arc bishop of 
Angers, opposed the doctrine of transubstantia- 
tion, and to atone for his crime a yearly pro- 
cession was made at Angers, called Ja féte dé Dier, 
1019. 


FETE DE VERTU, an annual assemblage, 
chiefly of young persons, to whom were adjudged 
rewards for industry and virtue. These fétes, held 
at Nuneham, in Oxfordshire, begun by lady Har- 
court in 1789, were continued till her death. 


FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land by 
suit and service to lord or owner, in use in 
England by the Saxons, about 600, was mainly in- 
troduced by William I. in 1066. The kingdom was 
divided into baronies, which were given on condition 
of the holders furnishing the king with men and’ 
money. The vassalage, limited by Henry VII., 
1495, was abolished by statute, 1660. The feudal 
system was introduced into Scotland by Malcolm II. 
in 1008, and the hereditary jurisdictions were finally 
abolished in that kingdom, 1746-7. The feudal 
laws, established in France by Clovis I. about 486, 
were discountenanced by Louis XI. in 1470. 


FEUILLANTS, a religious order founded by 
Jean de la Barriére in 1577 at the abbey of Feuil- 
lant, near Toulouse, and settled in Paris in 1587. 
The Feeillant club, formed in Paris by La Fayette 
and others in 1789, to counteract the intrigues of 
the Jacobins, was so named from the convent where 
they met. A body of Jacobins burst into their hall 
and obliged them to separate, 25 Dec. 1791; and 
the club was broken up in 1792. 


FEZ (in the ancient Mauritania, Africa), 
founded by Edris, a descendant of Mahomet, about 
787, was long capital of the kingdom of Fez. 
After long-continued struggles, it was annexed to 
Morocco about 1550. Leo Africanus describes it as 
containing more than 700 temples, mosques, and 
other public edifices, in the 12th century. 


FICTIONS, see Romances.—Fictions in Law 
were invented by the lawyers in the reign of 
Edward I. as a. means of carrying cases from one 
court to another, whereby the courts became checks 
to each other. Heme. Lord Mansfield, in the court 
of King’s Bench, emphatically declared. that ‘‘ no 
fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the 
real truth, as to prevent the execution of justice: ”’ 
31 May, 1784. They have been mostly abolished 
in the present century. 


‘“FIDELIO,” Beethoven’s single opera; com- 
posed in 1804, produced at Vienna, 20 Noy. 1805. 


FIDEN A, a Sabine city, frequently at war 
with Rome. It was finally captured and the in-’ 
habitants enslaved, 426 B.c., by the Romans, whose’ 
ambassadors they had slain. 


FIEF, see Feudal Laws. 


FIELD. The country gentleman’s weekly 
paper, devoted to natural history, sports, &c., first 
appeared 1 Jan. 1853. 


FIELD or Marcu Aanp May, see Champ:—- 
D6 


FIELD-MARSHAL. 


FIELD OF THE CLOTH oF GOLD, a plain near 
Ardres, near Calais, in France, on which Henry 
VIII. met Francis I. of France, 7-25 June, 1520. 
The nobility of both kingdoms displayed their 
magnificence, and many involved themselves in 
debt. Paintings of the embarcation and interview 
are at Windsor castle. 


FIELD-MARSHAL, see Marshal. 
FIERY-CHAMBER, see Chambre Ardente. 


FIESCHI’S ATTEMPT on Lovis-PHI- 
LIPPE, see France, 1835. 


FIFTH-MONARCHY MEN, about 1645, 
supposed the period of the Millennium to be just 
at hand, when Jesus Christ should descend from 
heaven, and erect the fifth universal monarchy. 
They proceeded so far as to elect him king at 
London. Cromwell dispersed them, 1653. Kearsley. 
Another rising with loss of life was suppressed, 
6 Jan. 1661. Thos. Venner, a cooper, their leader, 
and 16 others, were executed soon after. 


FIFTH PARTY, 2a term applied to the ad- 


vocates of temperance in the House of Commons 
(about 60), Feb. 1884. 


FIG-TREE (Ficus carica) brought from the 
south of Europe, before 1548. The Botany-Bay 
fig, Ficus australis, brought from N.S. Wales in 


1789. 
FIGURES, see Arithmetic. 


FIJI or Virr Isiz&s, in the Pacifie Ocean, 
about 1500 miles from Sydney. Discovered by 
Tasman, Dutch navigator, in 1643. There are above 
200 isles; 80 inhabited; the largest about 360 miles 
in circumference. 


Population in 1881, 124,999 ; including 2,293 Europeans. 
The islands offered by the king, Thakombau, and : 
chiefs to the British government, but not accepted 
July, 
The house of commons granted 168o0l. for expendi- 
ture in them ; and European settlements made . 
Annexation to Great Britain proposed in parlia- 
ment ; declined 25 June, 1872 ; but unconditional 
cession to the British government accepted by 
sir Hercules Robinson, July : and announced by 
him - 5 . ; ; ‘ . 25 Oct. 
His club sent as a present to the queen by the king 
Thakombau . : : : ; + a Aly Cee 
Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, first governor . 1875 
About 50,000 deaths by epidemic measles earlyin ,, 
Outbreak of cannibal devil-worshippers suppressed 
by the military ; about 20 ringleaders executed 


1859 
1860 


1874 


about June, 
Sir George Wm. Des Veeux, governor , Oct. 
King Thakombau died : “ r Feb. 


1876 
1880 
1883 


FILES are mentioned (1 Sam. xiii. 21) 1093 B.c. 
The manufacture of them has attained to great per- 
fection, by means of file-cutting machinery. That 
set up by Mr. T. Greenwood of Leeds, in 1859, was 
invented by M. Bernot of Paris. It is said that 
the price of files made by it is reduced from 32d. to 
4d. per dozen. 


FILIBUSTERS (properly Fiibustiers), a 
name given to the freebooters who plundered the 
coasts of America in the 16th and 17th centuries ; 
see Buccaneers and Nicaragua. 


FILIOQUE, (“and from the Son’’), inserted 
in the Nicene creed, in respect to the procession of 
the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son, by 
the second council at Constantinople, 381; was re- 
jected, by the Greek church, 431; accepted by the 
Spanish, 447, and by the Roman, 883, The omission 
of the phrase was considered at the Old Cutholic 


322 


FIRE-ARMS. 


Conference at Bonn, Aug. 1875. See Athanasi 
Creed and Nice. 


FILTERERS. A plan for ee corrupt 

water was patented by Wm. Woolcott in 167 

Other modes followed. James Peacock’s method 

filtration was patented in 1791; and many oth¢ 

since: Ransome’s, 1856. 

Apparatus fer freshening salt water, brought forwa 
by Grant, 1849; by Macbride, 1849; Gravely, 18 
Dr. Normandy’s greatly improved apparatus, 18: 
much used in the royal navy. 


FINE ARTS, see Arts, Paintings, Sculptu 
Engraving, &e. 


FINES Anp RECOVERIES, conferring 1 
power of breaking ancient entails and alienati 
estates, began in the reign of Edward IV., but \ 
not, properly speaking, law, till Henry VIL., 
correcting some abuses that attended the practi 
gave indirectly a sanction to it, 1487. Fines a 
recoveries were abolished in 1833. 


FINISTERRE, sce Cape Finisterre. 


FINLAND, a Russian grand duchy, in | 
middle of the I2th century was conquered 
Eric IX. of Sweden, who introduced Christiani 
It was several times taken by the Russians (17 
1742, and 1808), and restored (1721 and I 743) 3 ! 
in 1809 they retained it by treaty ; see Ado. 
political constitution was confirmed by the Czar 
1800, 1825, and 1855. It was made nearly autor 
mous in pes opulation in 1862, 1,746,2: 
in 1867, 1,830,853; 1875, 1,912,647. During 
dreadful famine, wholelvillages were starved. El 
Lonnten, editor of the ancient national ep 
“Kalevala” (1834-49), died 1884. Triennial 1) 
opened with constitutional speech sent by the Cz 
1g Jan. 1885. 


FINNIAN, see Fenians. 
FINSBURY PARK, London, N. In1& 


land was purchased, and preparations for the pi 
began ; and it was opened 7 Aug. 1869. 


FIRE. The poets supposed that fire was sto 
from heaven by Prometheus. Heraclitus alx 
596 B.c. maintained that the world was crea! 
from fire, and deemed to be a god omnipote 
See Parsees. 


FIRE-ANNIHILATOR, an apparatus | 
vented by Mr. T. Phillips, and made known” 
him in 1849. ' When put in action, steam and ¢ 
bonic acid are formed, which extinguish flame. — 
was not successful commercially. L’ Extinct 
was invented by Dr. F. Carlier, and patented 
A. Vignon in July, 1862. It is an iron eylin 
filled with water and carbonic acid gas, genera 
by bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid. 1 
apparatus was developed and improved by } 
W. B. Dick, in his Manual and Chemical Fi 
Engines, which give a continuous flow of wa 
and gas, patented April, 1869. 

The ‘‘Mata Fuego,” or ‘‘ Fire-killer,” of M. Banolas 
Paris, was successfully exhibited at the Alexan 
Palace, 16 Oct., 1880. Great bodies of flame W 
almost instantaneously extinguished. 

The Harden Grenade Fire Extinguisher tried sucet 
fully near Farringdon-road, London, 24 July, 1884 

See 4ntipyrogene and Asbestos, 


FIRE-ARMS, see Artillery, Cannon, Need 
gun, Chassepot, and Pistols. ‘The first small fi 
arms were a species of cannon, borne by two met 


Fire-arms made at Perugia, in Italy 5 » Jae 
Employed by the Burgundians at Arras .  « .; # 
Edward LY., when he landed at Ravenspur, is said | 


me | 


vf ; 
FIRE-BRIGADE. 323 FIRE-WORKS. 
to have been accompanied by 300 Flemings, FIRE-ENGINES are said te have been in- 
armed with hand-guns . =. =. . |. _- 1471 | vented by Ctesibius, 250B.c. ‘They are mentioned 
t Morat, the Swiss are said to have had 10,000 ’ 


arquebusiers (men armed with fire-arms) : 
re-arms said to have been used at the siege of 
Berwick . d ‘ ; . : ‘ ee 
1e petronel (from poitrine, the chest) or arquebus 
came into use, 1480; and the musket employed 
in the armies of the emperor Charles V. about . ,, 
1 these were of very rude construction, being 
first discharged by a lighted match, afterwards, 
ubout 1517, by a wheel-lock, then by the flint. 

e match-lock and wheel-lock superseded by the 
jint-lock, about 3 é : : : Sak 
e rey. Mr. Forsythe patented the percussion 
osrinciple of igniting gunpowder in muskets, by 


1476 


1521 


neans of detonating powder April, 1807 
reussion caps came into use between . 1820 & 1830 
reussion musket ; pattern : . 1842 


tillery carbine; pattern . “ < TORE 
storia carbine (for cavalry). 
gulation rifle musket ; pattern . - ; - 
plication of machinery in small arms factory 
istablished at Enfield (the old musket Brown Bess 
uperseded) - : . : a alls 
. Jacob Snider’s system of breech-loading in- 
‘ented in 1859 ; presented to the British govern- 
aent ; finally adopted, 1866. He received roool. 
or expenses in June ; died 25 Oct. . : ee 
ooo breech-loaders said to have been ordered by 
he British government : : : JULY 3 
w government advertises for propositions for 
onyersion of Enfield rifles into breech-loaders, 
A eae 
hassepot ” guns in use in France TiOCti7as;5 
r-office advertises for proposals for breech- 
yading rifles, to replace those in use 22Oct. ,, 
ie systems selected for further trial ; roool. to be 
warded to the best F a . : June, 
der’s rifle reported very successful at Wimbledon, 
July, 2? 
382 new arms had been made at Enfield ; 175,550 
onverted to Sniders, upto . : : Deca. 
: *Money-Walker ” rifle (patented by Mr. Mow- 
ray-Money and lieut.-col. Walker), tried and 
pproved i : 18 June, 


: : : F 1868 
eport in favour of the Martini and Henry rifle 


isued [adopted] z $ March, 1869 
‘act to grant a duty of excise on licences to use 
ams, passed : . 9g Aug. 1870 


iplaints respecting the Martini-Henry rifle (for 
eight and recoil) : : : . Aug. 1874 
| See Mitrailleuse and Gatling. 
'TRE-BRIGADE. The “ London Fire-en- 
e Establishment,’ an amalgamation of the 
‘ines of the different companies, was established 
London in 1832 by Mr. Charles Bell Ford, di- 
or of the Sun Fire-office. It then had 80 men 
_ 19 stations. In 1863 it had 130 men and 20 
‘ions. In May, 1862, acommission recommended 
establishment of a fire-brigade, which was ef- 
ed by the Metropolitan Fire-brigade Act, in 
‘5. The establishment then gave up its plant to 
| Metropolitan Board of Works. The fire-brigade 
-upported by a 3d. rate, and by contributions 
i government and from the insurance offices. It 
ie into action, and its energies were success- 
'y tested at the great fire at St. Katharine’s 
xs, I Jan. 1866. 


IRE-DAMP INDICATOR, a small appa- 
is, about the size of a chronometer, invented by 
_G. F. Ansell, and patented by him in 1865, by 
ch the presence of very small quantities of fire- 
'p or light carburetted hydrogen gas may be 
‘ected in mines. It is an application of the law 
he diffusion of gases. 


‘IRE-DETECTOR and ALARUM, a me- 
| nical and chemical apparatus invented by prof. 
chi, which causes a bell to be rung and exhibits 
ured light, when the temperature of a room is 
itly increased. It was tried at the Inter- 
onal exhibition, London, 4 June, 1873. 


by Pliny, a.p. 70. A ‘‘water-bow”’ was patented 
by Thos. Grent in 1632, one was constructed by 
John Van der Heyden, about 1663. Bramah’s engine 
was patented in 1793. Mr. John Braithwaite con- 
structed a steam fire-engine in 1830. A trial of 
steam fire-engines took place at the Crystal Palace, 
Sydenham, on 1, 2, 3 July, 1863, when prizes were 
awarded to a large one by Merryweather and a 
small one by Shand and Mason. “See Fire Anni- 
hilator. 
W. Dennis’s portable self-acting pneumatic fire- 

engine was tried successfully at gas-works near 

the Thames P 30 Nov. 1876 


FIRE-ESCAPES were patented by David 
Marie (1766), and Joachim Smith (1773). The Royal 
Society for the Protection of Life from Fire was 
first established in 1836; its object was not fully 
attained till 1843, when it was re-organised, begin- 
ning with six escape stations in London; in March, 
1859, it possessed 67; in 1866, 85. In 1858, 504 . 
fires had been attended, and 57 persons rescued. 
In 1861 it was stated that 84 lives had been saved 
by the society’s officers. In 1866, 695 fires had 
been attended, and 78 lives saved. In Aug. 1867, 
the aes of the society was virtually presented to 
the Board of Works, in consequence of the passing 
of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act, 1865. Vers- 
mann’s composition for rendering washing dresses 
Jire-proof was published about 1860. 


FIRE INSURANCE, see Jnsurance. 


FIREMAN’S RESPIRATOR, the inven- 
tion of Dr. Tyndall (1870-71), is a combination of 
his respirator of cotton-wool moistened with gly- 
cerine, and Dr. Stenhouse’s charcoal respirator. 
Armed with this apparatus a man may remain a 
long time in the densest smoke. 


FIRE, ROYAL SOCIETY FOR PRO- 
TECTION FROM. See Fire-Escapes. 


FIRE-SALVAGE CORPS formed, in 1865, 


by the London Fire Insurance Offices. 
FIRE-SHIPS. Among the most formidable 


contrivances of this kind ever used, was an ex- 
plosion vessel to destroy a bridge of boats at the 
siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of them in 
the British navy was by Charles lord Howard of 
Effingham, in the engagement with the Spanish 
Armada, July, 1588. Rapin. 


FIRE-WATCH or FIRE-GUARD, of Lon- 


don, was instituted Nov. 1791. 


FIRE-WORKS are said to have been made 
by the Chinese in remote ages. They were invented 
in Europe at Florence about 1360; and were exhi- 
bited as a spectacle in 1588. 


Macaulay states that the fire-works let off in England at 
the peace of Ryswick, in 1697, cost 12,000l. 

Very grand fire-works were let off from a magnificent 
building erected in the Green-park, London, at the 
peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Nov. 1748. 

Exhibition of fire-works in Paris, 3: May, 1770, in honour 
of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVL.; 
nearly rooo persons perished by pressure and drown- 
ing, through a panie. ? 

The display of fire-works, under sir Wm. Congreve, at 
the general peace, and the centenary of the accession 
of the Brunswick family to the throne, x Aug. 1814. 

Another at the coronation of William IV., 8 Sept. 183r. 

A grand display of this kind (at a cost of 10,000l.) to cele- 
brate the peace with Russia, 29 May, 1856. 

In consequence of explosions frequently occurring at 
fire-work makers (particularly one on 12 July, 1858, at 
Mr. Bennett’s in the Westminster-road, Lae when 

ny 


FIRES. 


tinct 


five lives were lost, and about 300 persons seriously 
injured, and much property destroyed), it was deter- 
mined to enforce 9 & ro Will. III. ¢. 7 (1697), an act to 
prevent the throwing and forming of squibs, serpents, 


and other fire-wor ks. 
fire-works was passed in 1860. 


An act regulating the making of 


Ralph Fenwick, a maker, his wife, and six others, 
Broad-street, Lambeth, killed by explosion 4 Nov. 1873. 
Mr. C. T. Broek, the greatest pyrotechnist of the time, 
has a manufactory at Nunhead ; exhibits at the Crystal 


Palace, &c., and abroad, 1871, et sey. 
FIRES 1n Lonpon. The conflagration 


of a 


city, with all its tumult of concomitant distress, is 


‘one of the most dreadful poesia which 
world can offer to human eyes. . Johnson. 
Chicago, Santiago, Liverpool, 1862, &e. 


A great part of the city destroyed, (seeing St. 
Paul’s cathedral ; 962 & 

One at London-bridge, began on the Scuitiver ark 
side, and was communicated to the other side, 
and hemmed in a numerous crowd ; about 3000 
were drowned, and a great part of the city, north 
and south, burned . 

The Great Fire, whose ruins covered 436 acres, ex- 
tended from the Tower to the Temple-church, and 
from the north-east gate to Holborn-bridge. It 
began in a baker’s house in Pudding-lane, behind 
Monument-yard, and destroyed, in the space of 
four days, 89 churches (including St. Paul’s), the 
city gates, the Royal Exchange, the Custom- 
house, Guildhall, Sion college, “and many other 
public buildings, besides 13,200 houses, laying 
waste goostreets. About 200,000 persons encamped 
in Islington and Highgate fields. (See Monument.) 

2-6 Sept. 

In Bouthsrariss 60 houses burnt : 

In Wapping, 150 houses burnt, 50 lives lost 

Custom-house burnt : : 4 ; 

At Shadwell, 50 houses burnt. to Sept. 

In Cornhill ward, 200 houses burnt ; this fire began 
in Change-alley, and was the most terrible since 
the great fire of 1666 : : 25 March, 

At Covent Garden, 50 houses burnt ap ce 

Jn Smithfield, 28 houses burnt 

At Shadwell, 30 houses burnt 

In Throgmorton-street, 20 houses 

At Wapping, 20 houses 

At Hermitage-stairs, 31 houses 

At Horselydown, 30 houses, besides many ‘ware- 
houses and ships : 30 April, 

Newgate, &c., by the Gordon mob . June, 

In the Str and, 40 houses burnt . 

In Aldersgate-street, 40 houses; the loss exceeding 


100,0001. ; A A 5 Nov. 
The Opera- house . 17 June, 
At Rotherhithe, 20 houses 12 Oct. 


gain, when many ships and 60 houses were con- 


sumed . 14 Sept. 
Pantheon, Oxford-street » ‘xa June, 
At Wapping, 630 houses, and an Fast India ware- 


house, in which 35,000 bags of saltpetre were 
stored: the loss 1,000,000. (tents for the sufferers 


were lent by the government) 21 July, 
Astley’s amphitheatre 17 Sept. 
St. Paul’s church, Covent- garden rr Sept. 
At Shadwell, 20 houses burnt 1 Nov. 
In the Minories, 30 houses . 23 March, 
In the King’s Bench, 50 residences 14 July, 


Near the Customs, three West India warchouses ; 
loss 300,000. rr Feb. 
At Wapping, 30 houses. 5 6 Oct. 
In Store-street, Tottenham-court- -road, immense 
property destroy ed 27 Sept. 
The great tower over the “choir of *Westiaiaster 
abbey burnt . sf A g July, 
Astley’s again, and 4o houses : Sept. 
Frith-street, Soho, lasted several abs many houses 
destroyed = A 2 Dee. 


Surrey Theatre 12 Aug. 
Covent-garden theatre 20 Sept. 
Drury-lane theatre . 24 Feb. 


In Conduit-street ; Mr. Windham, in aiding to save 
Mr. North’s library, received an injury which 
caused his death July, 

Jn Bury- street, St. Mary-axe, h half the stree made 
ruins : . 12 June, 


this 
See 


1087 


- 1212 


1811 


FIRES. 


Custom-house: warehouses, and public records . 
destroyed . 12 Feb. 
At Rotherhithe, 60 houses and several ships de- 


troyed ; loss Scjedor 5 é E . 16 March, 35 
At Mile- end; 10SS 200,000. ‘ . 22 Jan. 18 
In Smithfield ; loss 100,000l. . 14 Aug. 15 


Royalty theatre, Wellclose- -Sq., destroyed II ree 1 


In Red Lion-street, 15 houses : June, 1% 
Argyle rooms destroyed : - S58 Petar 
English opera-house, &c., burnt . x6’ Reb . 
Houses of parliament consumed - 16 Oct. 18 


Fenning’s-wharf, London-bridge, &ce. ; loss 250,000l. 


30 Aug. x§ 

The Royal Exchange destroyed . to Jan. 16 

At Wapping, 12 houses n ; A 16 June, 1§ 

Camberwell church . 3 . 7 Feb. 18 

Astley’s theatre again . . 8 June, | 
At the Tower ; the armoury and 280, ooo stand of 

arms, &c., destroyed 3 30 Oct. , 


Raggett’s hotel, Dover-street, Piccadilly ; several 


eminent persons perished . 27 May, 1$ 
Several houses in New-square, Lincoln’s inn, 

14 Jan, x§ 

Olympic theatre . 29 March, , 


One in St. Martin’s-lane (at a publican’ 8 saan Ben 
Caunt), three lives lost . . 15 Jan, 
Fire at Duke-street, London-bridge ; property lost 
estimated at 60,o00/. . 9 Feb,» } 
At the Rose and Crown, Love-lane, ‘City, tous lives 
lost 5 18 May, , 
Foot of London- bridge, four large hop warchawa 
burnt ; loss 150, cool. 23 June, , 
Collard and Co., pianoforte makers, Camden-town 


loss 60,0001. 19 Dec. , 
The warehouses of Messrs, Pawson, St. Paul's 
churchyard, burnt . 24 Feb, 18 


Works of Gutta Percha Company, near City-rosie 
loss 100,000l. 5 June, ‘ 
Kirkman’s pianoforte manufactory i . 10, Auga fi 
Messrs. Scott Russell and Co.’s eT Millwall ; 
loss 100,000. to Sept. , 
Premises of Messrs. Savill and Edwards, printers, 
Chandos-street, destroyed : . 30 Sept, § 
Premises of Tow nend and Co., Bread- sheen de- 


stroyed ; loss about 100,000. 31 Dee F 
Messrs. Cubitt’s premises, Pimlico 17 Aug. 18 
Whittington club-house 3 Deca F 


Premises of Messrs. Routledge, Messrs. Ronnidl 
&c., Blackfriars-road ; loss, one life and 150,000l., 


16 Feb. 1 
Of Etna steam battery at Messrs. Scott Russell’s — 
works ; loss about 120,000. 3 May, 
Pavilion theatre : 13 Feb. 1 
Covent-garden theatre . 5 March, 
Messrs. Scott Russell’s (thir ad fire), much yalnabil 


machinery destroyed : - 12 March, 
Messrs. Dobbs’ premises, Fleet-street I April, 
Shad Thames flour-mill; loss about 100,000l , 

17 July, 

Messrs. Broadwood’s, pianoforte makers, Westmin- 
ster 12 Aug, 


Premises of Messrs. Almond, army accoutrement 
makers, and others, in St. Martin’s-lane ; esti- 
mated loss 20,000. 9 Nov. 

Messrs. Pickford’s premises, at Chalk Farm station, 


9 Jun 
Gilbert-street, Bloomsbury ; 15 lives lost, 28 Mareht 
Fresh-wharf ; 25,000l. of sill : 21 June, 
London docks; great explosion; man killed by 
fright ; loss about 150,o00l. 29 June, 
Limehouse ; Messrs. Forest, Dixon’s, &c., premises 
destr oyed, and Blackwall railway arches ; insured, 


19-20 July, ” 
Gt. James-st., Marylebone ; six lives lost, 26 Feb. 18: 
Messrs. Hubbuck and Co., Lime-street ; one life 4 
and a large amount of property . . 20 May, ; 
West Kent wharf and New Hibernia wharf; de- — 
stroyed property valued at 200,000/. ; fire lasted _ 
nearly a month ; commenced : 17 Aug. 186 
St, Martin’s-hall, built for Mr. Hullah, and other | 
premises, destroyed . . . . 26a ae 
| Thames iron-works, Blackwall i . grAug. » 
Kilburn church, Maida-hill, destroyed 29 Nov. 
Surrey music- hall destroyed 1x June, 


Cotton’s wharf and depét and other wharves near 
Tooley-street, containing oil and other combust- 
ible substances, took fire about half-past 4 P.M., — 


io Se 


FIRES. 


2 June, and continued burning for a month. 
Several persons were killed, including James 
Braidwood, the able superintendent of the Lon- 
ton fire-brigade ; the loss of property was esti- 
nated at 2 ,000,0001, yr 

vis’s wharf, Horselydown, burnt ; loss about 
‘5,000. . 1 Aug. 
ar Paternoster-row ; Messrs. Longman’ s, book- 
iellers, Messrs. Knight's tallow-melters, and 


thers ; loss above 50,000 4 Sept. 
+ Price’ s, Fountain-court, ane three lives lost, 
3 Jan. 


IBtehden-house, Kensington, pictures and other 
raluable property of Mr. Woolley shabbat (see 


lrials, 1863) 3 March, 
. Dean’s, Berkeley-street, Llsrhasirelk three 
ives lost - 5 May, 


, Joel’ s, Fore-street, City, four lives lost, 2r May, 
Boor’s, druggist, Bishopsgate-street ; explo- 


ion; two lives lost - 7 June, 
sat Cumberland-street, Hyde-par k; Mr. & Bar- 
ett and two daughters burnt : . 15 Aug. 
ssrs. Price’s oil-mills, Blackfriars, os at great 
oss of property : o Nov. 
cient ‘Austin-friars church, City, partially de- 
tro yed . . 22 Nov. 
"Chard’ a; Portland-street, Soho ; “six lives lost, 
26 Dec. 
ssrs. Capel’s, Seething-lane, City ; great destruc- 
ion of property / 18 April, 


rehouses of Messrs. Grant and others, between 
Yood-street and Milk-street; property worth 
bout 100,000/. destroyed. 19 Dec. 

riton’s wharf, Dockhead ; immense loss of pro- 
erty =. F é z - z dune, 
yal Savoy chapel, Strand, destroy ed 7 July, 

berdashers’-hall and Messrs. Tapling and others? 


varehouses F . 19 Sept. 
ssrs. Barry, Sufferance “ wharv es, Dockhead ; 
reat loss : é - 25, 26 Nov. 
‘rey theatre destr oyed : - 30, 3x dan. 
ville-house (where George ITI. was bor n) Leices- 
er-square 28 Feb. 
alterers’ arms, Leadenhall “market ; " two lives 
Osan. 13 June, 
‘SSIs. Meeking and Co., Holborn; damage 30,0001. 
24 June, 
ssrs. Sotheby and Co., auctioneers; valuable 
ibrary destroyed 29 June, 
‘at fire at Beale’s wharf ; about 18, cool. damage, 
30 Oct. 


mense fire at St. Katharine’s-docks . xr Jan. 
land and Hennen’s premises, Duke-street, 
jloomsbury, destroyed. : 26 Aug. 
vat fire in Haydon-square, Minories ; depot of 
|. W. Railway company, and other warehouses ; 
reat loss ‘4 ats Sept. 
ndard-theatre, Shoreditch, burnt down, 21 Oct. 
Hampstead-road, thirteen ‘lives lost Pe eeN ON 
th wing of the Crystal palace destroyed 


30 Dee. 

bee-street, Oxford-street; six lives lost, 
rr Mar ch, 

“herhithe, 16 or 17 houses burnt; about 100 
| ersons destitute : 12 Sept. 
> Majesty’s theatre, Royal ‘opera-house, de- 
foe see Opera e 6 Dec. 
ord Beasiehall, Oxford-street, aan de- 
croyed rr Feb. 
yve 20 shops bunt in Portman- market, Maryle- 
one ease nel. 
obard and Stutters” hop-wafehouses ; ria many 
nall houses destroyed to Aug. 
_thumberland house, Strand ; valuable pares 
c., injured . - Ig Aug. 
-laide rooms, Strand, destroyed . 14 March, 


Saints church, Walworth, destroy ed 27 April, 
. Jago’s, Pentonville-hill : 3 perish 5 June, 
seow-road, Bayswater ; through explosion of 
veworks ; 7 persons perish : Och, 
| MeMicken’ s, Newington-butts ; 4 lost “10 Oct. 
Star and Garter hotel, Richmond ; Wm. Lever, 
le Manager, killed 12 Jan. 
Hill’s, upholsterer’s, Waterloo- road ; 6 children 
i iffocated - 23 July, 
rch-street, Rotherhithe 3 lives ‘lost, 23 Aug. 
J-house, Cecil-street, Strand ; Mr. Forbes burnt ; 


325 FIRES. 


2? 


> 


prhAotite books, &c., of Mr. G. G. Scott de- 
stroyed Z 4 Sept. 
Mr. Bush’s, manufacturing chemist, Liv eipgeld 
street, Bishopsgate ; 4 lives lost . 27 Sept. 
Chapel- street, Edgware- -road, 4 lives lost ; Crouch- 
end, Hornsey, 3 lives lost . - - 5 March, 
Pavilion-road, Chelsea ; 5 deaths : 26 March, 
Gray’s- inn-road ; James Ford, a fireman, lost his 


life after saving 6 7 Oct. 
Thames-street ; Nicholson’ s and other rane unas 
destroyed ; great loss ‘ . 24 Oct. 


Oxford music-hall ; quite destr oyed : 1 Nov. 
City flour-mills, Upper Thames-street; x fireman 
killed : Io, 11, 12 Noy. 
Grosvenor-mews, ’ Bond- street, 6 killed’. 27 May, 
Aloxandra-palace, Muswell- -hill, destroyed, x life 
ost ‘ 3 9 June, 
sileekatice Stepney ; 2 killed : . 10 Sept. 
Lloyd’s newspaper printing-office, Whitefriars, 


destroyed = 4 p.m. 29 Dec. 
Duntsehideon (which see), Knightsbridge ; ; much 
valuable property destroyed : - 13, 14 Feb. 


Carnaby-street, W. ; 2 lives lost ; . 15 Feb. 
Latta’s great hop warehouse, Bermondsey, de- 


stroyed . 28 Dee. 
Rimmel’s perfumery manufactory, Beaufort- house, 
Strand, destroyed. into March, 


W. Walker’s cabinet manufactory, Bunhill-row, 
E.C., destroyed ; estimated loss 30,000/. 14 § Sept. 
Mr. H. A. Hankey’s new mausion, near St. Anne’s 
gate, St. James’s park, destroyed ; cee 60,0001. 


damage . 8 Oct. 
East London Rice ‘and Flour Mills, Dev bein 
street ; and 18 other buildings : . 3dan. 


Chick’s Great Western Pantechnicon . 2dune, 
Messrs. Warner’s and other premises, Brook’s- 


wharf, Upper Thames-street . . 15-18 June, 
Little Windmill-street, Haymarket ; about 80,000. 
damage ; many poor sufferers : 7 15 JULY, 


Bridgman’s saw-mills, St. Luke’s, destroyed 
24-25 July, 
Grant & Co.’s printing-office, &c., Turnimill-street, 
Clerkenwell ; about 100,000l. loss. 10, 11 Aug. 
Mill-street, Hanover-square, W., three lives lost 


Sept. 
New wharf flour-mills, &c., Rotherhithe, de- 
stroyed ; above 8o,oo0ol. loss : : 8 Oct. 
Near Old Kent-road, two lives lost; suspected 
arson . 2 Noy. 
House of Correction, Clerkenwell, “mill- uonnhe &c. 3 
no prisoners injured or escaped. 24 March, 
Charing-cross restaurant, one life lost 21 May, 
Little Britain, E.C., a paraffin lamp upset ; four 
lives lost . e g July, 


250, Mile End-road, “two lives lost . - 23 Oct. 
Scottish Corporation hall, Crane-court, Fleet-street 
ort by Wren), burnt many valuable portr sa 
sn T 4, NON, 
Wateon’ 8 wharf, Wapping, loss abt. 30,0001. 31 Dec. 
Manchester warehouses, Watling-street ; Crocker 
& Co. ; and others ; about 200,000l. loss 12 Jan. 
Elephant and Castle theatre destroyed 26 March, 
Price and Co., oil-merchants, &e. . 3Sept. 
Messrs. Tylor’s, brass-founders, &c., Newgate-street, 
great loss : - 2-3 Jan. 
New East London Theatre, W hitechapel- road, seve- 
ral houses injured . : 16 March, 
Wesley’s chapel, City-road, nearly at ed, caused 
by heating apparatus ~ 7 Dec. 
Holborn, Roworth’s printing office . . 19 April, 
Messrs. Hodgkinson’ s, chemists, and others, four 
perish ais SO. "April, 
The Duke’s theatre, Holborn, burnt . . 4Jduly, 
Whitechapel church, recently rebuilt, destroyed, 


26 Aug. 

Trinity-lane, Thames-street, large block of buildings, 
and much property destroyed 3 Feb. 
Cooperative stores, Creteanaela destroy ed; loss 
about 20,000l. . 23 April, 
Mr. Allen’s, stationer, 96, Walworth- road, 4 deaths, 
26 April, 


422, Portobello-road, Notting-hill, 6 deaths, 16 May ; 
(Wm. Nash, shopkeeper, charged with arson and 
murder ; convicted, but reprieved) . 30 May, 

Messrs. T. Foster and Co.’s warehouses, Cheapside ; 
‘much property destroyed; checked a firemen 
and good building 1 Sept. 

Dowgate dock warehouse ; ald. Breffit’s 3 Sept. 


See SS en SE 


9 
” 


FIRE-WORSHIPPERS. 


326 


FISH. 


Park theatre. Camden Town, destroyed 10 Sept. 
Morson and Son, chemical works, explosion; 2 killed 


17 Jan. 

Philharmonic theatre, Islington, interior destroyed 
6 Sept. 

Whiteley’s great stores, Westbourne Grove, W., 
about 100,000l. damage ; ; TK TINOV. 
The Royal Alhambra theatre destroyed; 3 men 
killed Dec 


Wood-street, &c., premises of Foster, Porter: and 
Co., Rylands, Silber, and Fleming, and others. 
A large block of buildings destroyed, estimated 
loss nearly 2,000,000l. ; 1 death 8-10 Dec. 

St. Ann’s restaurant and warehouses in Cheapside 
destroyed A : - : set Sebecs 

St. John’s Presbyterian church, Forest-hill, de- 
stroyed : - 17 Dec. 


Another fire at Whiteley’s 26 Dec. 
Windsor-street, E.C., 5 deaths . )16.0an. 
Newnham-street, Edgeware-road, 5 deaths 

14 April, 


Messrs. Kegan, Paul, and Co.’s premises, and other 
buildings (16 firms), Paternoster-square 17 April, 
Freemason’s-hall much injured : 3 May, 
Lunatic asylum, Southall-park, W., Dr. Boyd and 
5 others perish : : . : 14 Aug. 
Hay warehouses at Foreign-cattle-market, Dept- 
ford ; damage, about 18,o00l. - 18 Sept. 
Great fire at Haggerston, beginning at Messrs. 
Lines, timber merchants, saw mills and eleven 
smalk houses destroyed; 40 families homeless 
5-9 Nov. 
Messrs. Silver and Co., premises near Cornhill 
17 Jan. 
Premises of Messrs. Pardon, printers, &c., Messrs. 
Williams, Faudel, and Phillips, Smith Brothers, 
and others, Lovell’s-court, Paternoster-row, de- 
stroyed, 7.30 P.M. ; by great exertions fire quelled, 
11 P.M. : 4 : : = 2 April, 
Fell hotel, Old Bailey ; three young women lament- 
ably perish, about 2.30 a.m, - * 23 April, 
Another fire at Whiteley’s stores, loss about 150,000l. 
26 April, 
East End Aquarium, menagerie, and waxwork, 
&c., Bishopsgate, destroyed ; lioness, bear, mon- 
keys, and other animals perish, 8.30 a.m. 
4 June, 
Wapping, Messrs. 'E. H. Cousens and Co., ware- 
houses and others; damage about 100,000/. 
19-20 July. 
Mr. Abrahams, hatter, 33 Wilton-road, Pimlico, 
7-45 A.M., 4 deaths 4 . : 12 Aug. 
Messrs. Hodgson’s envelope manufactory. Little 
Trinity-lane, destroyed, about 10,0001. loss, 9.45 
PANG is : ; - fs ° 2 15 Aug. 
Jones's wharf; great destruction of timber 17 Dee. 
Holles-street, Clare-market, 4 deaths. . 31 Dee. 
There were 953 fires in 1854; 1113 in 1857; 1114 in 
1858 (38 lives lost) ; 1183 in 1861. 1303 fires in 
1862 ; 1404 in 1863 ; and 1715 in 1864. In 1866, 
1338 fires (326 serious) ; in 1867, 1397 fires (245 
serious) ; in 1868, 1668 fires (235 serious); in 1869, 
1572 fires (199 serious) ; in 1870, 1946 fires (276 
serious) ; in 1871, 1842 (207 serious); in 1872, 
1494 (x20 serious); in 1873, 1548 (166 serious : 35 
lives lost); in 1874, 1573 (154 serious: 23 lives 
lost); in 1875, 1668 (163 serious : 29 lives lost) ; 
in 1876, 1787 (166 serious : 35 lives lost); in 1877, 
1708 (159 Serious: 29 lives lost); in 1878, 1659 
(x70 serious); in 1879, 1718; 1880, 1871 (162 seri- 
ous ; 33 lives lost) ; in 1881, 1991 (167 serious: 40 
lives lost); 1882, 1926 (164 serious: 36 lives 
lost); 1883, 2144 (184 serious: 39 lives lost) ; 1884, 
2,289 (194 Serious: 42 lives lost). In but few 
cases were the premises totally destroyed. 
Several fires were occasioned by careless use of 
coal oils in 1861-2. 


FIRE-WORSHIPPERS: sce Parsces. 


1881 
1882 


FIRST-FRUITS were offerings which made 


a large 


art of the revenues of the Heb 
hood. 9 a 


irst-fruits (called ANNATEs, 


of one year of every vacant bishopric, 


: priest- 
rom annus 
a year), in the Roman church, originally the profits 


afterwards of | 


every benefice, were first claimed by pope Clement V. 
in 1306, and were collected in Eng ania 1316: but 


chronologers differ on this point. 
parliament, to the king and his successors, 


beth resumed them (1559). 


but not totally suppressed till 1789. 


FIRTH COLLEGE: see Sheffield, 1879. 


In the 26th « 
Henry VIII. 1534, the first-fruits were assigned, b 


ar 


gave the Annates to the popes (1555); but Eliza 
They were grantet 
together with the tenths, to the poor clergy, b 
queen Anne, in 1703. The offices of First-fruit 
Tenths, and Queen Anne’s Bounty were consol 
dated by 1 Vict. c. 20, 1838; see dagmentation ¢ 
Poor Livings. Annates were long resisted in Fran c¢ 


FISH, FISHERIES, &c. Laws for the pr 


1284, and by his successors. 
in 1839; 


of fish are about 7000. Gunther, 1871. 


Fishmongers’ company of London (salt) 14333 
(stock) 1509; united ; é : . d 

Fishing towns regulated by an act passed in 

Fishing on our coast forbidden to strangers . 4 

The Dutch paid 30,0001. for permission to fish on 
the coasts of Britain . 5 : ; . ; 

Corporation of Free British fisheries instituted 

Fish-machines, for conveying fish by land to Lon- 
don, set up in 1761; and supported by parlia- 

t 


ment . ‘ : ; ‘ : : ‘ 2 

The British Society of Fisheries established in 
Londonin . : : ; : : : 3 

The Irish Fishery Company formed in 3 Dee. 

In 1849, two peasants, Remy and Gehin, obtained 
medals for their exertions in cultivating fish in 
France, and the government set up an establish- 
ment for this purpose at Huningue, under M. 
Coumes. 

In 1860 great progress had been made by M. Coste 
and others. 

Commission to examine into British fisheries was 
appointed in 1860, and acts to amend the law re- 
lating to fisheries in Great Britain and Jreland 
were passed s ‘ " « : 

In April, Mr. Ponders placed in the Thames 76,000 
young fish (salmon, trout, char, and grayling) ; 
and on 17 April, Mr. Frank Buckland demon- 
strated the importance of fish culture before the 
members of the Royal Institution, London . ‘ 

In 1853 Mr. Buist began the culture of fish at Stor- 
montfield, Perthshire: reported highly successful, 

Sept. 

Act for the protection of freshwater fish passed, 

8 


Aug. 

International fish and fishing exhibition at Berlin, 
opened by the Crown Prince . . 20 April, 

National fisheries exhibition at Norwich, opened 
by the prince of Wales . A - 18—30 April 

International exhibition at Edinburgh opened 

xx April, 

Fishery board for Scotland established : Pf 

National Fish Culture Association established  . 

London Central Fish Market, Smithfield, opened 

to May, 

Iuternational fisheries exhibition, South Kensing- 
ton, London, opened and closed by prince of 
Wales, 14 May—31 Oct. 1883. 335 gold medals 
(160 to Great Britain) awarded, and other testi- 
monials. Receipts, 140,346/. 138.3 surplus, 
15,2431. 2,703,051 persons admitted. 

Sea Fisheries Act, 46 & 47 Vict. c. 22, relates to 
international convention concerning fisheries in 
North Sea. Sea Fisheries (Ireland) Act also 
passed £ A : > a F . 2 Aug. 

A convention with France respecting sea fisheries, 
signed at Paris, 11 Nov. 1867; ratified by the 
‘Sea Fisheries Act,” passed, 13 July, 18685 
amended 4 : - . j 5 - 

International fisheries, Vienna, opened _—_29 Sept. 

Aquaculture.—Mr. W. Oldham Chambers (in Times, 
to Noy.) advocated the formation of ponds in 
waste lands for the cultivation of carp and other 
tish. 
to be taken up by government 


Times, 11 Noy. 


1861-2-3-8: 


Sir Lyon Playfair recommends the scheme ~ 


tection of fisheries were enacted by Edward I. i 
The rights of th 
English and French fishermen were defined by treat 
see Herring, Whale, Newfoundlan 
Fisheries, Oysters, Trawling. The known speci 


4 


j 
; 


Lal 


Lan 


‘ a 6 / 4 > J 
beer : : é\ 
te C4 ewe , \ 
ge : 


FISHGUARD (Pembroke). On 22 Feb. 1797, 
90 Frenchmen landed in Cardigan Bay. On the 
Feb. they surrendered to lord Cawdor with the 
‘stlemartin yeomanry, and some countrymen, 
‘ned with scythes and pitchforks, near Fish- 
ard. 


FITZWILLIAM MUSEUM (Cambridge), 
ded by Richard viscount Fitzwilliam, who died 
, 1816, and bequeathed his collection of books, 
. tures, &c., to the university, with 100,000/. to 
ct a building to contain them. The building 
s begun by G. Basevi in 1837, and finished by 
ekerell some years after. 


»/FIUME (meaning river), the port of the king- 
‘mof Hungary, on the Adriatic: a very ancient 
wn, built on the supposed site of Tersatica, de- 
‘oyed by Charlemagne about 799, and afterwards 
cae as Vitopolis, Civita Sancti Viti ad Flumen, 
d finally Fiume. After being successively sub- 
ted to the Greeks, Romans, the eastern emperors, 
d the pope, it was transferred to the house of 
ie It was captured by the French early in 


> century, from whom it was taken by the Iing- 
h in 1813, and given to Austria in 1814. It was 
msferred to Hungary in 1822; to the Croats in 
8; restored to Hungary in 1868. <A new port 
id railways have been recently constructea (1877). 


FIVE FORKS, near Richmond, Virginia. 
‘re general Sheridan turned the front of the Con- 
lerates, and defeated them after a fierce struggle, 
\pril, 1865. 


FIVE HUNDRED, Covunciu oF, esta- 
shed by the new French constitution, 22 Aug. 
95, Was unceremoniously dissolved by Napoleon 
‘maparte, 10 Nov. 1799. 


FIVE MILE ACT, 17 Chas. II. c. 2 (Oct. 
-65), forbade Nonconformist teachers who refused 

take the non-resistance oath, to come within five 
les of any corporation where they had preached 
ice the act of oblivion (unless they were travel- 
ig), under the penalty of 40/7. They were relieved 
» Will. IIT. in 1689. 


FLADENHEIM, or FLATCHEIM, Saxony. 
ore Rodolph of Swabia defeated the emperor 
jonry IV., 27 Jan. 1080. 


‘FLAG. The flag acquired its present form in 
2 6th century, in Spain; it was previously small 
-dsquare. Ashe. Itis said to have been intro- 
ced there by the Saracens, before whose time 
e ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces of 
yod; see Carrocium. The honour-of-the-flag 
Jute at sea was exacted by England from very 
rly times; but it was formally yielded by the 
atch in 1673, at which period they had been 
feated in many actions. Louis XIV. obliged the 
‘yaniards to lower their flag to the French, 1680. 
enault. After an engagement of three hours 
tween Tourville and the Spanish admiral Papa- 
‘in, the latter yielded by firing a salute of nine 
ms to the French flag, 2 June, 1688. Jdem; see 
ute at Sea, and Union Jack. 

‘te comte de Chambord definitively declined to give 
up the white flag for the tricolor (see France), 5 July, 
1871 and 27 Oct. 1873. 


“FLAGELLANTS, at Perouse, about 1268, 
ring a plague, they maintained there was no 
mission of sins without flagellation, and publicly 
shed themselves. Clement VI. declared them 
retics in 1349: and 90 of them and their leader, 
mrad Schmidt, were burnt, 1414. In 1574, 
-enry III. of France became a flagellant for a 
tort time. 


FISHGUARD. 397 


FLEET PRISON. 
FLAGEOLET, a musical instrument said to 


ave been invented by Juvigny, about 1581; 
double flageolet patented by Wm. Bainbridge, 1803 ; 
improved 1809 and 1819. 


FLAMBEAUX, FEAST of, see Argos. 


_FLAMMOCK’S REBELLION, see Rebel- 
lions, 1497. 


FLANDERS, the principal part of ancient 
Belgium, which was conquered by Julius Cesar, 51 
B.c. It became part of the kingdom of France, A.D. 
843, and was governed by counts subject to the 
king, from 862 till 1369, the first being Baldwin, 
Bras de Fer, who is said to have introduced the 
cloth manufacture. In 1204, Baldwin IX. became 
emperor at Constantinople. In 1369, Philip duke of 
Burgundy married Margaret, the heiress of count 
Louis II. After this, Flanders was subjected suc- 
cessively to Burgundy (1384), Austria (1477), and 
Spain (1555). In 1580 it declared its independence, 
but afterwards returned to its allegiance to the house 
of Austria. In 1713 it was included in the empire 
of Germany. France obtained a part of Flanders 
by treaty in 1659 and 1679. See Burgundy, Nether- 
lands, and Belgium. 


FLANNEL, see JVoollen. 
FLATBUSH, BATre of, see Long Island. 
FLATTERY, CAPE (W. coast of North 


America), so named by captain Cook, because at a 
distance it had the deceptive appearance of a har- 
bour, 1778. 

FLAVIAN CASSARS, the Roman emperors 
Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, 66-96. 


FLAX, The manufacture in Egypt in very 
early times was carried thence to Tyre about 588 
B.c., and to Gaul about I B.c.; and thus reached 
Britain. It was ordered to be grown in England, by 
statute, 24 Hen. VIII. 1533. For many ages the 
core was separated from the flax, the bark of the 
plant, by the hand. A mallet was next used; but 
the old methods of breaking and scutching the flax 
yielded to a water-mill which was invented in 
Scotland about 1750; see Hemp. The duty imposed 
on imported flax, 1842, was repealed 1845. In 1851 
chevalier Claussen patented a method of ‘ cotton- 
ing’”’ flax. 


FLAYERS, see Ecorcheurs. 
FLEECE, see Golden Fleece. 
FLEET PRISON, MARKET, &c. (London), 


were built over the smallriver Fleta, now used as a 

common sewer. In the reign of Henry VII. this 

river is said to have been navigable to Holborn- 
bridge. 

FLEET Prison was founded in the first year of 
Richard I., and was allotted for debtors, 1640 ; and 
persons were committed here who had incurred 
the displeasure of the Star-Chamber, and for con- 
tempt of the court of Chancery. It was burnt 
during the Gordon riots, 7 June, 1780, and re- 
built 1781-2. It was pulled down in 1845 (and the 
debtors removed to the Queen’s Bench prison). 

The site was sold to the London, Dover, and Chat- 
ham railway company for 60,000l. on 2 June, 1864. 
Last vestige removed . : 3 , . Feb. 1868 

FLEET-MARKET, originally formed in 1737, was re- 
moved, and the site named Farringdon-street in 
1829. A new (Farringdon) market was opened 20 
Nov. 1829. The granite obelisk in Fleet-street, to 
the memory of alderman Waithman was erected 

25 June, 

FLEE1t Marriaaes. Between the roth of October, 
1704, and 12 Feb. 1705, there were celebrated 295 
marriages in the Fleet without licence or certifi- 


1833 


FLEETWOOD. — 


328 


FLORENCE. 


cate of banns, 20 or 30 couples were sometimes 
joined in one day, and their names concealed by 
private marks, if they chose to pay an extra fee. 
Pennant says that in his youth he was often ac- 
costed with, “Sir, will you please to walk in and 
ve married?” Painted signs, of male and female 
hands conjoined, with the inscription, ‘‘ Mar- 

_ Triages performed within,” were common along 
the building. 

This abuse abolished by the Marriage Aclb . 


FLEETWOOD, see Hythe. 


FLENSBORG, N. Germany. Here the Danes 
defeated the Slesingers and Germans, 9 April, 1848. 
It was entered by the Germans, 7 Feb. 1864. 


FLETA, an ancient English law treatise, an 
abridgment of Bracton, dated about 1290, said to 
have been composed in Flctd, in the Fleet prison, 
by some lawyer, 


FLEUR-DE-LIS, the emblem of France, said 
to have been brought from heaven by an angel to 
Clovis, he having made a vow that if he proved vic- 
torious in a pending battle with the Alemanni near 
Cologne, he would embrace Christianity, 496. It 
was the national emblem till the revolution in 1789, 
when the tricolor (white, red, and blue) was adopted. 
The comte de Chambord declared his adherence to 
the old national flag, 5 July, 1871 and 27 Oct. 1873. 


FLEURUS (Belgium), the site of several 
battles. 
Between the Catholic league under Gonzales de Cor- 
dova, and the Protestant union (indecisive)30 Aug. 
The prince of Waldeck defeated by marshal Luxem- 
burg : 3 ‘ ; : 5 pate ae) Ril ang. 
The allies under the prince of Coburg, defeated by 
the French revolutionary army commanded by 
Jourdan, who was enabled to form a junction 
with the armies of the Moselle, the Ardennes, and 
the north. (The French used a balloon to recon- 
noitre the enemy’s army, which, it is said, contri- 
buted to their success) : “ - 26June, 1794 
Here Napoleon defeated Blucher at the battle of 
Ligny (which see). P : - 16 June, 1815 


FLIES. An extraordinary fall of these insects 
in London covered the clothes of passengers, 1707. 
Chamberlain. In the United States of America the 
Hessian fly, so called from the notion of its having 
been brought there by the Hessian troops in the 
service of England in the War of Independence, 
ravaged the wheat in 1777. Before and during the 
severe attack of cholera at Newcastle in Sept. 1853, 
the air was infested with small flies, 


FLINTS, see Man. 
FLOATING BATTERIES, see Batteries, 


and Gibraltar, 1781. 


FLODDEN FIELD (Northumberland), The 
site of a battle on 9 Sept. 1513, between the English 
and Scots ; in consequence of James IV. of Scotland 
having taken part with Louis XII. of France against 
Henry VIII. of England. James, many of his 
nobles, and upwards of 10,000 of his army, were 
slain ; while the English, who were commanded by 
the earl of Surrey, lost only persons of small note. 


FLOGGING by the Jewish law was limited to 
forty stripes, ‘‘lest thy brother should seem vile 
unto thee,’’ 1451 B.c. (Deut. xxv. 3). Wm. Cobbett 
in 1810, and John Drakard in 1811, were punished 
for publishing severe censures on flogging in the 
army. Flogging was made a punishment for at- 
tempts at garrotting in 1863; and for juvenile 
‘criminals, 1847 and 1850. 


- 1753 


1622 


1690 


Flogging in the army much diminished by orders 
. 9 Nov. 1859 | 


First-class seamen not to be flogged, except after a 
trial, Dec. 1859 ; more diminished arch, 186 
By an amendment on the clause in the mutiny bill, 
flogging abolished in the army in time of peace 
April 
New regulations for the navy issued . 18 Dott 
Proposed total abolition negatived in Commons 
(120-60), 20 June, 1876; (164-122), 10 April, 1877; 
(239-56) ; +e : . : zo May, 187 
By the Army Discipline Act (42 & 43 Vict. ¢. 33), 
flogging reduced, and may be commuted byim- — 
prisonment . : $ > ° ° ° x 
Total abolition of flogging by Army Discipline Act 


April, 1838 
Substitutes for flogging (handeuffing, &c.) an- 
nounced . ; A : ‘ : . Oct. 138 
21 soldiers flogged . 1869 | 41 soldiers flogged . 187 
61 sailors ae aliaks 8 sailors a5 


FLOODS, see Jnundations. | 
FLORAL HALL, adjoining Covent-garder 


theatre, is a large conservatory, 220 feet long, 7: 
feet wide, and 55 feet high, erected from designs bj 
Mr. E. M. Barry, and was opened with the volun: 
teers’ ball, 7 March, 1860. It was used as a flower. 
market, 22 May-Aug. 1861. Here was held th 
heb London industrial exhibition, 1 May to 2 Aug 
1805. ‘ 


FLORALIA, annual games at Rome in honow 
of Flora, instituted about 752, but not celebrate 
with regularity till about 174 B.c. | 

FLORENCE (forentia), capital of Tuscany 
(which see), and from 1864 to 1870, of Italy, is sai 
to have been founded by the soldiers of Sylla ( 
B.C.), and enlarged by the Roman triumviri. 
its palaces, universities, academies, churches, a 
libraries, are to be found the rarest works of seul 
ture and painting in the world. The Florentin 
academy and Academia della Crusca (establishei 
1582) were instituted to enrich literature and im 
prove the language of Tuscany; the latter was s 
named, because it rejects like dran all words no 
purely Tuscan: both are now united under thi 
former name. | 
The brick duomo, begun by Arnulfo, 1294 ; dedi- 

cated by pope Eugenius IV., 1436 ; was completed 

by Bruneleshchi, 1447 ; the facade was cased with 
marble by the Italian government and uncovered 


Destroyed by Totila . : r : A 


Rebuilt by Charlemagne 5 2 about § 

Becomes an independent republic about 119 
Dante born here ; ‘ ; 14 May, 126 
Arti or guilds established . ‘ ‘ # >| MeanT Sam 
Factions of the Bianchi and Neri . 13¢ 


The influence of the Medici begins with Cosmo de’ 
Medici, ‘‘ the father of his country” about 142 
Death of Lorenzo de’ Medici 8 April, 149 
Savonarola strangled and burnt . 3 23 May, 149 
Appointment of Alexander de’ Medici as perpetual 
governor. - : : : ; ; : : 
Cosino de’ Medici created grand-duke of Tuscany ; 
makes Florence his capital : see Tuscany 
Revolution at Florence f : . 27 April, 185) 
Annexation to Sardinia voted by people, 11, 12 
March ; the king enters Florence . 7 April, 136 
The king opens the exhibition of the industrial j 


153 


products of: Italy : 4 F ; 15 Sept. 186 
Florence decreed the capital of Italy till the acqui- 

sition of Rome ‘ : ‘ . azz Dec. 136 
The king and court remove there 13 May, 186 


The Dante festival (the 6ooth anniversary of his” 
birth) opened by the king . : ; 14 May, ,, 

Inauguration of a national rifie-meeting ; the king 
fires the first shot 2 . ; 18 June, ,,: 
First assembly of Italian parliament here 18 Nov. ,, 

The government removes to Rome as capital of Italy 
July, 157: 
Fourth centenary of Michel Angelo Buonarroti 
kept : ‘4 j : 2 b . 412 Sept. 7. 
Torchlight procession ; shell thrown among crowd; 
5 killed : 4 i ‘ : : 18 Noy. 187 


i 


FLORES. 329 


LORES, or Isle of Flowers (one of the Azores, 


‘A see), discovered by Vanderberg in 1439 ; and 
ad by the Portuguese in 1448. 


LORIDA, a peninsula, one of the southern 
's of North America, first discovered by Sebastian 
tin 1497. It was visited by Juan Ponce de 
|, the Spanish navigator, April 4, 1512, in a 
ge he had undertaken to discover a fountain 
-e waters had the property of restoring youth to 
ged who tasted them! Florida was conquered 
ie Spaniards under Ferdinand de Soto in 1539 ; 
the settlement was not fully established until 
. It was plundered by sir Francis Drake in 
; and by Davis, a buccaneer, in 1665. It was 
led by the British in 1702; and again by gen. 
thorpe in 1740; ceded to the British crown in 
; taken by the Spaniards in 1781 ; and guaran- 
to them in 1783. 

mericans purchase Louisiana from the French 
‘claim West Florida : i Z : . 1801 
Spaniards compelled to cede all Florida to the 

ted States. - : p 24 Oct. 1820 
laadmitted asastate  . 5 - igs 
‘ed from the Union, Dec. 1860; readmitted 

: United States) . ‘ ‘i . é Ee roOs 
p caual proposed ; company organized May 1883 
_ long neglect, this beautiful and fertile wil- 
‘ness warmly taken up by British and Ameri- 

' capitalists ; A 2 : A op) TeLooged 


LORIN, a coin first made by the Florentines. 
‘rtm Was issued by Edward ITI. which was cur- 
‘in England at the value of 6s. in 1337. Cam- 
- This English coin was called fioren after the 
-ntine coin, because the latter was of the best 
_ Ashe. The florin of Germany is in value 
‘d.; that of Spain, 4s. 43d.; that of Palermo 
Sicily, 2s. 6d.; that of He iGnd, 2s. Ayliffe. 
‘r florins (value 2s.) were issued in England in 


LOWERS. Many of our present common 
rs were introduced into England from the 
of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth (1485- 
. The art of preserving flowers in sand was 
vered in 1633. A mode of preserving them 
the effects of frost in winter, and hastening 
vegetation insummer, wasinvented in America, 
eo. Morris, in 1792. A very great number 
been introduced trom America, Australia, the 
, &., during the present century. 


m Flower-girl Brigade formed by baroness 

dett-Coutts and others . : - autumn 1880 
a, N. America, before . 3 : ! 2 EeLOAO 
ce shrub, Carolina . i : A - 1726 
‘ed tree, Florida, about 4 ; 5 et aG0 
Vite, Canada, before. Z . : . 1596 
pus, Cape of Good Hope . ; ‘ nek 74. 
ula, Switzerland z ; : : - 1567 
le, 8. Europe, before . : J ; Pie LOAO 
) Royal, Madeira . 3 . . A - . 1665 
| sweet, Italy, before. Re é bet G4G 
lia, China . $ : F . PR LOFr 
y bell-flower, Canaries . : ; : a L000 
| y Convolvulus, Canaries . : : 5 . 1690 
‘tion, Flanders. : y ‘ 4 «. « 3567 
| thus, blue, New Spain . . ; . 1818 
| 2 tree, Sicily, before . z 3 1570 
7s thorn, Africa, before . ‘ ‘ P 1596 
anthemums, China . - ‘i fae ; . 1790 
| lvulus, many flowered 4 A M Ae ie ty blo 
tree, Cape ‘ 4 2 2 . : EP LOLO 
tree, bell-flowered, Cape . x i SETI foes 
| tree, tremulous, Cape. : s é - 1789 
,or, Virginian, N. America . , : se 020 
ra; China -. t : y is A ; - 1803 
‘dria, New Holland. n ‘ . se a 
-reen Thorn, Italy . : : : : . 1629 
sting, giant-flowered, Cape ‘ ; Ne yliab fa 
isting, giant, Cape . f : - : «(T7903 
ush} sweet, N. America .° .* . Pas oie 


. 


Fox-glove, Canaries Z 3 
Fuchsia fulgens, Mexico, about . : 
Geranium, Flanders . 
Gillyflower, Flanders 
Gold-plant, Japan : 
Golden-bell-flower, Madeira . 
Hawthorn, American, before 
Heaths, Cape : A ; 
Honeyflower, great, Cape. : ‘ 
Honeysuckle, Chinese, China a d 
Honeysuckle, fly, Cape. ‘ 
Honeysuckle, trumpet, N. America 
Hyssop, 8. Europe, before ( 
Jasmine, Circassia, before . 
Jasmine, Catalonia, East Indies 
Judas tree, 8. Europe, before 
Laburnum, Hungary : ; ; 
Laurel, Alexandrian, Portugal, before 
Laurustine, 8. Europe, before . 
Lavender, 8. Europe, before 

Lily, Italy, before. A i % 
Lily, gigantic, N. South Wales. ; 
Lily, red coloured, 8. America . 
Loblolly bay, N. America, before 
Lupine tree, Cape, about . . : 
Magnolia (see Magnolia), N. Americ: 
Magnolia, dwarf, China : a 
Magnolia, laurel-leaved, N. America . 
Maiden-hair, Japan . 
Mignonette, Italy . : 
Milk-wort, giant-flowered, Cape 
Milk-wort, showy, Cape : - 
Mock orange, 8. Europe, before 
Mountain tea, N. America, before 
Myrtle, candleberry, N. America 
Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China 

Nettle tree, 8. Europe, before . 
Oleander, red, 8. Europe 

Olive, Cape, Cape . : 

Olive, sweet-scented, China . 
Paraguay tea, Carolina, before . 
Passion-flower, Brazil . ; 
Passion-flower, orange, Carolina 
Petunia, 8S. America . A 
Pigeon-berry, N. America. 

Pink, from Italy . 

Ranunculus, Alps 

Roses, Netherlands E 

Rose, China, China F 

Rose, damask, 8. Europe, about . 
Rose, the Japan, China 

Rose, the moss, before . 

Rose, the musk, Italy : : 
Rose, the Provence, Flanders ; 4 


Rose, sweet-scented guelder, from China 


Rose, tube, from Java and Ceylon 


Rose without thorns, N. America, before 


Rosemary, 8. Europe 3 , 
Sage, African, Cape 

Sage, Mexican, Mexico 

St. Peter’s wort, N. America 
Sassafras, N. America, before 

Savin, 8. Europe, before 

Snowdrop, Carolina . : : 
Sorrel-tree, N. America, before . 
Sweet-bay, 8. of Europe, before 
Tamarisk plant, Germany 

Tea tree, China, about : : : 
Tooth-ache tree, from Carolina, before 
Trumpet-flower, N. America . 
Trumpet-flower, Cape . : F 
Tulip, Vienna 5 “ 

Verbena, S. America 

Victoria Regia, Guiana 

Virginian creeper, N. America 
Virgin’s bower, Japan 

Wax-tree, China . : : A 
Weeping willow, Levant, before 
Winter-berry, Virginia . 

Youlan, China . > s 


FLUORESCENCE. 


FLUORESCENCE. 


1698 
1835 


- 1534 


1567 
1783 


- 1777 


1683 


"1774-1803 


1688 


. 1806 


1752 


. 1656 


. 1548 
. 1548 
. 1629 


1596 


wntS 70 


eL7ES 


- 1596 
. 1568 
. 1460 


1800 
1623 


+ 1739 


1793 


. 1688 
. 1786 
- 1734 
4 2714 
- 1528 
+ 1713 
- 1814 
. 1596 


. 1758 


. 1699 
wo 
. 1596 


; 1730 


” 


Suny 7 
- 1724 


1692 
1792 


- 1823 
. 1736 
. 1567 
- 1528 
aeasee 
- 1789 
- 1543 
+ 1793 
. 1724 


1522 


] 1567 
. 1821 
- 1629 
. 1726 


1548 
173k 


. 1724 
. 1730 
- 1663 
- 1584 
- 1756 
. 1752 
. 1548 
. 1560 
. 1768 


1739 


- 1640 
. 1823 
215578 
- 1827 
. 1838 
- 1629 
. 2796 
- 1794 
. 1692 
. 1736 
. 1789 


When the invisible 


chemical rays of the blue end of the solar spectrum 
are sent through uranium glass or solutions of 
quinine, horse-chestnut bark, or stramonium datura, 


they become luminous. 


This phenomenon was 


termed * fluorescence’? by its discoverer, professor 


FLUORINE. 


300 


FONTENOY. 


Stokes, in 1852. By means of fluorescence Drs. 
Bence Jones and Dupré detected the presence of 
quinoidine in animal tissues; see Calorescence. 


FLUORINE, 2 gaseous element, obtained from 
fluor spar ; first collected over mercury by Priestley. 
Its property of corroding all vessels is so great that 
it is separated with great difficulty. It was named 
by Ampére in 1810. Its chemical history was 
further elucidated by Davy (1809), Berzelius (1824), 
and succeeding chemists. ‘The corroding property 
of fluoric acid was employed in the arts in 1760, by 
Schwankhard of Nuremberg. Ginelin. 


FLUSHING, a seaport of the Netherlands, on 
the isle of Walcheren. For the siege, see Wal- 
cheren Expedition. It was fortified by Napoleon I., 
but the works were finally dismantled in 1867. ‘The 

ort improved, and new dock opened by the king 
of Holland, 8 Sept. 1873. 


FLUTE. The transverse flute, incorrectly 
termed the ‘‘German’’ instead of the Swiss flute, 
was known to the ancients, It was described by 
Michael Pretorius, of Wolfenbuttel, in 1620, and by 
Mersenne of Paris, in 1636. It was much improved 
by the French in the 17th century, by Quantz, 
Tacet, Florio, Potter, Miller, Nicholson, and others 
in the 18th. In the present century also the Nichol- 
sons, Boehm of Munich, Godfrey of Paris, Carter, 
Rockstro, and Rudall and Rose of London, have 
greatly contributed to the perfection of this instru- 
ment. See Flageolet. 


FLUXIONS, a branch of the higher mathe- 
matics, invented by Newton, 1665, similar to the 
differential calculus described by Leibnitz, 1684. 
A fierce controversy ensued as to the priority of the 
discovery. The finest applications of the calculus 
are by Newton, Euler, La Grange, and La Place. 
The first elementary work on fluxions in England 
is a tract of twenty-two pages in dA New Short 
Treatise of Algebra, together with a Specimen of the 
Nature and Algorithm of Fluxions, by John Harris, 
M.A. London, 1702. 


FLYING, ARTIFICIAL. In Greek mythology, 
Deedalus is said to have attached wings of wax to 
the body of his son Icarus, who, neglecting the 
advice of his father, flew so high that the sun 
melted his wings, and he fell into the Icarian sea. 
Archytas is said to have made a flying dove, about 
400 B.c. Friar Bacon maintained the possibility 
of the art of flying, and predicted it would be a 
general practice, 1273. Bishop Wilkins says (1651), 
it will yet be as usual to hear a man call for his 
wings when he is going on a journey, as it is now 
to hear him call for his boots! Borelli (about 1670) 
showed the futility of these speculations. About 
1800 sir George Cayley experimented on the sub- 
ject, and in 1843 Mr. Henson invented a flying 
machine; but nothing has been devised capable of 
serving a practical purpose. The motion of birds 
in relation to aéronautics was much discussed by 
scientific men in 1867-8. At a meeting of the 
Aéronautical society, 26 March, 1868, it was stated 
that a member had actually, by his muscular force, 
aided by apparatus, risen from the ground and 
flown horizontally. Dr. James Pettigrew published 
his elaborate researches on flying, 1867-71. M. 
Von Groof, a Belgian, ‘the flying-man,”’ descended 
from a balloon by means of a parachute resembling 
wings, in 1874: but was killed by falling through 
failure of his apparatus at Chelsea, 9 July. 

Mr. Simmonds tried his flying-machine (combining an 
umbrella and kite), at Chatham, and failed : it carried 
sand bags about 100 feet high; and fell, 15 Dec. It 
failed again 23 Dec. 1875. 


Mr. H. C. Linfield tried his steam flying machine or 
railway near West Drayton, 29 Aug. 1883. 


FLY SHEETS, see under Wesleyans. 


FO, RELIGION OF, the form of Buddhism (w 
see) existing in China. 


FOG. In 1862 much attention was paid to 
subject of fog signals by the Royal commissio1 
Lighthouses, &c. The use of bells, steam-trum) 
a battery of whistles blown by steam, the tr. 
mission of sound through water, the; siren, 
were considered. A fog horn blown by steam : 
use at Dungeness lighthouse (1869). For Dr, ‘I 
dall’s experiments, see Acoustics. 

Continued fogginess in London, Nov. 1879, to Feb. : 
caused much mortality ; very bad on 25 Dec. 1879 

Fatal fogs, Dec. 1881, Jan. 1882. 

Mr. De Cordova’s fog signals announced, March, 18: 

Prof. Holmes’ siren fog horn tried in the Zuyder 
reported successful, Sept. 1883. 

Capt. Barker’s marine safety signal code for merc 
vessels ; he indicates directions for sailing by co 
nations of short and long blasts of a fog horn, 18 
1884. ' 

FOIX (S. France), a county established 1 
and united with Bearn, 1290. About 1494 Cathe 
de Foix, the heiress, married Jean d’Albret, w! 
descendant, Henry IV., as king of France, un 
Foix to the monarchy, 1589. 


FOLK LORE, a general name given by 
W.J. Thoms, in 1846, to popular legends, fairy f 
local traditions, old outdying customs, superstiti 
and similar matters. The formation of the Folk- 
society was proposed by Mr. W. J. Thoms 
‘‘ Notes and Queries,’ I Dec. 1877; establis 
in 1878. 


FONT. Formerly the baptistery was a s1 
place partitioned off in a church, within whi 
large font was placed, where the persons tt 
baptised (frequently adults) were submer 
Previously, lakes and rivers were resorted to 
immersion. Fonts are said to have been set uj 
churches in the sixth century. 


FONTAINEBLEAU, near the Seine, Fra 
The royal palace, founded by Robert le Pieux al 
999, enlarged and adorned by successive kings, 
completed by Louis Philippe, 1837-40. Fonta 
bleau was entered by the Austrians, 17 Feb. 1 
Here Napoleon resigned his dignity, 4 April, 
bade farewell to his army, 20 April, 1814. 


Peace between France, Denmark, &c. 2 Sept. 
Treaty between Germany and Holland » 8 Nov. 
Treaty between Napoleon and Spain 27 Oct. 
The decree of Fontainebleau tor the destruction of 

British merchandise issued $ 4 19 Oct. 
Concordat between Napoleon and pope Pius a 
25 Jan. 


FONTENATILLE, or Fontenay (Fontaneti 
a village in Burgundy. Near here Charles 
Bald and Louis the German totally defeated t 
brother the emperor Lothaire I. 25 June, 
This victory, termed “ the judgment of God,’”’ 
duced to the formation of the French monarch} 


FONTENOY, near Tournay, in Belgium, 
site of an obstinate sanguinary battle on 30 
(11 May, N.8.), 1745, between the French, ¢ 
manded by marshal Saxe, and the English, Hi 
verians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by 
duke of Cumberland. The king Louis XV. and 
dauphin were present. The success of the I 
at the commencement is still quoted as an illu! 
tion of the extraordinary power of a column; 
the advance of the Austrians during several 
at Marengo (14.June, 1800) was compared to 


a 


~ 


FONTHILL ABBEY. 


parte. The allies lost 12,000 men, and the 
ch nearly an equal number; but the allies 
compelled to retire. Marshal Saxe (ill of the 
der of which he afterwards died) was carried 
| to all the posts in a litter, assuring his troops 
the day would be their own. 


INTHILL ABBEY, Wiltshire, founded in 
‘the mansion of William Beckford, author of 
thek,” and son of Alderman Beckford. He 
2 May, 1844. Within this edifice (which alone 
273,000/.) were collected costly articles of 
i and art, and the rarest works of the old 
ers. The sale of the abbey and its contents to 
Farquhar took place in 1822; 7200 catalogues 
yuinea each were sold in a few days. On 21 
1825, the lofty tower fell, and in consequence 
emaining buildings were sold. 


JOD, see Provisions. A Food Journal pub- 
d 1870; continued several years. Sale of Food 
Drugs Act passed 11 Aug. 1875. Dr. Arthur 
Hassall’s ‘‘ Food and its Adulterations’’ pub- 
d 1854, and since. International food exhibi- 
at Agricultural Hall, Islington, 13-20 Oct. 

National food reform society, advocates 
nence from animal food, 1883. 


JOLS, FESTIVALS OF, were held at Paris on 
st of January, when, we are told, all sorts of 
‘dities were committed, from 1198 to 1438. Fools 
lensed jesters were kept at court in England up 
» time of Charles I. 1625. The ‘order of Fools”’ 
led by Adolphus, count of Cleves, for philan- 
iit purposes, 1381, existed in 1520. 


JOT AND MOUTH DISEASE, see 
é 


JIRBES MACKENZIE’S ACT (16 & 17 


BT) 


¢e. 67) ‘‘for the better regulation of public- | 


»s in Scotland,’’ passed in 185}. It permits 
rs to sell spirits, &c., as usual, but forbids 
ting on the premises, which is to be confined to 
s duly licensed. Much dram-drinking pre- 
ily took place in grocers’ shops. 


IRCH, see Conservation, and Correlation. 


JREIGN CATTLE MARKET. The city 
ondon having been required to provide this 
‘et before 1 Jan. 1872, by the Contagious 
wes Act (for Animals), 1869, the Common 
cil, 7 Noy. 1870, agreed to the expenditure of 
00/. for the purpose. The site chosen, Dept- 
dockyard, was much opposed. The requisite 
ations were made by Mr. Horace Jones, and the 
‘et was formally opened by the lord mayor, 28 
1871; for use on I Jan. 1872. 


JREIGN ENLISTMENT ACT, 59 Geo. 
e. 69 (1819), forbids British subjects to enter 
ervice of a foreign state, without licence from 
ang or privy council, and prohibits the fitting 
T equipping ships for any foreign power to be 
oyed against any power with which our govern- 
iis at peace; see Trials, 1862, 1863. In 1606, 
ishmen were forbidden to enter foreign service, 
out taking an oath not to be reconciled to the 

The act was suspended in 1835 on behalf of 
British Legion (which see). The act passed 9 
_1870, relates to illegal enlisting, shipbuilding, 
>xpeditions, 


OREIGNERS, see Alien and Law. 


OREIGN JURISDICTION ACTS, passed 
te 1865, and 1866, were extended and amended 
1 & 42 Vict. c. 67, passed 16 Aug. 1878. 


1 FORESTS. 


FOREIGN LEGION. Foreigners have fre- 
quently been employed as auxiliaries in the pay of 
the British government; see Hessians. An act 
(18 & 19 Vict. c. 2) for the formation of a foreign 
legion as a contingent in the Russian war (1855), 
was passed 23 Dec. 1854.* The queen and prince 
Albert reviewed 3500 soldiers, principally Swiss 
and Germans, at Shorncliffe, g Aug. 1855. On the 
iat in 1856, many were sent to the Cape of Good 

ope; but not prospering, returned. 


FOREIGN LOANS, see Loans. 
FOREIGN MISSIONS, see Missions. 
FOREIGN OFFICE was established at the 


re-arrangement of the duties of secretaries of state 
in 1782. It has the exclusive charge of British 
interests and subjects in foreign countries. The 
secretary for foreign affairs negotiates treaties, 
selects ambassadors, consuls, &c., for foreign 
countries, and grants passports. The new foreign 
office building in the Italian style (designed by 
Sir Gilbert Scott), was begun in 1864. A portion of 
it was inaugurated by Mr. Disraeli’s reception, 25 
March, and it was occupied by lord Stanley, 24 June, 
1868. See Administrations under separate heads, 
and Secretaries. 
Foreign Office Circular warning travellers and others 
that they-will incur capture at their own risk 
Aug. 188% 
Important changes in the departments announced 
Feb. 1883 


FOREIGN ORDERS. No British subject is 
permitted to accept a foreign order from the sovereign 
of any foreign country, or wear the insignia thereof, 
without her majesty’s consent, by orders issued in 
1812 and 1834 ;—regulations published in London 
Gazette, 10 May, 1855. 


FORESTALLING was forbidden by statutes 
(in 1350, 1552, &c.), all repealed in 1844. 


FORESTS. There were in England, even in 
the last century, as many as 68 forests, 18 chases, 
and upwards of 780 parks. See New Forest.t 
International Forestry exhibition at Edinburgh, re- 

commended by government, Nov. 1883 ; opened 

on 1 July ; closed : : 11 Oct. 1884 


“The Forester,” by J. Brown ; new edition - 1882 


* The endeavour to enlist for this legion, in 1854, in the 
United States, gave great offence to the American govern- 
ment. Mr. Crampton, our envoy, was dismissed, 28 
May, 1856, in spite of all the judicious pacific efforts of 
lord Clarendon. Lord Napier was sent out as our repre 
sentative in 1857. 

+ The commissioners appointed to enquire into the 
state of the woods and forests, between 1787 and 1793, 
reported the following as belonging to the crown, viz. :— 
In Berkshire, Windsor Forest and Windsor Great and 
Little Park. In Dorset, Cranburn Chase. In Essex, 
Waltham or Epping and Hainault Forest. In Gloucester- 
shire, Dean Forest. In Hampshire, the New Forest, 
Alice Holt, Woolmer Forest, and Bere Forest. In Kent, 
Greenwich Park. In Middlesex, St. James’s, Hyde, 
Bushey, and Hampton-court Parks. In Northampton- 
shire, the forests of Whittlebury, Salcey, and Rockingham. 
In Nottingham, Sherwood Forest. In Oxford, Which- 
wood Forest. In Surrey, Richmond Park. Several of 
these have been disforested since 1851, viz. Hainault, 
Whichwood, and Whittlebury. A committee of the 
house of commons respecting forests, sat in 1863. 
Motion in parliament to preserve Vpping Forest, adopted 
14 Feb. 1870; and the decision of the Master of the Rolls, 
10 Nov. 1874, stopped the enclosures by the lords of 
manors. The lord mayor Stone visited the forest in 
state 14 Oct. 1875. The commissioners’ new scheme was 
published July, 1876. Memorial trees were planted by the 
duke and duchess of Connaught, 16 Oct. 1880, The forest 
was dedicated to the use of the people by the Queen, 
6 May, 1882. 


FORESTS. 


33 


FORTIFICATION. 


2 


~~ 


FORESTS, CHARTER OF THE, Charta de 
Foresta, granted by Henry III. in 1217, was founded 
on Magna Charta, granted by king John, 15 June 
1215. It was confirmed in 1225 and 1297. See 
Woods. 


FORESTERS, Ancient Order of, a species of 
benetit society, founded on the principle that many 
can help one; all religious and political discussions 
are strictly avoided. About 500,000 members. Meet- 
ing of high court, Edinburgh, 7 Aug. 1876; at 
Newcastle-on-Tyne, Aug. 1878. 


FORFARSHIRE STEAMER, onits passage 
from Hull to Dundee, on 6 Sept. 1838, was wrecked 
in a violent gale, and thirty-eight persons out of 
fifty-three perished. The Outer-Fern Lighthouse 
keeper, James Darling, and his heroic daughter 
Grace, ventured out in a tremendous sea in a coble, 
and rescued several of the passengers. — 


FORGERY of deeds, or giving forged deeds in 
evidence, was made punishable by fine, by standing 
in the pillory, having both ears cut off, the nostrils 
slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, and per- 
petual imprisonment, 5 Eliz. 1562. Since the 
establishment of paper credit many statutes have 
san enacted ; the latest Forgery act passed 9 Aug. 
1870. 


Forgery first made punishable by death > 1634 
Forging letters of attorney made capital 5 1722 


Mr. Ward, M.P.,a man of wealth, expelled the house 
of commons for forgery, 16 May, 1726; and con- 
signed to the pillory 4 ‘ 5 17 March, 

The first forger on the bank of England was Richard 
William Vaughan, once a linen-draper of Stafford. 
He employed a number of artists on different 
parts of the notes fabricated. He filled up 
twenty of the notes and deposited them in the 
hands of a young lady whom he was on the point 
of marrying, as a proof of his being a man of sub- 
stance; no suspicion was entertained. One of 
the artists informed, and Vaughan was executed 
at Tyburn : : ; : ath TONAL Vy 

Value of forged notes presented to the bank 1801-10 
nominally ror,66rl. 

The bank prosecuted 142 persons for forgery or the 


1727 


1758 


uttering of forged notes : : : : LOT 
Thos. Maynard, the last person executed for forgery, 


31 Dec. 

Statutes reducing into one act all such forgeries as 
shall henceforth be punished with death - 1830 
The punishment of forgery with death ceases, except 
in cases of forging or altering wills or powers of 
attorney to transfer stock . “ ‘ ‘ 4 
These cases also reduced to transportable offences 
A barrister, Jem Saward, and others, tried for 


1829 


1832 
1837 


forging numerous drafts on bankers 5 March, 1857 
The law respecting forgery amended in . 1861 and 1870 


For W. Roupell’s case, see Trials Aug. Sept. 
An elaborate system of bill forgery in London, dis- 

covered by the Bank of England xt March, 
[See Executions (for forgery), 1776, 1777, et seq.] 
FORKS were in use on the Continent in the 13th 
and 14th centuries. Voltaire. This is reasonably 
disputed. In Fynes Moryson’s Itinerary, reign of 
Elizabeth, he says, ‘‘At Venice each person was 
served (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to 
hold the meat while he cuts it, for there they deem 
it ill manners that one should touch it with his 


1873 


hand.’’ ‘Thomas Coryate describes, with much 
TN the manner of using forks in Italy, and 
adds, ‘‘1 myself have thought it good to imitate the 


Italian fashion since I came home to England,” 
1608. Two-pronged forks were made at Sheffield 
soon after. Three-pronged forks are more recent. 
Silver forks, previously only used by the highest 
classes, came into more general use in England 
about 1814. 

Mr. G. Smith found a bronze fork with two prongs at 

Kouyunjik, Assyria, 1373. 


1862 


A ‘‘flesh-hook of three teeth” mentioned z Sam, 
about 1165 B.c. 


FORMA PAUPERIS. A person hay: 
just cause of suit, certified as such, yet so pom 
he cannot meet the cost of maintaining it, h: 
attorney and counsel assigned him on his swe 
that he is not worth 5/., by stat. 11 Hen. VII. 
—This act has been remodelled, and now any 
aa may plead in formd pauperis in the cou 

aw. 


FORMIC ACID, the acid of ants (forn 
Its artificial production by Pelouze in 183) 
considered an event in the progress of or 
chemistry. 


FORMIGNI (N.W. France), Here the 
stable de Richemont defeated the English, 15, 


1450. 


FORMOSA, an island in the Pacific, 90 
from the Chinese coast. In May, 1874, th 
panese, with the consent of a Chinese man 
chastised the savage tribes here for masse 
Japanese sailors on their proposed settleme 
the isle. The Chinese threatened war if the 
not quit within 90 days, 18 Aug. 1874. By B 
interposition the Japanese withdrew, an inde 
having been agreed on; treaty between Japai 
China signed 31 Oct. 1874. Formosa flour 
under the rule of Ting; removed in 1878, 
plant of the Woosung railway brought here in 
George Psalmanazar published his fabricate 
scription of Formosa in 1704. See China, 18° 


FORNOVO (Parma, Italy). Near here CI 
VIII. of France defeated the Italians, 6 July, | 


FORSTER’S ACT, see Education, 1870. 
FORT DU QUESNE, N. America. 


here general Braddock was surprised by a pat 
French and Indians, his troops routed and hi 
killed, 9 July, 1755. The fort was named 
Pitt after its capture by Forbes, 24 Nov. 1755 
is now Pittsburg. 


FORT ERIE (Upper Canada). This fo 
was taken by the American general Browne, 3. 
1814. After several conflicts it was evacuat« 
the Americans, 5 Nov. 1814. 


FORT GEORGE, Inverness, N.W. Scot 
was erected in 1747, to restrain the Highland 
Fort WILLIAM, besieged by them in vain in 
is now inruins. © 


FORTH anp CLYDE CANAL, comm 
10 July, 1768, under the direction of Mr. Sme 
and opened, 28 July, 1790. A communication 
thus formed between the eastern and weste 
on the coast of Scotland. 


A railway-bridge across the Firth of Forth proj 
and a raft launched in June, 1866. ; 

Mr. (afterwards sir T.) Bouch, of Edinburgh, wé 
gaged to prepare plans for a suspension-bridge, 1 

The Forth bridge company accepted tenders from 
Arrol & Co. (1,250,ocol.) for constructing bridg 
railway, Oct. 1879 ; through Tay-bridge disaste1 
the scheme was suspended and eventually aban‘ 
by the company, 13 Jan. 1881. 

Scheme revived ; new plans, Oct. 1881. 

Bill passed by the commons and lords, June, 1882. 

Sir Thomas Tancred, engineer; Messrs. Warrol 4 
contractors, Nov. 1882. Cost 1,600,c00l. ; works 
on, July, 1884. 


FORTIFICATION, The Pheenicians 
the first people to fortify cities. Apollodorus 
that Perseus fortified Mycenz, where statues 
afterwards erected to him. The modern s} 


\ 


FORTUNATE ISLES. 


atroduced about 1500. Albert Diirer wrote on 
cation in 1527; and great improvements were 
by Vauban, who fortified many places in 
ve; he died 1707. The new fortifications of 
were completed in 1846; see Paris. In Aug. 
the British parliament passed an act for the 
iditure of 2,000,000/. in one year upon the 
cations of Portsmouth, Plymouth, Pembroke, 
‘ortland, the Thames, Medway, and Sheerness, 
1am, Dover, and Cork, and on the purchase of 
tral arsenal establishment; the estimated ex- 
being 9,500,000/. A committee to investigate 
irtifications was appointed, 16 April, 1868. 


IRTUNATE ISLES, see Canaries. 


IRTUNE BAY AFFAIR, see Canada, 
1880-1, and Newfoundland. 


RTUNE-TELLING is traced to the early 
ogers, by whom the planets Jupiter and Venus 
supposed to betoken happiness. The Sibylle 
women said to be inspired by Heaven; see 
yand Gipsies. In England the laws against 
1e-telling were at one time very severe. A 
ation was published in France, II Jan. 1680, 
eeeding severity against fortune-tellers and 
ers, under which several persons suffered 

Heénault, Fortune-tellers, although liable 
‘acts of 1743 and 1824 to be imprisoned as 


sand vagabonds, still exist in England. 


‘RTY-SHILLING FREEHOLDERS, 


‘eeholders. 


RUM, at Rome, originally a market-place, 
‘e about 472 B.c. the place of assembly of the 
| in their tribes (the Comitia), and was 
uly adorned with temples and public build- 
-Near Forum TREBRONII, in Masia, the 
as were defeated by the Goths, Nov. 251. 
a struggle in the morass, the emperor Decius 
lis son were slain and their bodies not re- 
od 


SSALTA, near Bologna, central Italy. 
Enzo or Enrico, titular king of Sardinia, 
‘son of the emperor Frederick II., was de- 
| and made prisoner, 26 May, 1249, and re- 
'. He was kept in honourable captivity till 


wth, 14 March, 1272. 


THERINGHAY CASTLE (Northamp- 
ire), built about 1400. Here Richard III. of 
ad was born in 1450; and here Mary queen 
is was tried, 11-14 Oct. 1586, and beheaded, 8 
987: It was demolished by her son, James I. 
land, in 1604. 


UGHARD, near Dundalk, N. Ireland. 
Edward, brother of Robert Bruce, after 
ng Ireland in 1315, was defeated by sir John 
gham, 5 Oct. 1318. Bruce was killed by 
_ de Maupis, a burgess of Dundalk. 


UNDLING HOSPITALS are ancient. 
-les of foundling hospital was set up at Milan 
and in the middle ages most of the principal 
of the continent possessed one. The French 
| ment in 1790 declared foundlings to be the 
| ren of the state.”’ 

| ndling hospital in England when Addison 
Fin. A : 1 ; ; : : A hay hel 

foundling hospital, projected by Thomas 

a, & sea-captain, incorporated, Oct. 1739; 
ys P 3 : A ; 2 June, 
* gave an organ ; opened it 5 - 1 May, 
“ours about 500 infant children ; Coram’s 
2Wwasputupin . é . A ; 
hg hospital in Dublin instituted in 1704. 


1756 
1750 


1856 


303 


FOX ADMINISTRATION. 


Owing to great mortality, and from moral ¢on- 
siderations, the internal department was closed 
by order of government i - 31 March, 
Foundling hospital at Moscow, founded by Cathe- 


rine II. in 1772; about 12,000 children are re- 
ceived annually. 


FOUNTAINE COLLECTION of Renais- 
sance works, Faience, Limoges, Raffaelle, and 
Palissy enamelled ware, &e. (unequalled); and 
also a fine collection of coins, medals, carved ivory 
work, &c., formed by sir Andrew Tountaine, in 
the reigns of Anne and George I.; placed in 
Narford Hall, Norfolk, about 1730; sold by Christie 
and Manson for 91,112/., 16-19 June, 1884; by 
the sale of ancient drawings, on 11 July, the sum 
was raised to 96,2787. Sir Andrew Fountaine 
died in 1873. 


FOUNTAINS. The fountain of Hero ot 
Alexandria was invented about 150 B.c. Among 
the remarkable fountains at Rome are the Fontana 
di Trevi, constructed for pope Clement XII. in 
1735; the Fontana Paolina, erected for pope 
Paul V. in 1612; and Fontana dell’ Acqua Felice, 
called also the Fountain of Moses. The fountains 
in the palace-gardens at Versailles, made for 
Louis XIV., and the Grand Jet d’Eau, at St. Cloud, 
are exceedingly beautiful. There are above 100 
public fountains in Paris, the most striking being 
the Chateau d’Eau on the Boulevard St. Martin 
(by Girard, 1811) and that at the Palais Royal, 
London is not remarkable for fountains; ‘the 
largest are in Trafalgar-square, constructed in 
1845, after designs by sir Charles Barry. There 
are beautiful fountains at Chatsworth, in Derby- 
shire, the seat of the duke of Devonshire. ‘Ihe 
magnificent fountains at the Crystal Palace, Syden- 
ham, were first publicly exhibited on 18 June, 
1856, in the presence of the queen and 20,000 
spectators. 

The fountain at Park-lane, London, W., the gift of Mrs. 
Brown, was inaugurated and uncovered, 9 July, 1875. 
It has statues of Chaucer, Shakspeare, and Milton, the 
work of Mr. Thomas Croft, and cost soool. 


FOURIERISM, a social system devised by 
M. Charles Fourier (who died’ in 1837). The 
Phalanstery (from phalanx), an association of 400 
families living in one edifice, was to be so arranged 
as to give the highest amount of happiness at the 
lowest cost. The system failed; caused, it is said, 
by the smallness of the scale on which it was 
tried. 

“FOUR MASTERS,” a name given to 
Michael, Conary, and Cucogry O'Clery, and Fer- 
feasa O’Mulconry, who compiled from original 
documents the annals of Ireland from 2242 B.c. to 
A.D. 1616, An edition of these ‘‘ Annals,” printed 
from autograph MSS., with a translation edited by 
Dr. John O’ Donovan, was published at Dublin in 
1851. The ‘‘ Four Masters” lived in the first half 
of the 17th century. 


FOURTH Parry, aname facetiously given to 
lord Randolph Churchill, sir Henry Drummond 
Wolff, Mr. Gorst, and a few other conservative mem- 
bers, active opponents of the government, also termed 
“free lances.’’ The other parties were liberals, con- 
servatives, and home-rulers (1880-5). 

Lord Randolph Churchill arid some of his friends 
desire to imitate Radical organization (popular, 
responsible, and representative), advocating 
“tory democracy” . : 5 May, 1884 


FOX, see Reynard. 


FOX anpD GRENVILLE ADMINISTRA- 
TION, see Grenville Administration. 


1835 


” -FOX- GLOVE (folks’ or fairies’ glove), & 
handsome indigenous flower. The canary fox-glove 
(Digitalis canariensis) came from the Canary 
islands, 1698. The Madeira fox-glove came here 
in 1777. The fox-grape shrub (Vitus Vulpina), 
from Virginia, before 1056. 


FRAGA, N.E. Spain. Near here the Christians, 
under Alfonso I. of Aragon, were defeated by the 
Moors, 17 July, 1134. 


FRANC, the current silver French coin (value 
i0d.), superseded the livre tournois by law in 


1795: 


FRANCE, the Roman Gaul (which see). 
the st th century y it was conquered by the rokie 
people of Germany, then inhabiting Franconia, 
where they became known about 240. The country 
was gradually named Franken-ric, Franks’ king- 
dom. For the dynastic changes, see list of sove- 
reigns, infra. Previous to the yevolution, France 
was divided into 40 governments. In 1790 it was 
divided into 83 departments, and subsequently into 
130, including Corsica, Geneva, Savoy, and other 
places, chiefly conquests. In 1815 the departments 
svere reduced to 86; in 1860 they were raised to 89 
by the acquisition of Savoy and Nice,* re- 
duced to 86 by the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. The 
political constitution has been frequently changed 
since 1789. For details of more important events, 
see separate articles. The title of king of France, 
adopted by the English sovereigns from Edwd, 3rd, 
1340, was given up by Geo. 3 in 1802. 
The Franks settle in that part of Gaul, till late 
called Flanders 3 about 418 
Clovis, 481; defeats Syagrius and the Gauls at 
Soissons, 486 ; and the Alemanni at Tolbiac, near 
Cologne ; and embraces Christianity : 496 
He kills Alaric the Goth at the battle of Vougleé, 
near Poictiers, unites his conquests from ‘the 
Loire to the Pyrenees, and makes Paris his 


capital + 5°7 
He proclaims the Salique law; : and dies, leaving 
four sons 511 


Frequent inv asions of the Avars and Lombards, 562-584 
The mayors of the palace now assume almost sove- 


reign authority . 584 
Charles Martel becomes may or of the palace, and 
rules with despotic sway 
Invasion of the Saracens, 720 ; defeated by Charles 
Martel, near Tours. to Oct. 732 
Reign of Pepin the Short . 752 
Charlemagne, king, 768 ; conquers Saxony and 
Lombardy, 773-4; crowned emperor of the West, 
25 Dec. 800 
The Normans invade Neustria, 876 ; part of which 
is granted Rollo, as Normandy, ey Charles the 
Simple ; ° : : OIL 
Reign of Hugh Capet : . j 987 
Paris made capital of all France . 996 
Letters of franchise granted to cities and towns by 
Louis VI. . - : > 135 
Louis VII. joins in the Crusades . - 1146 
Philip Augustus defeats the Germans at Bouvines . 1214 
Louis VIL, Ceur de Lion, frees his serfs . . 1224 
a Population of Fra ance i 1700, Peesearcen in 1762, 


21,769,163 ; in 1801, 27,349,003 ; in 1820, 30,451,187 ; in 
1836, 33,540,910 ; in 1846, 35,401,761; in 1856, 36,039, 34 5 
in “1861, including the new departments, 37,302,225 

1872 (after the war), 36,102,921. Population 31 Dee: 
1876, 36,905,788 ; 18 Dec. 1881, 37,672,048. Population 
of the colonies (1876) (in Asia, Pondicherry, Xe. ; 
Africa, Algeria, &c. ; America, Martinique, Guadaloupe, 
&c. ; Oceania, the Marquesas, &c.), in 1858, 3,641,226, 
jn 1872, about 5,621,000; in 1877, about 6,440,660. 
{Alsace and Lorraine lost with population of 1,597,219 
in 1871.] ln May, 1862, the Monitewr asserted the effec- 
tive army to be 447,000, with a reserve of 170,000; vir- 
tually raised to 1,200,000 in 1868 ; disposable force in 
x869, about 1,350,000 ; in 1875, 1,750,000; in 1880, 
2,423,164 men, non-military adjuncts about 1,330, 000. 


FOX-GI OVE. 3 


34 FRANCE CR me 


Louis IX. conducts an army into Palestine; take: 
Damietta, 1249 ; see Crusades ; dies before Tunis, 
25 Aug 
Charles of Anjou conquers Naples and Sicily 
His tyranny leads to the massacre called the Siciliar 
Vespers (which see). 
Philip the Fair’s quarrels with the Pope . 
Knights Templars suppressed. hi 
Union of France and Navarre . 
English invasion—Philip VI. ‘defeated at Cressy 
26 Aug, 
Calais taken by Edward ITI. : 2 - 3 Aug. 
Dauphiny annexed to France 
Battle of Poictiers (which see) ; king John taker 
(brought prisoner to England) . 19 Sept. 
France laid under an interdict by ‘the pope ae 
Battle of Agincourt (which see) . 5 « 25 Oct, 
Massacre of the Armagnacs by the Burgun 


Jun 

Henry V. of England acknowledged heir to the 
throne 

aes VL crowned at Paris ; duke of Bedford re- 
gen ; 

Siege of Orleans, 8 May ; ‘ battle of Patay ; the Eng- 
lish defeated by Joanof Are . - 8 J ‘| 

Joan of Are burnt at Rouen May, 

England lost all her possessions (but ‘Calais) in 
France, between £ 1434 and. 

‘* League of the public good i against Louis XI. by 
the nobles. . Dec. 1464-Oct. 

Edward IV. of England invades France . J 

Charles VIII. conquers Naples, 1494 ; loses it . 

League of Cambray against Venice . 

Pope Julius II. forms the Holy League agains! 
France 3 

English invasion—battle of Spurs : “16 Aug. 

Interview onthe Field of the Cloth of Gold between 
Francis I. and Henry VIII. of England 

Francis I. defeated and taken at Pavia 24 Feb. 

Peace of Cambray - 5 Aug. 

Persecution of pr otestants begins : 

Royal printing press established, I sat : Robert 
Stephens prints his Latin Bible c 

Brittany annexed to France 

League of England with the emperor Charles v.; 
Henry VIII. invades France A Os 

Peace with England 7 June, 

Successful defence of Metz by the duke of Guise 

He takes Calais (which sce) . a 

Religious wars ; massacre of protestants at Vassy, 

xt Mareh, 
Guise defeats the Huguenots at Dreux 19 Dec. 
Guise killed at siege of Orleans, 18 Feb. ; temporary 


peace of Amboise 1g March, 
Huguenots defeated at St. Denis . 10 Nov. 
At Jarnac 13 March ; at Moncontour . .' 3 Oct, 
Massacre of St. Bartholomew 24 mg 


“* Holy Catholic League ” established . . 

Duke of Guise assassinated by king’ s order, 23 
Dec. ; and his brother, the cardinal 24 Dec. 

et | TI. stabbed by J acques Clement, a friar, 1 


Aug. ; died - . 2 Aug. 
Henry IV. defeats the league at Ivry 14 March, 
Henry IV. becomes a Roman Catholic 25 July, 
The league leaders submittohim  . . Jang 
He promulgates the edict of Nantes 13 April, 


Silk and other manufactures introduced by fe and 


Sully. < - ” ‘smeoG 
Quebec in North America settled ; e a a 
Murder of Henry IV. by Ravyaillac 14 May, 
Regency of Mary de Medici. _.. 16 
The states-general meet and complain of the 

management of the finances . Oct. 


Rise of the Concinis, 1610 ; their fall and ‘an h 

Navarre annexed to France . 

Vigorous and successful administration of Richelies, 
begins with finance E ; 

Rochelle taken after a long siege 

“Day of Dupes ;” Richelieu’s energy defeats ‘the 
machinations of his enemies ; , 1 Nov. 

Richelieu organises the Académie de fein é a 

His death (aged 58) 4 

Accession of Louis XIV., aged four years (Anne oa 
Austria, regent) . * ay, 

Administration of Mazarin ; victories of Turen ol 

I 


Civil wars of the Fronde . . . 9) mea 


r 


FRANCE. 


339 


FRANCE. 


© of Mazarin, 9 March; Colbert financial 
. 1661 
aL OTS 
- 1664-81 
to Aug. 1678 
22 Oct. 1685 


iister A 
with Holland, &e. ‘ a 
(of Languedoc constructed. e 

+ of Nimeguen : 3 A . 
/of Nantes revoked . p 
/ marries Madame de Maintcnon . 


with William IIL of England . |. . 1689, &e. 


+ of Ryswick . , , 20 Sept. 1697 
of the Spanish succession - : Sept. 1701 
th defeated at Blenheim =. r . 2Aug. 1704 
unillies . ‘ 23 May, 1706 
1 of Utrecht (which sec) rr April, 171 
nsions of Jesuits and J ansenists ; the bull 


igenitus . Sept. ,, 
ision of Louis XV; stormy regency of the duke 


)rleans é se) MEPL. 1715, Xe. 
| bubble in France (see Law) ‘. ; Sear 7.06 
ih defeated at Dettingen . : - m6 June, 1743 
ssful campaign of marshal Saxe . ‘ - =) 5746 
of Aix-la-Chapell Gl . A re LOCOCL. 1748 
years’ war begun 3 e May, 1756 
ens’ attempt on tife of Louis XV. 5 Jan. 1757 
la lost—battle of Quebec 13 Sept. 1759 


esuits banished from France, and their effects 


fiscated as 1762 
of Paris ; Canada ceded to ‘England, 10 Feb. 1762 
XV. enslaved by madame du Barry . ~ eel zoo 

.of Louis XV. . “ - 1o May, 1774 

ie riots at Versailles. - Z . May, 1775 

uinister Turgot dismissed i May, 1776 
try of Necker NOV 45,5 
XVI. assists America to throw off its eaueny 
ce on England, at first secretly . ~ - 1778 
re abolished in French judicature - . 1780 
of Versailles with England ; - 3 Sept. 1783 
iamond-necklace affair (which see) . . 1785 
ug of the assembly of notables, 22 Feb. 1787 ; F 
im, . 6 Nov. 1788 
ng of states general (308 ecclesiastics, 285 
les ; 621 deputies, tiers état) 5 May, 1789 
‘iers état constitute themselves the National 
embly 5 3) I7 SUNG Sa ,s 


*rench revolution commences with fhe de- 
(ction of the Bastille (which see) LAC sts 
‘ational Assembly decrees that the title of the 
ng of France” shall be changed to that of the 


ng ofthe French” . op LOLOCES cess 
roperty of the clergy confiscated . 2 Nov. ,, 
vation of nobles . Oct.-Dee. 


> 


deration of the Champ de M ars; France de- 

ed a limited monarchy ; Louis XVI. swears 
1aintain the constitution 14 July, 1790 
lver plate used in the churches transferred to 
mint and coined : 3 March, 1791 
of Mirabeau " 2 April, 
ing, queen, and royal family arrested at 
annes, in their flight . WoT TNO, 5, 
(a prisoner) sanctions the National Constitu- 

15 Sept. ,, 
eclared against the emperor 20 April,-1792 
\cobin club declare their sittings permanent, 

18 June, ,, 
‘ultitude, bearing the red bonnet of liberty, 
ch to the Tuileries to make demands on the 

zoJune, ,, 
bition against France ; commencement of 
great French war . er UNGs 5 

[See Battles, 1792 to 1815. ] 
yal Swiss guards cut to pieces ; massacre of 
' persons : ° 4 to Aug. ,, 
itionary tribunal set up 9 Aug. 5 
of the National Aeeetly against the prieates 
oo exiled P ZOLANG 2755 
ore in Paris; the prisons broken open, and 


”) 


_ persons (100 priests) slain 2- 5 Sept. .,, 
‘r of the princess de Lamballe 3188p 55 
ational Convention opened 17 SEpiaies5 


ation establishes a republic, 20 Sept. ; pro- 
ned e222) SCPbi. bay 
of Brunswick ‘defeated at Valmy 20 Sept. ,, 

‘rench people declare their fraternity with 

tations who desire to be free, and offer help, 
TORN O Veena’, 
ors conquered. Dec. 
for the perpetual banishment of the Bourbon 
‘Yy,t ose confined in the Temple Beer, 
} Que Comics 


Louis imprisoned in the Temple distinct from the 
queen, ‘and brought to trial, 19 Jan.; condemned 
to death, 20 Jan. ; beheaded in the Place de Louis 


Quinze . 21 Jan. 
Committee of public safety established 21 Jan. 
War with England and Holland declared t Feb. 
War in La Vendée March, 
Reign of terror—proscription of Girondists, 31 

May ; establishment of convention 23 J une, 
Marat stabbed by Charlotte Corday . 13 July, 
The queen beheaded - - ~ sto Oct. 


Execution of the Girondists - 3x Oct. 
Philip Egalité, duke of Orleans, who had ootad for 
the king’ 8 death, guillotined at Paris (see Orleans), 

6 Nov.; and madame Roland - 8 Noy. 
Worshiy of goddess of reason é ro Noy. 
Adoption of new republican calendar 24 Nov. 
Execution of Danton and others, 5 April ; of Henin 


Elizabeth . - 12 May, 
Robespierre president, 4 A) une ; he and 71 others 

guillotined . 2 28 July, 
Abolition of the Revolutionary Tribunal 15 Dec. 
Peace with Prussia 5 April, 
Insurrection of the Faubour os - 20, 21 May, 
Louis XVII. dies in prison 8 June, 
French directory chosen rt Nov. 
Bonaparte’s successful campaigns in Italy, 1796, 
Babeut’s conspiracy suppressed 12 May, 
Pichegru’s conspiracy fails ave 
Expedition to Syria and Egypt ( which sce) July, 
European coalition against France April, 


Council of Five Hundred deposed by Bonaparte, 
who is declared First Consul to Noy. 
He defeats the Austrians at Marengo . 14 June, 
His life attempted by the infernal machine, 24 Dec. 
Peace of Amicas (with England, Spain, and Hol- 
land) signed : 25-27 March, 


Amnesty to the emigrants April, 
Legion of Honour instituted - 19 May, 
Bonaparte made consul for life ; A 2 Aug. 
The bank of France established . R 14 April, 
Declaration of war against England 22 May, 


Conspiracy of Moreau and Pichegru against Bona- 
parte, 15 Feb.; Pichegru found strangled i in prison 
(see Georges) : 6 April, 

Duc d’Enghien executed . " . 21 March, 

France made an empire ; Napoleon proclaimed em- 


peror, 18 May ; crowned by the pope 2 Dec. 
He is crowned king of Italy . 26 May, 
Another coalition against France . weAl Ss 
Napoleon defeats the allies at Austerlitz 2 Dec. 
And the Prussians at Jena 14 Oct. 
And the Russians at Eylau 8 Feb. 


His interview with the czar at Tilsit, 26 J une ; peace 


signed - 7 July, 
His Milan ‘decree against British eeharce 
17 Dec. 

New nobility of France created t March, 


Abdication of Charles IV. of Spain and his son, in 
favour of Napoleon, 5 May; insurrection in Spain, 
27 May, 
Commencement of the Peninsular war (see Spain), 
July 
Alliance of England and Austria against irate 
April, 
Victories in Austria; Napoleon enters Vienna, May 
Peace of Vienna 14 Oct. 
Divorce of the emperor and empress J Peepnind 
decreed by the senate : - 16 Dec. 
Marriage of Napoleon to Maria Louisa of Austria, 
I of Faly? 
Holland united to France ; 
Birth ofthe king of Rome (since sty ledN Bion iL. \ 
20 March, 
War with Russia declared - 22Jdune, 
Victory at Borodino 7 Sept. 
Disastrous retreat ; French army nearly aetleoe ed, 
Oct. 
Alliance of Austria, Russia, and Prussia against 


France ‘ Mar ch, 
The British enter France an Oct. 
Surrender of Paris to the allies 31 March, 
Abdication of Napoleon negotiated 5 April, 


Bourbon dynasty restored, and Louis XVIII. arrives 

in Paris ; ‘ 3 May, 
Napoleon arrives at Elba . 4 May, 
The Constitutional Charter decreed a Io Ar une, 
Quits Elba, and lands at Cannes, 1M arch, 


1793 


” 


1794 


%” 
” 
1795 
” 
” 


9? 


&e. 
1797 
1798 
1799 


> 
1800 


9 


1802 
3” 
»” 


1803 


eB) 


1804 
1805 
” 
1806 
1807 


a” 


1808 


FRANCE. 


Arrives at Fontainebleau (the 100 days), 


Joined by all the army 4 : : 2 March, 
The allies sign a treaty against him ‘ March, 
He abolishes the slave trade. : 29 March, 
Leaves Paris forthearmy  . 19 June, 
Defeated at Waterloo 8 June, 


Returns to Paris, 20 June ; abdicates in Givens of 


his infant son s - 22June, 
Intending to embark for America, he arrives at 
Rochefort was Bs a See Sw LLY; 
Louis XVIII. enters Paris . . 3 July, 
Napoleon surrenders to capt. Maitland, of the 
Bellerophon, at Rochefort. 15 July, 


Transferred at Torbay to the Nor thumberla na. and 
with admiral sir George Cockburn sails for St. 


Helena 2 . 8 Aug. 
Arrives at St. "Helena to remain for life 15 Oct. 
Execution of marshal Ney 7 Dec. 


The family of Bonaparte excluded for ever Loin 
France by the law of amnesty 12 Jan, 


Duke of Berry murdered r 13 Feb. 
Death of Napoleon I. (see Wills) é 5 May, 
Louis XVIII. dies ; Charles X. king 16 Sept. 
National Guard disbanded ; . 30 April, 
War with Algiers ; dey’s fleet defeated . 4 Nov. 
Seventy-six new peers created 5 Nov. 


Blection riots at Paris ; barricades ; sev eral per- 
sons killed . | 19°20 Nov. 
The Villéle ministry replaced by the Martignac, 


4 Jan, 
Béranger imprisoned for political songs 10 Dee. 
Polignac adininistration formed ‘ SVG RULE, 
Chamber of deputies dissolved . 16 May, 
Algiers taken . “ cab hie 


The obnoxious ordinances regarding the press, 
and reconstruction of the chamber of deputies, 
26 July, 

Revolution commences with barricades 27 July, 
Conflicts in Paris between the populace (ulti- 
mately aided by the national guard) and the army, 
28-30 July, 

Charles X. retires to Rambouillet; flight of his 
ministry, 31: July ; he abdicates . 2 Aug. 
The duke of Orleans accepts the crown as Louis- 


Philippe L. 7 Aug. 
The constitutional charter of J uly babies: 
14 Aug. 

Charles X. retires to England 17 Aug. 


Polignac and other ministers tried and mentee ed to 
perpetual imprisonment 21 Dee. 
The abolition of the hereditary peerage decreed 
by both chambers ; the peers (36 new peers being 
created) concurring by a majority of ae to 70, 


Dee. 

The A BC Copa) insurrection in Paris sup- 
pressed 5-6 June, 
Charles X. leaves Holyrood- house for the conti- 
nent . 18 Sept. 


Ministry of Soult, duke of Dalmatia . 11 Oct. 
Bergeron and Benoit tried for an attempt on the 
life of Louis-Philippe ; acquitted 18 March, 
The duchess of Berry, who has been delivered of a 
female child, and asserts her secret marriage 
withan Italiannobleman, sent to Palermo, 9 June, 


Death of La Fayette : 5 - se SeOuMiave x 
Marshal Gerard takes office : . 15 July, 
M. Dupuytren dies. s : - : 8 Feb, 
Duc de Broglie, minister é : Feb. 
Fieschi attempts the king’s life 28 July, 


[He fired an infernal machine as the king and his 
sons rode along the lines of the national guard, 
on the Boulevard du Temple. The machine 
consisted of twenty-five barrels, charged with 
various missiles, and lighted simultaneously by a 
train of gunpowder. The king and his sons es- 
caped ; but marshal Mortier, “duke of Treviso, 
was shot dead, many officers dangerously 
wounded, and upwards of forty persons killed 
or injured. ] 

Fieschi executed . 19 Feb. 

Louis Alibaud fires at the king on his w ay ees the 


Tuileries, 25 June ; guillotined . 11 July, 
Ministry of count Molé, vice M. Thiers 6 Sept. 
Death of Charles X. 6 Novy. 


Attempted insurrection at Strasburg by Louis 
Napoleon (afterwards emperor), planned, it is 
said, by Filain de rh tk 29- 30 Oct. ; he is sent 
to America . < : 13 Nov. 


20 March, 1815 


»? 


3? 


| M. Thiers, minister of foreign affairs 


FRANCE. 


36 
Prince Polignac and others set at liberty from Ham, 
and sent out of France . ; aoe Noy. 
Meunier fires at the king on his way to opel the 
French Chambers. : ; 27 Dee. 
Amnesty for political offences , : 8 May 


““Tdées Napoléoniennes,” ae prince Louis 3 Napo- 
leon, published . ¥ é : 
Talleyrand dies. 20 May, 
Marshal Soult at the coronation of the rete of 
England . i é : : ae June, 
Birth of the count: of Paris. 4 Aug. 
Death of the duchess of Wurtemberg (daughise of 
Louis Philippe), a good sculptor. - 2Jan. 
Insurrection of Barbeés and Blanqui at Paris, 12 May, 
1 March, 
The chambers decree the removal of Napoleon’s re- 
mains from St. Helena to France . 12 May, 
[By the permission of the British government thats 
were taken from the tomb at St. Helena (15 Oct. 
1840), and embarked on the next day on board 
the Belle Poule French: frigate, under the com- 
mand of the prince de Joinville; the vessel 
reached Cherbourg on 30 November ; and on 15 
December the body was deposited in the Hétel 
des Invalides. The ceremony was witnessed by 
1,000,000 of persons ; 150,c00 soldiers assisted in 
the obsequies : and the royal family and all the 
high personages of the realm were present; all 
the relatives of the emperor were absent, being 
proscribed; and in exile or in prison. The body 
was finally placed in its crypt on 31 Mareh, 
186r. | 
Descent of prince TLoaia Napoleon, general Montho- 
lon, and so followers, at Vimereux, near Bou- 
logne, 6 Aug. ; the prince sentenced to imprison- 
ment for life . J : ; - 16-066 
Darmeés fires at the king ‘ : 15 Oct. 
M. Guizot, minister of foreign affairs - 29 Oct. 
Projectof lawforan extraordinary credit of 140,000,000 
of francs, for erecting the fortiticztions of Paris, 
15 Dee. 
The duration of copyright to 30 years after the 
anthor’s death, fixed ; 30 March, | 
Bronze statue of Napoleon placed | on ine column 
of the grande armee, Boulogne é . 15 Au 
Attempt to assassinate the duke of sari: (kings 
son) on return from Africa 


3 Sept. 
_ The duke of Orleans, heir to the throne, killed by a 


fall from his carriage . 13 July, 3 

The queen of England visits the royal family at_ 
Chateau VEu . . 2 to 7 Sept. 

An extradition treaty with England Signed . 

War with Morocco, May; peace. ae <, Sept. 


| Attempt of Leeompte to assassinate the king at 


Fontainebleau . . 2 16 April, 


Louis Napoleon escapes from Ham : 25 May, 
|The seventh attempt on the life of the ay 


Joseph Henri . : oe 
Spanish marriages : marriage of the. queen 0 Spain 
with her cousin, and of the duc de Montpensier 


with the infanta of Spain. 3 to Oct. 
Disastrous inundations in the south . . 18 Oct. 
The Praslin murder (see Prasiin) . - » 8 Ame. 


Death of marshal Oudinot (duke of Reggio) at Paris, 
in his grst year, 13 Sept. ; Soult made general of 


France, in his room ‘ r 26 Sept. 

Jerome Bonaparte returns to France after an exile 
of 32 years - . ro Oct. © 

Bdrrender of Abd-el-Kader . . 23 Dec. 


Death of the ex-empress, Maria Louisa, 18 Dec. ; 
and of madame Adelaide . . 30° Der s 
The grand reform banquet at Paris prohibited, 
ar Feb. | 
Revolutionary tumult in consequence ; impeach- . 
ment and resignation of Guizot, 22 Feb. ; barri- 
cades thrown up, the Tuileries ransacked, the 
prisons opened, and frightful disorders committed, 
-24 Fe! 
Louis Philippe abdicates in favour of his infant 
grandson, the comte de Paris, who is not ac- 
ern the royal family and ministers i % j 


A republic proclaimed from the steps of og ott . 
de Ville . Feb. 
The ex-king and queen arrive at Newhaven in Eng 

land. 3 March, 
Grand funeral procession in honour of the: victim 
ofthe revolution .  . . 4 March, 


. . 


oy FRANCE. | 337 FRANCE. 


a a a eee eran mn EE On anne 


provisional government resigns to an executive 
mmission, elected by the National Assembly of 
e French Republic : : : . 7 May, 
members of this new government were : MM. 
ipont de l’Eure, Arago, Garnier-Pagés, Marie, 
martine, Ledru-Rollin, and Crémieux. The 
eretaries: Louis Blanc, Albert, Flocon, and 


1848 


irrast. ] 

people’s attack on the assembly suppressed, 

: 15 May, ,, 
etual banishment of Louis Philippe and his 
aily decreed : . : . 26 May, ,, 
tion of Louis Napoleon (to the National As- 
ably) for the department of the Seine and three 

ier departments : 5 y ers cunes. -,, 
of the red Republicans: war against the troops 

1 national guard; more than 300 barricades 
‘own up, and firing continues in all parts of 

ris during the night ; F 23 June, ,, 
troops under Cavaignac and Lamoriciére, with 
mense loss, drive the insurgents from the left 

ak of the Seine . ; A I 24 June, ,, 
‘declared in a state of siege . 25 June, ,, 
Faubourg du Temple carried with cannon, and 

» insurgents surrender 26June, ,, 


national losses caused by this outbreak esti- 
ted at 30,000,000 francs ; 16,000 persons killed 

1 wounded, and 8000 prisoners weretaken. The 
hbishop of Paris was killed while tending the 
ng, 26 June. ] 

ignac, president of the council . - 28June, ,, 
3 Napoleon takes his seat in the National As- 
ably. 5 3 ‘ : - 26Sept. ,, 
relieved from a state of siege, which had con- 
ued fourmonths . A ; ; 20 Otis, 
on promulgation of the constitution of 4 Nov., 
front of the Tuileries . ; - oH SEI OS are 
3 Napoleon elected president of the French 
ublic, rr Dec. ; proclaimed : 20 Dec. ,, 
iad 5,587,759 votes ; Cavaignac, 1,474,687; Le- 
(-Rollin, 381,026 ; Raspail, 37,121 ; Lamartine, 
932; and Changarnier, 4,975. ] 

ary demonstration to stifle an anticipated in- 


rection of the reds . : ; . 29 Jan. 1849 
1. of king Louis Philippe, at Claremont, in 
gland . s : : - 26 Aug. 1850 


ty of the press restricted 26 Sept. ,, 
Changarnier deprived of the command of the 


ional guard P 5 : - IoJdan, 1851 

t of the duchess of Angouléme, daughter of 

tis XVI., at Frohsdorf.. OOetaun ss 

. of marshal Soult : A pem20 Ochiai. 

tie telegraph between England and France 

ned... : : ; : ate NOVL ,, 

us oppositions in the chamber ; alleged plots 
Noy. 


Weétat planned by the prince-president, Per- 
ty, and De Morny; carried out by C. de 
‘pas, minister of police, St. Arnaud, and 
ars; legislative assembly dissolved ; universal 
‘tage established, and Paris declared in a state 
lege ; the election of a president for ten years 
yosed, and a second chamber or senate, 

: ACC 55 
‘Thiers, Changarnier, Cavaignac, Bedeau, La- 
‘iciére, and Charres arrested, and sent to the 
“ile of Vincennes < a : : 2 Nec. ;, 
; 180 members of the assembly, with M. Ber- 

_ at their head, attempting to meet, are ar- 
od, and Paris is occupied by troops. 


| 2 Dec, ,, 

‘Mary conflicts in Paris ; the troops victorious, 

ih yee en 3-4.Decs 5, 
(tative commission founded . on 12) Dec, 4 ,, 


; throughout France for the election of a 
ident of the republic for ten years; affirma- 
| votes 7,473,431, negative votes 641,351. 
ie 21-22 Dec. ,, 
ation of the prince-president in the cathe- 
of Notre Dame; the day observed as a 
yal holiday at Paris, and Louis Napoleon 
3 up his residence at the Tuileries, 

xr Jan. 
Is Changarnier, Lamoriciére, and others, 
“ucted to the Belgian frontier 3, Guam. 
bers of the legislative assembly banished ; 
Persons arrested for resistance to the coup 


1852 


os 


d'état of 2 Dec., and conveyed to Havre for trans- 
portation to Cayenne i : ro Jan. 1852 
[The inscription “Liberty, Fraternity, Equality,” 
ordered to be forthwith erased throughout France, 
and the old names of streets, public buildings, 
and places of resort to be restored. The trees 
of liberty are everywhere hewn down and 
burnt. ] 
The national guard disbanded, reorganised anew, 
and placed under the control of the executive ; 


the president appointing the officers ro Jan. 4, 
A new constitution published T4 J alee se 


Decree obliging the Orleans family to sell all their 
real and personal property in France within a 
year E : - : : 22 Janie 

Second decree, annulling the settlement made by 
Louis Philippe upon his family previous to his 
accession in 1830, and annexing the property to 
the domain of the state . ‘ 22Jan. ,, 


The birthday of Napoleon I. (r5 Aug.) decreed to be 
the only national holiday f : wr 7, Nepean. 
The departments of France released from a state of 
siege. ; : 5 : 3 Za MarCh a sreg 
Legislative chambers installed . 29 March, ,, 
A crystal palace authorised to be erected in the 
Champs Elysées at Paris 30 March, ,, 
Plot to assassinate the prince-president discovered 
at Paris . . P eB rJuly, ,, 
President’s visit to Strasburg : To. dtl yeas, 
M. Thiers and others permitted to return to France, 
SAU Sits 
The French senate prays “the re-establishment of 
the hereditary sovereign power in the Bonaparte 
family ” F 5 : 3 13 HNept. | 5; 
Enthusiastic reception of the prince-president at 
Lyons 3 : : TOSEptiy 5 
Infernal machine, to destroy the prince-president, 
seized at Marseilles : : Peet olin se 
Prince-president visits Toulon, 27 Sept. ; and Bor- 
deaux, where he says ‘‘the empire is peace” 
(L’Empire c'est la paix) : 7iOCu Maey 
He releases Abd-el-Kader (see Algiers) . TOVOCE ss 
He convokes the senate for November to deliberate 
on a change of government, when a senatus consul- 
tum will be proposed for the ratification of the 
French people. : x9 Octi 255 
Protest of comte de Chambord . 25 Och” 5 
In his message to the senate, the prince-president 
announees the contemplated restoration of the 
empire, and orders the people to be consulted 
upon this change . ‘ A ‘ wid Ai INOVEO TE 59 
Votes for the empire, 7,824,189; noes, 253,145; 
null, 63,326 . A : : : F 2t Nove.) sy 
The prince-president declared emperor; assumes 
the title of Napoleon ITI. ‘ : so DCs ues 
His marriage with Eugénie de Montijo, countess of 
Téba, at Notre-Dame . ‘ f A 29 Jan. 1853 
4312 political offenders pardoned . Z z Feb. 
Bread riots F F : a Sept..~,, 
Military camp at Satory, near Paris Sept: = 3 
Emperor and empress visit the provinces (many 
political prisoners discharged) . Z : Oct. 
Francis Arago, astronomer, &c., died . 20ck »,; 
Attempted assassination of the emperor—ten per- 
sons transported for life : ‘i SWIN ONGC, oo 
Reconciliation of the two branches of the Bourbons 
at Frohsdorf 3 ‘ 5 é 7820 INGV. =) 55 
Marshal Ney’s statue inaugurated exactly 38 years 
after his death on the spot where it occurred, 


3? 


7 Dec. 
War declared against Russia (see Russo-Turkish War) 
27 March, 1854 


Visit of prince Albert at Boulogne sSept. ,, 
Death of marshal St. Arnaud . s «1 29 Sept. 5; 
Emperor and empress visit London 16-21 April, 1855 
Industrial exhibition at Paris opened re Mayisice 


Queen Victoria and prince Albert visit France, 
18-27 Aug. ,, 
Attempted assassination of the emperor by Pianort, 

28 April; by Bellemarre . é 2 8 Sept. ,, 
Death of count Molé. 24 Nov. ,, 
Birth of the imperial prince ; amnesty granted to 

rooo political prisoners ; 16 March, 1856 
Peace with Russia signed 30 March, ,, 


Awful inundation in the south . + June, 5, 
Z 


FRANCE. 


338 


_ FRANCE. 


Subscriptions in London to relieve the sufferers 
amounted to 43,oool. Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, 
of Bombay, gave sool. for the same purpose. ] 

Distress in money market . 4 * LG: Oct, 

Sibour, archbishop of Paris, assassinated by Verger, 
a priest : z - 5 7 . 3 dan. 

Elections (3,000,000 voters to elect 257 deputies) : 
gen. Cavaignac elected deputy, but declines to 
take the oath . : a . 21, 22 June, 

Conspiracy to assassinate the emperor in Paris de- 
tected . 3 : : 11 July, 

Death of Béranger, popular poet 16 July, 

Longwood, the residence of Napoleon I. at St. 
Helena, bought for 180,000 francs . a ee 

The conspirators Grilli, Bartolotti, and Tibaldi, 
tried, convicted, and sentenced to transportation, 
WE toe : 5 ; fs 5 ° 6, 7 Aug. 

Emperor and empress visit England . 6-10 Aug. 

The emperor meets the emperor of Russia at Stutt- 


gart.. ; . ‘ : ’ 4 25 Sept. 
Death of Eugene Cavaignac (aged 55) . 28 Oct. 
Death of Mdlle. Rachel (aged 38) ‘ . 4dan. 


Attempted assassination of the emperor by Orsini, 
Pieri, Rudio, Gomez, &e., by the explosion of 
three shells (two.persons killed, many wounded) 

r4Jan. 

[Felix Orsini, a man of talent and energy, earnest to 
obtain Italian independence, was born Dec. 1819 ; 
studied at Bologna in 1837 ; joined a secret society 
in 1843; was arrested and condemned to the gal- 


leys for life in 1844 ; was released in 1846; took: 


part in the Roman revolution. in 1848, when he 
was elected a member of the assembly ; and on the 
fall of the republic, fled to Genoa in 1849, and 
caine to England in 1853. Entering into fresh 
conspiracies, he was arrested in Hungary, Jan. 
1855, and sent to Mantua; he escaped thence and 
came to England in 1856, where he associated 
with Kossuth, Mazzini, &c. ; delivered lectures, 
and where he devised the plot for which he sut- 
fered. In his will he*’acknowledged the justice of 
his sentence. | 


Public safety bill passed—bold protest against it by 
Ollivier . : : : 4 5 « )x6.Meb. 
France divided into five military departments ; 
general Espinasse becomes minister of the interior, 
Feb. 
** Napoleon ITT. et V Angleterre” published 11 Mar. 
Intemperate speeches in France against England— 
misconceptions between the two countries par- 
tially removedin . : , A March, 
Republican outbreak at Chalons suppressed 
tae ; 9 March, 
Orsini and Pieri executed 13 March, 
Simon Bernard, tried in London as their accomplice, 
acquitted . : : : : . 12-17 April, 
Marshal Pelissier, anabassador to London, 
: eK 15 April, 
Espinasse retires from ministry of the interior [he 
was killed at the battle of Magenta, 4 June, 1859] 


June, 
Queen of England meets the emperor; visits Cher- 
pourg . : 4, 5 Aug. 


Conference at Paris respecting the Danubian prin- 
cipalities closes . ; 4 ; . 19 Aug. 
Dispute with Portugal respecting the Charles et 
Georges (wivich see) settled . i - 23 Oct. 
Trial of comte de Montalembert : - 25 Nov. 


{in Oct. 1858, the comte published a pamphlet en- 
titied ‘* Uw Débat sur VInde,” eulogising English 
institutions and depreciating those of France. 
He was sentenced to six months’ imprisonment 
and a fine of 3000 frances, but was pardoned by the 
emperor, 2 Dec. The comte appealed against the 
sentence of the court, and was again condemned ; 
but acquitted of a part of the charge. The sen- 
tence was once more remitted by the emperor 
(2x Dec.). In Oct. 1859, the comte published a 
pamphlet entitled ‘‘ Pie IX. et ia France en 1849 
et 1859," in which England is severely censured 
for opposition to popery. ] 

Emperor's address to the Austrian ambassador (see 
Austria) : 4 . ? i P 

Marriage of prince Napoleon to princess Clotilde of 
Savoy 2 : Acar t c - 3jodan: 

Publication of ‘‘ Napoleon III. et Italie” . Feb. 


1856 


1857 


”? 


a9 


2? 


2) 


- 1 dan. 1859 


29 
>? 


On the Austrians invading Sardinian territories, 
France declares war, and the French enter; the 
empress appointed regent ; the emperor arrives at 
Genoa . 6 r F L . * 12 May, 

Loan of 20,000,000 franes raised ; . 21 May, 

Victories of the allies (French and Sardinians) at 
Montebello, 20 May; Palestro, 30, 31 May ; Ma- 
genta, 4 June; Melegnano (Marignano), 8 June; 
Napoleon enters Milan, 8 June; victory of allies 
at Solierino 5 et ; é Z 24 June, 

Armistice agreed on . 8 : 6 July, 


Meeting of emperors of France and Austria at Villa 


Franca A : ; ‘ 5 3 iz July, 
Peace agreed on ? : : : . a2dulm 
Louis Napoleon returns to Paris 17 July, 


The emperor addresses the senate, 19 July; and the 
dipiomatic body . : < 5 21 July, 


Reduction of the army and navy ordered . Aug. 


Conference of Austrian and French envoys at Zurich 
(see Zurich) : : : 5 . 8 Aug.-Noy. 
Amnesty to political offenders : 17-18 Aug. 
Violent attacks of the French press on England re- 
pressed. i : , : : . _ Noy. 
“Le Pape et le Congrés” published ; 50,000 sold in a 
few days ; : 3 5 ; ; . Dee. 
Count Walewski, the foreign minister, resigns ; 
M. Thouvenel succeeds him § - dan 
The emperor announces a free trade policy; Mr. 
Cobden at Paris . : 2 . : 
Commercial treaty with England signed . 
L’Univers suppressed for publishing the pope’s letter 


‘to the emperor. : ‘ ; : . 29 Jan. 
Treaty for the annexation of Savoy and Nice signed 
24 March, 

The press censured for attacking England, 
7 April, 

The emperor meets the German sovereigns at Baden 
15-17 June, 

Jerome Bonaparte, the emperor’s uncle, dies 


(aged 76) : 4 : § _ 24 June, 
The emperor, in a letter to count Persigny, dis- 
claims hostility to England . ¥ . 25 July, 
The emperor and empress visit Savoy, Corsica, and 
Algiers . 4 : - : » 1-17 Sept. 
New tariff comes into operation . : . DOG. 
Public levying of Peter’s pence forbidden, and free 
issue of pastoral letters checked. > ING@y. 3 


The empress visits London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, 
&e., privately . : ; - - Noy.-Dec. 
Important ministerial changes ; greater liberty of 
speech granted to the chambers; two sets of 
ministers appointed—speakers and administra- 
tors; Pelissier made governor of Algeria ; Per- 
signy, minister of the interior ; Flahault, English 


ambassador . ; Nov. & Dee. 
Passports for Englishmen to cease after x Jan. 1867 
16 Dec. 

Six bishoprics vacant. Dec. 


Persigay relaxes the bondage of the press, Dec. 11; 
[but for a short time]. 20 Dec. 


: ; : } 
The emperor advises the pope to surrender his Te- 

volted provinces . eae : . 31 er; j 
“ Rome et les Evéques” published. A . 6 dan. 


Jerome (son of Jerome Bonaparte and Elizabeth 
Paterson, an American lady) claims his legitimate 
rights ; non-suited after atrial 25 Jan.-15 Feb. 

[The marriage took place in America, on 24 Dee. 
1803 ; but was annulled, and Jerome married the 
princess Catherine of Wurtemberg, 12 Aug. 1807 > 
their children are the prince Napoleon and the 
princess Mathilde (see Bonaparte). ] 1) 

Purchase of the principality of Monaco for 4,000,009 
franes, Feb. 2; announced , : ; 5 Feb. 

Meeting of French chambers, 4 Feb. ; stormy de- 
bates in the chambers . . Feb. & Mareh, 

“La France, Rome, et l’Italie” published 15 Feb. 

Angry reply to it by the bishop of Poitiers, who 
compares the emperor to Pilate . .~ 27 Feb. 

Failure of Mirés, a railway banker and loan con- 
tractor, &c.; heisarrested . . . 17 Feb. 

Many influential persons suspected of participatins 
in his frauds; the government promise stric 
justice . : b ; . Feb. & Mareh, 

Eugéne Scribe, dramatist, dies (aged 80) _ 20 Feb. 

Speech of prince Napoleon in favour of Italian 


| eC 


FRANCE. 339 FRANCE. 


nity, the English alliance, and against the pope’s Persigny issues arbitrary injunctions to electors 
amporal government. r ; 1 March, 1861 May, 
ong advocacy of the temporal government of the Thiers, Ollivier, Favre, and other opposition candi- 
ope in the chambers ; the French amy stated to dates elected in Paris : + 31 May-15 June, 
mnsist of 687,000 men 4 Mareh, ,, Changes in the ministry—resignation of EOS enys 
‘ular forbidding the priests to meddle with polities | Walewski, and Rouland . ; 3 June, 


BEADLE" 3 The empress visits queen of Spain at Madrid Oct. 
eral commercial treaty with Belgium. x May, ,, Baron Gros resigns, prince Tourd’ Auvergne becomes 


lication in Paris of the duc d’Aumale’s severe ambassador at London . - 14 Oct. 
tter to prince Napoleon, 13 April. Printer and Death of Billault (born 1805) “ speaking minister’ 
ublisher fined and imprisoned . ; baMay. 6 1 oe legislative assembly, 13 Oct. ; succeeded i 


laration of neutrality in the American conflict Rouher, as “ minister of state”. r8 Oct. 
11June, ,, | The emperor proposes the convocation of a European 


rt ; congress, ard invi r de- 
ial recognition of kingdom of Italy . 24 June, ,, ; nvites the sovereigns or their de 


puties by letter 3 eek NOV: 
x 
RES and Swiss soldiers re ville. 5 Thiers and his friends form a new gi ae 
a Be eakecinto:: sentenced to five y poate ”” | The invitation to the congress declined by Bnglond 
| 25 Noy. 
tsonment . E ; ; : 29 Aug. », _ Thiers speaks in the chamber : ‘ zs! Dec. 
unercial treaty between France, Great Britain, | Arrest of Grego and other conspirators against the 
id Belgium comes into operation —.. 1 Oct. ,, | emperor's life, 3 Jan.; tried and sentenced to 
ting of emperor and king of Prussia at Com- transportation and imprisonment... 27 Feb. 
égne, 6 Oct. ; and king of ‘Holland . 12 Oct. ,, | Convention between France, Brazil, Italy, Barbagel 
ch troops enter the valley of Dappes (Switzer- and Hayti, for establishing a telegraphic line be- 
nd) to prevent an arrest. - 27O0ct. 5, | ‘tween Europe and America 16 May, 
vention between France, Great Britain, and Death of marshal Pelissier, duke of Malakoff, 
ain, respecting intervention in Mexico, signed ,, | governor of Algeria (born 1794). . 22 May, 
oe Mexico) . : : : . - 31 ‘Oct. jg a} Convention between France and Japan signed by 
yarrassment in the government finances ; Achille | Japanese ambassadors at Paris . : 20 June, 
mld becomes finance minister, 14 Novy. ; with | Convention of commerce, &c., between France and 
Jarged powers . : Toes 5 Switzerland, signed : . 30 June, 
emperor reminds the clergy of their duty ‘‘ to- | Prince Napoleon Victor, son of prince N: apoleon 
ards Cesar” .. : . aidan. 1862 Jerome and princess Clotilde, born . 16 July, 
ich army lands at Vera Cruz. .7Jan. ,, | Convention between France and Italy pypbearad 
French masters of the province of Bienhoa, in evacuation of Rome, &c. 3 : : 5 Sept. 
mam se . 20 Jan. a Garnier-Pages and 12 others who had mak at his 
tless meeting of French and Swiss commis- house for election purposes, convicted as mem- 
ners respecting the Ville-la-Grande conflict bers of a society ‘‘ of more than 20 members ” 
AaB eDiets 7 Dec. 
Id announces his finance scheme (reduction of Death of the emperor's private secretary and old 
per cent. stock to 3 per cent., and additional friend, Mocquard —. 2,9 Dee. 
xes and stamp duties) . 24Feb, ,, | Death of Proudhon (born 1809), who said la pro- 
se debate in the legislative chamber, in which prieté c’est le vol . : - 19 Jan. 
ince Napoleon FG part. j . 27 Feb.’ ,, | The clergy prohibited from re ading the pope’s ency- 
eh victories in Cochin-China (6 provinces Sabine clical letter of 8 Dec. in churches ; much excite- 
France) . : 4 . 28 March, ,, ment; the archbishop of Besangon and other 
Spanish and British plenipotentiaries decide to prelates disobey : : 5 Jan. 
it Mexico; the French declare war against the The prince Napoleon J erome appointed vice-presi- 
»xican government (for the events see Mexico) dent of the privy council. . dan. 


16 April, Decree for an international exhibition of the products 
e is : i f agriculture and industry, and of the fine arts, 
ence against Mirés examined and reversed at 4 


> 


” 


”? 


” 


»? 


»? 


” 


” 


”» 


a? 


> 


at Paris, on 1 May, 186 : 7 A ace Feb. +3 
ae he is released is gt er ead ” Treaty with Sweden lioneae : : 14 Feb. ,, 
iy of peace between France and Annam ‘7 a The minister Duruy’s plan of compulsory education 
; ES Bde Ee rejected by the assembly oe 8 March, ,, 
> Pasquier dies (aged 06) ry ae 5 July, ,, | Death of the duc de Morny, said to be half-br other 
commercial treaty with Prussia A ave iats RH of the emperor . . 1oMarch, ,, 
spaper La France, opposed to Italian unity, set “Loi des suspects ” (or of public safety) suffered to 
by Lagueronniére . Pe AUS ony, expire. ; 31 March, ,, 
Prince Jerome, with reinforcements for Mexico, Attempted assassination of a secretary at the 
mt near Gibraltar ; crew saved. 3 ETL ena Russian embassy ‘ 4 s 24 April, ,, 
» at Chalons formed on account of Garibaldi’s The emperor visits Algeria : . 3-27 May, Ae 
'vements in Sicily; broken, when he is taken Inauguration of the statue of Napoleon I... at 
‘soner . . 29 Aug. ,, Ajaccio, with an imprudent speech by prince 
¢ sympathy forhimin France . . Sept. ,, Napoleon Jerome, 15 May; censured by the 
‘y of commerce with Madagascar . r2Sept. ,, emperor, 23 May; the prince resigns his offices’ 
yn de Lhuys made foreign - minister in room of 9 June, 5, 
ouvenel - 15 Oct. ,, | The English fleet entertained at Cherbourg and, 
1 Gros, ambassador at London in room of Brest, r5 Aug. et seq. ; review of the fleets 
ote de Flahault, resigned = 5 18 Nov. ,, i&erAug, ,, 
amt Glover brings an action in the court of The French fleet entertained at Portsmouth, 
+en’s bench against the comte de Persigny and 29 Aug.-r Sept. ,, 
Billault, claiming x4,000!. for subsidising the Protest of the United States against French inter- 
rning Chronicle, and other newspapers 22 Nov. ,, vention in Mexico—prolonged correspondence (see 
mperor inaugurates ‘‘ Boulevard Prince Eu- Mewico) . . Aug. 1865-Feb. 1866. 
©,” Paris. 7 Dec. ,, | Count Walewski nominated president of the corps 
distress in the manufacturing districts through législatif. : $ : a) 2 Rept. was 
- cotton famine and the civil war in America Death of general Lamoricitre .. . TE SOD teen 
Dec. _,, The queen of Spain visits the emperor at Biarritz 
y of commerce with Italy signed . 17 Jan. 1863 rr Sept. ,, 
tin Annam suppressed. } . 26Feb. ,, | Notice given of the abrogation of the extradition 
vmtion regulating the French and cpesem fron- tr eaty i in six months . 4 Dec. ,, 
‘s concluded j : : 7 HED. 19) Riots of republican students at Paris (aevnenl eX- 
nation of Magne, the “’ speaking fiitatar ” in pelled from the Academy of Medicine) . 18 Dec. ,, 
assembly A ‘ . r April, rf Emperor opens chambers with a pacific speech 
lution of “the chambers... *8 Mayu. 22 Jan. 1866 


1 


paps 


FRANCE. 


340 


FRANCE. 


At Auxerre, Napoleon expresses his detestation of 
the treaties of 1815 . 6 May, 
In a letter says that} in regard to the German war, 
“*France will observe en attentive neutrality” 
rr June, 
The emperor of Austria cedes Venetia to France, and 
invites the emperor’s intervention with Prussia 
4 July, 
Empress of Mexico arrives at Paris . 8 Aug. 
Note to the Prussian government desiring rectifica- 
tion of the French. frontier to what it was in 
1814; declared by Prussia to be inadmissible 
Aug. 
Resignation of M. Drouyn de Lhuys, foreign minis- 
ter (succeeded by the marquis de Moustier) 


2 Sept. 

Inundations in the south; railways destroyed, 
Sept. 

Pacific circular of the emperor sent to foreign 
courts ; ao) Sept. 
Death of M. Thouv enel, formerly foreign minister, 
18 Oct. 


Commission appointed to inquire into the advisa- 
bility of modifying the organisation of the army ; 
the emperor president ; report 30 Oct. 

The French troops quit Rome aa eR ben Bere 

Publication of letter from the comte de Chambord 
to his adherents in favour of the pope’s temporal 
power, dated : g Dec. 

Commercial treaty with ‘Austria signed 11 Dec. 

General opposition to the army organisation plan 
published 12 Dec. 

Richelieu’s head, after many removals, Sparen a in 
the Sorbonne 7 Dec. 

Imperial decree announcing political athe 
interpellation in the chambers ; relaxation of the 
restriction on the press 1g Jan. 

Ministerial changes ; Rouher becomes ininister ot! 


finance ; Niel, of war, &¢. Jan. 
The chambers opened by the emperor ; 14 Feb. 
Emile Girardin fined for libel in La Liberté, 
7 Mar ch, 

Severe speech of Thiers on foreign policy, 18 Mar ch, 
International exhibition opened (see Paris), 
x April, 


enietation of Walewski, president of the chamber, 
29 “Mar. ; succeeded by M. Schneider 11 April, 
Scheme for organising the ioe) rejected by com- 
mittee : May, 
Paris visited by the ezar, 1-12 June; 3 ‘and the eee 
of Prussia 5-14 June, 
Three provinces in Annam annexed to the French 
empire 4 . 25 June, 
International conference at Paris alk mone- 
tary currency 7 June-g July, 
The emperor distributes the ee 7 Of the inter- 
national exhibition . . r July, 
Protectorate of France over Cambodia assured by 
treaty - is vuly 
Law abolishing imprisonment for debt adopted by 
the senate : 18 July, 
Meeting of the emperors ‘of France and Austria at 


Salzburg Z . 18-21 Aug. 

‘' The emperor’s letter ‘recommending money to 
be expended in improving intercommunica- 
tion by means of railways, canals, and roads, 

15 Aug. 


Emperor of Austria visits see . 23 Oct.-2N ov. 


Lord t Lyons received as British ambassador 9 Nov. 
Pacific and liberal speech of the emperor on open- 
ing the chambers : : 18 Nov 
ie Napoleon HORN U Europe en 1867,” sublished: 

Nov. 

During a debate in the legislative assembly, Rouher, 
the “ninister, says, “‘ ‘We declare that Italy shall 
never seize upon Rome” (the government sup- 

ported by 238 votes toi7) . - 5 Dec. 
12 persons convicted for belonging to a secret 

seditious society . “about 24 Dee. 

Friendly reception of foreign ministers 1 Jan. 
New army bill (allowing 100,ooo men to be added 
to the army annually ; establishing a new national 
guard, &e. ; giving the empire virtually an army 
of 1,200, 000 men), Se in the Corps législatif 

(206. to 60) z ; 4 iat Jane 


1866 


>? 


1868 


9) 


Ten journals fined for printing comments on legis- 
lative debates . end of Jan. 
M. Magne announces a deficiency i in the badass 
and a loan for 17,600, 000l. Jan, 
The army bill passes the senate—r125 tox (Michel 
Chevalier, who sek warmly against it), 30 Jan.; 
becomes law 4 Feb. 
The ‘‘ Arcadians ” “(mew ultra-conservative Dare 
oppose the new press law ; fierce debates re it, 
‘eb, 
New press law passed in legislative chamber, 240 
to 1 (M. Berryer) t ; March, 
“Les Titres de la Dynastie impér iale” appeared, 
about 20 March, 
Riotous opposition to enlistments for “<carde 
mobile” (new national guard) at Bordeaux, 
Toulon, and other towns 20 March, et seq. 
Defeat of an attack on free trade in the ee 
ay, 
New press law put in force; increasing facility for 
publishing new journals 4 June, 
The assembly closes . . 30: Julie 
Rochefort’s weekly satirical pamphlet La Lanterne, 
suppressed ; he and his printer condemned to 
fine and imprigonment, escapes to Belgium, Aug. 
M. Berryer, the advocate (born 1790) died, 29 Nov. 
Ministerial changes ; marquis de la Valette, foreign 
minister, in room of De Moustier ; Forcade de la 


Roquette minister of the interior . Dee. 
The Moniteur replaced by the Journal officiel, i 

I Jan. 

Meeting of the assembly . . ; . 18 Jan. 

De Moustier dies 5 Feb. 


Death of Lamartine (born Oct. 1792), "28 Feb of 
Troplong, president of the senate March, 
Dissolution of the legislative assembly ‘of 1863, 
26 April, 
Difference with Belgium respecting the Luxem- 
bourg railway settled 27 April, 
Fierce election riots at Paris, 9 J une; the emperor 
and empress ride boldly through the Boulevards, 
rr June, 
The new legislative chamber meets; the oppo- 
sition to the government more than trebled, 
26 June, 
Message from the emperor announcing important 
political changes ; introducing ministerial respon- 
sibility, &c. yread 12d uly ; resignation of er | 
uly, 
New ministry: Forcade de la Roquette (interior); La 
Tour d’Auvergne (foreign); Chasseloup-Laubat, 
president, &ce. 
M. Rouher made president of the senate 
French Atlantic telegraph completely laid, 23 July, 
Marquis de la Valette appointed ambassador in 
London . July, 
The political changes" announced to the pay 
5 Aug 
Marshal Niel, war minister, aged 66 dies, 13 Aug. 
Centenary of the birth of ‘Napoleon I. ; amnesty 
granted to political offenders ; increased pen- 
sions to survivors of the grand army ; troops Te- 
viewed by the imperial prince (the emperor ill), 


15 Aug. 

Ultra-liberal speech of prince Napoleon Jerome in 
the senate i F . x Sept. 
New constitution pr omulgated “ A 10 Sept. | 


Pére Hyacinthe (name Loyson), popular Carmelite 
preacher at Paris, protests against papal infalli- 
bility and encroachinents, and resigns by letter, 

20 Sept. 

Great excitement at Paris through discovery of 
Tropmann’s murder of the Kinck family at Pantin, 

about 19 Sept. 

Proposed meeting of republicans at Paris (did not 
take place) . 26 Oct. 

Agitation against free trade Oct., Nov., Dec. 

Journey of the empress to the East ; arrival at 
Constantinople, 13 Oct. ; at Alexandria, 13 Nov. 

Firm and temperate manifesto of the left (ultra 
republican opposition) issued . about 16 Nov. 

Henri Rochefort (of La Lanterne) elected a deputy 
for Paris 22 Nov. 

The chambers open ed by ‘the emperor with a liberal 
speech Phe 29 Nor. 

Resignation of ministers announced Dec. 

New liberal ministry formed by Emile Ollivier jus- 
tice); Daru (foreign); Le Beuf(war) . 3a, 


. 


FRANCE. 341 FRANCE. 
nation of M. Haussmann, prefect of the Seine, David, minister of public works; prince de la 
about 6 Jan. 1870 Tour d’Auvergne, minister of foreign affairs ; and 


* Noir, a journalist, killed by Pierre Bona- 
e during an interview at Auteuil respecting 
allenge sent to M. Rochefort : 10 Jan. 
1ann, the murderer, executed - 19 Jan. 
excitement amongst lower orders ; prosecu- 
_of Rochefort for libel in his paper, the Mar- 
wise; he is sentenced to fine and imprison- 
ae . 22 Jan. 
aces erected in Paris, and riots after the ap- 
ension of Rochefort, 7 Feb.; soon quelled, 
» 9 Feb. 
Fayre’s attack on the ministry in the Re 
defeated (236 to 18) : 5 22 Feb. 
's, comte de Montalembert, “eminent author, 
(see 1858) . : 13 March, 
of Pierre Bonaparte at Tours ; acquitted 
| ordered to pay toool. to Noir’s family) ; 
21—27 March, 
ror’s letter to Ollivier, agreeing to modifica. 
of the constitution of the senate 22 March, 
1s consultum communicated to the senate, 
larch ; adopted - : 20 April, 
erial crisis: resignation of Daru and other 
isters Opposing the proposed plébiscite, 
ro April, 
mation of the emperor respecting changes in 
constitution 24 ‘April, 
iracy against the emperor's life detected ; 
rie (aged 22) and others arrested, 
about 30 April, 
site to ascertain whether the people approve 
bove changes,—yes, 7,527,379 ; 20, 1,530,909, 
8 May, 
r ministry reconstructed, 13 April; duc de 
nmont foreign minister about 15 May, 
g and barricades in Paris, 9, 1o May ; about 
arrested, many sentenced to ge eA 
4 May, 
1 by the emperor on receiving result “of the 
iscite . 5 = 23 May, 
rleans princes address the legislativ e assein- 
demanding their return to France, 19 June ; 
sed by 173 to 31 ‘ . 2July, 
very of a plot, against the emperor's life, 
5 July, 
excitement through the nomination of prince 
pold of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen for the 
1ish throne ; warlike speeches of the ministers, 
, 6, 7 July, 
‘ince Leopold withdraws from Orndidatate : 
‘antees required by France from Prussia re- 
d; France decides to declare war against 
sia, 15 July; declaration signed 17 J uly, 
vents of the war. see Franco-Prussian War. | 
npress appointed regent : ese Y, 
aperor joins the army F : . 28 July, 
‘ation of the Marseillaise of Rochefort ceases, 
end of July, 
yvernment declare that they are only ‘“‘at war 
\ the policy of Bismarck ” ae 2 AUG, 
excitement in Paris through the false an- 
icement of a great victory OLA US: 
f siege proclaimed in Paris after the great 
at of MacMahon at Werth . 7 Aug. 
‘Ss for the enlargement of the national Oak, 
‘aling to patriotism and deprecating discord, 
7, 8 Aug. * 
dis, the conspirators against the emperor's 
sentenced to long imprisonments 8 Aug. 
‘tic measures taken for the defence of Paris ; 
igarnier offers his services to the emperor ; 
‘Teceived . 8 Aug. 
overrment appeals to France and Europe 
ist Prussia : a Mae iiss 
7 debate in the Corps législati fs “(M. de Keratry 
d on the emperor to abdicate; M. Guyot 
tpeyroux said that the army were ‘‘lions led 
wsses”); resignation of Ollivier and his 
Lo ie 9 Aug. 
inistry formed: General PanineMontanban 
je de Palikao (distinguished in the war with 
a), minister of war, chief: M. Chevreau, 
ster of the interior; M. Magne, minister of 
ce; M. Clément Duvernois, minister of com- 
e and agriculture ; admiral Rigault de 
milly, minister of marine; baron Jerome 


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| M. Thiers placed on the defence ‘committee, 


others . ro Aug. 
Decree for the oreat augmentation of the army 
during the war, vand appointing a *‘defence com- 
mittee ” for Paris : to Aug. 
The Orleans princes (the due d’Aumale, prince de 
Joinville, and due de Charires), proffer their 
services in the army; declined Aug. 
Extraordinary sitting of the Corps législati if respect- 
ing the new ievies é : Sunday, 14 Aug. 
Great disturbances at La Villette, a suburb of 
Paris : about 200 armed men attack the police, 
crying ‘* Vive la Républiquei” soon suppressed, 
and many arrested : x 4) Day ee ahiee 
The government declare against any negotiations 
for peace . 14 Aug. 
Atrocious murder of “M. Allain de Moneys, sus- 
pected of republicanism and Germanism; he was 
half killed by blows and then burnt to death by 
infuriated peasants at Hautefaye, Dordogne, not 
far from Bordeaux Oss ‘Aug. 
General Trochu (Orleanist), energetic and able 
author of ‘‘l’Armée francaise en 1867,” appointed 
governor of Paris, 17 Aug. : issues a stirring pro- 


clamation , - 18 Aug. 
A loan of 750 million franes announced, 21 Aug. 


Frequent diplomatic conferences at the British 
embassy respecting mediation about 22 Aug. 
Confident statement of the national position by 
the ministry 23 Aug. 


about 26 Aug. 

Decree of M. Trochu for the expulsion from Paris 

of all foreigners not naturalized . 28 Aug. 

Death of count Flahault de la Billarderie, chancellor 

of the legion of honour, aged 85 (served under 

Napoleon I., Louis Philippe, and Napoleon III.), 

31 Aug. 

Deputation from 10,coo persons call on Trochu 
to assume the government: he declines, 


8 p.m., 3 Sept. 


| The news of the final defeat of MacMahon near 


Sedan, and the surrender of the emperor and the 
remainder of MacMahon’s army (90,000), to the 
king of Prussia announced by comte de Palikao to 
the legislative assembly! Jules Favre declares 
Tor defending France to the last gasp, attacks the 
imperial dynasty, and proposes concentration of 
all power in the hands of general Trochu, amid 
profound silence - 3-35 a.m., 4 Sept. 
The ruin of MacMahon’s army ‘announced in the 
Journal officiel . 4Sept. 
On the proposition ot Thiers the chamber appoints 
a commission of government and national de- 
fence, and orders the convocation of aconstituent 
assembly, and adjourns 3.10 p.m., 4 Sept. 
At the resumption of the sitting of the assembly it 
is invaded by the crowd, demanding a republic ; 
most of the deputies retire. Gambetta and other 
liberal members of the ‘‘ left” proclaim the depo- 
sition of the imperial dynasty and the establish- 


ment of a republic ¢ Se 4dT5) DL vase pt. 
Last meeting of the senate; it declares adhesion to 
the emperor 4 Sept. 


Proclamation of a “‘ gover nment of Hence. gene- 
ral Trochu, president; MM, Léon Gambetta (inte- 
rior), Jules Simon (public instruction), Jules 
Favre (foreign), Crémieux (justice), Jules Picard 
(finance), general Le Flo(war), Fourichon (marine), 
Magnin (agriculture), Dorian (public works), 
Etienne Arago (mayor of Paris), Kératry yas) 
4 Sept. 
An informal meeting of the legislative assembly 
held, M. Thiers, president. M. Jules Favre re- 
ports to it the formation of the provisional 
government ; some protest ; Thiers recommends 
moderation, and the meeting retires, 
evening 4 Sept. 
The empress, the comte de Palikao, and other minis- 
ters secretly leave Paris and enter Belgium, 
evening, 4 ‘Sept. 


Legislative chamber dissolved ; senate abolished ; 


regnlar troops and national guard fraternize ; 

es perfect order reigns ” 5 Sept. 
M. Favre calis on the United States ‘of America 

for moral support . : 5 Sept. 


1870 


”» 


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FRANCE. 


The emperor Napoleon arrives at Wilhelmshdhe, 
near Cassel ; : x 9.35 p.m. 5 Sept. 
The republican deputies in the Spanish cortes greet 


the republic. : : 4 K 5 Sept. 
Henri Rochefort added to the government 5 Sept. 
The red republican flag raised at Lyons 5 Sept. 


Victor Hugo and Louis Blane arrive in Paris, 6 Sept. 
Jules Favre, in a circular to French diplomatic 
representatives, while professing desire for peace, 
says, “‘ We will not cede either an inch of our 
territories or a stone of our fortresses” 6 Sept. 
Proclamation of general Trochu, saying that the 
defence of the capitalis assured . . 6 Sept. 
The police replaced by national guards . 6 Sept. 
Proffered services of the Orleans princes again 
declined . : " 5 : : . 6 Sept. 
The imperial correspondence seized, about 7 Sept. 
The government proclaim that to-day, as in 1792, 
the republic signifies the hearty union of the army 
and people for the defence of the country 7 Sept. 
The republic recognised by the United det 
8 Sept. 

The defence committee summon the king of Prussia 
to quit French territory without loss of time 

8 Sept. 

Reappearance of the Marscillaise : Rochefort resigns 
editorship, and disclaims connection on account 
of a violent article; the paper ceases to appear 
soon after ; : i : : . 8 Sept. 
Decree convoking the constituent assembly, to be 
composed of 750 members (to be elected on {16 
Oct) : : ; 4 : 8 Sept. 
The imperial prince at Hastings, 7 Sept., joined by 
the empress. 4 : 3 4 8 Sept. 
Victor Hugo publishes an address to the Germans, 


appealing to their fraternal sentiments 9 Sept. 
Cattle plague began in Alsace and Lorraine — Sept. 
The republic recognised by Spain, 8 Sept.; by 
Switzerland ‘ ¢ : ; - g Sept. 
M. Thiers arrives in London on a mission from the 
government ; 2) 23 Sept, 


Lyons said to be ruled by a “‘ committee of safety ;” 
red flag raised ; reign of terror - 13 Sept. 
Letter from M. Pietri, private secretary to the 
emperor, stating that ‘‘his master has not a 
centime in foreign funds ” ; : 15 Sept. 
lections for constituent assembly ordered to take 
place on 2 Oct. : ‘ : : 16 Sept. 
The academies of the institute protest against the 
bombardment of the monuments, museums, &c., 
in Paris ‘ . : : F 16 Sept. 
Diplomatic circular from M. Jules Favre : he admits 
he has no claim on Prussia for disinterestedness ; 
urges that statesmen should hesitate to continue 

a war in which more than 200,000 men have 
already fallen; aflnounces that a freely elected 
assembly is summoned, and that the government 
will abide by its judgment, and that France, left 
to her free action, immediately asks the cessation 
of the war, but prefers its disasters a thousand 
times to dishonour. He admits that France has 
been wrong, and acknowledges its obligation to 
repair by a measure of justice the ill it has done 
17 Sept. 

A government delegation at Tours under M. 
Cremieux, the minister of justice; the foreign 
ambassadors proceed there x 18 Sept. 
Manitesto of the red republicans signed by general 
Cluseret, placarded in Paris . - about 18 Sept. 
Bronze statues of Napoleon ordered to be made 
into cannon 3 : i about zg Sept. 
Stern proclamation of Trochu respecting the cowar- 
dice of the Zouaves on 19 Sept. ; 20 Sept. 
M. Duruof in a post-balloon quits Paris with mail- 
bags, arrives at Evreux, and reaches Tours 
23 Sept. 

The Journal officiel replaced by the Moniteur 
universel as the organ of the government, 
about 23 Sept. 

Esquiros struggles to maintain order at Marseilles 
; 24 Sept. 

Failure of the negotiations for peace between count 
Bismarck and Jules Favre ; manifesto of the govern- 
ment at Tours, calling on the people to rise and 
either disavow the ministry or ‘fight to the 
bitter end;” the elections for the assembly sus- 
pended . ; : : res Sept. 


OA 


24 


342 


1870 


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FRANCE. 


All Frenchmen between 20 and 25 years of age pro- 
hibited leaving France . : about 26 Sept. ; 


| Great enthusiasm in the provinces on the failure of 


| 
| 
| 
| 
} 


' The duc d’Aumale consents to become 


the negotiations ; ‘‘ war to the knife ” and levée en 
masse proclaimed by the prefects ; efforts made to 
excite warlike ardour in Brittany by M. Cathe- 
lineau 4 26, 27 Sept. 
a candidate 
for the representative assembly, and promises 
submission to the de facto government for defence 
about 27 Sept. 

Attempted insurrection of the red republicans at 
Lyons ; order restored by national guards ; general 


Cluseret disappears . * . 4 28 Sept. 
Great order in Paris maintained by the national 
guard; report from surgeon-major Wyatt, 
28 Sept. 


All between 2r and 4o to be organised as a national 
garde mobile ; all men in arms placed at the dis- 
posal of the minister of war. : 30 Sept. 

The empress and her son residing at Camden-house, 
Chiselhurst, Kent ; . : : Sept. 

The elections for the constituent assembly (753 
members) ordered by the delegates at Tours to 
take place on 16 Oct. . : 29 Sept.—x Oct. 

Proclamations of general Trochu for maintaining 


order in Paris ; : F about 1 Oct, 
Marseilles said to be unsettled: many a 
r Oct. 


The elections deferred till they can be carried out 
throughout the whole extent of the republic, by 
order of the government at Paris 1 Oct. 

M. Crémieux becomes delegate minister of war at 
Tours in room of admiral Fourichon, still minister 
of marine i 3 Oct. 


Gustave Flourens, heading five battalions of national 


guards, marches to the Hdétel de Ville and 
demands chassepots (not tobe had) . 5 Oct. 


Suppression of the schools of the ‘‘ brethren of the 


Christian doctrine” by the republicaus: much 
dissatisfaction z 4 ‘ : ; 8 Oct. 
All Frenchmen under 60 years of age forbidden to © 


quit France i 4 : : : . § Oct. 
M. Gambetta escapes from Paris in a balloon, 7 Oct.; — 


arrives at Rouen and declares for ‘‘a pact with 
victory or death,’ 8 Oct.; arrives at Tours and 
becomes minister of war as well as of the interior 
9 Oct, 
Address from the comte de Chambord, saying that — 
his whole ambition is to found with the people a ~ 
really national government ; : 9 Oct. 


Battalions of amazons said to be forming in Paris 


12 Oct. 
Blanqui, Gustave Flourens, Ledru-Rollin, Félix 
Pyat, and other red republicans defeated in their 
attempts to establish the commune at Paris to 
supersede the government, ro, 11 Oct. ; reconcilia- 4 
tion effected by Rochefort ; about 14 Oct. © 
Riots at Honfleur: the people oppose the embarka- 
tion of cattle to England, r2 Oct. ; similar riots at_ 


St. Malo ; ‘ tae : } 15 Oct. 
'M. Edmond Adam, prefect of police; replacing 
M. de Kératry, sent on a foreign mission, 


about 16 Oct. 


Madrid fails in obtaining assistance from Prim ~ 


| M. de Kératry quits Paris in a balloon, r2 Oct. in| 


19, 20 Oct. 


_ Marseilles disturbed by red republicans ; Esquiros 


| Publication of the imperial correspondence 


still in office ; 19 Oct. 


seized 


in the Tuileries ; : , , . ee J 

_ Decree for a loan of 10,000,000l. issued on behalf of 
the French government . . eg. j 
The imperial guard suppressed . 26 Oct. — 


fo) 
Riots in Paris: general Trochu threaten ; 


Metz (on 27 Oct.) as acrime . : 28 O 
Death of M. Baroche in Jersey A 30 Oct. 
M. Thiers arrives in Paris with news of the sur-— 

render of Metz and the proposals for an Be 7 

the 
principal members of the defence government im- 

prisoned in the H6tel de Ville; Ledru-Rollin, — 
Vietor Hugo, and Gustave Flourens, and others, — 
established as a committee of publie safety and 
of the commune of Paris, under the direction of 
M. Picard; the national guard releases the 
government, and orderis restored , 31 Oct. 


343 


FRANCE. 


FRANCE. 
‘ral Boyer, replying to Gambetta, says, ‘‘ We 
pitulated with hunger” . 31 Oct. 1870 


empress arrives at Wilhelmshohe ; s iearriow of 
wzaine with the emperor A 31 Oct. 
ane Arago and other mayors of Paris rosie, 
1 Nov. 

ital Canrobert and Le Beeuf and many generals 
Wilhelmshohe t Nov. 
lamation of Gambetta calling on the army to 
enge the dishonour at Metz : 1 Novy. 
government proclaim a plébiscite in Paris on 3 
sy. to ascertain whether the people maintain 
: power of the government of national ae 
rt Noy. 

Lochefort, member of the defence Sexernens 
ov. 

Pot the plébiscite:—for ‘the defence govern- 
mt, 557,976; against, 62,638 ; 3 Nov. 
mation of M. Esquiros at on tea eacaeeiee. 
M. Alphonse Gent . 3 Nov. 
ex-empress returned to Chiselhurst 3 Nov. 
iisation of all able-bodied men between 20 and 
_ ordered A Noy. 


ure of the negotiations for an armistice 6 Nov. 


: Pyat and others arrested for the affair of 31 
t. d 6 Nov. 
ance can do nothing now but carry on with 
ch courage and strength as remain to her a war 
vutrance.’ *—Guwizot. . 8 Nov. 
ee for melting some of the church-bells to make 


anon ‘ to Noy. 
ke Dumas, novelist and dram: Kes dies 
o Dec. 


delegate government removed from Tours to 
‘rdeaux Ap he aml Dees 
ler of lieut. ‘Arnaud at Lyons by the people for 
sisting them F 20 Dec. 

lof 21 peasants for murder of M. } Moneys (see 

 Aug.): 4 condemned to death; others to_im- 
isonment : about 23 Dec. 
a proclamation of Trochu at Paris o Dee. 
ibetta at Bordeaux declares that the govern- 
ent only holds office for defence of the country ; 
‘monstration in honour of the republic 1 Jan. 
igners not permitted to leave Paris by the 
ormans 19 Jan. 
‘ce speech of Gambetta at Lille, Grmandine con- 
-quance of the war A 22 Jan. 
urbances at Paris suppressed by ae army, 


3 Jan. 
gnation of Trochu; Vinoy made Eeesor of 
iris . 24 Jan. 
‘tulation of Paris ; armistice signed by Favre 

adBismarck . ‘ 28 Jan. 
-vowed by Gambetta at Bordeaux. 31 Jan. 


-ifesto of the duc d’Aumale in favour of a con- 
tutional monarchy . . r Feb. 
yal of food from London to relieve Paris (see 
-unsion-house) : 3 Feb. 
defence government publish their reasons for 
pitulation (2,000,000 people in Paris with only 
-2 days’ provisions), 4 Feb. ; and annul Gam- 
-tta’s decree, 4 Feb.; he and his ministry Nepean 
ep. 
‘way accident between Bandoz and St. Ni izaire ; 
-plosion of casks of gunpowder; 60 killed; 


out roo wounded : * 5 Feb. 
‘murderers of M. Moneys (16 “Aug. 1876) exe- 
ted 8 Feb. 


‘Jamation of “Napoleon Ill. “Betr eed by 
tune,” he condemns the government of 4 Sept. ; 

ites that his government was four times con- 
.med in 20 years ; submits to the judgment of 
ne; saying ‘‘that a nation cannot long obey 


| ose who have no right to command ” 8 Feb. 
ral election of a national assembly » 8 Feb. 

|. P. J. Grévy elected president . . Feb. 
3 meeting of the new national assembly, 12 Feb. 
lementary armistice signed . . 15 Feb. 
baldi resigns his election, 13 Feb.; Grévy 
‘seted president by 519 out of 538 16 Feb. 


ination of the war; the Belfort garrison 
4 [:29000) marches out with military honours, 
: 16 Feb. 
| ct of Bordeaux:” M. Thiers made chief of the 
ecutive power, by agreement of the different 
| rties in the assembly, 17 Feb.; voted 18 Feb. 
rs ministry; Dufaure (justice) ; Jules Favre, 


>? 


(foreign), Picard (interior), Jules Simon (public 
instruction), Lambrecht (commerce), gen. Leflo 
(war), admiral Pothuan (marine), De Larcy 
(public works) . 17 Feb. 
The French government "recognised by the eres 
powers of Europe . 18 Feb. 
| The due de Broglie appointed French minister at 
London ar Feb. 
Negotiations for peace between “Thiers and Bis- 
marck é 22, 23, 24 Feb. 
Preliminaries of a treaty of. peace accepted by MM. 
Thiers and Favre, and 15 delegates of the national 
assembly at Versailles (cession of parts of Alsace 
and Lorraine, including Strasbourg and Metz, 
and payment of five milliards of francs — 
|  200,000,000l.), 25 Feb.; signed ; - 26 Feb. 
| Intense excitement in Paris . . 27 Feb. 
Preliminaries of the treaty accepted by the assembly 
(546 to 107); the fall of the empire unanimously 
confirmed ; and the emperor stigmatised 1 Mar. 
| A strong party of the national guard seize some 
cannons and transport them to Montmartre and 
Belleville, to defend themselves against the 
Germans entering Paris xt March, 
The emperor of Germany reviews about 100,000 of 
his troops at Longchamps near Paris, x March, 
About 30,coo Germans enter Paris, 1 March; re- 
main 48 hours ; depart 3 Mar ch, 
Impeachment of ‘thie defence gov ernment demanded 
by the party of the left “(Victor Hugo, Louis 
Blane, Quinet, and others) 6 March, 
The ex-emperor protests against his deposition, 
| 6 March, 
| The army of the north and other special army corps 
dissolved ; 7-10 March, 
Meeting of national guard ‘jin Paris quelled, 
ro March, 
The national assembly vote for removal to Ver- 
sailles (461-104) . : to March, 
Le Vengeur and four other violent journals sup- 
| pressed in Paris by Vinoy E tx March, 
| Blanqui, Flourens, and others condemned for 
insurrection of 31 Oct. 1870 . 3 12 March, 
Central committee of republican confederation of 
national guards (termed “‘ the government of the 
Buttes’) meet ; depose Vinoy and appoint Gari- 
baldi general-in-chief 15 March, 
| Insurrection at Paris: the regular troops take 
possession of the Buttes Montmartre and Belle- 
ville, for the assembly; the national guard 
attempt to recover them ; after a brief conflict 
the troops fraternise with the insurgents, who 
| capture and shoot generals Lecomte and Clément 
| Thomas, and take possession of the Hotel de 
Ville; barricades erected in Belleville and 
other ‘places ; general Vinoy with the gendarmerie 
retire across the Seine ; 18 March, 
The insurgents nominate a central committee of 
the national guard, headed by Assy, a workman, 
which takes possession of public offices ; Thiers 
issues a circular, enjoining obedience to the 
assembly ; - 19 March, 
_ The central committee order communal lection in 
' Paris, 19 March; and liberate about 11,000 
political prisoners in Paris. - 20 March, 
The national assembly meet at Versailles ; propose 
conciliatory measures ; and appoint a committee 
| _ to support the government . - 20 March, 
| Napoleon IIT. arrives at Dover t 20 March, 
| The Journal des Débats and other papers renounce 
| the central committee 20 March, 


The bank of France saved by the courage of the 
governor, marquis de Ploeue, and by the forbear- 
ance of citizen Beslay . f 20 March, 

| The assembly appeal to the nation and the army, 
| 21 March, 
Requisitions levied on the Paris shop-keepers, 

2 21 March; 
| Unarmed demonstration of the Friends of Order ; 

| they are fired on by the insurgents ; 10 killed, 
20 wounded : sso} 22 March, 

, Lullier arrested by the central committee, 22 March, 

Admiral Saisset appointed commander of the 
national guard for the assembly . . 23 March, 

The 69th regiment of the line retire to Versailles, 

3 March, 
| The central committee appoint some of thes dele- 
| gates generals - 24 March, 


. ° . . 


FRANCE. 


The insurgents hold central Paris ; Saisset returns 
to Versailles 25 March, 
Municipal elections at Paris ; 200,000 Out Of 500,000 

vote; majority of two- thirds in favour of the 
insur gents : 26 March, 
The government of the commune proclaimed at the 
Hotel de Ville 28 March, 
Meeting of the confer ence for the peace at Brussels, 
28 March, 
Gustave Flourens, Blanqui, and Félix Pyat now at 
the head of the movement : they propose revival 
of the system ofthe Italian republics of the middle 
ages. 29 March, 
The remission of part of the rents due by tenants 
ordered ; the standing army to be ane the 
national ‘puard 3 9 March, 
Reign of terror : ‘‘ Paris has no long er liberty of the 
press, of public meeting, of conscience, or of 
person.” —Le Soir x April, 
Military opérations commence 9 a.m. ; action at 
Courbevoie; Flourens marches his troops to 
Versailles, vid Rueil . : 2 April, 
The corps d’armée of general ‘Bergeret at the Rond 
Point, near Neuilly, stopped by the artillery of 
Mont Valérien ; exchange of shot between Fort 
Issy and Fort Vanves, Seip ite by the insurgents, 
and Meudon . fj 3 April, 
General Duval made prisoner in the Spaceman at 
Chatillon and shot ; death of Flourens at Chatou ; 
Delescluze, Cournet, and Vermorel succeed Ber- 
geret, Eudes, and Duval on the executive com- 
mission ; Cluseret, delegate of war, and Bergeret, 
commandant of Paris forces 4 Apr als 
Communist insurrection at Marseilles | supose: 
4 April, 
General Cluseret commences active operations ; 
military service compulsory for all citizens under 
40; the archbishop of Paris arrested 5 April, 
Extension of action to Neuilly and Courbevoie ; severe 
decree concerning complicity with Versailles, and 
arrest of hostages ; Dombrowski succeeds Berge- 
ret as commandant of Paris ; the guillotine burnt 
on the Place Voltaire. > 6 Aprils 
Federals abandon Neuilly , commission of barri- 
cades created and presided over by Gaillard 
Senior ; military occupation of the 1 railway ter- 
mini by the insurgents ; : 8 April, 
Insurgents repulsed i in an attempt to take Chatil- 
lon; forts Vanves and Montrouge disabled ; 
Mont Valérien shells the Avenue des Ternes : 
Bergeret arrested by order of the commune, 
= g April, 
Marshal MacMahon, commander-in-chief for the 
assembly, distributes his forces, and commences 
the investment of Fort Issy ; marr April, 
Versailles batteries established on Chatillon ; the 
Orleans railway and telegraph cut ; communica- 
tions of the insurgents with the south inter- 
cepted ; decree ordering the fall of the column 
Vendome 12 April, 
Publication of the reports of the sittings of the 
commune 4 SS a pral, 
The redoubt of Gennevilliers taken ; the troops of 
Versailles advance to the Chateau de Bécon, a 
post of importance; Assy at the aed of the 


commune . 4 April, 
The national assembly pass the new reunicipal bill 
(419-18). a4 Aprils 
Complementar y elections ; or canisation of a court- 


martial under the presidence of Rossel, chief 
officer of the staff . 16 April, 
Capture and fortification of ‘the Chateau de Beécon 
by the Versailles troops s ELT Apri, 
Station and houses at Asniéres taken by the army 
of Versailles . : 18 April, 
The communists appeal to the nation 19 April, 
Bagneux occupied by the Versaillais ; reorganisa- 
tion of commissions ; Eudes appointed inspector- 
general of the southern forts ; transfers his quar- 
ters from Montrouge to the palace of the Legion 
of Honour . E 20 April, 
The Versailles batteries at Breteuil, Brimborion, 
Meudon, and Moulin de Pierre trouble the federal 
fort Issy, and battery between Bagneux and 
Chatillon shells fort Vanves; truce at Neuilly 
from 9 a.m. to p.m. ; the inhabitants of 
Neuilly enter Paris by the Porte des Ternes, 
25 April, 


344 


1871 


a) 


29 


33 


FRANCE. 


Capture of Les Moulineaux, outpost of the insur- 
gents, by the troops, who strongly fortify them- 
selves on the 27th and 28th ; 26 April, 

Cemetery and park of Issy taken by the Versaillais 
in the night ; freemasons make a new attempt at 
reconciliation ; the commune levies a sum of 
two millions of franes from the railway ee 

April, 

A flag of truce sent to fort Issy by the Versaillais’ 
calling upon the federals to surrender ; general 
Eudes puts fresh troops in the fort, and takes 
the command ; Cluseret imprisoned at Mazas by 

order of the commune ; Rossel appointed proyi- 
sional delegate of war . - 30 April, 

The Versaillais take the station of Clamart ee the 
Chateau of Issy ; creation of the committee of 
public safety ; members : Antoine Arnauld, Léo 
Meillet, Ranvier, Félix Pyat, Charles Gérardin ; 
alleged massacre of communist prisoners, 1 May, 

Lacretelle carries the redoubt of Moulin Saquet, 

3 May, 

Colonel Rossel appointed to the direction oF 
military affairs, defines the military quarters of 
Dombrowski, La Cécilia, Wroblewski, Bergeret, 
and Eudes : 5 May, 

Central committee of the national ouard charged 
with administration of war ; the Chapelle expia- 
toire condemned to destruction—the materials to 
be sold by auction 5 5 May, 

Concert at the Tuileries in aid of the ambulaiae 
Suppression of newspapers . . 6 May, 

Battery of Montretout (70 marine guns) opens fire ; 
Thiers exhorts the Parisians to rise against the 
commune . z 8 May, 

Morning ; insurgents evacuate the fort Issy ; the 
committee of public safety renewed ; members : 
Ranvier, Antoine Arnauld, Gambon, Eudes, 
Delescluze ; Rossel resigns . 8 May, 

Treaty of peace with Germany signed at Frankfost 

Io May, 

Cannon from the fort Issy taken to Versailles ; 
decree for the demolition of M. Thiers’ house; 
Delescluze appointed delegate of war to May, 

Thiers opposed ; offers to resign ; the assembly vote 
confidence in him (495-10) . 1 May, 

Troops take possession of the Couvert des Oiseaux 
at Issy, and the Lyceum at Vanves ; Auber, the 
composer, dies, aged 89 _ : . 12 May, 

Triumphal entry of the troops into Versailles with 
flags and cannon taken from the convent ; evacua- 
tion of the village of Issy completed ; fort Vanves 
taken by the troops 13 May, 

Vigorous cannonade from the batteries of Couries 
voie, Bécon, Asnieres, on Levallois and Clichy ; 
both villages evacuated ; commencement of the 
demolition of house of M. Thiers . . 14 May, 

Report of the re-armament of Montmartre 1 5 May, 

The column Vendéme overthrown 16 May, 

Secession from the communist goversaneaa a 
central club formed ; a battalion of women i 

ay, 

Stringent conscription in Paris _. about 17 May, 

Silver ornaments in churches seized ; explosion of 
a cartridge factory near the Champ de Mars ; 
above 100 killed - 17 May, 

The assembly adopt the treaty of peace 18 May, 

Rochefort brought a prisoner to Versailles ; last 
sitting of the commune ar May, 

Noon, explosion of the powder magazine ee the 
Manége d’Etat-Major (staff riding-school) ; the 
hostages transferred from Mazas to La Roquette ; ; 
Assy ‘arrested in Paris by the Versaillais ; the 
assembly votes the re-erection of the column 
Vendome ; M. Ducatel, at the risk of his life, 
having signalled that the way was clear, the 
Versailles troops enter Paris by the gates of St. 
Cloud and Montrouge, 2 p.m., 2t May; take 
possession of the south and west, and about 
10,000 prisoners, after some conflicts. 22 May, 

Montmartre taken by Douai and Ladmirault: 
death of Dombrowski. Morning: Assy arrives 
at Versailles ; execution of gendarmes and Gus- 
tave Chaudey at the prison of Sainte-Pélagie. 
Night: the Tuileries set on fire; Delescluze and 
the committee of public safety ‘hold permanent 


sittings at the Hotel de Ville. 23 May, 
Morning : Palais Royal, Ministry of Finance, 
Hotel de Ville, &c., set on fire. x p.m., the 


fa 


a | 


FRANCE. 


“FRANCE. 


A Aaa aS 


yder magazine at the Palais du Luxembourg 
wn up; the committee of public safety organ- 
detachments of fusee-bearers; petroleum 
nped into burning buildings; Raoul Rigault 
tin the afternoon by the soldiers. Evening: 
eution in the prison of La Roquette of the 
hbishop, abbé Deguerry, president Bonjean, 
| 64 others, hostages . - p . 24 May, 
forts Montrouge, Hautes-Bruyéres, Bicétre 
cuated by the insurgents ; the death of Deles- 
ze reported; executions in the Avenue 
alie of the Péres Dominicans of Arcueil, 
25 May, 
ests and 38 gendarmes shot at Belleville by 
insurgents ; many women fighting, and cast- 
petroleum into fires, shot. 26, 27 May, 
Buttes Chaumont, the heights of Belleville, 
the cemetery of Pére Lachaise carried by the 
yps ; taking of the prison of La Roquette by 
marines ; deliverance of 169 hostages ; the 
ystment of Belleville complete ; last position 
tured by MacMahon ; fighting ends, 
5 p.m., 28 May, 
al garrison of Vincennes surrendered at dis- 
ion : : : E : 29 May, 
‘ted results of seven days fighting in Paris: 
lar troops, 877 killed, 645 wounded, 183 miss- 
; insurgents, about 50,000 dead, 25,000 pri- 
ars ; nearly all the leaders killed or prisoners ; 
at a fourth part of Paris destroyed 22-27 May, 
ated loss of property through the insurrection, 
00,0001. : 4 . : April, May, 
’ decree for disarming Paris and abolishing 
National Guard of the Seine . . 29 May, 
* Hugo expelled from Belgium 30 May, 
ted wholesale execution of prisoners by the 
quis de Gallifet ; Paris put under martial law ; 
it 50,000 insurgents still at large 30 May, 
; letter from prince Napoleon Jerome to Jules 
te, dated . : F * F ~ or lay. 
es in the ministry ; resignation (and reappoint- 
t of some) of those who had been members 
he government of defence . : 6 June, 
a funeral of Darboy, archbp. of Paris 7 June, 
ation of the laws of proscription by the as- 
bly (484— 103) ; elections of the duc d’Aunale 
the prince de Joinville declared valid 
8 June, 
‘tant speech of Thiers for maintaining the re- 
lie at present : : 8 June 
ition of new taxes (463,000,000 francs) and a 
proposed by M. Pouyer Quertier 12 June 
‘rochu’s powerful speech defending the ‘‘ go- 
ment of national defence ” 13, 14 June, 
-of reserve ordered to be dissolved 14 June, 
sial measures of M. Pouyer-Quertier opposed 
yufaure and the free-traders about 14 June, 
es and public places reopened in Paris about 
2o June, 
from M. Guizot to M. Grévy recommending 
jieal moderation to all parties, and main- 
‘nee of the present government, published 
: 22 June, 
an of 2 milliards francs (80,000,000. decreed 
ine ; subscription opened, 27 June; about 4 
-ards subscribed for in France alone 28 June 
‘embers elected for the assembly ; includes 
betta, and afew legitimists and Bonapart- 
_the rest support the government. 2July, 
-from the comte de Chambord at Chambord, 
'assing devotion to France, and adhesion to 
2m policy and liberality ; but declining to 
up the white flag of Henry IV. ; he retires to 
lany to avoid all pretext for agitation, dated 
July, 
‘overnment said to have 500 votes tn the 
nbly; bill for new taxes passed (483 to 5) 
| é 8 July, 
‘rool. part of the indemnity, paid to the Ger- 
‘4 Fi : ; A ; about 14 July, 
Napoleon Jerome expelled from France (at 
'e) | ; % : 3 A 15 July, 
| ienne, president of the court of cassation, 
/itted of blame for settling disputes relative 
imperial scandal (in Nov. 1860) . 21 July, 
| avre, foreign minister, resigns about 23 July ; 
veded by Charles de Remusat about 3 Aug. 
mpensation for losses claimed by the invaded 


1871 


9) 


provinces refused by Thiers, who acknowledges 
no debt, but proposes to act generously ug. 
Trial of communist prisoners at Paris, begun about 
8 Aug. 

Great dissensions in the assembly between the 
monarchists and republican parties ; resignation 
of Thiers not accepted, 24 Aug. ; prolongation of his 
power and the sovereign and constituent authority 
of the assembly voted (443 to 227) about 25 Aug. 
Thiers’ powers prolonged, and nominated president 
of the French republic by the assembly ; to con- 
tinue till the assembly shall terminate its 
labours; (the Rivet-Vitet proposition), 491-93 
31 Aug. 

French postage increased. é : Sept. 
Société de Prevoyance established to counteract the 
Internationale; becomes permanent Sept. 
Ferré and Lullier sentenced to death, others to 
transportation or imprisonment, 2Sept. ; 3 womel 
(pétroleuses) sentenced to death for throwing 
petroleum. on fires . B F ; Sues Septe 
Bill for making the whole nation bear the losses of 
the invaded provinces adopted by the assembly 

6 Sept. 

Rossel, communist general, sentenced to death 
8 Sept. 
Message from Thiers to the assembly ; consideration 
of the budget adjourned 12 Sept. ; read 13 Sept. 
Disarmament of the national guard begun at Lyons, 
&e. . . c : : f ; 14 Sept. 
Bill introduced concerning treaty with Germany 
relating to tariffon goods from Alsace and Lor- 
raine, and the reducing German troops in France 
to 50,000 men, 14 Sept. ; adopted by the assembly 

(533-33) ; the session declared closed, 2 a.m. 

17 Sept. 

Courts-martial on communists go on . Sept. 
<‘ Permanent Committee” of 25 of different parties 
appointed by the assembly to watch over the 
course of the government during the recess (17 
Sept.-4 Dec.) . : 3 ; : = ES Mepis 
25,000 communists yet to be tried ; about half to be 
set free ‘ : A a “ $ 15 Sept. 
Evacuation of Paris forts by the Germans begun 
about 20 Sept. 

Rochefort (of “La Lanterne” and “ Le Mot d’Ordre”’) 
sentenced to life-imprisonment . 2x Sept. 
Difficulty in settling the Alsace and Lorraine treaty 
ar Sept. 

M. Pouyer-Quertier, the French finance minister, 
arrives at Berlin - ! . : . 8 Oct. 
M. Lambrecht, minister of the interior, dies sud- 
denly, 8 Oct. ; succeeded by M. Casimir Perier 
to Oct. 
Tranquil election of above 2000 general yeh 
ct. 

Convention for evacuation of 6 departments, and 
finance convention of Alsace and Lorraine signed, 
12 and 13 Oct. ; exchanged : . 21 Oct. 
Count Benedetti publishes an apology, attacking the 
Prussian government ; count Bismarck replies (in 

‘ Official Journal”) disproving his assertions 
22 Oct. 

Dispute with Tunis settled . about 25 Oct. 
Prince Napoleon resigns his seat in the council- 
general of Corsica; and denounces intimidation 
28 Oct. 
Insurrection in Algeria ended : a NOV: 
Hight of the murderers of generals Lecomte and 
Thomas condemned : 3 18 Nov. 
Rossel, Ferré, and Bourgeois, communist leaders, 
shot at Satory in presence of 3000 soldiers 28 Noy. 
Gaston Crémieux executed at Marseilles . 30 Nov. 
Territory held by Germans put into state of siege 
4 Dec. 

Meeting of the national assembly. cea Dec: 
Sixteen political parties said to exist ae Dec: 
Thiers reads his message to the assembly ; depre- 
cates free trade, but proposes moderate protec- 
tion of French manufactures ‘ 7 Dec. 
Sharp despatch from count Bismarck in reference 
to the acquittal of murderers of Germans at 
Melun and Paris 2 : : : : Dec. 
After some discussion with M. Thiers, the duc 
d’Aumale and prince de Joinville take their seats 
in the assembly . : ; 19 Dec. 


A committee of the assembly decide against the 


assembly removing to Paris 22 Dec. 


FRANCE. 


346 


FRANCE. 


Joseph Lemettre condemned to death for 27 crimes 
(chiefly atrocious murders) . 23 Dec. 
Income-tax proposed and negatived . 28 Dec. 
Vautram, a government candidate, elected deputy 
for Paris, and not Victor Hugo . 7 Jan. 
The duc de Persigny dies. 12 Jan. 
Long debate in the assembly ; ‘opposition to the 
pr roposed taxes on raw mater ials ; government de- 
feated (377-307) 19 Jan. 
Resignation of Thiers ‘and ‘the ministr Vy opposed by 
the assembly ; M‘Mahon writes that the army will 
respect the orders of a majority of the assembly, 
but not obey dictatorship ; Thiers resumes office 
zo Jan. 
Death of Arles Dufour, of Le St. Simonian and 
free-trader about 22 Jan. 
‘The government taxes voted _ 22 Jan. 
Conv riction of the assassins of archbishop Darboy 
and others (on 24 May, 1871), 1 to death 23 Jan. 
Manifesto of the comte de Chambord ; his mind un- 
changed ; he will not become a legitimate king by 
revolution 220 Jan, 
Abrogation of the commercial treaties with Great 


Br itain and Belgium determined on Feb. 
Sardou’s play, ‘ Rabagas,” satirising the radicals ; 
causes much excitement I Feb. 


Proposed return of the assembly to Paris negatived 
(377-318) ; resignation of Casimir Peérier, minister 
of the interior . P . 2 Feb. 

League for commercial liberty formed se Ds 

Five communists sentenced to death for murder of 
the Dominicans on 25 May . 17 Feb. 

Blanqui condemned to transportation to a fortified 
prison . about 17 Feb. 

M. Rouher elected a member of the assembly about 

15 Feb. 

Universal subscription to pay the indemnity oS the 
Germans begins : Feb. 

Manifesto in favour of a constitutional monarchy 
signed by about 280 of the ‘‘ Right,” about 21 Feb. 

Assassins of generals Lecomte and Clément Thomas 
xecuted : 22 Feb. 

Janvier dela Motte, a pr efect, pr osecuted for for gery, 
&c., by government, ac quitted ; M. Pouyer- Quer- 
tier, who gives evidence in his favour, resigns, 

about 5 March, 

Joseph Lemettre executed : 5 Mar ch, 

The treaty of commerce with Great Britain (1860), 
denounced (to cease in 12 months) 15 March, 

War budget of 27,000,000. (formerly 10,000,000l.) 
proposed ‘ : March, 

Publishers of ‘‘ Fig garo” ‘convicted of libel against 
general Trochu ; moderate punishment 2 April, 

Abolition of passports for British ee em an- 
nounced “ero April, 

Law against the Intemational Soc iety placarded 

22 April, 

In a letter, the ex-emperor takes upon himself the 

whole responsibility of the surrender at Sedan 
12 May, 

Rouher in the assembly repels the due d’Audiffret 
Pasquier’s severe attack on the empire 21 May, 

‘Three more condemned communists shot 25 May, 

The due d’Aumale speaks in the chamber in favour 
of the army organisation bill. : - 28 May, 

Marshal Vaillant dies ; . 4 June, 

Thiers threatens to resign at op :position in the 
chamber : about 9 June, 

Interview of delegates of the major ity (the right) in 
the assembly with Thiers (vespecting his policy); 
much censured 20 June, 

Budget for 1873 ; deficiency V, 4, 800, oool. ; 8,000,000l. 
to be raised ; Thiers advocates duty on raw mate- 
rials, and opposes income-tax 26 June, et seq. 

The majority in the assembly propose MacMahon as 
president in room .of Thiers July, 

New convention between Germany ¢ and France re- 
specting speedy payment of the mE Ho | and 
evacuation of territory, signed u g June, 

Anniversary of the destruction of the Bastille cele- 
brated by public dinners ; important moderate 
speech by Gambetta at Ferté-sous-d ouarre, 14 July, 

Announcement of a public loan of 120,000,000l. at 
6} per cent. 26 July, 
Three communists (mur derers of hostages) executed 


at Satory . 25 July, 
‘The loan ee, Bs, for, near ly 3 12 times the amount, 
chiefly in France . . ° . July, 


»” 


” 


Thiers’ financial measures carried (taxes on raw 
materials, &c.) ; the session of the assembly closed 


3 A 

Meeting of Guizot and Thiers at Val Richer rz 5 Sent 
Arrest of Edmond About at Saverne, by the Ger- 
mans, on account of a newspaper article (written 
| Oct. 1871),14 Sept. ; released . - 21 Sept. 
Three more communist murderers shot at Satory 
15 Sept. 
Attempted celebration of the anniversary of the 
| establishment of the first French republic ; ban- 
___guet at Chambery stopped . . . 22 ‘Sept. 

| M. Thiers and the ministry i in. Paris 7 : ept, 
Progress of Gainbetta in the south ; violent speech 
at Grenoble against Thiers . 27 Sept. 
Pilgrimage of about 20,000 persons ‘to the grotto of 
| the Vir; gin Mary at Lourdes, on account of alleged 
miracles (the Virgin was said to have appeared to 
two girls, 14 Feb. 18 58). ‘ 6 Oct. 
Report that the heat minister remonstrated on 
Gambetta’s speech at Grenoble Oct. 
' The supreme council of war constituted ; "includes 
MacMahon, Canrobert, duc d’Aumale, and other 
eminent generals ; first meeting, Thiers present 


| 9 Oct. 
Prince Napoleon and princess Clothilde come to 
Paris ; expelled by order of the government (he 
protests) . . 12 Oct, 
Letter from the “comte de Chambord to M. de la 
Rochette, protesting against arepublic, and assert- 
ing that France can be saved by a monarchy 
alone ; that she is catholic and monarchical, and 
cannot, therefore, perish; dated. . 15 Oct. 
Elections for vacancies in the assembly ; radical 
republicans mostly elected . 20 Oct, 
| The Germans evacuate Haute Marne and other 
| partments Oct., 
Banquet of the monarchical party at Doses 
1 O¢ 
New commercial treaty with Great Britain signa at 
London . . SIN 
Re-assembling of the national assembly, 1x Noy. ; 
Thiers in his message declares that the republic is 
the legal gov ernment ; and that to exist it must 
be conservative ; and proposes changes 12 Noy. 
Service of prayer on behalf of the assembly 17 Nov. 
Fruitless attack of general Changarnier on Thiers’ 
policy and Gambetta’s speech ‘at Grenoble ; mo- 
tion to pass to order of the day ; majority for 
government, 150 ; (300 did not vote) . 18 Nov, 
The result becomes the law of. ‘ 19 Noy. 
M. Kerdrel proposes a commission to consi: 
Thiers’ proposals for changes ; adopted 19 Noy. 
Thiers threatens to resign ; crisis. 19, 20 Nov. 
Report of the commission read by M. Ratbie, claim- 
ing the right of the assembly to frame a constitu- 
tion with a responsible ministry ; the president 
not to speak in the assembly, &c. ; he advocated 
““ vouvernement de combat ” 26 Nov. 
Amendment proposed by Dufaure, minister of jus- 
tice, accepting ministerial respoumhaat Be | 
by the committee Noy. 
M. Thiers addresses the ‘assembly ; : declares ‘he pre- 
| fers the English to the American system ; but 
that a monarchy i in France is at present impos- 
sible; that he is faithful to the republic ; and 
that he wishes to render it conservative ; and that 
he has for two years served his country with 
boundless devotion ; Dufaure’s amendment cat- 
ried by 370-334 (union of royalists with Bona 
' ists against the radicals) oy. 
Vote of censure on the home ‘minister (uanfranc) 
carried ; 305-299 ; he resigns o Nov. 
Agitation respecting the appointment “of the com- 
mission of 30, proposed by Dufaure ; it consists 
of 19 for the right, 11 for the government, 6 Dee. ; 
changes in the ninistry announced . 8 Dec. 
Manifesto of the left , proposing a dissolution, of the 
assembly by legalmeans .- .  . to Dec. 
Negatived by the assembly (490-201) - 14 Dec. 
Powerful speech of Thiers to the conan of 3¢ 


| Dec. 
Execution of Poiteyin, a traitor 2 ‘ ee Dee. 
Debt (before the war, ones 460, Soe y 
748,700,0001, 
Meeting of the national assembly _ . = 4 
Illness of the ex-emperor . 4 Jan. 
| Death of Napoleon III. at Chiselhurst g Jan. 


«7 
| 
ae | 
| 
im | 


ft aoa in eat ght ) +m ne t VY Aud ‘ *. a 
Mey TN . ! | 
Vi ‘ ; 
; FRANCE. 347 FRANCE. 
artist manifesto ; ‘‘ the emperor is dead, but Prince Napoleon Jerome joins the republican party, 


empire is living and indestructible” 15 Jan. 1873 
‘30 committee” considering Tallon’s project 
1 constitution . . ; . : MOGI os, 
communist murderers shot at Satory 22 Jan. ,, 
‘ted recognition of the comte de Chambord as 
z by the Orleans princes. . 26Jan. ,, 
‘ful speech of Thiers before the commission of 
gainst their proposed changes SUS are, 
ommission of 30 close their meetings 8 Feb. ,, 
rofthe comte de Chambord published ; destroys 
aopes of the fusion of the Bourbons . Feb. ,, 
i begins on the report of the commission, 
ch reserves the legislative rights of the present 
mbly, and the adherence to the provisional 
i in accordance with the ‘‘pacte de Bor- 
ux,” 27 Feb.; powerful speech of Thiers in 
yur of this ‘‘ truce of parties,” adopted (475- 
ie ‘ ‘ H : . 5 4 Maren: 55 
mtion for the total evacuation of the depart- 
its in Sept. on payment of indemnity, signed 
3erlin . ; ‘ : mers March,” 55 
ration in the assembly ‘‘ that M. Thiers has de- 
ved well of his country” . : 17 March, ,, 
‘évy resigns the presidency on account of the 
duct of the party of the right, 2 April; 
Buffet, a liberal Bonapartist, elected in oppo- 
yn to Martel the government candidate, 4 April, 
wodet, radical, ex-mayor of Lyons, elected 
nber of the assembly for Paris by a large ma- 
ty over the minister de Remusat . 27 April, ,, 
zes in the ministry :—Casimir Périer, interior ; 
Waddington, of Cambridge, public in- 
iction (in room of De Goulard and Jules 
10n) : 4 ; . : Pie LO LEY a. 2 955 
ng of the national assembly, 19 May; the 
erninent introduce their constitutional bills, 
May ; the duc de Broglie leads an attack on 
‘government, 23 May ; speech of Thiers ; the 
ernment defeated (362-348) at asitting, 2 p.m., 
24 May, 
nation of Thiers and his ministry accepted 
+339), 24 May; marshal McMahon, duc de 
zenta (born 1808) elected president of the re- 
lie by 390 votes (the left did not vote); he 
epts the office, declaring his independence of 
ty, 24 May ; in his message to the assembly 
says, “‘ The post in which you have placed me 
hat of a sentinel, who has to watch over the 
‘grity of your sovereign power.” . 26 May, 
luc de Broglie chief of the new ministry 
26 May, 
‘al Ladmirault succeeds MacMahon in the 
umand of the army of Versailles 3 June, ,, 
te circular of the minister to prefects re- 
sting them to sound newspapers of his de- 
tment; censured in the assembly. 11 June, 
ssembly (by a large majority) order the prose- 
ion of Rance, formerly a communist, now 
uty for Lyons , 5 : ee TO.e UNG, 5, 
‘of the Shah : 3 : Sars ULYe oy 
lreview of the renovated army at Paris, and 
embly prorogued ef : ‘ Seto Lh, 
‘wal of the Anglo-French treaty of 23 Jan. 
(till 30 June, 1877) ; signed 24 July ; ratified 
2g July, ,, 
aation of all the French territories by the 
mans, except Verdun, by . : om 2Aue.,, 
nm of the Legitimists and Orleanists ; after an 
arview of the comte de Paris with the comte 
Chambord; the latter recognised as chief 
\ 5 Aug. ,, 
n-Barrot died . 4 4 : ‘ GrATIaaae ss 
moperial prince Napoleon declares the policy 
-his family to be “‘ Everything by the people 
_ the people” sp ta xe Ane, 
instalment of 10,000,000l. of the indemnity of 


. 
- 


- ,000,0001. paid . : : ‘ SESE) OE ere 
_t 2,700 communists yet to be disposed of 
Sept. ,, 


mquitted bythe Germans . . 13 Sept. ,, 

| ast quitted the French territory . 16 Sept. ,, 
| Decazes ambassador for London. . Oct. 
rt from comte de Chambord to the vicomte 
| Rodez-Benavent ; not explicit; shows ten- 
| ey to concession ; says, ‘‘ I want the co-oper- 
m of all, and all have need of me” dated 
19 Sept. ,, 


26 Sept. 

Letter from Thiers to mayor of Nancy, cersuring 
the fusionists, who ‘‘without the consent of 
France pretend to decide upon her destinies” 


re } 29 Sept. 
France divided inte 18 new military regions ; 18 
generals appointed : A : 30 Sept. 


Trial of marshal Bazaine, late commander of the army 
of the Rhine in 1870, for alleged treachery and 
misconduct at Metz; duc d’Aumale president of 
the court; begins . : : 3 . 6 Oct. 

Changes in the ministry ; duc Decazes foreign and 
Changarnier war minister : y . 6 Oct. 


| Rouher’s letter to the Bonapartists against the 


monarchists ; S 2 : . 9g Oct. 
M. Remusat and 3 other republicans elected de- 
puties 2 . . 12 Oct. 


| Rane condemned to death in contwmaciam 13 Oct. 
| M. Lemoinne (in the Jowrnal des Débats) says ‘‘ The 


partisans of an absolute monarchy make a tabula 
rasa of history ; for them nothing has occurred. 
If that be so, nothing will return ” 15 Oct. 
Manifesto of the monarchists proposing restoration 
of the monarchy, guaranteeing all necessary 
liberties, &c. . 18 Oct. 


| M. Léon Say and the left centre decline negotia- 


tion with the monarchists ; who threaten absten- 
tion in the next elections, if successfully opposed 
23 Oct. 

Letter from the comte de Chambord to M. 
Chesnelong; he says, ‘‘I retract nothing, and 
curtail nothing of my previous declarations. I 
do not wish to begin a reign of reparation by an 
act of weakness; if enfeebled to-day, I should 
be powerless to-morrow ; I am anecessary pilot ; 
the only one capable of guiding the ship to port, 
because I have for it a mission of authority.” 
dated 27 Oct. 


_M. Léon Say and the left centre say the moment 


has arrived for the organisation of a conservative 
republic : : RK ? 30 Oct. 
Meeting of national assembly ; message from mar- 
shal MacMahon, requesting increased and pro- 
longed power (ten years); this referred to a com- 
mittee of 15; voted urgent (by 360 to 350) 5 Nov. 
M. Buffet re-elected president : 6 Nov. 
Conspiracy at Autun to seize marchioness Mac- 
Mahon ; offenders convicted . 7 Nov. 
Eight of the cominittee vote for prolongation of 
MacMahon’s presidency for five years atter date 
of mecting of the next legislature, under existing 
conditions till the passing of constitutional laws ; 
the others vote for ten years’ prolongation with- 
out conditions - ; : - 13 Nov. 
M. Laboulaye’s report of the committee laid before 
the assembly; MacMahon’s message suggesting 

7 years’ prolongation of his powers 17 Nov. 
Warm debate in the assembly ; majority of 68 for 
ministers, 18 Nov.; 7 years’ power voted to 
marshal MacMahon (383-317), 19 Nov.; decree 
20 Nov. 

Incognito visit of the comte de Chambord to Paris 
about 20 Nov. 


| Ministry resigns, 20 Nov. ; re-constituted ; duc de 


Broglie, minister of interior; duc Decazes, 
foreign minister ; announced é . 26 Nov. 
Committee of 30 for constitutional changes, com- 
pleted . 8 . : : 5 . 4 Dec. 
Holds its first meeting, Batbie, president 5 Dec. 
Embassy to London declined by Guizot ; accepted 
by the due de la Rochefoucauld-Bisaccia Dec. 
Bazaine’s trial ends; he is found guilty of capitu- 
lating with his army (of 170,0co men) in the open 
field; of negotiating dishonourably with the 
enemy, and surrendering a fortified place ; sen- 
tence, death and degradation, 10 Dec.; com- 
muted to 20 years’ imprisonment . _ 12 Dee. 
Peaceful republican demonstration in Paris at the 
funeral of Victor Hugo’s second son, Francois, 
28 Dec. 

Meeting of the assembly; majority against the 
nomination of mayors bill, through the legiti- 
mists (268-226), 8 Jan.; the ministry resign, 9 
Jan. ; vote of confidence in the ministry (379 to 
329), 12 Jan. ; the ministers resume office 13 Jan. 
Vote for ministers on the nomination of mayors 
bill (341-336) » + : ‘ : . 17 Jan, 


FRANCE. 


The Ultramontane newspaper, L’Univers (edited 
by M. L, Veuillot), suspended for 2 months for 


attacks on Italy and Germany, about 19 Jan. 
Nomination of mayors bill passed, 21 Jan. ; many 
mayors replaced . Feb. 


A person calls himself comte Albert de Bourbon, 
and claims to be son of Louis XVII. ; his claim 
rejected A 27 Feb. 

Ledru-Rollin and " Lepetit elected Tagore of 
the national assembly . t March, 

New electoral law presented by the committee ; 
about 3 millions disfranchised etry vLarch, 

Demonstration at Chiselhurst on prince Louis 
Napoleon’s coming of age (at 18); 6000 French- 
men present ; he says that he waits the result of 
the 8th plébiscite 16 March, 

Gabriel Hugelmann, political spy and swindler, 
convicted and sentenced to 5 years’ imprison- 
ment . 25 March, 

Ferrand, contractor (made about 80, 000l, during 
war), fined and imprisoned, about 25 March, 

Proposal of Dahirel, legitimist, of a law enacting 
that on 1 June the assembly should vote for 
either a monarchy or republic, negatived (330- 
256) : é : E : 27 March, 

Assembly adjourns tor2 May . 28 March, 

‘Two republican deputies elected 29 March, 

Reported escape of Rochefort, the communist, from 
New Caledonia announced 30 March, 

Death of Beulé, ex-minister . é 4 April, 

Newspapers warned not to attack the sonpenniie 

12 April, 

Clément Duvernois, ex-imperial minister, arrested 
for suspected fraud . 4 April, 

The assembly meets, 12 May; " the ‘ministry de- 
feated on electoral law (381-317), resigns 16 May, 

M. Goulard failing to form a ministry, the presi- 
dent re-appoints the former without Broglie; 
nominal head, gen. De Cissey 22 May, 

Prince Hohenlohe, the new German ambassador, 
received by the president; mutual professions 


of peace 23 May, 
Rochefort and ‘other communists arrive at San 
Francisco announced 21 May, 


Bourgoing, a Bonapartist, elected for Nievre (as- 
serted that he was devoted to the marshal) 
24 May, 
Thiers addresses some Gironde friends ; refers to 
the failure of his opponents; and recommends 
dissolution of the assembly 24 May, 
Electoral bill; assembly pass to second reading 
(393-318) : I June, 
Ledru-Rollin’s speech a failure : 3 June, 
Hot disputes between republicans and Bonapar- 
tists ; left centre demand the establishment of 
the republic, or dissolution of the Sgspue 


9 June, 
Bonnard, communist, condemned for ae i 25 
Feb., shot 6 June, 


Electoral bill ; ; age of electors fixed at 21, not 25 
(defeat of ministry) - ro June, 
Gambetta having called the Bonapar tists ‘‘ miséra- 
bles,” is str uck ata railway station by comte de 
Sainte Croix, 11 June, who is condemned to fine 
and imprisonment ; - 130 une, 
Casimir Perier (leader of left centre) moves for 
recognition of the republic ; MacMahon president 
till 20 Noy. 1880, and revision of the constitu- 
tion; voted “urgent” (345-341) 14, 15 June, 
Due de Rochefoucauld- Bisaccia’s motion for re- 
storation of the legitimate monarchy negatived ; 
he resigns British embassy . 3 yd) une, 
Rochefort in London 19 June, 
The ‘‘fusion ” between legitimists and Orleanists 
ended; conflict now between republicans and 
Bonapartists . June, 
Grand review of 60,000 men at Longchamps, near 
Paris 28 June, 
In his order of the day, marshal MacMahon de- 
clares that with the army he will maintain the 
authority of the land for the seven years 29 June, 
Casimir Perier’s motion negatived by commission 
of thirty - 29 June, 
Manifesto. from comte de " Chambord, saying 
“France has need of monarchy. My birth has 
made me your king. The Christian and 
French monarchy is in its very essence limited 
{fempérée). It admits of the existence of two 


348 


9? 


2? 


| M. Goulard, ex-minister, dies 4 


FRANCE. 


chambers : one nominated by the sovereign, the 
other by the nation. . . I do not wish na 


Tishfag the above : : 5 


Debate on "the manifesto ; legitimists defeated ; 
ministers defeated on a motion in favour of the 
septennate, resign (368-331); their pester 
not accepted by the marshal 3 July, 


| He states, in a message to the assembly, his deter- 


mination to maintain the law of 20 N ov., and ex- 
horts them to pass the constitutional laws 


9 July, 
“* Figaro” suspended for 15 days for attacking the 
assembly rz July, 


Reports of committee, by Ventayon (the bill pro- 
poses maintenance of the authority of the presi- 
dent of the republic ; ministerial responsibility ; 
two legislative assemblies ; ; dissolution of the 
chamber of deputies by the ‘president ; &c.), sus- 


pended . 16 July, 
Casimir Périer’s motion for a republic rejected 
= . 23 July, 


375-333 
Malice ille’s motion for dissolution of the aa | 


rejected (374-332) . : 
The assembly adjourns (to 30 Noy. )ie wer Aug. 
Marshal Bazaine escapes from the isle of Ste. 
Marguerite (see Dec. 1873) 1op.m. [His wife as- 
serted that he descended by an old gutter by 
means of a knotted rope; was received into a 
boat by her and her nephew, Alvarez de Rul, 
and conveyed to the steamer Baron Ricasola, 
which landed him at Genoa] . 9 Aug. 
Forcade de Roquette, a minister under the empire, 
dies, aged 53 . - 16 Aug. 
MacMahon’s pr ogress in the N.W. proy inces ; well 
received . 17 Aug. 
Vendéme column restored 31 Aug. 
Comte de Jarnac, minister at London, arriv “2 there 
4 Sept. 
Death of M. Guizot - 12 Sept. 
Bazaine’s defence, sent by him to the New York 
Herald, dated 6 Sept., published in London 
14 Sept. 
Trials for complicity in Bazaine’s escape; col. 
Villette and others sentenced to imprisonment 
17 Sept. 
Thiers, at Vizille near Grenoble, in reply to an 
address, says, “Since you cannot establish the 
monarchy, establish the republic, and do it 
frankly and sincerely ” . 27 Sept. 
Poirier executed at Chartres for 5 murders 29 Sept. 
Severe note from Spanish government complaining 
of French neglect in regard to the Carlists on 
the Spanish frontier . early Oct. 


' Clément Duvernois, ex-imperial minister, con- 


victed of fraud; 2 years’ imprisonment 25 Noy. 


POLITICAL PARTIES. 


| Extreme right. Legitimists : adherents of Henry VY. 


Moderate right: monarchists. Right centre: 
septennates, Imperialists or Bonapartists. Left 
centre: moderate republicans (chief, Thiers). 
Left : more pronounced. Extreme left: radicals 
(chief, Gambetta) . Nov. 
St. Genest’s pamphlet, “ 1 Assemblée et la France,” 
inciting to a cowp @’état . end of Noy. 
Comte de Chambeed requests his friends not to 
vote so as to prevent or delay the restoration of 
the monarchy . Nov. 


' Four ornamented volumes of addresses from towns, 


&e., in France, conveying thanks for relief during 
the war 1870-1. (inscribed on the outside, ‘‘ Bri- 
tannie grata Gallia,’) with about 12,000,000 
signatures, presented to the queen by M. D’Agiout 
and the comte de Serrurier [placed in the British 
Museum for inspection] . 3 Dec. 
The assembly meets ; firm ‘moderate inesiaee from 
MacMahon . i 3 Dec. 
| Sudden death of M. “Ledru- Rollin — t Dec. 
| President in his message having recommended the 


a bill for constituting a senate, motion 
it passed (420 to 250), 6 Jan. ; ministers’ 
tion not accepted . : 4 , Jan. 
the war (395,400,000l. ) announced Jan, 
e Péreire, financier . . . died 6 Jan. 
artist elected deputy for Hautes-Pyrénées 
; 17 Jan. 
days’ debate on the new army Dill Jan. 
ny debate on Ventavon’s bill for organising 
fahon’s powers, 18t reading passed (557 to 
it 4 3 ; : i : . 22 Jan. 
oinge's amendment rejected (359-335) 29 Jan. 
allon’s amendment (the president of the republic 
to be elected by absolute majority of the two 
yhambers for 7 years, and to be eligible for re- 
ation; the republic virtually established) ; 
passed r a.m, 31 Jan. 
satisfaction throughout the country Feb. 
at's amendment carried (senate to be chosen 
Wy universal suffrage), rr Feb. ; third reading of 
the constitutional bill rejected (357-345); pro- 
posed dissolution of the assembly negatived 
66), 12 Feb.; message from the marshal 
approving of last votes . 3 5 13 Feb. 
snate bill (senate to consist of 300; 225 to be 
glected by the departments, 75 by national 
sembly) / : é : ‘ . 22 Feb. 
passed constituting French republic by union 
f moderate monarchists and republicans ; legiti- 
sts and Bonapartists defeated; senate bill 
passed (448-244), 24 Feb. ; final vote for republic, 
constitutional laws passed (436-262) 
f p.m. 25 Feb., published 1 March, 
New ministry under Buffet constituted ; Buffet, 
interior; Dufaure, justice; Léon Say, finance ; 
Wallon, instruction; De Meaux, agriculture and 
commerce; Cissey war; Decazes, foreign; Mon- 
_taignae, marine; Caillaux, public works 
to March, 
Due d’Audiffret Pasquier elected president of the 
assembly almost unanimously . 15 March, 
Death of M. Jarnac-Chabot, ambassador at London 
22 March, 
Assembly adjourns to 11 May 20 March, 
Hdgar Quinet, author of ‘‘ Les Jésuites,” a staunch 
republican, died : : : . 27 March, 
Powerful speech of Gambetta at Belleville, de- 
fending the new constitution 23 April, 
Meeting of the assembly, 11 May; the ministry 
_ propose to refer a bill to the committee of 30; 
_ defeated ; part of the committee resign, 18 May; 
new committee elected (republican majority) 
: 26 May, 
Louis Blane’s speech against the conservative re- 
_ public, 21 June; self-denying resolution of the 
left party (to avoid delaying the dissolution by 
speaking, &e.) . : j ; , June, 
Destructive inundations at Toulouse ; about 1000 
_ lives lost, with much property 23 June, 
Election of baron de Bourgoing, a Bonapartist, an- 
hulled by the assembly, 13 July; warm defence 
_ of his party by Rouher (on the charge of there 
_ being a central committee of Bonapartists in 
_ Paris with branches in the provinces, actively 
_ endeavouring to overthrow the republic in 1874) 
. 14 July, 
Fierce debate in assembly; Buffet fatends the 
imperialistic prefects, and gains vote of con- 
_fidence ; the left not voting : . 15 July, 
i. Rochefort, after challenging Paul de Cassagnac, 
declines accepting the conditions of the combat 
atGeneva . - ; : Aug. 
Cheassembly adjourns . . . : Aug. 
Naquet, an “‘irreconcilable” republican, attacks 
Gambetta for his moderation end of Aug. 
Plon having lost by publishing ‘‘ Julius Cesar,” 
by Napoleon IL., sues the emperor’s executors ; 
_ tails ; and is adjudged to pay costs . 2 Aug: 
“Echo de Blois fined for libel on the duc @’Aumale 
ie ak 28 Aug. 
“Les Responsabilités,” pamphlet recommending the 
comte de Chambord to resign his rights to the 
Crown oo aera A tis 
Belgian dG levi ‘ y 
ie and German pilgrimage to Lourdes (see 
pa : . : : a‘ : : Sept. 
Admiral De la Ronciére Noury superseded for 
yee an a letter animadverting on the republic 
mmo Pen >.) '§ Sept. 


2? 


”? 


FRANCE. 


Alleged adhesion of the Orleanist party to the 
republic : 3 : about ro Sept. 
Important speeches; M. Thiers at Arcachon de- 
fending his policy; advocating a conservative 
republic, and censuring delay; M. Rouher at 
Ajaccio, advocating imperialism and universal 
suffrage, and asserting that the nation will not 
accept the republic as a definite government 

17 Oct. 

Important letter of Gambetta to his Friends at 
Lyons (in favour of the conservative republic), 
said to be ‘‘ too advanced for the moderate, and 
too moderate for the advanced.” 2» 25 Oct. 
Meeting of the assembly: duc d’Audiffret  re- 
elected president . : : 4 Nov. 
The assembly virtually votes its dissolution before 
31 March, 1876; 6 months residence in a com- 
mune to give right to vote, g Nov., majority for 
ministers; the scrutin @arrondissement adopted 
instead of scrutin de liste (357-326); able speech 
of Gambetta for the latter 2 z 11 Nov. 
New Catholic University opened 17 Nov. 
Beginning of ballot for senators for life; duc 
d’Auditfret Pasquier elected; the result dis- 
closes a breach between the legitimists and 
Orleanists ; government defeated 9 Dec. 
Committees on the bills relating to the press and 
the state of siege protest against them strongly 
about 13 Dec. 

Seventy-five senators for life (52 republicans) 
elected by the assembly ‘ E 9—z21 Dec. 
Powerful speech of Buffet in favour of rigid press 
law and state of siege, 23 Dec. ; much censured, 
but approved in a letter by MacMahon 24 Dee. 
Majority for ministers (376-303) 24 Dec. 
Solemn funerals of generals Clement Thomas and 
Lecomte, killed by the communists (18 March, 
1871); violent recrimination in the assembly 
27 Dee. 

Re-election to the assembly declined by the duc 
d’Aumale, 27 Dec. ; by the prince de Joinville, 
29 Dec. 

New press law (abolishing interdiction) passed ; 
state of siege raised except in Paris, Versailles, 
Lyons, and Marseilles; proposal to raise it at 


Paris negatived (369-279) . : : 29 Dec. 
The assembly prorogued till 8 March, 1876 31 Dee. 
Powerful letter from Gambetta 31 Dec. 


Communist trials report: 9,596 convicted; 110 
sentenced to death : ; 5 Lee. 
Ministerial crisis: difference between Buffet and 
Say respecting an electoral list; resignation of 
Say ; withdrawn at MacMahon’s request, ro Jan. 
et seq.; the marshal issues a proclamation, coun- 
tersigned by Buffet ; he says, ‘‘I think that the 
constitution ought not to be revised before having 
been loyally worked. I shall fulfil to the end 
the mission entrusted to me.” : + F3. dat 
New Catholic university inaugurated at Paris by 
the archbishop : : : ; to Jan. 
Commencement of election of senators in depart- 
ments , ’ : : 17 Jan. 
General prosperity ; revenue for 1875 estimated 
£100,000,000, said to be the highest ever received 
by any government . : - : . Jan. 
Election of senators; mostly moderate republicans ; 
Thiers for Belfort nearly unanimous; Buffet and 
Louis Blanc rejected; Victor Hugo elected 30 Jan. 
Resignation of Léon Renault, prefect of police, 
opposed to Buffet “ : ; 9 Feb. 
Election of deputies; great majority of repub- 
licans, 20 Feb.—s March; resignation of Buf- 
fet, about 22 Feb. ; Dufaure chief minister, with 
a modified cabinet . : é . 24 Feb. 
Estimated result of elections: moderate repub- 
licans, 270; radicals, 60; Bonapartists, 92; Or- 
leanists, 58; legitimists, 36 é . 7 March, 
Dufaure’s ministry complete (including Decazes, 
Say, Waddington, de Cissey, &c.) about 9 March, 
Senate and assembly meet, 8 March ; duc d’Audif- 
fret. Pasquier elected president of senate; M. F. 
P. Jules Grévy, president of assembly 13 March, 
Amnesty bill for communists introduced in the 
senate by Victor Hugo; in the assembly by 
Haspalleny. Es - ; s 21 March, 
Proposed international exhibition, Paris, for 1 May 
1878. 5 A 5 : 5 April, 
Archbishop Guibert, of Paris, declines to give 


1875 


>? 


7 


9? 


”? 


” 


” 


”? 


FRANCE. 


300 


FRANCH. 


evidence concerning the election of comte de 
Mun as deputy 
Gambetta president of budget ‘committee for 1877 
about 19 April, 
Queen Victoriain Paris ; received by the president, 
21 April, 
Death of Ricard, popular liberal minister of the 
interior, aged 48, 12 May; succeeded by M. De 
Mercere, wnder-secretary about 15 May, 
Debate on the amnesty to communists, 14 May; 
rejected (394-52), 17 May; Victor Hugo's speech 
in favour of amnesty ; proposal rejected almost 
unanimously : 22 May, 
Funeral procession of Michelet at Paris 18 May, 
M. Buffet, ex-minister, elected life-senator 16 June, 
87 communists par doned 7 : - 28 June, 
Casimir Périer dies . . 6 July, 
Nearly 2,000,000l. voted for public instruction 


31 July, 
Chambers prorogued ; ‘ : . 2 Aug. 
68 communists pardoned a4 Aug. 


Observatory at Puy de Déme near Clermont in- 
augurated : A 22 Aug. 
New fortifications round Paris nearly completed, 
Sept. 
The assembly reopened, 30 Oct. ; the duc Decazes’ 
firm pacific speech 3 3 Nov. 
Prince Napoleon Jerome becomes premipest | in the 
assembly . Nov. 
Resignation of Dufaure’s ministry through defeats 
in the senate, &c. 3 2 Dec. 
Pardons and commutations granted to many com- 
munist convicts ‘ so2iDee: 
New ministry: Jules Simon, pr esident of the 
council and minister of interior ; ; Martel, justice ; 
others remain 12, 13 Dec. 


Estimated revenue £109;000, C00 . 2 » » Dee. 
Chambers opened. ; g Jan. 
Gambetta president of the budget . 26 Jan. 


Above fifty prefects, hostile to the ee ais ve re- 
moved. - Jan. 
Gen. Changarnier died, aged 83 14 Feb. 
Paul de Cassagnac fined and imprisoned for libel 
against chamber of deputies in the ‘‘ Pays,’ 
5 April, 
Rochefort’s “‘ Lanterne ” re-published April, 
M. Jules Simon compelled to yield to Gambetta in 
the chamber . “ 4 May, 
Peremptory letter of censure from marshal Mac- 
Mahon to Jules Simon causes him and his 
ministry to resign . 16 May, 
The duc de Broglie forms a “ministry (royalist and 
imperial), De Fourtou, interior; Cailloux, finance ; 
Paris, public works; De Meaux, agriculture : 
Brunet, public instruction ; (Decazes, foreign, 
and Berthaut, war, remain) : 17 May, 
Gambetta’s resolution in chamber in favour of par- 
liamentary government carried, (355 - 154) 17 May ; 
protest of 363 liberal deputies signed - 18 May, 
The marshal prorogues the chambers for a month : 
a firm manifesto issued by the left 18 May, 
Many changes made in the prefects 20 May, 
Thiers accepted as leader by the republicans ; 
Broglie’s circular for repressing the press issued 
about 29 May, 
Bonnet Duverdier, chief of municipality of Paris ; 
arrested for speaking against the marshal, 1 June; 
sentenced to fine and imprisonment . 8 June, 
Meeting of chambers; stormy debate in second 
chamber, 16 June; vote against government 
carried (363- 158) : Ig June, 
The deputies vote the ‘necessary " supplies, ect not 
direct taxes . . 21 June, 
The senate votes dissolution of the chambers (150- 
130) 22 June ; decreed 25 June, 
the marshal, in an order of the day, after a revicw 
at Longchamps, says: ‘‘l appeal to the army to 
defend the dearest interests of the country,” 
2J uly, 
Quarrels among Bonapartists (Rouher against 
Cassagnac) J uly, Aug. 


Repressive measures towards the press, &e. July, Aug. 


Prosecution of Gambetta (and Murat, editor of the 
«« République Frangaise,” in which it appeared) 
fora speech at Lille (29 July) in which he said 
the marshal must, if the elections be against 
him, ‘‘submit or resign” (‘se soumettre ou se 
démettre”) . - .« about 25 Aug. 


April, 1876 


” 


2) 


”? 


o> 


2? 


a” 


Thiers dies, aged 80; 3 Sept. public haart: no 
disorder , 8 Sept. 
Gambetta and Murat convicted ; sentence 3 months 
imprisonment and fine of £80 11 Sept. ; on appeal 
sentence affirmed 22 Sept. 
The marshal’s excursions to various places 5 recep- 
tion differs . Aug. Sept. 
In his manifesto respecting the elections, he refers 
to his successful government, and says: ‘I 
cannot obey the injunctions of the demagogy ; 
I can neither become the instrument of radical- 
ism nor abandon the post in which the const 
tion has placed me”. 9 Sept. 
Thiers’ manifesto to electors (an aistarical: defenas 
of the republic and late chamber) aPrEe 
24 Sept 
The clergy energetically support the overrun 
Sept. Oct. 
Temperate manifesto of the left, 4 Oct.; of Grévy 
and Gambetta ; 7 Oct. 
Justificatory manifesto of the marshal, appealiile 
to voters . . . 17 OCe 
Gambetta convicted for placarding his address ; 
fine £150 and 3 months imprisonment 12 Oct. 
M. de Fourtou interferes very energetically in 
elections ; foreign papers stopped, &e. . Oct. 
General election ; quiet and dignified ; results: 
defeat of Bonapartist and clerical parties ; ; (of 
506 official candidates about 199 elected; re- 
publieans, 320) . 14 Oct. 
Final result: 325 republicans ; 112 Bonapartists ; 
96 monarchists . 28 Oct, 
Ministry hold office till successors appointed ; M. 
Pouyer-Quertier fails to form # ministry . Nov. 
Election of departmental councils who elect sena- 
tors ; majority for republicans f - 4Nov, 
Meeting of chambers : 7 Noy. 
Census for 1876 announced ; 36,905,788 (increase of 
802,867 Over 1872) . 8 Noy. 
The marshal determines not to resign; his ministry 
agree to remain temporarily ; , anounced 8 Noy. 
F. P. Jules Grévy re-elected "president of the 
chamber of deputies now constituted . 10 Noy. 
Albert Grévy’s resolution for the appointment of a 
commission of 33 to inquire into the conduct of 
the government respecting elections, 13 Noy. ; 
carried after a warm debate (312-205) 15 Noy. 
Debate in senate on M. Kerdrel’s motion respecting 
ministers ; vote in their favour indirectly reflect- 
ing on Grévy’s resolution, &¢. (151-129) 19 Noy. 
Resignation of ministers announced 20 Novy. 
New ministry formed under gen. Rochebouet, 
president ; no member of it in the senate or 
assembly ; termed ‘‘ ministry of affairs ” 23 Nov. 
No confidence in the new ministry es in the 
second chamber (323-208) . £ Noy. 
Important meeting of commercial men Pe; Paris ; 
petition to the marshal agreed on ou Dee. 
The chamber refuses to discuss the budget 4 Dec. 
The ministry resign ; negotiations with Dufaure to 
form a parliamentary ‘ninistry fail ; Batbie (see 
26 Nov. 1872) also fails 7-13 Dee. 
The marshal submits unconditionally 13 Dect wa 
thorough republican ministry formed under M. 
Dufaure ; president of the council and minister 
of justice ; De Marcere, interior; Waddington 
(protestant), foreign affairs ; ; Bardoux, public 
instruction ; general Borel, war ; vice-admiral 
Pothuau, marine; Léon Say, finance; Teisserenc 
de Bort, commerce ; De Freycinet, public works : 
announced ; the marshal in his message ae 
the will of the country é Dec. 
Restrictions of the press removed ; many protects 
resign and others are removed 15 Dee. et seq. 
Death of gen. Aurelle de Paladines.. . »27 Dec. 
Budget voted ; chambers adjourn. 18 Dee. 
Limoges affair ; ; gen. Rochebouet said to have 
issued orders to gen. de Bressoles for a military 
movement which he issued 12 Dec. ; major Labor- 
dére denounces the orders as illegal, 13 Dece; 
the orders nullified by the change of ministry, 
14 Dec.; De Bressoles suspended for alleged 
mistake ; Labordére cashiered ; much excitement 
in Paris on account of suspected preparations for 
acoupdetat . : . oe | 
Legislative assembly meets. .  §Jan. 
Gen. Ducrot dismissed from command for suspected 
connection with projected cowp d'etat 10, 11 Jan. 


‘ Aad Aad - - 


Ma 
| FRANCE. 351 FRANCE. 

mmittee of 18 liberal deputies (formed in May) Violent opposition of Paul de Cassagnac ; he is ex- 
rirtually dissolve 3 f 3 ; 13 Jan. 1878 pelled the house for 3 days for abusing govern- 
eak up of combined reactionary parties; the mente". : 


ninistry generally successful March, 
jernational exhibition at Paris opened by the 


narshal president (see Paris) 4 rt May, 
im of Are and Voltaire centenaries celebrated, 
' 30 May, 


. Waddington, foreign minister, a plenipotentiary 
tthe Berlin Conference . 13 June—r13 July 
mporary strikes of workmen July, Aug. 
publican success in electing departmental coun- 
‘ils z 5 5 * F : é . Aug. 
emn commemoration of death of Thiers at Notre 
Jame, Xe. ; : ; 3 Sept. 
eeution of Barré, stockbroker, and Lebiez, 
nedical student, for murder of a milkwoman for 
jer funded property . : : = 7 Sept. 
view of 55,000 soldiers at Vincennes . 15 Sept. 
werful speech of Gambetta at Romans (depart- 
aent Drome), proposing abolition of the exemp- 
jon of theological students from military service, 
8 Sept., and at Grenoble : 4 to Oct. 
panloup, bishop of Orleans, dies suddenly, 11 Oct. 
2assembly meets . 3 : 5 - 28 Oct. 
900 national lottery tickets of x france sold (see 
sotteries) ‘ : . ‘ up to Nov. 
ergetic manifesto of united Legitimists, Orlean- 
sts, and Bonapartists against republicans re- 
pecting election of senators - =) 23 Nov. 
setions of Paul de Cassagnac (7 Nov.) and M. 
‘ortou invalidated by the Chamber, 18 Noy. ; of 


Jecazes i : : A é : of ABistey 
ster from comte de Chambord to M. de Mun 
aintaining his rights ; published 25 Nov. 


_ foreign commercial treaties denounced in view 
fanew tariff . a “ ; 3 31 Dec. 
ictions for Senate ; 64 republican, 16 opposition, 
5 Jan. 
mpulsory resignation of gen. Borel, war minister, 
3 Jan.; succeeded by gen. Gresley seron adi: 
eting of chambers ; M. Martel elected president 
ifthe senate . F : 15 Jan. 

fidence in the ministry voted in chamber of 
leputies (223-121) c 3 ; : 20 Jan. 

5 communists pardoned by decree, issued 17 Jan. 

aisterial programme: pardons to communists ; 

heck of clerical influence upon education ; dis- 

aissal of officials opposed to the republic, &c. 

16 Jan. 

vwing of the national lottery begun . 26 Jan. 

dget : revenue, about 110,242,812/.; expenditure, 

| DOnET 7. ROA. 5 A 3 A ; Jan. 
rshal MacMahon refttses to supersede military 

fficers, 28 Jan. resigns; F. P. Jules Grévy elected 

resident by the senate and deputies united as 

‘The National Assembly” (536 for Grévy ; 99 
orgen. Chanzy) . 3‘ 4 : ae ao an. 

-nbetta elected president of the chamber, 31 Jan. 
signation of Dufaure ; 1 Feb, new ministry formed 
'y M. Waddington ; changes (see Nov. 1877); M. 

2 Royer (keepér of seals and justice), Jules Ferry 

public instruction), M. Lepére (agriculture), adm. 


-auréguiberry (marine) . F , 4 Feb. 
nmunist amnesty bill passed by chamber of depu- 
ies 2 5 21 Feb. 


‘signation of M. de Marctre, minister of the in- 
-erior (police scandals), 3 March; succeeded by 
L Lepere “ E f 3 . 4 March, 
‘miral Pothuau, ambassador to England, March, 
-peachment of De Broglie and Rochebouet (late 
-iinisters) recommended by a commission, 
d 8 March, 
-peachment negatived by the chamber (317-159) ; 
ote of censure passed (240-154) . 13 March, 
posed return of the assemblies to Paris ; congress 
0 be appointed (315-128) . : . 22 March, 
_ Ferry’s education bills to check clerical infiu- 
neées, abolishing Jesuit colleges, &c. March, 
‘don of 252 communists signed 8 April, 
_nqui (a convict) elected for Bordeaux 20 April, 
‘don of 400 communists signed 24 May, 
nee Louis Napoleon killed while reconnoitering 
n Zululand Perey slob) 2°” x Jame, 
-nqui’s election annulled by the chamber (372-33), 
June; pardoned and released _y. 11 June, 
rdon of 288 more communists signed . 5 June, 


4 3 . ‘ 16 June, 
Congress of senate and deputies vote for their 

return to Paris (526-249) . : 20 June, 
M. Ferry’s law of superior public instruction passed 


by the deputies 5 ‘ 5 -u 9 July, 
President Grévy’s first grand military review at 
Longchamps : : : 13 July, 
Féte of the republic . 4 : - 4 July, 
Prince Napoleon Jerome coldly accepted as chief of 
the Bonapartists : , ; 3 20 July, 
Comte de Chambord’s letter : ‘‘ With the co-opera- 


tion of all honest men, and with the grace of God, 


I may save France, and will” 26 July, 
Chambers prorogued . : : : 2 Aug. 
Treaties of commerce with England prolonged ; 

signed to Oct. 


Humbert, an amnestied communist, elected to the 
municipal council, Paris, 11 Oct.; imprisoned for 
seditious speeches, &c., 22 Oct.; election an- 
nulled E 4 i i : - 4 Nov. 

About 60 mayors in La Vendée dismissed for cele- 
brating comte de Chambord’s birthday Noy. 

The senate and assembly meet again at Paris, 

27 Nov. 

Michel Chevalier, political economist, dies, 28 Nov. 

M. Waddington demands a vote of confidence, 2 Dec. 

[Republican sections: left centre, pure left, ad- 
vanced left, extreme left. ] 

Ministerial majority (221-97); many abstainers, 4 Dec. 

Resignation of Lepére and Le Royer, ministers, 

11, 12 Dec. 

Resignation of the Waddington ministry . 21 Dec. 

New ministry (more republican left) formed by 
M. de Freycinet ; includes Jules Ferry (public 
instruction) and Lepére (interior); not Wadding- 
ton or Leon Say A : : . 28, 29 Dec. 

Gen. Farre, new war minister, dismisses heads of 


departments in War office . 2 ; Jan. 
Meeting of the Chambers ; +» 13 Jan. 
M. de Freycinet’s moderate programme 16 Jan. 


Death (ex-foreign ministers): due de Gramont, 16 
Jan.; Jules Favre b A : 5 20 Jan. 
Budget for 1881 announced: estimated revenue, 
110,935,000l., ; g60,o00/. more than for 1880; sur- 
plus, 1,300,000. : : A F Feb. 


Death of M. Crémieux Bs : 5 to Feb. 
Plenary amnesty for communists rejected by the 
Chambers : 12 Feb. 


Debate in senate: 7th clause of Ferry’s education 
bill (abolishing Jesuit schools, &c.); Jules Simon 
speaks against it ; rejected (148-129) 9 March, 

Decree dissolving order of Jesuits and other orders 
in France : F 5 4 29 March, 

Letter from prince Napoleon Jerome in favour of 
the decree ; offends Bonapartists, about 5 April, 

Many bishops and others protest against the de- 
eree : : - : é ; April, 

Pacific circular of M. de Freycinet respecting inter- 
national relations . : “ 7) to. April, 

Ministerial defeat on public meetings bill; M. Le- 
pere resigns, 15 May ; M. Constans succeeds, 

18 May, 

General Martel, president of senate, resigns ; suc- 
ceeded by M. Leon Say : : - 20 May, 

Amnesty bill for political offences, 19 June; pre- 
sented by M. de Freycinet, 19 June ; passed by 
the chambers (333-140) . : , - 2zr June, 

Otaheite formally annexed to France . 29 June, 

Expulsion of religious orders (much officially op- 
posed) carried into effect with Jesuits 30 June, 

Amnesty bill passed for all, except incendiaries and 
assassins, by senate (143-138) 3 July, 

The president, Grévy, grants a general amnesty, 10 
July ; Rochefort warmly received in Paris, r2 July, 

First grand republican national féte . 14 July, 

Chambers prorogued . < : 3 . 15 July, 

Elections of councils-general; great majority for 
republicans (anti-clerical and eames Ge taaie 

r Aug. 

MM. Grévy, Gambetta, and Leon Say, witness the 
launch of a man-of-war at Cherbourg, &c., 

8—11 Aug. 

M. de Freycinet, in a speech at Montauban, ex- 
presses <lisagreement with his colleagues respect- 
ing decree against religious orders ; resigns, 

19 Sept 


9” 


s 


27 


by 


FRANCE. 


352 


L 


a , ‘ ir + 
Past | 
; i! : 
fa ai % ‘ wm 
‘ sees SS. 
ae 
+) 74 


FRANCE. 


New ministry: Jules Ferry (premier and public 
instruction), adm. Clouet (marine), Sadi-Carnot 
(public works), Barthélemy St. Hilaire (foreign) ; 
other offices unchanged ; i . 20 Sept. 

Two important letters from Guibert, abp. of Paris, 
to the president, recommending suspension of 
execution of the decree of 29 March against reli- 
gious orders, delivered : . 6, 15 Sept. 

Félix Pyat, editor of the Commune, sentenced to im- 
prisonment and fine for justifying regicide,19 Oct. 

Carmelites and other religious orders expelled, 

16 Oct.—Nov. 

Meeting of the assembly: majority against the 
ministry (who resign) (200-166) 9 Nov. 

The ministry withdraw their resignation on vote of 
confidence (240-149) . 4 5 . 12 Nov. 

M. Baudry d’Asson, deputy, excluded 9 Nov.; re- 
fuses to retire from the chamber; forcibly ex- 
pelled 4 4 2 3 x : or NOV. 

Violent attacks of Rochefort (in the Intransigeant) 
on Gambetta ; crushing replies ; . Dec. 

Municipal council elections strongly in favour of 
the government é 5 9 Jan. 


Meeting of the chambers . on ; 20 Jan. 
Bill greatly freeing the press brought in 26 Jan. 


Projected loan of 40,000,000l. (public debt, about 
1,200,000l.) immediately taken up for 30 times the 
amount : 3 : ° : : March, 

Discussion respecting the scrutin de liste (which 
see), advocated by Gambetta ; opposed by presi- 
dent Grévy, who yields . § . 21, 22 March, 

Expedition to N. Africa to chastise the Kroumirs ; 
invasion of Tunis ¢ 5 March, April, 

Treaty with the bey signed (see Tunis) 12 May, 

Excitement at Marseilles and in Italy (which see), 

13 May, et seq. 

M. Bardoux’s bill for the scrutin de liste adopted by 
the chamber of deputies (243-235) 18 May, 

The Tunis treaty ratified by the chamber (453-1), 


23 May, 
Warm reception of Gambetta at Cahors and other 
places . 25 May, 


Proposed revision of the constitution negatived in 
the chambers. : “ . : 31 May, 
The scrutin de liste rejected by the senate (148-114), 
g June, 

Adjournment of the chambers . July, 
#lection addresses. M. Rouher retires from poli- 
tical life (virtual end of Bonapartism), about 3r 
July ; prince Napoleon Jerome advocates pro- 
gress—‘‘everything for and by the people ”— 
about 31 July; speeches of M. Gambetta at 
Tours, Belleville, 12 Aug.. advocating revision 
of the constitution, Aug.; M. Jules Ferry at 
Nancy deprecates division about 11 Aug. 
Negotiations for treaty of commerce broken off; 
announced . : : : x s 16 Aug. 
Elections; triumph of Gambetta and moderate re- 
publicans ; gain of about 44 members ; hopeless 
minority of extremists of both kinds 21 Aug. 
French treaty. French government propose meeting 
of the commissioners at Paris on 22 Aug.; England 
requests 3 months’ extension of existing treaty ; 
France declines; negotiations stopped; an- 
nounced . ; P : - 6 . «r8 Aug. 
Complications respecting Tripoli cleared up about 
; 18 Aug. 
General elections ; great republican majority; num- 
ber of extremists on both sides much reduced 
21 Aug. et seq. 

Vegotiations respecting the commercial treaty re- 
sumed (France agrees to 3 months’ extension of 
the treaty from 8 Nov.) A : 19 Sept. 
Capuchins and other orders relieved from their 
monastic vows by the pope é ; Oct. 


Meeting of new chamber of deputies 28 Oct. 
M. Brisson elected president . i - 3 Nov. 
Treaty with the bey of Tunis confirmed by the 


chamber. Vote of censure on the Ferry ministry 
respecting Tunis war negatived by a great ma- 
jority, 9 Nov. ; the ministry resign to Nov: 
New ministry gazetted ; M. Gambetta (minister of 
foreign affairs and premier), M. Cazot (justice), 
M. Waldeck-Rousseau (interior), M. Allain-Targé 
(finance), general Campenon (war), M. Gougeard 
(marine), M. Paul Bert (education and worship), 
M. Raynal (public works), M. Rouvier (com- 
merce and colonies), M. Cochery (posts and tele- 


1880 


29 


graphs), M. Devés (agriculture), and M. Proust 
(Arts) R . : » : . 12 Nov. 
Moderate declaration of Gambetta to the chambers 
(everything to be for France) . -°. ry Nove 
M. H. Rochefort acquitted of bitter libel against 
M. Roustan in the /’Intransigeant ; a virtual 
censure of the Tunis affair. 3 - 15 Dec. 
Anglo-French treaty negotiations stop; French 
concessions insufficient . ; - 30 Dee. 
Elections for senators; republicans gain 27; now 
207 —93; Opposition announced . Jan. 
Much speculation ; panic on the bourse, 19 Jan. ; 
checked by resolution . A : : “ ° 
Defeat of the government; rejection of the scrutin 
de liste (305—119) ; resignation of M. Gambetta, 
26 Jan. 

New ministry: M. de Freycinet (president of the 
council and minister for foreign affairs), M. Léon 
Say (finance), M. Jules Ferry (public instruction), 
M. Goblet (interior and public worship), M. Hum- 
bert (justice), general Billot (war), admiral Jau- 
réguiberry (marine), M. Varroy (public works), 
M. Tirard (commerce), M. Mahy (agriculture), 
M. Cochery (posts and telegraphs) 30, 31 Jan. 
Failure of the Union Générale company ; continu- 


ance of panic . 4 F ‘ “ 30 Jan. 
Arrest of Bontoux, president, and Feder, manager 
2 Feb. 

Proposed revision of constitution negatived, 287—66 
Feb. 

Anglo-French treaty renewed till 1 March, 6 Feb. ; 
tillrs May . ; , : . ; 27 Feb. 
M. Tissot ambassador at London 6 March, 


New education bill passed; much government in- 
terference ‘ A s . about 3: March, 
Commercial convention with Great Britain for ten 
years proposed 4 : 4 3 pril, 
Vote of confidence in the government (298—70) 
r June, 

Crisis : confidence in the ministry respecting Egypt 
voted (286—105) ‘ « A 20 July, 
Vote of credit for protection of Suez canal negatived 


on motion of M. Clemeneeau (416—75) ; resigna- 
tion of ministry . . : ‘ . 29 July 
The New French ministry, composed as follows: 


M. Duclere (president of the council and minister 
for foreign affairs), M. Tirard (finance), M. Devés 
(justice), M. Falliéres (interior), M. Pierre Legrand 
(commerce, and ad interim public works), general 
Billot (war), admiral Jauréguiberry (the navy), 
M. Cochery (post office and telegraphs), M. de 
Mahy (agriculture), M. Duvaux (public instrue- 
tion) A 3 - : c c . ree 
Gambetta advocates activity in.foreign affairs, and 
abstention in domestic; Clémenceau the reverse, 
July—Aug. ; chambers prorogued. . g Aug. 
Disturbance amongst the miners of the Saone and 
Loire : , - A : about 17 Aug. 
The Bonapartists select prince Victor as their chief 
about 31 Aug. 

The compulsory education act comes into Ope 
2 Oct. 

Dicovery of an organisation of anarchists (alleged 
origin at Geneva, and prince Krapotkine, mem- 
ber); tracts distributed by groups of young men 
throughout the country; attempted insurrection 
at Montceau-les-Mines suppressed » “Reais: 
Many arrested [9 convicted, 22 Dec.] . 21 Oct. 
Place of trial changed ; dynaimite explosions threa- 
tened . é 5 - 4 about 26 Oct. 
Disturbances at Lyons; anarchy and panic; busi- 
ness and amusements suspended ; the town said 


to be held by the mob . . «fi ae 
Government official note promising public eee 
27 Oc 


man killed) on 23 Oct. ; railway station held by 
troops : : : 2 t . 28 Oct. 
Much dynamite seized . 29 Oct. 
Great distress in Lyons . 3 F . 
Panic subsiding in Paris, &c. 2 aes i 
Ov. 


Opening of the chambers . 2 : 
Crown jewels (value about 100,000l.) stolen from 


the cathedral of St. Denis . os a3 er 
Treaty with the king of Congo negotiated by M. 
Brazza ratified Z . : 3 Ps Nov 


Death of Louis Blane . 5 s . » Cie. @ 
MM, Bontoux & Feder, directors of the ‘ Union 


} ae - Bete ; 


FRANCE. 


.Générale” (a financial company established in 
878, and patronised by the legitimists, clergy, 
and the middle classes), sentenced to impr ison. 


300 


‘ment and fines for gross frauds, which caused _ 


very great universal ‘distress (it stopped 5 Jan.) 


o Dee. 
ince Krapotkine, anarchist, arrested Bronte ar Dec. 
‘ath of M. Gambetta, aged 44, after several weeks 
illness through an accidental wound, midnight, 

31 Dec. 


‘s 


ls grand state funeral at Paris 6 Jan. 
sath of gen, Chanzy, aged about 60 5 Jan. 
ath of gen. Vinoy Jan. 


‘jal of Krapotkine and about 50 anarchists begun 
at Lyons 5 8 Jan. 
-} sentenced to 5 years” imprisonment and fine, 
others to imprisonment : g Jan, 
_mbetta’s yemains removed and re-buried at Nice 
Jan. 

ince Napoleon publishes a manifesto Benet the 
“government ; arrested 16 Jan. 
Floquet’s bill for expulsion of Bourbons and 
‘Bonapartes . 16 Jan. 


‘ivernment pill of M. de Fallieres for power to 


20 Jan. 


axpelthe same . “ ° 


nisterial crisis : 23 Jan, 
. pulsion bill adopted by committee 5 Jan. 
. Duclere’s ministry resigned . 38 Jan. 


-nistry re-constituted under M. Falliéres 29 Jan. 
Fabre’s bill permitting princes to remain with 
‘leprival of civil rights, discussed, 29 Jan. ; passed 
oy the chamber (343 -163) r Feb. 
.ince Napoleon’s indictment “quashed ; released, 

Feb. 
tpulsion bill rejected by the senate ; amendment 
of MM. Say and Waddington adopted (265° 127) 3 
princes to be expelled only after trial 2 Feb. 
signation of M. Fallieres and ministry a Feb. 

Barbey’s bill empowering the pr esident to expel 
orinces when dangerous, adopted by the deputies, 
t5 Feb. ; rejected by the senate. - «17 Feb. 
sles Ferry (opportunist) forms a ministry 
(Gambettist); M. Jules Ferry (premier and 
-ninister of public instruction), M. Challemel- 
Lacour fee affairs), M. Waldeck-Rousseau 
interior), M. Martin Feuillé (justice), General 
Thibaudin (war), M. Charles Brun (marine), 
M. Tirard (finance), M. Raynal (public works). 
M. Meline (agriculture), M. Cochery (posts and 
telegraphs), M. Hérisson (commerce) . 21 Feb. 
‘cree for retirement of the Orleanist princes from 
the army in virtue of the law of 1834 (the duc 
YAumale, the duc de Chartres, and the duc 
YAlencon), approved by the deputies (295-103), 
24 Feb b. 
- Clémenceau’s motion for revision of the Consti- 
stitution rejected by the deputies 6 March, 
ien-air meeting of artisans out of work at Paris 
xcited to violence by Louise Michel the anar- 
‘hist and others; bakers’ shops rifled; checked 
dy police, 9 March ; many arrested to March, 
uise Michel arrested : 5 30 March, 
al of madame Monasterio and others for putting 
1er daughter Fidelia in a mad-house, and ill- 
sage ; case referred back to public prosecutor, 
March, 
‘ath of Louis Veuillot, ultramontane, editor of 
| Univers H 8 April, 
} rshal Bazaine publishes his defence at Madrid. 
‘uversion of Rentes bill (5 to 44) passed 27 April, 
iseum of revolution established at Versailles, 
20 June, 
| uise Michel sentenced to 6 years’ imprisonment, 
nd others to different terms - 23 June, 
tional féte ; colossal statue of the Hecublic un- 


‘overed ‘ 14 July, 
| Waddington, ambassador in London, appointed 
_ bout 16 July, arrives 23 July, 
-e chambers close . 2 Aug. 


2 inauguration of the monument (by M. Barrias) 
_ rected at Courbevoie to commemorate the defence 
| of Paris in 1870-1 12 Aug. 
|, ath of the oie de Chambord, aged eat 63, 
4 Au 

“tue of Lafayette unveiled at Lepuy 6 "a RepE: 
des royalist meeting at Paris; little excitement, 

20 Sept. 


” 


FRANCE. 


The king of Spain received by president Grévy at 


Paris ; hooted by the mob 29 Sept. 
Gen. Thibaudin, minister of war, resigns, o Oct. ; 
succeeded by gen, Campenon Oct. 


M.J ules Ferry declares for a Republic of « comma 
sense,” and opposition to the extreme ay at 
Rouen, 13 Oct.; and at Havre 4 Oct. 

The gov ernment awards 1,000l, to Mr. an (see 
Madagascar, 1883) : about 15 Oct. 

The chambers meet . 23 Oct 

Correspondence between France and China respect. 
ing Tonquin published in Times; China firm in 
resisting French encroachments. 29 Oct. 

Debate on Tonquin; votes of confidence in mtnta! 
try (339-160) . - 29-31 Oct.; 10, 18 Dec. 

M. Ferry becomes foreign minister on the retire- 
ment of M. Challemel- -Lacour ; other changes in 
the ministry "about 17-20 - Nov. 

Government defeated on Algeri ian colonisation (249- 


211) - 28 Dec. 
Death of M. Rouher, prime minister of Napoleon 
III. Feb. 


Industrial crisis in Paris ; * defeat of the government; 
a committee of inv estigation into the « condition of 
the working classes appointed (254-249) 4 Feb. 

Proposals for loan of 14,000,000/. issued 12 Feb. 

Government defeated on its seditious meetings bill, 


16 Feb. 
Death of Francois Mignet, French historian, aged 
about 87 - 24 March, 


Statue of Gambetta (by "Falquiéres) at Cahors, un- 
veiled by M. Jules Ferry. A 14 April, 
Municipal elections: radicals rather more than 
opportunists ; few of other parties May, 
Bill for revision of the Gonstitution (abolition of 

life senators, &c.) brought in by M. Jules Ferry, 
Prince Victor acknowledged chief of the gost 
partists ; his father publishes painful correspon- 
dence é June, 
Colossal statue of Liberty by ‘Bartholdé given to 
the United States of America unveiled by M. 
Jules Ferry at Paris : 4 July, 
Revision bill, modified by the senate, pccapied by 
the deputies ; . 31 July, 
Congress of senate and deputies meet at Ver sailles, 
M. Le Royer, president : 4 Aug. 
The revision of Be Constitution accepted ny the 
congress, 509-17 3 Aug. 
Excitement about he price ‘of bread at Paris and 
other places . : Oct., Dec. 
Wife of M. Clovis Hugues, a deputy, shoots Morin, 
a slanderous libeller, in the Palace of Justice ; he 
dies ; [she acquitted ! 8 Jan. 1885] a7, Nov. 
Credit for Tonquin war adopted by the nepae 
282-187, 28 Nov.; by the senate rt Dec. 
Resignation of gen. Campenon, war mininter 3 Jan. 
succeeded by gen. Lewal ev sidan 
Senatorial elections (67 republicans and 20 con- 
servatives returned) 2 25-26 Jan. 
The Chamber votes for engagement of unemployed 
workmen on public works . ; 5 Feb. 
The Ferry ministry resign in consequence of Fates 


in the chamber . 30 March, 
New ministry formed by M. Brisson 6 April, 
Peace with China, announced 7 April, 


1883 


” 
> 
” 


[For the war, see Tonquin and China and ADDENDA.] 


SOVEREIGNS OF FRANCE. 
MEROVINGIAN RACE. 
Pharamond (his existence doubtful). 


Salic Franks. 
. Meroveus, or Mérovee ; 
. Childeric ; son of Mérovée. 
. Clovis the Great, his son, real founder of the 
narchy. 
Childebert ; Paris. 


Il. 
3 Clodomir ; Orleans. 

Pr Thierry ; Metz; and 
PE Clotaire ; Soissons. 

534. Theodebert ; Metz. 


. Theodebald ; succeeded in Metz. 
. Clotaire I. ; sole ruler. 
dom divided between four sons: viz., 


561. Charibert, ruled at Paris. 


AA 


son-in-law of Clodion. 


His four sons divided the empire : 


. Clodion the Hairy ; his supposed son ; king of the 


m0- 


Upon his death the king- 


FRANCE. 


304 


FRANCE. 


561. Gontram, in Orleans and Burgundy. 

>» Sigebert, at Metz, and ) Both assassinated by 

>, Chilperic, at Soissons. Fredegond. 

575. Childebert II. 

584. Clotaire II. ; Soissons. 

596. Thierry II., son of Childebert ; in Orleans. 

»»  Theodebert II. ; Metz. 

613. Clotaire II. ; became sole king. 

628. Dagobert I. the Great, son of Clotaire II. ; divided 
the kingdom between his two sons: 

638. Clovis II., Burgundy and Neustria. 

»,  sigebert II., Austrasia. 

656. Clotaire III., son of Clovis IT. 

670. Childeric II.; sole king; assassinated, with his 
queen and hisson Dagobert, in the forest of Livri. 

», Thierry III. ; Burgundy and Neustria. 

674. Dagobert II., son of Sigebert, in Austrasia; assas- 
sinated 679. 

69x. Clovis III. (Benin: mayor of the palace, rules in his 
name ; succeeded by his brother). 

695. Childebert III., the Just ; Pepin supreme, 

711. Dagobert III., son of Childebert. 

715. Chilperic II., deposed by Charles Martel, mayor of 
the palace. 

717. Clotaire IV., of obscure origin, raised by Charles 
Martel to the throne; dies soon after; Chilperic 
is recalled from Aquitaine. 

720. Chilperic II. restored; shortly afterwards dies at 
Noyon; succeeded by 

>», Thierry IV., son of Dagobert III., surnamed de 
Chelles; died in 737. Charles Martel now reigns 
under the new title of ‘‘duke of the French.” 
Hénault. 

737. Interregnum, till the death of Charles Martel, in 741. 

742. Childeric 1II., son of Chilperic II., surnamed the 
Stupid. Carloman and Pepin, the sons of Charles 
Martel, share the government. 


THE CARLOVINGIANS. 

752. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel; he is suc- 

ceeded by his two sons, 

768, Charles the Great (Charlemagne) and Carloman; 
Charles crowned EMPEROR OF THE WEST, by 
Leo III., 800. Carloman reigned but three years. 

814. Louis I. le Débonnaire, EMprRor; dethroned, but 
restored to his dominions. 

840. Charles, surnamed the Bald, K1nc; EMPEROR in 
875; poisoned by Zedechias, a Jewish physician. 

877. Louis II., the Stammerer, son of Charles the Bald, 
KING. 

879. Louis III. and Carloman II. ; the former died in 
882, and Carloman reigned alone. 

884. Charles III. le Gros; a usurper, in prejudice to 
Charles the Simple. 

$87. Eudes, or Hugh, count of Paris. 

898. Charles III. (or IV.), the Simple; deposed, and 
died in prison in 929; he married Edgiva, 
daughter of Edward the Elder, of England, by 
whom he had a son, King Louis IV. 

922. Robert, brother of Eudes; crowned at Rheims ; 
Charles killed him in battle. Heénault. 

923. Rudolf or Raoul, duke of Burgundy ; elected king, 
but never acknowledged by the southern pro- 
vinces. Heéenault. 

936. Louis IV. d’Outremer, or Transmarine (from having 
been conveyed by his mother into England), son 
of Charles III. (or IV.); died by afallfrom his horse. 

954. Lothaire, hisson; reigned jointly with his father from 
952, and succeeds him at 15 years of age, under 
the protection of Hugh the Great ; poisoned. 

986. Louis V., the Indolent, son of Lothaire; also 
poisoned, it is supposed by his queen, Blanche; 
last of the race of Charlemagne. 


THE CAPETS. 

987. Hugh Capet, the Great, count of Paris, &c., eldest 
son of Hugh the Abbot, 3 July; he seizes the 
crown, in prejudice to Charles of Lorraine, uncle 
of Louis Transmarine. From him this race of 
kings is called Capevingians and Capetians. He 
died 24 Oct. 

996. Hele: Me , surnamed the Sage ; son; died lamented, 
20 July. 

1031. Henry I., son; died 29 Aug. 

1060, Philip I. the Fair, VAmoureux; son; succeeded at 
8 years of age; ruled at 14; died 3 Aug. 

1108. Louis VJ., surnamed the Lusty, or le Gros; son; 
died 1 Aug. 


TIS9s 


Ir8o. 


Louis VII. ; son; surnamed the Young, to dis 
guish him from his father, with whom he reig 
for some years; died 18 Sept. 

Philip II. (Augustus); son; succeeds at 
crowned at Rheims in his father’s lifetime; ¢ 
14 July. 


23. Louis VIII., Cewr de Lion; son; died 8 Novy. 


26. Louis IX.; son; called St. Louis; ascended 


. Philip VI., de Valois, the Fortunate ; 


throne at 15, under the guardianship of 
mother, who was also regent; died in his ea 
before Tunis, 25 Aug. 


. Philip Mee the Hardy; son; died at Perpign 
6 Oct. 
. Philip IV., the Fair; son; king in his 37th ye 


died 29 Nov. 


. Louis X.; son; surnamed Hutin, an old word 


headstrong, or mutinous; died 5 June. 


. John I., posthumous son of Louis X.; b 


15 Nov.; died 19 Nov. 
Philip V. the Long (on account of his statw 
brother of Louis; died 3 Jan. 


. Charles LY., the Handsome; brother; died 31 J 


1328. F 
HOUSE OF VALOIS. 


grandson 
Philip III. ; died 23 Aug. 


. John II. the Good; son; died suddenly in the Sa’ 


in London, 8 April. : 


. Charles V., the Wise; son; died 16 Sept. 

. Charles VI. the Beloved; son; died 21 Oct. 

. Charles VII., the Victorious; son; died 22 July 
. Louis XI. ; son; able but cruel; died 30 Aug. 

. Charles VIII, the Affable; son; died 7 April. 

. Louis XII., Duke of Orleans; the Father of 


People ; great-grandson of Charles V. ; died zJ 


. Francis J. of Angouléme; called the Father 


Letters ; great-great-grandson of Charles 
died 31 March, 


. Henry II.; son; died of a wound received a 


tournament at the nuptials of his sister with ‘ 
duke of Savoy, accidentally inflicted by the cor 
de Montmorency, ro July, 


. Francis II. ; son; married Mary Stuart, queen 


Scots; died 5 Dec. 


. Charles IX.; brother; Catherine de Medicis, 


mother, regent; died 30 May. 


. Henry III. ; brother; elected king of Poland; | 


of the house of Valois; stabbed by Jacq 
Clement, a Dominican friar, 1 Aug. ; died 2 Ai 
1589. 


HOUSE OF BOURBON. 


. Henry IV., the Great, of Bourbon, king of Navar 


son-in-law of Henry II.; murdered by Fran 
Ravaillac, 14 May. 


. Louis XIII., the Just; son; died 14 May. 
. Louis XIV., the Great, Dieudonné; son; di 


x Sept 


. Louis XV., the Well-beloved ; great-grandson; d 


20 May, 


. Louis XVI., his grandson; ascended the throne 


his 2oth year; married the archduchess Ma 
Antoinette, of Austria, May, 1770; dethron 
14 July, 1789; guillotined, 21 Jan. 1793, and] 
queen, 16 Oct. following. 


[Louis was executed Monday, 21 January, 1793, 


eight o’clock A.M. 


ry 
On the scaffold he said, ‘‘ Fren 


men, I die innocent of the offences imputed to me. 
pardon all my enemies, and I implore of Heaven tl 


my beloved France 


” At this instant Sante 


ordered the drums to beat, and the executioners 


perform their office. 


When the guillotine descend 


the priest exclaimed: ‘‘Son of St. Louis! ascend 


heaven.” 


The bleeding head was then held up, an 


few of the populace shouted, ‘* Vive la Republique 
The body was interred in a grave that was immediat 
afterwards filled up with quick lime, and a stro 
guard was placed around until it should be consume: 


1793. 


Louis XVII., sonof Louis XVI. He never reigne 
and died in prison, supposed by poison, 8 Ju 
1795, aged xo years 2 months. It is believ 
by some that he escaped to England, and liv 
there some time as Augustus Meves.* In x8 
a person calling himself Auguste de Bourb 


* He died insane, Jan. 1880, 


of FRANCK. 3 


| elaimed to be hisson. In France also Albert de 
Bourbon, son of one Naundorff, claimed to be 
son of Louis XVII, At a trial in Paris, when 
Jules Favre was his counsel, the verdict was 

strongly against his claim, 27 Feb. 1874. 

: 


THE FIRST REPUBLIC. 


2 The NATIONAL CONVENTION (750 members), first 

| sitting, 21 Sept. 

5. The Directory (Lareveillére Lépaux, Letourneur, 
Rewbell, Barras, and Carnot) nominated x Nov. ; 
abolished, and Bonaparte, Ducos, and Siéyes 

appointed an executive commission, Nov. 1799. 

». The ConsuLare. Napoleon Bonaparte, Camba- 
cérés, and Lebrun appointed consuls, 24 Dee. 
Napoleon appointed consul for ro years, 6 May, 
1802 ; for life, 2 Aug. 1802. 


FIRST EMPIRE. (See article Bonaparte Family.) 
[Established by the senate 18 May, 1804.] 


}. Napoleon (Bonaparte) I.; born 15 Aug. 
| He married, 


| ast, Josephine, widow of Alexis, vicomte de 
Beauharnais, 8 March, 1796 (who was divorced 
16 Dec., 1809, and died 29 May, 1814) ; 

end, Maria-Louisa of Austria, 2 April, 1810 (she 
died 17 Dec. 1847). Son, Napoleon Joseph, duke 
of Reichstadt, born 20 March, ;1811; died, 22 
July, 1832. 

He renounced the thrones of France and Italy, 
and accepted the isle of Elba for his retreat, 5 
April, 1814. 

| Again appeared in France, x March, 1815. 
Was defeated at Waterloo, 18 June, 1815. 
Abdicated in favour of his infant son, 22 June, 


1815. 
Banished to St. Helena, where he dies, 5 May, 
1821. (See France, 1840.) 


BOURBONS RESTORED. 

4. Louis XVIII. (comte de Provence), brother of 

5 Louis XVI. ; born 17 Nov. 1755 ; married Marie- 
Josephine-Louise of Savoy ; entered Paris, and 

took possession of the throne, 3 May, 1814; 
obliged to flee, 20 March, 1815 ; returned 8 July, 
same year ; died without issue, 16 Sept. 1824. 

¢ Charles X. (comte d’ Artois), his brother ; born g Oct. 
1757 ; married Marie-Thérése of Savoy ; deposed 
30 July, 1830. He resided in Britain till 1832, 
and died at Gratz, in Hungary, 6 Nov. 1836. 

[Heir : Henry, duc de Bordeaux, called comte de 

Chambord, son of the duc de Berry; born 2g 
Sept. 1820 ; married princess Theresa of Modena, 
Noy. 1846; no issue; styles himself Henri V. 
See France, 1870, et seq. 


HOUSE OF ORLEANS. (See Orleans.) 


2. Louis-Philippe, son of Louis-Philippe, duke of 
Orleans, called Egalité, descended from Philippe, 
duke of Orleans, son of Louis XIII. ; born 6 


1769. 


daughter of Ferdinand I. (1V.) king of the Two 
Sicilies ; (she died 24 March, 1866). Raised to the 
throne as king of the French, 9 Aug. 1830; abdi- 
cated 24 Feb. 1848. Died in exile, in England, 
26 Aug. 1850. 

{Heir: Louis-Philippe, count of Paris; born 24 
Aug. 1838.] 

SECOND REPUBLIC, 1848. 

|} revolution commenced in a popular insurrection at 

| aris, 22 Feb. 1848. The royal family escaped by 
ight to England, a provisional government was estab- 

shed, monarchy abolished, and France declared a 

} public, 

} wles-Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, declared by the 

| lational Assembly (19 Dec.) PRESIDENT of the republic 


| f France ; and proclaimed next day, 20 Dec. ; elected 
or ten years, 22 Dec. 1851. 


FRENCH EMPIRE REVIVED. (See Bonaparte.) 

zt. Napoleon Ii. (decreed to be so termed by 
Napoleon III. on his accession). Napoleon, 
Joseph, son of Napoleon I. and Maria-Louisa, 
archduchess of Austria; born zo March, 1811: 
created king of Rome. On the abdication of his 
father he was made duke of Reichstadt, in 
Austria ; and died at the palace of Schoenbrunn, 
22 July, 1832, aged 21.] 


Oct. 1773 ; married 25 Nov. 1809, Maria-Amelia, . 


5 FRANCISCANS. 


1852. Napoleon III. formerly president of the French 
republic, elected emperor, 21, 22 Nov. 1852; 
proclaimed, 2 Dec. 1852 ; surrendered himself a 
prisoner to the king of Prussia at Sedan, 2 Sept. 
1870 ; deposed at Paris, 4 Sept. ; arrives at Wil- 
helmshohe, near Cassel, 5 Sept. ; deposition con- 
firmed by the national assembly, 1 March ; he 
protested against it, 6 March, 1871 ; died at Chisel- 
hurst, England, 9 Jan. 1873; buried there 15 Jan. 
Empress : Bugénie-Marie (a Spaniard, countess of 
Teba), born 5 May, 1826; married 29 Jan. 1853. 
Heir : Napoleon -Eugéne-Louis-Jean-Joseph, son; 
styled Napoleon IV., born 16 March, 1856; killed 
in Zululand, 1 June, 1879; buried beside his 
father at Chiselhurst (the prince of Wales and 
other princes present), 12 July, 1879. See Mills. 

At the celebration of the féte Napoleon, 15 Aug., 
1873, the prince declared the policy of his 
family to be ‘‘ Everything by the people, for 
the people.” 

[On 18 Dec. 1852, the succession, in default of issue 
from the emperor, was determined in favour of 
prince Jerome-Napoleon and his heirs male. ] 


THIRD REPUBLIC. 

I. Louis Adolphe Thiers (born 16 April, 1797) appointed 
chief of the executive power, 17 Feb., and president 
of the French republic, by the national assembly, 31 
Aug. 18713; resigned, 24 May, 1873; died, 3 Sept. 1877. 

If. Marshal M. E. Patrice Maurice MacMahon, due de 
Magenta, elected president, 24 May; nominated for 
seven years, 20 Nov, 1873. 

Ill. Francois Paul Jules Grévy (born 15 Aug. 1813); 
elected 30 Jan. 1879. 


FRANCH, Is iz oF, see Mauritius. 
FRANCHE COMTE, in upper Burgundy, E. 


France, was conquered by Julius Cwsar, about 
B.C.; by the Burgundians, early in the fifth century, 
A.D.; and by the Franks about 534. It was made 
a county for Hugh the Black in 915, and received 
its name from having been taken from Renaud ITI. 
(1127-48), and restored to him. By marriage with 
the count’s daughter, Beatrice, the emperor 
Frederick I. acquired the county, 1156. Their 
descendant, Mary of Burgundy, by marriage with 
the archduke Maximilian, conveyed it to the house 
of Austria, 1477. It was conquered by the French, 
1668; restored by the treaty of Aix la Chapelle, 
2 May, 1668 ; again conquered ; and finally annexed 
to France by treaty, 1678. 


FRANCHISE. A privilege or exemption 
from ordinary jurisdiction, and anciently an asylum 
or sanctuary where the person was secure. In 
Spain, churches and monasteries were, until lately, 
franchises for criminals, as formerly in England; 
see Sanctuaries. In 1429, the ELECTIVE FRAN- 
CHISE for counties was restricted to persons having 
at least 40s. a year in land, and resident ; for recent 
changes, see Lteform. 


FRANCIS’ ASSAULT ON THE QUEEN. 
John Francis, a youth, fired a pistol at queen Vic- 
toria as she was riding down Constitution-hill, in 
an open barouche, accompanied by prince Albert, 30 
May, 1842. The queen was uninjured. Previous 
intimation having reached the palace of the inten- 
tion of the criminal, her majesty had commanded 
that none of the ladies of her court should attend 
her. Francis was condemned to death, 17 June, 
following, but was transported for life. He was 
liberated on ticket-of-leave in 1867. 


FRANCISCANS. Grey or Minor Friars, an 
order founded by St. Francis d’ Assisi, about 1209. 
Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and 
very austere regimen. About 1220 they appeared in 
England, where, at the time of the dissolution of. 
monasteries by Henry VIII., they had fifty-five 
abbeys or other houses, 1536-38. 


AA 


FRANCONIA. 


306 


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 


FRANCONIA, or FRANKENLAND (on 


the 


Maine), formerly a circle of the German empire, 
part of Thuringia, was conquered by Thierry, king 
of the Franks, 530, and colonized. Its count or 
duke, Conrad, was elected king of Germany, 912 ; 
and his descendant was the emperor Conrad III., 
elected 1138, and another duke. Franconia wasmade 
a distinct circle from Thuringia in1512. Atits sub- 
division in 1806 various German princes obtained 
apart; but in 1814 the largest share was awarded 


to Bavaria. 


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR originated in 
the emperor of the French’s jealousy of the greatly 
increased power of Prussia, through the successful 
issue of the war with Denmark in 1864, and with 
Austria in 1866. The German Confederation was 
thereby annulled, and the North German 'Con- 
federation established under the supremacy of 
the king of Prussia, to whose territories were 
further annexed Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nas- 


sau, Frankfort, and other provinces. 


This great 


augmentation of the power of Prussia was mainly 
due to the energetic policy of count Bismarck- 


Schénhausen, prime minister since Sept. 1862. 


In a draft treaty, secretly proposed to the Prussian 
government by the French emperor in 1866: ‘‘ x. 
The emperor recognises the acquisitions which 
Prussia has made in the last war; 2. The king of 
Prussia promises to facilitate the acquisition of 
Luxemburg by France ; 3. The emperor will not 
oppose a federal union of the northern and 
southern states of Germany, excluding Austria ; 
4. The king of Prussia, in case the emperor should 
enter or conquer Belgium, will support him in 
arms against any opposing power ; 5. They enter 
into an alliance offensive and defensive.” 

[This draft treaty was published in the Times, 25 
July, 1870. After some discussion, its authenti- 
city was admitted; count Bismarck asserting 
that it emanated entirely from the French em- 
peror, and that the scheme had never been 
seriously entertained by himself. ] 

In March, 1867, a dispute arose through the French 
emperor’s proposal for purchasing Luxemburg 
from the king of Holland, which was strongly op- 
posed by Prussia, as that province had formed 
part of the dissolved Germanic Confederation ; 
and the affair was only settled by a conference of 
the representatives of the great powers in London, 
at which the perfect neutrality of Luxemburg 
was determined, together with the withdrawal of 
the Prussian garrison and the destruction of the 
fortifications . ‘ : 3 2 . 7-11 May, 

Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (con- 
nected with the Prussian dynasty, and brother of 
Charles, prince of Roumania), consented to be- 
come a candidate for the throne of Spain, 4 July, 

This was denounced by the French government. 
Threatening speeches were made in the French 
chamber by the duc de Grammont, the foreign 
minister, and eventually, after some negotiation 
and the intervention of Great Britain, prince Leo- 
pold, with the consent of his sovereign, declined 
the proffered crown : ; . i2duly, 

The submission did not satisfy the French govern- 
ment and nation and the demand for a guarantee 
against the repetition of such an acceptance 
irritated the Prussian government, and led to the 
termination of the negotiations, the king refusing 
to receive the count Benedetti, the French 
minister . : A 5 ‘ A - 13 duly, 

Energetic but fruitless efforts to avert the war were 
made by earl Granville, the British foreign 
minister : : x , - about 15 July, 

War was announced by the emperor, with the 
hearty consent of the great majority of the 
chambers. Theleftorrepublican party opposed the 
war; M. Thiers and a few others only protested 
against it as premature . : : - 15 July, 

{After his surrender on 2 Sept., the emperor told 
eount Bismarck that he did not desire war, but 
was driven into it by public opinion. He appears 


1867 


1870 


>» 


> 


to have been greatly deceived as to the numerical 
strength of his army, and its state of preparation. | 
“‘ The greatest national crime that we have had the 
pain of recording since the days of the first 
French revolution has been consummated. Wat 
is declared—an unjust but premeditated war.”— 
Times, 15 July, 1871. 
(For details of the battles see separate articles. ) 
FRENCH ARMY, about 30c,000 :— 
1st corps, under marshal MacMahon. 
2nd corps, under general Frossard. 
3rd corps, under marshal Bazaine. 
4th corps, under general Ladmirault. 
sth corps, under general De Failly. 
6th corps, under marshal Canrobert. 
Imperial guard, under general Bourbaki. 
Commander-in-chief, the emperor ; general Le - 
second ; succeeded by marshal Bazaine. 


Prusstan ARMY, about 640,000 :— 

x. Northern, under general V6gel von Falcken 
about 220,000, defending the Elbe, Hanover 

2. Right, under prince Frederick Charles, | 
180,000. ; 

3. Centre, under generals Von Bittenfeld and 
Steinmetz, about 80,000. 

4. The left, under the crown prince of Prussia,: 
166,000. 

Commander-in-chief, king William; second, ¢g 

Von Moltke. P 

The North German army, at the beginning of At 
consisted, firstly, of 550,000 line, with 1,200 gum 
53,000 cavalry ; secondly, of 187,000 reserve, wit 
guns and 18,000 cavalry ; and, thirdly, of 205,000 
wehr or militia, with 10,o0co cavalry, making a 
total of 944,c0o men, with 1,680 mobilised gun 
193,000 horses. 

To these must be added, firstly, the Bavarians, | 
line, with 192 guns and 14,800 horses—25,o00 I 
with 2,400 horses, and 22,000 landwehr ; secondl 
Wiirtembergers—22,000 line with 54 guns and 
horses, 6,500 reserve, and 6,000 landwehr ; and, th 
the Badenese—16,o00 line with 54 guns, 4,000 re 
and 9,600 landwehr. 


All the German troops taken together as under ar 
present, 1,124,000 men. Aug. 1870. 

Four weeks previously, on the peace footing, they 
bered only 360,000. 


The French and Germans in this war were conside 
be equally brave and efficient ; but the French ge 
appear to have acted greatly uponimpulse. Th 
mans seem to have been invariably guided by ¢ 
matured plan, their tactics mainly consisting in 
ing vast masses to bear on the point where they 
anxious to prevail. From Saarbriick to Sedan, ) 
appears to have left nothing to chance ; and all] 
rangements were ably carried out. 


The causes of the early ruin of the French army 
“xz, the enormous superiority of the Germans in] 
to numbers ; 2, the absolute unity of their com 
and concert of operation ; 3, their superior mech 
in equipment and supplies; 4, the superior i 
gence, steadiness and discipline of the soldie 
superior education of the officers, and the das! 
intelligence of the cavalry.”—Quarterly Review. ° 

odare cost of the war to France, 395,400,000l. 
1875. 

War resolved on by the French government, 15 July 
declaration delivered at Berlin . . 19 July 

The north German parliament meet at Berlin, anc 
engage to support Prussia in the war 19 July 

Wiirtemberg, Bavaria, Baden, and Hesse Darm- 
stadt declare war against France, and send con. 
tingents to the army . : : ¢ 20 July. 

War proclamation of the emperor Napoleon, de. 
claring that the national honour, violently excited 

. alone takes in hand the destinies of th¢ 


country . ; : . “4 : . 23 July. 
Part of the bridge at Kehl blown up by the 
Prussians 23 July, 


Proclamation of the king that “love of the common! 
fatherland, and the unanimous uprising of the 
German races, have conciliated all opinions, an¢ 
dissipated all disagreements .... The war will 
procure for Germany a durable peace, and from 


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 


1is bloody seed will arise a harvest blessed by 
od—the liberty and unity of Germany,” 25 July, 
mmish at Niederbronn ; a Bavarian officer killed, 
26 July, 
of general prayer observed in Prussia, 27 July, 
emperor Napoleon joins the army ; at Metz as- 
umes the chief command, and issues a proclama- 
on declaring that the war will be long and severe, 
28, 29 July, 

ulse of a French attack at Saarbriick, 30 July, 
Badenese enter France at Lauterburg; Mr. 
‘insloe killed; some captured ; others escape 
ith valuable information . : . 3rduly, 
zlamation of the king of Prussia to his people, 
anting an amnesty for political offences, and 
resolving, like our forefathers, placing full 
ust in God, to accept the battle for the defence 
‘the fatherland” . A - F 31 July, 
leaves Berlin for the army, 1 Aug., and an- 
yunces that ‘‘allGermany stands united in arms” 
3 Aug. 

French government announce that ‘‘they 
ake war, not against Germany, but against 
‘ussia, or rather against the policy of count 
ssmarck” , 3 % : : : 2 Aug. 
French under Frossard bombard and take Saar- 
tick in the presence of the emperor and his 
n; the Prussians, dislodged, retire with little 
Sa 5 : = Fi b A . 2 Aug. 
duc deGrammont, French foreign minister, pub- 
‘hes a circular replying to Bismarck’s charges 
ainst France 3 : z ; 3 Aug. 
crown prince crosses the Lauter, the boundary 
France, and defeats the French under Frossard, 
orming the lines of Wissembourg and Geisberg ; 
neral Douay killed . : A : . 4 Aug. 
le of Woerth: in a desperate, long-continued 
‘ttle the crown prince defeats marshal MacMa- 
mand the army of the Rhine; they retire to 
iverne to cover Nancy . i F oe OnAlIps 
le of Forbach: Saarbriick recaptured, and For- 
ch (in France) taken by generals Von Gcoeben 
d Von Steinmetz, after a fierce contest; all the 
ench retreat - . 4 5 : +, 6 Aug: 
val Turr publishes, in a letter, statements of 
oposals by Bismarck for the annexation of Lux- 
ybourg and Belgium by France, in 1866 and 
1 oe ; 3 A , : 4 6 Aug. 
emperor, reporting these defeats, says, ‘‘ Tout 


‘ 


ut se rétablir” : “ A B . 7 Aug. 
Germans occupy Forbach, Haguenau, and Saar- 
-emines 2 : 7 Aug. 


jhal Bazaine appointed to the chief command 
the French army at Metz (about 130,000); 
Mahon has about 50,000 near Saverne ; Can- 
sert about 50,000 near Nancy 2 . 8 Aug. 

French iron-clads pass Dover for the Baltic, 
. g Aug. 
.vold occupied by the Germans 9 Aug. 
‘hal Bazaine takes command of the army at 
MZ. 2 5 . o Aug. 
sburg invested . ; | . eee OATS: 
ty with Great Britain guaranteeing the neu- 
lity of Belgium, signed on behalf of Prussia, 
Aug.; of France. 3 : 5 rr Aug. 
ed resignation of the Ollivier ministry 9 Aug. 

ministry constituted under general Cousin 
omtauban, comte de Palikao, war minister, 
| : to Aug. 
burg invested by the Germans . - ro Aug. 
king of Prussia, at Saarbriick, proclaims that 
le makes war against soldiers, not against 
ench citizens ” Pare . : ro Aug. 
_ tenburg capitulates to the Germans _10 Aug. 
Mahon’s army retreating upon the Moselle, 


ir Aug. 

little fortress, ‘“‘ La Petite Pierre,” evacuated, 
a rr Aug. 
munication with Strasburg cut off rz Aug. 


|2y occupied by the Germans without resistance, 
, 12 Aug. 
-Bavarians pass the Vosges . : . 12 Aug. 
king at St. Avold forbids conscription for the 
/ench army in territories held by Germans, 

13 Aug. 
shal Bazaine made commander of the army of 
eRhine. : : 4 ; ee ro Aste 


1870 


> 


> 
99 


> 


»”» 


” 


9 


99 


” 


29 


” 


9 


2) 


307 


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 


Bombardnent of Strasburg begun 5 14 Aug. 
The French government declare that ‘‘ there can 
be, for a moment, no question of negotiation of 
peace” . ; 2 ‘ : e . 14 Aug. 
Blockade of the German ports on the Baltic, from 
15 Aug., announced by the French admiral, 
14 Aug. 
Many French volunteer sharp-shooters (franes- 
tirewrs) take the field (not recognised as soldiers 


by the Germans) . - - about 14 Aug. 
Toul refuses to surrender . ; : 14 Aug. 
The emperor retires to Verdun Pyare Ag, 


Marshal Bazaine’s army defeated in several long- 
continued sanguinary battles before Metz (see 
Metz) :— 

1. Battle of Courcelles (Pange or Longeville) 
gained by Von Steinmetz and the rst army, 

14 Aug. 

2. Battle of Vionville or Mars-la-Tour, gained 
by prince Frederick Charles and the 2nd 
arni 4 ; 4 : A 16 Aug. 

3. Battles of Gravelotte and Rezonville, gained 
by the combined armies commanded by 


the king i : 7 : 18 Aug. 
French sortie from Strasburg repulsed; German 
attack on Phalsburg repulsed . . 16 Aug. 


MacMahon reaches Chalons, 16 Aug. ; joined by the 
emperor; his army between 130,000 and 150,000, 


zo Aug. 


The king appoints governors-general of Alsace and 
Lorraine . ; : : Z : 17 Aug. 
Energetic fortification of Paris. by general .Trochu, 
the governor, and the ‘‘defence committee” 
18 Aug. 

Estimated German losses: killed, wounded, and 
missing, 2088 officers, 46,480 men; up to 18 Aug. 
Severe bombardment of Strasburg 1g Aug. 
MacMahon’s army of the Rhine retreats as the 
Prussians under the king and crown prince 
advance; prince Frederick Charles opposed to 
Bazaine at Metz; [German armies in France about 
500,000; the French armies about 300,000; com- 
munications between marshals Bazaine and Mac- 
Mahon very difficult] . i . about 20 Aug. 


Lieut. Harth, a Prussian spy, tried and shot at 
Paris. SON eH Meer: : : 20 Aug. 
MacMahon raises his camp at Chalons 20 Aug. 


The troops extended along the line of the Marne, 
ar Aug. 


Exportation of food prohibited . : . 21 Aug. 
Bazaine at Metz said to be completely isolated, 


22 Aug. 


MacMahon at Rheims with his army, including the 
remains of the corps of Failly and Canrobert; he 
marches in hope of joining Bazaine, 23 Aug. ; the 
crown-prince and prince of Saxony start in pur- 
suit, 23 Aug. ; march upon Chalons 24 Aug. 

Prussian royal head-quarters removed from Pont a 
Mousson to Bar-le-Due (125 miles from Paris) 

24 Aug. 

The alleged violation of the neutrality of Belgium 
denied by its government A : 25 Aug. 

The Germans enter the arrondissement of Vassy, 

25 Aug. 

Germans repulsed in an attack on Verdun, 25 Aug. 

800 French national guards captured at St. Mene- 


hould - é : : : 3 25 Aug. 
Chalons occupied by the Germans . ee SeAUSe 
Capitulation of Vitry, a small fortress . 25 Aug. 


Formation of three German armies of reserve in 
Germany, and a fourth army in the field, under 
the crown-prince of Saxony, to co-operate with 
the crown-prince of Prussia against Paris, 26 Aug. 

Strasburg suffering much by bombardment, 

23-26 Aug. 

Powerful sortie of Bazaine from Metz repulsed, 


26 Aug. 
Phalsburg heroically resisting . ¢ 26 Aug. 
Thionville invested by the Germans 27 Aug. 


Engagement at Busancy, between Vouziers and 
Stenay: a regiment of French chasseurs nearly 
annihilated di A : : : 27 Aug. 

Two German armies (220,000) marching on Paris, 

28 Aug. 

Continued retreat of MacMahon’s army; severe 
fighting at Dun, Stenay, and Mouzon 28 Aug. 

Nicholas Schull, a German spy, shot at Metz 28 Aug. 


1870 


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FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 


Or 
oO 


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 


Vrizy, between Vouziers and Attigny, stormed by 
the Germans 
Municipal meetings at Berlin, Konigsberg, and 
other German cities , protest against foreign ‘inter- 
vention for peace : : 30, 31 Aug. 
MacMahon’s army, about 1 50, ooo, accompanied by 
the emperor, retreating northwards; part of it, 
under De Failly, surprised and defeated near Beau- 
mont, between Mouzon and Moulins; several other 
engagements, unfavourable to the French, oc- 
curred during the day. 30 Aug. 
Count Bismarck-Bohlen installed governor of ‘Alsace 
at Haguenau 30 Aug. 
The Gern mans enter Carignan ; - “attack the French in 
the plain of Douzy ; the French, at first success- 
ful, are defeated, and retreat to Sedan 31 Aug. 
A French army of old soldiers, about 100,000, are 
said to be forming near Lyons : . 31 Aug. 
Bazaine defeated in his endeavour to esc ape from 
Metz; after a fierce struggle, retreats into Metz, 
31 Aug. 1 Sept. 
Battle round Sedan: begun at 4 a.m. between 
Sedan and Douzy; the French at first successful ; 
after a severe struggle and dreadful carnage, the 
Germans victorious; MacMahon wounded, 5.30 
p.m. ; general de Wimpffen refuses to accept the 
terms offered by the king of Prussia t Sept. 
Capitulation of Sedan and the remainder of Mac- 
Mahon’s army; the emperor surrenders to the 
king (see Sedan) . : 2 Sept. 
Vigorous artillery action at Strasburg ; a sortie 
repulsed ° . 2 Sept. 
Revolution at Paris after the declaration ‘of the 
capture of MacMahon’s army; proclamation of a 
republic (see France) 4 Sept. 
Rheims occupied by the Germans and ae king, 
5 Sept. 
Jules Favre, the French foreign anietae. In a 
circular to the French diplomatic representa- 
tives, says, ‘‘ We will not cede either an inch of 
our territories or a stone of our fortresses” 
6 Sept. 
General Vinoy and a-corps sent too late to aid 


MacMahon ; retreat and arrive in Paris, 6, 7 Sept. 
St. Dizier occupied by the Germans . - 7 Sept. 
Strasburg invested by 60,ooomen . - 8 Sept. 
Verdun vigorously resisting . 8 Sept. 


The German army, in five corps, advancing on posits 
Sept. 
Laon surrendered to save the town from destruc- 
tion; by the accidental or treacherous explosion 
of a magazine seme of the German staff and many 
French perish : ‘ 9 Sept. 
Metz, Strasburg, Thionville, pieiepite Toul, 
Bitsche, and other fortified places holding out, 
Io ) Sept. 
Messages between belligerents transmitted by lord 
Lyons (at Paris) and count Bernstorff (Prussian 
minister) in London . . + g-10 Sept. 
German attack on Toul repulsed . - zo Sept. 
Bridge at Creil over the Oise blown up ._ 12 Sept. 
Seven German corps (about 300,coo men) approach- 
ing Paris, which is said to contain 300,000 com- 


batants : : -13 Sept. 
M. Thiers arrives in “London on a mission from the 
government . A - 13 Sept. 
Colmar occupied by the Germans . » 4 Sept. 


General Trochu reviews the troops in Paris, 13 Sept. ; 
delivers a stirring address; the daily guard 
ordered to be 70,000 14 Sept. 

Estimated German loss: 60, ‘oo killed and wanted 
between 20,000 and 30,000 sick; about 1000 
prisoners. » 25 Sept. 

French prisoners in Germany: 62 generals, 4800 
officers, 140,000 privates, about 15 Sept. 

Correspondence between count Bernstorff and earl 
Granville respecting neutrality, said to have 
been broken; denied by the earl 1-15 Sept. 

Siege of Paris begun; ingress and egress prohibited 


without a permit 4 - 15 Sept. 
Blockade of the Elbe and. Weser non - effective, 
15 Sept. 


Important circular of M. Favre, condemning the war 
and recognising the obligations of the country, 
17 Sept. 

Circular letters of count Bismarck, recounting the 
history of French aggressions on Germany, and 


29 Aug. 1870 


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asserting the necessity of obtaining material 
guarantees for the future safety of Germany, and 
removing the frontiers and point of attack further 


west 13, 16 Sept. 
Prussian head-quarters at Meux (20 miles from Paris) 
18 Sept. 


32 German merchant ships reported to have been 
captured by the French fleet upto . 18 Sept. 
Vessels sunk in the Seine and Marne, and other 
vigorous defensive measures adopted, 18, 19 Sept. 
Paris said to be completely invested; the fortifica- 
tions reconnoitred by the king, who has fixed his 
head-quarters at Baron Rothschild’s chateau at 
Ferriéres, near Lagny ‘ 19 Sept. 
Three French divisions under general Vinoy » tisele 
the Germans on the heights of Sceaux; repulsed 
with loss of 7 guns and 2500 prisoners : "the defeat 
attributed to the disorder of the Zouayes; the 
national guard behave well . AP cae Sept. 
Count Bismarck consents to receive Jules ase 
(about x6 Sept.); they meet at Chateau de la 
Haute Maison, 19 Sept. ; and at the king’s head- 
quarters, Ferrier es, near ‘La gny : 20 Sept. 
Jules Favre reports to the Prcihae SiR the result 
of his interviews with count Bismarck: Prussia 
demands the cession of the departments of the 
Upper and Lower Rhine and part of that of 
Moselle, with Metz, Chateau Salins and Soissons, 
and would agree to an armistice in order that a 
French constituent assembly might meet; the 
French to surrender Strasburg, Toul and Verdun 
(or Phalsburg according to Favre), and Mont 
Valérien, if the assembly meet at Paris; these 
terms are positively rejected by the French 
government . 21 Sept. 
Versailles and the troops there surrender, 19 Sept. ; 
entered by the crown prince of Prussia 20 Sept. 
A lunette captured at Strasburg . . 20 Sept. 
General von Steinmetz sent to Posen as governor- 
general ; prince Frederick Charles sole commander 
before Metz . é ‘ F i . 21 Sept. 
Sevres surrenders . . 22 Sept. 
The blockade of German ports raised ; officially 
announced in London . 3 . 22 Sept. 
The French government issue a circular expressing 
readiness to consent to an equitable peace, but 
refusing ‘‘to cede an inch of our territory ora 
stone of our fortresses ” 23 Sept. 
Three conflicts before Paris: at Drancy, Pierrefitte, 
and Villejuif; the two last reported favourable to 


the French F f 23 Sept. 
Toul surrenders after ‘a most vigorous resistance, 
23 Sept. 


Levée en masse of men under 25 ordered by the 
French government . 23 Sept. 
Germans repulsed i in conflicts before Paris ; ate by 
them to be unimportant , x ‘ 23 Sept. 
Verdun invested by the Germans . . 25 Sept. 
Desperate ineffective sallies from Metz, 
23, 24, 27 Sept. 
All the departments of the Seine and Marne occu- 
pied by Germans. ’ 26 Sept. 
The iron cross given by the crown prince of Prussia 
to above 30 soldiers beneath the statue of Louis 
XIV. at Versailles . . 26 Sept. 
Circular of Von Thile, Prussian foreign minister, 
stating that as the ruling powers in France 
decline an armistice, and as no recognised goyern- 
ment exists in Paris (the government de facto 
being removed to Tours), “all communications 
with : and from Paris can only be carried on so fax’ 
as the military events may permit, . 27 Sept. 
Clermont occupied by the Germans after ; brief 
vigorous resistance, overcome by artillery, 
27 Sept. 
Commencement of attack on Soissons . 28 Sept. 
Capitulation of Strasburg, 27 Sept. ; formally sur- 
rendered . “ ‘ . 28 Sept. 
Sortie of general Vinoy’ 8 army (at Paris) ; repulsed, 
after two hours’ fighting, crown prince present ; 
above 200 prisoners taken ; general Giulhan. 


killed . 4 . _ 30 Sept. 
Above 375,000 national guards said to be in Paris, 
o Sept. 


Conflict near Rouen; at first favourable to the 
French ; their loss 1200 killed and wounded ; 30> 
prisoners . 4 a : A ae Sept. 


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 


eauvais captured by the Germans ‘ 
antes occupied by the Germans. LezeOcb, 
‘reular from count Bismarck, disclaiming any in- 
tention of reducing France to asecond-rate power, 
x Oct. 
ne American general Burnside visits M. Favre, 
t Oct. 
irgeon-major Wyatt writes that Paris is well- 
‘provisioned, and nearly inexpugnable I Aue. 
Thiers’ fruitless visit to Vienna, 23 Sept. ; 
St. Petersburg, 27 Sept. ; dined with the a 
2 Oct. 
ae grand duke of Mecklenburg at Rheims ap- 
pointed governor of the country. conquered in ad- 
dition to Alsace and Lorraine . 2 Oct. 
Favre, in the name of the diplomatic body, 
requests count Bismarck to give notice before 
bombarding Paris, and to allow a weekly courier : 
the count declines both requests, but permits the 
passage of open letters : reported . 3 Oct. 
ount Bismarck in a circular corrects Tawe's re- 
port of the negotiations, and accuses the French 
government of keeping up the difficulties opposed 
to a conclusion of peace ; reported . a Oct: 
pernon and La Ferté occupied by the Germans 
after an engagement : Oct. 
he king’s head- -quarters removed to Versailles ; 
arrival : of the king, Bismarck, Moltke, and others, 
5 Oct. 
he Germans victors in several small engagements, 
2-6 Oct. 
eneral Treskow, in command of a German army, 
to advance into Southern France 5 Oct. 
olmar occupied by the Prussians for an hour, 
5 Oct. 
attle at Thoury ; General Reyan, with the ad- 
vanced guard of the army of the Loire under 
‘general La Motte Rouge, defeats the Germans 
between Chaussy and “ui and captures soine 
‘prisoners and cattle : SOc. 
ictitious manifesto of the émper or Napoleon III., 
entitled ‘‘Les Idées de ? Empereur,’ advocating 
peace on moderate terms, dated 26 Sept., pub- 
lished in the eee journal in London, La 
Situation, and in Daily News, 4 Oct. ; disclaimed 
by the emperor : 6 Oct. 
{, Thiers’ mission to for eign courts reported to be 
quite abortive . 6 Oct. 
art of the army of Lyons, under general Dupre, 
defeated by the Badenese under general Von 
Gegenfeld, near St. Rémy; French “loss, about 
1500, and 660 prisoners ; German loss, about 430, 


6 Oct. 
eneral Burnside leaves Paris in order to meet 
count Bismarek . i 7 Oct. 


reat sortie from Metz ; “the Germans Bateised 

40,000 French engaged ; repulsed after severe con- 
flicts ; French loss, about 2000 ; German, about 
600 . 7 Oct. 
stimated number of French prisoners in Germany, 
3577 Officers, and 123,700 men z A 8 Oct 
eu Breisach bombarded . 8 Oct. 
reton volunteers organising by M. EChabelinann 

volunteers in the west organising by general 


Charette (from Rome) . : 8 Oct. 
erman attack on St. Quintin YVigorously repulsed, 
Oct. 


ong despatch from count Bernstorff to earl Gran- 
ville, complaining of the British supplying arms 
to France . ‘ ; ‘ - 8 Oct. 
(. Thiers again at Vienna : ; 8 Oct. 
aribaldi arrives at Tours; enthusiastically re- 
ceived; reviews the national guard at Tours, 
Oct. 
‘irect mediation declined by Russia, Great Britain, 
and Spain. 10 Oct. 
‘russian circular to the European powers, regret- 
ting the obstinate resistance of the French govern- 
Ment to peace, and foretelling the consequences 
—social disorganisation and much starvation, 
Be) Oct. 
blis, near Paris, burnt for alleged treachery 
(killing sleeping soldiers) . : - ro Oct. 
{. Gambetta escapes from Paris by a balloon, 7 
_ Oct. ; in his proclamation at Tours, states that 
Paris possesses 560,000 troops ; that cannon are 
cast daily, and that women are making cartridges ; 


30 Sept. 1870 


23 


>? 


39> 


309 


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 


he urges unanimous devoted co-operation in 
carrying onthe war. : 
Part of the army of the Loire defeated at Arthenay, 
near Orleans, by Bavarians under Von der Tann ; 
about 20co prisoners taken i < xO Oct. 
Prussian attack on Cherizy repulsed to Oct. 
French reply to Bismarck’s circular on the negotia- 


tions . i . ro Oct. 
About 20 villages ‘bumt, and 1 50 peasants shot for 
illicit warfare A - up torr Oct. 
The French fleet appears off Heligoland . 1x Oct. 
3000 national guard mobilised at Rouen . x11 Oct. 
Three first shots fired against Paris. rz Oct. 


Orleans captured by gen. Von der Tann after nine 
hours’ fighting ; the army of the Loire defeated 


retires behind the Loire : A ee Oey 
Stenay captured by a sortie from the French garri- 
son of Montmédy . 4 Ege) ab: Oct. 


Gen. Bourbaki accepts the command at Tours ; 
gen. La Motte Rouge superseded in the command 
of the army of the Loire by gen. D’Aurelle de 
Paladines . . 12 Oct. 

Battalions of Amazons said to be forming in aa fe 

I2 Cc 

Favourable intelligence from Paris by balloons re- 
ceived . «12 Oct: 

Garibaldi appointed commander of the French 
irregulars . 7 . 12 Oct. 

Epinal captured by the Germans . ere OCU 

M. Arlés Dufour of Lyons appeals to the people of 
Great Britain for active sympathy in ee ing 


to obtain peace. : 2 Oct. 
Breteuil occupied by ‘the Germans after it ahaee 
resistance . 2 Oct. 


Slight engagements (termed victories by the Fr anes) 
before Paris 31 Cus 
All the Vosges district in arms ; no regular army ; 
the defiles occupied by the francs-tir eurs, 13 Oct. 
Reported successful sorties; Neu Breisach com- 
pletely invested . 13 Oct. 
Reported French success at Bagneux, near never 
the Prussians surprised . 21229) OCH 
St. Cloud fired on by the French and pene 
Toor 4 Oct. 

Frequent sorties from Metz . . about 14 Oct. 
Sharp fight at Ecouis; the French escape from 
being surrounded . ee rALOCbs 
Gambetta announces that the Germans are dis- 
lodged from their innermost belt round a 


4 Oct. 
M. Thiers arrives at Florence; Garibaldi at Veiane 
con . 14 Oct. 


Gen. Boyer, “ aide- de- -camp ‘to marshal Basie. ar- 
rives at Versailles and meets count Bismarck, 
14 Oct. 

Gen. Trochuw’s letter to the mayors of Paris, Ai Te- 
organising the national guard and repr yeas the 


ardent desire for immediate CuO: es 5 Oct. 
Bee 
Soissons surrenders after three weeks LS anraiene 
and four days’ bombardment . M1 OGL, 


French successes before Paris denied by the Prus- 
sians, who hold the same position as on 19 Sept. 
16 Oct. 

M. Gambetta proceeds to the army of the Vosges ; 
gen. Bourbaki appointed commander of the army 
of the north ; gen. Maziere appointed to a com- 


mand in the army of the Loire 17 Oct. 
Montdidier attacked by the Germans: 1 cae mopile 
guards captured. 7 Oct. 


The emperor Napoleon declares that “ era ain be 
no prospect of peace, near or remote, on the basis 
of ceding to Prussia a single foot of French 
territory; and no government in France can 
attach its signature to such a treaty and remain 
in power a single day” . 17 Oct. 

4000 French attacked and defeated near Chateaudun 
after ten hours’ fighting and the gure town 
stormed 2 3 8 Oct. 

Circular of Jules Favre, asserting that Erigele 
“coldly and systematically pursues her task of 
annihilating us. France has now no illusions 
left. For her it is now a question of existence. 

We prefer our present sufferings, our perils, 
and our sacrifices to the consequences of the 
inflexible and cruel ambition of our enemy. 
France needed, perhaps, to pass through a 
supreme trial—she will issue from it transfig gured,” 

18 Oc 


to Oct. 1870 


9? 


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 360 
Asserted repulse of the Germans at Fort Issy before Thionville invested i - t Nov. 
Paris . . 18 Oct. 1870 | The francs-tireurs dispersed in several slight en- 


Despatch from earl Granville to count Bismarck 
urging the negotiations for peace on terms lenient 

' to the French ee zOLOCt. 
Conclusive reply of earl Granville to count Bern- 
storff’s charge of breach of neutrality . 21 Oct. 
Vigorous sortie from Mont Valérien against Ver- 
Sailles ; ; an engagement at Malmaison ; the French 
retire after three hours’ fighting, losing about 
400 killed and wounded and 1oo prisoners ; Ger- 
man loss about 230 killed and wounded, 21 Oct. 
Chartres occupied by the Germans under Wittich, 
21 Oct. 

Intervention of the British government (supported 
by the neutral powers) to obtain an armistice for 


the election of a national assembly 1 Oct. 
Vesoul occupied by the Germans . 21 Oct. 
Many deserters from Metz d -  20—22 Oct. 
Schelestadt bombarded vigorously . 22 Oct. 
Engagement near Evreux . 22 Oct. 


Fighting at Vouray, Cussey, Ke. : in the Vosges 
French ‘‘ army of the east’ defeated 22 Oct. 
German attack on Chatillon le Duc repulsed se gen. 
Cambriels . . 22 Oct. 
M. de Keératry assumes command of the oaks in 
Brittany 23 Oct. 
St. Quentin taken by the Germans after half an 
~ hour’s cannonading, 21 Oct. ; evacuated by them, 
23 Oct. 
Reported failure of the suggestions concerning an 
‘ armistice, through Prussia demanding that 
France should consent to a cession of territory, 
24 Oct. 
Gambetta informs the mayors of towns that’ ““re- 
sistance is more than ever the order of the day,” 
24 Oct. 
Reported negotiations for the surrender os Mots: 
Oct. 
Thiers undertakes the mission to obtain an ar ares 
about 24 Oct. 
Capitulation of Schelestadt (2400 prisoners and 120 
guns taken) . 24 Oct. 
A ‘cirl calling her self a successor of J eanne dl’ ee at 
- ‘Pours . 24 Oct. 
Marshal Bazaine eurtentiets Metz and his army, 
- “conquered by famine” (see Metz and France, 
Oct.-Dec. 1873) . 27 Oct. 
The French defeated near Gray (Haute Sadne) by 
Von Werder . 27 Oct. 
About 2000 sick and wounded of both rations in 
Versailles 7 Oct. 
Le Bourget, near Paris, recaptured by the French, 


28 Oct. 
A safe-conduct given to M. Thiers to enter Paris for 
negotiation 28 Oct. 


Despatch from count Bismarck to earl Granville, 
expressing desire for the meeting of a French 
national assembly to consider terms of peace ; but 

’ stating that overtures must come from the French, 

28 Oct. 

Badenese troops defeated near Besancon ; Prussian 
attack on Formerie on the Oise repulsed 28 Oct. 

Gen. Von Moltke created a count on his zoth birth- 
day . 28 Oct. 

Vigorous proclamation of Bourbaki to the French 
army of the north . 29 Oct. 

The crown prince and prince Frederick Chasen 
created fleld-marshals . : 29 Oct. 

Dijon captured after bombardment . - 29 Oct. 

The franes-tireurs defeated by the Wiirtembergers 
between Montereau and Nangis . 29 Oct. 

Estimated: 856,000 Germans in France; French 
prisoners in Germany, 223,000 - 29 Oct. 

Le Bourget retaken by the Germans ; heavy icased 
on both sides; about 1200 Fr ench prisoners, 

30 Oct. 

Proclamation of Gambetta, accusing Bazaine of 
treason ; the war to goon . 

M. Thiers enters Paris 

Garibaldi defending Ddle (Jura) with about 7500 
men 31 Oct. 

M. Thiers receives powers from the French defence 
government to treat for an armistice, and has in- 
terviews with count Bismarck, 31 Oct. and rt Nov. 

Gen. Bourbaki attempting to form an army of the 
north, near Lille ‘ . Oct.—Noy. 


3? 


> 


9 


9? 


>? 


gagements between Colmar and Belfort, 2, 3 Nov. 
Letter from marshal Bazaine repelling the charge 
of treason : 2 Nov. 
Count Bismarck offers an armistice of 25 days— 
for the election of a French national assembly, 
3 Nov. 
Defeat of an attempted revolution in Paris: see 
France. 3 Nov. 
M. Favre declares to the national guard. that the 
government has sworn not to yield an inch of 
territory, and will remain faithful to this engage- 
ment . 3 Nov. 
Proclamation of Garibaldi to the army ot the 
Vosges, and appealing to other nations, 
about 3 Nov. 
“Campagne de 1870; ; par wn Officier attaché & 
état major-général” (a pamphlet ascribed to 
the emperor), appears in the Daily Toe 
Ov. 
Failure of the negotiation, as count Bismarck will 
not permit food to enter Paris during the armis- 
tice without any military equivalent ; M. Thiers 
ordered to break off negotiation . - 16 Nove 
Chateaudun recaptured by the French . 6 Nov. 
The Prussian semi-otficial journal says, ««The 
French government having refused to listen to 
reason the cannon will be resorted to for giving 
them a lesson” . . : . 7 Nov. 
Bombardment of Thionville . Nov. 
Circulars on the armistice negotiations—of M. 
Favre, 7 Nov. ; of Count Bismarek 8 Nov. 
The king’ s permission for the election of a French 
national assembly declined by the French govern- 
ment . 7 Nov. 
Orders that no one shall enter or quit Paris, 4 Nov. 
A Prussian column repulsed in an attack on the 
army of the Loire at Marchenoir 5 7 Nov. 
Capitulation of Verdun ‘ . 8 Now 
Seven persons, captured in balloons from Paris, sent 
to German fortresses to be tried by court martial, 
8 


Nov. 

The French fleet off Heligoland . 8 Nov. 
German corps, under Manteuffel, advancing on 
Amiens and Rouen . Nov. 


Firm circular from M. Favre to French diplomatic 
representatives, about . 8 Nov. 
The Germans enter Montbeliard (Doubs) g Nov. 
The Germans, under gen. Von der Tann, dctented 
between Coulmiers and Baecon, near Orleans, 


retire to Thoury . 9 Nov. 
M. Thiers’ report of the unsuccessful negotiations 
for an armistice . . dated g Nov. 


Reported naval victory of the Prussian steamer 
Meteor over the French steamer Bowvet off 
Havannah . 5 g Nov. 

Continued fighting ; Orleans retaken by consti 
D’Aurelle de Paladines; French losses, 2000; 
Germans about 7oo, and 2000 prisoners _ 10 Nov. 

Capitulation of Neu Breisach, 5000 prisoners and 


roo guns taken - F . ro Nov. 
The French repulsed near Montbeliard on the Swiss 
frontier to Nov. 


Von der Tann’s army reinforced by 30,000, NOW 
70,000, the grand duke of Mecklenburg com- 
mander; the Loire army about 150,000, but only 
I2,000 regulars . 12 Noy. 

Bankers at Berlin and. Frankfort arr’ ested for deal- 
ing in French war loan . . about rz Novy. 

Déle, near Dijon, occupied by the Germans, 


13 Nov. 
Calm, truthful proclamation of gen. Trochu, at 
Paris . 14 Nov. 


The armies in central France have been placed — 
under prince Frederick Charles and the grand 
duke of Mecklenburg . é c 14 Nov. 

Eleven French towns, 3653 guns, 155 mitrailleuses, 
nearly 500,000 chassepots, about go eagles and 
standards, and nearly 4,000,000l. in money, taken 
by the Germans. ‘ . up to 14 Nov. 

Montmédy completely invested s : r5 Nov. 

French sorties from Méziéres repulsed, 15 Nowe 
from Belfort repulsed 16 Nov. 

The grand duke of Mecklenburg repulses the army 
of the Loire near Dreux, which is captured by 
Von Treskow . ‘ 17 Noy. 


. . . 


ne ee EE EE UE nyynn nnn EnPnEI En anUNESEn ERED SR 


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 


sful French sortie from Méziéres, 500 Ger- 
s said to be killed : : 
ns victorious in an engagement near Cha- 
dun; French claim the success 18 Nov. 
tti Garibaldi said to have beaten 700 or 800 
at Chatillon . é : ; . 19 Nov. 
ational guard at Evreux repulse a German 
— : : ’ J 19 Nov. 
erman army underprince Frederick Charles 
the grand duke of Mecklenburg (135,000) 
to be retreating towards Paris 19 Nov. 
engirdled with a second line of investment, 
20 Nov. 

1 attempt to release La Fére repulsed with 
loss : : 5 ; : . 20 Nov. 

] balloons from Paris captured about 20 Nov. 
1 mobile guard defeated at Bretoncelles, 


' et Nov. 
wdment of Thionville begun . - 22 Nov. 
ecupied by the Prussians . ? . 22 Nov. 


Frederick Charles takes up a position near 
nl aa : s : : . 24 Nov. 
ville, in flames, capitulates, with about 2000 


gers : 5 c A 3 24 Nov. 
armans repulsed near Amiens and near Stagil, 
24 Nov. 


"e surrenders, after two days’ bombardment, 
-about 70 guns and 2000 men. 27 Nov. 
wibaldians defeated near Pasques (Cote d’Or) 
fon Werder. ‘ Fs s .27 Nov. 
rench army of the north defeated by Man- 
‘el between Villers Bretonneux and Soleur, 
‘Amiens. - “ : i . 27 Nov. 
s occupied by Von Geeben after a severe en- 
ment  . : : : : . 28 Nov. 
engagement near Beaune la Rolande (Loiret) 
reen part of the army of the Loire under 
urelle de Paladines and the Germans under 
tts Rhetz; prince Frederick Charles ar- 
3 and turns the day; the French retire; 
'y loss on both sides . A . 28 Nov. 
Kératry resigns his command, accusing M. 
‘betta of misconduct, 28 Nov. ; Bourbaki ap- 
ted to command an army corps 29 Nov. 
438 endeavours of the army in Paris and the 
y of the Loire to unite . 29 Nov.—4 Dec. 
3 from various parts of Paris repulsed with 

: is : - 4 A 2 29 Nov. 
sortie of 120,000, under generals Trochu and 
rot, who cross the Marne; severest conflict 
reen Champigny-sur-Marne, Brie-sur-Marne, 
Villiers-sur-Marne; the French retain the 
n possessions, but their advance is checked ; 
t loss on both sides (chiefly Saxons and Wiir- 
yergers engaged) . A é . 30 Nov. 
intest resumed at Avron; the Germans retake 
npigny and Brie; the French retreat 2 Dec. 


my of the Loire: Chanzy defeated by the 
d duke of Mecklenburg at Bazoche des 
tes, 2 Dec. ; near Chevilly (the French report 
e engagements indecisive) . : - 3 Dee. 
_ Frederick Charles dislodges an encampment 
\e forest of Orleans. : : A Dec. 
$+ bivouacks in the woods of Vincennes, 
‘e.: he issues a final order of the day, re- 
ng to two days’ glorious battles 4 Dec. 
il D’Aurelle de Paladines entrenched before 
ans; proposes to retreat; the government 
ses him, but yields; he determines to await 
attack; part of his army defeated by prince 
erick Charles, and the grand duke of Meck- 
urg; he retreats with about 100,000 men; 
ms threatened with bombardment; surrenders 
ee Re a iin 4° OC. 
ormans said to be in pursuit of D’Aurelle de 
dines (superseded) : “ : 5 Dec. 
prisoners, 77 guns, aud 4 gun-boats cap- 
lat Orleans ; s , A 5 Dec. 
| occupied by Manteuffel : 6 Dee. 
‘il order of the king of Prussia, ‘“‘ We enter 
‘ new phase of the war . . . Every attempt to 
vk through the investment or relieve Paris has 
[HR 6 Dee. 
‘rand duke of Mecklenburg attacks gen. 
“wy and the army of the Loire near Beau- 
-Y; indecisive, 7 Dec.; the Germans victo- 
3, taking about rroo prisoners and six guns, 


17 Nov. 1870 


> 


2” 


3? 


361 


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 


and occupying Beaugency (severe loss to Germans), 
Dee. 

Gen. Manteuffel’s army in two parts, one occupies 
Evreux, and marching to Cherbourg; the other 
marching to Havre. : : 3 8 Dee. 
Continued severe engagements between the Ger- 
mans and the army of the Loire; the defeated 
French retreat (7 battles in 9 days) 9, 10 Dee. 
Vigorous siege of Belfort; obstinately defended, 
9 Dec. 

Pamphlet (attributed to the emperor Napoleon) 
published under the name of his friend, the mar- 
quis de Gricourt, throwing the blame of the war 
upon the French nation early in Dee. 
Fighting along the whole line of the army of the 
Loire, under general Chanzy and others; it re- 
treats, but obstinately resists 5 5—ro Dec. 
Brilliant action by De Chanzy . : BE Decs 
The delegate government transferred from Tours to 
Bordeaux; Gambetta remains with the army of 
the Loire ; : : rz Dec: 
Dieppe occupied by the Germans E 12 Dec. 
La Fére threatened by Faidherbe, commander of 
the army of the north ; : ; 12 Dee. 
Phalsburg surrenders, subdued by famine; com- 
mencement of bombardment of Montmedy, 
12 Dec. 

Evreux and Blois occupied by the Germans, 13 Dec. 
Montmédy surrenders 4 : , . x4 Dee: 
Sharp engagement at Fréteval; which is taken and 
abandoned by the Germans : 14 Dec. 
Nuits near Dijon captured by the Badenese under 
Von Werder, after a severe conflict 18 Dec. 
The French government issue a circular against the 
propagation of false news . A . 20 Dee. 
Conflict at Monnaie: about 6000 French gardes 
mobiles driven back to Tours 4 . 20 Dee. 
Vigorous sortie from Paris repulsed—an artillery 
action . ; , 4 A A : 21 Dee. 
Tours partially shelled ; submits, but not occupied 
by Germans ; A : 2x1 Dee. 
Chanzy and part of the army of the Loire said to have 
reached Le Mans and joined the Bretons, about 
21 Dee. 

Seven hours’ battle at Pont 4 Noyelles between 
Manteuffel and the army of the north under Faid- 
herbe: both claim the victory; Faidherbe re- 
treats : ‘ ; 23 Dec. 
Six English colliers, said to have had Prussian per- 
mits, after delivering coal at Rouen, are sunk in 
the Seine at Duclair near Havre by the Prussians 
for strategic reasons é ; : 21 Dec. 
Explanation given by Bismarck and compensation 
promised . : S - 2 3 2 26: Dec, 
Chanzy, in a letter to the German commandant at 
Vendome, accuses the Germans of cruelly pillag- 
ing St. Calais, and, denying his defeat, says, ‘‘ We 
have fought you and held youin check since 4 Dec.” 
26 Dee. 

Trochu said to be making Mont Valérien a vast 
citadel . é : R F 3 2 27 Dec. 
Mont Avron, an outlying fort near Paris, after a 
day’s bombardment, abandoned and occupied by 


. ° 


the Germans . : é : ; 2g Dec 
Alleged defeat of the Germans by detachment of 
Chanzy’s army near Montoire 27 Dec. 


Several small engagements in Normandy—reported 
successful to the French . 28—31 Dec. 
Capitulation of Méziéres with 2000 men and 106 
guns . : 3 ° 0 : I, 2 Jan. 
Severe battles near Bapaume between the army of 
the North under Faidherbe and the Germans under 
Manteuffel and Von Geeben ; victory claimed by 
both, the French retreat : : 2, 3 Jan. 
Indecisive conflict near Dijon le Mans: between 
general Chanzy and prince Frederick bir it 
an. 


‘Daujoutin, 8. of Belfort, stormed by Germans, 6Jan. 


Bombardment of eastern front of Paris, and of the 
southern forts, 4 Jan. ; forts of Issy and Vanvres 
silenced ; : ; 2 : : 6 Jan. 

Fortress of Rocroy taken by the Germans, 5, 6 Jan. 

General Roy defeated near Jumiéges Jan. 

Von Gceben in the north, Manteuffel sent to the east 

about 7 Jan. 

Conflicts (in the east) between Von Werder and 
Bourbaki at Villarais, south of Vesoul 4g, ro Jan, 


1870 


FRANCS-TIREURS. 362 FRANKLIN. 


Bombardment of Paris, many buildings injured, 
and people killed : the French government appeal 
to foreign powers ps - 9,1oJan. 1871 
Capitulation of Péeronne with garrison . Ow aloes 
Chanzy retreating ; defeated near Le Mans by prince 
Frederick Charles and the grand duke of Mecklen.- 
burg : 5 . : 2 5 See Te) Tt eae 
Prince Frederick Charles enters Le Mans; after 6 
days’ fighting, (about 20,000 French prisoners 
made ; German loss about 3400) : T2/) ates, 
Vigorous sorties from Parisrepulsed . T3950 Alles 
Chanzy retreating, 14 Jan. ; defeated near Vosges, 
TS sO Als es, 
Indecisive conflicts between Bourbaki and Von 
Werder, near Belfort . : : 155016 delle 
St. Quentin recaptured by Isnard under Faidherbe, 


w6Jan. ,, 
Bourbaki defeated near Belfort after three days’ 
fighting, 15—17 Jan. ; retreats south 18 Jan. ,, 


The grand duke of Mecklenburg enters Alengon, 
yy A 
Bombardment of Longwy begun. Sey ANI es 
Faidherbe defeated near St. Quentin; after seven 
hours’ fighting; by Von Goeben, 4ooo prisoners 
taken . 4 ; ‘ 5 2 % IgJan. ,, 
Great sortie from Paris of Trochu and 100,o0oo men 
repulsed with loss of about rooo dead and 5000 


wounded Z : : ; : ‘ TOs) AUomlss 
Bourbaki hard pressed by Von Werder TO ALN, 
Armistice for two days at Paris refused 22 Jan. ,, 
Bombardment of St Denis and Cambrai 22Jan. ,, 
Faidherbe asserts that the German successes are 


exaggerated : a = ‘A ; 22 SAD Wiis 
Resignation of Trochu; Vinoy, governor of Paris, 
23,24 Jan. .,;, 
Favre opens negotiations with Bismarck 24Jdan._ ,, 
Longwy capitulates; 4000 prisoners, 200 guns, 
25Jan. ,, 
Letter from M. Guizot to Mr. Gladstone proposing 
the demolition of fortresses on both sides of the 
Rhine ; and the maintenance of the balance of 


power by congresses ; published 3 26Jan. ,, 
Capitulation of Paris ; armistice for 21 days signed 
by count Bismarck and Jules Favre 28 Jan. ,, 


The forts round Paris occupied by the Germans, 
2g Jan. ,, 

Advance of German troops into France suspended, 
30Jan. ,, 

Bourbaki and his army about 80,000, driven by 

Manteuffel into Switzerland near Pontarlior, about 


6000 having been captured. 30 Jan., 1 Feb. 4, 
French loss about 350,000 men, 800 guns up to Jan. ,, 
Dijon occupied by the Germans F a Feb/a .5, 


Belfort capitulates with military honours 13 Feb. ,, 
Negotiations for peace between Thiers and Bismarck 
22—24 Feb. ,, 
Preliminaries of a treaty accepted by Thiers, Fayre, 
and 15 delegates from the national assembly ; it 
includes cession of parts of Lorraine, including 
Metz and Thionville and Alsace less Belfort ; and 
payment of 5 milliards of francs, 200,000,000l., 
25 Feb., signed 26 Feb., accepted by the national 
assembly . “ ; : : : Te Marehss 55 
German loss in battles throughout the war; killed 
or died soon after, 17,570; died of wounds 
eventually 10,707; total killed and wounded 
127,867. 
German troops enter Paris and remain 48 hours, 
1—3 March, ,, 
They quit Versailles 2 : pera March} iiss 
Conference for peace open at Brussels, 28 March ,, 
Treaty of peace signed at Frankfort, ro May ; ratified 
by the French national assembly BO ageyai eae ar 


FRANCS-TIREURS, free shooters, took an 
active part in the Franco-Prussian war from about 
14 Aug. 1870; and more especially after the sur- 
render of MacMahon’s army at Sedan, 2 Sept. 
Their conduct was much censured. 


FRANKENHAUSEN, N. Germany: near 
this place Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and his allies 
defeated the insurgent peasantry headed by Munzer 
the anabaptist, 15 May, 1525. 

FRANKFORT-oON-THE-MAIN, central Ger- 


many, founded in the 5th century; was the resi- 


dence of Charlemagne in 794; walled by 
838; a capital city, 843; an imperial city, 1 


Union of Frankfort : treaty between France, Swe¢ 
Prussia, and other German states led to war y 
Austria f ; é a 5 22 

Frankfort captured by the French by a surpi 

e 


2 
Captured by Custine, 28 Oct.; retaken by 
Prussians ; : 3 < 5 é 2 

Bombarded by the French ; surrendered to Kle 
16d 

Made part of the confederation of the Rhine 

A grand duchy under Carl von Dalberg i 
Republic restored; appointed capital of the | 
manic confederation 5 ; . % F 
Vain attempts at insurrection by students, Aj 
] 


Lo3o0. Z : < a 0 E 
The Frankfort diet publish a federative constitut 
o Ma 
The plenipotentiaries of Austria, Bayar Sax 
Hanover, Wiirtemberg, Mecklenburg, &c., | 
constitute themselves the council of the Germ 
diet $ 2 : ' ; & : I 
The German sovereigns (excepting the kin; 
Prussia) met at Frankfort (at the invitatior 
the emperor of Austria), to consider a pla: 
federal reform, 17 Aug.; the plan was 
accepted by Prussia : : oy ee 
Meeting of diet of Germanic confederation ; | 
demn the treaty of Gastein > Th 
The diet adopts the Austrian motion, that Pru 
has broken the treaty ; the Prussian representa 
declares the confederation at an end, and prop 


anew confederation . ‘ * ; 14d 
Entered by the Prussians, who exact heavy supp 
16d 


Annexed to Prussia by law of 20 Sept. ; promulg 
at Frankfort; (the legislative corps and tr: 
citizens protest againstit) . 5 8 

Visited by the king of Prussia ; an ancient cathe 
St. Bartholomew (founded 1315, completed 1: 
destroyed by fire. : 5 2 14, 15 4 

Frankfort supported Prussia in the war J 

Treaty of peace between France and Germans, sig 
here ‘ ; : 4 A ‘ - Teg 

Riots through rise in price of beer; suppre 
by N. German soldiers: 37 of the people kil 
about 100 wounded S . 21, 22A 

Population in 1880, 136,819 ; see Germany. 


FRANKFORT - oN-THE-ODER ( 
many) ; a member of the Hanseatic league ; 
finch from marauders in the middle ages 
the thirty years’ war. The university was 
in 1506, and incorporated with that of Bi 
1811. Near Frankfort, 12 Aug, 1759, Fre 
Prussia was defeated by the Russians and At 
see Cunnersdorf. 


FRANKING LETTERS, passing let 
of postage, was claimed by parliament abo 
The privilege was restricted in 1839, and a 
after the introduction of the uniform penny 
10 Jan. 1840. The queen was amongst - 
to relinquish her privilege. 


FRANKLIN, the English freeholder 
middle ages; see ‘¢the Franklin’s Ta 
Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales (written about 


FRANKLIN, SEARCH FoR. Sir Johr 
lin, with captains Crozier and Fitzjames, 1 
ships Hrebus and Terror on in 
persons), sailed on his third arctic exped 
discovery and survey, from Greenhithe, on 
1845; see North-west Passage. Their | 
patches were from the Whalefish islands, 
July, 1845. Their protracted absence caused 
anxiety, and several expeditions were 8¢ 
England and elsewhere in search of th 
coals, provisions, clothing, and other nee 
were deposited in various places in the At 
by our own and by the American govern! 


FRANKLIN. 363 FRANKLIN. 


‘yanklin, and numerous private persons. The 

ove, captain Parker, which arrived at Hull, 

1849, from Dayis’s Straits, brought intelli- 
(not afterwards confirmed) that the natives 

en sir John Franklin’s ships in the previous 

1, frozen up by the ice in Prince Regent's 
Other accounts were equally illusory. Her 
*s government, on 7 March, 1850, offered a 

d of 20,000/. to any party of any country, that 

1 render efficient assistance to the crews of the 

ig ships. Sir John’s first winter quarters were 

at Beechy island by captains Ommanney and 

ys 

(.S. Plover, capt. Moore (afterwards under 

. Maguire), sailed from Sheerness to Behring’s 

its, in search x : ; : 1 Jan. 1848 

id expedition under sir John Richardson and 

Rae, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, left 

land . ! 5 A ‘ é 25 March, ,, 

ir John Richardson returned to England in 

1849, and Dr. Rae continued his search till 1851. ] 

James Ross, with the Enterprise and Investi- 

r (x2 June, 1848), having also sailed in search 

sarrow’s Straits, returned to England (Scar- 

ugh) : : - ; 3 Nov. 1849 

» Enterprise, capt. Collinson, and Investigator, 

mander M‘Clure, sailed from Plymouth for 

ring’s Straits . i E é 20 Jan. 1850 

30th ships proceeded through to the eastward. ] 

%. Austin’s expedition, viz.: Resolute, capt. 

tin, C.B.; Assistance, capt. Ommanney ; 

epid, lieut. Bertie Cator; and Pioneer, lieut. 

rard Osborn, sailed from England for Barrow’s 

i 3 s ‘ bo es April, 5; 

teturned Sept. 1851. ] 

> Lady Franklin, capt. Penny; and Sophia, 

i. Stewart, sailed from Aberdeen for Barrow’s 

its 3 ‘ . ‘ ‘ * 13 April, ,, 

teturned home Sept. 185r1.] 

» AMERICAN expedition in the Advance and 

me, under lieut. De Haven and Dr. Kane (son 

he judge), towards which Mr. Grinnell sub- 

bed 30,000 dollars, sailed for Lancaster Sound 

Barrow’s Straits ; after drifting in the pack 

nm Baffin’s Bay, the ships were released in 

‘uninjured . 5 ‘ . : 25 May, 

3 Felix, sir John Ross, fitted out chiefly by the 

ison Bay Company, sailed to the same locality, 

22 May, ,, 


” 


teturned in 185r1.] 
M.S. North Star, commander Saunders, which 
sailed from England in 1849, wintered in 
stenholme Sound, and returned to Spithead, 
28 Sept. 55 
MLS. Herald, captain Kellett, C.B., which 
Sailed in 1848, made three voyages to 
ring’s Straits, and returned in 3 : 
Pim went to St. Petersburg with the intention 
tavelling through Siberia to the mouth of the 
rt Kolyma ; but was dissuaded from proceeding 
che Russian government fin. 18 NOV, 
‘he Enterprise and Investigator (see No. 4 above) 
not having been heard of for two years. ] 
t Edward Belcher’s expedition, consisting of 
ssistance, sir Edward Belcher, C.B. ; Resolute, 
tain Kellett, C.B.; North Star, capt. Pullen ; 
epid, capt. M‘Clintock; and Pioneer, capt. 
tard Osborn, sailed from Woolwich 15 April, 1852 
‘his expedition arrived at Beechy Island 14 
Aug. 1852. The Assistance and Pioneer pro- 
ceeded through Wellington Channel, and the 
' Resolute and Intrepid to Melville Island ; the 
. North Star remaining at Beechy Island.] 


| LADY FRANKLIN'S EQUIPMENTS. 

‘Franklin, aided by a few friends (and by the 
ismanian Tribute” of r50o0l.), equipped four 
editions (Nos. 12, 13, 14, 16). 

“runce Albert, capt. Forsyth, sailed from Aber- 

1 to Barrow Straits 4 * ~ 5 June, 1850 
teturned x Oct. 1850.] 
le Prince Albert, My. Kennedy, accompanied 
lieut. Bellot, of the French navy, and John 

‘ burn, sailed from Stromness to Prince 
-ent’s Inlet 5 3 . 4 June, 1851 
eturned Oct. 1352.] 


14. The Isabel, commander Inglefield, sailed for the 
head of Baffin’s Bay, Jones’s Sound, and the 
Wellington Channel, 6 July; and returned Noy. 1852 

15. Mr. Kennedy sailed again in the Isabel, on a 
renewed search to Behring’s Straits “ 

16. H.M.S. Rattlesnake, commander Trollope, des- 
patched to assist the Plover, capt. Maguire (who 
succeeded capt. Moore), at Point Barrow in April ; 
met with it ‘ ; : : Z Aug. 

17. The second AMERICAN expedition, the Advance, 
under Dr. Kane . é : - earlyin June, ,, 

18. The Phenix (with the Breadalbane transport), 
commander Inglefield, accompanied by lieut. 
Bellot, sailed in May; he returned, bringing des- 
patches from Sir E. Belcher, &c.  . 4 Oct ss 

The Investigator and sir EK. Belcher’s squadron 
were safe ; but no traces of Franklin’s party had 
been met with. Lieut. Bellot was unfortunately 
drowned in August while voluntarily conveying 
despatches for sir E. Belcher. Capt. M‘Clure had 
left the Herald (10) at Cape Lisburne, 31 July, 
1850. On8 Oct. the ship was frozen in, and so 
continued for nine months. On 26 Oct. 1850, 
while on an excursion party, the captain dis- 
covered an entrance into Barrow’s Straits, and 
thus established the existence of a N.E.—N.W. 
passage. In Sept. 1851, the ship was again fixed 
in ice, and so remained till lieut. Pim and a party 
from capt. Kellett’s ship, the Resolute (11), fell in 
with them in April, 1853. The position of the 
Enterprise (4) was still unknown. 

A monument to Bellot’s memory was erected at 
Greenwich. His “Journal” was published in 1854 

Dr. Rae, in the spring of 1853, again proceeded 
towards the magnetic pole; and in July, 1854, 
he reported to the Admiralty that he had pur- 
chased from a party of Esquimaux a number of 
articles which had belonged to sir J. Franklin 
and: his party—namely, sir John’s star or order, 
part of a watch, silver spoons, and forks with 
crests, &c. He also reported the statement of 
the natives, that they had met with a party of 
white men about four winters previous, and had 
sold them a seal; and that four months later, in 
the same season, they had found the bodies of 
thirty men (some buried), who had evidently 
perished by starvation; the place appears, from 
the description, to have been in the neighbour- 
hood of the Great Fish river of Back. Dr. Rae 
arrived in England on 22 Oct. 1854, with the 
relics, which have since been deposited in Green- 
wich hospital. He and his companions were 
awarded 10,000/. for their discovery. 

19. The Phenix, North Star, and Talbot, under the 
command of capt. Inglefield, sailed in May, and 
returned in : ‘ ‘ : ‘ ; Octisys 

Sir E. Belcher (No. rr), after mature deliberation, 
in April, 1854, determined to abandon his ships, 
and gave orders to that effect to all the captains 
under his command; and capt. Kellett gave 
similar orders to capt. M‘Clure, of the Investigator. 

The vessels had been abandoned 15 May* when 
the crews of the Phenix and Talbot (under capt. 
Inglefield) arrived (19). On their return to 
England all the captains were tried by court 
martial and honourably acquitted 17-19, Och 5 

Capt. Collinson’s fate was long uncertain, and 
another expedition was in contemplation, when 
intelligence came, in Feb. 1855, that he had met 
the Rattlesnake (16) at Fort Clarence on 21 Aug. 
1854, and had sailed immediately, in hopes of 
getting up with capt. Maguire in the Plover (1), 
which had sailed two days previously. Capt. 
Collinson having failed in getting through the ice 

ee OE Ce a 
* Capt. Kellett’s ship, the Resolute, was found adrift 

tooo miles distant from where she was left, by a 

Mr. George Henry, commanding an American whaler, 

who brought her to New York. The British government 

having abandoned their claim on the vessel, it was 
bought by order of the American congress, thoroughly 

repaired and equipped, and entrusted to capt. H. J. 

Hartstene, to be presented to queen Victoria. It arrived. 

at Southampton, 12 Dec. 1856 ; was visited by her majesty 

on the 16th; and formally surrendered on the 30th. When 
the ship was broken up a desk was made of the wood, 
and presented by queen Victoria to the president of the 

United States, 29 Nov. 1880. 


FRANKS. 


in 1850 with capt. M‘Clure, returned to Hong- 
Kong to winter. In 185: he passed through 
Prince of Wales’s Straits, and remained in the 
Arctic regions without obtaining any intelligence 
of Franklin till July, 1854, when, being once 
more released from the ice, he sailed for Fort 
Clarence, where he arrived as above mentioned. 
Captains Collinson and Maguire arrived in England 
ean g "4 ; ; ‘ . May, 
zo. The third AMERICAN expedition in search of 
. Dr. Kane, in the Advance, consisted of the 
Release and the steamer Arctic, the barque Eringo, 
and another vessel under the command of lieut. 
H. J. Hartstene, accompanied by a brother of 
Dr. Kane as surgeon, 3 ; t 31 May, 

{On 17 May, 1855, Dr. Kane and his party quitted 
the Advance, and journeyed over the ice, 1300 
miles, to the Danish settlement; on their way 
home in a Danish vessel, they fell in with lieut. 
Hartstene, 18 Sept.; and arrived with him at 
New York, 1: Oct. 1855. Dr. Kane visited 
England in 1856 ; he died in 1857.] 

The Hudson’s Bay Company, under advice of Dr. Rae 
and sir G. Back, sent out an overland expedition, 
June 1855, which returned Sept. following. Some 
more remains of Franklin’s party were discovered. 

21. The 18th British expedition (equipped by lady 
Franklin and her friends, the government having 
ceclined to fit out another)—the Fox, screw 
steamer, under capt. (since sir F. L. M‘Clintock, 
R.N. (see No. 11)—sailed from Aberdeen x July, 
1857; returned 2 : ; 5 22 Sept. 

On 6 May, 1859, lieut. Hobson found at Point 
Victory, near Cape Victoria, besides a cairn, a tin 
case, containing a paper, signed 25 April, 1848, 
by capt. Fitzjames, which certified that the ships 
Erebus and Terror, on 12 Sept. 1846, were beset in 
lat. 70° 50’ N., and long. 98° 23’ W.; that sir John 
Franklin died rz June, 1847; and that the ships 
were deserted 22 April, 1848. Captain M‘Clintock 
continued the search, and discovered skeletons 
and other relics. His Journal was published in 
Dec. 1859; and on 28 May, 1860, gold medals 
were given to him and to lady Franklin by the 
Royal Geographical Society. 

Mr. Hall, the arctic explorer, reported, in Aug. 1865, 
circumstances that led him to hope that capt. 
Crozier and others were surviving. 

A national monument by Noble, set up in Waterloo- 
place, was inaugurated, 15 Nov. 1866. It is 
inscribed to ‘‘ FRANKLIN the great navigator and 
his brave companions who sacrificed their lives 
in completing the discovery of the north-west 
passage, A.D. 1847-8.” 

Sir John Franklin discovered the north-west passage 
by. sailing down Peel and Victoria Straits, now 
named Franklin Straits. 

“‘ Franklin search expedition,” under lieut. Schwatka, 
of U.S. navy, in an overland expedition in summer 
and autumn of 1879, discovers some human 
remains of the crews of the ships and other 
things ; he set up memorials, and brought away 
the remains of lieut. John Irving, of the Terror ; 
and returned to Massachusetts about 23 Sept. 

Remains of lieut, John Irving buried at Edinburgh, 


364 


1855 


1859 


1880 


7 Jan. 1881 


FRANKS (or freemen), a name given to a com- 
bination of the North-western German tribes about 


240, which invaded Gaul and other parts of 


the 


empire with various success in the 5th century ; 


see Gaul and France ; see Franking. 


FRASER’S MAGAZINE, first appeared, 


Feb. 1830; discontinued Oct. 1882. 


FRATRICELLI (Little Brethren), a sect of 
the middle ages, originally strict Franciscan monks. 
‘Their numbers increased, and they were condemned 
by a papal bull in 1317; and suffered persecution ; 
but were not extinct till the 16th century. They 


resembled the ‘‘ Brethren of the Free Spirit.” 


FRAUDS, STATUTE OF. 29 Charles II., c. 3, 


1677. 
juryes.’’ 


‘“‘ An act for prevention of frauds and per- 


FREE CHURCH. 


FRAUDULENT TRUSTEES ACT 
21 Vict. c. 54, passed Aug. 1857, in conseque 
the delinquencies of sir John D. Paul, the 
Bank frauds, &c. It was brought in by 
Bethell, then attorney-general (afterward 
Westbury), and is very stringent. 


FRAUNHOFER’S LINES, see Spec 


FREDERICKSBURG (Virginia,N.An 
On 10 Dec. 1862, general Burnside and the 
army of the Potomac crossed the small dee 
Rappahannock. On 11 Dec. Fredericksbw: 
bombarded by the federals and destroyed. 
13th commenced a series of desperate unsuc 
attacks on the confederate works, defend 
generals Lee, Jackson, Longstreet, and 
General Hooker crossed the river with the re 
and joined in the conflict, in vain. On 15 
Dec. the federal army recrossed the Rappaha 
The battle was one of the most severe in the 


FREDERICKSHALD (Norway). ( 
XII. of Sweden was killed by a cannon-shot 
its walls, while examining the works. Hi 
was on his sword, and a prayer-book in his } 
II Dec. 1718, 


FREE CHURCH OF ENGLANI 
Episcopal Church founded in 1844, and enro. 
her majesty’s High Court of Chancery in 18€ 


The bishops are Benjamin Price (bishop primu 
resides at Ilfracombe ; Frederick Newman, at A 
Kent; and a missionary bishop, Henry Orion. 
at Hounslow. 

This church grew out of the Oxford tractarian 
ment of 1830. The first church was planted at 
town, Devon, by the rev. James Shore, M.A,, 
of the parish ; it was built by the duke of So 
and opened in 1844. Two other churches we 
blished in the same year—one at Exeter, and the: 
Ilfracombe. Butit was not till 1849 that much y 
was made, when an impetus was given to the mo 
by the late bishop of Exeter’s (Philpott) pros 
of Mr. Shore, for preaching in his diocese with 
licence. The work spread, and the organizat 
enrolled under a deed poll as an ‘‘ Episcopal C1 
But as *‘ Consecration” could not be obtained a 
president was elected till 1876, when the seces 
the right rev. bishop Cummins from the ‘‘ Pro 
Episcopal Church of America” (the first bis! 
which church were consecrated by the archbis 
Canterbury at Lambeth Palace chapel, in 17 
forded an opportunity, which was embrac 
obtaining episcopal consecration for the bis! 
the Free Church of England in the Canterbury 
episcopal succession. 

The services of the F. C. E. are conducted exa 
those of the evangelical section of the national 
excepting the omission of some words in the 
which express doctrines opposed to the Pro 
Reformation. 


FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLANI 
formed by an act of secession of nearly half th 
from the national church of Scotland, headed 
Thos. Chalmersand other eminent ministers, 1! 
1843. The difference arose on the question 
right of patrons to nominate to livings; see F 
age. The Free Church claims for the parisli 
the right of a veto. Much distress was endur 
first year by the ministers of the new © 
although 366,719/. 14s. 3d. had been subs 
In 1853 there were 850 congregations ; in 187; 
A large college was founded in 1846. In 13 
sustentation fund amounted to 108,638/. from 
was paid the sum of 1387. each to 700 minist¢ 


The Rev. Mr. Knight, censured for opinions 1 
specting prayer, seceded. : . 220¢ 
The Reformed Presbyterian Church (see Cai 
ronians), joined the Freé Church , . 25 Ma 


Tbe ay 
ou 


FREE CHURCH SOCIETY. 


or Robertson Smith, generally censured for 
rticle ‘‘ Bible, &c.,” in the ‘* Encyclopedia 
nnica,’”’ 1875, after long consideration by the 
bly, admonished only c A 27 May, 
or Robertson Smith expelled from his pro- 
ship, but to retain salary, by the general 
ibly (394—231) ‘ ‘ . 26 May, 1881 


1 CHURCH SOCIETY, or National 
tion for Freedom of Public Worship, esta- 
in 1857, to abolish the pew-rent system 
vive the weekly offertory to defray the ex- 
of public worship. The Free and Open 
1 Association was formed in 1866. 


TE COMPANIES anp LANCES, see 


Hert. 


TEDMEN’S BUREAUDS, established in 
uthern States of North America in March, 
0 protect the freed negroes. Having the 
; of martial law, these bureaus became very 
ive, and the act of congress making them 
gt was vetoed by president Johnson in 


1880 


TEHOLDERS. Those wnder forty shil- 
er annum were not qualified to vote for 
rs of parliament by 8 Hen. VI. c. 7, 1429. 
sacts have been passed for the regulation of 
nehise at different periods. The more recent 
he act to regulate polling, 9 Geo. IV., 1828 ; 
the disqualification of freeholders in Ireland, 
deprived those of forty shillings of this privi- 
assed 13 April, 1829; Reform acts, 1832, 
$68. County elections act, 7 Will. IY., 1836. 
andos Clause. 


wE HOSPITAL, Royat, Gray’s Inn- 
yunded in 1828. Patients admitted without 

In 1878 Mr. Wm. Birks Rhodes, ‘the 
low miser,”” bequeathed to the hospital about 


‘@ 


KE LABOUR REGISTRATION 
ETY, established for the benefit of em- 
; and non-unionist workmen, in opposition 
es’ unions, about July, 1867. 


HE LIBRARIES, see Libraries. 
EKEEMASONRY. Writers on masonry, 


lves masons, affirm that it has had a being 
since symmetry began, and harmony dis- 
her charms.” It is traced by some to the 
ig of Solomon’s temple; and it is said the 
ets from the African coast, Mahometans, 
titinto Spain, about the 9th century. Its 
\ction into Britain has been fixed at 674; 
Scotland 1140. Many of our Gothic cathe- 
te attributed to freemasons. The grand lodge 
« was founded 926. Freemasonry was inter- 
in England, 1424. In 1717, the grand lodge 
sland was established; that of Ireland in 
and that of Scotland in 1736. Freemasons 
xcommunicated by the pope in 1738; again 
med, 30 Sept. 1865. Freemasons’ Hall, 
Queen -street, London, built 1771;  re- 
and consecrated 14 April, 1869. Partly 
3 May, 1883. The charity instituted, 1788. 
ake of Sussex and the earl of Zetland 
ich twenty-five years grand-master of Eng- 
Earl de Grey, afterwards marquis of Ripon, 
stalled grand-master of the English free- 
in room of the earl of Zetland, 14 May, 

he marquis (on becoming a Romanist) re- 
I Sept. 1874. He was succeeded by the 
of Wales; installed in the Royal Albert 
8 April, 1875. The duke of Leinster, grand- 


368 


FRENCH LANGUAGE. 


master for Ireland for 60 years, died 10 Oct. 1874; 
succeeded by the duke of Abercorn. The prince of 
Wales was installed at Edinburgh as patron of the 
freemasons of Scotland, 12 Oct. 1870. As grand- 
master past and present of the mark masons, 
London, 8 Dec. 1883. Prince Leopold installed as 
master of the “lodge of antiquity” (at one time 
held by sir Christopher Wren), 25 June, 1879. 
Royal Masonic Institutions : for girls (Battersea) 

founded 1788 ; for boys (Wood Green), 1798; for 

the aged and widows. 2 ~ = : - 1842 


FREETHINKERS, professors of natural re- 


ligion ; see Deists. 


FREE TRADE principles, advocated by Adam 
Smith in his “ Wealth of Nations” (1776), tri- 
umphed in England when the corn laws were 
abehahed in 1846, and the commercial treaty with 
France was adopted in 1860. Richard Cobden, who 
was very instrumental in passing these measures, 
and termed ‘‘ Apostle of Free Trade,’’ died 2 April, 
1865. Since 1830 the exports have been tripled. 
See French Treaty. An agitation for free trade has 
begun in the United States. A reform league was 
formed at Boston, 20 April, 1869; and the move- 
ment became active in New York in Nov., and has 
since continued. A free-trade budget was brought 
in by the ministry in Sydney in 1873. A new free- 
trade league was inaugurated in London in Dec. 
1873 ; and one at Melbourne, Australia, Sept. 1876. 
Free trade warmly advocated in New South Wales, 
supported in New Zealand; opposed in Canada and 
in Victoria, Australia, 1877-80. Much agitation 
against free-trade in 1880-2, See Fair Trade. 
American Free Trade League formed at Detroit, 
June, 1883. Protection dominant in Europe, Feb. 


1885. 
FREEZING, see Congelation, and Ice. 


“FREIHEIT,” German newspaper. 
Trials, 1881. 


FRENCH ASSOCIATION ror THE AD- 
VANCEMENT OF THE SCIENCES was established 
by the general assembly, 22 April, 1872, its chief 
founders being MM. Balard, Claude Bernard, De- 
launay, Dumas, Pasteur, Berthelot, Wiirtz, and 
others. It held its first meeting at Bordeaux, 
5 Sept. 1872, when many foreign scientific men 
were present, M. De Quatrefages, president; second, 
Lyons, 21 Aug. 1873; third, Lille, 20 Aug. 1874; 
fourth, Nantes, 19 Aug. 1875; fifth, Clermont 
Ferrand, 19 Aug. 1876; sixth, Havre, 30 Aug. 1877; 
seventh, Paris, 22 Aug. 1878; eighth, Montpellier, 
28 Aug. 1879; ninth, Rheims, 11 Aug. 1880; 
tenth, Algiers, 14 April, 1881; La Rochelle, 23 
Aug. 1882; Rouen, 17 Aug. 1883; Blois, 3 Sept. 


> 


See 


1884. 
FRENCH CHURCH, see Church of France. 
FRENCH LANGUAGE is mainly based on 


the rude Latin of the western nations subjugated 
by the Romans. German was introduced by the 
Franks in the 8th century. In the oth the Gallo- 
Romanic dialect became divided into the Langue 
d’ oc of the south and the Langue d’ oil of the north. 
The dialect of the Isle of France became predomi- 
nant in the 12th century. The French language as 
written by Froissart assimilates more to the modern 
French, and its development was almost completed 
when the Académie Frangaise (established by Riche- 
lieu in 1634) published a dictionary of the language 
in 1674. The French language, laws, and customs 
were introduced into England by William I., 1066. 
Law pleadings were changed from French to English 
{ in the reign of Edward ILI., 1362. Stow. 


FRENCH NATIONAL SOCIETY. 366 FRIENDLY ISLES. 
PRINCIPAL FRENCH AUTHORS. : SPRING. 
Born Died Born Died | Germinal . - + Sprouts’month, 2x Mar. to: 
Chanson de Beaumarchais . 1732 1799 Floréal . : . . Flowers’month, 20 April to 
Roland iith century. | Marmontel . 1723 1799 Prairial. . . Pasture month, 20 May to ; 
Roman Mad. Cottin . 41773 1807 SUMMER. : 
Alexandre 12th century. | Delille. qe L730) |ISTS ie Messi OF ame . . Harvestmonth, 19 June to 
R. Wace Ro- St. Pierre. - 1737 1814 | Fervidor, or 
mandeBrut reth century. | De Staél . . 1766 1817 Thermidor .  ,. Hotmonth. .19 Julyto 
Roman de la De Genlis. . 1746 1830] Fructidor . - » Fruitmonth .18 Aug. to 
Rose rath century. | Sismondi . . 1773 1842 SANSCULOTIDES, OR FEASTS DEDICATED 1 


Villehardouin . 1160 1213] C. Delavigne . 1793 1843 
Joinville . . 1223 1319 | Chateaubriand. 1768 1848 


Froissart - 1333 1410| Balzac. - 1799 1850 
Monstreletabout1390 1453| D. F. Arago . 1786 1853 
Comines . - 1445 1509 |} Augustin 

Marot . - = 14905 1544 Thierry . . 1795 1856 
Rabelais . . 1483 1553 | Béranger . - 1780 1857 


Ronsard . . 1524 1585 | Hugene Sue. . 1804 1857 
Montaigne - 1533 1592| AlfreddeMusset1810 1857 


TBOza nies - . 1519 1605 | A» Eugéne 

Malherbe . - 1555 1628 Scribe . + 1791 1861 

Des Cartes . . 1596 1650} A. de Vigny .1797 1863 

Pascalicn: . 1623 1662} A. G. De Ba- 

Moliére PG ro22 1673 rante « ar7O2 /1866 

La Rochefou- A. F. Villemain 1790 1867 
eauld . . 1613 1680 | Victor Cousin . 1792 1867 

Corneille . . 1606 1684|A Dela Martine 1790 1869 


La Fontaine . 1621 1695 | Sainte Beuve . 1804 1869 
Mad. de Sevigné 1626 1696 | Alexandre 

La Bruyére . 1645 1696 Dumas =. . 1803 1870 
Racine. . . 1639 1699 | C. F. Montalem- 


Bossuet . . 1627 1704 bert. - 1810 1870 
Bourdaloue. . 1632 1704) P. Mérimée . 1803 1870 
Bayle 4 . 1647 1706 | Amédée Thierry 1797 1873 
Flechier - . 1632 1710] F. Guizot. . 1787 1874 
Boileau . . 1636 x711 | Jules Michelet. 1798 1874 
Feénélon -) . T6S5r r715| HB. Quinet ©. . 18031875 
Wertot . ~ £655) »x735 | A. Thiers) 20279794077 
Rollin . - .» 1662. 1741 | Lanfrey. ’. - 1828 1877 


Louis Blane . 1811 1882 
E. About . - 1828 1885 


Massillon . . 1663 1742 
Le Sage supe (LOCO MEL TAY 
Montesquieu . 1689 1755) EH. Renan. . 1823 
Voltaire . . 1694 1778|H. A. Taine . 1828 
J. J. Rousseau. 1712 1778 | Erckmann - 1822 
D’Alembert . 1717 1783{Chatrian . . 1826 
Diderot . - 1713 1784| Victor Hugo . 1802 
Buffon . : 1707 1788 


FRENCH NATIONAL SOCIETY, for 
social, commercial, and artistic purposes, founded 
in London 15 Jan. 1881. 


FRENCH NAVY, see Navy. 
FRENCH PROTESTANT HOSPITAL, 


founded in 1708 to maintain poor descendants of 
French protestant refugees, 40 females, 20 males. 


FRENCH RELIEF FUND, see Mansion- 
house Fund. The French peasant relief fund, 
originated by the Daily News, in Sept. 1870, was 
closed April, 1871. 


FRENCH REVOLUTIONS, see France, 
1789, 1830, 1848, 1870. 

FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CA- 
LENDAR. In 1792, the French nation adopted 
a calendar professedly founded on philosophical 
principles. ‘lhe first year of the era of the republic 
began at midnight, between 21 and 22 Sept. 1792; 
but its establishment was not decreed until the 
4th Frimaire of the year II., 24 Nov. 1793. The 
calendar existed until the roth Nivose, year of the 
republic XIV., 31 Dec. 1805, when the Gregorian 
mode of calculation was restored by Napoleon I. 
1800 was not a leap year. 


AUTUMN. : 
Vendémiaire . . Vintage month, 22 Sept. to 21 Oct. 
Brumaire . . . Fogmonth. . 22 Oct. to 20 Nov. 
Frimaire . s . Sleet month . 21 Nov. to 20 Dee. 
WINTER. 
Nivose . 2 . . Snowmonth . 21 Dec. to 19 Jan. 
Pluviose . Fs . Rainmonth . 20 Jan. to 18 Feb. 
Ventose : . . Windmonth . 19 Feb. to 20 Mar. 


Les Vertus . : z . The Virtues . ox 
Le Génie : x . . Genius + Sai 
Le Travail . : : . Labour . 5 aly 
L’Opinion . : -) «Opinion? i olen 
Les Récompenses : . Rewards A et 


FRENCHTOWN (Canada), was take: 
the British by the American general Wine 
22 Jan. 1813, during the second war wi 
United States of America. It was retaken 
British forces under general Proctor, 24 Ja 
the American commander and his troops wer 
prisoners. 


FRENCH TREATY, the term given 
treaty of commerce between Great Britai 
France, signed 23 Jan. 1860, at Paris, t 
Cowley and Richard Cobden and by the mi 
MM. Baroche and Rouher. The beneficial 
of this treaty compensated for the depres: 
trade occasioned by the civil war in North A 
(1861-5). The French assembly determine 
on 15 March, 1871, this treaty should cease 
months from that date. <A fresh treaty was 
at Paris 29 Jan. 1873. Free trade was son 
restricted, but the new French navigation |: 
relaxed. Negotiations for a new treaty be 
London, 26 May, 1881. See France, 1831-2 


FRESCO PAINTINGS are exeeut 
jae while fresh. Very ancient ones eé: 

gypt, Italy, and England, and modern ones 
British houses of parliament, at Berlin, anc 
places. The fresco paintings by Giotto and 
at the Campo Santo, a cemetery at Pisa, ex 
in the 13th century, are justly celebrated 
Stereochromy. 


FRESHWATER FISH, see Fish. 


FRETEVAL (Central France). Here R 
I. of England defeated Philip II. of Franc 
captured his royal seal, eenivee &e., 55 
1194. Fréteval was taken by the Germans, I. 
1870, and soon abandoned. 


FRIARS (from the French frére, a bro 
see Minorites, Carmelites, Dominicans, Franc 
and other orders. 


FRIDAY, the sixth day of the week; so 
from Friga, or Frea, the Scandinavian Ven! 
wite of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertilit 
riches, who with Thor and Odin compose 
supreme council of the gods. See Good Frid 


FRIEDLAND (Prussia). Here the 
Russians and Prussians were beaten by the F 
commanded by Napoleon, on 14 June, 1807. 
allies lost eighty pieces of cannon and about 
men; the French about 10,000 men. ‘The pe 
Tilsit followed, by which Prussia was ob 
surrender nearly half her dominions. 


FRIENDLY ISLES, in the Southern ¥ 
consist of a group of more than 150 islands, 
ing an archipelago of very considerable e 
These islands were discovered by Tasman, 10 
visited by Wallis, who called them Keppel 
1767; and by captain Cook, who named th 
account of the friendly disposition of the mi 


aie 


“FRIENDLY SOCIETIES. 


Subsequent voyagers describe them as very 
iS. 


ENDLY SOCIETIES, which originated 
clubs of the industrious classes, were sub- 
to slight control in 1793, and have been 
d by various enactments. Other acts were 
in 1855, 1858 and 1860; important ones, 
1875, 24 July, 1876 and 1882 In London, 
foe Friendly Society dates from 1687; the 
|, 1703; the Lintot, 1708. 


ENDS, see Quakers, and under Clergy. 


ENDS oF THE PEOPLE, an association 
in London to obtain parliamentary reform, 


ESLAND: East (N. Germany), the 
Frisia, formerly governed by its own counts. 
leath of its prince Charles Mdward, in 1744, 
ne subject to the king of Prussia; Hanover 
Lits possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was 
| to Holland by Bonaparte, in 1806, to the 
empire, 1810; and awarded to Hanover in 
[he English language is said to be mainly 
from the old Frisian dialect.—FRIESLAND, 
in Holland, was part of Charlemagne’s 
in 800. It passed under the counts of 
about 936, and was one of the seven pro- 
yhich renounced the Spanish yoke in 1580. 
m Chevauxc de Frise (or Cheval de Frise, a 
id Horse) is derived from Friesland, where 
ivented. 


ULI (Venetia), made a duchy by Alboin 
nbard, when he established his kingdom 
70. It was conquered by Charlemagne. 
1 Frenchman, made duke, was assassinated 
which was the fate of duke Berengarius, 
Italy and emperor, in 924. The emperor 
gave the duchy to his chancellor Poppo, 
h of Aquileia, in the 11th century; it was 
ed by Venice in 1420; annexed to Austria, 
) France, 1805 ; to Austria, 1814; to Italy, 


BISHER’S STRAITS, discovered by 
tin Frobisher, who tried to find a north- 
ssage to China, and after exploring the coast 
Greenland, entered this strait, 11 Aug. 
He returned to England, bringing with him 
ity of black ore, supposed to contain gold, 
iduced queen Elizabeth to patronise a second 
This led to a third fruitless expedition. 
mortally wounded at Brest, Nov. 1594. 


{BEL Socrery, established to promote 
dergarten system (which see), 1874; annual 
, 18 Jan. 1884. 


GMOREH, near Windsor, Berks. . A house 
ult by Nash, was the residence of queen 
e and afterwards of the duchess of Kent. 


situate the mausoleum of the late prince 
— See Albert. 


367 


HSDOBRF, a village near Vienna, lately | 


lence of the comte de Chambord, see France, 


NDE, Cryin Wars oF THE, in France, 
ninority of Louis XIV. (1648-52), during 
emment of queen Anne of Austria and 
_ Mazarin, between the followers of the 
id the nobility, and the parliament and 
jens. The latter were called Frondewrs 
), it is said, from an incident in a street 

In a riot on 27 Aug. 1648, barricades were 


un Paris, 


FROST’S INSURRECTION. 


FROSTS. The following are some of the most 


remarkable recorded: (see Cold.) 


The Euxine Sea frozen over for 20 days 
A frost at Constantinople, when the two seas there 
were frozen a hundred miles from the shore, 
Oct. 763—Feb. 
A frost in England on Midsummer-day is said to 
have destroyed the fruits of the earth . : 
Thames frozen for 14 weeks . : : z “ 
Dreadful frosts in England from Nov. to April 
The Cattegat entirely frozen ; : : 
Baltic passable to travellers for six weeks 
The Baltic frozen from Pomerania to Denmark 
In England, when all the small birds perished 
The ice bore riding upon it from Liibeck to Prussia, 
Severe frost, when large fowl of the air sought 
shelter in the towns of Germany : ao 
The river frozen below London-bridge to Gravesend, 
from 24 Nov. to Feb. ro 2 - ; ‘ ; 
The Baltic frozen, and horse passengers crossed 
from Denmark to Sweden . : 3 : rhe 
The winter so severe in Flanders that the wine 
distributed was cut by hatchets : E : 
Carriages passed over from Lambeth to Westminster 
Wine in Flanders frozen into solid lumps A ae 
Sledges drawn by oxen travelled on the sea from 
Rostock to Denmark : : : : 
Diversions on the Thames ; . 21 Dee. &e. 
The Scheldt frozen so hard as to sustain loaded 
waggons . ‘ : F : s - 
The Rhine, Scheldt, and sea at Venice frozen . 
Fires and diversions on the Thames . We 
The rivers of Europe and the Zuyder Zee frozen ; 
ice covers the Hellespont : P : 3 
Charles X. of Sweden crossed the Little-Belt over 
the ice from Holstein to Denmark, with his whole 
army ; A : - : : : i : 
The forest trees, and even the oaks in England, 
split by the frost ; most of the hollies were killed ; 
the Thames covered with ice eleven inches thick ; 
and nearly all the birds perished, Dec. 1683—Feb. 
“The people kept trades on the Thames as in a 
fair, till 4 Feb, 1684. About forty coaches daily 
plied on the Thames as on drye land, Bought 
this book at a shop upon the ice in the middle of 
the Thames.” Entry in the iemoranda of a 
Citizen. 
The wolves, driven by the cold, entered Vienna, 
and attacked cattle and men : cs 
Three months’ frost, with heavy snow, from Dee. 
to March 
A fair held on the Thames, and oxen roasted; frost 
continued . 3 : . 24 Nov. to g Feb. 
One lasted 9 weeks, when coaches plied upon the 
Thames, and festivities and diversions of all 
kinds were enjoyed upon the ice. (The “hard 
winter ’’) i 
From 25 Dee. to 
most terrible F : ; : : “irs 
One general throughout Europe; the Thames pass- 
able opposite the Custom House Nov. to Jan. 
One from 24 Dec. 1794, to 14 Feb. 1795, with the 
intermission of one day’s thaw . Sess walle 
Intense frosts A = fs . ; all Dee. 
Severe frost in Russia : : : ‘ 
Very destructive to the French army in its retreat 
from Moscow. Napoleon commenced his retreat 
on the 9th Nov. The men perished in battalions, 
and the horses fell by hundreds on the roads. 
France lost in the campaign of this year more 
than 400,000 men, 
Booths erected on the Thames; the winter very 
severe in Ireland ; 4 : . Jan. 
The frosts so intense in parts of Norway, that 
quicksilver freezes, and persons exposed to the 
atmosphere lose their breath 2 Jan. 
Very severe frost in London, 14 Jan. to 24 Feb.; 
and very cold weather up to 26 June she 
On 22 Feb. fires were made on the Serpentine, 
Hyde Park. A traffic on the ice of 35 miles long, 
was established in Lincolnshire . m 
Very severe frost, 20 Dec. 1860; to 
Very severe frosts . 3 ; ; + 
Very severe frost in Britain, begun 18 Jan. 
about 14 days. : 


16 Jan. and from 18 to 22 Jan.; 


5 J all. 
- Dee. 
lasted 


FROST’S INSURRECTION, see Newport. 


401 


764 


- 1035 
- 1063 


- 1076 
+ 1294 
- 1323 
+ 1402 
- 1407 


1426 
1433 
1434 
1460 
1468 
1515 
1544 


1548 
1564. 
1565 
1594 
1607 


1622 


1658 


1684 


1691 
1709 


1716 


1740 
1766 


- 1789 


1795 
1796 
1812 


1814 


1849 
1855 


186r 
1874 
188r 


FRUCTIDOR CONSTITUTION. 


368 


FRUCTIDOR CONSTITUTION ; that 
promulgated in France on the 5th Fructidor, 
year 3, or 22 Aug. 1795. See Directory for 
changes. 


FRUITS. Several varieties introduced into 
Italy, 70 B.c. e¢ seg. Many exotic fruits and flowers, 
previously unknown in England, were brought 
thither between 1500 and 1578, and very many in 
the present century. See Gardening, and Lowers. 


Almond-tree, Barbary, about . 1548 
Apples, Syria. : ; - 1522 
Apple, custard, N. America 2 11730 
Apple, osage, ditto - 1818 
Apricots, Epirus . . 1540 
Cherry-trees, Pontus a ys: 
Cherries, Flanders A . 1540 
Cornelian cherry, Austria . . 1596 
Currant, the hawthorn, Canada . « 1705 
Fig-tree, 8. Europe, before - 1548 
Gooseberries, Flanders, before - 1540 
Grapes, Portugal - 1528 
Lemons, Spain. : - 1554 
Limes, Portugal, about - 1554 
Limes, American, before . 1752 
Melons, before . - 1540 
Mulberry, Italy .. Saute - 1520 
Mulberry, white, China, about - 1596 
Mulberry, the red, N. America, before - 1629 
Mulberry, paper, Japan, before - 1754 
Nectarine, Persia . ; . - 1652 
Olive, Cape : , ‘ ‘ . 1730 
Olive, the sweet-scented China . pw 
Oranges. c 4 : ; SExSO5 
Peaches, Persia . - 1562 
Pears, uncertain ee ore 
Pine-apple, Brazils . 1568 
Pippins, Netherlands + 1525 
Plums, Italy . : : : - 1522 
Pomegranate, Spain, before - 1548 
Quince, Austria ‘ ; 11573 
Quince, Japan . ; é ; - 1796 
Raspberry, the Virginian, before . - 1696 
Strawberry, Flanders 2 : - 1530 
Strawberry, the Oriental, Levan + 1724 
Walnut, the black, N. America, before . 1629 


FUCHSIA, an American plant named after the 
German botanist Leonard Fuchs, about 1542. The 
Fuchsia fulgens, the most beautiful variety, was 
introduced from Mexico, about 1830. 


FUEL, see Coal, Bogs. In the autumn of 
1873, it was announced that Louis Rayneckers, a 
French peasant, had discovered that earth mixed 
with coal and a little soda made good fuel. 


FUENTES DE ONORO (central Spain). 
On 2 May, 1811, Massena crossed the Agueda with 
40,000 infantry, 5000 horse, and_about 30 pieces of 
artillery, to relieve Almeida. He expected every 
day to be superseded in his command, and wished 
to make a last effort for his own military character. 
Wellington could muster no more than 32,000 men, 
of which only 1200 were cavalry. He however de- 
termined to fight rather than give up the blockade 
of Almeida. After much fighting, on 3 May, night 
came on and stopped the conflict. Next day Mas- 
sena was joined by Bessiéres with a body of the 
Imperial guard; and on 5 May, made his grand 
attack. In all the war there was not a more dan- 
gerous hour for England. The fight lasted until 
evening, when the lower part of the town was 
abandoned by both parties—the British maintaining 
the chapel and crags, and the French retiring a 
cannon-shot from the stream. Napier. 


FUESSEN, Bavaria. By a treaty signed here, 
22 April, 1745, peace was made between Maria 
Theresa, queen of Hungary, and the elector of 
Bavaria, the latter renouncing his claim to the 
imperial crown and recovering his lost territories. 


FUNERALS. 


FUGGER, an illustrious German far 
present bead, prince Leopold Fugger Babe 
since 28 May, 1836), derives its origin fr 
Fugger, a master weaver in Augsburg - 
and its wealth by trade, and by money-le 
monarchs, especially the emperors. 


FUGITIVE OFFENDERS ACT 
27 Aug. 1881. 


FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL passe 
American legislature in 1850. It imposed 
1000 dollars and six months’ imprisonmer 
person harbouring fugitive slaves or aiding 
escape, This law was declared to be un 
tional by the judges of the superior court ¢ 
18553 was carried into effect with gre 
culty, and was not received by Massa 
It was repealed 13 June, 1864; see SJ 
America, 


FUGITIVE SLAVE CIRCULA: 


Slavery. 


FUGUE in Music (in which one part 
chase another), is described in Morley’s “I 
tion to Practicall Musicke,”’ 1597. Sebast: 
and Handel were eminent fugue-writers. 


FULDA (W. Germany), the seat of a 
founded by St. Boniface, the apostle of G 
in 744. It was made a bishopric in 175 
principality in 1803. Napoleon incorporate 
Frankfort in 1810; but in 1815 it was | 
Hesse-Cassel. 


FULFORD, Yorkshire. Here Hare 
drada of Norway, and Tostig, brother of I 
England, defeated the earls Edwin and 
20 Sept. 1066; and the people near York si 
to them ; see Stamford-bridge. 


FULLER CASE, see Jndia, 1876. 
FUMIGATION. Acron, a physician 


gentum, is said to have first caused great 
be lighted and aromatics to be thrown it 
to purify the air, and thus to have stor 
plague at Athens and other places in Greec 


473 B.C. 
FUNDS, see Stocks, and Sinking Fume 


FUNERALS. David lamented over $ 
Jonathan, 1056 B.c., and over Abner, I 
2 Sam.i. and iii. In Greece, Solon was 
who pronounced a funeral oration, acco. 
Herodotus, 580 B.c. The Romans pro 
harangues over their illustrious dead. e 
obtained a prize for the best Pmeral Or 
praise of Mausolus, 353 8.c. Popilia was ° 
Roman lady who had an oration pronounce: 
funeral, which was done by her son, Crass 
it is observed by Cicero that Julius Cesar 
like for his aunt Julia and his wife Cor 
Funeral Games, among the Greeks and _ 
included horse-races, dramatic representatio 
cessions, and mortal combats of gladiators. 
games were abolished by the emperor 0 
A.D. 47. A tax was laid on funerals in E 
1793. 

Church of England Funeral and Mourning Reft 

Association, founded at Sheffield, by earl N « 


and others . 5 , , . <S 
See Burials. 


Pusuic FuNERALS voted by parliament :— 


Duke of Rutland, in Ireland . F - EF 

Lord Nelson (see Nelson) - : . 99 
Wn. Pitt... ee 
Chas. Jas. Fox ie 10 0 


FURNACE. 


369 


FUTTEHGHUR. 


ard Brinsley Sheridan Waits vuly, x8r0 
ge Canning : 16 Aug. 1827 
e of Wellington .. 3 . 3 . 18 Nov. 1852 
ount Palmerston (at her majesty’s request), 

27 Oct. 1865 


URNACE, see Blowing-machines, Iron. 
URNITURE. Specimens of Egyptian fur- 


re, represented on the interior walls of the 
mids, appear in Rosellini’s ** Monument dell’ 
to,” 1832-44, Vol. II. Mr. J. G. Pollen’s 
cient and Modern Furniture and Woodwork ”’ 
he South Kensington museum, 1874, illus- 
d by photographs and engravings, was pub- 
d, ic, 1874. Many interesting examples 
be found in Fosbroke’s ‘“ Encyclopedia of 
iquities,” Vol. I. 1825. 


URRUCKABAD (N. India), a province ac- 
od by the East India company, in June, 1802. 
- the capital of the same name, 17 Nov. 1804, 
Lake defeated the Maharatta chief Holkar, and 


about 60,000 cavalry, himself losing 2 killed and 
about 20 wounded. 


FURS were worn by Henry I. about 1125. 
Edward III. enacted that all persons who could not 
spend 100/. a year should be prohibited this species 
of finery, 28 March, 1336-7. 


FUSILIERS. Foot soldiers, formerly armed 
with fusees with slings to sling them. The 7th 
regiment (or Royal English Fusiliers) was raised, 
II June, 1685; the 21st (or Royal North British), 
23 Sept. 1679; the 23rd (or Royal Welsh), 17 March, 
1088. Grose. 

FUSION of the French legitimists and Or- 
leanists into one monarchical party, 5 Aug. 1873. 
See France. 


FUTTEHGHUR (India). Here Nana Sahib 
massacred both the English detenders of the fort and 
their Sepoy assailants, July, 1857; and here the 
Sepoy rebels were defeated by sir Colin Campbell, 
2 Jan. 1858. 


GABELLE. 


GALOCHES. 


GABELLE (from Gade, a gift), a term applied 
to various taxes, but afterwards restricted to the 
duty upon salt, first imposed by Philip the Fair on 
the French in 1286. Duruy. Our Edward III. 
termed Philip of Valois, who exacted the tax 
rigorously, the author of the Salic law (from sad, 
salt), 1340. The assessments were unequal, being 
very heavy in some provinces and light in others ; 
owing to exemptions purchased from the sovereigns. 
The tax produced 38 millions of francs in the reign 
of Louis XVI. It was a grievous burden, and 
tended to hasten the revolution, during which it 
was abolished (1790). 


GAELIC, the northern branch of the Celtic 
languages, Irish, Erse or Highland Scottish, and 
Manx. The “ Dean of Lismore’s book” (written 
1511-51) contains Gaelic poetry; specimens were 

ublished, with translations, in 1862, by rev. T. 

{‘Lachlan. See Celts. 

Gaelic speaking population of Scotland, 1881, 231,602. 
The Gaelic Union, organised in Ireland, proposed the 
publication of a monthly journal, to be devoted to 

Irish literature, 1 Nov. 1882. 


GAETA (the ancient Cajeta), a fortified Nea- 
politan seaport, has undergone several remarkable 
sieges. It was taken by the French, 4 Jan. 1799; 
by the English, 31 Oct. 1799; by the French, 
8 July, 1806; and by the Austrians in 1815 and 
1821. Here pope Pius IX. took refuge, 24 Nov. 
1848, and resided more than a year. Here also 
Francis II. of Naples, with his queen and court, 
fled, when Garibaldi entered Naples, 7 Sept. 1860; 
and here he remained till the city was taken by 
the Sardinian general Cialdini, 13 Feb. 1861, after 
a severe siege, uselessly prolonged by a French fleet 
remaining in the harbour. Cialdini was created 
duke of Gaeta. 


GAGGING BILL, properly so called, meant 
to protect the king and government from the 
harangues of seditious meetings, was enacted 8 Dec. 
179% when the popular mind was much excited. 
In Dec. 1819, soon after the Manchester affray, an 
act was passed for restraining public meetings and 
cheap periodical publications; it was popularly called 
“a gagging bill.’’ Statutes coercing popular as- 
semblies, particularly in Ireland, have been also so 
designated. See Germany, Jan.—March, 1879. 


GAIETY THEATRE, Strand, opened 21 Dec. 
1868, Mr. John Hollingshead, manager. 


GAIKAS AND GALEKAS, see Kaffraria. 


GALAPAGOS, islands ceded to the United 
States by Ecuador, 3 Nov. 1854, the British, French, 
and other powers protesting against it. 


GALATIA, a province of Asia Minor. In the 
ara century B.c. the Gauls under Brennus invaded 

reece, crossed the Hellespont, and conquered the 
Troas, 278; were checked by Attalus I. in a battle 
about 241; and then settled in what was called 
afterwards Gallogrecia and Galatia. The country 
was ravaged by Cneius Manlius, 189 B.c., and was 
finally annexed to the Roman empire, 25 B.c., on 
the death of the king Amyntas. Paul’s Epistle to 
the Galatians was probably written a.p. 58. 


GALATZ (Moravia). The preliminaries of 
peace between Russia and Turkey signed here, 


It Aug. 1791, led to the treaty of Jassy, 9 
1792. The site of several conflicts, in whic 
erin © defeated the Turks, Nov. 1769; 10 
1828. 


GALICIA, a province, N.W. Spain, was 
quered by D. Junius Brutus, 136 B.c. and b 
Vandals A.D. 419; and was subdued by suce 
invaders. In 1065, on the death of Ferdina 
king of Castile and Leon, when his dominions 
divided, his son Garcia became king of Ga 
Ruling tyrannically, he was expelled by his bi 
Sancho; returned at his death in 1072; was: 
expelled by his brother Alfonso, 1073; and di 
prison in 1091. Alfonso, son of Urraca, que 
Castile, was made king of Galicia by her in 
He defended his mother, a dissolute woman, ag 
her husband, Alfonso VII., and at her deat 
1126, acquired Castile, and once more re-unite 
kingdoms.—Gaticta, Poland. East Galicia 
acquired by the emperor of Germany at the } 
tion in 1772; and West Galicia at that of 
The latter was ceded to the grand duchy of Ws 
in 1809; but recovered by Austria in 1815. 
appointment of count Goluchowski, a Pol 
governor, in Oct. 1866, gave much satisfacti 
the Poles, about 2,000,000 in this province 
Poland, note. 


GALIGNANI’S WEEKLY MESS 

R, English newspaper, published in P 

began in 1814, at the restoration. William G 
nani died Dec. 1882, aged 84. 


GALL, ST. (in Switzerland), The a 
founded in the 7th century, was surrounded 
town in the 1oth. St. Gall became a canton 0 
confederation in 1815. 


GALLERIES, 


Versailles. 
GALLEYS with three rows of rowers, 


remes, were invented by the Corinthians, 78 
Blair. The terms “ galley slave,’’ and ‘‘ conde! 
to the galleys,’’ arose from these sea vessels hs 
from 25 to 30 benches on each side, manned by 
or five slaves to each bench. In France the} 
a general of galleys, of whom the baron de la ¢ 
was the first, I 34 The punishment of the ga 
(galéres) has been superseded by the “ éra 
Jorceés,”’ forced labour, regulated by a law of 
the men being called “ forgats.’’ 


GALLICAN CHURCH, see Churcl 
France. 
A building for the Catholic Gallican church, was 9] 
by father Hyacinthe Loyson, g Feb. 1879. 


GALLIPOLI, the ancient Callipolis, a 
port in Turkey in Europe, 128 miles west of | 
stantinople. It was taken by the Turks in | 
and fortified by Bajazet I. The first division 0 
French and English armies proceeding agains 
Russians landed here in March and April, 1854 


GALLIUM, new elementary metal, discov 
by Lecoq de Boisbaudran, by means of the spe 
scope: reported to French academy of sciel 
20 Sept., and 6 Dec. 1875. 


GALOCHEHS, French for overshoes, form 
of leather; but since 1843 made of vulcanised I 


see National, Lowre, 


GALVANISM. 


371 


GARDENING. 


ber. The importation of Galoshes was prohibited 
3 Edw. IV. c. 4 (1463). 


JALVANISM ann GALVANO-PLAS- 
CS, see under Electricity. 


tALWAY (W. Ireland). The ancient settlers 
e were divided into thirteen tribes, a distinction 
yet forgotten. It was conquered by Richard de 
‘go in 1232. In 1690 Galway EN declared for 
¢ James, but was taken by general Ginckel soon 
r the decisive battle of Aughrim, 12 July, 1691. 
eis one of the new colleges, endowed by 
ernment, pursuant to act 8 & 9g Vict. c. 66 
5), inaugurated, 30 Oct. 1849, see Colleges and 
and, 1872-3. 

858 the sailing of mail steam packets from Galway to 
merica began ; but the subsidy ceased in May, 1861, 
rough the company’s breach of contract, which 
casioned much discussion in parliament. In July, 
63, the contract for the conveyance of mails from 
ulway to America was renewed, and 75,0001. voted for 
e purpose. The scheme was not successful. On 9 
ov. the steamer Anglia struck on the Black rock, and 
e mails were taken to Dublin. The last packet sailed 
Feb. 1864. 

Duke of Edinburgh warmly received here, middle 
“Aug. 1884. 

‘AMBIA, see West Africa. The proposed 
ion of Gambia to France in exchange for other 
itories was opposed in Jan. 1876, and eventually 
on up. 


tAMBOGEH, a medicine and pigment, brought 
1 India by the Dutch, about 1600. Hermann 
(677 announced that it was derived from two 
s of Ceylon, since ascertained to belong to the 
r Guttifera. 


‘AME LAWS are a remnant of the forest 
s imposed by William the Conqueror, who, to 
erve his game, made it forfeiture of property 
isable a wild beast, and loss of eyes, for a stag, 
<, or boar. The clergy protested against amelio- 
ms of these laws, under Henry III. The first 
e act passed in 1496. Game certificates were 
granted with aduty in 1784. The Game act 
72 Will. IV. ¢. 32), greatly modifying all pre- 
8 laws, was passed in 1831. By it the sale of 
e is legalised at certain seasons. By the Game 
thing Preventive act, passed in 1862, greatly 
2ased powers were given to the county police. 
nees to kill game (2/. a year) granted for the 
1856-7, 28,950; for 1865-6, 43,231; for 1869, 
93; received for licences, 1877-8, 196,3522. ; 
-4, 177,834/. Convictions under the game laws 
369, 10,345. 

ms for abolition made annually in commons 

Mr. P. Taylor, lost (160-87) . 2 March, 1880 
Ground Game act, to protect farmers from in- 

y to crops, 43 & 44 Vict. ¢. 47, passed 7 Sept. ,, 
osed reduction of licence to shoot game to 11. 

short periods : 4 April, 1883 


AMES. Candidates for athletic games in 
ce were dieted on new cheese, dried figs, and 
d grain, with warm water, and no meat. The 

'S were leaping, foot-races, quoits, wrestling, 
boxing; see Capitoline, Isthmian, Olympic, 

wan, Secular Games, &e. 

NG was introduced into England by the Saxons; 
loser was often made aslave to the winner, and 

lin traffic like other merchandise. Camden. 

)rohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and inter- 
ting tennis, cards, dice, bowls, &c., to inferior 
ple, except at Christmas time) ° ‘ . 1541 
ng-houses licensed in London 3 ai in zO20 

person losing, by betting or playing, more than 

/. at any one time, not compellable to pay the 

\1€, 16 Chas, II. . a ‘ 4 ‘ : : 
'§ or Other securities given for money won at 


663 | 


play not recoverable ; and any person losing more 
than rol. may sue the winner to recover it back, 
Cp aune Cer eee. . : 4 : 5 + » I7LO 
Act to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, 
when all private lotteries and the games of faro, 
basset, and hazard were suppressed ; ‘. 
The profits of a gaming-house in London for one 
season have been estimated at 150,000l. In one 
night a million of money is said to have changed 
hands at this place. Leigh. A bankrupt was 
refused his certificate because he had lost sl. at 
one time in gaming z : 17 July, 
Three ladies of quality convicted in penalties of 
sol. each for playing at faro . March rr, 
Gaiming-houses were licensed in Paris until A 
Amended laws respecting games and wagers, 8 & 9 
Vict. €. 109 (1845); by 3 Geo. IV. ec. 114 (1822), a 
gaming-house keeper is to be imprisoned with 
hard labour ; and by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 47, gaming- 
houses may be entered by the police, and all per- 


1739 


sons present taken into custody 1839 
Betting-houses suppressed : ‘ : . . 1853 
Public gaming-tables totally suppressed at Wies- 

baden, Homburg, &e. See Monaco 31 Dec. 1872 


Mr. Jenks, proprietor of the Park Club house, and 
others, heavily fined for gambling, 7 Feb. ; sen- 
tence confirmed 24 June, 1884 


GAMUT. The scale of musical intervals (com- 
monly termed do or wt, re, mi, fa, sol, la, to which 
st was added afterwards), for which the first seven 
letters of the alphabet are now employed, is men- 
tioned by Guido Aretino, a Tuscan monk, about 
1025. 


GANDAMAK (or GuNDAMUK),N. India. A 
treaty with Yakoob Khan, ameer of Afghanistan, 
was signed here by major Cavagnari, 26 May, 1879, 
principal articles, British to hold Khyber Pass and 
valleys of Kuram and Peshin, a British Resident 
at Cabul, annual subsidy of 60,000/. to the ameer, 
&c. The treaty was not carried out, see Afghan- 
istan, Sept. 1879. 


GANGES CANAL, for irrigating the country 
between the Ganges and the Jumna. The main 
line (525 miles long) was opened 8 April, 1854. 
The immense difficulties in its execution were over- 
come by the skill and perseverance of its engineer, 
sir Proby Cautley. In Oct. 1864, sir Arthur Cotton 
asserted that the work was badly done, and the in- 
vestment only paid 3 per cent. 


GANGS, see Agricultural Gangs. 
GAOL DISTEMPER, see Old Bailey. 
GAOLS, see Prisons. 


GARDENERS’ CHRONICLE, a weekly 
paper, long edited by Dr. John Lindley, first ap- 
peared, 2 Jan. 1841. 


GARDENING. The first garden, Eden, 
planted by God. Gen.ii. The Scriptures abound 
with allusions to gardens, particularly the Song of 
Solomon and the prophets; and Christ’s agony took 
place in a garden. Xenophon describes the gardens 
at Sardis; and Epicurus and Plato taught in gardens. 
Theophrastus’s History of Plants was written about 
322 B.c. Horace, Virgil, and Ovid derive many 
images from the garden (50 B.C. to A.D. 50); and 
Pliny’s Tusculan villa is circumstantially described 
(about A.D. 100). ‘The Romans introduced garden- 
ing into Britain, the religious orders maintained it, 
and its cultivation increased in the 16th century, 
when many Flemings came here to escape the per- 
secutions of Philip II. Miller’s dictionary was pub- 
lished in 1724; the Horticultural Society (which 
seé) was established in 1804; Loudon’s Encyclo- 
peedia of Gardening was first published in 1822, and 
his Encyclopedia of Plants in 1829; an act for the 
protection of gardens and ornamental grounds in 


BRB2 


GARIGLIANO. 


372 


GAS-LIGHTS. 


cities was passed in 1863. See Botany, Flowers, 
Fruits. Gardeners’ Royal Benevolent Institution, 
founded 1838. 


GARIGLIANO, ariver (S. W. Italy). After 
long waiting and refusing to recede a step, the great 
captain Gonsalvo de Cordova made a bridge over 
this river, 27 Dec. 1503, and surprised and “totally 
defeated the Frencti army. Gaéta surrendered a 
few days after. 


GAROTTE, a machine for strangling criminals, 
used in Spain. Many attempts to. strangle made 
: thieves (termed ‘garrotters,”) in the winter of 

1862-3, led to the passing of an act in July, 1863, 
to punish these acts by flogging, which proved 
effectual. 


GARTER, ORDER OF THE. Edward I., 
when at war with France and eager to draw the 
best soldiers of Eur ope into his interest , projected the 
revival of king Arthur’s round table, and proclaimed 
a solemn tilting. On New Year’s day 1343-4, he 
published letters of protection for the safe coming 
and returning of such foreign knights as would 
venture their reputation at the jousts and tourna- 
ments about to be held. These took place 23rd 
April, 1344. A table was erected in Windsor castle 
of 200 feet diameter, and the knights were enter- 
tained at the king’s expense. In I 346 Edward gave 
his garter for the signal of a battle that had been 
crowned with success (supposed to be Cressy), and 
being victorious on sea and land, and haying avid, 
king “of Scotland, a prisoner, he, i in memory of these 
exploits, is said to have instituted this order, 23 
April, 1349. See below. 


Edward III. gave the garter pre-eminence among 
the ensigns of the order ; it is of blue velvet bor- 
dered with gold, with the inscription in old 
French—* Honi soit qui mal y pense” (Evil be to 
him who evil thinks). The knights are installed 
at Windsor, and styled Hqwites aurece Periscelidis, 
knights of the golden garter. Beatson. 

The order until king Edward VI.’s time was called 
the order of St. George, the patron saint of 
England. His figure on horseback, presented as 
holding a spear, and killing the dragon, was first 
worn by the knights of the institution. It is sus- 
pended by a blue ribbon across the body from the 
shoulder. 

Instituted, according to Selden, 23 April, 1344; 
according to Nicolas, 1347; to Ashmole 

The office of “Garter king of arms of Englishmen” 
instituted : . between May and J Ape 

Additions to the statutes decreed . 

Order of the Garter in Ireland instituted ie 
Edward IV. , 1466; abolished 

Collar and George of the order instituted by 


Henry VII. - about 1497 
The statutes reformed by ‘or der, 28 May, 1519; 

issued 23 April, 1522 
The ceremonies altered in ‘consequence of the 

reformation ‘ 5 . 20 April, 1548 
Revision of the statutes : 1560 
The annual feast of St. George discontinued A . 1567 
The escocheon converted into a star . 1629 
The number of knights increased by seven - 1786 


The order reconstituted ; to consist of the sovereign, 
the prince of Wales, 25 knights companions, and 
lineal descendants of George III., when elected, 
17d ee 1805 
Several European sovereigns elected 813-14 
Abdul-Aziz, sultan of Turkey, invested with ihe 
garter by the queen on board her yacht at the 
naval review é 17 July, 1867 
The shah of Persia invested by the queen at Wind. 
sor 20 June, 1873 
Alphonso XII. of Spain invested ‘with the order at 
Madrid . : ir Oct. 1881 
ORIGINAL KNIGHTS. 
King Edward III., sovereign. 
Edward, prince of Wales (called the Black Prince). 
Henry, duke of Lancaster. 


Thomas, earl of Warwick. 
John, captal de Buch. 

Ralph, earl of Stafford. 
William, earl of Salisbury. 
Roger, earl of Mortimer. 

Sir John Lisle. 

Bartholomew, lord Burghershe. 
John, lord Beauchamp. 

John, lord Mohun, of Dunster. 
Sir Hugh Courtenay. 


| Thomas, earl of Kent. 
| John, lord Grey, of Rotherfield. 


Sir Richard Fitz-Simon. 
Sir Miles Stapleton. 

Sir Thomas Wale. 

Sir Hugh Wrottesley. 
Sir Nele Loryng. 

Sir John Chandos. 

Sir James Audeley. 

Sir Otho Holand. 

Sir Henry Ham. 

Sir Sanchet d’Abrichecourt. 
Sir Walter Paveley. 


GAS, in chemistry, a permane ae elastic | 
form fluid; ; see Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, ¢ 
rine, &e. 

It is stated that Monge and Clouet condensed sul- 
phurous acid before ao and Northmore lique- 
fied chlorine 

Faraday determined a "gas to be the vapour of a 
volatile liquid existing at a temperature consider- 
ably above the boiling point of the liquid ; and 
that the condensing points of different gases are 
merely the boiling points of the liquids producing 
them ; he by pressure condensed chlorine gas into 
a liquid 

Other gases liquefied by intense cold and “great 
pressure (as indicated by Faraday); oxygen by 
Cailletet, at Paris, 2 Dec., and independently by 
Raoul Pictet at Geneva 2 Dee. 

Nitrogen, hydrogen, and atmospheric air, liquetial 
by Cailletet, soon after . I 

The process exhibited at the Royal Institution, 
London, by prof. James Dewar 14 June, 

Ozone liquefied by Hautefeuille and Chappuis, i 


Liquefied gases used by Krupp in casting guns, &e. 

Prof. Thos. Graham’s paper on the law of the 
‘diffusion of gases appeared, 1834 ; he showed that 
platinum and other metals can absorb gases : 

Furnaces in which gases are used as fuelinvented by 
C. W. Siemens, and employed in glass works, &e. 

Lenoir’s gas-engine, in which the motive power is 
obtained by the ignition of combined gases by 
electricity, patented by him . 

143 of these engines had been working in Paris; 
and introduced into England . Dee. 

Pierre Hugon’s gas-engine (said to be superior to 
Lenoir’s, 1871) “exhibited 

The Otto- Langen gas engine, exhibited in 1876, has 
been superseded. by the Otto Silent Gas Engine. 


GASCONY (S. W. France), a duchy, pa 


Aquitaine (which see). 


GAS INSTITUTE. The name assumed 
June, 1881, by the British Association of 
Managers, founded in 1863 for the advancing 41 
engineering. 


GAS-LIGHTS; theinflammable aériformf 
carburetted hydrogen, evolved by the combusti 
coal, was described by Dr. Clayton in 1739. 

‘A ppllentions of coal gas to the purposes of illumina- 

tion tried by Mr. Murdoch, in Cornwall . 
Gaslight introduced at Boulton and Watt’s foundry 

in Birmingham 
Lyceum Theatre lit with gas as an "experiment by 

Mr. Winsor. 

Permanently used ‘at the cotton-mills of Phillips 
and Lee, Manchester (r000 burners lighted) : 
Introduced in’ London, at Golden-lane, 16 Aug. 

1807; Pall Mall,1809 ; generally through Londonrs: 
Mr. David Pollock, father of the late chief baron, 

was governor of the first ‘ Sears ” gas com=- 


pany: ) 4; 4 . : le tin 2 


; 


ite , : by f 
‘4 ie! ely if ‘ 
GAS MUSIC. 373 GAUL. 
ite used in Dublin, 1818 ; the streets eenerally é A GATESHE AD, a borough in gli ieee 
Uae SSS eee . . Cl, 1025 me, opposite Newcastle. At Gateshead-fell, 
ane ered in Paris, 1819 ; Los sea Pe illiam I. defeated Edgar Atheling and his Scotch 
ney, in Australia, was lit with gas os May, 1843 auxiliaries in 1068. Gateshead was made a par- 


sale of gas is regulated by acts passed in . : 
gas-pipes in and round London extend upwards 
2000 miles, and are daily increasing. It was 
id in 1860, that of the gas supply of London a 
akage of g per cent. took place through the 
ulty joints of the pipes. 
esses to obtain illuminating gas from water 
we been patented by Cruickshanks (1839), White 
849), and others. Water-gas made by Ruck’s 
‘ocess mixed with ordinary gas tried and re- 
ted successful at Chichester . 3 . Aug. 
meters patented by John Malam (1820), sir W. 
mngreve (1824), Samuel Clegg (1830), Nathan 
fries (1838), and others 
losion of a large gasometer at the London Gas- 
tht Company's works at Nine-elms; 10 persons 
led, and many injured (first accident of the 
“5 5 4 ? x ° x tasn Oct 
cow first lit with gas. 2 - 27 Dec. 
economical gas produced from bitumen at 
oolwich arsenal " . ‘ A Jan. 1868 
tral Gas Company, London, established = SEIT) 
successfully tried as fuel for the generation of 
eain by Jackson’s patent . : . April, 1868 
Central Gas company robbed of about 70,000l. 
r Benjamin Higgs, a clerk; discovered, April, 
light tried at Howth lighthouse, near Dublin, 
July, 
works clauses act passed a : 13 July, 
he London gas act, passed 13 July, 1868, ordi- 
ry gas charged 3s. od. the rooo cubic feet, after 
Jan. 1870. The charges raised on account of 
arness of coal and labour, Jan. 1874 
<e of London gas-stokers, 2400 out, 2 Dec. ; the 
convenience met by great exertion, 2-6 Dec. ; 
veral tried andimprisoned : vec 
supply of London : receipts 1872, 2,133,000l. 
73; 2,544,000l, 
tal of metropolitan companies, 12,681,818U. 
Chartered Company,” 9,096,771.) ; total annual 
a" 3,926,7691. (average profit, ol. 3s. 5d. per 
nt. : 


1865 
1866 


1869 


” 
1871 


1872 


‘ - : 2 = - - - 1879 
at gas lit by electricity, by Mr. St. G. Lane 

ix’s method ; a trial, partially successful, Pall 

all, &e. . . ; . 3 ; 13 April, 1878 
‘ession in gas companies through prospects of 

etric light, Oct. 1878; recovery . ; - 1879-80 
osions of gas-mains near Bedford-street, Totten- 
m-court-road, London; 2 killed; others in- 
‘ed; much property destroyed 5 July, 
h-inoor Gas,” produced from shale oil by 
ssrs. Rogers, of Watford, (said to be pure 
d cheap) . 2 2 : = : , . 1881-3 
West’s and Mr. Cooper’s inventions for the 
momical production of pure coal gas, with 
luction of human labour, at Tunbridge wells 
3 works : 5 F : . Jan. et seq. 
Bower-lamp, a combination of the Grimstone 
tents, on the regenerative principle, (the pro- 
cts of combustion being burned), invented by 
‘ssrs. G. Bower and son, St. Neots, Hunts . 1884 


AS MUSIC, see Pyrophone. 


ASTEIN (Salzburg, Austria). The long dis- 
on between Austria and Prussia respecting the 
sal of the duchies conquered from Denmark, 
closed by a provisional convention signed here 
ieir ministers (Blum for Austria and Bismarck 
Prussia) 14 Aug. 1865. This convention was 
ely censured by the other powers and abrogated 
366. 


ma was to have the temporary government of Hol- 
in, and Prussia that of Sleswig ; the establishment 
1 German fleet was proposed, with Kiel as a Federal 
‘bour, held by Prussia ; Lauenburg was absolutely 
led to Prussia, and the king was to pay Austria as a 
_apensation 2,500,000 Danish dollars, 


ATE-MEETINGS, see Races. 
ATES, see London Gates. 


1880 


1884 


1873 


liamentary borough by the reform act in 1832. 

Between twelve and one o’clock, 5, 6 Oct. 1854, a fire 
broke out in a worsted manufactory here, which set 
fire to a bond warehouse containing a great quantity of 
nitre, sulphur, &c., causing a terrific explosion, felt at 
nearly twenty miles’ distance, and totally destroying 
many buildings, and burying many persons in the 
ruins. At the moment of the explosion, large masses 
of blazing materials flew over the Tyne and set fire to 
many warehouses in Newcastle. About fifty lives were 
lost, and very many persons were seriously wounded. 
The damage was estimated at about a million pounds. 


GATLING GUN or BATTERY. An 
American invention exhibited at Paris in 1867. It 
is intended to discharge at once a number of pro- 
jectiles smaller than the shells of field guns, and it 
has as many locks as barrels. It was tried at Shoe- 
buryness and rejected as inferior to a field gun firing 
shrapnel. A powder to be used in the Gatling, in- 
vented by M. Pertuiset, was tried in London, 
Aug. 1870. 


GAUGAMELA, see drbela. 


GAUGES (in railways). Much discussion 
(termed ‘*the battle of the gauges’’) began among 
engineers about 1833. Mr. I. M. Brunel approved 
of the broad gauge, adopted on the Great Western 
Railway; and Mr. R. Stephenson, Joseph Locke, 
and others, chose the narrow, now almost uni- 
versally adopted even by the Great Western. A 
2 foot gauge was recommended in Feb. 1870, having 
been successful on the Festiniog railway, Wales, 
with Fairlie’s engine. About 200 miles of the S.W. 
lines of the Great Western were altered from the 
broad to the narrow gauge in a few days, June, 1874. 


GAUGING, measuring the contents of any 
vessel of capacity, with respect to wine and other 
liquids, was established by a law, 27 Edw. III. 1352. 


GAUL anp GAULS. Gallia, the ancient 
name of France and Belgium. ‘The Gauls termed 
by the Greeks Galate, by the Romans, Galli or 
Celta, came originally from Asia, and invading 
Eastern Europe, were driven westward, and settled 
in Spain (in Galicia), North Italy (Gallia Cisalpina), 
France and Belgium (Gallia Transalpina), and the 
British isles (the lands of the Cymry or Gaels). 

B.C. 
The Phoczans found Massilia, now Marseilles 600 
The Galli Senones under Brennus defeat the Romans 
at the river Allia, and sack Rome; are defeated 


and expelled by Camillus . 3 duly, . 390 
Again deteated . : : : . stuce ph SOR 
The Gauls defeated by the Romans at Sentinum 295 
The Senones defeat the Romans at Arretium ; 

nearly exterminated by Dolabella sai) 283 
The Gauls overrun Northern Greece, 280 B.C. ; are 

beaten at Delphi, 279; and by Antigonus, king of 

Macedon. 5 2 F F - - ee 
The Gauls defeated with great slaughter near Pisa. 225 
The Insubres totally overthrown by Marcellus, and 

their king Viridomarus slain . . “ » | 232 
They assist Hannibal A , . _ 218, &e. 
The Romans conquer Gallia Cisalpina, 220; invade 

Gallia Transalpina, with varied success. 121-58 
They colonise Aix, 123 B.c.; and N arbonne 118 
Julius Cesar subdues Gaul in 8 campaigns . 58-50 
Lyons (Lugdunum) founded 5 : , 4t 

A.D. 
Druids’ religion proscribed by Claudius . . sa ee 
Adrian visits and favours Gaul, hence called Re- 

storer of the Gauls. : : 7 120 

Introduction of Christianity 160 


Christians persecuted . - 177, 202, 257, 286, 288 
The Franks and others defeated by Aurelian... . 241 


GAUNTLET. 
And by Probus, 275, 277; who introduces the cul- 
ture of the vine. : : M : > An typ. tir dete) 
Maximian defeats the Franks . : A ‘ 281 
Constantine proclaimed emperor of Gaul . Ey pew GOO 
Julian arrives to relieve Gaul, desolated by bar- 
barians ; defeats the Alemanni at Strasburg 357 
Julian proclaimed emperor at Paris, 360; dies . 363 
Gaul harassed by the Alemanni i : - 365-377 
Invasion and settlement of the Burgundians, 
Franks, Visigoths, &e. : : é ‘ 378-450 
Clodion, chief of the Salian Franks, invades Gaul ; 
is defeated by Aétius f a , 2 wish aa7 
The Huns under Attila defeated by Aétius near 
Chalons . A 3 : : : A NAST 
JEgidius, the Roman commander, murdered 404 
Childerie the Frank takes Paris a 2 : sali 
All Gaul, west of the Rhone, ceded to the Visi- 
oths . L 4 a A : : = ioe 
End of the Roman empire of the West, and estab- 
lishment of the kingdom of the Franks 476 


(See France.) 


GAUNTLET, aniron glove, first introduced in 
the 13th century, perhaps about 1225. It was 
commonly thrown down as a challenge to an 
adversary. 


GAUZE, a fabric much prized among the 
Roman people. ‘* Brocades and damasks and tab- 
bies and gauzes have been lately brought over ”’ (to 
Ireland). Dean Swift, in 1698. The manufacture 
of gauze and articles of a light fabric at Paisley, in 
Scotland, began about 1759. 


GAVEL-KIND (derived from the Saxon gif 
eal cyn, ‘‘give all suitably;”’ or from gafoleynd, 
land yielding rent), the custom in Kent of dividing 
paternal estates in land, the wives to have half, the 
rest equally among male children, without any dis- 
tinction, 550. By the Irish law of gavel-kind, even 
bastardsinherited. Davies. Not only the lands of 
the father were equally divided among all his sons, 
but the lands of the brother also among all his 
brethren, if he had no issue of his own, Law Dict. 


GAZA, a city of the Philistines, of which Sam- 
son carried off the gates about 1120 b.c. (Judges 
xvi.) It was taken by Alexander after a long siege, 
332) and near to it Ptolemy defeated Demetrius 

oliorcetes, 312 B.c. It was taken by Saladin a.p. 
1170; by Bonaparte, March, 1799; and by the 
Egyptians under Ibrahim Pacha in 1831. 


GAZETTES, see Newspapers. 


GELHEIM, near Worms, central Germany. 
Here the emperor Adolphus of Nassau was de- 
feated and slain by his rivai Albert I. of Austria, 
2 July, 1298. 


GEMARA orn GHEMARA, see Zalmud. 


GEMS. The Greeks exceiled in cutting precious 
stones, and many ancient specimens remain. The 
art was revived in Italy in the 15th century. In 
Feb. 1860, Herz’s collection of gems was sold for 
10,0007. Rev. C. King’s ‘‘ Antique Gems” ap- 
peared in 1860, and his ‘‘ Natural History of Pre- 
cious Stones and Gems” in 1865. Dr. A. Billing’s 
‘* Science. of Gems,” 1868. Artificial gems have 
been produced by chemists (Ebelmen, Deville, 
Wohler, and others), 1858-65. 

The duke of Marlborough’s collection, valued at 

60,000/., sold by auction to Mr. Bromilow for 

36,7501. : E 28 June, 1875 


GENEALOGY, from the Greek 
descent. The earliest pedigrees are contained in 
the sth, 1oth, and 11th chapters of Genesis. The 
first book of Chronicles contains many genealogies. 
The pedigree of Christ is given in Jatt. i. and 
Iuke.iii.. Many books on the subject have been 


genea, birth, 


374 


GENEVA. a 


published in all European countries; one at Ma; 
burg, Theatrum Genealogicum, by Henninges 
1598. Anderson, Royal Genealogies, London, 1 
Sims’ Manual for the Genealogist, &¢., 1856, 
be found a useful guide. The works of Col 
(1756 et seg.), Edmondson (1764-84), and Nic 
(1825 and 1857), on the British peerage, are hi; 
esteemed. The Genealogical society, London, es 
lished in 1853. ‘*‘ The Genealogist,” publi 
quarterly, began 1875. ‘‘The Genealogist’s Gui 
Printed Pedigrees,” by George W. Marshall, 
lished in 1879. 


GENERAL ASSEMBLY, see Chure/ 
Scotland. 


GENERAL COUNCILS, WARRAN 


see Councils, Warrants. 


GENERALS. Matthew de Montmor 
was the first general of the French armies, 1 
Hénault. Balzac states that cardinal Riche 
coined the word Generalissimo, upon his taking 
supreme command of the French armies in I 
in 1629. Ulysses Grant was the first general ot 
army of the United States of America, so style 
1866; see Commanders-in- Chief. 


GENERATION (in Chronology), the inte 
of time between the birth of a father and the t 
of his child: 33 years are allowed for the ave 
length of a generation. Harvey’s thesis ‘¢ 
vivum ex ovo’’ (Every living being springs fro1 
egg), has been disproved by the researches of 
Siebold and others. See Spontaneous. 


GENEVA, 2 town of the Allobroges, a G 
tribe, 58 B.c.; became part of the empire of Ch: 
magne, about A.D. 800; and capital of the king 
of Burgundy, 426. 


The Republic founded in . r 2 E er 
Emancipated from Savoy . 2 4 : A. 4 
Calvin settled here, and obtaining much influence, 
Geneva was termed the ‘‘ Rome of Calvinism” 
about 

Through him Servetus burnt for heresy, 27 Oct. 
Geneva allied to the Swiss Cantons . <i B44 
Insurrection, Feb. 1781 ; about tooo Genevese, in 
consequence, applied, in 1782, to earl Temple, 
lord-lieutenant of Ireland, for permission to settle 
in that country: the Irish parliament voted 
50,0001. to defray the expenses of their journey, 
and to purchase them lands near Waterford. 
Many of the fugitives came to Ireland in July, 
1783; but they soon after abandoned it ; many 
Genevese settled in England . 


A revolution; executions and imprisonments, 
July, 
Geneva incorporated with France 26 April, 


Admitted into the Swiss Confederation, 
The constitution made more democratic . an. 
Revolution, through an endeavour of the Catholic 
cantons to introduce Jesuits as teachers ; a pro- 
visional government set up . - : 7 Oct. 
(The scheme was withdrawn. ] 

About 50 persons from Geneva land at Thonon and 
Evian, to set up the Swiss flag; but are brought 
back by Swiss troops . : : : 30 Mar. 
Election riots, with loss of life, through the indis- 


-30 Dec. 


cretion of M. Fazy . 4 ; : . 22 Aug. 
4gth annual meeting of the Helvetic Society of 
National Sciences held aE . 21-23 Aug. 


Violent peace congress — Garibaldi present, 
12 Sept. 

The Alabama arbitration commission met ; received 
the cases and adjourned to rs June, 1872, 18 Dec. 
Formal meeting of the commission (see Alabama), 
15 June, 

Monsignor Mermillod, nominated bishop of Geneva 
(in the diocese of the bishop of Lausanne), and 
vicar apostolic; his arrest proposed, 2 Feb. ; 
ordered to quit, if he will not submit to the civil 
government by 15 Feb. heis expelled 17 Feb. 


b=) 


GENEVA CONVENTION. 


va visited by the shah. : s July, 1873 
ex-duke of Brunswick dies here and bequeaths 

s vast property (above 764,000l.) to the city18 Aug. ,, 
“International” assemble here; small meet- 


; F . 3 ‘ ; . P 2Sept. ,, 
nt hail storm ; great destruction of glass and 

yps ‘ ; F ; f 7,8 July, 1875 
seau centenary celebrated 2July, 1878 


duke of Brunswick’s remains placed in the 

md mausoleum ; : 7 Sept. 1879 
3 through Salvation army : Jan.—Sept. 1883 
sion vf steam boats on the lake, 20 persons 
ywned ‘ 23 Nov. ,, 


ENEVA CONVENTION, for the succour 
ie wounded in time of active warfare. Having 
a witness of the horrors of the battle-field of 
rino, 24 June, 1859, M. Henri Dunant, a 
s, published his experiences, which induced 
Société Génévoise d’ Utilité Publique in Feb. 
to discuss the question whether relief societies 
it not be formed in time of peace to help the 
ided in time of war by means of qualified volun- 
. Atan international conference held 26 Oct. 
, fourteen governments, including Great Britain, 
ce, Austria, Prussia, Italy, and Russia, were 
sented by delegates. The propositions then 
Tl up were accepted as an international code by 
igress which met at Geneva, 8 Aug. 1864, and 
2 Aug. a convention was signed by twelve of 
lelegates, and it was eventually adopted by all 
ised powers except the United States. Inter- 
mal conferences were held at Paris in 1867 and 
rlin in 1869 for further developing in a practi- 
manner the objects of the Geneva conference. 
International Society (termed ‘‘the Red Cross 
ty’’), established in consequence of these pro- 
mgs was very energetic in relieving the wounded 
sick during the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, 
ag being recognised as neutral. See Aid to 
and Wounded. Above 13,000 volunteers said 
‘employed in attending the sick and wounded, 
.—Dec., 1870. Ata meeting in London, 6 Aug., 
, M. Dunant proposed a ie for the uniform 
ment of prisoners of war. 


ENOA, the ancient Genua (N. Italy). Its 
bitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the 
ans, 115 B.c. It partook of the revolutions of 
toman empire. 


a becomes a free commercial state about 1000 
nent wars with Pisa. E ‘ 1070-1284 
erick II. captures 22 galleys, and vainly be- 
ges Genoa. - A ; : f enero yr 
amilies of Doria and Spinola obtain ascendancy, 
about 1270 
Genoese destroy the naval power of Pisa at 
lora (which see) ¥ bie 6 Aug. 1284 
aent wars with Venice « + 1218-32 ; 1293-99 
le Doria and Galeotto Spinola, appointed 
tains . - ‘ : : 3 4 < mt335 
n Boccanegra made the first doge, 1339: set 
de by the nobles, 1344; re-appointed 1356 
discord ; many doges appointed . : - 1394 
& successively under protection of France, 
6; of Naples, 1410; of Milan, 1419 ; losing and 
aining freedom z 5 : B - 1421-1512 
2d by the Spaniards and Italians under Prosper 
oma.  . : : : ‘ : : « 1522 
ew Doria deserts the French service, and 


tores the independence of his country + 1526 
a bombarded by the French May, 1684 
1¢ British A ‘ ‘ : ’ Sept. 1745 
a by the imperialists, who are soon after ex- 

a Me : 4 A Sept. 1746 
her siege raised , : ro June, 1747 
‘elebrated bank failed . é : 1750 
a made the Ligurian republic . May, 1797 


sity, blockaded by a British fleet and Austrian 
ay, until literally starved, was evacuated by 
ditulation, 5 June; but it was surrendered to 
+ French soon after their victory at Marengo, 


14 June, 1800 


875 


GEOGRAPHY. 
Genoa annexed to the French empire . 4 June, 1805 
Surrenders to the English and Sicilians 18 April, 1814 
United to the kingdom of Sardinia . eG Ciarss 


The city seized by insurgents, who, after a murder- 
ous struggle, drove out the garrison and pro- 
claimed the Ligurian republic, 3 April; but sur- 
rendered to general La Marmora. iz April, 1849 


GENS-D’ARMES were anciently the king’s 
horse-guards only, but afterwards the king’s gardes- 
du-corps; the musqueteers and light horse were 
reckoned among them. There was also a company 
of gentlemen (whose number was about 250) bearing 
this name. Scots guards were about the persons of 
the kings of France from the time of St. Louis, 
who reigned in 1226. They were organised as a 
royal corps by Charles VII. about 1441 ; the younger 
sons of Scottish nobles being usually the captains. 
The name gens-d’armes was afterwards given to the 
police; but becoming obnoxious, was changed to 
** municipal guard ”’ in 1830. 


GENTLEMAN (from gentilis, of a gens, a race 
or clan). The Gauls observing that during the 
empire of the Romans, the sewtarii and gentiles had 
the best appointments of all the soldiers, applied to 
them the terms éewyers and gentilshommes. This 
distinction of gentlemen was much in use in Eng- 
land, and was given to the well-descended about 
1430. Sidney. Gentlemen by blood were those 
who could show four descents from a gentleman 
who had been created by the king by letters patent. 


GENTLEMEN-AT-ARMS (formerly styled 
the Band of Gentlemen Pensioners) is the oldest 
corps in England, with the exception of the Yeomen, 
of the Guard. The band was instituted by Henry 
VIII. in 1509, and was originally composed entirely 
of gentlemen of noble blood, whom he named his 
pensioners or spears. William IV. commanded 
that it should be called his majesty’s honour- 
able corps of gentlemen-at-arms, 7 March, 1834. 
Curling. 


GENTLEWOMEN’S SELF-HELP IN- 
STITUTION, London, established by the earl of 
Shaftesbury, duchess of Sutherland, and others, 
May, 1870. 


GEODESY (from dais, I divide), the art of 
measuring the surface and determining the figure 
of the earth, &c. Col. A. Clarke’s “‘ Geodesy,” 
published 1880. See Latitude. 

The 7th International Geodetic congress met at 
Rome 15-24 Oct. 1883. It recommended the 
international unification of the hour, and longi-+ 
tude with Greenwich. An international con- 
ference of 40 delegates metat Washington, 1 Oct., 
president Adm. Rogers, agree to recommend 
Greenwich as prime meridian; France and Brazil 
abstain : P : : - 13 Oct. 

The terms of a universal day were also agreed upon 

TVINOV oN ys 


GEOGRAPHY. The first geographical re- 
cords are in the Pentateuch, and in the book of 
Joshua. Homer describes the shield of Achilles as 
representing the earth surrounded by the sea, and 
also the countries of Greece, islands of the Archi- 
pelago, and site of Troy. Jliad. The priests taught 
that the temple of Apollo at Delphos was the centre 
of the world. Anaximander of Miletus was the 
inventor of geographical maps, about 568 B.c. 
Hipparchus attempted to reduce geography to a 
mathematical basis, about 135 B.c. Strabo, the 
great Greek geographer, lived 71-14 B.C. Ptolemy 
flourished about 139 A.D. The science was brought 
to Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, 
about 1240. Lenglet. Maps and charts were intro- 
duced into England by Bartholomew Columbus to 


1884 


GEOK TEPE. 


illustrate’ his brother’s theory respecting a western 
continent, 1489. Geography is now divided into 
mathematical, physical, and political, and its study 
has been greatly promoted during the present 
century by expeditions at the expense of various 
governments and societies. The Royal Geographical 

Society of London was established in 1830; that of 

Paris in 1821. See Africa, North West Pas- 

sage, §c. 

An international congress of geographers held at 
Antwerp in 1871; 2. at Paris, 1 Aug. 1875; (a 
meeting at Brussels, 12 Sept. 1876); 3. at Venice, - 
15 Sept. 1881 ; again at Bordeaux 4 Sept. 

Dr. August Heinrich Petermann, founder and edi- 
tor of the celebrated ‘‘ Mittheilungen tiber Wich- 
tige Neue Erforschungen auf der Gesammtgebiete 
der Geographie” in 1855, and an eminent carto- 


1882 


grapher, died . : : 5 . 26 Sept. 1878 
A congress on commercial geography met at Brussels, 
Oct. 1879 


Mr. E. H. Bunbury’s ‘‘ History of Ancient Geo- 
graphy among the Greeks and Romans,” published 
1879. He refers especially to Hecatzeus, Hero- 
dotus, Hanno, Pytheas (discoverer of Britain); 
Eratosthenes (born B.c. 276) made a map; and 
to Ptolemy, about 4.D. 139. 

E, A. Freeman’s ‘‘ Historical Geography of Europe,” 
published ; 2 - 5 - : 

65 geographical, societies in the world . 7. san. 

British Commercial Geographical Society ; founded 
at the mansion house, London 15 July, met 

27 Oct. 

Scottish Geographical Society, Edinburgh, inaugu- 
rated : . . « = : 3 DCC Aa, 

Manchester Geographical Society established Jan. 1885 


GEOK TEPE, a strong Turkoman fortress ; 
see Russia, 1879-81. 


GEOLOGY, the science of the earth, is said 
to have been cultivated in China before the Chris- 
tian era, and occupied the attention of Aristotle, 
Theophrastus, Pliny, Avicenna, and the Arabian 
writers. 


In 1574 Mercati wrote concerning the fossils in the pope’s 
museum: Cesalpino Majoli, and others (1597), Steno 
(1669), Scilla (1670), Quirini (1676), Plot and Lister 
(1678), Leibnitz (1680) recorded observations, and put 

. forth theories on the various changes in the crust of 
the earth. : 

Hooke (1668), in his work on Earthquakes, said that 
fossils, ‘‘as monuments of nature, were more certain 
tokens of antiquity than coins or medals, and though 

‘ difficult, it would not be impossible to raise a chrono- 
logy out of them.” 

Burnet’s ‘‘Theory of the Earth” appeared in 1690, 
Whiston’s in 1696. 

Buffon’s geological views (1749) were censured by the 
Sorbonne in 1751, and recanted in consequence. The 
principle he renounced was that the present condition. 
of the earth is due to secondary causes, and that these 
same causes will produce further changes. His more 
eminent fellow-labourers and successors were Gesner 

' (1758), Michell (1760), Raspe (1762-73), Pallas and 
Saussure (1793-1800). 

Werner (1775) ascribed all rocks to an aqueous origin, 
and even denied the existence of volcanoes in primitive 
geological times, and had many followers, Kirwan, De 
Luc, &c.—Hutton (1788) supported by Playfair (1801) 
warmly opposed Werner’s views, and asserted that the 
principal changes in the earth’s crust are due to the 
energy of fire. The rival parties were hence termed 
Neptunists and Vulcanists. 

William Smith, the father of British geology (who had 
walked over a large part of England) drew up a Tabular 
View of British Strata, in 1799, and published it and 
his Geological Map of England and Wales, 1812-15 ; 
died 28 Aug. 1839. The Rev. Adam Sedgwick, another 
father, died 27 Jan. 1873, aged 87. Sir Charles Lyell, 
died 22 Feb. 1875. 

In 1803 the Royal Institution possessed the best geologi- 
eal collection in London, collected by H. Davy, C. 
Hatchett, and others; the proposal of sir John St. 
Aubyn, sir Abraham Hume, and the right hon. C. F. 
Greville, to aid the government in establishing a 


1884 


876 GEG ere 


school of mines there in 1804-7, was declined, 13 N 
1807. 


In 1807 the Geological Society of London was establish 


By collecting a great mass of new facts, it gree 
tended to check the disposition to theorise, and lec 
the introduction of views midway between those 
Werner and Hutton. ; 


The Geological Society of Dublin, 1832; of Edinbur 


1834; of France, 1830; of Germany, 1848. 

In 1835 Mr. (afterwards sir Henry) De la Beche sugges 
the establishment of the present Musewm of Geol 
which began at Craig’s-court, and which was remo 
to its present position in Jermyn-street. To him 
also due the valuable geological maps formed on 
ordnance survey. The building was erected by 
Pennethorne, and formally opened by the prince « 
sort, 14 May, 1851. Attached to the Museum are 
Mining Records office, a lecture theatre, laboratoi 
&e. Sir H. De la Beche, the first director, diec 
April, 1855; succeeded by sir Roderick Murchi: 
who died 22 Oct. 1871; succeeded by professor (ai 
wards sir) A. C. Ramsay, March, 1872; by Ar 
bald Geikie, 1881. 

A great many maps have been published, with mem«¢ 

The survey of England on the scale of an inch 

mile, was completed in Jan. 1884. Some maps } 

been made on a scale of six inches to a mile, 
surveys of Scotland and Ireland are in prog 


1885). 
A Si institution was established at Calcutta by 
E. I. Company in 1840. 
International Geological congress met at Paris, 1 
met at Bologna, 26 Sept. 1881 ; met at Berlin, 258 


1884. 

The English standard works on geology at the pre 
time are those of Lyell, Murchison, .Phillips, D 
Beche, Mantell, and Ansted. ; 

Cuvier and Brongniart’s work on Geology of Paris, 1 
et seq. 

L. Agassiz, “ Poissons Fossiles,” 1833-45. 

The strata composing the earth’s crust may be div 
into two great classes : 

I. Those generally attributed to the agency of water 

1I. To the action of fire: which may be subdivide 

follows :— 

Aqueous formations, stratified, rarely crystalline ; 
Sedimentary or fossiliferous rocks. 
Metamorphic or unfossiliferous. i 

Igneous formations, unstratified, crystalline :— 
Voleanie, as basalt, &c. 

Plutonic, as granite, &c, : 

Fossiliferous, or Sedimentary, rocks are divided into t 

great series :— 4 

The Paleozoic (most ancient forms of life) 

Primary. 

The Mesozoic (middle life period), or Secondary. — 

The Neozoic or Cainozoic (more recent forms of 
or Tertiary. 


TABLE OF STRATA (chiefly from Lyell). 
NEOZOIC : 
I Post-TERTIARY : 

A. Post-Pliocene: 

x. Recent: Marine strata; with human 
mains; Danish peat; kitchen mid 
bronze and stone implements ; Swiss” 
dwellings ; temple of Serapis at Puzzue 

2. Post-Pliocene: Brixham cave, Wt 
knives, and bones of living and ex 
quadrupeds ; ancient valley gravels; ¢1 
drift; ancient Nile mud; post glacia 
American deposits: remains of masto¢ 
Australian breccias. 

II. TERTIARY OR CarNozoic SERIES : 

B. Pliocene: 

3. Newer Pliocene (or Pleistocene) Mamn1 
beds, Norwich Crag. [Marine Shell 

4. Older Pliocene: Red and Coralline 
(Suffolk, Antwerp). 

Cc. 5, 6. Miocene: Upper and Lower; Borde 
Virginia sands and Touraine beds ; Pik 
deposits near Athens; volcanic tuff 
limestone of the Azores, &c.; brown ¢¢ 


Germany, &c. [Mastodon, Giga 
Elk, Salamander, &e.] ) 
D. 7,8, 9. Eocene: Upper, Middle, and Lo 


Freshwater and Marine beds ; Barton C. 


OO Oe 


GEOMETRY. 


Bracklesham Sands; Paris Gypsum; Lon- 
don Plastic, and Thanet Clays. [Palms, 
Birds, &¢.] 

SECONDARY OR Mesozoic SERIES: 

to. Cretaceous: Upper ; British Chalk ; Maestricht 
beds. — Chalk with and without Flints, 
Chalk Marl, Upper Green Sand, Gault, 
Lower Green Sand. [Mesosaurus; Fish, 
Mollusks, &c.] 

rx. Lower (or Neocomian or Wealden); Kentish 
rag; Weald Clay ; Hastings Sand. [[guwano- 
don, Hylewosaurus, &e.] 

12. Oolite: Upper; Purbeck beds, Portland Stone 
and Sand, Kimmeridge Clay ; Lithographic 
Stone of Solenhofen with Archeopteryx. 
[Fish.] 

13. Middle: Calcareous Grit, Coral Rag, Oxford 
Clay, Kelloway Rock. [Belemnites and 
Ammonites. | 

14. Lower: Cornbrash, Forest Marble, Bradford 
Clay, Great Oolite, Stonesfield Slate, Fuller’s 
Earth, Inferior Oolite. [Ichthyosaurus, 
Plesiosaurus, Pterodactyl. } 

15. Lias: Lias Clay and Marl Stone. [Ammno- 
nites, Equisetum, Amphibia, Laby- 
rinthodon. ] 

16. Trias: Upper; White Lias, Red Clay, with 
Salt in Cheshire, Coal Fields in Virginia, 
N.A [Fish, Dromatherium.] 

17. Middle or Muschelkalk (wanting in England). 
[Encrinus; Placodus gigas. ] 

18. Lower: New Red Sandstone of Lancashire 
and Cheshire. [Labyrinthodon, Foot- 
prints of Birds and Reptiles.) 

PRIMARY OR PALHOZOIC SERIES 3 

19. Permian: Magnesian Limestone, Mar] Slates, 
Red Sandstone and Shale, Dolomite : kup- 
ferschiefer. [Firs, Fishes, Amphibia.] 

20, 21. Carboniferous, Upper and Lower: Coal 
Measures, Millstone Grit, Mountain Lime- 
stone. [Ferns, Calamites, Coal.] 

22, 23, 24. Devonian, Upper, Middle, and Lower: 
Tilestones, Cornstones, and Marls, Quart- 

‘zose, Conglomerates. [Shells, Fish, Tri- 
lobites. ] 

25, 26, 27. Silurian, Upper, Middle, and Lower: 
Ludlow Shales, Aymestry Limestone, Wen- 
lock Limestone, Wenlock Shale, Caradoc 
Sandstone, Llandeilo Flags ; Niagara Lime- 
stone. [Sponges, Corals, Trilobites, 
Shells. ] 

28, 29. Cambrian, Upper and Lower: Bala 
Limestone, Festiniog Slates, Bangor Slates 
and Grits, Wicklow Rock, Hasleets Grits, 
Huronian Series of Canada. [Zoophytes, 
Lingula, Ferns, Sigillaria, Stig- 


maria, Calamites, and Cryptogamia.] | 


30. Laurentian, Upper Gneiss of the Heb- 
rides (?): Labradorite Series, N. of the St. 
Lawrence; Adirondack Mountains, 
York. 

31. Lower: Gneiss and Quartzites, with Inter- 
stratified Limestones, in one of which, rooo 
feet thick, occurs a foraminifer, Hozoon 
Canadense, the oldest known fossil. 


EOMETRY, so termed from: its original ap- 
ition to measuring the earth, is ascribed to the 
ptians; the annual inundation of the Nile 
ng given rise to it by carrying away the land- 
<s and boundaries. 

es introduced geometry into Greece, about 600 B.C. 
\agoras cultivated the science about 580. 

doctrine of curves originally attracted the attention 
geometricians from the conic sections, which were 
woduced by Plato, about 390 B.c. 

id’s Elenients compiled about 300 B.C. 

limedes, a discoverer in geoinetry, 287-212 B.C. 
conchoid curve invented by Nicomedes, 220 B.C. 
emy, the astronomer, 2nd century A.D. 

netry taught in Europe in the 13th century. 

‘<8 On geometry and astronomy were destroyed in 
agland as infected with magic, 7 Edw. VI, 1552. 


Ow. 

artes published his Analytical Geometry, 1627. 

Isaac Newton (Arithmetica Universalis, &¢.), 1642- 
on 


377 


New | 


GERM THEORY. 


Simson’s edition of Euclid, first appeared, 1756. 
La Place’s Mécanique Celeste, 1799-1805. 

GEORGE. <A gold coin current at 6s. 8d. in 
the reign of Henry VIII. Leake. 


GEORGE, ST., the tutelary saint of England, 
and adopted as aie of the order of the garter by 
Edward III. is day is 23 April; see Garter, 
and Knighthood. 

St. George was a tribune in the reign of Diocletian, and 
being a man of great courage, was a favourite; but 
complaining to the emperor of his severities towards 
the Christians, and arguing in their defence, he was 
put in prison, and beheaded, 23 April, 290.—On that 
day, in 1192, Richard I. defeated Saladin. 


GEORGES’ CONSPIRACY, in France. 
General Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges Cadou- 
dal, who was commonly known by the name of 
Georges, and others, were arrested at Paris, charged 
with a conspiracy against the life of Bonaparte, and 
for the restoration of Louis XVIII., Feb. 1804. 
Pichegru was found strangled in prison, 6 April. 
Twelve of the conspirators, including Georges, were 
executed 25 June, and others imprisoned. Moreau 
was exiled, and went to America. In 1813 he was 
killed before Dresden (which see). 


GEORGIA, the ancient Iberia, now a province 
of S. Russia, near the Caucasus, submitted to Alex- 
ander about 331 B.c., but threw off the yoke of his 
successors. lt was subjugated to Rome by Pompey, 
65 3B.C., but retained its own sovereigns. Chris- 
tianity was introduced into it in the 3rd century. 
In the 8th century, after a severe struggle, Georgia 
was subdued by the Arab ae den by the Turkish 
sultan Alp-Arslan, 1068; and by the Tartar hordes, 
1235. From the 14th to the 18th centuries, Georgia 
was successively held by the Persian and Turkish 
monarchs. In 1740 Nadir Shah established part of 
Georgia as a principality, of which the last ruler 
Heraclius, surrendered his territories to the czar in 
1799; and in 1802 Georgia was declared to be a 
Russian province.—GzrorGIA, IN NorTH AMERICA, 
was settled by gen. Oglethorpe, in 1732. Separating 
from the congress of America, it surrendered to the 
British, Dec. 1778; and its possession was of vast 
importance to the royalists in the war. Count 
d’Estaing joined the American general Lincoln, and 
made a desperate attack on Georgia, which failed, 
and the French fleet returned home; the colony 
was given up to the Union by the British in 1783. 
It seceded from the Union, by ordinance, 18 Jan. 
1861, and was conquered by Sherman in 1864-5, and 
readmitted asa state Jan. 1868. A ridiculous negro 
insurrection suppressed Aug. 1875. See United 
States.—GrorctA, in the Pacitic, was visited by 
captain Cook in 1775. 


GEORGIUM SIDUS, the first name of the 
planet Uranus (which see), discovered 13 March, 
1781. 

GERBEROI (Normandy, N. France). Here 
William the Conqueror was wounded in battle by 
his son Robert, who had joined the French king 
Philip I., 1078. 


GERM THEORY OF DISEASE sup- 
poses ‘that many diseases are due to the presence 
and propagation in the animal system of minute 
organisms having no part or share in its normal 
economy.’ JMfaclagan, 1876. 

The doctrine of contagium animatum was held in the 
middle ages and put forth in the 16th century, but 
contagious organisms were not discovered till the roth 
by professors Pasteur, Tyndall, and others, 1875 et seq. 
At the British Association, 14 Sept. 1870, professor 
Huxley expressed his concurrence with the ‘‘germ 
theory.” See under Dust and Vivisection, 1882. 


———— 


GERMAIN, ST. 3 


8 GERMANY. 


Dr. Koch is said to have identified the microscopical 
germs of cattle disease, of consumption, of cholera, and 
other diseases, 1879, et seq. 

Dr. E. Klein in Feb. 1885 reported his investigations on 
the relation of Bacteria to Cholera. 

Numerous specimens of these gerins were exhibited at the 
Royal Institution in illustration of professor Tyndall's 
discourse on ‘‘ Living contagia,” 16 Jan. 1885. 

By taking means to exclude these germs fron. wounds, 
&c., sir Joseph Lister introduced anti-septic surgery 
about 1870. 

** Louis Pasteur,” by M. Radot, his son-in-law, gives an 
account of Pasteur’s success in mitigating the virulence 
of some diseases by inoculation. A translation by lady 
Claud Hamilton was published in Feb. 1885. 


GERMAIN, ST., near Paris. The palace 
here was begun by Louis the Tat, 1124, and en- 
larged and embellished by his successors, especially 
by Francis I., Henry IV., and Louis XIV. Here 
James II. of England resided in state after his 
abdication, in 1689, and here he died, 16 Sept. 1701; 
see Treaties. 


GERMAN ASSOCIATION, see German 


Union. 


GERMAN COLONIZATION SOCIETY, 
constituted at Frankfort, 6 Dec. 1882. A Charter 
was granted by the emperor to Dr. Carl Peters 
and others, whereby this society was autho- 
rised to acquire Usagara, N’Gury, and other 
territories west of Zanzibar, 27 Feb. 1885. 


GERMANTA, colossal statue, see Germany, 
Sept. 1883. 


GERMANIC CONFEDERATION, 
superseding the confederation of the Khine (which 
see), was constituted 8 June, 1815; held its first 
diet at Frankfort, 16 Nov. 1816, andits last, 24 Aug. 
1866. See next article. It comprised— 

1. Austria; 2. Prussia; 3. Bavaria; 4. Saxony; 
5. Hanover ; 6. Wiirtemberg ; 

7. Baden; 8, 9. Hesse (electorate and grand duchy); 

to. Denmark (for Holstein and Lauenburg) ; 

1x. Netherlands (for Luxemburg) ; 

12. Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Coburg, 
and Saxe-Altenburg ; 

13. Brunswick and Nassau ; 


Saxe-Meiningen, 


14. Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz ; 

15. Oldenburg, three Anhalts, and two Schwarz- 
burgs ; 


16. Two Hohenzollerns, Liechtenstein, two Reuss, 
Schaumburg-Lippe, Lippe, and Waldeck ; 
17. Free cities :—Lubeck, Frankfort, Bremen, and 


Hamburg. 
The diet declares for a constituent assembly, 30 
March, which met F “ a : 18 May, 1848 
The diet remits its functions to the archduke John, 
vicar of the empire (see Germany) . a 12 UL sio ss 
The diet re-established, meets 30 May, 1851 


The emperor of Austria proposes a reform of the 
confederation, 17 Aug. ; accepted by the diet, 
1 Sept.; rejected by Prussia .  22Sept. 
The diet celebrates the fiftieth anniversary of its 
- establishment. . 2 : : 8 June 
Vote of the majority of the diet supports Austria in 
the dispute respecting Schleswig and Holstein ; 
Prussia announces her withdrawal from the con- 
federation, and its dissolution; the diet declares 
itself indissoluble, continues its functions, and 
protests 14 June, 
The diet removes the war, 
14 July, ,, 
The confederation renounced by Austria at Nikols- 
burg ‘ : F : : s 26 July; —); 
The diet holds its last sitting : : 24 Aug. ,. 
GERMAN CONFEDERATION, Nortu, 
established in room of the Germanic Confederation 
(which see): population 1867, estimated 29,906,092. 
The confederation ceased on the re-establishment 
of the German empire, 1 Jan. 1871. 


The king of Prussia invites the states of North 
Germany to form anew confederation 16 July, 1866 


1863 
1865 


: F A : : 1866 
to Augsburg during 


Treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, betwee 
Prussia and the following states :—Saxe-Weimar 
Oldenburg, Brunswick, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe 
Coburg-Gotha, Anhalt, two Schwarzburgs, Wal 
deck, the younger Reuss, two Lippes, Lubeck 
Bremen, and Hamburg, signed - 18 Aug 

And two Mecklenburgs . 4 5 ;-. 21 Aug 

And Hesse (for country north of the Maine), 3 Sept 

And the elder Reuss 5 A ‘ 26 Sept 

And Saxe-Meiningen . 

And Saxony . : A ; F : 21 Oci 

Meeting of North German Parliament (295 deputie 
from the 22 states) at Berlin . : - 24 Feb 

See Germany. 


GERMAN HOSPITAL, Dalston, fo 
1845, for Germans, and English in cases of ace 
German Society of Benevolence and Concord, 
blished, 1817. 


GERMANITES, «a name given to a se 
which members appeared in the British Me 
ranean fleet in 1867. They called themselves ‘ 
fighting men,” and hold no communion with 
religious bodies. 


GERMAN LANGUAGE has two 
branches: hoch and platt Deutsch, high an 
German. The former became the literary lang 

rincipally through its use by Luther in his 1 
ation of the Bible and in other works, 152 
The latter’is that spoken by the lower el 
There are many dialects: the satirical epic i 
German, ‘‘ Reineke Fuchs,” appeared in 1498 
Reynard. 


PRINCIPAL GERMAN AUTHORS. 


Born. 
Ulfilas (Gothic Bible) about A.D. 360 
Martin Luther(German Bible, &e. 1522-34). 


1483 
Hans Sachs . 3 é ; 


- 1494 > 


Godf. Leibnitz - 1646 
G. F. Gellert . DE 
G. E. Lessing . a debate - 1729 
G. A. Birger 5 : ¢ : 17468 
J. G. von Herder f ¢ ‘ - ae 
Fred. T. Klopstock . 2 2 f 1724 
Im. Kant. " < é 2 - 17240 
J. C. Fred. von Schiller - 1759 
Ch. M. Wieland ; A > 73S 
C. T. Korner A 0798 
Jean Paul Richter . . 1763 
dads; VOSS ae - 17500) 
F. Schlegel - 1772 
G. W. F. Hegel - 1770 
B.G. Niebuhr. -, 17763 
J. W. von Goethe : 5 x ee ck, 
Wm. von Humboldt . 3 ; 2x70 
A. Wm. Schlegel . : ‘ : ee 5, 
L. Tieck Z ~ “ : 5 3 - "1973 
H. Heine. : : “ z ° . ir xRO7me 
Alex. von Humboldt : . 1769 
Ernst M. Arndt - 1769 


Chr. Carl J. Bunsen : -) . aoe 
F, C. Schlosser . : : y r - 1776 
J. Hillebrand ‘ > A 4 +.) KZ BS 
G. G. Gervinus . . : . 1805 
K. F. Ranke . 5 “ 7 c «sates 
E. H. Fichte ; A : 2 : « 1797 
Theod. Mommsen . Z + ouz 


GERMANS, ST., was made the seat 
bishopric of Cornwall for a short time, about 9 


GERMAN UNION oF NATURAL | 
LOSOPHERS, the forerunner of the British 
ciation, was founded by Oken, at Leipsic, m 

artly to promote political unity in German) 
as met annually, except in troubled years, sv 
1848, 1866, and 1870; 5oth time, 17 Sept. 
3rd meeting at Dantzick, 18 Sept. 1880; 

aaa he 18 Sept. 1881; 55th, Hisenach, 18 

1882; 56th, Magdeburg, 18 Oct. 1884. 


GERMANY (Germania, Alemania), anci 


GERMANY. 379 


ee ee | eee 


y, divided into independent states. ‘The Ger- 
long withstood the attempts of the Romans to 
ethem; and although that people conquered 
parts of the country, they were expelled before 
oe of the 3rd century. In the 5th century 
uns and other tribes prevailed over the greater 
nof Germany. In the latter part of the 8th 
ry, Charlemagne subdued the Saxons and 
iribes, and was crowned emperor at Rome, 
e. 800. At the extinction of his family, the 
e became elective, ries and was subsequently 
ied by members of the house of Hapsburg 
1437 till BOA) Germany was divided into 
3, 1501-12. The confederation of the Rhine 
srmed 12 July, 1806; the Germanic confede- 
, 8 June, 1815; and the North German con- 
tion, 18 Aug. 1866; the treaty ratified, 8 Sept. 
See Franco-Prussian War, 1870-71. 
mpire of Germany was established (Jan. 1, 1871), 
1ded upon treaties concluded between the North 
man confederation (which see) and, x. the grand 
hies of Baden and Hesse, 15 Nov. 1870; 2. the 
sdom of Bavaria, 23 Nov. 1870; 3. the kingdom of 
rtemberg, 25 Nov. 1870; ratified, 29 Jan. 1871. 
liam I., king of Prussia, was proclaimed emperor 
fersailles, 18 Jan. 1871. 
ation in 1871 (including Alsace-Lorraine, con- 
red, 1870), 41,069,846. The parliament is elected 
nanhood suffrage and ballot. 
irst chancellor of the empire, prince Otho von 
marck, May, 1871. 
lation of German Empire, 1880, 45,234,061. 


Peutones, united with the Cymry, defeat the 


nansin Illyria . < : “ & B.G. .119 
yarying success are defeated by Marius Sve ader 
is invaded Germany 3 2 : Sun t2=3 
s of Teutoburg; Hermann or Arminius de- 

yys the Romans under Varus ; - AWD. 9 
annassassinated . : “ ‘ - A ahh) 
‘yanks invade Gaul : ; A : Ho ge ey 
irruptionofGermanictribesinto Gaul —_ 450 et seq. 
emagne after a long contest subdues the 

‘ons, who become Christians 772-785 


crowned emperor of the West at Rome by the 
Ye) ; f F te i 5 25 Dec. 800 
lds a second head to the eagle, to denote that 


empires of Rome and Germany are united 


um. y ss - A : eee CO2 
: (le Débonnaire) separates Germany from 
mee . < “ 839-840 


jermans under Arnold take Rome. AT AGS: 
}erman princes assert their independence, and 
irad I. of Franconia reigns. : 8 Nov. 911 
electorate began about this time. See Electors. ] 
. of Henry I. [king], surnamed the Fowler ; 
yanquishes the Huns, Danes, Vandals, and 
remians : ; : < : - - 918-934 
I. extends his dominions, and is crowned 
peror by the pope. 5 ° ; : «= 962 
II. conquers Lorraine . x s ‘ ee 07S 
y III. conquers Bohemia . Hi ‘ : . 1042 
et between Henry IV. and Gregory VII. (Hilde- 
n . ° . . ° . . Pa ak? 3S 
y’s humiliation at Canossa (which see). R pd 
ikes Rome 1084 ; and Gregory dies in exile at 
ermno . : : F : . : : - 1085 
ites with the pope relating to ecclesiastical 
estitures . a 3 . : A 1073-1123 
juelph and the Ghibeline feuds begin shi se II40 
ad IIT. leads an army to the holy wars ; it was 
itroyed by Greek treachery . H 5 ee ELA 
orick Barbarossa emperor, 1152 ; wars in Italy, 
i 1154-77 
estroys Milan ; y : 7 é SA pb ley 
's Henry the Lion (see Bavaria) F - . 1180 
owned during the crusade in Syria, 10 June, 1190 
‘mie order of knighthood , - Cider ots 
eatic league established . about 1245 
1 of Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, chosen by 
selectors .. ; : = : 72273 
sdict, called the Golden Bull, by Charles IV. . 1356 
Tyrolacquired . ; : 5 : rp aee oe: 
-nund, king of Bohemia, elected emperor. He 


Death of Luther . ; 


GERMANY. 


betrays John Huss and Jerome of Prague, who 
are burned alive (see Bohemia) . . . 1414-16 
Sigismund driven from the throne, Albert II., duke 
of Austria, succeeds . 5 é 3 : Sen's 
The Pragmatic Sanction confining the empire to the 
house of Austria : 4 < : + 1439 
Peasants’ wars A z : : . 1502, 1514, 1524 
Era of the Reformation (see Lutheranism) . Ai Hy, 
German Bible and liturgy published by Luther, 
1522-46 
Luther excommunicated by the diet at Worthbs . 
17 April, 1525 
War with the pope—the Germans storm Rome . 1527 
Diet at Spires ; Protestants condemned, 13 March, 152 
Confession of Augsburg published 25 Jan. 1530 
Protestant League of Smalealde . - 3% Dees 1535 
The anabaptists seize Munster, 24 June, 1535 ; de- 
feated, and John of Leyden slain . 


1437 


4 - 1536 
é 18 Feb, 1546 
War with the Protestants : , 26.0 esse 
Who are helped by Henry II. of France—Peace of 
Religion at Passau . : : - - 31 July, 1552 
Abdication of Charles V. announced . = 25 Oct. 1555 
Hungary joined tothe empire. : - oe Se REY Ke: 
The Thirty years’ war begins between che Evangelic 
union under the elector palatine, and ve Catholic 
league under the duke of Bavaria. : > - 1618 
Battle of Prague, which ruined the elector palacine, 
8 Nov. 1620 
Gustavus-Adolphus of Sweden invades Germany, 
: June, 163¢ 
Gustavus-Adolphus, victor, killed at Lutzen, 
16 Nov. 1632 
Treason of Wallenstein ; he is assassinated, 25 Feb. 1634 
End of the Thirty years’ war : treaty of Westphalia, 


establishing religious toleration . F 24 Oct. 1648 
War with France : ; - 


: : . = 16 
John Sobieski, king of Poland, after defeating the ie 
Turks, obliges them to raise the siege of Vienna, 
. : 12 Sept. 1683 
Peace of Ryswick (with France) 20 Sept. 1697 
The peace of Carlowitz (with the Turks) 26 Jan. 1699 
War with France, &c., 6 Oct. 1702 ; Marlborough’s . 
victory at Blenheim ; $ 13 Aug. 1704 
Peace of Utrecht . b ; : 1x April, 1713 
The Pragmatic Sanction (which see). 5 Sy Aaeger 
Francis I., duke of Lorraine, marries the heiress of 
Austria, Maria-Theresa (1736) ; she succeeds her 
father, and becomes queen of Hungary, 20 Oct. 1740 
The elector of Bavaria elected emperor as Charles 
: 4 - = : < : .  22dan. 1742 
He dies Jan. 20; Francis I., duke of Lorraine, : 
elected emperor Z 2 : < . 15 Sept. 1745 
The Seven years’ war between Austria and Prussia 
and their respective allies begins Aug. 1756 ; ends 
with the peace of Hubertsburg . 15 Feb. 1763 


Lorraine ceded to France . 4 = - 3 - 1766 

Joseph II. extends his dominions by the dismem- t 
berment of Poland, 1772 ; many civil reforms and 
liberal changes . - ° ° . ° Pk pe 

War with Turkey. 1788 


Victory of the Austrians and Russians at Rimnik, 
22 Sept. 1789 
J. G. Basedow, educational reformer, dies 25 July, 1790 
The Rhenish provinces revolt. 2 - + 2793 
Francis I."joins in the second partition of Poland, 1795 
In the ruinous wars between Germany and France, 
the emperor loses the Netherlands, all his terri- 
tories west of the Rhine, and his states in Italy, 
1793-1803 
Cessions of territory. to France by the treaty of 
Luneville é ‘ ; : 3 : 9 Feb. 1801 
Francis II. assumes the title of Francis I., emperor 
of Austria . : - F : F rr Aug. 1804 
Napoleon establishes the kingdoms of Bavaria and 
Wiirtemberg, 1805; and of Westphalia, 1807 ; 
dissolution of the German empire ; formation of 
the confederation of the Rhine 12 July, 1806 
North Germany annexed to France 13 Dec. 1810-14 
Commencement of the war of independence : the 
order of the iron cross instituted . March, 1813 
Final defeat of the French at Leipsic 16-19 Oct. ,, 
Congress of Vienna . . Nov. 1814 & 25 May, 1815 
The Germanic confederation (which see) formed 
$i June ee 
The Zollverein (which see) formed . A : . 1818 
“‘ Society for promoting the knowledge of ancient 
German history,” founded by Stein. : . 1819 


380 


GERMANY. 
A German scientific association formed, ‘‘ Naturfor- 
scher Vereine” (see German Union) . . Sept. 1822 
General depression in trade . 5 : ip Ose 
Death of J. H. Voss, poet, &c. : . 29 March, 1826 
Revolution at Brunswick (flight of the duke) 7 Sept. 1830 
In Saxony (abdication of the king) 13 Sept ,, 
Death of Goethe, poet, novelist, and philosopher, 
22 March, 1832 
Becker’s song about the free German Rhine; and 
Alfred de Musset’s song in reply, ‘‘ Le Rhin 
Allemand” (see Rhine) appear. 1841 
Extitement about Ronge, the Catholic reformer, 
and the holy coat of Trev es. 1844 
Insurrection at Vienna and throughout Germany 
(see Austria, Hungary, &e.) . 1848 


Revolt in Schleswig and Holstein (see Denmark) 
March, 


The king of Prussia takes the lead as an agitator, to 
promote the reconsolidation of the German em- 
pire, by a proclamation . : : 27 March, 

German national assembly meet at Irankfort (see 
Germanic confederation) . 18 May, 

Archduke John of Austria elected vicar of the em- 
pire 12 July, 

The national assembly elects the king of Prussia 
emperor, 28 March ; he declines . 3 April, 

He recalls the Prussian members of the Weenie 

14 May, 

The Frankfort assembly transfers its sittings to 
Stuttgardt . : 30 May, 

Treaty of Vienna between Austria and Prussia for 
the formation of a new central power for a 
limited time ; appeal to be made to the govern- 
ments of Germany 30 Sept. 

Protest of Austria against the alliance of Prussia 
with the smaller German states 12 Nov. 

Treaty of Munich between Bavaria, Saxony, and 
Wiirtemberg, fora revision of the German con- 

. federation . : . - 27 Feb. 

Parliament meets at Erfurt. March, 

The king of Wiirtemberg denounces the insidious 
ambition of the king of Prussia . 15 March, 

German diet meets at Frankfort 1o May, 

Hesse-Cassel sends no representative to Erfurt, 7 
June; Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the 
Prussian league 20 June, 

Austria calls an assembly of the German confedera- 

- tion, 19 July ; which meets at Frankfort, 2 Sept. 

Austrian, Bavarian, and Prussian forces enter 
Hesse-Cassel (see Hesse-Cassel) 12 Nov. 

Conferences on German affairs at Dresden, 

23 Dec. 1850, to 15 May, 

Max Schneckenburger, author of the song ‘‘ Die 
Wacht am Rhein,” died . 

Re-establishment of the diet of the Germanic con- 
federation at Frankfort . 

Conference at Nuremberg relative toa general code 
of commerce - 15 Jan. 

Great excitement in Germany at the French suc- 
cesses in Lombardy: warlike preparations in 
Bavaria, &e. May and June, 

Meetings of new liberal party in Eisenach, Saxe 
Weimar, 17 July; seven resolutions put forth 
recommending that the imperfect federal consti- 
tution be changed ; that the German diet be re- 
placed by a strong centra) government ; that a 
national assembly be summoned ; and that Prus- 
sia be invited to take the initiative 14 Aug. 

This proposal not accepted by Prussia, and warmly 
opposed by Hanover : . Sept. 

The Austrian minister, Rechberg , severely censur- 
ing the duke of Saxe Gotha, fora liberal speech, 
4 Sept. ; ; and accusing the "Prussian government 
of favouring the liberals, meets with cutting 
retorts . Sept. 

Death of Ernst Moritz Arndt, patriot and poet, 

29 Jan. 

The federal diet maintains the Hesse-Cassel consti- 
tution of 1852 against Prussia 24 March, 

Meeting of the French emperor and the Tiseaiial 
sovereigns at Baden, 16, 17 June; and of the ezar 
and the emperor of Austria and the regent of 
Prussia at Toplitz . - 26 July, &e. 

Meeting at Coburg in favour of German unity 
against French aggression . 5 Sept. 

Dispute with Denmark respecting the Bane of 
Holstein and.Schleswig . ° ° ° Nov. 


9 


1851 


30 May, ,, 


1857 


1859 


»” 


9 


GERMANY. 


First meeting of a German national shooting mateh 
at Gotha. - 8-z1 July, 
Meeting of German national association at Heidel. 
berg ; decides to form a fleet - 23 Aug, 
Subscriptions received for fleet Sept. hud Oct. 
The national association meet at Berlin ; they re- 
commend the formation of a united federa 
government with a central executive, under the 
leadership of Prussia - 13 March 
Meetings of plenipotentiaries from German states 
on federal reform . 8 July-1o Aug 
Deputies from German states meet at Weimar, anc 
declare that Germany wants formation into on 
federal state 28, 29 Sept 
Congress of deputies from German states declar 
in favour of unity . ‘ 21 Aug 
The emperor of ‘Austria invites the Germai 
sovereigns to a congress at Frankfort, 31 July 
king of Prussia declines, 4 Aug. 5 nearly all th 
sovereigns meet, 16, 17 Aug. ; they approve th 
Austrian plan of federal reform, 1 Sept. ; whicl 
is rejected by Prussia . 22 Sept 
The diet determines to have recourse to federal exe 
cution in Holstein if Denmark does not fulfil he 


obligations . 1 Oct 
soth anniversary of the battle of Leipsic cele 
18 Oct 

Death of Frederick VII. of Denmark 15 Nov 


German troops enter Holstein for ‘‘ federal execu 
tion” (see Denmark for events) . 23 Dec 
Death of Maximilian II. of Bavaria . to March 
Prussia retains the duchies; discussion betwee! 
Austria and Prussia; the diet adopt the resolu 
tion of Bavaria and Saxony, requesting Austri 
and Prussia to give up Holstein to the on 0 
Augustenburg ; rejected 6 April 
soth anniversary of the establishment of the Ger 
manic confederation . . June 
The Gastein convention (which see) . M 
Condemned by the diet at Frankfort . srg 
The diet calls on Austria and Prussia to disarm 
19 May 

Meeting of deputies from smaller German state 
condemn the impending war . . 20 May 
Austria declares that Prussia has broken the treat 
by invading Holstein, 11 June; the diet adopt 
this, by 9 votes ; the Prussian representative de 
clares the Germanic confederation at an end, an 
invites the members to form a new one, excludin 


Austria. 8 14 June 
The Prussians enter Saxony, and the war begin: 
15 June 

The diet determines for war, 16 June; proclaim 


prince Charles of Bavaria general of the confeders 
tion troops d . 27 June 
[For the war and its consequences, see Prag 
and German Confederation, North. 
Treaty of alliance between Prussia and the norther 
states ; ratified 8 Sep’ 
Continued disputes between the diet and Austr 
and Prussia respecting Schleswig-Holstein, 
Oct. and Nov 
Draft of new constitution for North German 
settled . “ : s A . - 9g Fel 
Elections commence. : 12 Fel 
North German parliament opened at Berlin by tk 
king of Prussia, 24 Feb.; Dr. Simson electe 
president 2 Marcel 
The federal constitution adopted (printed i 
Almanach de Gotha, 1868) ; the parliament close: 
17 Apri 
The constitution put in action . , ot) apa: 
Meeting of 50 deputies from parliaments of Bavari: 
Wiirtemberg, Baden, and Hesse Darmstad 
declare necessity of union with North bai 3 
us 
Luxemburg evacuated by the Prussian ae 
ep 
New North German parliament meets, 10 Sept 
closed c 
Opened by king of Prussia, 23 “March ; a 
20 Jun 
Delegates from the Zollverein meet, April; 4 
23 Mu 
Inauguration of the Luther monument at Worn 
by ‘the king of Prussia . 25 Jun 
German rifle association meeting “at Vienna, : 


GERMANY. 
; addressed by Von Beust at the close, giving 
ist, ‘‘ Peace and Reconciliation ” 
egotiations between Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, 
3aden, July, a South German military com- 
onappointed , Oct. 
nshafen, at Hippens, “bay ‘of Jahde, Olden- 
the first German military port, inaugurated 
e king of Prussia . . 17 June, 
ary of the birth of Alexander yon Humboldt 
rated . : 14 Sept. 
Arnim, German representatiy e at Rome, 
sts against the doctrine of papal infallibility 
May, 
A Feb. ; 
. 26 May, 
Bismarck announces the declaration ase war 
rance, and terms it groundless and presump- 
coy 4 fe ‘ A 19 July, 
1, Wiirtemberg, * Hesse Peruatadb, and 
n, support Prussia in the war declared by 
ce (See Franco-Prussian War). 15 July, 
1, Stuttgart, and other cities, declare for 
n with North Germany . . about 6 Sept. 
sts declare against annexation of Alsace, &c. 
Sept.-Nov. 
and Hesse Darmstadt join the North German 
ederation by treaty, about 15 Noy.; also 
temberg, 25 Noy. ; and Bavaria, 23 Nov. ; re- 
ng certain powers in military and diplomatic 
Ss Nov. 
rth German parliament opened at Berlin by 
3imson on behalf of the king . 24 Nov. 
rliament vote 100,000,000 thalers to deatioae 
var 28 Nov. 
ing of Bavaria, in a letter to the king of 
my, proposes "the king of Prussia to be 
inated emperor of Germany about 4 Dec. 
arliament in an address request the king 
ecome emperor (votes for, 188 ; against, 6), 
10 Dee. 
dress solemnly presented to the king in an 
mbly of princes by Dr. Simson. . 18 Dee. 
ablishment of the German empire, x Jan.; 
ae L of Prussia proclaimed emperor at Ver- 
18 Jan. 
lo Russell (aft. ld. Ampthill) appointed am- 
ador at Berlin . 4 
1 German bankers condemned to imprison- 
t for subscribing to the French loan 3 Jan. 
inaries of peace e with France signed at Ver- 
Sina) . 26 Feb. 
mperor reviews part of his” army at Long- 
nps, near Paris . shee Mar. 
Reichstag or imperial council opened at 
in by the emperor . art Mar. 
ew constitution of the empire comes into 
Be . 4 May, 
ery of the ‘empire : prince Bismarck, yette 
Dr 12 May, 
eaty of peace ratified 16 May, 
Ollinger, of Munich, excommunicated for 
ysing the dogma of papal infallibility, 18 
il; made D.C.L. of Oxford June, 
phal entry of the German armies into Berlin ; 
ue of Frederick William IV. inaugurated, 
16 June, 
ae elected rector of the university of 
. 29 July, 
mperors of Austria and Germany Seat at 
burg, Bismarck and Beust present 6-8 Sept. 
lavarian minister of public worship declares 
nst the dogma of papal infallibility in a letter 
ae archbishop of Munich : 27 Sept. 
erman parliament opened by the emperor; 
‘expresses his conviction “‘ that the new Ger- 
, empire will be a reliable shield of peace,” 
16 Oct. 
nin the coinage: introduction of a gold coin 
toved by the federal council about 6 Nov. 
ens the clergy to meddle with politics 
e pulpit . about 26 Nov. 
dial war-budget yoted . rt Dee. 
_ despatch from count Bismarck to the Ger- 
ambassador at Paris respecting the acquittal 
saurderers of Germans at Melun and Paris, 
7 Dec. 
‘nontane agitation against the government; 


. pial opened by the king, 


381 — 


6 Aug. 1868 


x9 


a? 


>e 


>> 


>”? 


7? 


GERMANY. 


excitement amongst the Polish Romanists ; count 
Bismarck carries his school inspection bill against 
the Roman catholic clergy . Mar. 
The empress-queen visits England May, 
Bismarck reports to the parliament the pope's 
refusal to receive cardinal Hohenlohe as ambas- 
sador . 14 May, 
Bill for the expulsion ‘of the J esuits “passed in the 
German parliament (131-93); end of session, 
19 June ; the law published 5 July, 
Hiananretlon of a memorial to Von Stein, the pa- 
triotic statesman at Nassau, by the emperor 

9 July, 

Imperial congress: the czar arrives at Berlin, 
5 Sept. ; the emperor of Austria, 6 Sept. ; both 
leave; prince Bismarck declares the meeting to 
be merely an act of friendship; ‘‘ prince Gortscha- 
koff thankful that nothing was written,” about 
6 Sept. 
Great emigration of young men to America to avoid 
the conscription; forbidden by government, 
Sept. 

The German parliament opened 12 Mar. 
Treaty with France settling the total evacuation of 
the departments held by. German troops on pay- 
ment of the indemnity in Sept. signed 15 Mar. 
The emperor William warmly received at St. Peters- 
burg 27 April—1zr May, 
The monetary reform law passed, 23 June ; the par- 


liament closed - 25 June, 
Last payment of French war indemnity A 5 Sept. 
The emperor’s visit to Vienna 7 Oct. 


Elections for the parliament—(397 mentees Raat 
two-thirds nationalist liberals ; about 100 ultra- 
montanists) : : : . ro Jan. 

Parliament opened ae Sep: 

Letter from earl Russell to the. emper or, expressing 
sympathy of himself and others with the struggle 
against the pope, 28 Jan. ; the emperor replies 

18 Feb. 

Bismarck confined by illness March, April, 

Constitutional struggle in the parliament res- 
pecting the army bill . March, 

The government require 401,659 men (instead of 
360,000) permanently :—compromise ; the army 
to be settled for seven years about ro April, 

The parliament session closed by the emperor with 
a pacific speech 26 April 

German Liberal Association, formed against Par- 
ticularists and Ultramontanists . about June, 


| Count Harry Arnim, formerly ambassador at Rome 


and Paris, suddenly arrested and imprisoned in 
Berlin : ostensibly for refusing to give up official 
papers, 4 Oct, ; released on bail . 28 Oct. 
Parliament opened by the emperor; declaration of 
firm legislative and defensive policy . 29 Oct. 
Bismarck resigns the chancellorship after an ad- 
verse vote in the parliament, 16 Dec., on a vote 
of confidence (199-71) retains it 18 Dec. 
Important registration law for births, deaths, and 


marriages passed 7 r - "Jan. 
Civil marriage bill passed ; - 25 Jan, 
International rifle meeting at Stutgardt . 1 Aug. 


Statue of Hermann (or Arminius), by Von Bandel, 
at Detmold, uncovered by the emperor William 


16 Aug, 

Parliament meets; pacific speech of the emperor 
read 27 Oct. 
The imperial bank of Germany opens I Jan. 


Proposal for purchase of all the railways by the 
imperial government (opposed in the south) 
20 March, 


The czar at Berlin : - II May, 
Parliament opened with a roy al pacific speech, eee 
30 Oct. 

Elections: liberal majority; socialist democrats 
elected for Berlin . ro, 11 Jan, 
Parliament opened by the emperor : he hopes for 
peace in the east . 22 Feb. 


Supreme Court for Germany ‘settled to be mk Leipsic 
by parliament A 1 March, 

New code of laws enacted E 

Resignation of Bismarck as chancellor, 3 April ; 


withdrawn 8 April, 
Exportation of horses forbidden 7 July, 
Parliament re-opened ‘5 Feb. 


In consequence of the attempted ‘assassination of 


1872 


> 


1873 


»»> 


” 


1875 


9? 


1878 


GERMANY. 


382 


GERMANY. 


the emperor by Hédel, 11 May, a stringent bill 
to repress socialism is ’ prought into the parlia- 
ment, and rejected (251—57) . 24, 25, May, 
Grosser Kurfiirst, ironclad, sunk by collision with 
Konig Wilhelm off Folkestone, about Boies 

1 May, 

The emperor fired at and wounded by Dy. Karl 
Edouard Nobiling, a professor of philology and 


socialist, at Berlin . . 2dune, 
The crown-prince authorised to direct public affairs, 
4, 5 June, 

Parliament dissolved : ‘ . 12 June, 


Death of king George of Hanover . - im2June, 
Emil Heinr ich Max Hidel condemned to July, 
Elections held (severe struggle) . - 30 July, 
The Berlin conference (which see) 13 J anaes J Ny: 
Hodel executed at Berlin . Aug. 
New parliament opened : national liberals, ca 3 119 
imperialists and conservatives ; 105 centre (Ro- 
man Catholics, &c.) . A 9 Sept. 
Dr. Nobiling dies of self-inflicted wounds, 10 Sept. 
The emperor quite recovered ; announced 14 Sept. 
The repressive Socialist Bill passed (72 majority) 


19 Oct. 

Decree for expulsion of Socialists and others, en 

Ov. 

The emperor returns to Berlin and resumes govern- 

ment. 4 ies) Wee: 

174 clubs, 44 newspapers, “and 1 57 "other papers 

suppressed by injunctions up to 5 «) Dec. 
Parliamentary Discipline Bill (to  ‘‘ muzzle” 

speakers); a ‘Gagging Bill” introduced eee 

an 


Bismarck’s negotiations with the Roman curia re- 
specting the Falk laws (kulturkampf)fruitless Jan. 
‘“« Gagging ” Bill rejected by the parliament 7 March, 
Prince Bismarck’s protectionist tariff bill v irtually 
passed, about . 9 May, 
Resignation of Von. Forckenbeck (liberal), presi- 
dent of the parliament, 20 May; election of an 
ultramontane, about . . 22 May, 
The emperor’s golden wedding kept - imrJdune, 
Resignation of Falk and other ministers ;  an- 


nounced i Se a une, 
Bismarck in the parliament disclaims connection 
with the liberal party . ° - gduly, 
The customs Dill finally passed Sate 117); Session 
closed . ' . i2duly, 
Ministry reconstituted about . - 4Jduly, 


Adm. Batsch tried and sentenced to 6 months’ im- 
prisonment for loss of Grosser Kurfiirst (see 31 
May, 1878) . a ULY 

Grand military manceuvres at Konigsberg 5-9 Sept 

Meeting of Bismarck and Jacobini, papal nuncio, at 
“Gastein, about ‘ <EarO Sept. 

Bismarck visits Vienna ; "renews friendship with 
Andrassy, 21-24 Sept.;- supreme court for all 
Germany, opened at Leipsic : : ee OCh. 

New code of laws made in 1877 come into oper. oeens 


OV 

Bill for enlargement of the army (by 27,000 men), 
proposed : Jan. 
German parliament opened pacific speech from the 
emperor . . x2 Feb. 


In the Federal Council 22 small states out-vote 
Prussia, Saxony, and Bavaria, respecting new 


stamp duties . seg Ueaprily 
Bismarck’s resignation not accepted by the em- 
peror ; the states give in. : -) ADI: 
The new army bill passed (186- -96) 5 . 9g April, 
The parliament prorogued : - to May, 


‘* New Liberal” party formed by secession from the 
reactionary ‘‘ National Liberals” . AU. 
Grand army manceuvres ina plain zo miles south 

of Berlin . . « ro Sept. et seq. 
German parliament. opened 7 : sw azOLheD: 
German army manceuvres near Hanover 30 Aug. 
and Sept. 

General elections; large liberal majority . 28 Oct. 
The parliament opened by Prince Bismarck with 


pacific message from the emperor. 17 Nov. 
Bismarck says “Germany’ is not to be ruled after 
English fashion . . 29 Nov. 


He is defeated in a financial question 169-83 t Dee. 
Imperial rescript against par SU EEL government 
published - gdan. 
‘Violent debates in the parliament ‘ "24 Jan. et seq. 
Bismarck’s tobacco tax bill rejected by his economic 


council 21 March; rejected by Parliament 276. 


14 JU 


1878 | Important autumn mancuvres near Bres 


” 


6 Se 
igre Colonization Society constituted at Frai 
or 


i 


. 6D 


The budget rejected by the chambers . 11 D 
Death of Prince Charles, brother of the ‘nee 


Enthusiastic commemoration of Luther’s vith | ( 


Lutheranism) . - <Aug.-Sey 
Autumn manceuvres “at Merseburg, 15 Sept., 
Homburg . 20 Sey 


Germania, a colossal statue, &e., by Prof. Schilliz 
a national memorial of German unity and victor 
of 1870-1 set up in the Niederwald at Rudeshe 
on the Rhine, uncovered by the emperor Willie 
in the presence of German sovereigns and 5,¢ 
spectators ; Von Moltke there but not Bismar 


28 Se] 


[Plot to blow up the monument by dynamite a 
destroy the royal and eminent persons prese 
eee frustrated by bad weather; discover 
in x 

The fourth centenary of Luther’s birth (10 Ne 
1483) celebrated at Erfurt, Halle, &c. 31 Oct., et 

Successful visit of the Crown Prince to Spain a: 
Italy ; 23 Nov.-22 De 

Prince Bismarck refuses to present to the chaml 
a letter of condolence from the United States. 
the death of the eloquent Dr. Lasker, former 
his supporter, afterwards his opponent . Fe 

German parliament opened; disputes Terra 
the Lasker affair . 7 M 

Mr. Sargent, the obnoxious U.S sbintatas settl 
to be removed to St. Petersburg, 26 Mar. ; ¢ 
clined F 27 M 

Anti-socialist law pr olonged for two years (iBpee 5 
to. May; trial of Kraszewski, Polish poet ai 
novelist, and captain Hentsch, ex-telegray 
official at Leipsic for high treason in milita 
communications to Austrian, French, and oth 
governments in 1866-71; Kraszewski sentenced 
3% years eae Hentsch to 9 years’ per 
servitude -  r2=19 Ma 

Foundation of the new German parliament aie 
at Berlin laid by the emperor . - gJu 

Autumn manceuvres at Diisseldorf, 15 "Sept., et se 

German colony founded at Cameroons, al 
Bimbia, west coast of Africa by Herr Nachtigal 


Au 
Death of Lord Ampthill, British ambassador, Aug 
succeeded by Sir Edward Malet Se 
Elections for the parliament; number of libera 

diminished, social democrats increased 28 Oc 
Parliament opened by the emperor  . 20 No 
Bismarck defeated ; votes for payment of membei 
180-99, 26 Nov. ; parts of May ecclesiastical lay 
repealed (217-93). 3 De 
Eight dynamitards, ‘Friedrich A. "Reinadatt al 
others for attempting to kill the emperor, 28 Sept 
1883 (see above): tried at Leipsic; F. A. Rein 
dorf, Rupsch, and Kiichler sentenced to deat 
two imprisonment ; three acquitted 15-22 De 
German flag said to be hoisted on N. coast of Ne 
Guinea, New Britain, and other islands, De 
Great increase of emigration (fivefold) . sa4 
‘““Germany does not. want colonies *__Bisinarc 
1871—180,000 marks voted for protec 


colonies . A a 
Speech of Pri ince Bismarck attacking the Gladsto 
cabinet . : a . 2Ma 


Dispute said to be settled . - »« oma 


800. 
814. 
840. 


855- 
875- 
88x. 


887. 
899.’ 


See Prussia. 


EMPERORS OF ROME AND KINGS OF GERMAN’ 
CARLOVINGIAN RACE, 


Charles I. the Great, or Charlemagne. 

Louis I. le Debonnaire, king of France. 

Lothaire I., or Lother, son of Louis; die 
monastery at Treves, Sept. 855. 

Louis II., son of Lothaire. 

Charles ihe the Bald, king of France ; died ! 

Charles IIL, the Fat, crowned king of Ita 
posed ; succeeded by 

Arnulf or Arnoul; crowned emperor at Ron 

Louis III., the Blind. 


GERMANY. 383 ~ 


ouis IV., the Child, son of Arnulf; the Jast of the 
Carlovingian race in Germany. 


SAXON DYNASTY. 
tho, duke of Saxony; refuses the dignity on 
account of his age. 
onrad I., duke of Franconia, king. 
ay I., the Fowler, son of Otho, duke of Saxony, 


ing. 
tho I., the Great, son of Henry, crowned by pope 
John XII., 2 Feb. 962, the beginning of the holy 
Roman empire. 
tho II., the Bloody; massacred his chief nobility 
at an entertainment, 98x ; wounded by a poisoned 


arrow. 

tho III., the Red, his son, yet in his minority, 
poisoned. 

fenry IJ., duke of Bavaria, surnamed the Holy 
and the Lame. 


HOUSE OF FRANCONIA. 

onrad II., surnamed the Salique. 

fenry III., the Black, son. 

lenry IV., son; a minor; Agnes, regent; deposed 
by his son and successor ; Rudolph (1077) and 
Herman (1082) nominated by the pope; and 
Conrad (1087). 

lenry V.; married Maud or Matilda, daughter of 
Henry I. of England. 

Othaire II., surnamed the Saxon. 


HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN, OR OF SUABIA. 

onrad III., duke of Franconia. 

yederick I. Barbarossa; drowned by his horse 
throwing him into river Saleph, 10 June, 1190. 

lenry VI.,son, surnamed Asper, or Sharp ; detained 
Richard I. of England a prisoner; died 1197. 

Interregnum and contest for the throne between 
Philip of Suabia and Otho of Brunswick. ] 

hilip, brother to Henry; assassinated at Bam- 
berg by Otto of Wittelsbach. 

tho IV., surnamed the Superb; excommunicated 
and deposed; died 1218. 

'rederick II., king of Sicily, son of Henry VI.: 
deposed by his subjects, who elected Henry, 
-landgrave of Thuringia, 1246; Frederick died in 
1250, naming his son Conrad his successor; but 
the pope gave the imperial title to 

Villiam, earl of Holland (nominal). 

onrad IV., son of Frederick. 

son Conradin was proclaimed king of Sicily, 

ich was, however, surrendered to his uncle 

nfred, 1254; on whose death it was given by the 

pe to Charles of Anjou in 1263. Conradin, on the 

‘itation of the Ghibeline party, entered Italy with 

arge army, was defeated at Tagliacozzo, 23 Aug. 

8, and beheaded at Naples 29 Oct., thus ending 

» Hohenstaufen family. ] 

Interregnum. ] 

tichard, earl of Cornwall, and Alphonso, of Castile, 
merely nominated. 


USES OF HAPSBURG, LUXEMBURG, BAVARIA, ETC. 

tudolph, count of Hapsburg. 

Interregnum. ] 

idolphus, count of Nassau, to the exclusion of 
Albert, son of Rodolph: deposed; slain at the 
battle of Gelheim, 2 July, 1298, by 

\bert I., duke of Austria, Rodolph’s son; killed 
by his nephew at Rheinfels, 1 May, 1308. 

Tenry VII. of Luxemburg. 

Interregnum. } 

zouis IV. of Bavaria, and Frederick III. of Austria, 
son of Albert, rival emperors ; Frederick died in 
1330. 

suis reigns alone. 

tharles IV, of Luxemburg. (At Nuremberg, in 

1356, the Golden Bull became the fundamental 
law of the German empire.) - 

Venceslas, king of Bohemia, son, twice impri- 
Soned ; forced to resign; but continued to reign 

in Bohemia. 

'rederick III. duke of Brunswick; assassinated 
immediately after his election, and seldom placed 

__ in the list of emperors. 

iupert, count palatine of the Rhine; crowned at 
Cologne; died 1410. 

_Ossus, Marquess of Moravia; chosen by a party of 
the electors ; died next year. 


GETTYSBURG. 


1410 Sigismund, king of Hungary; elected by “another 
party, on the death of Jossus recognised by all; 
king of Bohemia in r419. 


HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 
1438. Albert II. the Great, duke of Austria, and king of 
Hungary and Bohemia; died 27 Oct. 1439. 
1439. [Interregnum. ] 4 
1440. Frederick IV. (or III.) surnamed the Pacific; 


elected emperor 2 Feb., but not crowned until 
June, 1442. 

1493. Maximilian I., son; died in 1519. In 1477 he 
married Mary of Burgundy. 

Francis I. of France and Charles I. of Spain be- 

came competitors for the empire. 

1519. Charles V. (I. of Spain) son of Joan of Castile and 
Philip of Austria, elected ; resigned both crowns, 
1556; retired to a monastery, where he died 
21 Sept. 1558. 

1556. Ferdinand I., brother; succeeded by his son 

1564. Maximilian II. king of Hungary and Bohemia. 

1576. Rodolph II., son. 

1612. Matthias, brother. 

1619. Ferdinand IT., cousin, king of Hungary. 

1637.. Ferdinand III., son. 

1658. Leopold I., son. 

1705. Joseph I., son. 

1711. Charles VI., brother. 

1740. Maria-Theresa, daughter, queen of Hungary and 
Bohemia ; her right sustained by England. 

1742. Charles VII. elector of Bavaria, rival emperor, 
whose claim was supported by France. 

[This competition gave rise to a general war. 

Charles VII. died Jan. 1745.] 

1745. Francis I. of Lorraine, grand-duke of Tuscany, 
consort of Maria-Theresa. 

1765. Joseph II., son. 

1790. Leopold II., brother. 

1792. Francis II., son, became emperor of Austria only, 
as Francis I., 1804. 

See Austria. 


HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN (See Prussia). 


1871. William I. king of Prussia, 18 Jan. (born 22 March, 
1797 ; empress, Augusta, born 30 Sept. 18rr.) 
Heir : Frederic William ; son ; born 18 Oct. 1831. 
See Prussia. 


GERMINAL INSURRECTION, in the 
faubourgs of Paris, suppressed on 12th Germinal, 
year III. (1 April, 1795). 


GERONA (N. E. Spain), an ancient city, fre- 
quently besieged and taken. In June, 1808, it 
successfully resisted the French; but after suffer- 
ing much by famine, surrendered 12 Dec. 1809. 


GERRYMANDERING, an American slang 
term, signifying the arranging the political divisions 
of a state, so that the minority may get the advan- 
tage over the majority. The name is derived from 
the action of Elbridge Gerry, governor of Massa- 
chusetts, in 1811. The Irish Party causelessly 
applied the term to earl Spencer, lord-lieutenant of 
Ireland, in regard to electoral boundaries in 1885. 


GERSAU, a Swiss valley, near the Rigi, 
about ec by 3, the site of a miniature republic, 
which bought its independence in 1359, maintained 
aes 1798, and still, every May, elects government 
officers. 


GESTA ROMANORUM;; a collection of 
popular tales derived from Oriental and classical 
sources, written in Latin by an unknown author, 
about the. middle of the 14th century, and one of 
the first books printed in the 15th. These tales 
have been largely used by our early poets and 
dramatists, including Shakspeare. ‘The English 
translation, by the Rev. C. Swan (from an edition 
printed at Hagenau, 1508), appeared 1824. 


GETTYSBURG (Philadelphia). Here severe 
fighting took place 1-3 July, 1863, between the in- 
vading confederate army under generals Lee, Long- 


4 


GHEMARA. 384 


street, and Ewell, and the federals under general 
George Meade. The confederates were long suc- 
cessful, but eventually were compelled to retire 
from Pennsylvania and Maryland. The killed and 
wounded on each side estimated at about 15,000. 


GHEMARA, see Talmud. 


GHENT (Belgium), an ancient city, built about 
the 7th century, during the middle-ages became 
very rich. John, third son of Edward III. of Eng- 
land, is said to have been born here in 1340 (hence 
named John of Gaunt) during the revolt under 
Jacob Van Artevelde, a brewer, whose son Philip 
revived the insurrection against Louis, count of 
Flanders, 1379-82. 


Ghent rebelled against Philip of Burgundy, 1451; against 
the emperor Charles V., 1539; severely punished, 1540. 

“ Pacification of Ghent” (when the north and south pro- 
vinces of the Netherlands united against Spain) pro- 
claimed 8 Nov. 1576, broken up 1579. The 300th anni- 
versary celebrated 3-10 Sept. 1876. 

Ghent taken by Louis XIV. of France, 9 March, 1678; and 
by the duke of Marlborough, 1706. 

Ghent seized by the French, 1793; annexed to the 
Netherlands, 1814; made part of Belgium, 1830. 

Peace of Ghent, between Great Britain and America, 
signed 24 Dec. 1814. 

New docks opened at Ghent by the king, Sept. 188z. 


GHIBELINES, see Guelphs. 


GHIZNEHF, or GHUZNEE (East Persia), the 
seat of the Gaznevides, who founded the city, 969. 
They were expelled by the Seljuk Tartars in 1038. 
The British under sir John Keane attacked the 
strong citadel of Ghiznee at 2 A.M. 23 July, 1839. 
At 3 o’clock the gates were blown in by the artillery, 
and under cover of a heavy fire, the infantry forced 
their way into the place and at 5 fixed the British 
colours on its towers.—It capitulated to the 
Afghans, 1 March, 1842, who were defeated 6 Sept. 
and general Nott re-entered Ghiznee 7 Sept. same 
vear. Seized for Musa Khan by Mahomed Jan in 

an., retaken after a conflict, 19-20 April, 1880. 


GHOORKAS, see Goorkas. 


GHOSTS, produced by optical science. Mr. 
Dircks described his method at the British Associa- 
tion meeting in 1858. Dr. John Taylor produced 
ghosts scientifically in March; and Mr. Pepper ex- 
hibited the ghost illusion at the Royal Polytechnic 
Institution, July, 1863. See Cock-lane Ghost. 


GIANTS are mentioned in Gen. vi. 4. The 
bones of reputed giants, 17, 18, 20, and 30 feet high, 
have been proved to be remains of animals.—The 
battle of Marignano (1515) has been termed the 
‘*battle of the Giants.” See Dwarfs. 


Og, king of Bashan, of the remnant of the giants: his 
bedstead was g cubits long (about 16} feet). 1451 B.C. 
(Deut. iii. 11.) 

Goliath of Gath’s “‘height was 6 cubits and a span.” 
Killed by David about 1063 B.c. (1 Sam. xvii. 4.) 

Four giants, sons of Goliath, killed (2 Sam. xxi. 15-22) 
about 1018. 

The emperor Maximin (A.D. 235) was 8} feet in height, 
and of great bulk, Some say between 7 and 8 feet; 
others above 8. 

“The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was 
one named Gabara, who in the days of Claudius, the 
late emperor, was brought out of Arabia. He was 

feet g inches high.” Pliny. 

John Middleton (born 1578), commonly called the child 
of Hale (Lancashire), whose hand, from the carpus to 
the end of his middle finger, was 17 inches long; his 
palm 8} inches broad ; his whole height 9 feet 3 inches. 
Plot, Nat. Hist. of Staffordshire, p. 295. 

Patrick Cotter, Irish giant, born in 1761, was 8 feet 
7 inches in height; his hand, from the commencement 
of the palm to the extremity of the middle finger, 


GIBRALTAR. 


measured 12 inches, and his shoe was 17 inch 
died Sept. 1806. : 

Charles Byrne, called O’Brien, 8 feet 4 inches hig 
1783; his skeleton is in the Museum, Royal Cc 
Surgeons. 

Big Sam, porter of the prince of Wales, at Carlton 
near 8 feet high, performed as a giant in “( 
at the Opera-house, 1809. 

M. Brice, a native of the Vosges, 7 feet 6 inche 
He exhibited himself in London, Sept. 1862, ar 


1863. 

Robert Hales, the Norfolk giant, died at Great Yai 
22 Nov. 1863 (aged 43). He was 7 feet 6 inch: 
and weighed 452 lbs. 

Chang-Woo-Gow, a Chinese, aged 19, 7 feet 8 
high, exhibited himself in London in Sept 
1865. Grown to 8 feet, exhibited at West 
Aquarium ; with him Brustay, a Norwegian, 
inches, aged 35, 11 June, 1880, 

Capt. Martin Van Buren Bates, of Kentucky, a1 
Ann Hanen Swann, of Nova Scotia, both abot 
high; exhibited themselves in London, in M: 
married at St. Martin’s-in-the-Fields, 17 June, 

Marian, the amazon queen, 8 feet 2 inches hig 
at Benkendorf, Thuringia, 21 Jan. 1866; exhi 
London, July, 1882, 


GIAOUR, Turkish for infidel, a term: 
to all who do not believe in Mahomedar 
Byron’s poem, ‘** The Giaour,’’ was publis 


1813. 


GIBRALTAR. The ancient Calpe ( 
with Abyla, on the opposite shore of Afric 
tained the name of the Pillars of Hercules), 
on a rock in South Spain, on which is pl 
British fortress, considered impregnable. 
height of the rock, according to Cuvier, ; 
English feet. It was taken by the Saracens 
Tarik, whence its present name (derived from 
el- Tartk), in 711. 

Taken from the Moors, 1309; surrendered to thei 
1333; finally taken from them by Henry IV., 
Castile, 1462; strengthened by Charles V. 

Attacked by the British under sir George Rook 
the prince of Hesse-Darmstadt, sir John Leak 
and admiral Byng, 21 July; taken . 24 Jul 

Besieged by the Spanish and French; they lo 
1o,oco0 men; the victorious English but é 

Ir UC 

Sir John Leake captured several ships, and rais 
the siege x 2 : ; i 1o Mare 

Ceded to England by treaty of Utrecht 1x Apr 

The Spaniards repulsed in an attack with gre 
loss)’. : : : : : i - : 

They again attack it with a force of 20,000 me 
and lose 5000; English loss, 300 . . 22Fe 

Siege by the Spaniards and French, whose arm 
ments (the greatest brought against a fortres 
wholly overthrown 08 en 

In one night their floating batteries were destroyé 
with red-hot balls, and their whole line of wor! 
annihilated by a sortie commanded by gener 
Eliott; the enemy’s loss in munitions of war, ¢ 
this night, was estimated at upwards of 2,000,00¢ 
sterling; the army amounted to 40,000 mé 


27 No 
Grand defeat by a garrison of only 7000 ae 
13 Sep 
The duke of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the be 
troops of France. 1000 pieces of artillery we! 
brought to bear against the fortress, besid 
which there were 47 sail of the line, all t 
deckers; 1o great floating batteries, esteeme 
invincible, carrying 212guns; innumerablefrigate 
xebeques, bomb-ketches, cutters, and gun an 
mortar-boats ; while small craft for disembarkin 
the forces covered the bay. For weeks togethe 
6000 shells were daily thrown into the town. 
Blockade ceased . . «. « « 5F8 
Royal battery destroyed by fire . . . No 
Engagement between the French and English flee 
in the bay; H.M.S. Hannibal, 74 guns, 108 


6d 
The Royal Carlos and St. He rmenigitaeSpaanie a 


leit 


GIBSON GALLERY. — 


. of rr2 guns, blew up, with their crews, at 
t-time, in the straits here, and all on board 


shed 3 x : : . 3 12 July, 1801 
ionant disease caused great mortality Sept. 1804 
sifu plague raged i : $ ‘ v4. 1805 
ignant fever raged Aug. 1814 


: courts of justice and places of worship 


ed by proclamation ; : « -58ept. 1828 
tal epidemic ceased . ° ‘ . 12 Jan. 1829 
ictive storm . : : . - 17 Nov. 1834 
pric of Gibraltar established . ‘ : + 1842 
ir Richard Airey appointed governor Sept. 1865 


ar discussion respecting its exchange for 
a 


Dec. 1868—Jan. 1869 


ictive fire . d “atte 28 June, 1874 
sir Fenwick Williams of Kars, governor, 

Aug. 1870—Noy. 1875 
ietive storm and floods 23-24 Nov. ,, 
Napier of Magdala, governor . . Jan. 1876 
f prince of Wales . : i5/April,-.%,, 
hn Miller Adye, governor i Jan. 1883 


BSON GALLERY, see Royal Academy. 
LBERTINES, an order of canons and 


estublished at Sempringham, Lincolnshire, 
Ibert of that place, 1131-1148. At the disso- 
there were 25 houses of the order in England 
Vales. 


LDING on wood formed part of the decora- 
of the Jewish tabernacle, 1490 B.c. (Exod. 
II); was practised at Rome, about 145 B.c. 
apitol was the first building on which this 
iment was bestowed. Pliny. Of gold leaf for 
g the Romans made but 750 leaves, four 
s square, out of a whole ounce. Pliny. Gild- 
ith leaf gold on dole ammoniac was first intro- 
by Margaritone in 1273. See Klectrotype. 


N, ardent spirit, flavoured with the essential 
‘the juniper berry. The “‘gin act,’ 1735, 
yan excise of 5s. per gallon upon it, passed 
ly, 1730: In London alone 7044 houses sold 
retail; and a man could intoxicate himself 
1e penny. Salmon. About 1700 gin-shops 
suppressed in London in 1750. Clarke. 


N (contracted from engine), a machine for 


ting cotton wool from the seed; see under 
) 


NGER, the root of the Amomum Zinziber, 
ve of the East Indies and China, now culti- 
in the West Indies. In 1842 the duty was 
id from 53s. to 10s. per cwt. of foreign ginger, 
om IIs. to 5s. per cwt. of that from British 
8. 


PSTES, see Gypsies. 


RAFFE or CAMELOPARD, 2 native of the 
x of Africa, was well known to the ancients. 
7 one was brought to England for the first 
8 a present to George IV. It died in 1829. 

May, 1835, four giraffes, obtained by M. 
it, were introduced into the Zoological gar- 
Regent’s park, where a young one was born 


XLS, charities for. 


industrial Home, Stockwell, established . . 1857 
‘Tome, 22, Charlotte-street, Portland-place, 
lished. aioe) 6 4 : ‘ : . 18 
‘riendly Society, to provide homes, &c., for 
ing girls, supported by the archbishops and 
'ps,founded , S - - ‘ pone tD7o 


XONDISTS, an important party during the 
1 revolution, principally composed of deputies 
ie Gironde. They were ardent republicans, 
orthe cruelties of Aug. and Sept.1792, laboured 
(to restrain the cruelties of Robespierre and 


67 


| 


| 


385 GLADSTONE ADMINISTRATIONS. 


the Mountain party, and their leaders, Brissot, 
Vergniand, and many others, were guillotined 
31 Oct. 1793. Lamartine’s ‘‘ Histoire des Giron- 
dins,”’ published in 1847, tended to hasten the 
revolution of 1848. 


GIRTON COLLEGE, Cambridge, for the 
higher education of women. It began at Hitchin, 
1869; removed here, and was opened Oct. 1873. 
Nuneham hall, Cambridge, in connexion with it, 
was opened 18 Oct. 1875. 

Miss Charlotte Angas Scott, aged about 22, attained the 

position of ‘‘ wrangler” (for mathematics), Jan. 1880. 


GISORS, BATTLE oF (France), on 20 Sept. 
or 10 Oct. 1198, when Richard f. of England defeated 
the French. His parole for the day, ‘* Diew et 
mon droit’? —“ God and my right’’—afterwards 
became the motto to the arms of England. 


GITSCHIN (Bohemia), was captured by the 
Prussians after a severe conflict with the Austrians, 
29 June, 1806. Near Gitschin, the same evening, 
the crown prince of Prussia was victor in another 
engagement. 


GIURGEVO (Wallachia). Here the Russians 
were defeated by the Turks, aided by some English 
Seas 7 July, and repulsed in an attack, 23 July, 
1854. 

GLACIARIUM, at King’s-road, Chelsea ; 
containing a surface of artificially made ice for, 
rinking, constructed by Dr. John Gamgee, and 
opened March, 1876. The freezing was accomplished 
by Raoul Pictet’s process, and W. E. Ludlow’s 
rotary engine and pump were employed. Dr. 
M’Leod’s newly invented skating surface, success- 
fully tried at Lillie Bridge, 10 May, 1884. 


GLADIATORS were originally malefactors, 
who fought for their lives, or captives who fought 
for freedom. They were first exhibited at the 
funeral ceremonies of the Romans, 263 B.c., and 
afterwards at festivals, about 215 B.c. Their revolt 
under Spartacus, 73 B.c., was quelled by Crassus, 
71. When Dacia was reduced by Trajan, ro0oo 
gladiators fought at Rome in celebration of his 
triumph, for 123 days, A.D. 103. These combats 
were suppressed in the East by Constantine the 
Great, 325, and in the West by Theodoric in 500. 


GLADSTONE ADMINISTRATIONS. * 
Mr. Disraeli resigned 2 Dec. and was succeeded by 
Mr. Gladstone, whose ministry received the seals 
9 Dec. 1868. In consequence of a majority of three 
against the Irish University bill, early on 12 March, 
1873, Mr. Gladstone tendered his resignation, but 
withdrew it a few days after, as Mr. Disraeli de- 
clined office with the existing house of commons. 
Changes were made Aug.-Sept. 1873; the ministry 
resigned 17 Feb. 1874. 

FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1868-74). 
First lord of the treasury, Wm. Ewart Gladstone (and 
chancellor of exchequer, Aug. 1873). 
Lord chancellor, sir Wm. Page Wood, baron Hatherley 
resigned; sir Roundell Palmer, baron Selborne, 
Oct. 1872. 


* William Ewart Gladstone, born 29 Dec. 1809; master 
of the mint, Sept. 1841; president of the board of trade, 
May, 1843—Feb. 1845; secretary for colonies, Dee. 1845 
—July, 1846; chancellor of the exchequer, Jan. 1853-— 
Feb. 1855, June, 1859—June, 1866; lord high com- 


) missioner extraordinary to the Ionian Isles, Nov. 1858; 


M.P. for Newark, 13 Dec. 1832-46; for Oxford, 1847-65 ; 
for South Lancashire, 1865-8 ; for Greenwich, Nov. 1868 ; 
announced the dissolution of parliament, 23 Jan. 1874; 
resigned, 17 Feb. 1874; temporarily resigned leadership of 
liberal party, 13 Jan. 1875; elected M.P. for Mid-Lothian 
(1579-1368), 5 April, 1880. 

cc 


GLADSTONE ADMINISTRATIONS. 386 


GLASGOW. _ 


Lord president of the council, Geo. Fred. Samuel Robinson, 
earl de Grey and Ripon (marquis of Ripon, 1871) ; 
succeeded by Mr. Austin Bruce, made lord Aberdare, 
Aug. 1873. 

Lord privy seal, John Wodehouse, earl of Kimberley ; 
succeeded by viscount Halifax, July, 1870. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Robert Lowe; succeeded by 
Mr. Gladstone, Aug. 1873. 

Secretaries—home, Henry Austin Bruce; succeeded by 
Mr. Lowe, Aug. 1873; foreign, Geo. Wm. Fred. Villiers, 
earl of Clarendon (died 27 June, 1870); succeeded by 
earl Granville ; colonies, Granville Geo. Leveson-Gower, 
earl Granville; succeeded hy earl of Kimberley, July, 
1870; war, Edward Cardwell; India, George Douglas 
Campbell, duke of Argyll. 

Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, Frederick lord Dufferin, 
appointed governor-general of Canada; succeeded by 
H. E. Childers, Aug. 1872; by John Bright, Sept. 1873. 

First lord of admiralty, Hugh Culling Eardley Childers ; 
succeeded by G. Joachim Goschen, 9 March, 1871. 

Chief secretary for Ireland, Chichester 8S. Fortesene ; 
succeeded by the marquis of Hartington, r Jan. 1871. 

President of board of trade, John Bright; succeeded hy 
Chichester 8. Fortescue, Dec. 1870. 

President of poor law (now local government) board, 
George Joachim Goschen; succeeded by James Stans- 
feld, 9 March, 1871. 

Wm. Edward Forster, vice-president of the committee 
of council on education; admitted to the cabinet, 
July, 1870. 

The above formed the cabinet. 


Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, George earl Spencer. 

Ofice of works, Austen Layard; succeeded by Acton S. 
Ayrton, Nov. 1869; by Wm. Patrick Adam, Aug. 1873. 

Postmaster-general, Spencer C. Cavendish, marquis of 
Hartington; succeeded by Wm. Monsell (not in the 
cabinet), Jan. 1871; by Dr. Lyon Playfair, Nov. 1873. 


This ministry carried—the disestablishment of the 
Irish church in 1869; the Irish tenant act in 1870; was 
censured in the house of lords for advising the royal 
warrant abolishing purchase in the army (162—82), 
x Aug. 1871; carried the ballot in 1872. See letter in 
note, Disraeli Administration. 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION (28 April, 1880). 
See under Parliament. 


First lord of the treaswry (and chancellor of the exchequer 
till 16 Dec. 1882), Wm. Ewart Gladstone. 

Lord chancellor, Roundell Palmer, baron Selborne. 

Lord president of the cowncil, John Poyntz, earl Spencer; 
succeeded by Chichester 8. Fortescue, lord Carlingford, 
9 March, 1883. 

Lord privy seal, George Douglas Campbell, duke of Ar- 
gyll; resigned; succeeded by lord Carlingford, April, 
1881; Archibald Philip Primrose, earl of Rosebery, 
tr Feb. 1885. 

Secretaries—home, sir Wm. Harcourt; foreign affairs, 
George Leveson-Gower, earl Granville; the colonies, 
John Wodehouse, earl of Kimberley, succeeded by 
Edward, earl of Derby, 16 Dec. 1882 ; India, Spencer 
€. Cavendish, marquis of Hartington, succeeded by 
John Wodehouse, earl of Kimberley, 16 Dec. 1882; 
war, Hugh C. E. Childers, succeeded by marquis of 
Hartington, 16 Dec. 1882. 

First lord of the admiralty, Thos. Geo. Baring, earl of 
Northbrook. 

Beater of the exchequer, Hugh C. E. Childers, 16 Dec. 
I602, 

Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, John Poyntz, earl Spencer, 
May, 1882. 

Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, John Bright; resigns 
about 15 July, 1882; earl of Kimberley, 25 July; John 
George Dodson (afterwards lord Monk Bretton), 28 
Dec. 1882; George O. Trevelyan, about 20 Oct. 1884. 

President of local government board, John George Dodson, 
peg Oe: by sir Charles Wentworth Dilke, 28 Dec. 
1002. 

President of board of trade, Joseph Chamberlain. 

Postmaster-general, George Shaw, Lefevre, entered the 
cabinet, rz Feb. 1885. 


The above form the cabinet. 


Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Francis Thomas de Grey, 
earl Cowper ; resigned, May, 1882; earl Spencer (see 
above). 

Postmaster-general, Henry Fawcett, died 6 Nov. 1884; 
George Shaw Lefevre, 18 Nov. 1884. 


| Chief secretary for Ireland, W. E. Forster ; resig 
| 2 May, 1882; lord Frederick Cavendish, 4 Ma 
sinated, 6 May; G. O. Trevelyan, 9 May, 188 
Campbell Bannerman, about 20 Oct. 1884. 
Chief commissioner of works, W. P. Adam, succ¢ 
G. Shaw Lefevre till Nov. 1884. 
Attorney-general, sir Henry James. 
Solicitor-general, sir Farrer Herschell. 
Governor-general of India, Geo. Fred. Samuel ] 
marquis of Ripon; succeeded by Fredericl 
Haimilton-Blackwood, earl of Dufferin, Noy. 
Chairman of ways and means, Dr Lyon Playfair 


GLASGOW (Lanarkshire), the large: 
Scotland. Its prosperity greatly increased | 
union in 1707, in consequence of its obtain: 
of the American trade. See Population. 


The cathedral or high church, dedicated to 
Kentigern or Mungo, began about . 
Erected into a burgh , : / 
Charter was obtained from James II. . f 
University founded by bishop Turnbull, about 
Made a royal burgh by James YI. : 5 
Town wasted by a great fire . : 3 - 
Charter of William and Mary . ; 4 
Glasgow Courant, the first newspaper published 
First vessel sailed to America for its still g 
import, tobacco ’ 2 : : . 
Great Shawfield riot . - 5 = ; ° 
Calico printing begun, about ; : > 
Plundered by rebels . : PF , A - 
Theatre opened . x - : “ ° 
Power-loom introduced . 5 : ‘ 
Theatre burnt; Glasgow Herald published . 
Chamber of commerce formed . : ° ° 
Trades’ hall built . ‘ ; : é 7 
Walter Stirling’s public library founded, by wil 
Spinning machinery by steam introduced 


Anderson’s university founded ; | a 
New College buildings erected . ; ° 

Great popular commotion 3 + eee 
Trials for treason followed . . ok 
Theatre again burnt . e A : A d 
The royal exchange opened . ; E 38 


Great fire, loss 150,000]. . ; P . 
The Glasgow lotteries, the last drawn in Brit 
were granted by licence of parliament to 

commissioners for the improvement of Glasg 
The third and final Glasgow lottery was draw: 
London, at Coopers’ Hall, 28 Aug. 1834. T 
repetition was forbidden by 4 Will. IV., c. 37 
British Association meet here . ; . 248 
Wellington’s statue erected . ; ; ~ 18 
False alarm of fire at the theatre, when 70 pers 
are crushed to death . : : 17 § 
British Association meet (2nd time) 12 8 
Failure of Western Bank of Scotland, and Cit; 
Glasgow bank, and other firms as 
In which great frauds were discovered . . 
New water-works at Loch Katrine opened b 
queen * ; ; : ; ; . 14 
[Supplies 25,000,000 gallons daily, can sup 
50,000,000; engineer, J. F. Bateman; cost ab 
918,000/. independent of price paid for old wor 
Self-supporting cooking establishments for we 
ing classes begun by Mr. Thos. Corbett, 21 Se 
Glasgow visited by the empress of the pe 
27 
Theatre burnt again . és A : . aap 
Visited by lord Palmerston; installed lord 


rect 
29 Mat 
Industrial exhibition opened . 121 


Fine stained glass windows, by German artists, | 
up in the cathedral by private munificence 
Site of the old university sold to railway compa 

new buildings to be erected near Western-par 
Great reform demonstration; visit of John Brig 


I 
The duke of Edinburgh inaugurates the statue 
the prince consort, in George’s-square 18 O 
Glasgow and Aberdeen universities to elect ‘ 
M.P., and Glasgow to elect three instead of t 
M.P.’s, by the Scotch reform act, passed 13 J 
Foundation of the new university buildings laid 
the prince of Wales. j : me 
Foundation of Albert bridge laid . 
The new university buildings opened 


JU 
Py N 


a is | , sw Wy 5 ; 

a a Oe 
GLASGOW. | 387 GLER. 

ical college established about. . - 1870 | post-revolution bishopric. i : 

Me sery celebrated es 7° |p n bishopric. The cathedral, com 


‘and Maclaren’s warehouse, Se ofeanear aires 
it; about ro0,cocol. lost . 27 March, 
sion at Tradeston flour mills; about 14 killed ; 
70,0001. . ¢ : : 
israeli installed lord rector . . 19 Nov. 
ephen Mitchell bequeaths 70,0001. to found a 
library, &c. : ‘ : . spring, 
fire in Buchanan-stree 22 April, 
1 Association meeting (3rd) é 4 Sue 
n. R. A. Cross receives freedom of the city 
: DOCK; 

ation of new post-office laid by the prince of 
4 : , A ; : T7OGb 5; 
ef Burns in George’s square uncovered by 


Houghton . ‘ ; . 25 Jan. 1877 
tock exchange opened s April: ) 54 
ng school opened Z 2 a a pepts —,, 
m of city presented to gen. U. Grant, ex- 
ident, U.S. . 2 : Eo. Septe 4 


ueen’s dock opened ; : eto Nept 
m of city presented to the marquis of 
ington . ; : A ; ES UNOVS) 155 
of Thos. Campbell, in George’s square, un- 
red . ; : ? ; , : 28 Dec. 
ecaries’ hall burnt, loss about 30,000]. g June, 
ge of “City of Glasgow” bank, with many 
ches, total ruin to many, see Banks 2 Oct. ,, 
al fund formed to relieve sufferers, 9 Nov. ; 
int received, about 118,000. . 12 Noy. ,, 
w relief bank founded, 321,423]. received, 
£3. Decy;; 
of Glasgow” bank: Stronach and some direc- 
sentenced to 18 months imprisonment, others 
months, see Trials . . r Feb. 
é Royal burnt . : 2 Heb. <,; 
explosion, Glasgow ironworks, 23 killed, 
5 March; 5, 
of Livingstone, George’s-square, unveiled, 
19 March, _ ,, 
n. Harcourt, home secretary, receives freedom 
icity . . a 4 : «25 Oct, .108r 
acdonald, M.P., bequeaths a mining library 
toool. to the university . : eNO View reg 
and Wingate’s weaving mills burnt 3 Dec. ,, 
fires : anchor line engine works on the Clyde 
Parker's soap works ; damage, about so,o00l. 1882 
ctive fire in the Trongate, 15,000/. estimated 


age . . 3 4 - ‘ See AUS. es, 

‘ke of Albany receives the freedom of the city 
raOCctsat,. 

ith’s spinning mill burnt . ray Ocha as. 


no. W. E. Forster receives the freedom of the 
18 Dec. 


ight installed as lord rector — "22 March 1883 


phne steamer, during launch in the Clyde, 


an 


ver ; 124 perish . 


# 3 July, ” 
4d Lockhead’s premises, near Buchanan- 
surnt ; loss about 200,000. ENO Veet 3 
der” professorship of naval architecture 
ewniversity endowed by Mrs. Elder, 12,500. 
\ announced Nov. ,, 
tt, M.P., elected lord rector ZSUNOVat 3; 
rence M‘Dermott and nine other ribbon- 
|, Edinburgh for conspiracy to blow up 
ingzs in Glasgow; M‘Dermott and four sen- 
d ‘to peual servitude for life, five others to 
ears : F : ; jeer 7-2 Dec. ,, 
slasgow Improvement Act, great numbers 
ble rookeries removed, 1866, and whole- 
Oyises erected - f announeed ,, 
ular demonstration in favour of the 
ent and the Franchise bill ; Mr. Trevelyan 
: 5 5 F ° z . 6 Sept. 
marquis of Salisbury; great conser- 
onstration : . 30 Sept. ef seg. ,, 
. 15 persons killed through false panic 
* eEPNOYSS © 3 


SGj/OW, BisHopric or. Kennet, in his 
#§, Says it was founded by St. Kentigern, 
0, in 560; Dr. Heylin, speaking of the 
Asaph, in Wales, says that that see was 
St. Kentigern, a Scot, then bishop of 
583. This prelacy became archiepiscopal 
@ased at the Revolution, and is now a 


5 


menced in 1121, has a noble crypt; see Bishops. 


GLASITES (in Scotland) and SAnDEMANIANS 
(in England). In 1727, John Glas, a minister of 
the church of Scotland, published “The Testimony 
of the King of Martyrs, concerning his Kingdom 
(John xviii. 36),” in which he opposed national 
churches, and described the original constitution of 
the Christian church, its doctrines, ordinances, 
officers, and discipline, as given in the New Testa- 
ment. Having been deposed in 1728, he and others 
established several churches formed upon the pri- 
mitive models. The publication of a series of letters 
on Hervey’s ‘‘ Theron and Aspasio,”’ by Robert 
Sandeman, in 1757, led to the establishment of 
churches in London and other places in England, 
and also in North America. The meeting-house at 
Barnsbury, London, N., was erected in 1862. 


GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have been 
taught the art of making glass by Hermes. The 
discovery of glass took place in Syria. Pliny. 
Glass-houses were erected in Tyre. It was in use 
among the Romans in the time of Tiberius; and 
we know, from the ruins of Pompeii, that windows 
were formed of glass before 79. 


Glass is said to have been brought to England by 
Benedict Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth, in 

The glass manufacture established in England at 
Crutched-friars, and in the Savoy (Stow) : 

Great improvements have been made in the manu- 
facture, through the immense increase of chemical 
knowledge in the present century. Professor 
Faraday published his researches on the manu- 
facture of glass for optical purposes in : 

The duties on glass, first imposed 1695; repealed, 
1698 ; re-enacted, 1745; finally remitted, 24 April, 

-GLASS-PAINTING was known to the ancient Egyp- 
tians. It was revived about the roth century, 
and is described in the treatise by the monk 
Theophilus ; was practised at Marseilles in a 
beautiful style, about 1500, and attained great 
perfection about 1530. Specimens of the 13th 
century exist in England; C. Winston’s work is 
the best on the subject, 1846, new edition 

Guass- PLate, for coach-windows, mirrors, &e., 
made at Lambeth by Venetian artists, under the 
patronage of Villiers, duke of Buckingham . 

The manufacture was improved by the French, 
who made very large plates; and further im- 
provements in it were made in Lancashire, when 
the British Plate Glass company was established 

Manufacture of British sheet glass introduced by 
Messrs. Chance, of Birmingham, about . ans 

Tempered or Toughened glass: M. De la Bastie’s pro- 
cess (plunging heated glass into a hot bath of 
oleaginous or alkaline compounds) announced, 
April, 1875 ; largely manufactured in France, and 
sold cheap in London : ; ; : : 

Mr. Frederick Siemens described his process for pro- 
ducing strong homogeneous tempered glass at the 
Society of Arts ; : : 26 Feb. 1885 
GLASTONBURY (Somerset), said te have 

been the residence of Joseph of Arimathea, and the 

site of the first Christian church in Britain, about 

60. A church was built here by Ina about 708. 

The town and abbey were burnt, 1184, and an 

earthquake did great damage in 1275. Richard 

Whiting, the last abbot, who had 100 monks and 

400 domestics, was hanged on Tor-hill in his pon- 

tificals for refusing to take the oath of supremacy 

to Henry VIIi., 14 Noy. 1539. The monastery was 

suppressed 1540. , 

GLEE, a piece of unaccompanied vocal music, 
in at least three parts. Their composition began 
early in the 18th century. Eminent composers, 
Samuel Webbe (1740-1816), Stevens, Callcott, Hors- 
ley, Danby, Paxton, Lord Mornington, Spofforth, 
&e. The Glee Club, founded by Dr. J. W. Calleott, 
Dr. Arnold, and others, 1787. 


1830 


1845 


C.G.2 


\ 


a ee Seen ene Saw ead ieee SS rt 


GLENCOE MASSACRE. 


083 


“GLYCERINE. 


GLENCOE MASSACRE of the Macdonalds, 


a Jacobite clan, for not surrendering before I Jan. | 


1692, the time stated in king William’s proclama- 
tion. Sir John Dalrymple, master (afterwards 
earl) of Stair, their enemy, obtained a decree ‘* to 
extirpate that set of thieves,’ which the king is 
said to have signed without perusing. Every man 
under 70 was to be slain. This mandate was trea- 
cherously executed by 120 soldiers of a Campbell 
regiment, hospitably received by the Highlanders, 
13 Feb. 1692. About 60 men were slain; and many 
women and children, turned out naked in a frecz- 
ing night, perished. This excited great indigna- 


tion; and an inquiry was set on foot, May, 1695, | 


but no capital punishment followed. 


GLENDALOUGH, or“ Seven Churches,” an 
ancient Irish bishopric, said to have been founded 
by St. Keven in 495; united with Dublin, 1214. 


GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the 
five zones, some of the principal circles of the 
sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true causes 
of lunar eclipses, were taught, and an eclipse pre- 
dicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 640 B.c. Pytha- 
goras demonstrated, from the varying altitudes of 
the stars by change of place, that the earth must 
be round; that there might be antipodes on the 
opposite part of the globe; that Venus was the 
morning and evening star; that the universe con- 
sisted of twelve spheres—the sphere of the earth, 
the sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the 
sphere of fire, the spheres of the moon, the sun; 
Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the 
spheres of the stars; about 506 s.c.—Aristarchus 
of Samos maintained that the earth turned on its 
own axis, and revolved about the sun, which doc- 
trine was held by his contemporaries as so absurd, 
that the philosopher nearly lost his life, 280 B.c. ; 
see Cireumnavigators. 

To determine the figure of the earth, a degree of latitude 
has been measured in different parts of the world; by 
Bouguer and La Condamine in Peru, and by Mauper- 
tuis and others in Lapland, 1735. 

Estimated density 5°6 that of water; weight, 6,000,000, 
000,000,000,000,000 tons.—Proctor, 1875. 

Trance and Spain measured by Mechain, Delambre, 
Biot, and Arago, between 1792 and 1821. 

Measurements made in India by col. (afterwards sir 
George) Everest, published in 1830. 

Experiments made by pendulums to demonstrate the 
rotation of the earth by Foucault in 1851; and to 

‘determine its density by Maskelyne, Bailly, and 
others; and in 1826, 1828, and 1854, by Mr. (aft. sir) 

G. B. Airy, the astronomer royal. 

ARTIFICIAL GLOBES. It is said that a celestial globe was 
brought to Greece from Egypt, 368 B.c., and that 
Archimedes constructed a planetarium about 212 B.C. 

The globe of Gottorp, a concave sphere, eleven feet in 
diameter, containing a table and seats for twelve per- 
sons, and the inside representing the visible surface 
of the heavens, the stars and constellations, all dis- 
tinguished according to their respective magnitudes, 
and being turned by means of curious mechanism, 
their true position, rising and setting, are shown. 
The outside is a terrestrial globe. The machine, called 
the globe of Gottorp, from the original one of that 
name, which, at the expense of Frederick Il. duke of 
Holstein, was erected at Gottorp, under the direction 
of Adam Olearius, and was planned after a design found 
among the papers of the celebrated Tycho Brahe. 
Frederick IV. of Denmark presented it to Peter the 
Great in 1713. It was nearly destroyed by fire in 
1757; but it was afterwards reconstructed. Cove. 

The globe at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by Dr. 
Long (master, 1733), eighteen feet in diameter. 

In 185x Mr. Abrahams erected in Leicester-square, for 
Mr. Wyld, a globe 60 feet 4 inches in diameter, lit 
from the centre by day, and by gas at night. It was 
closed in July, 1861; the models were sold, and the 
building eventually taken down. 


GLOBE THEATRE, BANKSIDE (London), 


| see Siakespeare’s Theatre.—The Globe ‘ T] 
erected on the site of Lyon’s-inn, Stra 


opened 28 Nov. 1868, Mr. Sefton Parry, m 
—The Globe evening newspaper; formerh 
now conservative ; established 1803. 


GLOIRE, French steam frigate, sec 
French. 


GLORY, the nimbus drawn by painter: 
the heads of saints, angels, and holy men, ; 
circle of rays on images, adopted from the 
and their flatterers, were used in the Ist ¢ 
The doxology, ‘‘ Gloria Patri,” is very : 
and originally without the clause “as it 
the beginning,’ &e. In the Greek it beg: 
“*doxa,” glory. 


GLOUCESTER (Roman Glevum), su 
to the Romans about 45, and to the Saxc 
The statutes of Gloucester, passed at a 
ment held by Edward I. 1278, relate to ae 
law. This city was incorporated by Hen1 


| and was fortified by a strong wall, which ° 


molished after the Restoration, in 1660, by. 
Charles II., as a punishment for the su 
resistance of the city to Charies I., une 
Massey, Aug., Sept. 1643. The Gloucest 
Berkeley canal was completed in April 
Gross bribery took place here at. the election 
parliament in 1859.—The Bisuwopric was 
the six erected by Henry VIII. in 1541, a 
formerly part of Worcester. It was un 
Bristol in 1836. The church, which belo: 
the abbey, and its revenues, were appropri 
the maintenance of the see. The abbey, 
was founded by king Wulphere about 7¢ 
burnt in 1102, and againin 1122. In it 
tombs of Robert, duke of Normandy, and Edy 
In the king’s books, this bishopric is val 
3157. 178. 2d. per annum. Present income, 


RECENT BISHOPS OF GLOUCESTER AND BRISTC 

1802. George Isaac Huntingford, translated to H 
June, 181s. 

1815. Hon. Hen. Ryder, translated to Lichfield, 
1824. Christopher Bethell, translated to Exeter, 
1830. James Henry Monk, died. 
1856. Charles Baring, translated to Durham, Sep 
1861. Wm. Thomson, translated to York, 1862. 
1862. Charles John Ellicott (present bishop). 


GLOVES. Woodstock and Worcester, 
gloves are of ancient celebrity. In the 
ages, the giving a glove was a ceremony 0! 
titure in bestowing lands and dignities; }s 
bishops were put in possession of their sees] 
receiving a glove, 1002. In England, in ; 
of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves 
ceremony of degradation. The Glovers’ @ 
of London was incorporated in 1556. Em} 
gloves are presented to judges at maidey | 
‘The importation of foreign gloves was not pe 
till 1825. “Gloves and their Annals,” by 
Beck, published in 1883. 


GLUCINUM (from glukus, sweet). 
Vauquelin discovered the earth glucina ($0 
from the sweet taste of its salts). It 1s fo 
the beryl and other crystals. From glucina | 


and Bussy obtained the rare metal glucin 


1828. Gmelin. 
GLUCOSE, see Sugar. 


GLUTEN, an ingredient of grain, 
wheat, termed the vegeto-animal pri ei 
taining nitrogen). Its discovery is a: 
Beccaria in the 18th century. 


GLYCERINE, discovered by Sche 
1779, and termed by him the ‘‘ sweet 


{ 


~- GLYOXYLINE. 


and further studied by Chevreul, termed the 
er of the fatty acids.’’ It is obtained pure 
jonifying olive oil or animal fat with oxide of 
wlitharge. Glycerine is now much employed 
dicine and the arts. 


WYOXY LINE (invented by Mr. F. A. Abel, 
hemist of the war department, in 1867), an 
sive mixture of gun-cotton, pulp and saltpetre 
ted with nitro-glycerine. it was abandoned 
mpressed gun-cotton. 


TOSTICS (from the Greek gnosis, know- 
, a sect who, soon after the preaching of 
‘lanity, endeavoured to combine its principles 
the Greek philosophy. Among their teachers 
Saturnius, 111; Basilides, 134; and Valentine, 
Priscillian, a Spaniard, was burnt at Treves 
heretic, in 384, for endeavouring to revive 
icism. 

)A (S.W. Hindostan), was taken by the Por- 
se under Albuquerque in 1510, and made their 
n capital. It was visited by the prince of 
3, 27 Nov. 1875. New harbour and railway 
inaugurated, 31 Oct. 1882. 

VAT SHOW at Alexandra palace, 16-22 
1880, supported by the British Goat Society, 
tly established. A goat farm for the supply of 
established near Dorking, 1882. 


JBELIN-TAPESTRY, £0 called from a 
-at Paris, formerly possessed by wool-dyers, 
sof the chief (Jehan Gobelin), in the reign of 
is I., is said to have found the secret of dyeing 
t. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. 
1662, for a manufactory of works for adorn- 
alaces (under the direction of Colbert), espe- 
‘tapestry, designs for which were drawn by Le 
about 1666. Establishment (1878) cost about 
. @ year. 


OD BLESS YOU !”’ see Sneezing. 


rOD SAVE THE KING.” This meiody 
d to have been composed by John Bull, Mus. 
n 1606, for a dinner given to James I. at 
hant Taylors’ Hall; others ascribe it to Henry 
, author of ‘‘ Sally in our alley,’ who died, 
. 1743. It was much’sung 1745-6. It has been 
ed by the French. The controversy on the 
et is summed up in Chappell’s * Popular Music 
Olden Times”’ (1859). ‘The melody has been 
ed for the German national anthem (“ Heil dir 
egerkranz !’’), and also for the Danish. 

‘ords translated in 15 East Indian dialects . 1882 
ng at the Mansion-house to promote their 
i 3 » 2 Nov. §;, 


YDERICH ADMINISTRATION. Vis- 
Goderich * (afterwards earl of Ripon) became 

minister on the death of Mr. Canning, 8 Aug. 
he resigned 8 Jan. 1828. 


int Goderich, first lord of the treasury. 

of Portland, president of the council. 

Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 

f Carlisle, lord privy seal. 

mt Dudley, Mr. Huskisson, and the marquis of 
sdowne, foreign, colonial, and home secretaries. 

Palmerston, secretary-at-war. 

_W. Wynn, president of the India board. 

harles Grant (afterwards lord Glenelg), board of 
e 


erries, chancellor of the exchequer. 
lerney, master of the mint, Xe. 


drm 1782; held various inferior appointments froin 
,0 1818, when he became president of the board of 
'} was chancellor of the exchequer from 1818 to 

1827, when he became colonial secretary, which 
/ne held in the Grey cabinet, Nov. 1830; created earl 
on, 1833: died 28 Jan. 1859. 


389 


} 
| 


GOLD. 
GODFATHERS anp GODMOTHERS, oF 


sponsors. ‘The Jews are said to have had them at 
circumcision; but there is no mention of them in 
scripture. ‘Tradition says that sponsors were first 
appointed by Hyginus, a Roman bishop, about 154, 
during a time of persecution. In Roman Catholic 
countries bells have godfathers and godmothers at 
their baptism. , 


GODOLPHIN ADMINISTRATIONS 

ieee Administrations), 1684 and 1690. Lord 
odolphin became prime minister to queen Anne, 

8 May, 1702. The cabinet was notified in 1704. 

The earl resigned 8 Aug. 1710, and died 1712. 

Sidney, lord (afterwards earl) Godolphin, treaswry. 

Sir Nathan Wright, lord ireeper. 

Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, lord pre- 
sident. 

John Sheffield, marquis of Normanby (afterwards duke 
of Normanby and Buckingham), privy seal. 

Hon. Henry Boyle, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Sir Charles Hedges and the earl of Nottingham (the latter 
succeeded by Robert Harley, created earl of Oxford in 
1704), secretaries of state. 


GODWIN SANDS, sand-banks off the east 
coast of Kent, occupy land which belonged to 
Godwin, earl of Kent, the father of king Harold Il. 
This ground was afterwards given to the monastery 
of St. Augustin at Canterbury; but the abbot 
neglecting to keep in repair the wall that defended 
it from the sea, the tract was submerged about 
1100, leaving these sands, upon which many ships 
have been wrecked. Salmon. 


GODWIN’S OATH. ‘Take care you are 
not swearing Godwin’s oath.’’ This caution, toa 
person taking a voluntary and intemperate oath, or 
making violent protestations, had its rise in the 
following circumstance related by the monks: 
Godwin, earl of Kent, was tried for the murder of 
prince Alfred, brother of Edward the Confessor, and 
pardoned, but died at the king’s table while pro- 
testing with oaths his innocence of the murder ; 
supposed by the historians of those times to have 
been choked with a piece of bread, as a judgment 
from Heaven, haying prayed it might stick in his 
throat if he were guilty of the murder; 1053. 


GOG AND MAGoG, see Guildhall. 


GOLD (mentioned Gen. ii. 11), the purest, and 
most ductile of all the metals, for which reason it 
has been considered by almost all nations as the 
most valuable. It is too soft to be used pure, and 
to harden it it is alloyed with copper or silver: our 
coin consists of twenty-two carats of pure gold, ani 
two of copper. By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 (1854), goid 
wares are allowed to be manufactured at a lower 
standard than formerly ;—wedding rings excepted, 
by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 60 (1855). The present stated 
price is 37. 178. 103d. per 0z.; see Coin of England, 
and Guineas. In 1816, it was enacted by 56 Geo. III. 
c. 68, that ‘‘ gold coins only should be legal tender 
in all payments of more than 40s.” 

Estimated amount of gold in the world; value, 1848, 
560,000,0001. ; 1875, 1,000,000, 0001. 

The value of gold compared with silver is said to have 
been estimated in the time of Herodotus, B.c. 450, 
about 10 to 1; of Plato, B.c., 38, 12 t0 1; A.D. 1876, 
more than 15 to1. See Silver. 

The Amalgamation of Gold is described by Pliny (about 
77) and Vitruvius (about 27 B.c.). The alchemist Basil 
Valentine (in the 15th century) was acquainted with 
the solution of the chloride of gold and fulminating 
gold. Andreas Cassius, in 1685, deseribed the pre- 
paration of gold purple, which was then adapted by 
Kunkel to make red glass, and to other purposes. 
Gmelin. Gold has been subjected to the researches of 
eminent chemists, such as Berzelius and Faraday. 

Mr. Rowland Jordan, of London devised a new ard 


Se 


GOLD COAST. 390 GOLDSMITHS’ COMPANY. 


successful method of preventing waste, in separating 
gold from its ore, announced Oct. 1884. 

Gop Mixes. Gold was found most abundantly in 
Africa, Japan, and South America. In the last it 
was discovered by the Spaniards in 1492, from which 
time to 1731 they imported into Europe 6000 millions 
of pieces of eight, in register gold and silver, exclu- 
sively of what were unregistered. 

Peter the Great re-opened ancient gold mines in 
Russia, 1699. 

The Ural or Oural mountains of Russia long pro- 
duced gold in large quantity. 

A piece of gold weighing ninety marks, equal to 
sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces), was 
found near La Paz, a town of Peru, 1730. 

Gold discovered in Malacea in 1731; in New Anda- 
lusia in 1785; in Ceylon, 1800; 2887 oz. of gold, value 
gggtl., obtained from mines in Britain and Ireland in 
1864; it has been found in Cornwall, and in the county 
of Wicklow in Ireland. 

Gold discovered in California, Sept. 1847; and in 
Australia, 1851. On 28 April, 1858, a nugget, said to 
weigh 146 pounds, was shown to the queen. It is 
estimated that between 1851 and 1859 gold to the value 
of 88,889,435/. was exported from Victoria alone (see 
California and Australia severally). 

Gold discovered in what is now termed New Columbia 
in 1856: much emigration there in 1858. 

Gold discovered in New Zealand, and in Nova Scotia 
in 1861. 

Gold discovered in South Africa (Transvaal republic, 
&c.), and discovered in Sutherlandshire; much excite- 
ment, Oct. 1868 ;in West Australia, reported Sept. 1870; 
in the Bendigo fields, Victoria, Nov. 1871; in Land 
of Midian, by capt. R. Burton, announced, May, 1877. 

Gold obtained in United Kingdom; value in 1861, 
10,8161. ; in 1862, 20,390l.; in 1863, 1747l.; in 1864, 
gggil. ; in 1865, 5894/. ; in 1868, 35221. ; in 1876, 11381. ; 
In 1878, 28481. ; in 1880, 38I. 

GoLD WiRE was first made in Italy about 1350. An 
ounce of gold is sufficient to gild a silver wire above 
1300 miles in length; and such is its tenacity that a 
wire the one-eighteenth part of an inch will bear the 
weight of 500 1b. without breaking. Fourcroy. 

GoLpD Lear. A single grain of gold may be extended 
into a leaf of fifty-six square inches, and gold leaf can 
be reduced to the 300,oooth part of an inch, and gilding 
to the ten-millionth part. Kelly’s Cambist. 

GoLtp Roppery. Three boxes, hooped and sealed, con- 
taining gold in bars and coin to the value of between 
18,o0ol. and 20,000l. were sent from London, 15 May, 
855. On their arrival in Paris, it was found that 
ingots to the value of 12,000l. had been abstracted, 
and shot substituted, although the boxes bore no 
marks of violence. Many persons were apprehended 
on suspicion; but the police obtained no trace till 
Noy. 1856. Three men named Pierce, Burgess, and 
Tester, were tried and convicted 13-15 Jan. 1857, on 
the evidence of Edward Agar, an accomplice. They 
had been preparing for the robbery for eighteen months 
previous to its perpetration. 


GOLD COAST, West Africa; settlements 
made by the Dutch; transferred to Great Britain 
by treaty, signed 2 Feb. 1872; joined with Lagos 
to form the ‘“‘Gald Coast Colony,’’ governor, capt. 
Geo. Cumine Strahan, appointed 1874; Sandford 
Freeling, 1876; Herbert Taylor Ussher, 1879; sir 
Samuel Rowe, 25 Jan. 1881; William A. G. Young. 


GOLD FISH (the golden carp, cyprinus 
auratus), brought to Kngland from China in 1691; 
but not common till about 1723. 


GOLDEN BULLS, ROSE, see Bulls, Rose, 


note. 


GOLDEN FLEECE (see Argonauts). Philip 
the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1429, at his mar- 
riage, instituted the military order of “ Zoison d'or”? 
or ‘‘ golden fleece ;”’ it was said on account of the 
profit he made by wool. The number of knights 
was thirty-one. The king of Spain, as duke of 
Burgundy, afterwards became grand master of the 
order. The knights wore a scarlet cloak lined with 
ermine, with a collar opened, and the duke’s cipher, 


in the form of a B, to signify Burgundy, tog 
with flints striking fire, with the motto “ 
ferit, quam flamma micat.”’ At the end o 
collar hung a golden fleece, with this d 
*¢Pretium non vile laborum.” The order after 
became common to all the princes of the hor 
Austria, as descendants of Mary, daught 
Charles the Bold, last duke of Burgundy, 
married Maximilian of Austria in 1477, and 
belongs to both Austria and Spain, in confo: 
with a treaty made 30 April, 1725. 


GOLDEN HORDE, a name given t 
Mongolian Tartars, who established an emp: 
Kaptchak (or Kibzak), now 8.E. Russia, 
1224, their ruler being Batou, grandson of G 
Khan. They invaded Russia, and made Alex 
Newski grand-duke, 1252. At the battle of ] 
wisch, in 1481, they were crushed by Ivan II] 
the Nogai Tartars. 


GOLDEN LEGEND, ‘Legenda At 
The lives of our Lord and the saints, writt 
Giacomo Varaggio, or Jacobus de Voragil 
Dominican monk about 1260; first printed 
a translation printed by Caxton, 1483. 


GOLDEN NUMBER, the cycle of nir 
years, or the number that shows the years ¢ 
moon’s cycle; its invention is ascribed to Met 
Athens, about 4328.0. Pliny. To find the g 
number or year of the lunar cycle, add one 1 
date, and divide by 19; the quotient is the m 
of cycles since Christ, and the remainder the g 
number. The golden number for 1884, 4; 18 
1886, 6; 1887, 7; 1888, 8. 


GOLDEN WEDDING, see /Vedding. 
GOLDSMID FAMILY. Aaron Golc 


a native of Holland, settled in London in 176: 
brought with him wealth and important comm 
influence. His son Asher joined in establi 
the firm of Mocatta and Goldsmid, bullion bi 
to the Bank of England. The Goldsmids beea 
the end of the 18th and the beginning of th 
century most distinguished financiers of the r 


Isaac Lyon, the son of Asher Goldsmid, was consp 
in the formation of the London Institutio 
building of the London Docks, the earliest ati 
in the introduction of railways, the improvem 
prisons, the establishment of the Society f 
Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and the found 
the London University (afterwards called Unt 
College). In his numerous national and philant 
works he was aided by his sons, Francis Hem 
Frederick David. In 1844 the queen of Pi 
conferred on him the title of Baron da Palme 
recognition of his services in regulating the de 
by Brazil to Portugal. Regarding hin: and b 
Francis, see also “* Jews.” 


GOLDSMITHS’ COMPANY (Le 
began about 1327, and incorporated 16 Ric 
1392. The old hall was taken down in 182 
the present magnificent edifice by Philip Har« 
was opened 15 July, 1835; see Assay, and Sta) 
The first bankers were goldsmiths. 
Goldsmiths’ hall marks on gold and silver plate are 

1. The sovereign’s head (after 1784) ; 2, lion passa 

standard mark), probably introduced between 1: 

1558; 3, the standard mark, fixed 8 & 9 W1 

1696-7; 4, leopard’s head, the hall mark; 

maker’s mark (an old custom). 

[The date-letter is one of an alphabet of 20 letters 

U or V, J being omitted. The letter is change 

- May annually, and the shape of the letter every 2¢ 
thus 1716, A, &e.; 1736, a, &e. 3 1756, A, de. 

a, &c.; 1796-1816, A, &¢. ; 1816-36, a, &e. ; 1836 

&c.; 1856-76, a, &c. ; 1876-1896, A, &c. The € 

known alphabetical series began 1438-9. ] 


GOLIATH. 


391 


GOSPELS. 


liamentary commission on hall marking reported | On 4 Jan. 1780, he tendered the petition of the Protestant 


our of its continuance with modifications, May, 


ILIATH, training-ship, burnt, 22 Dec. 1875; 
der Wrecks. 


YMARISTS, see Arminians. 
INFALONTER, or STANDARD BEARER 


USTICE, originally a subordinate officer in 
nce; instituted 1292; became paramount in 
5th century, and was suppressed, 27 April, 
when the constitution was changed and Alex- 
‘de Medicis made duke. 


\OD FRIDAY (probably God’s Friday), 
‘iday before Easter day, on which a solemn 
LAS Bir been held, in remembrance of the 
ixion of Christ on Friday, 3 April, 33, or 
ril, 29. Its appellation of good appears to be 
iar to the church of England; our Saxon fore- 
rs denominated it Long Friday, on account of 
nmgth of the offices and fastings enjoined on 
day. Good etay 1885, 3 April; 1886, 23 
; 1887, 8 April; 1888, 30 March. 
JODMAN’S FIELDS THEATRE, 
on, opened 1729. Here David Garrick made 
ébut as Richard III., 19 Oct. 1741. The new 
re erected about 1746, was burnt down, June, 

The Garrick Theatre here was opened in 
; burnt, 4 Nov. 1846; and since rebuilt. 


IOD TEMPLARS (first lodges formed in 
rica), pledge themselves not to make, buy, sell, 
sh, or cause to be furnished, intoxicating 
rs to others as a beverage. The first English 
. was formed at Birmingham in May, 1868. 
@ were said to be 3743 lodges, and 210,255 
bers in the United Kingdom in 1874. 


JODWIN, see Godwin. 
IODWOOD RACES, see Laces. 
JOJTERAT (N. India), see Guzerat. 


OORKHAS, a warlike tribe of Nepaul, 
me prominent in the 17th century. Their in- 
ms were defeated about 1791 by the Chinese, 
ye vassals they became. In a war with the 
sh in 1814 they were at first successful, but 
‘eventually subdued, and a treaty of peace was 
odin Feb. 1816. Since 1841 the native regi- 
ts have been largely recruited by Goorkhas, 
have rendered valuable service in nearly all 
‘indian wars, and in Afghanistan, 1878-9. 
OOSEH, see Michaelmas. 

ORBIAN KNOT, is said to have been made 


ie thongs that served as harness to the waggon 
‘ordius, a husbandman, afterwards king of 
‘gia. Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of 
h were not discoverable, the oracle declared 
ld be ruler of Persia. Alexander the Great cut 
‘the knot with his sword until he found the 

of it, and thus, in a military sense at least, 
‘preted the oracle, 330 B.c. 


ORDON MEMORIAL; proposed by lady 
lett Coutts in the Times, 24 Feb. 1885. See 
rtoum and Mansion House. 

nittee formed : the prince of Wales, duke of Cam- 
ge, archbishop of Canterbury, Mr. Gladstone, 
‘Tquis of Salisbury, cardinal Manning, Chinese 
nister, marquis of Lorne, ear] Granville, and other 
sons, 24 Feb. et seq. 1885. 

osed grant of 20,000/. to the Gordon family, March, 
56 ; 

on Memorial Hospital at Port Said proposed at 
‘msion House, London, 14 March, 1885. 


ORDON’S “NO POPERY” RIOTS, 
pe oo the zeal of lord George Gordon, 
; +7 5 I 0. 


Sa 


Association to lord North. 

On Friday, 2 June, he headed the mob of 40,000 persons 
who assembled in St. George’s Fields, under the name 
of the Protestant Association, to carry up a petition tu 
parliament for the repeal of the act which granted 
certain indulgences to the Roman Catholics, The mob 
proceeded to pillage, burn, and pull down the chapels 
aud houses of the Roman Catholics first, but after- 
wards of other persons, for nearly six days. The Bank 
was attempted, the gaols opened (the King’s Bench, 
Newgate, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons). On the 7th, 
thirty-six fires were seen blazing at one time. At 
length by the aid of armed associations of the citizens, 
the horse and foot guards, and the militia of several 
counties, then embodied and marched to London, the 
riot was quelled on the 8th. 

210 rioters were killed and 248 wounded, of whom 75 
died afterwards in the hospitals, and many were tried, 
convicted and executed. 

The loss of property was estimated at 180,000l. 

Lord George was tried for high treason and acquitted, 
5 Feb. 1781. He died a prisoner for libel, r Nov. 1793. 

Alderman Kennett was found guilty of a dereliction of 
duty, ro March, 1781. 


GOREE, a station near Cape Verd, W. coast 
of Africa, planted by the Dutch, 1617. It was 
taken by the English admiral Holmes in 1663; 
seized by the French, 1677; and ceded to them by 
the treaty of Nimeguen in 1678; taken by the 
British in 1758, 1779, 1800, and 1804; ceded to 
France, 1814. Governor Wall was hanged in Lon- 
don, 28 Jan. 1802, for the murder of sergeant Arm~ 
strong, committed while governor at Goree in 1782. 


GOREY (S.E. Ireland). Near here the king’s 
troops under colonel Walpole were defeated, and 
their leader slain, by the Irish rebels, 4 June, 1798. 


GORGET, the ancient breast-plate, was very 
large, varying in size and weight. The present 
diminutive breast-plate came into use about 1000 ; 
see Armour. 


GORHAM CASE, see Trials, 1849-50. 


GORILLA, 2 powerful ape of W. Africa, about 
five feet seven inches high. It is a match for the 
lion, and attacks the elephant with aclub. It is 
considered to be identical with the hairy people 
called Gorwllat by the navigator Hanno, in his 
Periplus, about 400 B.c. In 1847 a sketch of a 
gorilla’s cranium was sent to professor Owen by Dr. 
Savage, then at the Gaboon river, and preserved 
specimens have been brought to Europe, and a 
living one died on its voyage to France. In 1851 
professor Owen described specimens to the Zoolo- 
gical Society ; in 1859 he gave a summary of our 
knowledge of this creature at the Royal Institution, 
London; and in 1861 several skins and skulls were 
there exhibited by M. Du Chaillu, who stated that 
he killed 21 of them in his travels in Central Africa. 
The gorilla was not known to Cuvier. 


A young gorilla landed at Liverpool, 21 June, 1876 ; went 
to Berlin; was exhibited at Westminster aquariuin, 
23 July; died at Berlin, 13 Nov. 1877 ; another brought 
to the Crystal palace, England, soon died, Aug. 1879. 


An African gorilla landed at Liverpool, Sept. 1881. 


GOSPELLERS, a name given to the followers 
of Wickliffe, who attacked the errors of popery, 
about 1377. Wickliffe opposed the authority of the 
pope, the temporal jurisdiction of bishops, &c., and 
is called the father of the Reformation. 


GOSPELS (Saxon god-spell, good story). Mat- 
thew’s and Mark’s are conjectured to have been 
written between A.D. 38 and 65; Luke’s §5 or 65; 
John’s, about 97. Irenwus in the 2nd century re- 
fers to each of the gospels by name. Dr. Robert 


Bray was one of the authors of the Society for the 


GOSPORT. 


392 GRAFTON ADMINISTRATION 


¥ ‘ uv, POS Ray * ease 
Lins 
\ 


de 


Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Countries, 
incorporated in 1701. <A body termed ‘‘ Bray’s 
Associates,’’ still exists; its object being to assist in 
forming and supporting clerical parochial libraries. 


GCSPORT (Hampshire), contains the Royal 
Clarence victualling yard. ‘The great Haslar hos- 
pital, near Gosport, was built in 1762. 


GOTHA, capital of the duchy of Saxe Coburg- 
Gotha. Here is published the celebrated Almancch 
de Gotha, which first appeared in 1764, in German. 


GOTHARD, sce Gotthard and Alps. 
GOTHENBURG SYSTEM (in Sweden). 


By this alcoholic drinks are dispensed by persons 
deriving no profit from the sale. It was advocated 
in England by Mr. Chamberlain, M.P., and much 
discussed, 1876-7. 


GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE began about 
the oth century after Christ, and spread over Europe. 
Its great feature is the pointed arch; hence it has 
been suggested to callit the pointed style. ‘* Gothic’’ 
was originally a term of reproach given to this style 
by the renaissance architects of the 16th century. 
Jts invention has been claimed for several nations, 
particularly for the Saracens. The following list is 
from Godwin’s Chronological Table of English 
Architecture :— 

ANGLO-ROoMAN—B.C. 55 to about a.D. 250—St. Martin's 
church, Canterbury. 

ANGLO-SAXON—A.D. 800 to 1066—EHarl’s Barton church ; 
St. Peter’s, Lincolnshire. 

GoTHIc ANGLO-ROoMAN—A.D. 1066 to 1135—Rochester 
cathedral nave; St. Bartholomew’s, Smithfield ; St. 
Cross, Hants, &e. 

HARLY ENGLISH, OR PoINTED—A.D. 1135 to 1272—Temple 
church, London ; parts of Winchester, Wells, Salis- 
bury, and Durham cathedrals, and Westminster Abbey. 

PoInrED, called Pure Gothic—a.p. 1272 to 1377—Exeter 
cathedral, Waltham Cross, &., St. Stephen’s, West- 
minster. 

I'LoriID PoINTED—A.D. 1377 to 1509— Westminster Hall ; 
King’s College, Cambridge ; St. George’s Chapel, Wind- 
sor ; Henry VII.’s Chapel, Westminster. 

ELIZABETHAN—A.D,. 1509 to 1625—Northumberland 
House, Strand; part of Windsor Castle; Hatfield 
House, Schools at Oxford. 

Revival of Grecian architecture about 1625. 
House, Whitehall, &e. 

The revival of Gothic architecture commenced about 
1825, mainly through the exertions of A. W. Pugin. 
The controversy as to its expediency was rife in 1860-1. 


GOTHLAND, an isle in the Baltic sea, was 
conquered by the Teutonic knights, 1397-8; given 
up to the Danes, 1524; to Sweden, 1645; conquered 
by the Danes, 1677, and restored to Sweden, 1679. 


GOTHS, a warlike nation that inhabited the 
country between the Caspian, Pontus, Euxine, and 
Baltic seas. They entered Mesia, took Philippo- 
polis, massacring thousands of its inhabitants; de- 
teated and killed the emperor Decius, 251 ; but were 
avieated at Naissus by Claudius, hence surnamed 
Gothicus, 320,000 being slain, 269. Aurelian ceded 
Dacia to them in 272; but they long troubled the 
empire. After the destruction of the Roman western 
empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under Theo- 
deric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, 
where they retained their dominion till 553, when 
they were finally conquered by Narses, Justinian’s 
general. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and 
founded a kingdom, which continued until the 
country was subdued by the Saracens. 


GOTTHARD, ST., near the river Raab, Hun- 
gary. Here the Turks, under the grand vizier 
Kupriuli, were totally defeated by the Imperialists 
and their allies, commanded by Montecuculi, 1 Aug. 
1664. Peace followed this great victory. See Alps. 


Banqueting 


GOTTINGEN (Hanover), a member < 
Hanseatic league about 1360. The uniy 
‘“‘Georgia Augusta,’ founded by George | 
England in 1734, was opened 1737. It was 
by the French, 1760, and held till 1762. I 
several of the most able professors were dist 
for their political opinions. 


GOVERNESSES’ BENEVOLENT 
STITUTION, was established in 1843, and 
porated in 1848, It affords to aged gover 
annuities and an asylum; and to governes 
distress a temporary home and assistance. 


GOVERNMENT ANNUITIES ACT, se 
nuities. The building of the new GovERn 
Orrices began in 1861. 


“GOVERNOUR, The,” a moral and ¢€ 
tional work, full’of anecdotes, by sir Thomas ] 
fixst published in 1531; an annotated edition 
6 aa by Mr, H. H. 8. Croft was publish 
Idd0. 


GOWRIE CONSPIRACY. John Rut 
earl of Gowrie, in 1600, reckoning on the supj 
the burghs and the kirk, conspired to dethrone, 
VI. of Scotland, and seize the government, 
this purpose the king was decoyed into Go 
house in Perth, on 5 Aug. 1600. The plot was 
trated, and the earl and his brother, Alex: 
were slain on the spot. At the time, many p 
believed that the young men were rather the y 
than the authors of a plot. Their father, Wi 
was treacherously executed in 1584 for his sh 
the raid of Ruthven, in 1582; and he and hisf 
Patrick, were among the assassins of Riz 
March, 1566. 


GRAAL, Holy (Sangreal). The publi 
of Tennyson’s poem with this title, Dec. 18€ 
to much discussion. Tennyson treats it as tl 
in which Christ drank at the Last Supper. 
medieval romances treat it as the dish whic 
the paschal-lamb. The word is probably old F 
gréal, from the old Latin grada/is, a dish. 


GRACE, a title assumed by Henry IV. of 
land, on his accession, in 1399. Haxcellent 
was assumed by Henry VI. about 1425. Ti 


| time of James I. 1603, the king was address 


that title, but afterwards by the title of I 
only. ‘* Your Grace’”’ is the manner of addr 
an archbishop and a duke in this realm.—Th 
‘‘Grace of God’”’ is said to have been tak 
bishops at Ephesus, 431 (probably from 1 & 


| 10), by the Carlovingian princes in the gth ce 


by popes in the 13th century; and about 1440 
assumed by kings as signifying their divine 
“¢ Det gratia’’ was put on his great seal by 


_liam II. of England, and on his gold co 


Edward III. The king of Prussia’s saying 
he would reign ‘‘ by the grace of God,” gave 
offence, 18 Oct. 1861. 


GRACE at Muar. The ancient 
would not partake of any meat until they ha 
offered part of it, as the first fruits, to their 
The short prayer said before, and by some p 
after meat, in Christian countries, is in conto 
with Christ’s example, John vi. 11, &e. 


GRACIA MAGNA, colonies planted | 
Greeks, 974-748 B.c. ; see Italy. 


GRAFFITI, a term given to the scrib| 
found on the walls of Pompeii and other h 
ruins ; selections were published by Wordswo: 
1837, and by Garrucci in 1856. 


GRAFTON ADMINISTRATION, 


* 


GRAHAM'S DIKE. 393 


d that of lord Chatham, Dec. 1767. The duke 
1ed, and lord North became prime minister, 
1770; see North’s Administration. 


‘tus Henry, duke of Grafton, first lord of the trea- 
jy {born, 1735; died 18rr]}. 

rick, lord North, chancellor of the exchequer. 

rower, lord president. 

f Chatham, lord privy seal. 

f Shelburne and Viscount Weymouth, secretaries of 


ward Hawke, jirst lord of the admiralty. 
iis of Granby, master-general of the ordnance. 
Sandwich and Le Despencer, joint postmasters- 


Hertford, duke of Ancaster, Thomas Townshend, | i t ; 
' great increase of inhabitants, 7 James I, 1610. 


Camden, lord chancellor, succeeded by Charles 
ke (created lord Morden), died (it is said by his own 
1) 20 Jan. 1770. 


PAHAM’S DIKE (Scotland), a wall builtin 
y Severus Septimus, the Roman emperor, or, 
ers say, by Antoninus Pius. It reached from 
irth of Forth to the Clyde. Buchanan relates 
here were considerable remains of this wall in 
me, and vestiges of it are still to be seen. 


ZAIN. Henry III. is said to have ordered a 
of wheat gathered from the middle of the ear 
the original standard of weight: 12 grains to 
ennyweight ; 12 Dia one ounce, and 
neces a pound Troy. Lavwsoi. 


t for the safe carriage of grain (43 & 44 Vict. c. 43), 
sed 7 Sept. 1880. 


tRAMMARIANS. A society of grammarians 
‘ormed at Rome so early as 270 B.c. Blair. 
odorus of Athens, Varro, Cicero, Messala, 
s Cesar, Nicias, Alius Donatus, Remmius, 
non, Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenzeus, and other 
guished men, were of this class. A Greek 
mar was printed at Milan in 1476; Lily’s 
_ grammar (Brevis Institutio), 1513; Lindley 
ay s English grammar, 1795; Cobbeit’s Knglish 
mar, 1818.—Harris’s Hermes was published in 
Horne Tooke’s ‘‘ Epea Pteroenta,’”’ or the 
ersions of Purley,’ in 1786, treatises on the 
sophy of language and grammar. Cobbett 
red Mr. Canning to have been the only purely 
matical orator of his time; and Dr. Parr, 
ing of a speech of Mr. Pitt’s, said, ‘‘ We threw 
‘hole grammatical mind upon it, and could not 
yer one error.’ ‘The science of grammar has 
recently much studied with excellent results. 


t\AMMAR SCHOOLS, see Education. 


tAMME, see Metrical System. Granune 
ine, see under Electricity. 


,AMPIAN HILLS (central Scotland). At 
ih, near Mons Grampius of Tacitus, the Scots 
iets under Galgacus were defeated by the 
ns under Agricola, 84 or 85. 


SAMPOUND (Cornwall) was disfranchised 
21, for bribery and corrupt practices in 1819. 
anasseh Lopez was sentenced by the court of 
3 bench to a fine of 10,000/. and two years’ 
sonment.. 


LAN , (Hungary). Here the Hungarians 
ied the Austrians, 27 Feb. 1849. 


tANADA, a city, S. Spain, was founded by 
Joors in the 8th century, and formed at first 
of the kingdom of Cordova. In 1236, Mo- 
ied-al-Hamar made it the capital of his new 
om of Granada, which was highly prosperous 
isubjugation by the “ great captain,” Gonsalvo 
ordova, 2 Jan. 1492. In 1609 and 1610 the 
{rious Moors were expelled from Spain, by the 


GRAPES. ; 


bigoted Philip III., to the lasting injury of his 

country. Granada was taken by marshal Soult in 

1810, and held till 1812. See New Granada. 

In the province of Granada, five towns were destroyed, 
914 persons killed, with an immense loss of property, 
through the earthquakes of 25 Dee. et seq. 1884. 


GRANARIES were formed by Joseph ir 
Egypt, 1715 B.c. (Genesis xli. 48.) There were 
three hundred and twenty-seven granaries in Rome. 
Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries were built at 
Bridewell to hold 6000 quarters of corn, and two 
store houses for sea-coal to hold 4000 loads, thereby 
to prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by 


Stow. 


GRAND ALLIANCE between the emperor 
and the Dutch States-General (principally to 
prevent the union of the French and Spanish 
monarchies in one person), signed at Vienna, 12 
May, 1689, to which England, Spain, and the duke 
of Savoy afterwards acceded. 


GRAND COMMITTEBRS, see Committees. 
GRAND-DUKH, see Dike. 

GRANDEHS, see Spanish Grandees. 
GRAND JUNCTION CANAL (central 


England), joins several others, and forms a water 
communication between London, Liverpool, Bristol, 
and Hull. The canal commences at Braunston, om 
the west borders of Northamptonshire, and enters 
the Thames near London. Executed 1793-1805. 


GRAND JURIHES, see Juries. 
GRANDMONTINES, a monastic order estab- 


lished in Limousin, in France, by Stephen, a 
gentleman of Auvergne, about 1076. They came to 
England in the reign of Henry I. (1100-35). 
Tanner. 

GRAND, PENSIONARY, a chief state 
functionary in Holland, in the 16th century. in 
the Constitution given by France to the Batavian 
republic, previously to the erection of the kingdom 
of Holland, the title was revived and given to the 
head of the government, 29 April, 1805, Rutger 
Jan Schimmelpenninck beimg made the grand 
pensionary ; see Holland. 


GRAND REMONSTRANCH, see Lemon- 


strance. 


GRANICUS (a river N.W. Asia Minor), near 
which, on 22 May, 334 B.c., Alexander the Great 
signally defeated the Persians. The Macedonian 
troops (30,000 foot and 5000 horse) crossed the 
Granicus in the face of the Persian army (600,000 
foot and 20,000 horse). Jestin. The victors lost 
fifty-five foot soldiers and sixty horse. Sardis 
capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken 
by storm, and other great towns submitted to the 
conqueror. 


GRANSON, near the lake of Neufchatel, 
Switzerland, where Charles the Bold, duke of 
Burgundy, was defeated by the Swiss, 3 March, 
1476. 

GRANTON PIER, breakwater, &c. forming 
a harbour, on the Forth, three miles from Edin- 
burgh, were constructed by Messrs. Stevenson, at 
the cost of about 500,000/., given by Walter, duke 
of Buccleuch, 1835-44. 


GRAPES. Previously to the reign of Edward 
VI. grapes were brought to England in large quan- 
tities from Flanders, where they were first cultivated 
about 1276. The vine was introduced into England 


Steg 


GRAPHIC. 


im 1552; being first planted at Bloxhall, in Suffolk. 
In the gardens of Hampton-court palace is a vine, 
stated to surpass any in Europe; it is 72 feet by 20, 
and has in one season produced 2272 bunches of 
grapes, weighing 18 cwt.; the stem is I3 inches in 
girth; it was plantedin 1769. Leigh. 


GRAPHIC, illustrated weekly journal, estab- 
lished, 4 Dec. 1869. 


GRAPHITE (from the Greek graphein, to 
write), a peculiar form of mineral carbon, with a 
trace of iron, improperly termed black lead and 
plumbago. In 1809 sir Humphry Davy investi- 
gated into the relations of three forms of carbon, 
the diamond, graphite, and charcoal. A rude kind 
of black lead pencil is mentioned by Gesner in 1565. 
Interesting results of sir B. C, Brodie’s researches 
on graphite appeared in the International Exhi- 
bition of 1862. Fresh discoveries were made in the 
nearly exhausted Borrowdale mines, Cumberland, 
in 1875. 

GRAPHOSCOPEH, an optical apparatus for 
magnifying and giving fine effects to engravings, 
ena, &c., invented by C. J. Rowsell; ex- 

ibited in 1871. 

GRAPHOTYPE, a new process for obtaining 
blocks for surface-printing, the invention of Mr. De 
Witt Clinton Hitchcock in 1860. It was described 
by Mr. Fitz-Cook at the Society of Arts, 6 Dec. 
1805. Drawings were made on blocks of chalk with 
a silicious ink; when dried, the soft parts were 
brushed away, and the drawing remained in relief ; 
stereotypes were then taken from the block. 


GRATES. The Anglo-Saxons had arched 
hearths, and chafing-dishes were in use until the 
introduction of chimneys about 1200; see Chimneys, 
and Stoves. 


GRAVELINES (N. France). Here the 
Spaniards, aided by an English fleet, defeated the 
¥rench on 13 July, 1558. 


GRAVELOTTE, BATTLe oF, 18 Aug. 1870. 
See Metz. 


GRAVESEND, Kent (Domesday Graveshaf), 
on the Thames; burned by the French, 1380; 
chartered by Elizabeth, 1562; fortified, 1588; des- 
tructive fire, 24 Aug. 1727; has one M.P. by act 
of 1867. Great fighting between Salvation and 
Skeleton armies, 15 Oct. 1883. 


GRAVITATION, as a supposed innate power, 
‘was noticed by the Greeks, and also by Seneca, who 
speaks of the moon attracting the waters, about 38. 
Kepler investigated the subject about 1615; and 
Hooke devised a system of gravitation about 1674. 
The principles of gravity were demonstrated by 
Galileo at Florence, about 1633; but the great law 
on this subject, laid down by Newton in his 
** Principia,’’ in 1687, is said to have been proved by 
him in 1670. The fall of an apple from a tree in 1666 
is said to have directed his attention to the subject. 
Newton says, ‘‘I do not anywhere take on me to define 

the kind or manner of any action, the causes or physi- 

cal reasons thereof, or attribute forces in a true and 
physical sense to certain centres, when I speak of 
them as attracting, or endued with attractive powers.” 
On 15 July, 1867, M. Chasles laid before the Paris 

Academy of Sciences some letters alleged to be from 

Newton to Pascal and others tending to show that to 

Pascal was due the theory of gravitation. The authen- 

ticity of these letters was authoritatively denied, and 

their forgery and his own delusion were acknowledged 

by M. Chasles before the academy 13 Sept. 18609. 


GREAT BETHEL, see Big Bethel. 
GREAT BRITAIN, the name given in 1604 


394 


GREECE. 


to England, Wales, and Scotland (which | 
“‘ Greater Britain,” the title of sir Charles Dil 
book, describing his travels in the British color 
published in 1868. 


GREAT BRITAIN, EASTERN, &e. 
under Steam—The Eastern Counties Rail 
assumed the name of GrEAT EASTERN in 186 
The Great NorTHERN RaILwAy Company 
incorporated in 1846. Their station at King’s-c 
London, was opened in Oct. 1852.—The Gr 
WESTERN RAILWAY was opened as far as Mai 
head, 4 June, 1838; as Twyford, 1 July, 1 
between London and Bristol, 30 June, 1841. 


GREAT EXHIBITION, see Exhibition. 
GREAT PAUL, see Bells. 
GREAT SEAL or ENGLAND. The 


seal used by Edward the Confessor was called 
broad seal, and affixed to the grants of the erc 
1048. Baker's Chron. The most ancient seal 1 
arms on it is that of Richard I. James IL., 
fleeing from London in 1688, dropped the great 
in the Thames. The great sea of England 
stolen from the house of lord chancellor Thur 
in Great Ormond-street, and carried away, 1 
other property, 24 March, 1784, a day before 
dissolution of parliament; it was never recove 
and was replaced the next day. A new seal 
brought into use on the union with Ireland, 1. 
1801. A new seal for Ireland was brought into 
and the old one defaced, 21 Jan. 1832. The G 
Seal Offices Act, passed 7 Aug. 1874, abolis 
certain offices, transferred duties, &e. The G 
Seal Act passed, 2 Augy 1880, relates to appo 
ment of judges, patents, &c. 


GREECE, anciently termed Hellas. 
Greeks are said to have been the progeny of Ja 
fourth son of Japheth. Greece was so called fron 
ancient king, Greecus, and-Hellas from anotherk 
Hellen, the son of Deucalion. From Hellen’ss 
Dorus and olus, came the Dorians and Moli 
another son Xuthus was father of Acheeus and 
the progenitors of the Achzans and Ion 
Homer calls the inhabitants indifferently My: 
dons, Hellenes, and Achaians. They were 
termed Danai, from Danaus, king of Argos, 1474. 
Greece anciently consisted of the peninsula of 
Peloponnesus, Greece outside of the Peloponne 
Thessaly, and the islands. The principal state 
Greece were Athens, Sparta, Corinth, The 
Arcadia, and afterwards Macedon (all which : 
The limits of Modern Greece are much more ¢ 
fined. Greece became subject to the Turkish ent 
in the 1 pe century. The population of the kingd 
established in 1829, 96,810; in 1861, 1,096,810, } 
the Ionian isles (added in 1864), about 1,348, 
in 1870, 1,457,894; in 1879, 1,979,147. The e 
history is mythic, and the dates purely conjecti 
Sicyon founded (Eusebius) . : Se. B.C. 
Uranus arrives in Greece (Lenglet) . yi . 
Revolt of the Titans; War ofthe Giants . e- 
Inachus king of the Argives. : : . 
Kingdom of Argos begun by Inachus (Lusebius) 
Reign of Ogyges in Beeotia (Husebius) . ; - 
Sacrifices to the gods introduced by Phoroneus 
Sicyon now begun (Lenglet) . i é ‘ 
Deluge of Ogyges (which see) . ‘ , ‘ : 
A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy under 

Cnotrus: the country first called C@unotria, 

afterwards Magna Grecia (Eusebius) é - « 
The Pelasgi hold the Peloponnesus 1700-1550 ; SUuC- 

ceeded by the Hellenes : : . 185% 
Chronology of the Arundelian marbles commences 

(Eusebius) . fs 

about 


Cecrops arrives from Egypt J F 
The Areopagus established 
Deluge of Deucalion (Husebius) 


. . q 


GREECE. 399 GREECE, 
enzean games instituted . B.C. 1495 | The Turks under Mahomet II. conquer Athens and 
s with the Pheenician letters settles i in Beeotia, part of Greece . . + 1456 
‘ounds Thebes, about 1493 | The Venetians hold Athens and the Morea. . 1466 
first king of Laconia, ‘afterwards called Greece mainly subject to the Turks . 3 . 2) F540 
. 1490 ; The Morea held by Venice . 1687-1715 


; said to “have brought the first "ship into 

ce, and to have introduced pumps (see Argos) 1485 
of Hellen (Eusebius) . 1459 
lympic games at Elis, by the Idet Dactyli . 1453 
re said to have discovered iron . 1406 
2re-built andsonamed_. - 1384 
1ian mysteries instituted by Eumolpus C g 356) 


Isthmian games . 1326 
mm of Mycenz created out of Argos ‘ 1313 + 
, from Lydia, settles in south Greece, 
yponnesus) é about 1283 
tic expedition (which sce) Bs ; 1263 
thian games begun by Adrastus Smee 
the seven Greek captains against Thebes . 122 
mazonian war . P : 5 - : . 1213 
f Helen by Theseus . “ z : i he 
f Helen by Paris. ; . : . 1198 
sncement of the Trojan war 1193 
uken and destroyed on the night of the 7th of 
nonth Thargelion (27th of May, or 11th June) 1184 
said to arrive in Italy . eS about 1182 
ion of Molians who build Smyrna, &c. 123 
1 of the Heraclidee ; : . about 1103 
nent of the Ionians in ‘Asia Minor é . 1044 
hodians begin navigation laws . : Wirsngto 
rus flourishes 846 
ic games revived ‘at : Elis, 884; : ‘the first 
npiad . : : : 7 $0 770 
essenian wars . 743-669 
ht, the first on record, ‘between the Corin- 
ns and the inhabitants of Corcyra . at gnae O04 
tium built 657 


sages of Greece (Solon, Periander, Pittacus, 


0, Thales, Cleobulus, and Bias) flourish, about 590 
n conquests i in Ionia 544 
is in Magna Grecia destr oyed: 100,000 5 Cro- 
ans under Milo defeat 300,000 Sybarites . 508 
‘burnt by the Greeks, which occasions the 
sian invasion, 504; Thrace and Macedonia 
yuered . 496 
is and Sparta resist the demands of the king 
ersia . - - 491 
ersians defeated at Marathon 28 ‘Sept. 490 
s invades Greece, but is are at Thermo- 
2 by Leonidas. - > Aug.) 480 
» of Salamis (which sec) , 20 Oct. 3 
mnius defeated and slain at Platea ; Persian 
t destroyed at Mycale . J 228ept. 479 
> of Eurymedon (end of Persian war) . j 466 
1s begins to tyrannise over Greece . Fi 459 
acred war begun . 448 
»etween Corinth and its colony Cor cyra . 435 
; to the Peloponnesian war 431-404 
trous Athenian expedition to Sy racuse 415-413 
at of the 10,000 under Xenophon : F 400 
LofSoerates . . ‘ F F s E3909 
ea-fight at Cnidus ‘ ‘ P ; Wh osey! 
eace of Antalcidas . 4 Bao 7 
wd fall of the Theban power in Greece - 370-360 
2 of Mantinea ; death of Epaminondas pareley: 
tious designs of Philip of Macedon . 
d wars ended by Philip, who takes all the 
es of the Phoceans ‘ ‘ : ; 3 348 
2 of Cheeronea (which see) . : j ‘ +938 
) assassinated by Pausanias 335 
nder, his son, subdues the Athenians, and 
troys Thebes. 2 . : ” 
nder conquers the Per sian empire é 334-331 
e harassed by his successors ; the /tolian and 
aian leagues revived . . 284-280 
e invaded by the Gauls, 280; : they are defeated 
Delphi, 279 ; and expelled é F F e277 
nsions lead to Roman intervention . 200 


‘e conquered by Mummius and made a Roman 
Vinge. ‘ ; F ‘ 7 ‘ 147-146 


* % * * ¥* * * 

’e visited and favoured by oS Sea 2I B.C. 
‘by Hadrian 5 A ” “AD. 122-13 33 
led by Alaric  . Plats 0390 
lered by the Normans of Sicily . 1146 


aered by the Latins, and subdivided into 


ul governments. A ; A 5 . 1204 


Great struggle for independence with Russian help ; 
1770 et seq., fruitless insurrection of the Suliotes 

Secret Society, the Hetairia, established 

Insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia, in which 
the Greeks join, suppressed . 

Proclamation of prince Alexander to shake off the 
Turkish yoke, March, 1821; he raised the stan- 
dard of the cross against the crescent and the 


war of independence began : 6 April, 
The Greek patriarch put to death at Constantinople 
23 April, 
The Morea gained by the Greeks J sha 
Missolonghi taken by Greeks. , Nov. 
Independence of Greece proclaimed . . 27 Jan 
Siege of Corinth by the Turks Jan. 


Bombardment of Scio ; its capture ; most horrible 
massacre recorded in modern history (see Chios) 


rr April, 
The Greeks victors at aan me &e. 13 July, 
Massacre at Cyprus July, 
Corinth taken . : 16 Sept. 
National congress at Argos . to April, 


Victories of Mi: arco Botzaris, 5 une ; : killed 10 Aug. 
Lord Byron lands in Greece to devote himself to its 


cause é ‘ : : 4 3 Aug. 
First Greek loan . : .* Feb. 
Death of lord Byron at Missolonghi . . 19 April, 
Defeat of the capitan pacha, at Samos . 16 Aug. 
Provisional government of Greece set up r2 Oct. 
Ibrahim Pacha lands, 25 Feb. ; takes Navarino, 23 

May ; Tripolitza 30 June, 
The Greek fleet defeats the eapitan pacha June, 


The provisional government invite the protection 
of England July, 
Ibrahim Pacha takes M issolonghi by assault, after a 


long and heroic defence . . 23 April, 
70,0001. raised in Europe for the Greeks . 
Reschid Pacha takes Athens 2 J une, 


Egypto-Turkish fleet destroyed at Navari ino, 20 Oct. 
Treaty of London, between Great Britain, Russia, 
and France, on behalf of Greece, signed 6 July, 
Count Capo d’Istria president of Greece 18 Jan. 
The Panhellenion or Grand Council of State estab- 
lished. : P ‘ ‘ 2 Feb. 
National bank founded 4 Feb. 
Convention of the viceroy of Egy pt with sir Howard 
Codrington, for the evacuation of the Morea, and 


delivery of captives 6 Aug. 
Patras, Navarino, and “Modon sur render + the 
French. 3 ; . 6 Oct. 
The Turks evacuate the Morea OG: 
Missolonghi surrendered to Greece . 16 May, 


Greek National Assembly commences its sivunes 
at Argos ‘ : 3 July, 
The Porte acknowledges the erpantanse of 
Greece by the treaty of Adrianople . 14 Sept. 
Prince Leopold declines the sovereignty 2t May, 
Count Capo d'Istria, president of Greece, assas- 
sinated by the br other and son of Mavromichaelis, 
a Mainote chief whom he had imprisoned, 9 Oct. 
The assassins immured within close brick walls, 
built around them up to their chins, and sup- 
plied with food until they died 29 Oct. 
Otho of Bavaria made king of Greece by a conven- 


tion signed ; : ‘ . ; 7 May, 
Colocotroni’ s conspiracy A ‘ . Sept. 
He is condemned but spared _ 5 ‘ A 7 June, 
Otho I. assumes the government . xr June, 


University at Athens established, 1837; building 
commenced . 

A bloodless revolution at Athens is ; consummated, 
establishing a new constitution, enforcing minis- 
terial responsibility and national representation, 

14 Sept. 

The king accepts the new constitution 16 Marche 

Admiral Parker, in command of the British Medi- 
terranean fleet, blockades the harbour of the 
Pireus, the Greek government having refused the 
payment of moneys due to British subjects, and 
to surrender the islands of Sapienza and ae 

18 Jan 

France interposes her good ea and the blockade 

is discontinued 1 March, 


1803 


. 1815 


182E 


1850 


a? 


GREECE. 


396 GREECE. 


Negotiations terminate, and the blockade of Athens 
is renewed . : . 25 April, 
Dispute with France accommoda ited 2r June, 
Insurrections against Turkey in Thessaly and Epi- 
rus, favoured by the Greek court, Jan. and Feb. ; 
lead to a rupture between Greece and Turkey, 
28 March, 
After many remonstrances, the English and French 
governments send troops which arrive at the 
Pireeus ; change of ministry ensues, and the king 
promises to observe a strict neutrality, 25,26 May, 
A newspaper in the modern Greek language printed 
in London, beginning 9 July, 
Great Britain, France, and Russia remonstrate 
with the Greek government respecting its debts, 
18 Oct. 
Agitation in the Tonian isles for annexation to 
‘Greece : the parliament prorogued . March, 
The king retires to Bavaria. : . July, 
Attempted assassination of the queen by Dari ios, an 
insane student . j . 18 Sept. 
Great earthquake in the Peloponnesus 26 Dec. 
Leopold of Bavaria proposed as heir to the throne, 
Jan. 
Military revolt begins at Nauplia 13 Feb. 
Blockade of the coast decreed 9 March, 
The insurgents demand reforms and a new succes- 
sion to the throne ~ . _ April, 
The royal troops enter the citadel of N auplia ; in- 
surgents removed 25 April, 
Change of ministry : Coloc otroni becomes premier, 
7 June, 
Insurrection begins at Patras and Missolonghi, 17 
Oct. ; a provisional government, established at 
Athens, deposes the ‘king, 23 Oct. ; he and the 
queen flee ; arrive at Corfu, 27 Oct. ; the Euro- 
pean powers neutral ; general submission to pro- 
visional government ; : 31 Oct. 
Great demonstrations in favour of prince Alfred of 
Great Britain, who is proclaimed king at Lamia 
in Phthiotis, 22 Nov. ; great excitement in his 
favour at Athens : 23 Nov. 
The provisional government eatanlish universal 
suffrage . 4 Dee. 
The national assembly meets at Athens 22 Dec. 
The national assembly elects M. Balbis president, 
2g Jan.; and declares prince Alfred king of 
Greece by 230,016 out of 241,202 votes 3 Feb. 
Military revolt of lieut. Canaris against Bulgaris 
and others, who resign, 20 Feb. ; a new ministry 
appointed under Balbis . 23 Feb. 


The assembly decides to offer the crown to prince 
William of Schleswig-Holstein, 18 March ; pro- 
claim him as king George I. . 30 March, 

Protocol between the three protecting powers, 
France, England, and Russia, signed at London, 
consenting to the offer of the crown on condition 
of the annexation of the Ionian isles to Greece, 

5 June, 

The king of Denmark accepts from the aged admiral 
Canaris the Greek crown for prince William, 
whom he advises to adhere to the constitution 
and gain the love of his people 6 June, 

Military revolt at Athens, suppressed 30 June 

9 July, 
takes the oath 


The king arrives at Athens, 30 Oct. ; 
to the constitution ; mene Olous 
The Balbis ministry formed : 28 April, 
Protocol annexing the Ionian isles to Greece, signed 
by M. Zaimis ‘and sir H. Storks, 28 May : the 
Greek troops occupy Corfu, 2 June; the king 
arrives there ; . 6 June, 
New ministry under Canaris formed “ 7 Aug. 
The assembly recognises the debt of 1824 5 Sept. 
After much delay, and a remonstr ance from the king, 
19 Oct. a new constitution (with no upper-house) 
is passed by the assembly, 1 Nov. ; and accepted 
by the king . : . 28 Novy. 
New ministry under Coumoundouros 29 March, 
The anniversary of the beginning of the war of inde- 
pendence (6 April, 1821) kept. with enthusiasm, 
6 April, 
The king visits the eastern Rrovnces ; general 
tranquillity 2o April, 
The king opens chamber of deputies | 9g June, 
Death of Alexander Mayrocordato, one of the early 
patriots . F 3 ‘ 18 Aug. 


1850 


9 


1854 


” 


> 


1863 


2? 


2) 


”? 


1865 


>) 


9? 


”? 


) 


The king gives up one-third of his civil list to re- 


lieve the treasury . 25 Sept. 
An economical financial policy proposed ; a new 
ministry formed . «Noe 
Brigandage prevails ; frequent ministerial changes 
under Deligeorges, Coumoundouros, Bulgaris, and 
Roufos . . Oct. 1865—June, 
New ministry under “Bulgaris and Roufos, 23 Jan, 
Chambers vote payments to themselves ; suddenly 


dissolved by the king 3 Feb. 
Great agitation in favour of the Cretan ineurreeee 
(see Candia) . ‘ Aug.-Dee, 


New ministry headed by Coumoundouros . Jan. 
Manifesto of the so-named ‘‘ Greek nation,” issued 
at Paris : rg April, 
Great sympathy with the insurrection in Candie 
the blockade run by Greek vessels with volun- 
teers, arms, and provisions . . _ April, et seq. 
Marriage of the king with the grandduchess Olga 


of Russia . x . 27 Oct. 
Their cordial reception at Athens . . 24 Nov. 
New ministry under Moraitinis, x Jan. ; under Bul- 
arise - Heh, 
Constantine, duke of Sparta, heir to the crown, 
born . : Gite Aug. 


Greek vessel Enosis fires on Turkish vessels and 
enters port of Syra_. : 14 Dec. 
Rupture between Turkey and Greece in conse- 
quence of Greek armed intervention in Candia 
(which see) ; f ‘ | Dee. 


After a conference of fapresantaernes of the Western 
powers at Paris, Jan., their requisitions were 
accepted, and diplomatic relations between 
Turkey and Greece resumed . : . 26 Feb. 

Prince and princess of Wales visit Athens, 19 April, 


Law authorising the cutting the isthmus of Corinth 
passed . : . 7 Nov. 
New ministry under M. Zaimis . : g Jan. 
Concession to cut a canal through the isthmus of 
Corinth granted to a French company . April, 
Lord and lady Muneaster and a party of English 
travellers seized by brigands at Oropos, near 
Marathon ; lord Muneaster and the ladies sent to 
treat; 2 5,000, demanded as ransom, with free 
pardon x . rx April, 
he brigands retr eating, and surrounded by troops, 
kill Mr. Vyner, Mr. Lloyd, Mr. Herbert, and the 
count de Boyl : ar April, 
Great excitement ; the king shows great liberality ; 
but many influential persons are charged with 
connivance at brigandage . : May, June, 
Several brigands killed ; seven captured, tried and 
condemned, 23 May ; five executed . 2o June, 
A new ministry under M. Deligeorges July, 
Greek college opened at Bayswater, London, . 1 Oct 
Decree for suppression of brigandage issued Oct. 
Two gentlemen carried off . : 3 . rx Oct. 
A new ministry under M. Coumoundouros 22 Dee. 


Coumoundouros ministry resigns . . 6 Dee. 
Succeeded by Zaimis . : : . 8 Noy. 
Bulgaris minister, 7 Jan. ; resigns ; ; Deligeorges 

again minister . : ; : . 26duly, 


The Laurium mines of lead, zine, &c., were pur- 
chased by MM. Roux and Serpieri and a company, 
1863 ; and worked profitably ; roads being made 
and a village built. The mines having been heavily 
taxed and scoriz claimed by the government, 
loss ensued ; the company’s offer to sell the mines 
to the government was accepted, ‘but payment 
evaded by the legislature. Hence arose disputes 
with France and Italy, and ministerial changes 
in Greece . : j ‘ autumn, 


Speech of the king to the legisiakane announcing 
formation of roads and other improvements. 
[The Laurium mines had been purchased by M. 
Syngros, a Greek capitalist, supported by the 

banks] . : 25 Feb. 
send anniversary ‘of Greek independence kept in 
London . . 5 April, 

The university at Athens closed, through insubor- 
dination of the students. ‘ . Dec. 

New cabinet under Bulgaris, 22 Feb. ; resigns, 27 
April; resumes office, 7 May 

Tricoupi minister, 8 May; dissolves chambers, 31 
May; meet. F Aug. 

Greece neutral in regard “to insurrection in the 
Herzegovina ; R es hate July—Sept. 


oe f 7 s 
a wey 29 
ty, t < ‘ Be Be las 8 | pas rw Mi 
GREECE. 397 GREEK FIRE. 
wrince of Wales warmly received at Athens, KINGS OF GREECE. 
. 18 Oct. 1875 | 1832. Otho L.,, prince of Bavaria; born, 1 June, 1815 ; 


ninistry under Coumoundouros, about 27 Oct. _,, 


al ex-ministers fined for extortionfrom bishops 
others on appointment ; April 1876 
ing and queen travelling in England in July; 
he Crystal palace - euuntO SALY- 45 
e neutral in the Servian war. vl yams; 
eorges forms a ministry, 8 Dec. ; replaced by 
mis and Coumoundouros . : TO WeGiw,, 
eorges prime minister, 10 March—23 May; 
ceeded by a coalition ministry, 29 May ; re- 
ned under the aged Canaris . 3 June, 
nal excitement for war allayed by the king, 

29 May, ,; 
very of relics at Spata near Athens ; tombs 
taining bones, precious metal ornaments, Xe. 
noyed to Athens by M. Stamataki)aboutrJuly, ,, 
val of the Theban ‘‘ sacred band,” instituted 
Epaminondas (to be 1000 instead of 300) aaa 

Ju Y> 9» 

1 of the aged Canaris, 14 Sept. ; the king takes 
place as president : ; 14S8ept. ,, 
sh and Turkish governments remonstrate with 
xece for apparently arming against Turkey, 
' Sept., Oct. ,, 
h of Bulgaris, statesman, about ro Jan. 1678 
ministry under Coumoundouros . pea SAT. iis, 
rection in Thessaly against Turks, 28 Jan. ; 
ooo Greeks enter the country, retire at the 
nistice - : = : early in Feb. ,, 
rection struggling ; battles at Macrinitza, 28, 29 
rch ; Mr. C. Ogle, Times correspondent, killed 
Turks (investigation led tono result) 29 March, _,, 
rection closed through British intervention ; 
nounced . : : : ‘ 6 May, ,, 
ce disappointed by the Berlin treaty, 13 July ; 
tification of the frontiers by the sultan, pro- 
sedabout . : ¢ 4 , 24 July, ,, 
st Pacha’s despatch resisting the claims for 
eece *. ; % : - : 2 6 AMGc oy, 
ministry under Tricoupis . : ar Oct. «;; 
ated in assembly, 4 Nov. ; Coumoundouros 
‘ms a ministry . H 4 : . 7I0o Nov. ,, 
uiting law for the army (all men between 21 
d4oliable) . : : : ; OW <2 5s 
h of Deligeorges, late minister . 26 May, 1879 
ument of Mr. Ogle set up at Athens . Aug. ,, 
uiting law came into force . xr Jan. 1880 
s ; Coumoundouros remains 28 Jan. ,, 
yupis ministry formed . 22 March, ,, 
in conference to propose settlement of the 
rkish and Greek frontiers, meets . 16June, ,, 
king visits England ; receives freedom of Lon- 
n,z16June; leaves. ; 4 Bed ULYise 5, 
x for mobilisation of the army signed, 5 Aug. , 
king and queen arrive at Athens afteralong ~ 
tropean tour ; national feeling warlike ; Thes- 
ly and Epirus demanded . ; Ova Olone Tie 
’s speech opening parliament ; moderate and 


- 


m. 5 - 5 " r ax Oct. ,, 
oupis ministry defeated ; resigns ~ 22 Oct. -,, 
noundouros forms a ministry . pe oS: UGboers y 


h discussion with negotiations respecting 
eek and Turkish frontiers, (see Turkey), 
Oct. 1880—May, 1881 
vention between Turkey and Greece agreed to 
Constantinople ; Thessaly ceded to Greece, 
May; signed. : 2 4 Sea ALL Ys ous) 
ied into effect ; Greek flag raised in Arta, 6July, ,, 
parliament dissolved by the king SUNOVe ds, 
Ininistry under Tricoupis 15 March, 1882 
ing of the Isthmus of Corinth begun (see 
Se . oh, GMAY,. 55 
itier disputes in Thessaly, between Greeks and 
wks, at Navantyk, near Derbend, Bosnia 
about 26 Aug. _,, 


(00 AS Nov. _ ,, 
th of the statesman Coumoundouros, much 
mented . é March Rass && 3 


‘roved finances ; good budget, announced March, 18¢4 
onal féte to commemorate declaration of inde- 
sndence in 1821 . - : ° PE OVAMOT LS aa 
Oupis ministry resigns, 17 Feb. ; M. Delijannis 
successful; M. Tricoupis resumes office 


‘mber dissolved . ‘ +23Feb. ,, 


elected king, 7 May, 1832; under a regency till 
x1 June, 1835; married, 22 Nov. 1836, to Maria 
Frederica, daughter of the grand-duke of Olden- 
burg ; deposed, 23 Oct. 1862; died in Bavaria, 26 
July, 1867. 


1863. George I. (son of Christian LX. of Denmark), king 


of the Hellenes ; born 24 Dec. 1845 ; accepted the 
crown, 6 June, 1863 ; declared of age, 27 June, 
1863 ; married grand-duchess Olga of Russia, 27 


at Feb. 1885 


Oct. 1867. 


Heir : Constantine, duke of Sparta, born 2 Aug. 1868. 


GREEK ARCHITECTURE, see Architec- 


ture. 


GREEK CHURCH, or Eastern church, 


| established in Russia and Greece, disowns 


the 


supremacy of the pope, and is strongly opposed to 
many of the doctrines and practices of the Roman 
church. The Greek orthodox confession of faith 
appeared in 1643; see Kuthers of the Church. This 


church, in 1876, had 279 dignitaries, under 


the 


patriarch of Constantinople; 136 bishops, 66 in 
Russia, 24 in Greece, 15 in Jerusalem, II in 


Austria, &e. 


pr enRare school at Alexandria (Origen, Clemens, 
@ : ; : 


Rise of monachism . about 


- 180-254 


. . . . 30 
Foundation of the churches of Armenia, about 300 ; od 
of Georgia or Iberia . 2 ‘ ; Bit 318 
First council of Nice (see Cowncils) . ‘ : . a5 
Rivalry between Rome and Constantinople begins 
abou 
Ulphilas preaches to the Goths : shout ae 
Nestorius condemned at the council of Ephesus 3 
Monophysite controversy ; churches of Egypt, 
Syria, and Armenia, separate from the church of 
Constantinople . ' ‘ é : : sete EOE 
Close of the school of Athens ; extinction of the 
Platonic theology . : ; : 5 : SPS2O 
The Jacobite sect established in Syria by Jacobus 
Pec tine ee ame eee Ata rik oT .  54I 
The struggle with the Mahometans begins - 634 
The Maronite sect begins to prevail about 676 
The Paulicians severely persecuted . A Eagar sees 
Iconoclastie controversy begins y about 726 
Pope Gregory II. excommunicates the emperor Leo 
which leads to the separation of the Eastern 
(Greek) and Western (Roman) churches . 729 
Image worship condemned 3 : : na TOE 
Foundation of the church in Russia: conversion of . 
princess Olga, 955 ; of Vladimir - 988 
The Maronites join the Roman church ; + 1182 
Re-union of Eastern and Western churches at the 
council of Lyons, 1274; again separated . </ 4, 1277 
Proposed union with the Church of England . 2 E723 
The patriarchate of Moscow established, 1582 ; sup- x 
pressed in . : é : : : ‘ a ek 7O2 
The archimandrite Nilos, representing Constanti- 
nople and 4 patriarchates, visits London on be- 
half of the Greek clergy in the Danubian princi- 
palities .— 1863 


The pope’s invitation to an cecumenical council, 8 
Dec. 1869, firmly declined by the patriarch of 
Constantinople . : ; ; - about 3 Oct. 

Letter from the patriarch Gregory to the archbishop 
of Canterbury acknowledging receipt of English 
prayer-book, and objecting to some of wee 3 
Articless a5 — : : 3 s dated 8 Oct. 

Greek church at Liverpool consecrated by an arch- 
bishop. : : ; : ; 16 Jan. 

A new church of 8. Sophia consecrated by arch- 
bishop Corfu . ; ; : ; 5. Te Net 

Political reforms in Turkey affect privileges of the 
Greek church; see 7'urkey, 1883; new patriarch 
(archbishop of Dercos) not elected till 13 Oct.; 
ratified by the Porte . ‘ : 2 . 18 Oct. 


GREEK EMPIRE, see Eastern Empire. 


1863 
1869 
1870 


1882 


1884 


GREEK FIRE, a combustible composition 
now unknown, but thought to have been princi- 
pally naphtha), thrown from engines, said to have 
been invented by Callinicus, an engineer of Helio- 


GREEK LANGUAGE. 


398 


GREENWICH. 


polis, in Syria, in the 7th century, to destroy the 
Saracens’ ships, which was effected by the general 
of the fleet of Constantine Pogonatus, and 30,000 
men were killed. A so-called ‘‘Greek fire,’’ pro- 
bably a solution of phosphorus in bi-sulphide of 
carbon, was employed at the siege of Charleston, 
U.S., in Sept. 1863. 


GREEK LANGUAGE. The study was re- 
vived in western Europe about 1450; in France, 
1473; William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, an English 
professor of this language, introduced it at Oxford, 
about 1491, where he taught Erasmus, who himself 
taught it at Cambridge in 1510. /Vood’s Athen. 
Oxom. England has produced many eminent Greek 
scholars, of whom may be mentioned Richard Bent- 
ley, died 1742; professor Richard Porson, died 1808; 
Dr. Samuel Parr, died 1825; and Dr. Charles 
Burney, died 1817. “Society for promoting Helle- 
nic Studies,’’ formed 16 June, 1879. Modern Greek 
literature is now cultivated. 
about B.C. 962-927 


Homer flourished . 


Hesiod about 850 
Alsop . ; 572 
Anacreon . about 559 
Aeschylus 3 - 525-456 
Herodotus about 443 
Pindar ; « 522-439 
Aristophanes “ 427 
Euripides - 480-406 
Sophocles . - 495-405 
Thucydides « 470-404 
Xenophon . + 443-359 
Plato : ; : - 420-347 
Isocrates . : ‘ . : : A 2 + 436-338 
Aristotle - 384-322 
Demosthenes s. «| 392-322 
Menander about 327 
Aischines . % + « 389-314 
Theocritus . : . about 272 
Epicurus . > .» 342-270 
Theophrastus ; 5 d : { 3 287 
Archimedes : Bd oF . - : + ; 287-212 
Polybius : ‘ : . : : . 207-122 
Diodorus B.C. 50—A.D, 13 
Strabo . ° . - . . Io 
Dionysius Halicarnassus . about 30 
Plutarch about 96 
Epictetus . about 118 
Appian . about 147 
Arrian. : 3 . : : about 148 
Atheneus  . ; : : F about 194 
Lucian ; é about 120-200 
Herodian about 204 
Longinus . ; dies 273 
Julian, emperor. : 331-363 


(See Fathers, and Philosophy.) 
GREENBACKS, a name given, from the 


predominating colour of the ink, to notes, for a 
dollar and upwards, first issued by the United 
States government, in 1862. Notes for lower sums 
(even 3 cents) were termed ‘‘ fractional currency.”’ 
For Greenbackers see United States, 1878. 


GREEN-BAG INQUIRY took its name 
from a Green Bag, full of documents of alleged 
seditions, laid before parliament by lord Sidmouth, 
3 Feb. 1817. Secret committees presented their 
reports, 19 Feb.; and bills were brought in on the 
21st to suspend the Habeas Corpus act, and prohibit 
seditious meetings then frequent. 


GREEN CLOTH, Boarp of, in the depart- 
ment of the lord-steward of the household, included 
an ancient court (abolished in 1849), with jurisdiction 
of all offences committed in the verge of the court. 


GREENLAND, an extensive Danish colony 
in North America, discovered by Icelanders, under 
Eric Raude, about 980, and named from its verdure. 
It was visited by Frobisher in 1576. The first ship 
from England to Greenland was sent for the whale- 


_ fishery by the Muscovy company, 2 James] 


In. a voyage performed in 1630, eight men we 
behind by accident, who sutfered incredible 
ships till the following year, when the com 
ships brought them home. Zindal. The Gre 
Fishing company was incorporated in 1693.- 
Egede, a Danish missionary, founded a new ¢ 
called Godhaab, or Good Hope, in 1720- 
othermissionary stations have been since esta 
Scoresby surveyed Greenland in 1821; and ¢ 
Graah, by order of the king of Denmark, in 1§ 
Population in 1878, about 9408. Norder 
and others advanced into the interior, and 
at but mountainous ice and snow, July 
1883. 


GREENOCK (W. Scotland). Charter 
granted in 1635 and 1760 to John Shaw, 
barony of Greenock. It was a fishing stati 
1697, when the Scottish Indian and Africar 
pany resolved to erect salt-works in the Frit 
thus drew the attention of sir John Sha 
superior, to its maritime advantages. 
a burgh of barony in 1757, and a parliam 
burgh in 1832. The erection of the new qui 
entrusted, about 1773, toJames Watt, who we 
here in 1736. The Kast India harbour wai 
1805-19, and Victoria harbour 1846-50. 


GREEN PARK (near Buckingham ] 
London) forms a part of the ground enclos 
Henry VIII. in 1530, and is united to St. J 
and Hyde-parks by the road named Constit 
hill. Over the arch at the entrance, the Well 
statue was placed in 1846. On the north si 
ane of the Chelsea water-works, filled 
1856. 


GREENWICH CKent), anciently Gre 
an ancient manor, near which the Danes mu: 
the archbishop Elphege, 1012. ‘The He 
stands on the site of a royal residence erected 
reign of Edward I. and much enlarged by bi 
cessors. Here were born Henry VIIL., his d 
ters Mary and Elizabeth, and here his son E 
VI. died. Charles II. intended to build ¢ 
palace here, but erected one wing only. 


William III. and Mary converted the palace into 
Royal hospital for seamen, 1694, and added ne 
buildings, erected by Wren . - 2 ‘ 

too disabled seamen admitted . : : 4 

The estates of the attainted earl of Derwentwate 
(beheaded in 1716) bestowed upon it i 

A charter granted to the commissioners 6 Dec 

The chapel, the great dining-hall, and a large portio 
of the buildings appropriated to the pensioner 
destroyed by fire : - 2 Jar 

The chapel rebuilt . £ ; : Sais: 

Sixpence per month to be contributed by every sez 
man ; the payment advanced to one shilling, fror 

June 

The payment abolished in 1829, and that of ‘‘th 
merchant seamen’s” sixpence also in . 

The hospital had lodging for 2710 seamen and 
revenue of about 150,o00/. per annum 3 

April 


It was 


Greenwich Fair was discontinued ; 
The office of the commissioners was abolished . 
Reported annual income, 155,532/. . : : 

By an act of parliament, about 900 indoor pensioner 
received additions to their pensions, quitted thi 
hospital, 1 Oct. 1865 ; henceforth to be used as al 
infirmary. All the remaining inmates, except 3 
bedridden persons, had left the place . 1 Oct 

The patients of the Dreadnought seamen’s hospita 
removed here ; : ’ 13 April 

Acts for the application of the revenues were page’ 

IM 166 

Amended by act passed 1883. 

A part of the buildings appropriated for a nayal ¢ol 
lege, opened. , ; : : 1 Feb 

Greenwich Royal Hospital Schools (on the industria 
plan), opened under the auspiees of Mr, Childers 


_l aa Fe — “2 | Ve 
i OSS 


‘ 


{REENWICH OBSERVATORY. 


399 


GREY ADMINISTRATION. 


,EENWICH OBSERVATORY, built at 
olicitation of sir Jonas Moore and sir Christo- 
Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flam- 
-hill, so called from the first astronomer-royal. 
building was founded, 10 Aug. 1675, and Flam- 
commenced his residence, 10 July, 1676. In 
an electric telegraph signal ball in the Strand 
ompleted, and put in connection with Green- 
observatory. Greenwich recommended as the 
sal meridian by the Geodetic Congress at 
», Oct. 1883, and at an international conference 
ashington, 13 Oct. 1884. 


ASTRONOMERS-ROYAL. 


Flamsteed A A 5 a - ° E1075 
md Halley . ; 4 . ° See L720) 
; Bradley . ; : . > . « 1742 
mniel Bliss. - 4 : : ° prt 702 
ae : ° . 4 1765 

on . : ° : ° aerate LOL 
e Biddell Airy (knt. 1872) 1835 


ider whose superintendence the apparatus was 
ly increased and improved. ) 
Henry Christie fe e Aug. 1881 


REGORIAN CALENDAR, see Calendar, 
New Style—GREGORIAN CHANT received its 
» from pope Gregory I., who improved the 
rosian chant, about 590. 

rian Modes, musical scales as set in order by pope 
gory the Great about 590. On these the ritual 
sic of the western churches is founded. 


RENADA, a West India island, discovered 
olumbus in 1498 ; settled by the French, 1650; 
ired by the British, 5 April, 1762; re-taken by 
‘rench, July, 1779; given up by them by treaty 
ersailles, 3 Sept. 1783. Governor, Sandford 
ling, 1871; C. C. Graham, 1876; capt. G. C. 
nan, 1877 ; sir William Robinson. See Granada, 
New Granada. 


RENADE, an explosive missile, so named 
granada, Spanish, invented in 1594. It is a 
1 hollow globe, or ball, of iron, about two 
es in diameter, which is filled with fine powder, 
set on fire by a fusee at a touchhole. 


RENADIERS. The Grenadier corps was a 

any armed with a pouch of hand-grenades, 

lished in France in 1667; and in England in 
Brown. See Guards. 


RENELLE, see Artesian Wells. 
RENOBLE (the Roman Gratianopolis), 


France. Here Napoleon was received on his 
om Elba, 8 March, 1815, and here he issued 
> decrees, 


RENVILLE ADMINISTRATIONS. 
first succeeded the Bute administration, 8 April, 
; and resigned in July, 1765. 


ye Grenville (born 1712, died 1770), first lord of the 

usury and chancellor of the exchequer. 

p Maiag (succeeded by the duke of Bedford), lord 
nN 


of Marlborough, privy seal. 
of Halifax and Sandwich, secretaries of state. 
Gower, lord chamberlain. 
of Egmont, admiralty. 
uis of Granby, ordnance. 
Holland (late Mr. Fox), paymaster. 
ore Ellis, secretary-at-war. ° 
runt Barrington, treasurer of the navy. 
Hillsborough, first lord of trade. 
Pag (afterwards earl of Northington), lord chan- 


of Rutland, lords North, Trevor, Hyde, &c. 


ND GRENVILLE ADMINISTRATION, formed after the 
ith of Mr. Pitt, on 23 Jan. 1806. From the ability 
many of its members, their friends said it contained 
wl the talents, wisdom, and ability of the country,” a 


term applied to it derisively by its opponents. The 
death of Mr. Fox, 13 Sept. 1806, led to changes, and 
eventually the cabinet resigned, 25 March, 1807 :— 

Lord Grenville, first lord of the treasury. 

Lord Henry Petty (afterwards marquis of Lansdow 
chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl Fitzwilliam, lord president. 

Viscount Sidmouth (late Mr. Addington), privy seal. 

Charles James Fox, foreign secretary. 

Earl Spencer, home secretary. 

William Windham, colonial secretary. 

Lord Erskine, lord chancellor. 

Sir Charles Grey (afterwards viscount Howick and eari 
Grey), admiralty. 

Lord Minto, board of control. 

Lord Auckland, board of trade. 

Lord Moira, master general of the ordnance. 

R. B. Sheridan, treasurer of the navy. 

Richard Fitzpatrick, &c. 

Lord Ellenborough ( lord chief justice) had a seat in the 
cabinet. 


GRESHAM COLLEGE (London), esta 
blished by sir Thomas Gresham in 1575, founder of 
the Royal Exchange. He left a portion of his pro-- 
perty in trust to the cityand the Mercers’ company 
to endow this college for lectures in divinity, astro- 
nomy, music, geometry, civil law, physic, and 
rhetoric; he died 21 Nov. 1579. ‘The lectures 
commenced in Gresham’s house, near Broad-street, 
June, 1597 (where the founders of the Royal Society 
first met in 1645). The buildings were pulled down 
in 1768, and the Excise office erected on its site, 
the property having been acquired by the crown 
for an annuity of 500/._ The lectures were them 
read in a room over the Royal Exchange for many 
years. On the rebuilding of the exchange, the 
Gresham committee erected the present building im 
Basinghall-street, which was designed by G. Smith, 
and opened for lectures, 2 Nov. 1843. It cost above 
70007. In 1871 the college acquired a valuable col- 
lection of books and pictures, bequeathed by Mrs. 
Hollier. Changes respecting the lectures were 
advocated in 1875, and some made in 1876. 


GRETNA GREEN (Dumfries, S. Scotland, 
near the border). Here runaway marriages were 
contracted for many years, as Scotch law ruled that 
an acknowledgment before witnesses made a lega} 
marriage. John Paisley, a tobacconist, and termed 
a blacksmith, who officiated from 1760, died in 1814. 
His first residence was at Megg’s Hill, on the com- 
mon or green betwixt Gretna and Springfield, to 
the last of which villages he removed in 1782. A man 
named Elliot was afterwards the principal officiating 
person, The General Assembly, in 1826, in vain 
attempted to suppress this system; but an act of 
parliament, passed in 1856, made these marriages: 
illegal after that year, unless one of the persons 
married had lived in Scotland 21 days. 


GREY ADMINISTRATION succeeded the 
Wellington administration, which resigned 16 Nov- 
1830. It carried the Parliamentary and Corporation 
Reform Acts (which see), and terminated 9 July, 


1834. 

Earl Grey,” first lord of the treasury. 

Lord Brougham, lord chancellor. 

Viscount Althorpe, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Marquis of Lansdowne, president of the council. 

Earl of Durham, privy seal. 

Viscounts Melbourne, Palmerston, and Goderich, home, 
foreign, and colonial secretaries. 

Sir James Graham, admiralty. 

Lord Auckland and Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards, 1830, 
lord Glenelg), boards of trade and control. 


* Born 13 March, 1764 ; M.P., as Charles Grey, in 1786 ; 
first lord of the admiralty and afterwards foreign secre- 
tary in 1806 ; resigned in 1806 on account of his favouring 
Roman Catholic emancipation ; died 17 July, 1845, 


GREY COAT HOSPITAL. 


400 


GUARDS. 


Lord Holland, chancellor of duchy of Lancaster. 

Lord John Russell, paymaster of the forces. 

Duke of Richmond, earl of Carlisle, Mr. Wynne, &c. 

H. G. Stanley (afterwards earl of Derby), chief secretary 
for Ireland, became colonial secretary, March, 1833. 


GREY COAT HOSPITAL, Westminster, 
founded (for girls) 1698; reconstituted 1873. 

GREY FRIARS, see Christ’s Hospital. 

GREYTOWN, see Mosquito Coast. 

GRIFFITH'S VALUATION of land in 
Ireland; that calculated by Mr., afterwards sir 
Richard Griffith (appointed commissioner in 1828) 
and published about 1850; 4th edition, 1855; 
much discussed, 1880-I. 

GRIMMW’S LAW of the transmutation of 
consonants in the Aryan family of languages; pro- 
pounded by Jacob L. Grimm in his ‘ History of 
the German Languages,’’ in 1848. 


Labials. Dentals. Gutturals. 
Greek, Latin, Sanskrit p Or fil tend athe. ie Sg. Son 
Gothic . , - pbobjiht a k 
Old High German , O10) fase: vel) g ch ak 


EXAMPLES : Sanskrit, pitri; Greek and Latin, pater ; 
Italian, padre; Spanish, padre; French, pere; Gothic, 
Jjadrein (pl.) ; Old High German, vatar ; English, father. 

GRIQUA-LAND WEST, a colony,’in the 
diamond fields, 8. Africa; coustituted 27 Oct. 1871; 
annexed to the British dominions, by sir H. Barkly, 
Nov. 1874. Near Kimberley, the capital, a tre- 
mendous explosion of stored dynamite, &c. took 
place Jan. 1884; only two men were killed. 


GRISONS, a Swiss canton; see Caddee. It 
was overrun by the French in 1798 and 1799. The 
ancient league was abolished, and the Grisons be- 
came a member of the Helvetic confederation, 19 
Feb. 1803. 


GRISSELL CASE, see Parliament, 1879-50. 


GRIST-TAX (imposta sul macinato). Prin- 
ciple of the tax adopted by the Italian parliament, 
1 April, 1868. 

GROAT, from the Dutch groat, value of four- 
pence, was the largest silver coin in England until 
after 1351. Fourpenny pieces were coined in 1836 
to the value of 70,884/.; in 1837, 16,038/.; discon- 
tinued since 1856. 


GROCERS anciently meant ‘‘ingrossers or 
monopolisers,”’ as appears by a statute 37 Edw. III. 
1363: ‘* Les marchauntz nomez engrossent totes 

1 3) ’ 
maners de merchandises vendables.”” ‘The Grocers 
company, one of the twelve chief companies of 
London, was established in 1345, and incorporated 
in 1429. 


GROCHOW, near Praga, a suburb of Warsaw. 
Here took place a desperate conflict between the 
Poles and Russians, 19, 20 Feb. 1831, the Poles re- 
maining masters of the field of battle. The Rus- 
sians shortly after retreated, having been foiled in 
their attempt to take Warsaw. ‘They are said to 
have lost 7000 men, and the Poles 2000; see also 
Poland, 1861. 


GROG, sea term for rum and water, derived its 
name from admiral Edw. Vernon, who wore grogram 
breeches, and was hence called ‘‘ Old Grog.”” About 
1745, he ordered his sailors to dilute their rum with 
water.* 

* He did great service in the West Indies, by taking 
Portobello, Chagre, &c. ; but by his disagreement with 
the commander of the land forces, the expedition against 
Carthagena, in 1741, is said to have failed. He was dis- 
missed the service for writing two pamphlets attacking 
the admiralty ; he died 30 Oct. 1757. 


GROSSER KURFURST, see Wrecks, 


GROSVENOR GALLERY, &c., 1 
street, London, W., for the exhibition of m 
pictures, erected by sir Coutts Lindsay, at ¢ 
of about 100,000/., supported by eminent a 
Aug. 1876; opened 1 May, 1877. 


GROSVENOR GALLERY LIBRA 
opened 25 March, 1880. 


GROUND GAME, see Game. 


GUADALOUPEH, a West India Island 
covered by Columbus in 1493. The French 
possession of it in 1635, and colonised it in 
Taken by the English in 1759, and restored in 
Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794, and 
The allies, in. order to allure the Swedes int 
coalition against France, gave them this is 
It was, however, by the consent of Sweden, res 
to France at the peace in 1814. It was again1 
by the British, 10 Aug. 1815, and restored t 
French, July 1816. 


GUAD-EL-RAS (N. W. Africa). Her 
Spaniards signally defeated the Moors, 23 M 
1860, after a severe conflict: general Prim 1 
fested great bravery, for which he was enno 
The preliminaries of peace were signed on the 


GUANO or HvuANo (the Peruvian ter 
manure), the excrement of sea-birds that swar 
the coasts of Peru and Bolivia, and of Afriea 
Australia. It is mentioned by Herrera in 1601 
Garcilasso stated that the birds were protecte 
the incas. Humboldt was one of the first by y 
it was brought to Europe, in order to ascertai 
value in agriculture. The importation of g 
into the United Kingdom appears to have comme 
in 1839. 283,000 tons were imported in 184 
which 207,679 tons came from the western co: 
Africa) ; 243,016 tons in 1851 (of which 6522 
came from Western Australia); 131,358 ton 
1864; 237,393 tons in 1865; 135,697 tons in 1 
280,311 In 18703 114,454 in 1875; 152,989 in I 
177,793 in 1878; 74,221 in 1883. 


GUARANTEES. The ‘ Guarantee by ( 
panies act,’’ relating to the security by meal 
sureties required for persons employed in the p 
es was passed 20 Aug. 1867 (30 & 31 
c. 108). 


GUARDIAN, a moderate high-chureh wé 
journal, first published 21 Jan. 1846. 


GUARDS. The custom of having guar 
said to have been introduced by Saul, 1093 B.¢ 


Body guards were appointed to attend the kings of 
land, 1 Henry VII. 148s. 

Horse Guards were raised 4 Edw. VI. 1550. 

The royal regiment of guards was first raised by Ch 
Il. in Flanders in 1656, colonel, lord Wentwe 
another regiment was raised by colonel John Ru 
1660, under whom they were combined in 1665. 
Coldstream Guards, raised by general Monk, were 
stituted the 2nd regiment in 1661; see Coldst? 
These guards were the beginning of our standing a 

Gen. sir F. Wm. Hamilton’s “ History of the Grem 
Guards,” an elaborate work, appeared 1874. 

The Horse Grenadier guards first troop, raised i 
was commanded by general Cholmondeley ; the sé 
troop was raised in 1702, and was commanded by 
Forbes ; this corps was reduced in 1783, the off 
retiring on full pay. 

Guarps’ InstTITUTE, Francis-street, Vauxhall-bridge f 
reading and lecture rooms, &e., for all officers 
soldiers in the metropolis ; inaugurated by the du 
Cambridge, rr July, 1867. 

See Horse Guards, Yeomen, National, and Imp 
Guards. . 


ig | 


GUASTALLA. 


401 


GUILDS. 


UASTALLA, N. Italy, a city, near which 
imperial army, commanded by the king of 
linia, was defeated by the French, 19 Sept. 
1. The ancient duchy, long held by the dukes 
{antua, was seized by the emperor of Germany, 
», and ceded to Parma, 1748. After having 
1 comprised in the Italian republic, 1796, and 
ected to other changes, it was annexed to 
ma, 1815, and to Modena, 1847. 


UATEMALA. A republic in Central Ame- 
, revolted from Spain, 1821, and declared inde- 
lent, 21 March, 1847. Constitution settled, 
xt. 1859. President (1862), general Raphael 
era, elected 1851; appointed for life, 1854; 
14 April, 1865; succeeded by Vincent Cerna, 
ay, 1865-9. Manuel Garcia Granedos, Dec. 
1; R. Barrios, 9 May 1873. A war between 
temala and San Salvador broke out in Jan. 
'; and on 16 June the troops of the latter were 
ly defeated. An insurrection became formid- 
| duly, 1871. Alliance with Honduras against 
Salvador, March, 1872. 
xonzales, commandant of San José de Guatemala, 
prisoned, flogged, and nearly killed Mr. John Magee, 
: British consul, who was rescued by capt. Morse, 
the Pacific Mail Company’s steamer, Arizona, about 
April, 1874. ; 
janeed, that Gonzales had been sentenced to five 
rs’ imprisonment, and that Mr. Magee had received 
sool. as compensation, Oct. 1874. 
to kill the president and his ministry ; conspirators 
it, 7 Nov. 1877. 
tal Barrios’s proposal to re-unite the States of Central 
\erica under himself, as dictator, March ; resisted ; 
cated and killed in a severe battle at Chalchuapa, 
pril, 1885. 
UEBRES, see Parscees. 
JELPHIC ORDER of knighthood was 


juted for Hanover by the prince regent, after- 
s George IV., 12 Aug. 1815. 


JELPHS ann GHIBELINES, names 
. to the papal and imperial factions who de- 
ed the peace of Italy from the 12th to the end 
15th century (the invasion of Charles VIII. 
rance in 1495). The origin of the names is 
ved to the contest for the imperial crown 
2en Conrad of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, 
of Wiblingen (hence Ghibelin), and Henry 
ew of Welf, or Guelf, duke of Bavaria, in 1138. 
former was successful; but the popes and 
al Italian cities took the side of his rival. Hie 
fand Hie Gibelin are said to have been used 
‘r-cries in 1140, at a battle before Weinsberg, 
irtemberg, when Guelf of Bavaria was defeated 
e emperor Conrad IV. who came to help the 
‘duke Leopold.* The Ghibelines were almost 
-y expelled from Italy in 1267, when Conradin, 
ast of the Hohenstaufens, was beheaded by 
es of Anjou. Guelph is the name of the 
vot royal family of England; see Brunswick, 
Lanover. 


JERNSEY, see Jersey. 
JERRILLA, Spanish, ‘‘a little war’’; a 


applied to the armed peasants who worried 
French armies during the Peninsular war, 
14. 

JEUX (beggars), a name given by the comte 
rlaimont to the 300 Protestant deputies from 
ow Countries, headed by Henri of Brederode 
Louis of Nassau, who petitioned Margaret, 
ness of the Low Countries, to abolish the 


is stated, traditionally, that the emperor con- 
dall the men to death, but permitted the women 
\g out whatever they most valued ; on which they 
| out their husbands on their shoulders, 


inquisition, 5 April, 1566. The deputies at once 
assumed the name as honourable, and immediately 
organised armed resistance to the government ; see 
Holland. 


GUIANA (N.E. coast of South America), dis- 
covered by Columbus in 1498, visited by the 
Se eee in the 16th century; and explored by sir 

alter Raleigh in 1596 and 1617. The French 
settlements here were formed in 1626-43; and the 
Dutch, 1627-67. Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice 
were ceded to Great Britain in 1814; see Demerara. 
Governor of British Guiana, John Scott, 1868 ; 
James Robert Longden, 1874; C. H. Kortright, 1876; 
sir Henry T. Irving, 1882. 


GUIDE-BOOKS for travellers are an English 
invention. Paterson’s ‘‘ British Itinerary,” ap- 
peared in 1776; the last edition in 1840; when it 
was superseded by railways. Galignani’s ‘“ Picture 
of Paris,’’ 1814. Murray’s ‘‘ Handbook for Tra- 
vellers on the Continent,” the parent of the series, 
appeared in 1836. 


GUIDES, a corps in the French army, espe- 
cially charged with the protection of the person of 
the general, was formed by Bessiéres, under the 
direction of Bonaparte, who had been nearly 
carried off by the enemy, 30 May, 1796. Several 
squadrons of ‘‘ guides’? were formed in 1848, to 
guard the ministers. They formed a portion of 
the imperial guard till Sept. 1870. 


GUIENNE, a French province, was part of 
the dominions of Henry II. in right of his wife 
Eleanor, 1152. Philip of France seized it in 1293, 
which led to war. It was alternately held by 
England and France till 1453, when John Talbot, 
earl of Shrewsbury, in vain attempted to retake it 
from the latter. 


GUILDHALL (London) was built in rgrr. 
When it was rebuilt (in 1669), after the great fire 
of 1666, no part of the ancient building remained, 
except the interior of the porch and the walls of 
the hall. The front was erected in 1789; and a 
new roof built, 1864-5. Beneath the west window 
are the colossal figures of Gog and Magog, said to 
represent a Saxon and an ancient Briton; replaced 
older ones, 1708 ; renewed, 1837. The hall can con- 
tain 7000 persons. Here were entertained the allied 
sovereigns in 1814, and Napoleon III., 1g April, 
1855; and here the city industrial exhibition was 
held, 6 March, 1866, and the International Botanical 
banquet, 22 May, 1866. A memorial window, the 
gift of the cotton workers of Lancashire, to com- 
memorate the munificence of the metropolis towards 
them in the famine of 1862-4, was uncovered, 15 
July, 1868. The prince consort memorial window 
was unveiled in the presence of prince Arthur, 
3 Noy. 1870. A library existed in the Guildhall in 
1426, from which books were taken by the protector 
Somerset in the reign of Edward VI. The library 
was again set up; and re-opened, Jan. 1828. The 
new handsome building by Horace Jones was opened. 
by the lord chancellor Selborne, 5 Nov. 1872; see 
London. The law sittings have been removed to 
the Royal law courts. 


GUILDS (of Saxon origin, about the 8th 
century), associations of inhabitants of towns for 
mutual benefit, resembling our religious and friendly 
societies, chartered by the sovereign since the time 
of Henry II. 


The London guilds became livery companies in the r4th 
century. 

The guild of Corpus Christi, York, had 14,800 members 
when a return respecting these guilds was ordered to 
be made, 1388. 


DD 


4 


GUILLOTINE. 


402 


. 


GUNPOWDER. 


The Early English Text Society published the ‘‘ Ordi- 
nances ” of more than roo guilds, 1870. 

The ‘‘Guild of Literature and Art” (including sir E. B. 
Lytton, C. Dickens, and others) founded an institu- 
tion (on ground given by sir E. B, Lytton, at Stevenage) 
consisting of thirteen dwellings, retreats for artists, 
scholars, and men of letters, which were completed 
and inaugurated, 29 July, 1865. 

The revival of religious guilds began in 1851, with 
that of St. Alban, which held its 21st anniversary 
20 June, 1872. 

Guilds Inquiry Commission, see Companies. 


GUILLOTINE, an instrument for causing 
immediate and painless death, named after its sup- 
posed inventor, a physician named Joseph Igrfatius 
Guillotin. In 1866 M. Dubois, of Amiens, stated 
that the idea only was due to Guillotin, who at a 
meeting of the legislative assembly in 1789 ex- 
pressed an opinion that capital punishment should 
be the same for all classes. Accordingly, at the 
request of the assembly, M. Louis, secretary of the 
“‘ Académie de Chirurgie,’’ submitted to it on 20 
March, 1792, a mode of capital punishment, ‘‘sure, 
quick, and uniform,”’ which he had invented. The 
first person executed by it was a highway robber 
named Pelletier, on 25 April; and Dangremont was 
its first political victim, 21 Aug. following. Guillotin 
died in 1814. The guillotine at Paris was burnt 
by the communist insurgents, 7 April, 1871. A 
similar instrument (called the Mannaia) is said to 
have been used in Italy, at Halifax in England 
(see Halifax), and in Scotland, there called the 
Maiden and the Widow. 


GUINEA (W. coast of Africa) was discovered by 
the Portuguese about 1446. From their trade with 
the Moors originated the slave trade, sir John Haw- 
kins being the first Englishman who engaged in this 
traffic. Assisted by English gentlemen with money 
for the purpose, he sailed from England in Oct. 1562, 
with three ships, proceeded to the coast of Guinea, 
purchased or forcibly seized 300 negroes, sold them 
profitably at Hispaniola, and returned home richly 
laden with hides, sugar, ginger, and other mer- 
chandise, in Sept. 1563. This voyage led to similar 
enterprises. Hakluyt. See Slave Trade. An African 
company to trade with Guinea was chartered 1588. 
The Dutch settlements here were transferred to 
Great Britain, 6 April, 1872. 
Ashantees. 

GUINEAS, English gold coin, so named. from 
having been first coined of gold brought by the 
African company from the coast of Guinea in 1663, 
valued then at 20s.; but worth 30s. in 1695. Re- 
duced at various times; in 1717 to 21s. In I8I0 
guineas were sold for 22s. 6d.; in 1816, for 27s. In 
1811 an act was passed forbidding their exportation, 
and their sale at a price above the current value, 21s. 
The first guineas bore the impression of an elephant, 
having been coined of this African gold. Since the 
issue of sovereigns, I July, 1817, guineas have not 
been coined. 


GUINEGATE, BATTLEs oF, 11 July, 1302, 
and 16 Aug. 1513. See Spurs. 


GUISE, a French ducal family :— 


Claude of Lorraine, first duke, a brave warrior, 
favoured by Francis I. ; died April, 1550 

Francis, the great general, born, 1519 ; assassinated, 
24 Feb. 1563 

Henry, head of the Catholic league; born 1550; 

revenged his father’s death ; assassinated by order 
of Henry IIL. 3 3 - . 23 Dec. 1588 
Charles, first opposed, and then submitted to, 
Henry IV. ; died : E E 5 - 1640 
Henry died without issue . : : - 1664 


GULLIVER’S TRAVELS, by Dean Swift, 
first published 1726-7. 


See Elmina, and 


GUN, see Artillery, Fire-arms.—G@ 
CLUB, for peters. founded by sir Gi 
East, in 1862, had 200 members, noblemen 
gentlemen, in July, 1867. The new gun-lic 
produced in the financial year 1871-2, 62,4371. 


_ GUN-COTTON, 2 highly explosive subst: 
invented by professor Schénbein, of Basel, 
made known in 1846. It is purified cotton, ste 
in a mixture of equal parts of nitric acid and 
phuric acid, and afterwards dried, retaining 
appearance of cotton wool. See Collodion. Its n; 
was known to Bracconot and Pelouze. 


The diet of Frankfort voted, 3 Oct. 1846, a recom 
of 100,000 florins to professor Schénbein anc 
Beettger, as the inventors of the cotton powder, 
vided the authorities of Mayence, after seeing it: 
pronounced it superior to gunpowder as an explo: 

Improvements were made in the manufacture of 
cotton by an Austrian officer, Baron von Lenk, : 
1852, and it was tried by a part of the Austrian 
in 1855, but did not obtain favour. 

In 1862 details of the manufacture were communi 
by the Austrian government to our own governi 
and Mr. Abel, our war-office chemist, was direct 
experiment on the constitution and desirabili 
gun-cotton. The British Association also appoin 
scientific committee to consider its merits. A 
plete decision was not arrived at. 

The first trial of English-made gun-cotton was mai 
the spring of 1864, at the manufactory at Stowma 
Suffolk, by Messrs. Prentice. 

There was manufactured, by a company, the “ patents 
gun-cotton,” according to Mr. Abel’s patent (ineh 
the pulping, compressing, and wet processes), 1 
on researches commenced in 1866. The cotton 
said to be explosive by detonation, and no 
ignition. A great explosion took place at Stowma 
24 persons were killed (including A. EB. H. andy 
Prentice, managers) ; about 6c were dreadfully wou 
and nearly the whole town was destroyed as if 
bombardment, rz Aug. 1871. 

The verdict at the inquest attributed the explosic 
the culpable ‘‘addition of sulphuric acid to the 
cotton subsequent to its passing the tests requir 
government,” 6 Sept. 1871. 

A government commission, appointed in Sept. to 
sider the manufacture and use of gun-cotton, rep 
in favour of both, with special regard to compr 

’ gun-cotton, 13 Dec. 1871. 

Another report recommended this gun-cotton t 
stored wet, with drying apparatus near; and t 
kept in siighter boxes, 25 July, 1872. 

Mr. E. O. Brown, of the war departinent, Woolwich, 
covers that wet gun-cotton can be exploded by 
cussion by a detonating fuse, about Nov. 1872. 

It is used as an explosive agent in mining, &c. 

Gcn-CLoTH, made ona similar principle, was pate 
by Mr. W. A. Dixon, about 1866. 


Corron-GUNPOWDER, patented by Mr. R. Punshon, : 
A modified form was tried and reported successful, 
Faversham, 3 Feb, 1875. 


GUNDAMUK, see Gandamuhk. 
GUN LICENCE ACT, passed 9 Aug. It 


annual licence, 10s. Licences issued: year 18 
77,068 ; 1877-8, 75,872 5 1880-1, 72,834; I 
74,003. See under Game Laws, 1883. 


GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpoy 
is generally ascribed to Bertholdus or Mie 
Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, soutl 
Brunswick, in Germany, about 1320. But m 
writers maintain that it was known much eat 
in various parts of the world. Some say that 
Chinese and Hindoos possessed it centuries bet 
Its composition, moreover, is expressly mentic 
by Roger Bacon, in his treatise De Null 
Magie. He died in 1292 or 1294. Various § 
stitutes for gunpowder have been recently inven 
such as the white gunpowder of Mr. Horsley 


. Dr. Ehrhardt, and gun-paper by Mr. Hochstod 


GUNPOWDER PLOT. 


403 


GYPSIES. 


w gunpowder by M. Newmayer, of Toya, near 
sic, was discussed in Nov. 1866. ‘Pellet gun- 
er’’ was ordered to be used in gun-charges in 
rmy, March, 1868. An act to amend the law 
ming the making, keeping, and carriage of 
owder, &c. was passed 28 Aug. 1860, and other 
since. See Birmingham, 1870. In May, 1872, 
mpany was formed to manufacture Mr. R. 
hon’s patent cotton-gunpowder, asserted to be 


safe and controllable. See Chronoscope. 


e was denounced by Ariosto, 1516 ; by Jean Marot, 
2; by Cervantes, 1604; termed “villanous salt- 


e” by Shakspeare, about 1598. 
ish WAR GUNPOWDER: 75 parts nitrate of potash 
ipetre) ; ro sulphur ; 15 carbon. These proportions 
‘be slightly varied. 
uter, after a careful examination of the question, 
347, thus states the result :—‘“July and August, 
, may be safely assumed to be the time when the 
osive force of gunpowder was first brought to bear 
he military operations of the English nation.” 

rr tons of gunpowder on board the Lottie Sleigh, 
1¢ Mersey, exploded ; much damage done in Liver- 
and Birkenhead, but no lives lost, 16 Jan. 1864. 
104,000 lbs. of gunpowder exploded at the Belve- 
powder magazines of Messrs. Hall & Co., at 
ustead, near Woolwich ; 13 persons perished, and 
shock was felt at 50 miles’ distance, 1 Oct. 1864. 
ching inquiries were made into the circumstances, 
new regulations for the keeping and transmission 
owder issued in November ; see Dartford. 
ue, a blind gentleman of Plymouth, on 22 June, 
» patented his method of rendering gunpowder 
ilammable by combining with it finely powdered 
3, Which can be readily separated by a sieve when 
powder is required for use. Successful public 
sriments were made. 
ule exhibited his process before the queen at 
dsor, 10 Noy. 1865, and it was severely tested at a 
tello tower, near Hastings, 20 June, 1866. The 
imment of perfect security was still doubtful. 
"s Protected Gunpowder Company was formed, 
1865, and wound up, March, 1867. 


explosion at Messrs. Hall’s powder-mills, near 
srsham ; rr men killed, much damage done ; shock 
at Canterbury, ro miles off, 28 Dec. 1867. Another 
osion about 21 Dec. 1868. 

& Beck’s works blown up; 9g lives lost, 25 July, 


sion at Hounslow mills, 3 lives lost, 6 Sept. 1872. 
’s powder-magazines placed in fire at Woolwich 
ial and found secure, 8-9 Oct. 1872. 

5 tons of gunpowder in barrels exploded in the 
e Tilbury, on the Regent's Canal, near the North 
ge-gate, Regent’s-park, nearly 5 a.m. 2 Oct. 1874. 
men on the barge killed ; shock felt about 30 miles 
destruction extended over about a square mile ; 
»houses thrown down ; very many windows blown 
i house of Mr. Alma Tadema, the artist, much 
ed. 

wder was sent by Pigou and Wilks to Derbyshire 
lasting purposes ;—order of the barges: Ready, 
Steamer; Jane, Dee, Tilbury, Limehouse, and 
kesbury. 
iad been subscribed for the sufferers up to 1 May 


i of Inquest — Explosion caused by ignition of 
uw from benzoline by a fire or light in the cabin 
& Tilbury. The Junction Canal Company guilty 
(OSS negligence, and the present laws inadequate 
ublic safety, 19 Oct. 1874. 

mpany declared responsible on trial (by Capt. 
son), 14 May 1875. 

ousand and fifty-four claims had been settled for 
ol., June 1876, 


NPOWDER PLOT, forspringing a mine 
the houses of parliament, and destroying the 
States of the realm—king, lords, and commons 
assembled, was discovered on 4 Nov. 1605. It 
ojected by Robert Catesby early in 1604, and 
. Roman Catholics of rank were in the plot. 
aux was detected in the vaults under the 
of lords, hired for the purpose, preparing 


the train for being fired on the next day. Catesby 
and Percy (of the family of Northumberland) were 
killed at Holbeach house, whither they had fled, 
8 Nov.; and Guy Faux, sir Everard Digby, Rook 
wood, Winter, and others, were executed, 30, 31 
Jan. 1606. Henry Garnet, a Jesuit, suffered as an 
accomplice, 3 May following. An anonymous letter 
sent to lord Monteagle led to the discovery. It 
contained the following words, ‘Though there be 
no appearance of any stir, yet I say they shall 
receive a terrible blow this parliament, and yet 
they shall not see who hurts them.” The vault 
called Guy Faux cellar, in which the conspirators 
lodged the barrels of gunpowder, remained till 
1825, when it was converted into offices. 


GUNTER’S CHAIN, used in measuring land, 
invented by Edmund Gunter, in 1606. 


GURNEY’S ACT, 31 & 32 Vict., c. 116 
(1868), amends the law relating to larceny and 
embezzlement. 


GUTTA PERCHA is procured from the sap 
of the Isonandra Gutta, a large forest tree, growing 
in the Malayan peninsula and on the islands near 
it. It was made known in England by Drs. De 
Almeida and Montgomery, at the Society of Arts, 
in 1843. As a non-conductor of electricity it is in- 
valuable in constructing submarine telegraphs, an 
application suggested by Faraday and Werner Sie- 
mens independently, 1847. 


GUY’S HOSPITAL (London). Thomas Guy, 
a wealthy bookseller, after bestowing large sums on 
St. Thomas’s, determined to found a new hospital. 
At the age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced 
the present building, and lived to see it nearly 
completed. It cost him 18,793/., and, in addition, 
he endowed it with 219,499/. In 1829, 196,115/. 
were bequeathed to this hospital by Mr. Hunt, to 
provide accommodation for 100 additional patients. 


GUZERAT, a state in India, founded by Mah- 
moud the Gaznevide, about 1020, was conquered by 
Akbar in 1572; and became subject to the Mahrattas 
1732 or 1752. At the battle of Guzerat, near the 
Chenab, in the Punjab, 21 Feb. 1849, lord Gough 
totally defeated the Sikhs and captured the town of 
Guzerat. 


GWALIOR, an ancient state in Central India ; 
since 1803, under British protection. Scindiah, the 
maharajah, remained faithful during the revolt of 
1857; visit of the prince of Wales, 31 Jan. 1876. 
His present of carved stone work of a gate, arrived 
in London in the autumn of 1884. 


GYMNASIUM, a place where the Greeks 
performed public exercises, and where philosophers, 
poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. 
In wrestling and boxing the athletes were often 
naked- (gymnos), whence the name. A London 
gymnastic society, formed in 1826, did not flourish. 
In 1862, M. Ravenstein set up another gymnastic 
association. ‘The German Gymnastic Institution, 
in St, Pancras-road, London, was opened on 29 Jan, 
1865, and a large and perfect gymnasium at Liver- 
pool was inaugurated by lord Stanley, 6 Noy. 1865. 
A London athletic club existed in Noy. 1866. 


GYMNOSOPHISTA, a set of naked philo- 
sophers in India. Alexander (about 324 B.c.) was 
astonished at the sight of men who seemed to 
despise bodily pain, and endured tortures without 
agroan. Pliny. 


GYPSIES, GIpsiEs, or EGYPTIANS 
(French, Bohémiens ; Italian, Zingari Spanish, 
DD 


GYPSIES. 


404 


GYROSCOPE. 


Gitanos; German, Zigewner); vagrants, supposed 
to be descendants of low-caste Hindoos expelled by 
Timour, about 1399. They appeared in Germany 
and Italy early in the 15th century, and at Paris in 
1427. In England an act was made against their 
itinerancy, in 1530; and in the reign of Charles I. 
thirteen persons were executed at one assizes for 
having associated with gypsies for about a month. 
The gypsy settlement at Norwood was broken up, 
and they were treated as vagrants, May, 1797. 
There were in Spain alone, previously to 1800, 
more than 120,000 gypsies, and many communities 
of them yet exist in England. Notwithstanding 
their intercourse with other nations, their manners, 
customs, visage, and appearance are almost wholly 
unchanged, and their pretended knowledge of 
futurity gives them power over the superstitious. 
Ksther Faa was crowned queen of the gypsies at 
Blyth, on 18 Noy. 1860. The Bible has been trans- 


lated into gypsy dialects. Gypsy parliamer 

occasionally held. 

GEORGE Borrow fraternised with the gypsies and 
several works describing his adventures, es] 
‘*The Zincali” (1841); ‘‘ The Bible in Spain” 
**Lavengro” (1850) ; and a ‘‘ Dictionary of the 
Language” (1874). He was born in 1803, and | 
Aug. 188r. 


GYROSCOPE (from gyrere, to revoly 
name of a rotatory apparatus invented by F\ 
Cologne (1852), and improved by professor 
stone and M. Foucault of Paris. It is sim 
principle to the rotatory apparatus of Be 
berger of Tiibingen (born 1765, died 1831), 
gyroscope by exhibiting the combined effects 
centrifugal and centripetal forces, and o 
cessation of either, illustrates. the great | 
grayitation. 


H. 


HAARLEM. 


AARLEM, an ancient town in Holland, once 
residence of the counts, was taken by the duke 
\lva, in July, 1573, after a siege of seven 
ths. He violated the capitulation by butcher- 
half the inhabitants. The lake was drained, 


HSI. 


TABEAS CORPUS. The subjects’ Writ of 
At, passed “‘for the better securing the liberty 
he subject,’ 31 Charles II. c. 2, 27 May, 1679. 
ny person be imprisoned by the order of any 
t, or of the queen herself, he may have a writ 
abeas corpus, to bring him before the court of 
sn’s bench or common pleas, which shall deter- 
e whether his committal be just. This act 
nded on the old common law) is next in im- 
ance to Magna Charta. The Habeas Corpus act 
be suspended by parliament for a specified time 
n the emergency is extreme. In such a case 
nation parts with a portion of its liberty to 
re its own permanent welfare, and suspected 
ons may then be arrested without cause or 
pose being assigned. Blackstone. 


suspended for a short time in 
ended for Scots’ rebellion Z 
ended for twelve months. . : ‘ e 
pended for Scots’ rebellionin . 1744-5 
pended for American war : s ’ 1777-9 
in by Mr. Pitt, owing to French revolution . 1794 
pended in Ireland, on account of the great re- 
ion i 
pended in 


- 1689, 1696, 1708 
r : 1715-6 
+ 1722 


P : : : ‘ | 1s 1798 
England, 28 Aug. 1799; and 
14 April, 1801 


in, on account of Irish insurrection 1803 


in, owing to alleged secret meetings (see Green 


ug : . é : : : . 21 Feb. 1817 
to restore the Habeas Corpus brought into par- 

ment . : : - 4 28 Jan. 1818 
oended in Ireland (insurrection) 24 July, 1848 
tored there rt March, 1849 


pended again (see Fenians), 17 Feb. 1866; 
Feb, and 31 May, 1867; and 28 Feb. 1868 till 
25 March, 
constitution of the United States provides that 
the privilege of habeas corpus shall not be sus- 
mded, unless when, in cases of rebellion or 
vasion, the public safety may require it ;” but 
es not specify the department of the govern- 
ent having the power of suspension. A series 
‘ contests on this subject between the legal 
id military authorities began in Maryland, 
May, 
onsequence of the affair of John Anderson (see 
avery in England, note), an act was passed in 
\62, enacting that no writ of Habeas Corpus should 
sue out of England into any colony, &e., 
ic a court with authority to grant such 
rit. 


1869 


1861 


{ABITUAL CRIMINALS ACT, for the 
‘e effectual prevention of crime, giving powers 
the apprehension of habitual criminals on sus- 
on, passed 11 Aug. 1869; 117,568 reported in 
metropolis, 1873. 

lack book, printed at Brixton prison, contained the 


umes and aliases of 12,164 criminals, selected from 
79,601 entered on the register, 1869-76. 


IABITUAL DRUNKARDS, see 


unkards. 


IABSBURG, see Hapsburg. 


HAILEYBURY COLLEGE. 
HACKNEY, 2a parish N.E. of London; by 


the division of the Tower Hamlets, was made a 
metropolitan borough by the Reform act, 15 Aug. 
1867. ‘Two members were elected. The election 4 
Feb. 1876, void, through neglect in officers. 


HACKNEY COACHES (probably from the 
French coche-d-haquenée, a vehicle with a hired 
horse, haquenée. Their supposed origin in Hackney, 
near London, is a vulgar error; see Cabriolets, and 
Omnibuses. 


Four were set up in London by a capt. Bailey ; 
their number soon increased ; ‘ : E 
They were limited by the star-chamber in 1635 ; 
restricted in 1637 and in a : 2 : . 1652 
The number was raised to 400, in 1662; to 700, in 
1694 ; to 800, in 1715 ; to 1000,in 1771 ; tO 1100, in 
1814 ; and finally, to 1300, in . : : Mae 
One-horse hackney carriages (afterwards cabriolets) 
permitted to be licensed : ; i : ; 
All restriction as to number ceased, by 2 Will. IV. 
(the original fare was 1s. a mile) 3 PPS oileieh 
Two hundred Hackney Chairs were licensed 
Office removed to Somerset-house A 
Coach-makers made subject to a licence . : : 
Lost and Found Office for the recovery of property 
left in hackney coaches, established by act 55 
Geo; LIL. é A é : : : He 
All public vehicles to be regulated by the act 16 & 
17 Vict. ec. 33, 127, by which they are placed 
under the control of the commissioners of police, 
June and Aug. 

By the Metropolitan Carriages Act, passed 12 Aug. 
1869, various restrictions respecting the amount 
of fare, &c., were removed, commencing, 1 Jan. 
Further regulations for cabs issued by the home 
secretary R ; : A . zo March, 


HADRIANOPLE, see Adrianople. 
HAFSFIORD (Norway). Here Harold Har- 


fager, in a sea-fight, finally defeated his enemies; 
and consolidated his kingdom, 872. A millenary 
festival was held throughout Norway, and a monu- 
ment to his memory at Hangesund, inaugurated by 
prince Oscar of Sweden, 18 July, 1872. 


HAGUE, capital of the kingdom of Holland, 
once called the finest vid/age in Kurope ; the place 
of meeting of the states-general, and residence of 
the former earls of Holland since 1250, when 
William II. built the palace here. 


Here the states abjured the authority of Philip II. 


1625 


1815 


>? 


wLZEL 
. 1782 
1785 


1815 


1853 


1870 
1871 


of Spain . : : ; : : ‘ . 1580 
A conference upon the five articles of the remon- 
strants, which occasioned the synod of Dort . . 1610 


Treaty of the Hague (to preserve the equilibrium of 
the North), signed by England, France, and 
Holland 5 ; 2 ; : 21 May, 1659 
The De Witts torn in pieces here. 4 Aug. 1672 
The French, favoured by a hard frost, took posses- 
sion of the Hague ; the inhabitants and troops 
declared in their favour; general revolution en- 
sued, and the stadtholder and his family fled to 
England. . E : : - rg Jan. 1795 
The Hague evacuated by the French Noy. 1813 
The stadtholder returned 3 . Deca. 


HAILEYBURY COLLEGE (Herts), 
wherein students were prepared for service in India; 
it was founded by the Kast India Company in 1806 ; 
was closed in 1858, and became a private educational 
establishment. 


HAINAULT. 


406 


HAMBURG. 


HAINAULT, a province in Belgium, anciently 
governed by counts, hereditary after Regnier L., 
who died ing16. The count John d’ Arsenes became 
count of Holland in 1299. Hainault henceforth 
partook of the fortunes of Flanders. 


HAINAULT FOREST (Essex), disafforested 
in 1851. Here stood the Fairlop oak (which see). 


HAIR. In Gaul, hair was much esteemed, 
hence the appellation Gallia comata; cutting off 
the hair was a punishment. The royal family of 
France held it as a privilege to wear long hair art- 
fully dressed and curled. ‘‘ The clerical tonsure is of 
apostolic institution!’ Isidorus Hispalensis. Pope 
Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear long hair, 155. 
Long hair was out of fashion during the pro- 
tectorate of Cromwell, and hence the term Rownd- 
heads ; in 1795; and also 1801.—Hair-powder came 
into use in 1590; and in 1795 a tax of a guinea 
was laid upon persons using it, which yielded at 
one time 20,0007. per annum. The tax was repealed 
24 June, 1869, when it yielded about 1000/. a year. 
See Beard. 


HAITI, see Hayti. 
HAKLUYT SOCIETY, established for the 


publication of rare voyages and travels, 15 Dec. 
1846, was named after Richard Hakluyt, who pub- 
lished his ‘‘ Principal Navigations, Voyages, and 
Discoveries made by the English Nation,” in 1589; 
and died 23 Noy. 1616. 


HALE CROWNS, see under Coinage and 
Crowns. 

HALIARTUS, a town in Beeotia, near which 
Lysander the Spartan general was killed in battle 
with the Thebans, 395 B.c. 


HALICARNASSUS, Caria (Asia Minor) ; the 
reputed birth-place of Herodotus, 4848B.c.; the site 
of the tomb of Mausolus, erected 352; was taken by 
Alexander, 334; see Mausoleum. 


HALIDON HILL, near Berwick, where, on 
19 July, 1333, the English defeated the Scots, the 
latter losing upwards of 14,000 slain, among whom 
were the regent Douglas and a large number of the 
nobility ; a comparatively small number of the 
English suffered. Edward Balliol thus became king 
of Scotland for a short time. : 


HALIFAX (Yorkshire). The woollen manu- 
factory was successfully established here in the 
15th century. The power of the town to punish 
capitally (by a peculiar engine resembling the 
guillotine) any criminal convicted of stealing to 
the value of upwards of thirteen pence halfpenny, 
was used as late as 1650. In 1857, Mr. J. Cross- 
ley anvounced his intention of founding a college 
here, and Mr. F. Crossley presented the town with 
a beautiful park. Boiler explosion at Batme and 
Pritchard’s; Mr. Pritchard and 5 men killed, 9 
Oct. 1879. Public demonstration for the franchise 
bill, 9 Sept. 1884. 

Hawirax, the capital of Nova Scotia, was founded 

in 1749 by the hon. Edwd. Cornwallis, and named 

after the earl of ;Halifax. About 31 were burnt 

to death in an almshouse hospital here Nov. 1882 


HALIFAX ADMINISTRATION. 
Charles, earl of Halifax, was appointed first lord of 
the treasury, 5 Oct. 1714. He died 19 May, 1715, 
and was succeeded by Charles, earl of Cacleie on 
10 Oct. following; and Robert Walpole became 
premier. 

Charles, earl of Halifax, first lord of the treasury. 
William, lord Cowper, aft. earl, lord chancellor. 


Daniel, earl of Nottingham, lord president. 

Thomas, earl of Wharton, privy seal. 

Edward, earl of Oxford, admiralty. 

James Stanhope, afterwards earl Stanhope, and Cha 
viscount Townshend, secretaries of state. 

Sir Richard Onslow, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Dukes of Montrose and Marlborough, lord Berk 
Robt. Walpole, Mr. Pulteney, &c. 


HALIFAX AWARD, see Canada, 1877. 


HALL, principal apartment in medizyval x 
sions. Westminster and Eltham halls are 
examples; see Westminster Hall. 


HALL MARK, see Goldsmiths and Stana 


HALLE (Saxony, N. Germany), first 1 
tioned in 801, was made a city by the emy 
Otho IT. in 981. The orphan-house here was e: 
lished by August Francke, 1698-9. Halle sufi 
much by the Thirty years’ and Seven years’ y 
It was stormed by the French, 17 Oct. 1806, 
added to the kingdom of Westphalia; but give 
to Prussia in 1814. 


HALLELUJAH anp AMEN (Prais 
Lord, and So be it), expressions used in 
Hebrew hymns; said to have been introduce 
Haggai, the prophet, about 520 B.c. Theiri 
duction into Christian worship is ascribed t 
Jerome, about A.D. 390. 


HALLS in London, see Agricultural, Egyp 
Exeter, Floral, Freemasons’, Independents, Jan 
St., and Musie. 


HALYS, a river (Asia Minor), near whi 
battle was fought between the Lydians and M 
It was interrupted by an almost total eclipse o 
sun, which led to peace, 28 May, 585 B.c. 
fourth year of the 48th Olympiad). Plin. 
Hist. ii. Others give as the date 584, 603, 
610 B.c. This eclipse is said to have heen pred 
many years before by Thales of Miletus. J 
dotus, 1. 75. 


HAM, on the Somme, N. France. The ¢ 
was built in 1470 by the constable Louis of Lw 
bourg, comte de St. Pol, beheaded by Louis 
19 Dec. 147 3; Here were imprisoned the 
ministers of Charles X., 1830; and Louis Napc 
Bonaparte after his attempt at Boulogne, from 
1840 till 25 May, 1846, when he escaped. 


HAMBURG, a free city, N. W. Germ 
founded by Charlemagne, about 809. It joine: 
Hanseatic league in the 13th century, and be: 
a flourishing commercial city. Population in | 
229,941; in 1871, 338,974; in 1875, 388,618; in 1 
453,809. Hamburg Massacre, see Massacres, | 


A free imperial city by permission of the dukes of 
Holstein, 1296 ; subject to them till 1618 ; pur- 
chased its total exemption from their claims . 

French declared war. upon Hamburg for its 
treachery in giving up Napper Tandy ; see eg 

ct. 


March, 


British property sequestrated ; . 
after the battle of 


Hamburg taken by the French 
Jena, in . e 2 § 
Incorporated with France . 4 " . aos 
Evacuated by the French on the advance of the 
Russians into Germany . ; é m, 3 - 
Restored to independence by the allies May, 
Awful fire here, which destroyed numerous churches 
and public buildings, and 2000 houses ; it con- 
tinued forthreedays . : <: . 4 May, 
Half the city inundated by the Elbe 4 r Jan. 
New constitution granted by the senate, July, 1860; 
the new assembly (of 191 members) first met, 


6 Dec. 

The constitution began 5 4 ‘ ._ rJdan. 
Hamburg joined the N. German confederation, 
at Aug. 


Z 


HAMILTON PALACE SALE. 


d the German empire, Jan.; its privileges as a 
»port confirmed . A 2 16 April, 1871 


AMILTON PALACE SALE. The total 
realised by the sale of the vast collection of 
res and other works of art, cabinets, crystals, 
mounted to 397,562/. 20 July, 1882. 

MSS. purchased by the German government ; 
orted price about 80,000l, . P . Oct. 1882 
of the united Beckford and Hamilton libraries 
lisett 86,4441. . rr. ; A 1883-4 


AMPDEN CLUBS, see Radicals, and 


grove. 


AMPSTEAD, N.W. of London; originally 
apelry of Hendon, was made a parish after the 
rmation. The ancient chapel was taken down 
; and a church was consecrated, 8 Oct. 1747. 
ct authorising the Metropolitan Board of Works 
urchase the heath, from sir John Maryon 
on, bart., passed 29 June, 1871, and the heath 
formally taken possession of by the Metropo- 
Board of Works, 13 Jan. 1872, 45,000/. being 
porary small-pox hospital established at Hamp- 
age “ ; = ‘ : A 5 aay ee 
ses of mismanagement against the officers ; 
cial inquiry (33 meetings, from 23 Sept. to 
Noy.); inquiry respecting disappearance of a 
ld, Elizabeth Bellue ; medical officers exone- 
ed from blame. ; : : ? Ye eect i545 
all-pox hospital erected here by Metropolitan 
strict Asylum Board was much opposed, and 
| to litigation, see J'rials, 1878 ; the house of 
ds on appeal decided against the inhabitants 

7 March 
lly the board agreed to buy the property 
ected for 20,000l. : : } : . Dec, 1883 


AMPTON COURT PALACE (Middle- 
, built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the 
or-house of the knights-hospitallers, and in 
‘ presented to Henry VHI.; perhaps the most 
ndid offering ever made by a subject to a 
reign. Here Edward VI. was born, 12 Oct. 
'; here his mother, Jane Seymour, died, 24 Oct. 
wing ; and here Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and 
rs of our sovereigns resided. Much was pulled 
n, and the grand inner court built by William 
in 1694, when the gardens, occupying 40 acres, 
»laid out. ‘The vine was planted 1769. Here 
held, 14-16-18 Jan. 1604, the CONFERENCE be- 
m the Puritans and the Established church 
an which led to a new translation of the Bible ; 

onference. An alarming fire in apartments 
‘the picture gallery extinguished ; one woman 
yeated, 14 Dec. 1882. 


[ANAPER OFFICE (of the court of chan- 
), where writs relating to the business of the 
ect, and their returns, were anciently kept a 
aperio (in a wicker hamper); and those relating 
le crown, in parva baga (a little bag). Hence 
names Hanaper and Petty Bag Office. The 
e was abolished in 1842. 


[ANAU (Hesse-Cassel), incorporated 1303. 
e a division of the combined armies of Austria 
Bavaria, of 30,000 men, under general Wrede, 
yuntered'the French, 70,000 strong, under Na- 
on I., on their retreat from Leipsic, 30 Oct. 
3. The French suffered very severely, though 
allies were compelled to retire. The county of 
lau was made a principality in 1803; seized by 
French in 1806; incorporated with the duchy 
‘rankfort in 1809; restored to Hesse in 1813 ; 
ch was annexed to Prussia in 1866. 


IANDEL’S COMMEMORATIONS. 


1881 


407 


HANOVER. 


The first was held in Westminster abbey, 26 May, 

1784; king George III. and queen Charlotte, and 

above 3000 persons being present. The band con- 

tained 268 vocal and 245 instrumental performers, 
and the receipts of three successive days were 

12,7467. These concerts were repeated in 1785, 

1786, 1787, and 1791. 

Second great commemoration, in the presence of king 
William IV, and queen Adelaide, when there were 644 
performers, 24, 26, 28 June, and 1 July, 1834. 

Great Handel festival (at the Crystal Palace) on the 
centenary of his death, projected by the Sacred 
Harmonic Society. Grand Rehearsal at the Crystal 
Palace, 15, 17, 19 June, 1857, and 2 July, 1858. 

Performances : Messiah, 20 June ; Selections, 22June; Is- 
raelin Egypt, 24 June, 1859, when the prince consort, the 
king of the Belgians, and 26,827 persons were present. 

There were 2765 vocal and 393 instrumental performers, 
and the performance was highly successful. The re- 
ceipts amounted to about 33,00ol., from which there 
were deducted 18,o00l. for expenses ; of the residue 
(15,000l.), two parts accrued to the Crystal Palace Com- 
pany, and one part to the Sacred Harmonic Society. 
Handel’s harpsichord, original scores of his oratorios, 
and other interesting relics, were exhibited. 

Handel festivals (at the Crystal Palace): 4000 performers ; 
highly successful ; 23, 25, 27 June, 1862 ; again, 26, 28, 
3o June, 1865; again, 15, 17, 19 June, 1868 (about 
25,000 present); also, 19, 21, 23 June, 1871 (about 
84,000 persons subscribed) ; also, 22, 24, 26 June 1874; 
(total present, 78,839), also, 25, 27, 29 June, 1877; 
(present, 74,124) ; 18, 21, 23, 25 June, 1880 (present, 
79,643) 3 15, 18, 20, 22 June, 1883 (present, 87,769). 


HANDEL SOCIETIES ; for publication of 

Handel’s works :— 

Founded in London, 1843; first volume issued, 1843-4 5 
society dissolved, 1848 ; work continued by Cramer & 
Co. completed, 1855. ; 

Founded at Leipsic, in 1856 ; publications began, 1858. 

Handel ‘and Haydn Society, Boston, U.S. for perfor- 
mances only ; founded 181s. 


HANDKERCHIEFS, wrought and edged 
with gold, used to be worn in England by gentle- 
men in their hats, as favours from young ladies, 
the value of them being from five to twelve pence 
for each in the reign of Elizabeth, 1558. Stow’s 
Chron. Paisley handkerchiefs were first made in 
1743- 

HANDS, imposition of, was performed by Moses 
in setting apart his successor Joshua (Num. xxvil. 
23); in reception into the church, and in ordination, 
by the apostles (dets viii. 17; 1 Zim. iv. 14). 


HANGING, DRAWING, AND QUARTER- 
ING, said to have been first inflicted upon William 
Marise, a pirate, a nobleman’s son, 25 Hen. III., 
1241. Five gentlemen attached to the duke of 
Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for trea- 
son, and at the place of execution were hanged, cut 
down alive instantly, stripped naked, and _ their 
bodies marked for quartering, and then pardoned, 
25 Hen. IV. 1447. Stow. The Cato-street con- 
spirators (which see) were beheaded after death by 
hanging, 1 May, 1820. Hanging in chains was 
abolished in 1834; see Death. 


HANGO BAY (Finland). On 5 June, 1855, 
a boat commanded by lieut. Geneste left the 
British steamer Cossack, with a flag of truce to 
land some Russian prisoners. They were fired on 
by a body of riflemen, and five were killed, several 
wounded, and the rest made prisoners. The Rus- 
sian account, asserting the irregularity to have 
been on the side of the English, was not sub- 
stantiated. 


HANOVER (N. W. Germany), successively an 
electorate, and a kingdom, chiefly composed of 
territories which once belonged to the dukes of 


‘ 


& 


HANOVER. 408 HARLEY STREET. 
Brunswick (which see). Population in 1859, miplenes fs of Boros, ae Paes i 
E500) in Heed, chesney eh 187521017393: Wei prince yr » 20 
was annexe o Lrussla, 20 pept. I ° x. q 
Hanover became the ninth electorate . . 19 Dec. 1692 HANOVER SQ the ee 7, 
Suffered much during the seven years’ war 1756-63 the concert rooms opened by John Gallini, 1 
Seized by Prussia Pe eae 3 April, 1801 | 1775; the house taken for a club, Dec. 1874; 
Occupied and hardly used by the French, 5 June, He built, 1875. 
Belvo to Prusiaiy- +s 8] ANSE TOWNS. ‘The Hanseatiollia 
Part of it annexed to Westphalia . . . 1810 | (from hansa, association) ; formed by port towns 
Regained for England by Bernadotte . 6 Noy. 1813 | Germany against the piracies of the Swedes , 
Erected intoakinglom . . . _ . 12 Oct. 1814 | Danes: began about 1140; the league signed 1: 
The duke of Cambridge appointed viceroy, At first it consisted only of towns situate on 
aud a representative government “gr See ach coasts of the Baltic sea, but int 370 it was comp: 
ov. 181 : oars ; 
Visited by George IV. . . Oct, xBar | OF Sixty ale cle 
Ernest, duke of Cumberland, king 20 June, 1837 | 4eague proclaimed war agains aidemar, Kin¢ 
He granted a constitution with electoral rights, Denmark, about the year 1348, and against Eric 
1848; which was annulled in obedience to the 1428, with forty ships and 12,000 regular tro: 
decree of the federal diet . 12 April, 1855 | besides seamen. On this several princes orde 
The king claims from England crown jewels, Hany the merchants of their respective kingdoms to w 
belonged to George III. (value about 120,000l.), : ‘hs ? sitter 
1857 : by arbitration, the jewels givenup . Jan, 1858 draw | pia cane ee bie ahi ( 
Stade dues given up for compensation, 12 June, 1861 | Many (1618-48) broke up the strength of the a 
In the war the king takes the side of Austria ; and ciation, and in 1630 the only towns retaining 
the Prussians enter and occupy Hanover, name were Liibeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. 
_ 13 June, et seg. 1866 | league suffered also by the rise of the commere 
The Hanoverians defeat the Prussians at Langen- the Low Countries in the 15th century. T 
salza,27 June; but are compelled to Spans rivileges by treaty in Engla nd were abolishec 
> +> . . 
Hanover annexed to Prussia by law, 20 Sept. ; pro- lizabeth in 1578. 
mulgated : : E : : 6 Oct. briolets. 
Protest of the king of Hanover addressed to Europe ? eae Bint ASYLUM 
23 Sept. ,, y 
Arrangement with Prussia by a_ treaty eS fs Middlesex, established 1831. 
18 Oct. 1867 
The king celebrates his “silver wedding ” at Hiet- HAPSBURG (HABSBURG or HABICE 
zing, near Vienna, expressing hopes of recovering BURG), House OF, the family from which 
hiskingdom,& . . . .. 18 Feb, 1868 | imperial house of Austria sprang in the 11th 
Part of his property sequestrated by pani tury, Werner being the first named count of H 
Still further, in consequence of his maintaining & ih burg, 1096. Hapa ble: oe ancien. 
Hanoverian legion (the king protested against it), Switzerland, on a lofty eminence near Schin 4 
Feb. 1869 | Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, became archduk 


ELECTORS. 


1692. Ernest-Augustus, youngest son of George, that son 


of William, duke of Brunswick-Luneburg, 


who 


obtained by lot the right to marry (see Bruns- 
wick). He became bishop of Osnaburg in 1662, 
and in 1679 inherited the possessions of his 
uncle John, duke of Calenberg ; created ELECTOR 


of Hanover in 1692. 


[He married, in 1659, the princess Sophia, daugh- 
ter of Frederick, elector palatine, and of Eliza- 


beth, the daughter of James I. of England. 


In 


1701, Sophia was declared next heir to the British 
crown, after William III., Anne, and their de- 


scendants. ] 


George-Lewis, son of the preceding ; 


1608. 


married his 


cousin Sophia, the heiress of the duke of Bruns- 
wick-Zell ; became king of Great Britain, 1 Aug. 


1714, aS GEORGE I. 
1727. 


1760 


Ir June. 


Ill. of England), 25 Oct. 


KINGS. 
1814. 
first king of Hanover, 12 Oct. 
1820. 
of England), 29 Jan. 
1830. 
land), 26 June ; died, 20 June, 1837. 


George-Augustus, his son (GEoRGE II. of England), 


George-William-Frederick, his grandson (GEORGE 


George-William-Frederick (the preceding sovereign), 
George-Augustus-Frederick, his son (GEORGE IV. 


William-Henry, his brother (W1LtL1AM IV. of Eng- 


[Hanover separated from the crown of Great 


Britain. ] 
1837. 


Ernest-Augustus, duke of Cumberland, brother to 


William IV. of England, on whose death he 


succeeded (as a distinct inheritance) to 
throne of Hanover, 20 June. 
1851. 


the 


George V. (born 27 May, 1819), son of Ernest; 


ascended the throne on the death of his father, 


18 Nov. 


His states annexed to Prussia, 20 Sept. 


1866; visited England, May, June, 1876; died, 


12 June, 1878. 
1878. 
maintained his claims in a circular to 


Ernest-Augustus II., son, born 21 Sept. 1845; 


the 


Austria, and emperor of Germany, 1273; 
Austria, and Germany. 


HARBOURS. England has many fine nat 
harbours; the Thames (harbour, dock, and dey 
Portsmouth, Plymouth, &ce. Acts for the impr 
ment of harbours, &c., were passed in 1847, I 
and 1862. 


HARES AND RABBITS ACT. 
Game. 


HARFLEUR, seaport, N.W. France, té 
by Henry V., 22 Sept. 1415. 


HARLAW (Aberdeenshire), the site ¢ 
desperate indecisive battle between the ear: 
Mar, with the royal army, and Donald, the Jor 
the Isles, who aimed at independence, 24 July, 1 
This conflict was very disastrous to the nobi 
some houses losing all their males. 


HARLEIAN LIBRARY, containing ; 
manuscripts, besides rare printed books, bought 
Edward Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford — 
Mortimer, 1705, e¢ seg., is now in the Br 
Museum. A large portion of his life and we 
was spent on the collection. He died 21 I 
1724. The Harleian Miscellany, a selection f 
the MSS. and Tracts of his library, was publis 
in 1744 and 1808. 


HARLEY ADMINISTRATION, see 


ford. 


HARLEY STREET, London, W. At 
139, the house inhabited by Mr. Henriques, the 
composed body of a woman, stabbed in the br 
and covered with chloride of lime, was foul 
June; verdict of coroner’s inquest, wilful mu 
by person unknown, 14 June, 1880. 


HARMONICA. 


409 


HARTWELL. 


RMONICA, or musical glasses (tuned by 
ting the amount of water, and played by a 
ned finger on the rim), were played on by 
in London, 23 April, 1746; ‘‘arranged”’ by 
aidge and Delaval, and improved by Dr. 
in in 1760; Mozart, Beethoven, and others 
ed for this instrument; see Copophone. 
MONICON,”’ an excellent musical periodical, 
by W. Ayrton, Jan. 1823—Sept. 1833. 


RMONICHORD, a keyed instrument, in 
sounds are produced by friction, invented by 
wuffmann in 1810. ; 


RMONISTS, a sect, founded in Wiirtem- 
y George and Frederick Rapp, about 1780. 
uch is known of their tenets, but they held 
roperty in common, and considered marriage 
contract. They emigrated to America, and 
New Harmony in Indiana in 1815. Robert 
purchased this town about 1823; but failed 
scheme at establishing a ‘‘social’’ community 
turned to England: see Socialists. The 
mists removed to Pittsburg in Pennsylvania 
pe 


RMONIUM, a keyed instrument, resem- 
the accordion, the tones being generated by 
‘tion of wind upon metallic reeds. The 
se were well acquainted with the effects pro- 
by vibrating tongues of metal. M. Biot 
in 1810, that they were used musically by 
enié; and in 1827-29, free reed stops were 
yed in organs at Beauvais and Paris. The 
nown harmoniums in England are those of 
idre and Debain, the latter claiming to be the 
il maker of the French instrument. In 1841, 
7. E. Evans, of Cheltenham, produced his 
h harmonium, then termed the Organ-Har- 
1, and by successive improvements he produced 
instrument, with diapason quality, and great 
ty of speech, without loss of power. 


RMONY, the combination of musical notes 
rent pitch, appears not to have been practised 
: Greeks. 

ld, a Flemish monk, published combinations in 
‘Enchiridion Musicze,” gth century. 

ny greatly promoted by Palestrina, and especially 
conteverde. 

le Muris wrote “Ars Contrapuneti” in 14th 


wy. 
3 of Cologne described ‘‘ descant,” 1600. 
ven greatly enlarged the range of harmonic bases. 


RNESS, chariots and the leathern dress- 
sed for horses to draw them, are said to have 
he invention of Erichthonius of Athens, who 
ade a constellation after his death, under the 
of Bootes (Greek for ploughman), about 
wC. 


RO, Cry oF (Clameur de Haro), tradition- 
rived from Raoul, or Rollo, of Normandy, 
or of our Norman princes of England. Rollo 
istered justice so well, that injured persons 
(the ery “‘ Ha Row! Ha Row! A monaide, 
rinee ou me fait tort.” The cry was raised 
tureh in Jersey in 1859. It has now no legal 


RP. Invented by Jubal, 3875 B.c. (Gen. iv. 
Dayid played the harp before Saul, 1063 B.c. 
/”. Xvi. 23.) The Cimbri, or English Saxons, 
‘Isinstrument. The celebrated Welsh harp 
‘rung with gut; and the Irish harp, like the 
‘meient harps, with wire. Erard’s improved 
were first patented in 1795. 

' the most ancient harps existing is that of Brian 
imhe, monarch of Ireland: it was given by his 


son Donagh to pope John XVIII., together with the 
crown and other regalia of his father, in order to obtain 
absolution for the murder of his brother Teig. Adrian 
IV. alleged this as being one of his principal titles to 
the kingdom of Ireland in his bull transferring it to 
Henry IJ. This harp was given by Leo X. 
Henry VIII., who presented it to the first earl of 
Clanricarde : it then came into possession of the family 
of De Burgh ; next into that of MacMahon of Clenagh, 
eounty of Clare ; afterwards into that of MacNamara 
of Limerick ; and was at length deposited by the right 
hon: William Conyngham in the College Museum, 
Dublin, in 1782. 


HARPER’S FERRY (Virginia), see United 
States, 1859-62. 


HARPSICHORD, see Piano-forte, note. 
HARRISON’S TIME-PIECEH, made by 


John Harrison, of Foulby, near Pontefract. In 

1714, the government offered rewards for methods 

of determining the longitude at sea; Harrison came 

to London, and produced his first time-piece;in 

1735; his second in 1739; his third in 1749; and 

his fourth, which procured him the reward of 

20,000/. offered by the Board of longitude, a few years 

after. He obtained 10,000/. of his reward in 1764, 

and other sums, more than 24,000/. in all, for fur- 

ther improvements in following years. 

In the patent museum at South Kensington is an eight- 
day clock made by Harrison in 1715. It strikes the 
hour, indicates the day of the month, and with one 
exception (the escapement) its wheels are entirely 
made of wood. The clock was going in 1871. 


HARROGATE (Yorkshire). The first or old 
spa in Knaresborough forest was discovered by capt. 
Slingsby in 1571: adome was erected over the well 
by lord Rosslyn in 1786. Two other chalybeate 
springs are the Alum well and the Towit spa. The 
sulphureous well was discovered in 1783. The 
theatre was erected in 1788. The Bath hospital was 
erected by subscription in 1825. 


HARROW -ON-THE-HILL SCHOOL 
(Middlesex), founded and endowed by John Lyon 
in 1571. ‘To encourage archery, the founder in- 
stituted a prize of a silver arrow to be shot for 
annually on the 4th of August ; but the custom has 
been abolished. Lord Palmerston, sir R. Peel, the 
statesman, and lord Byron, the poet, were educated 
here. The school building suftered by fire, 22 Oct. 
1838. The school arrangements were modified by 
the public schools act, 1868. Charles II. called 
Harrow church ‘the visible church.” 


HARTLEY COAL MINE (Northumber- 
land). On 16 Jan. 1862, one of the iron beams, 
about 20 tons weight, at the mouth of the ventilating 
shaft, broke and fell, destroyed the brattice, divided 
the shaft, and carried down sufficient timber to kill 
five men who were ascending the shaft, and buried 
alive 202 persons, men and boys. Several days 
elapsed before the bodies could be removed. Much 
sympathy was shown by the queen and the public, 
and about 70,0002. were collected for the bereaved 
families. ‘The coroner’s verdict asserted the neces- 
sity of two shafts to coal mines, and recommended 
that the beams of colliery engines should be of 
malleable instead of cast iron. 


HARTWELL (Buckinghamsiaire), the retreat 
of Louis XVIII., king of France, 1807-14. He 
landed in England at Yarmouth, 6 Oct. 1807, took 
up his residence at Gosfield-hall, in Essex, and 
afterwards came to Hartwell, as the count de Lille. 
His consort died here in 1810. On his restoration, 
he embarked at Dover for France, 24 April, 1814; 
see Lrance. 


a 


is 


HARUSPICES. 
HARUSPICHS, priests or soothsayers, of 


Etruscan origin, who foretold events from observing 
entrails of animals. They were introduced to Rome 
by Romulus (about 750 B.c.), and abolished by Con- 
stantine, A.D. 337, at which time they were seventy 
in number. 


HARVARD COLLEGE, Cambridge (Mas- 
sachusetts, North America), was founded by the 
general court at Boston, on 28 Oct. 1636. It derived 
its name from John Harvard, who bequeathed to it 
his library and a sum of money in 1638. 


HARWICH, a sea-port, Essex, a Roman 
station, and the Saxon Harewic; chartered by 
Kdwd. 2nd. 

Near here Alfred defeated the Danish fleet. 
eae the new port near Harwich, was constructed 
in 1882. 


HASTINGS, a cinque-port, Sussex; said to 
owe its name to the Danish pirate Hastinge, who 
built forts here, about 893; but Mr. Kemble thinks 
it was the seat of a Saxon tribe named Hastingas. 
At Senlac, now Battle, near Hastings, more than 
30,000 were slain in the conflict between Harold II. 
of England and William duke of Normandy, the 
former losing his life and kingdom, 14 Oct. 1066, 
his birthday. He and his two brothers were interred 
at Waltham abbey, Essex. The new town, St. 
Leonard’s-on-sea, was begun in 1828. A new pier 
here was inaugurated by earl Granville, 5 Aug. 
1872. New town-hall opened by the mayor, 7 
Sept. 1881. Convalescent home and Alexandra 
Park opened by the prince of Wales, 26 June, 1882. 
eis parade much damaged by high tide, 24 Noy. 
1882. 


HASTINGS’ TRIAL. Warren Hastings, 
governor-general of India, was tried by the peers of 
Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanours. 
Among other charges was his acceptance of a present 
of 100,000/..from the nabob of Oude; see Chunar, 
Treaty of. The trial occupied 145 days, and lasted 
seven years and three months; commencing 13 
Feb. 1788, terminating in his acquittal, 23 April, 
1795. Mr. Sheridan’s speech on the impeachment 
excited great admiration. 

Hastings was born in 1732; went to India as a writer in 
1750; became governor-general of Bengal in 1772; of 
India, 1773 ; governed ably, but, it is said, unscrupu- 
lously and tyrannically, till he resigned in 1785. The 
expenses of his trial (70,000l.) were paid by the East 
India Company ; and a pension was granted to him. 
He died a privy-councillor in 1818. 


HATELY FIELD, see Shrewsbury. 
HATFIELD’S ATTEMPT. On 15 May, 


1800, during a review in Hyde-park, a shot from an 
undiscovered hand was fired, which wounded a 
young gentleman who stood near king Geo. III. In 
the evening, when his majesty was at Drury-lane 
theatre, Hatfield fired a pistol at him. Hatfield 
was confined as a lunatic till his death, 23 Jan. 1841, 
aged 69 years. 


HATHERLEY’S AOT, see Bankrupt. 


HATS, first made by a Swiss at Paris, 1404. 
When Charles VIT. made his triumphal entry into 
Rouen, in 1449, he wore a hat lined with red velvet, 
and surmounted with a rich plume of feathers. 
Henceforward, hats and caps, at least in France, 
began to take place of chaperons and _ hoods. 
Henault. Hats were first manufactured in England 
by Spaniards in 1510. Stow. Very high-crowned 
hats were worn by queen Elizabeth’s courtiers; and 
high crowns were again introduced in 1783. A 
stamp-duty laid upon hats in 1784, and in 1796, 


410 


HAVE 


was repealed in 1811, Silk hats began to suy 

beaver about 1820. 

None allowed to sell any hat for above 20d. nor 
above 2s. 8d., 5 Henry VII. 1489. Every perso 
seven years of age to wear on Sundays and hol 
cap of wool, knit, made, thickened, and dre 
England by some of the trade of cappers, un 
forfeiture of three farthings for every day’s : 
1571. Excepted: maids, ladies, and gentlewom 
every lord, knight, and gentleman, of twenty n 
land, and their heirs, and such as had borne ¢ 
worship, in any city, town, or place, and the 4 
of London companies, 1571. 


HATTERAS EXPEDITION, see 
States, Aug. 1861. 


HATTON GARDEN, now covered by 
of houses, was formerly the garden of a pa 
the bishop of Ely, demised to the croy 
given by queen Elizabeth to sir Christopher F 
the lord keeper, who died 20 Noy. I591 
Jewel Robberies. 


eae FANATICS, see New Z 
1865. 


HAVANNAH, capital of Cuba, West 
founded by Velasquez, 1511; taken by lord 
marle, 14 Aug. 1762; restored, 1763; the r 
of Columbus were brought from St. Domin 
deposited in the Cathedral here, 1795. 


HAVRE-DE-GRACE (N. W. France 
defended for the Huguenots by the English in 
who, however, were expelled in 1563. It wa 
barded by Rodney, 6 to 9 July, 1759; bysirl 
Strachan, 25 May, 1798; and blockaded, ¢ 
1803. The attempts of the British to bu 
shipping here failed, 7 Aug. 1804. ‘The 
national Maritime Exhibition here opened, 1 
1868. ‘The volunteers visited Hayre: be: 
shoot, 26 May; 50 British received prizes, 2¢ 
1874. The French Association for Scienc 
here, 30 Aug. 1877. ; 


HAWAII, see Owhyhee. 
HAWKERS AND PEDLARS were 


licensed in 1698. Licensing commissioner 
appointed in 1810. The expense of licensi 
reduced in 1861, and regulated by the Pedla 
1871. 


HAWKING, see Falconry. 


HAY, average value of the produce of the 
Kingdom in 1874, 48,000,000/, Hay-makir 
chinery exhibited at Taunton, July, 1875. 
Wm. A. Gibbs’s apparatus, with artificial heat 
at his place at Chingford, Essex, reported s 
ful, 3 July, 1875; at other places in July, 18 


HAYMAN CASH, see Rugby. 
HAYMARKET (Westminster), opet 


1664, was removed to Cumberland-market, 
1831. The Haymarket theatre was opened if 
see Theatres. 


HAYTI or Harri, Indian name of a 
Indian island, discovered by Columbus 11 
1492, and named Hispaniola, and afterwa! 
Domingo. Before the Spaniards fully con 
it, they are said to have cose in battle. 
blood, three million of its inhabitants, me 
women and children, 1495. It now compris 
republics of St. Domingo (ereoles) in the ea 
Hayti (blacks) in the west. Population (zt 
Hayti, about 550,000; of St. Domingo, 
136,500. 
Hayti seized by the filibusters and French buce 

neers . - 2 “ . . 


7 


¢. i " 
ren 
i. 2 


HAYTI. 


ench government took possession ef the 
scolony . é e S ; ae 
rroes revolt against France . . 23 Aug. 
issacre nearly all the whites 21-23 June, 
mch directory recognise Toussaint l’Ouver- 
ss general-in-chief . e ‘ : rks 
tern part of the island ceded to France by 


nt establishes an independent republic in 
omingo 2 : é ‘ c . 9 May, 
endérs tothe French . : - 7 May, 
ucted to France, where he dies i mart 
nsurrection, under the command of Dessa- 

the French quit theisland . Noy. 
les proclaims the massacre of all the whites, 
rch; crowned emperor of Hayti, as Jacques I., 

Oc 


ssassinated, and the isle divided .17 Oct. 
Christophe, a man of colour, president in 
t807 ; crowned emperor by the title of Henry 
ile Pethion rules as president at Port-au- 
Co. : 7 F peeeutereh, 
jus black nobility and prelates created : 
dies; Boyer elected president May, 
phe commits suicide, Oct. 1820; the two 
/ united under Boyer as regent for life, Nov. 
who is recognised by France. : 
ion: Boyer deposed . : 4 3 elie 
oingo and the eastern part of Hayti pro- 
the “‘ Dominican republic,” Feb. 1844 ; recog- 

by France, 1848; Buenoventura Baez, 
tent . ? = 4 - es: 
roclaimed an empire underits late president 
que, who takes the title of Faustin L, 
g. 1849; crowned 18 April, 


“All 


HEAT. 
successful, 26 May; English consul protecting 
1677 foreigners June, 


1791 
1793 


1794 


1795 
1801 


1802 
1803 


>) 


t. 1804 


1806 


1811 


1818 


- 1825 


1843 


49°53 


1852 


, president of the Dominican republic, 1853-6; 


aded by B. Baez. ; 


attacking the republic of St Domingo 


> 


‘sed . ; A : 5 : ao seb HeD, 
ion in Hayti: general Fabre Geffrard pro- 
3the republic of Hayti . - 22 Dec. 
-abdicates  . E . : ot TS eal 
takes oath as president of Hayti 23 Jan. 


persons executed for a conspiracy against 
Oct. 


lverde elected president of the republic of 
omingo, or Dominican republic March, 
emigrants land: a declaration for reunion 
Spain signed 18 March, decreed by the 
a 2 $ . ; 20 May, 
tion against Spain in St. Domingo, 18 Aug. 
i? force sent; the insurgents generally 
“ea . : . . - . . . ° 
‘re at Port-au-Prince ; 600 houses destroyed, 
23 Feb. 
tingo renounced by Spain . 5 May, 
‘insurrection under Salnave against Gef- 
7 May; Cape Hayti seized . 9 May, 
‘rovisional president of St. Domingo, Sept. 
_ B. Baez proclaimed president . 14 Nov. 
we, a rebel vessel, fires into British Jamaica 
6, near Acul, St. Domingo, 22 Oct.; Capt. 
', H.M.8. Bulldog, threatens Valdrogue; 
ve orders the removal of refugees from 
‘h consulate at Cape Hayti, shoots them, 
estroys the building. The Bulldog, failing 
tain satisfaction, shells the fort, sinks the 
_ogue, but gets on a reef; the crew-is taken 
nd she is blown up. H.M.S. Galatea and 
ake the other forts and give them up to 


rd; the rebels flee inland . SE OLNOV: 
Take censured by court-martial for losing 
ip 4 : : ‘i A : 2 oan: 
“another revolt against Geffrard suppressed, 
A : 5-11 July, 
ton; Geffrard flies; banished for ever; 
ye president of Hayti . - , 27 March, 
stitution rs . a : June, 
lon caused by Pimentel; Baez flies; Cabral 
8 president of St. Domingo . pea ottue, 


'gainst Salnaye . ; 


Sept. 
.2mperor Faustin (born 


a slave, 1791), died 
Aug. 


ug. 
- San Domingo nearly destroyed by the 
ane. .- . 30 Oct. 


tion against Salnave, 10 May; said to be 


_ president of Dominican republic, March, 1868 


. 1856-8 


1856 


1858 
1859 


>> 


2) 


eB) 


Salnave defeats insurgents, and kills his prisoners, 
3 June, 

Salnave proclaims himself emperor, Aug.; offers an 
amnesty . : : : : : Re eg 4 Olu 
Civil war continued: Saget and Dominguez pro- 
claimed president by their respective followers, 
Oct. 

Salnave, finally defeated, flies to the woods, 18 Dee. 
1868 ; captured, tried, and shot . 15 Jan. 
Sale of Samana bay to the United States discussed, 
Jan, 

Gen. Nissage Saget elected president of Hayti for 
four years (from 15 May) 1g March, 
Baez supports an insurrection against Hayti Aug. 
Tranquillity of Hayti reported by Saget 9 May, 
Gen. Ganier d’Aton, president of St. Domingo, 


Oct. 

Michel Domingue elected president of Hayti (from 
15 May) . : 3 ; : : 14 June 
Insurrection in St. Domingo in favour of Baez, 
30 Aug. 


Insurrection headed by Louis Tanis about 7 March, 
Cruel executions of suspected persons by presi- 
dent Domingue A : . 20 March 
Insurrection successful, Domingue flies to St. 
Thomas's 3 ; middle of April 
Election of Boisrond Canal as president of Hayti, 


19 July, 
Peaceful revolution in St. Domingo; president 
Espaillat replaced by Gonzales Oct. 


Insurrection in St. Domingo; city surrounded by 
Guillermo and Bellini; Baez almost powerless, 
about 22 Feb. 
Guillermo declared president March, 
Revolution ; hard fighting ; Boisrond Canal resigns ; 
about 17 July, 
Gen. Salamon elected president of Haytt 22 Oct. 
Hayti reported tranquil i 3 - - rdan. 
Don Fernando Arturo de Mariiio, a priest, president 
of San Domingo, Oct. 1880 ; said to become dic- 
tator . , G d : 3 June, 
Revolution broke out March 25, and government 
troops defeated ; : : waar March, 
Bridge exploded by rebels, about 2000 killed May, 
Insurrection nearly quelled; amnesty proclaimed 
endofJune . f ; : ‘ 5 : 
Fresh insurrection; battle at Jacmel indecisive 
ug. 
Negro insurrection at Port-au-Prince, suppressed 
after damage to persons and property 22 Sept. 
Alp, British steamer, fired on by the See 
ct. 
Death of the rebel leader Bazelais ; surrender of 
rebel town Jeremie, announced 26 Dec.; collapse 
of the insurrection . : about ro Jan. 
Gen. F. Bellini proclaimed president of San Domingo 
ir Aug. 
Sir Spencer St. John in his Black Republic describes 
the degraded, profligate, cruelly savage condition 
of Hayti “ 


HEAD ACT, see note to Ireland, 1465. 


HEALTH, GENERAL BOARD OF, 
appointed by the act for the promotion of 
public health, passed in 1848. This board 


: . - . 


1868 


9? 


+P] 


was 
the 
was 


reconstructed in Aug. 1854, and sir Benjamin 
Hall was placed at its head, with a salary of 
2000/7. ; succeeded by W. F. Cowper, Aug. 1855, 
and by Ch. B. Adderley in 1858. The expenses for 


the year 1856-7 were 12,325. 


In 1858 this board 


was incorporated into the privy council establish- 
ment; Dr. Simon being retained as medical officer. 
See Hygeiopolis, Sanitary Legislation, Exhibitions, 
&e. 


HEARTH, or CHIMNEY, TAX, on every 
fire-place or hearth in England, was imposed by 
Charles II. in 1662, when it produced about 


200,000/. a year. It was abolished by William 


and 


Mary at the Revolution in 1689; imposed again, 


and again abolished. 


HEAT (called by French chemists Caloric). 


' 


HEBREWS. 


412 


HELIOGRAPHY. 


Little progress had been made in the study of, the 

phenomena of heat till about 1757, when Joseph 

Black put forward his theory of latent heat (heat, 

he said, being absorbed by melting ice), and of 

specific heat. Cavendish, Lavoisier, and others, 
continued Black’s researches. Sir John Leslie put 
forth his views on radiant heat in 1804. Count 

Rumford put forth the theory that heat consists in 

motion among the particles of matter, which view 

he supported by experiments on friction (recorded 
in 1802). This theory (now called the dynamical 
or mechanical theory of heat, and used to explain 
all the phenomena of physics and chemistry) has 
been further substantiated by the independent re- 
searches of Dr. J. Meyer of Heilbronn and of Mr. 

Joule of Manchester (about 1840), who assert that 

heat is the equivalent of work done. In 1854, 

Professor William Thomson, of Glasgow, published 

his researches ou the dynamical power of the sun’s 

rays. Thermo-electricity, produced by heating 
pieces of copper and bismuth soldered together, was 
discovered by Seebeck in 1823. A powerful thermo- 
electric battery was constructed by Marcus of 

Vienna, in 1865. Professor Tyndall’s ‘‘ Heat, a 

Mode of Motion,” first published Feb. 1863, third 

edition, 1868, sixth edition, 1880. The researches 

of philosophers are still devoted to this subject ; see 

Calorescence. Greatest heat in the hot summer of 

1868 : at Nottingham, in sun, I122°4; in shade, 92-2, 

22 July, I p.m.: 14 Aug. 1876, 95°7 in the shade; 

147 in sun; 26 June, 1878, 95 in the shade. 

Sir George Cayley invented a heated-air engine in 1807, 
and Mr. Stirling applied it to raising water in Ayr- 
shire in 1818. One invented by Mr. Wenham was 
described in 1873. Improvements have been made by 
Mr. C. Wm. Siemens. 

Captain Ericsson constructed a ship, in which calorie, or 
heat, was the motive power. On 4 Jan. 1853, it sailed 
down the bay of New York, at the rate of r4 miles an 
hour, it is said at a cost of 80 per cent. less than steam. 
Although caloric engines were not successful, capt. 
Ericsson continued his experiments, and patented an 
improved engine in 1856. 

Mr. C. Prince states that on 14 July, 1847, the temperature 
was 98° in the shade at Uckfield, Sussex. In London, 
94°"1 in the shade, 15 July, 1881. In London, W. 
11 Aug. 1884, in the shade, 92°6. 


HEBREWS. The chief classic authors of all 
nations, except Greece, have been translated into 


Hebrew (1881). See Jews. 


HEBRIDES (the Evude of Ptolemy and the 
Hebudes of Pliny), western isles of Scotland, long 
subject to Norway; ceded to Scotland in 1264; 
and annexed to the Scottish crown in 1540 by 
James V. The heritable jurisdictions were abo- 
lished in 1747. 


HEBRON (in Palestine). Here.Abraham re- 
sided, 1860 B.c.; and here David was made king of 
Judah, 1048 B.c. On 7 April, 1862, the prince of 
Wales visited the reputed cave of Machpelah, near 
Hebron, said to contain the remains of Abraham 
and his descendants. 


HECATOMB, an ancient sacrifice of a hundred 
oxen, particularly observed by the Lacedemonians 
when they possessed a hundred cities. The sacri- 
fice was subsequently reduced to twenty-three 
oxen, and goats and lambs were substituted. 


HECLA, MOUNT (Iceland). Its first re- 
corded eruption is 1004. About twenty-two erup- 
tions have taken place, according to Olasson and 
Paulson. Great convulsions of this mountain oc- 
curred in 1766, since when a visit to the top in 
summer is not attended with great difficulty. Per- 
haps the most awful volcanic eruption on record 


took place in 1784-5, when rivers were dric 
and many villages overwhelmed or destroyed. 
mount was in a state of violent eruption 
2 Sept. 1845, to April, 1846. ‘Three new ¢ 
were formed, from which pillars of fire rose 
height of 14,000 English feet. The lava f 
several hills, and pieces of pumice stone and ; 
of 2 cwt. were thrown to a distance of a leagu 
a half; the ice and snow which had cover 
PER for centuries melted into prod 
oods. 


HEGIRA, ERA OF THE, dates from the 
(Arabic hejra) of Mahomet, from Mecca to M 
on the night of Thursday, 15 July, 622. T 
commences on the 16th. Some compute th 
from the 15th, but Cantemir proves that th 
was the first day. 33 of its lunar years are eq 
32 of those of the vulgar era. 


HEIDELBERG (Germany) was the ¢ 
of the Palatinate, 1362-1719. The protestan 
toral house becoming extinct in 1693, a w 
sued, in which the castle was ruined, an 
elector removed his residence to Mannheim. 
annexed to Baden in 1802. Here was the 
brated tun, constructed in 1343, when it con 
twenty-one pipes of wine. Another was m: 
1664, which held 600 hogsheads. It was des 
by the French in 1688 ; but a larger one, fa 
in 1751, which held 800 hogsheads, and was 
erly kept full of the best Rhenish wine, is ; 
be mouldering in a damp vault, empty, since 


HELDER POINT (Holland). The fo 
the Dutch fleet lying in the Texel surrende 
the British under the duke of York and sir 
Abercromby, for the prince of Orange, a 
conflict. 540 British were killed, 30 Aug 
The place was left in Oct.; see Bergen. 


HELENA, ST., anisland in the South A 
Ocean, discovered by the Portuguese unde 
de Nova Castilla, on St. Helena’s day, 21 
1502. The Dutch afterwards held it until 
when they were expelled by the English. 
British East India Company settled here in 
and the island was alternately possessed | 
English and Dutch until 1673, when Charl 
ou 12 Dec., assigned it to the company once 
St. [elena was the place of Napoleon’s cap 
16 Oct. 1815; and here he died 5 May, 1821 
remains were removed in 1840, and interred 
Hotel des Invalides, Paris; see France, 1840, 
house and tomb have been purchased by the | 
government. The bishopric was founded i1 
Governor, adm. sir Chas. Elliot, 1863-9; 
Charles George Edward Peake 1869; £ 
Ralph Janisch, 1873, died April, 1884; col. 
Blunt. - Population, 1871, 6241; in 1883, 
Revival of the prosperity of the island advocs 
the British government, 1884. 


HELIGOLAND, an island in the Nort 
taken from the Danes by the British, 5 Sept 
made a depét for British merchandise ; cot 
to England by the treaty of Kiel, 14 Jan. 
In a naval engagement off Heligoland, betwé 
Danes and the Austrians and Prussians, tli 
were compelled to retire, 9 May, 1864. Go 
col. Henry F. B. Maxse, 1863; It.-col. J. 
O’Brien, 1881. Population, 1877, about 20¢ 


HELIOGRAPHY (from helios, the sw 


A system of telegraphing by mirrors flashing the 
the sun, said to have been employed by the < 
in the time of Alexander, about 333 B.C. 

A portable heliograph, invented by Mr. H. Mane 


HELIOMETER. 


413 


HERALDRY. 


ian telegraph department, was announced in 1875. 
as employed in India, 1877-78 ; and in the Afghan 
Zulu campaigns, 1879-80. See also Photography. 


ILIOMETER, an instrument for measur- 
ie diameters of the sun, moon, planets, and 
invented by Savary, in 1743; applied by M. 
ier, in 1744. A fine heliometer, by Repsold 
mburg, was set up at the Radcliffe observatory, 
849. 

SLIOSCOPE (a peculiar sort of telescope, 
ced for observing the sun so as not to affect 
‘e), was invented by Christopher Scheiner in 


YLIOSTAT, an instrument invented to 

a sunbeam stationary, or apparently sta- 
'y, invented by s’Gravesande about 1719, and 
y improved by Malus and others. One con- 
ed by MM. Foucault and Duboscq was ex- 
dat Paris in Oct. 1862. 


JLLAS, in Thessaly, the home of the Hel- 
and the Greek race, which supplanted the 
rians from the 15th to the 11th century B.c., 
d its name from Hellen, king of Phthiotis, 
1600 B.c. The Hellenes separated into the 
ns, ASolians, [onians, and Achaians. The 
it king of Greece is called “king of the 
nes: see Greece. 


ILLENIC SOCIETY, to promote Hellenic 


‘s, formed at a meeting, 16 June, 1879, by 
!, T. Newton and others. 


JLLESPONT (now the Strait of the Darda- 
) was named after Helle, daughter of Atha- 
sing of Thebes, who was drowned here. It is 
vated for the story of the loves of Hero of 
3, and Leander of Abydos: Leander was 
ted in a tempestuous night as he was swim- 
across the Hellespont (about one mile), and 
in despair, threw herself into the sea, about 
3.0. Lord Byron and lieut. Ekenhead also 
across, 3 May, 1810. See Xerzes. 


{LL-FIRE @LUBS. Three of these as- 
ions were suppressed, 1721. They met at 
rset-house, and at houses in Westminster and 
aduit-street. 


JLMETS, among the Romans, were pro- 
with a vizor of grated bars, to raise above the 
and beaver to lower for eating; the Greek 
‘t was round, the Roman square. Richard I. 
gland wore a plain round helmet; but most 
e English kings had crowns above their 
ots. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a 
‘elmet, with a square grated vizor, and the 
+ of Robert I. was surmounted by a crown, 
Gwillim. 


LOTS, captives, derived by some from the 
t helein, to take; by others from Helos, a city 
ithe Spartans hated for refusing to pay _tri- 
883 B.c. The Spartans, it is said, ruined the 
‘reduced the Helots to slavery, and called all 
slaves and prisoners of war Helote. The 
er of the Helots was much enlarged by the 
‘test of Messenia, 668 B.c.; and is considered 
ve formed four-fifths of the inhabitants of 
‘a. In the Peloponnesian war the Helots be- 
| with uncommon bravery, and were rewarded 
liberty, 431 B.c.; but the sudden disappear- 
of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to 
emonian treachery. Herodotus. 


ELVETIAN REPUBLIC. Switzerland 
ig been conquered by the French in 1797, a 
lic was established April, 1798, with this title ; 
witzerland, 


_ HELVETII, a Celto-Germanic people, who 
inhabited what is now called Switzerland. In- 
vading Gaul, 61 B.c., they were defeated and 
massacred by Julius Cesar, 58 B.c., near Geneva. 


HEMP ann FuAx. Flax was first planted in 
England, when it was directed to be sown for fish- 
ing-nets, 1532-3. ‘* Bounties were paid to encourage 
its cultivation in 1783; and every exertion should 
be made by the government and legislature to ac- 
complish such a national good. In 1785 there were 
imported from Russia, in British ships, 17,695 tons 
of hemp and flax.” Sir John Sinclair. The im- 
portation of hemp and flax in 1870, 3,510,178 ewt. ; 
In 1877, 3,502,447 cwt.; in 1879, 2,943,738 ewt.; 
in 1883, 3,082,109 cwt. The cultivation of flax 
was revived at the dearth of cotton during the 
American civil war, 1861-4. 


_ HENGESTDOWN (Cornwall). Here Egbert 
is said to have defeated the Danes and West 
Britons, 835. 


HENOTICON (from the Greek henotes, unity), 
an edict of union for reconciling the Eutychians with 
the church, issued by the emperor Zeno at the in- 
stance of Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, 482. 
It was zealously opposed by the popes of Rome, and 
was annulled by Justin I. in 518. The orthodox 
party triumphed, and many heretic bishops were 
expelled from their sees. 


_ HEPTARCHY (orgovernment of seven rulers) 
in England was gradually formed from 455, when 
Hengist became king of Kent. It terminated in 
828, when Egbert became sole monarch of England. 
There were at first nine or ten Saxon kingdoms, but 
Middlesex soon ceased to exist, and Bernicia and 
Deira were generally governed by one ruler, as 
Northumbria; see Britain, and Octarchy. 


HERACLIDA, descendants of Hercules, who 
were expelled from the Peloponnesus about 1200 
B.C., but reconquered it in 1048, 1103-4 or II09B.¢., 
a noted epoch in chronology, all the history pre- 
ceding being accounted fabulous. 


HERALDRY. Marks of honour were used in 
the first ages. Nisbet. The Phrygians had a sow; 
the Thracians, Mars; the Romans, an eagle; the 
Goths, a bear; the Flemings, a bull; the Saxons, 
ahorse; and the ancient French, a lion, and after- 
wards the fleur-de-lis (which see). Heraldry, as an 
art, is ascribed first to Charlemagne, about 800; and 
next to Frederick Barbarossa, about 1152; it began, 
and grew with the feudallaw. Mackenzie. The great 
English works on Heraldry are those of Barcham 
or Barkham, published by Gwillim (1610), Edmond- 
son (1780), and Burke’s ‘‘ Armory” (1842; new 
ed. 1883, contains a history and the arms of above 
66,000 British families, &c.). 

Edward III. appointed two heraldic kings-at-arms 

for the south and north (Surroy, Norroy) . 1340 

Richard III. incorporated and endowed the 


HERALDS’ COLLEGE . A ; : - 1483-4 
Philip and Mary enlarged its privileges, and con- 
firmed them by letters patent 15 July, 1554 


Formerly, in many ceremonies, the herald repre- 
sented the king’s person, and therefore wore a 
crown, and was always a knight. 

The college has an earl marshal, 3 kings of arms 
(Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy), 6 heralds 
(Richmond, Lancaster, Chester, Windsor, Somer- 
set, and York), 4 pursuivants, and 2 extra heralds ; 
see Karl Marshal, and Kings-of-Arms. * 

The building in Doctors’ Commons, London, was 
erected by sir Christopher Wren (after the great 
fire in 1666) . 3 j : ; ‘ ; 

HERALDS’ VISITATIONS were occasionally held in 
former times, at which the landed gentry were 


1683 


HERAT. 


414 


ce | 


Me 


HERRING-FISHERY. 


required to attend to prove their pedigrees, which 
were then entered in a book. The last is said to 
have been held in 1687. Some of the records have 
been printed. 


HERAT, on the confines of Khorasan, a strong 
city, called the key of Afghanistan. It was con- 
quered by Persia, early in the 16th century; by the 
Afghans, in 1715; by Nadir Shah, 1731; recovered 
by the Afghans, 1749. The Persians, bafiled in an 
attempt in 1838; took it 25 Oct. 1856, in violation 
of the treaty of 1853; and war ensued between 
Great Britain and Persia. Peace was made in April, 
1857; and Herat was restored 27 July following. 
It was seized again by Dost Mahommed, 26 May, 
1863; taken by Yakoob Khan, rebelling against his 
father, 6 May, 1871. Yakoob, reconciled to his 
father, was made governor, 16 Sept. 1871. See 


Afghanistan. 

Ayoub governor for his brother Yakoob, ameer at 
Cabul . : : : : F 4 . May, 1879 

Mutiny, many officials killed. . SSC Usmutes 


Ayoub invades Candahar (which see); defeated, 
1 Sept. ; returns to Herat . : ; . Sept. 
His troops defeated in several conflicts; Ayoub 
flees to Persia; and the Ameer’s general enters 
Herat , : 5 2 F - <4) Oct. 88x 
For following events, see Afghanistan. 


HERBERT HOSPITAL for Soldiers, Wool- 


wich, erected 1866. ' 


HERCULANEUM, an ancient city of Cam- 
pania, overwhelmed, together with Pompeii, by an 
eruption of lava from Vesuvius, 23 or 24 Aug. 79. 
Successive eruptions laid them still deeper under 
the surface, and all traces of them were lost until 
excavations began in I7II ; andin 1713 many anti- 
quities were found. In 1738 excavations were re- 
sumed, and works of art, monuments, and memorials 
of civilized life were discovered. 150 rolls of 
MSS. papyri were found in a chest, in 1754; and 
many antiquities were purchased by sir Wi 


1880 


illiam 
Hamilton, and sold to the British Museum, where 
they are deposited; but the principal relics are 
preserved in the museum of Portici, The ‘ Anti- 
chita di Ercolano,”’ 8 vols. folio, were published by 
the Neapolitan government, 1757-92. 


HEREDITY. The transmission of qualities 
of like kind of those of the parents has been 
specially studied by Mr. Francis Galton, F.R.S. 
who. published ‘‘ Hereditary Genius,’ 1869, and 
<¢ Records of Family Faculties,’ containing tabular 
forms to be filled up, in order to obtain authentic 
data for his new science of ‘‘ Eugenics.”” Money 
prizes, 52. and upwards, were offered for the best 


records. 


HEREFORD was made the seat of a bishopric 
about 676, Putta being first bishop. The cathedral 
was founded by a nobleman named Milfride, in 
honour of Ethelbert, king of the East Saxons, who 
was treacherously slain by his intended mother-in- 
law, the queen of Mercia. The tower fell in 1786, 
and was rebuilt by Mr. Wyatt. The cathedral was 
re-opened after very extensive repairs, on 30 June, 
1863. The see is valued in the king’s books at 7687. 
per annum. Present income, 4200/. 


BISHOPS. 

Folliott H. W. Cornwall, translated to Worcester, 

1808. 
John Luxmoore, translated to St. Asaph, 1815. 
George Isaac Huntingford, died 29 April, 1832. 
Hon. Edward Grey, died 24 June, 1837. 
Thomas Musgrave, trans. to York, Dec. 1847. 
Renn D. Hampden, died 23 April, 1868. 
James Atlay ; consecrated 24 June. 


1803. 


1808. 
1815. 
1632. 
1837. 
1847. 
1868. 


HERETICS (from the Greek hairesis, choice). 


Paul says, ‘‘ After the way they call heresy, so: 

ship I the God of my fathers,”’ 60 (Acts xxiy. 

Heresy was unknown to the Greek and Ro 

religions. Simon Magus is said to have broa 

the Gnostic heresy about 41. This was followe 
the Manichees, Nestorians, Arians, &e.; see 
quisition. It is stated that the promulgatio 
laws for prosecuting heretics was begun by the 
peror Frederick II. in 1220; and immedi: 

adopted by pope Honorius III. 

Epiphanius chosen bishop of Constantius in Cyprus 
367, wrote “ Panarium,” a discourse against here- 
sies, died a oP maa : d aoa 

Thirty heretics came from Germany to England to 
propagate their opinions, and were branded in 
the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked into the 
streets in the depth of winter, where, none daring 
to relieve them, they died of hunger and cold 
(Speed) . : ‘ ; : : <a 

Laws against heretics repealed, 25 Henry VIII. x 

The last person executed for heresy in Britain was 
Thomas Aikenhead, at Edinburgh E : 

[The orthodox Mahommedans are Sonnites; the 
heretics—Shiites, Druses, &c. ] 


HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS ( 
feudal rights) in Scotland, valued at 164,232/., 
abolished by the act 20 Geo. II. c. 43 (1747), 
restored to the crown for money compensation 
25 March, 1748. Heritable and Movable Right 
the Scottish law, denote what in England is mea: 
real and personal property: veal property in | 
land answering nearly to heritable rights in ‘ 
land, and personal property to the movable rig 


HERMANDAD, SANTA (Spanish for 
brotherhood), associations of cities of Castile 
Arragon to defend their liberties, began a 
the middle of the 13th century. The brother 
was disorganised in 1498, order having been fi 
established. It is said to have been continued 
species of voluntary police. 


HERMAS, author of ‘the Shepherd 
Christian apocryphal book, supposed to have 
written about 131. Some believe Hermas t 
mentioned in Romans xvi. 14. 


HERMETIC SOCIETY, a mystical, 
ritual philanthropic association, based upon © 
tianity, president, Dr. Anna Kingsford, prest 
author of ‘‘The Perfect Way” (lectures deliv 
in 1881, and since published). 


HERMITS, see Monachisin. 
HERNE BAY, Kent, a watering-place, b 


1830; the pier, five-eighths of a mile long, ha 
decayed, a new one was opened, 27 Aug. 187: 
lord mayor Waterlow. 


pret BRITISH MAN-OF- WAR, see V7 
IdII. 


HERRERA (Arragon). Here don Carlo 
Spain, in his struggle for his hereditary rig] 
the throne, at the head of 12,000 men, encount 
and defeated general Buerens, who had not 
above half that number of the queen of Sp 
troops. Buerens lost about r1ooo in killed 
wounded, 24 Aug. 1837. 


HERRING-FISHERY was largely 
couraged by the English and Scotch in very | 
times. The “statute of herrings,’ passe 
1357, placed the trade under government co! 
The mode of preserving herrings by pickling 
discovered about 1397. -Anderson. The Bi 
Herring-Fishery company was instituted 2 | 
1750. A scientific commission in relation t 
fishery was appointed in 1862. 


aes 


HERRINGS. 


415 


tRINGS, BATTLE OF THE, fought 
, 1429, obtained its name from the duc de 
on being defeated while attempting to inter- 
onvoy of salt fish, on the road to the English 
ig Orleans. 


RRNHUTERS, see Moravians. 
{SCHEL TELESCOPE, sce Telescopes. 
RTFORD COLLEGE, Oxford; founded 


2; dissolved, 1805; revived, and Magdalen 
orporated with it, 1874. 


2ULI, a German tribe, which ravaged 
and Asia Minor in the 3rd century after 
Odoacer, their leader, overwhelmed the 
empire and became king of Italy, 476. He 
eated and put to death by Theodoric the 


th, 491-3. 
tZEGOVINA or HERTSEK (European 


), originally a part of Croatia, was united 
snia in 1326, and made the duchy of St. 
‘the emperor Frederic III. in the following 
. It was ceded to Turkey in 1699 at the 
f Carlowitz. In Dec. 1861 an insurrection 
the Turks broke out, fostered by the prince 
tenegro. It was subdued; and on 23 Sept. 
ucatovitch, chief of the insurgents, surren- 
m behalf of his countrymen to Kurschid 
and an amnesty was granted. 


rrection against the Turks breaks out, chief 
said to be Lazzaro Socica ; several conflicts 
rarying resuits . s ; rt July, 1875 
lid to be defeated at Nevesinje r2July, ,, 
ropean Powers counsel to send a commis- 
) redress grievances . ‘ : 22) AUR s 
Pacha unsuccessful; Turkish victories re- 
ed . . : : s : . Aug. ,, 
irgents in a document describe their suffer- 
as Christians ; demand full and real free- 
and declare that they will not be subject 
Turks again . ji : 3 t2 Sept. ,, 
itervention of foreign consuls Sept. ,, 
ary engagements ; various results; 29 Sept., 

13 Oct., r1—14 Nov. ,, 


its defeated near Trebinje ; Bacevics, a 

, killed : : : - 18—2o0Jan. 1876 
tions of the Austrian gen. Rodich fail; 
surgents ask too much April ,; 


r Pacha said to have defeated insurgents, 
‘victualled Niksichs besieged 29 April ,, 
igagements reported . May, June, ,, 
v Sultan, Murad, grants an armistice for 


ation : : : : _ SGihveat ape 
ligence very uncertain July,1875—July, ,, 
urkey. : 


ivina was occupied by the Austrians in 
1878, in conformity with the treaty of 
izJuly . : 5 é 5 - sh sey 
tat Mostar, the capital s A AT, 
zar quietly occupied by Austrians, 8 Sept. 1879 
ctiou, see Austria) z . : . Jan. 1882 


SSE (W. Germany), the seat of the Catti, 
part of the empire of Charlemagne; from 
ers of it in his time, the present are de- 
. It was joined to Thuringia till about 
hen Henry I. (son of a duke of Brabant and 
daughter of the landgrave of Thuringia) 
landgrave of Hesse. The most remarkable 
“successors was Philip the Magnanimous 
an eminent warrior and energetic supporter 
Xeformation, who signed the Augsburg Con- 
im 1530 and the League of Smalcald in 1531. 
_ death, in 1567, Hesse was divided into 
‘Casset and Hxessz-Darmstapt, under his 
illiam and George, and their descendants 
‘am eminent part in the convulsions of Ger- 
uring the 17th and 18th centuries.* In 1803 


‘thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in 


. HETEROGENY. 


Hesse-Cassel became an electorate, and in 1806 
Hesse-Darmstadt a grand duchy; which titles were 
retained in 1814. In 1807 Hesse-Cassel was incor- 
porated with the kingdom of Westphalia, but in 
1813 the electorate was re-established. Population 
(1875), grand duchy, 884,218; (1880), 936,340. 


1803. 


1821. 


1847. 


1806. 
1830. 


1848. 


1877. 


HeEssE-CASseL (made an electorate, 1803; incor- 
porated with Westphalia, 1807; restored, 1813). 


ELECTORS. 

William I. ; born 3 June, 1743 ; succeeded as land- 
grave, 1785 ; made elector, 1803 ; deprived of his 
states, 1806; restored, 1813; died 27 Feb. 182. 

William II. ; born 28 July, 1777; died 20 Nov. 1847. 

Frederic William ; born 20 Aug. 1802. 

The elector, in 1850, remodelled the constitution 
given in 1831 (by which the chamber had the 
exclusive right of voting the taxes), and did not 
convene the chamber until the usual time for 
closing the session had arrived, when his de- 
mand for money for 1851 was laid before it. The 
chamber called for a regular budget, that it 
might discuss its items. The elector dissolved 
the chamber, and declared his dominions in a 
state of siege, 7 Sept. 1850. 

He fled to Hanover, and subsequently to Frank- 
fort; and on 14 Oct. he formally applied to the 
Frankfort diet for assistance to re-establish his 
authority in Hesse. On 6 Noy. an Austro- 
Bavarian force of 1to,ooo men entered Hesse- 
Cassel, under the command of Prince Thurn- 
und-Taxis, who fixed his head-quarters in Hanau ; 
and on the next day a Prussian force entered 
Cassel. The elector returned to his capital, the 
taxes having been collected under threats of 
imprisonment, 27 Dec. 1850. 

The constitution of 1831 was abolished, and a new 
one established, 1852. 

The conflict was soon resumed, and continued 
till, by law of 20 Sept. 1866, Hesse-Cassel was 
annexed to Prussia, 8 Oct. 1866. 

The ex-elector’s property sequestrated forintriguing 
against Prussia, 2 Nov. 1868 and Feb, 1869. He 
died 6 Jan. 1875. 


HeEssE- DARMSTADT. 
884,218.) 


(Population, Dec. 1875, 
GRAND-DUKES. 

Louis I. ; born 14 June, 1753 ; died 6 April, 1830. 

Louis II. ; born 26 Dec. 1777; died 16 June, 1848. 

Louis III. ; born 9 June, 1806. By treaty with 
Prussia, 15 Sept. 1866, he ceded the northern 
part of Hesse-Darmstadt, and paid a war con- 
tribution; supported Prussia in the Franco- 
Prussian war, Aug. 1870; died 13 June, 1877. 

Louis IV., nephew, born 12 Sept. 1837; married 
princess Alice of Great Britain (born 25 April, 
1843), 1 July, 1862; died of diphtheria after 
nursing her husband and children, 14 Dec. 1878. 


' Heir: Ernest Louis, born 25 Nov. 1868, 


Frederick-William, 2nd son, killed by a fall, 29 
May, 1873; and other children. 

[Sisters married : Victoria to prince Louis of 
Battenberg, 30 April; Elizabeth to Archduke 
Sergius of Russia, 15 June, 1884.] 

HessE-HomBureG, a landgraviate, established by 
Frederic, son of George of Hesse-Darmstadt, 
in 1596. His descendant, Augustus-Frederic, 
married 7 May, 1818, Elizabeth, daughter of 

* George III. of England, who had no issue. 

The landgraviate was absorbed into the grand 
duchy of Hesse in 1806, but re-established in 
1815 with additional territories. The landgrave 
Ferdinand succeeded his brother, 8 Sept. 1848, 
and died 24 March, 1866. 

Hesse-Homburg annexed to Prussia, 8 Oct. 1866. 


HETEROGENY, see Spontaneous Genera- 


tion. 


consequence of an invasion being expected in 1756. 


The 


sum of 471,000l. three per cent, stock was transferred to 
the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian auxiliaries lost in 
the American war, at 30/. per man, Nov. 1786. The 
Hessian soldiers were again brought to this realm at the 


close of the last century, and served in Ireland 
the rebellion in 1798. 


during 


> 
“ 


HEWLEY’S CHARITY. 


416 


HIMERA. 


HEWLEY’S CHARITY, see Unitarians. 
HEXAMETER, the most ancient form of 


Greek verse, six measures or feet, each containing 
two long syllables (a spondee), or a long one and 
two short (a dactyl), the form of verse in which 
Homer wrote his Iliad and Odyssey, and Virgil the 
A€neid. 


HEXHAM or HAGULSTAD, Northumberland. 
The see of Hexham was founded about 678; it had 
ten bishops successively, but by reason of the rapine 
of the Danes it was discontinued; the last prelate 
appointed 810. At the BarrLE or HExHAmM the 
Yorkist army of Edward IV. obtained a complete 
victory over the Lancastrian army of Henry VI., 
15 May, 1464. 


HIBBERT FUND. -Robert Hibbert on 19 
July, 1847, established a trust fund ‘‘ for the pro- 
motion of cemprehensive learning and thorough 
research in relation to religion as it appears to the 
eye of the scholar and philosopher, and wholly apart 
from the interest of any particular church or 
system.”’ 

Hibbert lectures; first course of, seven by prof. 
Max Miiller (given at Westminster) ‘‘on the 
Origin and Growth of Religion, as illustrated by 
the Religions of India” 25 April—30 May, 

Since given by M. Renouf, in 1879; M. Ernest Renan, 
6—14 April, 1880; by Mr. T. W. Rhys Davids, 
26 April—24 May, 1881; by professor Kuenen, 
25 April—s May, 1882; by professor Albert Re- 
ville 5 : . 5 ; 21 April et seq. 1884 


HIBERNIA, Ibernia, Ivernia, and Ierne, a 
name given to Ireland by ancient writers (Aristotle, 
Ptolemy, &c.); see Ireland, and Wrecks, 1833. 


HICKS’S HALL, Clerkenwell, London. The 
sessions-house of the justices of Middlesex was 
long so named on account of its having been erected 
for them by sir Baptist Hicks, at his own expense, 
1611-12. 


HIEROGLYPHICS (sacred engravings), 
picture-writing, the expression of ideas by repre- 
sentation of visible objects, used chiefly by the 
Egyptians; said to have been invented by Athotes, 
2112 B.c. Usher. Young, Champollion, Rosellini, 
and others (in the present century) have much 
elucidated Egyptian hieroglyphics; see Rosetta 
Stone. 


HIGH anp LOW CHURCH, sections in 
the Church of England became prominent in the 
reign of Anne. Dr. Sacheverell, preacher at St. 
Saviour’s, Southwark, was prosecuted for two sedi- 
tious sermons preached (14 Aug. and g Nov. 1709) 
to create apprehension for the safety of the church, 
and to excite hostility against dissenters. His 
friends were called High Church and his opponents 
Low Church, or moderate men, 1720. The queen 
favoured Sacheverell, and presented him with the 
rectory of St. Andrew’s, Holborn. He died in 1724. 


HIGH COMMISSION, Court of, an 
ecclesiastical court, erected by 1 Eliz. c. 1, 1559, 
by which all spiritual jurisdiction was vested in 
the crown. It originally had no power to fine or 
imprison; but under Charles I. and archbishop 
Laud it assumed illegal powers, was complained of 
by the parliament, and abolished in 1641. 


HIGH CONSTABLE, see Constable. 


eee COURT OF JUSTICH, see Supreme 
ourt. 


HIGH COURT OF JUSTICIARY, sce 


Supreme Court and Law. 


1878 


HIGHGATE ARCHWAY, over a roa 
to avoid the hill; first stone laid by Edward 
31 Oct. 1812; toll through ceased, 1 May, i 


HIGHGATE SCHOOL, founded — 
Roger Cholmeley, 1565. 


HIGHLANDS (of Scotland), long h 
semi-barbarous clans, were greatly improved 
construction of military roads by general 
about 1725-6; by the abolition of heritable 
diction of feudal rights in 1747, and by th 
blishment of the Highland and Agricultural | 
in 1784; centenary celebrated at Edinburg 
1884. See Regiments, Crofters. 


HIGHNESS. The title of Highness wa 
to Henry VII.; and this, and sometimes 
Grace, was the manner of addressing Henry 
but about the close of the reign of the latt 
titles of ‘‘ Highness’? and ‘‘ Your Grace’ 
absorbed in that of ‘‘ Majesty.’”’ Louis X 
France gave the title of Highness to the pr 
Orange, in 1644; this prince had previous] 


| the distinction of Excellency. Louis XLV 


the princes of Orange the title of High and] 
Lords, 1644. Hénault. 


HIGH PRIEST, see Priest. 
HIGH TREASON. To regulate the 


for this crime the statute, so favourable to | 
the 25th of Edward III., 1352, was enact 
which two living witnesses are required; > 
ment having refused to sanction the sente 
death against the duke of Somerset. B 
40 Geo. III., 1800, it was enacted that where 
was a trial for high treason in which the oy 
was a direct attempt upon the life of the soy 
such trial should be conducted in the same n 
as in the case of an indictment for murd 
Treason. 

The last two cases of execution for high treason 

I. William Cundell alias Connell, and John | 
tried on a special commission, 6 Feb. 1812, being 
fourteen British subjects taken in the enemy’s se1 
the isles of Franceand Bourbon. Mr. Abbot, afte 
lord Tenterden and chief justice, and sir Vicary 
attorney-general, conducted the prosecution, ai 
Brougham, aft. lord Brougham, defended the pri 
The defence was, that they had assumed the - 
uniform to aid their escape to England. The 
hanged and beheaded on the lodge of Horsemong 
gaol on 16 March, 1812. 

All the other convicts were pardoned, upon C0! 
of serving in colonies beyond the seas. 

II. The Cato-street Conspirators (which see), e% 
1 May, 1820. 


HIGHWAYS, see Roads. 
HILL, ROWLAND, MemortiAt F 


see Mansion House. 


HILLSBOROUGH (Down, N.E. Te 
founded by sir A. Hill, in the reign of Chai 
Here were held two great protestant meetil 
favour of the Irish church: (1.) on 30 Oct. 
to protest against the ‘appropriation cla 
(2.) 30 Oct. 1867, in consequence of a commis 
inquiry into the Irish church establishment, a 
agitation consequent thereon. 


HIMALAYA, a range of mountains be 
India and Tibet. Its loftiest peak is Mount Ey 
height 29,002 ft. the highest known in the wé 
Mr. W. W. Graham, with two Swiss guides, as 

Mount Kabru (height 24,000 feet) and three 

mountains over 19,000 feet in the Sikkim grow! 

much difficulty, Noy. 1883. 


HIMERA (Sicily). Here (in 480 B.¢.) 1 


HINDOO ERA. 


417 


HOLBORN. 


Gelon of Agrigentum defeated the Cartha- 
ns; and at Kcnomus, near here, the latter de- 
1 Agathocles of Syracuse, 311 B.C. 


[(NDOO ERA (see Cali-yuqa) began 3101 B.C., 
6 before the Deluge, in 2348. ‘The Hindoos 
_ their months by the progress of the sun 
gh the zodiac. The Samoat era begins 50 B.c.; 
aca era A.D. 79. 


NDOSTAN, see India. 


PPODROME, a circus for horse-riding. 
pened by Mr. John Whyte, near Notting-hill, 
m, on 29 May, 1837, was closed in 1841 by the 
ington vestry. 


PPOPHAGY, see Horse. 
PPOPOTAMUS (Greek, river-horse), a 


2 of Africa, known to, but incorrectly described 
cient writers. Hippopotami were exhibited 
me by Antoninus, Commodus, and others, 

138, 180, and 218. The first brought to 
md arrived 25 May, 1850, and was placed in 
io0logical Gardens, Regent’s-park, London ; 
It March, 1878;) another, a female, four 
1s old, was placed there in 1854 (died, Dec. 
, One born here, 21 Feb. 1871, and another born 
. 1872, lived a few days only; another born 
. 1872. Two young ones born at Paris in May, 
and June, 1859, were killed by their mother. 
orn at Amsterdam, 29 July, 1865. 


SPANIA, Latin name of Spain. 
SPANIOLA, see Hayti. 


STOLOGY (from histos, a web), the science 
i treats of the tissues which enter into the 
tion of animals and vegetables ; mainly prose- 
by the aid of the microscope. Schwann, 
tin, Kolliker, Quekett, and Robin are cele- 
| for their researches. Professor Quekett’s 
tures on Histology’? were published in 1852 
854. Important “Atlas of Histology,’’ by 
i. Klein and KE. N. Smith, published in 1880; 
ments of Histology,’ by Dr. E. Klein, third 
n published in 1884. 


STORY. The Bible, the Parian Chronicle, 
stories of Herodotus ‘the father of history,” 
itesias, and the poems of Homer, are the 
ations of early ancient History. Later ancient 
y 1s considered as ending with the destruction 
Roman empire in Italy, 476. Modern history 
from the age of Charlemagne, about 800. 
was not a professorship of modern history in 
of our universities until the years 1724 and 
when Regius professorships were established 
vorge I. and George IIl.—Royal Historical 
/, London, established 1868, Earl Russell 
ant, 1872. A commission was appointed 31 
‘869, to examine historical MSS. in the pos- 
(of institutions and private families, and to 
fh any considered desirable. It has issued 
| reports, 1870, e¢ seg. New commission 
ited, 18 June, 1883. 


TTITES, descendants of Heth, second son 
aan, acommercial tribe, from whom Abraham 
{ a grave for his wife 1860 B.c. Gen. xxiii. 
peered Joshua, B.c. 1451; and the Egyp- 
about 1340 B.c. 
'stle of Jerablus, a mound and ruins, 20 miles 
Y Beredjik on the Euphrates ; was visited by Henry 
‘idrell, 1699; by Dr. Pococke, 1745; and by J. H. 
-e and Mr. Geo. Smith (died 1876), who agreed in 
dering the remains to be those of Carchemish, the 
nt capital of the Hittites, captured and annexed 
wgon, king of Assyria (about 721 B.c.). The site 


had been held successively by Hittites, Assyrians, 
Babylonians, Greeks, Romans, and Arabs. 
A rich harvest may be expected from its exploration. 


HOBART TOWN or Hosparron, a sea-port 
and capital of Van Diemen’s Land, was founded in 
1804 by col. Collins, the first lieutenant-governor, 
who died here in 1810. 


HOBHOUSE’S ACT, 1 & 2 Will. IV. e. 60, 


1831, relates to vestries and charities. 


HOCHKIRCHEN (Saxony). Here, on 14 
Oct. 1758, the Prussian army, commanded by 
Frederick II., was surprised and defeated by the 
Austrians commanded by count Daun. Marshal 
Keith, a Scotsman, in the Prussian service, was 
killed. The Austrian generals shed tears, and 
ordered his interment with military honours. A 
conflict between the Russians and Prussians and the 
French, in which the last were victorious, took 
place 21 May, 1813. 

HOCHSTADT, a city on the Danube, in 
Bavaria, near which several important battles have 
been fought: (1.) 20 Sept. 1703, when the Im- 
perialists were defeated by the French and Bavarians, 
under marshal Villars and the elector of Bavaria. 
(2.) 2 (N.S. 13) Aug. 1704, called the battle of 
Blenheim (which see). (3.) 19 June, 1800, when 
Moreau totally defeated the Austrians, and avenged 
the defeat of the French at Blenheim. 


HOFWYL, see Pestalozzian System. 
HOGUE, sce La Hogue. 
HOHENLINDEN (Bayaria). Here the 


Austrians, commanded by archduke John, were 
beaten by the French and Bavarians, commanded 
by Moreau, 3 Dec. 1800. The peace of Luneyille 
followed. 


HOHENSTAUFEN, 
Guelphs. 


HOHENZOLLERN, the reigning family in 
Prussia. Its origin is referred to Thassilo, about 
800, who built the castle of Hohen-zollern. In 
1417, Frederick of Nuremburg, his descendant, was 
made elector of Brandenburg. The princes of 
Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sig- 
maringen abdicated in favour of the king of Prussia, 
7 Dec. 1849. Charles, son of the prince of Hohen- 
zollern-Sigmaringen, was elected prince of Roumania, 
20 April, 1866, see Danubian Principalities. His 
brother Leopold, nominated candidate for the throne 
of Spain, withdrew July, 1870. See Brandenburg, 
and Prussia. 


HOLBEIN SOCIETY, for obtaining photo- 
lithographic representations of ancient wood en- 
gravings, established in 1868, sir William Stirling 
Maxwell, president. 


HOLBORN (Holeborne, in Doomsday book), 
said to be identical with the river Fleet. Holborn- 
hill, in the time of Stow, 1600, was termed ‘‘ heavy- 
hill.”’ Gerard, the herbalist, speaks of his ‘* house 
in Holborne,” 1597. The Holborn-theatre was 
opened by Mr. Sefton Parry, 6 Oct. 1866, with 
“Flying Scud,’ a new piece, by Mr. Dion 
Boucicault. The Holborn amphitheatre was opened 
25 May, 1867. The Holborn valley viaduct, founded 
by Mr. F, H. Fry, 3 June, 1867, (Mr. William . 
Haywood, chief engineer), was opened for foot- 
passengers 14 Oct., and inaugurated by the queen, 
6 Noy. 1869. ‘* Middle-row”’ was pulled down in 
1867. Western Approach-street opened 25 June, 1868. 
The statue of prince Albert uncovered by the prince 
of Wales, 9 Jan. 1874. Holborn town-hall opened 
by the lord mayor, 18 Dec. 1879. 


see Germany, and 


EE 


HOLIDAYS. 


418 


HOLLAND. 


HOLIDAYS, sce Bank Holidays. 


HOLLAND (Hollow land, or, some say, 
Wooded land), a kingdom, N.W. Europe, the chief 
part of the northern Netherlands, composed of land 
rescued from the sea, and defended by immense 
dykes. It was inhabited by the Batavi in the time 
of Caesar, who made a league with them. It became 
part of Gallia Belgica, and afterwards of the kingdom 
of Austrasia. From the roth to the 15th centur y it 
was governed by counts under the German emperors. 
In 1861, the population of the kingdom in Europe 
was 3: te of the colonies, 18,175,910; of both 
in 1863, 21 80 ,007; of the kingdom, Jan. 1873, 
3,767,263 ; 1876, ” 3,865, 456; colonies, about 
25,110,000; 1879, kingdom, 4,037,010. 

The parties termed Hooks, (followers of Margaret, 
countess of Holland,) and Cod -fish; (supporters of 

her son William, who endeavoured to supplant 

her,) create a civil war, which lasts many years . 1347 
Holland united to Hainault, 1299; and Brabant . 1416 
Annexed to Burgundy by duke Philip, who wrests 

it from his niece Jaqueline, of Holland, daughter 

of the last count 


1436 
Annexed to Austria through marriage of Mary of 


Burgundy with archduke “Maximilian 3 > J E477 
Government of Philp of Austria et EIAs 
Of Margaret of Austria and Charles at . . . 1506 
Of Philip ine 1555 


Philip II. establishes the Inquisition ; the Hol- 
landers having zealously embraced the reformed 
doctrines ; the Confederacy of Gueux (Beggars) 
formed by the nobles against it A . 1566 

Compromise of Breda presented . . Jan. re 

Commencement of the revolt under William, prince 
of Orange 


: 1572 
Elizabeth of England declines the offered sover eignty, 


but promises help : 1575 
The pacification of Ghent—union of the North and 

south provinces 1570 
The seven northern prov inces contract the league of 

Utrecht ? 1579 
And declare their ‘independence ~ ‘ ‘ “29 Sept. 1580 
Assassination of William of Orange to July, 1584 
The ten southern provinces conquered by the prince 

of Parma - 1585 


The provinces solicit help from England and Fr ance ; 
expedition of the earl of Leicester ; English and 
Dutch disagree . . 1585-7 

Battle of Zutphen— sir Philip Sidney mortally 
wounded : 22 Sept. 1586 

Prince Maurice appointed stadtholder . ‘ - 1587 

Death of Philip Il. His son Philip III. cedes the 
Netherlands to Albert of Austria, and the infanta 
Tsabella ; . . eer sSos 

Campaigns of Maurice and Spinola A - + (1599-1604 

Maurice defeats the archduke at Nieuport 2 July, 1600 

The independence of the United Provinces recog- 
nised; truce of Antwerp for twelve years, 

g April(30 March), 1609 

Batavia in Java built < ‘ 1610 

Fierce religious dissensions between the Arminians 
and Gomarists - Y6ro-19 

Maurice favours the latter and ‘intrigues for royal 
power 4 : pau. TOTO 

Synod of Dort ; persec ution of the Arminians 1618-19 

Execution of the illustrious Barneveldt 13 May, 1619 

Renewal of the war ; Maurice saves Bergen-op-Zoom 1622 

His tyrannical g government : plot against him, and 
sixteen persons executed 

His death ; his brother Freder ick succeeds him, and 
annuls the persecution ; 

Manhattan, now New York, North America, founded ; 
massacre of English at Amboy na, East Indies 

Victories of Van Tromp, who takes two Spanish fleets 
off the downs 16 Sept. and 2r Oct. 

Peace of Westphalia, the republic recognised by 
Europe 

War with England—naval actions—Blake defeats 
De Ruyter, 22 Oct.; but is surprised by Van 
Tromp, who takes some English ships, and sails 
through the channel with a broom at his mast- 
head 29 Nov. 

Indecisive sea- fights, | I2- 14 June; death of Van 
Tromp, 2x July; peace follows . ° 


1623 
- 1625 
1624 


1639 
1648 


1652 
1653 


Victorious, war with Sweden ‘ ° e ° 

Another war with England 

Indecisive sea-fights, 1-4 June; victory of Monk 
over De Ruyter . 25 July, 

Triple alliance of England, Holland, ‘and Swede 
against France , 

Charles IT. deserts Holland ; “joins France 5 

The French overrun Holland 

Desperate condition of the States—the populate 
massacre the De Witts—William III. made stadt- 
holder. 

The French repelled by the sluices being opened 

Indecisive campaigns. a4 

William marries princess Mary of England 4 

Peace with France (Nimeguen) . 5 ‘ ‘ 

William becomes king of England . : 


Sanguinary war with France . rf 

Peace of Ryswick signed . 2 ; 20 Sept. 

Death of William . 5 8 March, 

No stadtholder appointed—administration of 
Heinsius 

War against France and Spain ; “campaigns of Mat 
borough °. 3 . . ; 


Peace of Utrecht : 30 Maes 

Holland supports the empress Maria-Theresa a 

William Henry hereditary stadtholder . 

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle : 18 Oct. 

War with England for naval supremacy—Hollan¢ 
loses colonies 4 = “ f 

Civil wars in the Low Countries 

The French republicans march into Holland ; th 
people declare in their favour 

Unsuccessful campaign of the duke of York 

The Batavian republic established in alliance wit) 
France -. 

Battle of Camperdown, Duncan signally defeats th 
Dutch . : t Oct. 

The Texel fleet, of ‘twelve ships of the itnes wit)! 
thirteen Indiamen, surrenders to the Britis) 
admiral, without tiring a gun 30 Aug 

A new constitution is given to the Batavian republic 
the chief officer gg. J. Schimmelpenninck) take: 
the title of grand pensionary . 26 April 

Holland erected into a kin. gdom, and Louis Bonaparte 
father of Napoléon III., declared king . 5 June 

The ill-fated Walcheren expedition . duly, Sept 

Louis abdicates : P P ‘ r July 

Holland united to France ; 9 July 

Restored to the house of Orange, “and Belgian 


annexed to its dominions ‘ : 17 Nov 
The prince of Orange proclaimed sovereign prince 0 
the united Netherlands 6 Dec 
Religious discord between Holland and the southern 
provinces z : - Z «FB 
The revolution in Belgium 3 ° 25 Aug 
Belgium separated from Holland. =) eae July 
Holland makes war against Belgium . 3 Aug 


Treaty between Holland and ‘Belgium, signal il 


London. ee 19 April 
Abdication of William I. . . + 7-10 Oct 
Death of the ex-king William I. : y 12 Dee 


pepe hs oh ciatstedt . : : 
Death of William 1AL 7 
Re-establishment of a Roman Catholic hierare)y 


announced - 12 March 
Inundations: 40,000 "acres submerged ; near! 
30,000 Villagers made destitute Jan, and Fel 


Great fire at Endschedé, the Manchester of Holland 
loss about a million pounds 7 May 
The states-general pass a law for the abolition ce 
slavery in the Dutch West Indies [after 1 July 
1863] : .- 6 Aug 
Treaty for capitalising Scheldt dues signed 12 Maj 
Slavery ceases in the Dutch West Indies 1 July 
soth anniversary of deliverance from France, 17 Novy 
Commencement of canal to connect Amsterdam wit 


the North sea . . 8 March 
The government undertake a canal to connec 
Rotterdam with the sea : .  « March 
Commercial treaty with France . ° 7 duly 
New ministry (protectionist) . . June 
Correspondence with Prussia respecting th 
Prussian garrison in Luxemburg July-Aug 


The lower chamber barely passes a vote of censur 


t 
kj 


HOLLAND. 


he ministry respecting government of Java, 
; the king dissolves the chamber. 10 Oct. 
d treaty with France respecting cession of 
emburg (which sec) . : : 22 March, 
rtifications of Luxemburg razed May, 
‘truggle between the ministry and the cham- 
, Nov. 2867-May, 1868, the ministry resign; a 
ministry formed by M. de Thorbecke, June, 
ational exhibition opened at Amsterdam by 
ce Henry s . ; ‘ = rs Jv uby, 
g of the chambers ; strict neutrality in the 
co-Prussian war to be maintained 19 Sept. 
n of Dutch possessions in Guinea to Great 
in, voted = ; , 7 July, 
tenary celebration of the commencement of 
th independence by the capture of Briel, 
1 April, 1872 
of de Thorbecke, a great statesman 4June, ,, 
ministry formed by Devries . 29 June, ,, 
sions respecting the war against the Sultan 
ehin in Sumatra (which see) oe) April, ‘1873 
ort at Flushing opened by the king . 8 Sept. ,, 
ition against the Achinese (see Swmatra) 


1866 


1867 
1868 


29 
1869 
1870 


1871 


rks , ; : : 3 BE eG. 355 
inistry, under Dr. Heemskirk 28 July, 1874 
enal codeissued .. . : : . Aug. 1875 
tenary of Pacification of Ghent celebrated, 
Sept. 1876 


between North sea and Amsterdam, passed 
, Monitor (see 1865) 4 Oct. ; inaugurated by 


cing . ; A : : ‘ DEN OV. O55 
inistry ; president, baron Kappeijne van de 
ello : 3 Nov. 1877 


ge of prince ‘Henry, the king’s brother, to 
sess Marie Elizabeth of Prussia . 24 Aug. 
of prince Henry, the king’s brother, aged 58: 


13 Jan. 1879 
ubinet, under M. Van Lynden wit LO TALC sy 
ng and queen visit England . 26 April, 1882 


srcial treaty with France rejected by the 
ber; the ministry resign . =o Mia yee, 
ation of baron van Lynden and his cabinet 
t March, 
ninistry under Dr. Heemskerk (interior) 
22Nprils "5, 

itional exhibition at Amsterdam opened by 
2 a : c d ; : coreMaw oe |, 

ttee for revision of the constitution appointed 
12 May, ‘,, 

ig and queen of Belgium warmly received at. 
terdam, &c. . , PRO OC: eb S60... 
ng and queen warmly received at Brussels 
20-22 May, 
of the prince of Orange . a 2x June, 
een appointed by a congress to be regent if 
isary 2 . 3 : 4 PLA Erm 5 


NCES OF ORANGE (see Oraige), STADTHOLDERS. 


*hilibert de Chalons. 

‘ené de Nassau, his nephew. 

Villiam of Nassau, styled the Great, cousin to 
René, recovers the principality of Orange in 1559. 

fominated stapTHOLDER, 1579 ; killed by an assas- 
sin hired by Philip II. of Spain, 10 July, 1584. 

hilip-William, his son; stolen away from the 
university of Louvain ; the Dutch would never 

_ Suffer him to reside in their provinces : died 1618. 

faurice, the renowned general; became STADT- 

HOLDER in 1584; he was a younger son of Wil- 

liam by a second marriage. 

rederick Henry (brother) staDTHOLDER. 

‘illiam II., srADTHOLDER : married Mary, daugh- 

| ter of Charles I. of England, by whom he had a 

_ Son, who succeeded in 1672. 

John De Witt, grand pensioner ; no stadtholder. 

‘illiam-Henry: stapTHOLDER in 1672; married 

| neat eldest daughter of James II. of England, 

| £677. 

_ No sraprHo.per. 

ohn-William, nephew of William III., loses the 

principality of Orange, which is annexed to 
France 


| ‘illiam-Henry becomes HEREDITARY STADTHOLDER; 
married princess Anne of England: succeeded 
. by his son, 

illiam IV. ; retired on the invasion of the French 
- M1795 ; died in 1806. 


419 


HOLSTEIN AND SCHLESWIG. 


1795. [Holland and Belgium united to the French re- 
public. ] 


KINGS. 

Louis Bonaparte made king of HoLLanp by his 
brother Napoleon, 5 June, 1806 ; abdicated, 3x 
July, 1810. 

[Holland again united to France. ] 

House of Orange restored. William-Frederick, 
prince of Orange (born 1772), proclaimed 6 Dee. 
1813 ; took the oath of fidelity as sovereign 
prince, 30 March, 1814; assumed the style of 
king of the NETHERLANDS, 16 March, 181s ; for- 
mally abdicated in favour of his son, 7 Oct. 1840 ; 
died 12 Dee. 1843. 

William II. born 6 Dee. 1792; succeeded on his 
father’s abdication ; died 17 March, 1849, suc- 
ceeded by 

William III., son; born 19 Feb. 1817; married 
Sophia of Wiirtemberg, 18 June, 1839. (She 
died, 3 June, 1877.) Married Emma of Waldeck- 
Pyrmont, 7 Jan. 1879; isswe: Wilhelmine, heiress, 
born 31 Aug. 1880. 

Son: William, prince of Orange, born 4 Sept. 1840; 
died 11 June, 1879. 

Alexander (philosopher), born 25 Aug. 1851 3 died 
2r June 1884. 


HOLLAND, NEw, see Australia and Aus- 


tralasia. 


HOLLOWAY HOSPITALS. Thos. Hollo- 
way, proprietor of the popular ointment, &c., 
offered the government 250,000/. to erect for the 
use of the middle classes, a Sanatorium or asylum 
for the insane, and hospitals for incurables and con- 
valescents. The asylum was erected at St. Anne’s 
Hill, Egham, near Virginia Water, 1873 et seq. 
HoLLoway COLLEGE FOR THE HIGHER EDUCATION OF 

Women, near Virginia Water. First brick laid, 12 Sept. 

1879. Mr. Holloway gave 250,000/., and promised 

100,000l. additional for endowment. He died 26 Dec., 

1883, aged 83, leaving an immense fortune, although 

he was exceedingly generous during his lifetime ; he is 

said to have expended 45,o0o00l. a year in advertisements. 


HOLMFIRTH FLOOD. On 5 Feb. 182, 
the Bilberry reservoir above Holmfirth, near Hud- 
dersfield, Yorkshire, burst its banks, and levelled 
four mills and many ranges of other buildings, 
killing more than go persons, and devastating pro- 
perty estimated at above half a million. 


HOLSTEIN anp SCHLESWIG (N.W. 
Germany), duchies once belonging to Denmark. 
The country, inhabited by Saxons, was subdued by 
Charlemagne in the beginning of the gth century, 
and afterwards formed part of the duchy of Saxony. 
In 1106 or 1110, Adolphus of Schauenberg became 
count of Holstein: his descendants ruled till 1459, 
when Adolphus VII. died without issue, and the 
states of Holstein and Schleswig elected Christian, 
king of Denmark, his nephew, as their duke, through 
fear of hisarms. In 1544, his grandson, Christian 
Il., divided his states amongst his brothers, with 
the condition that the duchies should remain subject 
to Denmark. Theeldest branch of the family reigned 
in Denmark till the decease of Frederick VII., 
15 Nov., 1863. From a younger branch (the dukes 
of Holstein-Gottorp) descended through marriage, 
the kings of Sweden from 1751-1818, and the 
reigning family in Russia since 1762, when the 
duke, as the husband of Anne, became czar. In 
1773, Catherine II. of Russia ceded Holstein-Got- 
torp to Denmark in exchange for Oldenburg, &e, 
The duchies were occupied by the Swedes in 1813, 
but restored to Denmark in 1814, and on 28 May, 
1831, constituent assemblies were granted to them. 
Since 1844 disputes have been rife between the 
duchies and Denmark, and in 1848 the states-general 
of the duchies voted their annexation to es German 

EE 


1806 


1810. 
1813. 


1840. 


1849. 


HOLY ALLIANCE. 


420 


HOLY SEPULCHRE. 


confederacy, in which they were supported by | buildings, which were committed to the care o 
Prussia; war ensued, which lasted till 1850, when | Greeks by a hatti-scheriff, or imperial ordinan 


they submitted to Denmark. The agitation in the | 


duchies, encouraged by Prussia, revived in 1857. 
The Germans in Schleswig desired it to be made a 
member of the German confederation, like Holstein; 
but both duchies demanded a local government more 
independent of Denmark, which changes were re- 
sisted by that power. For the events of the war of 
1864, see Denmark. By the convention signed at 
Gastein (which see), 14 Aug. 1865, the government 
of Holstein was left with Austria, and that of 
Schleswig with Prussia. The whole of Holstein 
and part of Schleswig were ceded to Prussia by the 
treaty of Prague, signed 23 Aug. 1866. Population 
in 1860, 1,004,473. The 5th clause, directing North 
Schleswig to be given to Denmark if the people 
voted for it, was not acted on, although claimed ; 
and was abrogated, Feb, 1879. 


HOLY ALLIANCE was ratified at Paris, 26 
Sept. 1815, between the emperors of Russia (its 
originator) and Austria, and the king of Prussia, by 
which they ostensibly bound themselves, among 
other things, to be governed by Christian principles 
in all their political transactions, with a. view to 
perpetuating the peace they had achieved. The 
compact was severely censured in this country as 
opposed to rational liberty. 


HOLY BROTHERHOOD, see Hermandad. 
HOLY CROSS, Society of, formed in 1855, 


by several clergymen of the Church of England, 
“‘for deepening spiritual life in their brethren ;’’ 
president, the Rev. A. H. Mackonochie. It favours 
auricular confession and other Romanist practices. 
One of its books ‘‘ The Priest in Absolution,” was 
censured by the bishops in convocation, 6 July, 
1877, and caused much public excitement. See 
under Vinchester. 


HOLYDAYS ACT, see Bank Holidays. 
HOLY GHOST, see Esprit. 


HOLYHEAD, W. Anglesea. A college was 
established here in the 12th century. The harbour 
was improved by Rennie, and Holyhead was made 
the chief packet station for Ireland. The break- 
water, erected by Rendel and Hawkshaw (1846 et 
seq.) was inaugurated by the prince of Wales, 19 
Aug. 1873; and a new harbour and railway exten- 
sion inaugurated by the prince, 17 June, 1880. 


HOLY ISLAND, see Lindisfarne. 
HOLY LEAGUE, see Leagues. 


HOLY MAID or Kent. Elizabeth Barton 
was incited by the Roman Catholic party to oppose 
the Reformation by pretending to inspirations from 
heaven. She foretold the speedy and violent death 
of Henry VIII. if he divorced Catherine of Spain, 
and married Anne Boleyn, and direful calamities to 
the nation. She and her confederates were executed 
at Tyburn, 5 May, 1534. 


HOLYOKH, Massachusetts, U.S. A Roman 
Catholie church here took fire ; a panic ensued; and 
about 80 were burnt or trampled to death, 26, 27 
May, 1875. 

HOLY PLACES in PALEstTIne. These 
places have been a source of contention between the 
Greek and Latin churches for several centuries. In 
the reign of Francis I. they were placed under Latin 
monks, protected by the French government; but 
the Greeks from time to time obtained firmans from 
the Porte invalidating the rights of the Latins, who 
were at last (in 1757) expelled from the sacred 


The holy sepulchre partially destroyed by fire anc 
rebuilt by the Greeks, who claim additional priyi 
leges, and cause fresh dissensions : 4 ' 

The Russian and French governments sent envoy; 
(M. Dashkoff and M. Marcellus) to adjust the dis 
pute ; an arrangement prevented by the Greek 
revolution . é ; y ; ‘ 5 aah 

The subject again agitated, and the Porte proposec 
that a mixed commission should adjudicate on thx 
rival claims. M., Titoff, the Russian envoy, actin, 
on behalf of the Greeks, and M. Lavalette, the 
French envoy, on that of the Latins, took up thy 
question very warmly . ; = : + ae 

A firman issued by the Porte, confirming and con 
solidating the rights previously granted to the 
Greek Christians, and declaring that the Latins 
had no right to claim exclusive possession of cer 
tain holy places specified, but permitting them tc 
possess a key of the church at Bethlehem, &e., as 
in former times : - 9g March 

The French government acquiesced with much dis. 
satisfaction ; but the Russian envoy still desired 
the key to be withheld from the Latin monks. 
M. D’Ozeroff made a formal declaration of the 
right of Russia to protect the orthodox in virtue 
of the treaty of Kainardjiin 1774, and demanded 
that the firman of 9 March, 1852, should be read 
at Jerusalem, although it militated against his 
pretensions, which was accordingly done. The 
dispute still continued, the Porte being exposed 
to the attacks of both the Russian and French 
governments < 2 ; < March, 

Prince Menschikoff arrives at Constantinople as 
envoy extraordinary, and in addition to the claims 
respecting the holy places, made demands respect- 
ing the protection of the Greek Christians in 
Turkey which led to the war of 1854-6. (See Russo- 
Turkish War). . 28 Feb. 


HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE. The Ge 
empire received this title under the emperor Ot 
the great, crowned at Rome by pope John X! 
Feb. 962. See Rome, and Germany. 


HOLY ROOD or Cross. A festival i 
tuted on account of the recovery of a large pie 
the cross by the emperor Heraclius, after it 
been taken away, on the plundering of Jerusa 
about 615. ‘The feast of the invention (or fin¢ 
of the Cross is on 3 May; that of the exaltati 
the Cross, 14 Sept. At Boxley abbey, in Kent 
acrucifix, called the Rood of Grace; at the dis 
tion it was broken in pieces as an impostur 
Hilsey, bishop of Rochester, at St. Paul's ¢ 
London, 1536. 


HOLYROOD PALACE (Edinburgh), 
merly an abbey, was for several centuries the 
dence of the monarchs of Scotland. The abbe 
which some vestiges remain, was founded by D 
I. in 1128, and in the burial-place within its 1 
are interred several of his successors. The pi 
is a large quadrangular edifice of hewn stone, 
a court within surrounded by piazzas. In 
north-west tower is the bed-chamber which 
occupied by queen Mary; and from an adjol 
cabinet to it David Rizzio, her favourite, was dra, 
forth and murdered, 9 March, 1566. The ne 
west towers were built by James V., and the 
maining part of the palace was added during 
reign of Charles II. Mr. Pinkerton states that 
palace was burnt in 1650, and rebuilt in I 
Great improvements were made in 1857. 
queen held her court here, 30 Aug. 1850. 


HOLY SEPULCHRE, a Byzantine cht 
in modern Jerusalem, Fergusson, Robinson, 
others, consider the true site of the holy sepul 
to be the mosque of Omar, the ‘‘ dome of the Ro 
The question is still undecided, The order of 


* 
“% 
rs &£ 


HOLY WARS. 


421 


HOMILIES. 


Sepulchre was founded by Godfrey of Bouillon, 
- revived by pope Alexander VI. 1496; re-or- 


ed, 1847 and 1868. 
LY WARS, see Crusades. 


ILY WATER is said to have been used in 


hes as early as A.D. 120. -Ashe. 
ILY WEEK, orthe “‘ Week of Indulgence 
week before Easter. See Passion IVeek. 


IME AND COLONIAL SCHO 


es,” 


OL 


TETY, Gray's Inn Road; founded 1836. 


messes and teachers are trained. 


JME HOSPITALS’ 


ASSOCIATION 


PAYING PATIENTS, founded in July, 1877. 
irst home hospital, in Fitzroy-square, London, 


opened 28 June, 1880. Supported by 


the 


1, 1884. 6th annual meeting, 10 June, 1884. 


OME MISSIONARY SOCIETY, 


led 1819. In 1878 it had 192 stations, 
yyed 187 agents and 243 lay preachers. 


IME RULE. The Home Government 


and 


As- 


jon (for Home Rule), established in Dublin 
70; held its first anniversary meeting, 26 June, 
It includes both catholics and protestants 


gst its members. 


saac Butt, a leader of the movement, elected 
>. for Limerick ; i : . 20 Sept. 
Rule advocated by archbishop McHale and 
ars of the Romanist clergy in Ireland 
rogramme of the party requiring an Irish par- 
ent of Queen, Lords, and Commons, and other 
rers, published , = ‘ ‘ 25 Oct. 
ference at the Rotondo, Dublin, reported a 
re. ‘ ; ; : 18—e2r Nov. 
tion in the Commons in favour of Home Rule 
rated (314 to 52) 4 ; . 20 March 
Butt’s motion for a committee on the sub- 
,30 June ; was negatived (458 to 61), 2, 3 July, 
N (291 to 61), 30 June, 1 July, 1876; again (417 
) ‘ 3 : . : 2 24 April, 
ty convention at Dublin, Mr. Butt, chairman, 
21, 22 Aug. 
ome rule party in the house of commons very 
mructive (see Parliament) : ? : > 
ag of home rule M.P.’s at Dublin; Mr. Butt 
leader ‘ F ; : ; : Oct. 
rtually gives in to the obstructionists, Jan. ; 
ms . A : 4 ; - April, 
ag at Dublin, 14 Oct.; continued dissensions 
veen moderate party (Mr. Butt and others) 
obstructives (Mr. Charles Stewart Parnell 
others) . ; : : . Oct.—Nov. 
of Mr. Butt, 5 May; succeeded as leader by 
Wm. Shaw z , ‘ 2 : . 
'arnell proposes election of a convention to 
t at Dublin, rz Sept.; this is opposed by 
W. Shaw, Mitchell Henry, and others Sept. 
ig at Dublin; pronounced opposition to 
ish government ‘ F 20, 21 Jan. 
65 home rulers in the new parliament, under 
Shaw and Mr. Parnell . April, 
arnell chosen by 45 as parliamentary chair- 
fee, 5 : : 5 ; a) -i7 May, 
oe rulers voted with the government ; 16 with 
Parnell ‘ ‘ A ‘ . 13 duly, 
rule convention at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 9 Aug. 
ag at Dublin ; Mr. Justin McCarthy appointed 
-president ; resolution to resist coercion in 
mdadopted . ‘ . s . 27 Dec. 
of Mr. Parnell and others at Dublin (see 
tls) cs & 28 Dec., 1880—25 Jan. 
‘$manifesto of Mr. Parnell ; a counter one by 
haw r P 4 . 3 Feb. 
_ tule agitation revived ; meeting at Dublin 
, 8 Nov. 
law, opposed to the separatists, secedes from 
party . oe > «about 3 Dee, 
rule movement in Scotland ; first annual meet- 
_of the burgh convention at Edinburgh 
08€ a representative assembly to legislate on 


1871 


3 F073 


9 


1881 


Scotch affairs, subject to the approval of parlia- 

ment . : 2 , . ; : 4 April, 1882 
The home rule league (closing meeting, 24 Nov. 

1882) merged into Irish national league; first 

meeting : : . : : ‘ 7 Feb. 1883 
Mr. A. M. Sullivan, an eminent nationalist 

died 17 Oct. 1884 
(See Ireland and Parliament.) 

HOME SECRETARY, see Secretaries, and 
all the administrations under the name of their 
premier. New Home Office, Westminster, occupied 
6 Aug. 1875. 

“HOME, Sweet Home.” The words are 
attributed to John Howard Payne, an American 
actor, who died in 1852; the music is said to be 
Sicilian, but it is probably by sir Henry Bishop, 
who introduced the song into Clari, or the Maid of 
Milan, in 1823. 


HOMER’S ILIAD anp ODYSSEY, the 
earliest and most perfect epic poems in the world. 
The first begins with the wrath of Achilles, and 
ends with the funeral of Hector; the second re- 
counts the voyages and adventures of Ulysses, after 
the destruction of Troy. Various dates are assigned 
to these works, from 962 to 915 B.c. Among the 
thousands of volumes burnt at Constantinople, 
A.D. 477, are said to have been the works of Homer, 
written in golden letters on the great gut of a 
dragon, 120 feet long. 

F. A. Wolf, in his Prolegomena, in 1795, argued that the 
Homeric poems were composed of independent epic 
songs, collected and arranged by Peisistratus about 
550B.c. This theory occasioned much controversy. 

The first English version of the Iliad, by Arthur Hall, 
appeared in 1581. The present text is attributed to the 
time of Pericles, who died B.c. 429. The most cele- 
brated versions of Homer’s works are Chapman’s, 1616; 
Hobbes’, 1675; Pope’s, 1715-25 ; Cowper’s, 1791. The 
translation of the Iliad by the earl of Derby (1864) is 
much commended. 

HOMICIDE was tried at Athens by the Areo- 
pagites, 1507 B.c. He that killed another at any 
public exercise of skill, or who killed another that 
lay hid to do a person mischief of a grievous nature, 
was not deemed guilty. He who killed a man taken 
with another’s wife, sister, daughter, or concubine, 
or killed a man who, without just grounds, assaulted 
another violently, was not deemed a homicide. 
Among the Jews, wilful murder was capital; but 
for chance-medley the offender was to flee to one of 
the cities of refuge, and there continue till the death 
of the high-priest, 1451 B.c. (Nwm. xxxv.). 9 Geo. 
IV. c. 31 (1828), distinguishes between Justifiable 
homicide and homicide in its various degrees of 
guilt, and circumstances of provocation and wilful- 
ness; see Murder. 

Animals have been tried and punished for killing 
human beings. <A bull was hanged for homicide 
near the abbey of Beauprés May, 1499 


HOMILDON HILL (Northumberland), where 
the Scots, headed by the earl of Douglas, were de- 
feated by the Percies (among them Hotspur), 14 
Sept. 1402. Douglas and the earls of Angus, Mur- 
ray, Orkney, and the earl of Fife, son of the duke 
of Albany, and nephew of the Scottish king, with 
many of the nobility and gentry, were taken pri- 
soners. 


HOMILIES in early Christian times were dis- 
courses delivered by the bishop or presbyter, in a 
homely manner, for the common people. Charle- 
magne’s ‘‘Homilarium”’ was issued 809. The Book 
of Homilies drawn up by abp. Cranmer, and pub- 
lished 1547, and another prepared by an order of 
convocation, 1563, were ordered to be read in those 
churches that had not a minister able to compose 
proper discourses. 


+. 

HOMCOPATHY. 422 HORSE. 
HOM@OPATHY, a hypothesis promulgated | be to him who eyil thinks.” It is aii 
in his ‘Organon of Medicine,”’ 1810, and in other | that the countess of Salisbury, ata ball at e 


works, by Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, of Leipsic (died 
2 July, 1843), according to which every medicine 
has a specific power of inducing a certain diseased 
state of the system (simlia stmilibus curantur, likes 
are cured by likes); and if such medicine be given 
to a person suffering under the disease which it has 
a tendency to induce, such disease disappears, be- 
cause two similar diseased actions cannot simul- 
taneously subsist in the same organ. Brande. 
Infinitesimal doses of medicine, such as the mil- 
lionth of a grain of aloes, have been employed, it is 
said, with efficacy. The system requires the patient 
to regulate his diet and habits carefully. It has 
led to a more accurate study of the materia medica. 
Introduced into England, 1827. The Hahnemann 
hospital was opened in Bloomsbury-square, 16 Sept. 
1850. ‘The World’s Convention of Homceopathic 
Physicians” opened at Philadelphia, 26 June, 1876. 
London School of Homceopathy, founded 15 Dec. 
1876. Homeopathic congress met at Liverpool, 
14 Sept. 1877. 


HOMOUSION ,anp HOMOIOUSION 
(Greek, same essence, and similar essence or being), 
terms employed with respect to the nature of the 
Father and the Son in the Trinity. The orthodox 
party adopted the former term as a party cry at the 
council of Nice, 325; the Arians adopted the latter 
at Seleucia, 359. 


HOMS, Syria. Here Ibrahim Pacha and the 
Egyptians severely defeated the Turks, 8 July, 1832. 


HONDURAS, discovered by Columbus in 
1502, and conquered by the Spaniards 1523, is 
one of the republics of Central America; see 
America. Great Britain ceded the Bay Islands 
to Honduras, 28 Nov. 1859. President, general 
J. M. Medina, elected 1 Feb. 1864, and in 1869. 
Provisional president, C. Arias (Dec. 1872). P. 
Leiva, 1875. M.A. Soto, 29 May, 1877; general Louis 
Bogran,27 Noy. 1883. War with San Salvador, May, 
1871, and May, 1872. The town of Omoa, Spanish 
Honduras, was bombarded by H.M.S. Niobe, to ob- 
tain redress for injuries to British subjects, 19 Aug. 
1873. Population, 351,700 (1880). 

British Honduras, Central America, was settled 
by English from Jamaica soon after a treaty with 
Spain in 1667. They were often disturbed by the 
Spaniards, and sometimes expelled, till 1783. Balize 
or Belize, the capital, is a great seat of the maho- 
gany trade. In 1861, the population was 25,635 ; 
in 1881, 27,452. Governor, James R. Longden, 
1867; Wm. W. Cairns, 1870 ; major Robert Miller 
Mundy, 1874; F. P. Barlee, 1877; Roger Tuckfield 
Goldsworthy, 1884. 


HONEY-MOON. It was a custom to drink 
of diluted honey for thirty days, or a moon’s age, 
after a wedding feast, and hence arose the term 
honey-moon, of Teutonic origin. Attila the Hun 
drank, it is said, so freely of hydromel on his 
marriage-day, that he died of suffocation, 453. 


HONG-KONG, an island off the coast of 
China, was taken by capt. Elliott, 23 Aug. 1839, 
and ceded to Great Britain, 20 Jan. 1841. Its 
chief town is Victoria, built in 1842, and erected 
into a bishopric in 1849. Sir John Bowring, gover- 
nor from 1854 to 1859, was succeeded by sir Hercules 
Robinson: Governors, sir Rich. G. Mac-Donnell, 
1865; sir Arthur Edward Kennedy, 1872; John 
Lope Hennessy, Noy. 1876; sir G. F. Bowen, Dec. 
1882. 


HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE, “Evil 


happening to drop her garter, the king, Edward. 
took it up, and presented it to her, with these w 
which afterwards became the motto of the ord 
the garter; see Garter. 


HONOUR. Temples were erected to Hono 
Scipio Africanus, about 197 B.c.; and by C. Ma 
about 102 B.c.—The Legion of Honour was ere 
by Bonaparte in 1802. 


HONVEDS, the militia of Hungary. " 
supported the rebellion against the emperor in 1 
but on the completion of the changes whereby 
independence of Hungary was secured, in 1] 
they offered a loyal address to the emperor-kin; 


HOOKS anp CODFISH, party names 
Holland, 1347. 


HOOP-PETTICOAT, see Crinoline. 


HOPS, in use in England in 1425. Har 
MS. Introduced from the Netherlands into J 
land about 1524, and used in brewing; but 
physicians having represented that they were 
wholesome, their use was prohibited in 1 
Anderson. In the year ending 5 Jan. 1853, t 
were 46,1573 acres under hops in England 
Wales, chiefly in Herefordshire, Kent, and \ 
cestershire, which paid 44791440. duty; the quar 
yielded was 51,102,494 lbs., whereof 955,855 
were exported. The duty on hops was repeale 
1862, after many applications. An act for prey 
ing fraud in the trade was passed in June, 186 
The hop and malt exchange, Southwark, was op 
in Oct. 1867. 


HORATIL anp CURIATII, see 2 
669 B.C. 


HORN; HORNPIPH. The horn is tho; 
to be, next to the reed, the earliest wind instrum 
and has been found among most savage nations. 
was first made of horn, hence the name; afterw 
of brass, with keys, for the semi-tones, in the 
century.—The dance called the Hornpipe is | 
posed to be so named from its having been 
formed to the Welsh pid-corn, that is horn] 
about 1300. Spencer. Many hornpipes were ( 
posed in the 18th century, The ‘‘ College hornp: 
was very popular. 


HORNE TOOKEH, &c. The trial of Me 
Hardy, Tooke, Joyce, Thelwall, and others, « 
charge of high treason, caused a great sensat 
They were taken into custody on 20 May, I 
Mr. Hardy was tried 29 Oct., and, after a tria 
eight days, was honourably acquitted. John H 
Tooke was tried and acquitted, 20 Noy.; and 
Thelwall was acquitted, 5 Dec.; the others 1 
discharged. Acts were passed to prohibit Mr. T 
wall’s political lectures in 1795. 


HOROLOGY, see Clocks. The British H 
logical institute, Clerkenwell, London, establi 
in 1858, for the benefit of watchmakers, publish 
monthly journal. 


HORSE. The people of Thessaly were ex 
lent equestrians, and probably first among 
Greeks who broke them in for service in ¥ 
whence probably arose the fable that Thessaly 
originally inhabited by centaurs. ‘‘Solomon 
40,000 stalls of horses for his chariots, and 12. 
horsemen,” 1014 B.c. I Kingsiv. 26. The Gr 
and Romans had some covering to secure t 
horses’ hoofs from injury. In the 9th cent 
horses were only shod in time of frost. Shot 


HORSE GUARDS. 


introduced into England by William I., 1066. 
Races. 
1orse-tax was imposed in 1784. Its operation 
; extended, and its amount increased, in 1796 ; 
| again in 1808. The existing duty upon 
orses for riding” only, in England, amounts to 
ut 350,0001. per year : 4 Z - 1862 
al licence duty on horses and mules, ros. 6d. 
h; horse-dealers’ licence, 12/. ros. (act passed 
g)P« % : : ‘ : . : eae tO7O 
. 8. Rarey, an American, made a great sensa- 
1 in London by taming vicious and wild horses, 
| even a zebra from the Zoological Gardens, 
; system is founded on a profound study of the 
position of the animal, and on kindness. He 
jiated many illustrious persons in his method 
20 March, lord Palmerston and twenty others) 
ding them to secrecy; from which they were 
sased in June, when his book was reprinted in 
gland without his consent 1858, 
yas engaged to instruct cavalry officers and 
ing masters of the army : . duly, 
ave a lecture to the London cabmen, which 
3 well received, r2 Jan. 1860; and in the same 
r he received a present of 20 guineas from the 
‘iety for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, 
ay, 1860 
; annual horse-shows held at the Agricultural 
ll, Islington, began : ‘ : July, 
-flesh. An establishment for the sale of it as 
nan food was opened at Paris on 9 July, 1866, 
hh success, and its use as food strongly advo- 
ed. About 150 persons (including sir Henry 
ompson and sir John Lubbock) dined on horse- 
h at the Langham hotel, London . . 6 Feb. 
at _Franco-Anglo-American horse, mule, and 
ikey banquet was held at Paris . . 3 April, 
eriptions (of rool. each person for five years) 
improve the breed of horses, proposed by earl 
\thorpe, headed by the prince of Wales, many 
bles and gentlemen, the London General Omni- 
3 Company, and others : June, 
shoes. Goodenough’s American horse-shoes, 
de by machinery, put on cold (patented 1860), 
re used by the London General Omnibus Com- 
ay, Oct.-Dec. 1868. The international horse- 
ye company for adopting the patent was estab- 


1859 
1859 


1864 


1868 


1875 


1875 


aed early in 5 : : : : . 1870 
2 epidemic (*‘ epizootic”), from Canada, at New 
rk, Boston, &c., caused much inconvenience, 
Oct. 1872 
ted scarcity of horses in Britain ; a commis- 
n of inquiry appointed, Feb., reported (no 
ult : : : . : : . Aug. 1873 
Company, to improve the breed of horses, 
\d first annual meeting BE ZO MEDta +5 
e duty taken off . , ; 5 ; See LO 7d 
sh Empire Horse-supply Association, esta- 
shed. 2 A Z ‘ : . Spring 1878 
ish Cart-horse Society, established, earl of 
esmere, president . ; ‘ 3June ,, 


ORSE GUARDS. The regiment is said to 
. been instituted in the reign of Edward VI. 
, and revived by Charles II. 1661. The first 
) of Horse Grenadier Guards was raised in 1693, 
‘was commanded by general Cholmondeley; and 
second troop, commanded by lord Forbes, was 

din 1702. There was a reduction of the Horse 
Grenadier Guards, and Life Guards, as now 
lished, were raised in their room, 26 May, 
_. Philips. The present edifice called the 

ie Guards was erected about 1758. In the front 

wo small arches, where horse-soldiers, in full 
orm, daily mount guard. In the building was 
erly the office of the commander-in-chief, now 
all Mall. 


‘ORSE-RACING, see Races. 
‘ORTENSIAN LAW, passed by Q. Hor- 


“us, dictator, 286 B.c., after the secession of the 
ians to the Janiculum, affirmed the legislative 
r granted them by previous laws in 446 and 
B.0. 


423 


HOSPITALS. 
HORTICULTURE (from hortus and cultura), 


the art of cultivating gardens; see Gardening. 
The (now royal) Horticultural society of London 
founded by sir Joseph Banks and others in 1804 ; 
incorporated, 17 April, 1809; transactions first 


published : ; : : é : . I8k2 
Planting the garden at Chiswick begun . 1822 
Annual exhibitions « 193% 


The library sold : ‘ é : F bat ae 
Proposal for laying out a garden for the society on 
the Brompton estate, belonging to the Crystal 
Palace Commissioners, July, 1859; received the 
support of the queen, nobility, &c., and Mr. 
Nesfield’s design was adopted, May, 1860; the 
new gardens opened by the prince consort, who 
planted a Wellingtonia gigantea (which see) 5 June. 
The queen planted one ; : . 24 July 
Dr. John Lindley (who ‘‘ raised horticulture from 
an empirical art to a developed science’’) secre- 
tary, 1822-62. F 2 : died x Nov. 
The Albert memorial uncovered in the presence of 
the prince and princess of Wales . ro June, 
An International Horticultural exhibition was 
opened in the gardens. ; . 23-31 May, 
International horticultural exhibition opened 
24 Aug. 
Horticultural societies established at Edinburgh, 
1809; at Dublin . - 4 SLOT, 


HOSIERY, see Stockings, and Cotton. 
HOSPITALLERS, see Malta. 
HOSPITAL SUNDAYS are said to have 


begun at Birmingham, 13 Noy. 1859. Glasgow 
began hospital Sundays about 1844. It is said the 
present system of hospital Sunday began at Man- 
chester in 1870, Near the end of 1872, it was pro- 
posed that collections for the benefit of hospitals and 
dispensaries in London should be annually made on 
one Sunday in the year at all places of worship. 
A committee for effecting this met at the Mansion- 
house, 31 Jan. 1873; and soon after, 15 June was 
appointed as the day for the collection. 


HospiraAL SUNDAYS IN LONDON: 


1859 


1861 


1865 
1863 
1866 
1881 


1873. 15 June. About 25,511/., received on the day 
from about 1200 places of worship, including 
Jews; 1859]. received afterwards (July). 
24,5711. awarded to 54 hospitals; 21851. to 
53 dispensaries. 

1874. 14June. About 29,817/. received. 

1875. 13 June. About 26,703/. received. 

1876. 18 June. About 27,042l. received. 
(23,9431. awarded to 73 hospitals; 2,336. to 
45 dispensaries, 9 Aug. 1876.) 

1877. 17 June. 26,083/. received ; 25,8701. distributed. 

1878. 30June. About 24,904/., received, 25 July. 

1879. 15 June. 26,5ox/. received ; 24,9611. distributed. 

1880. 13 June. 12,0001. received, 16 June; 29,000l., 
5 July; 30,000l., 12 July; 30,4111., 31 Oct. 5 
total, 30,423/., Nov. 

1881. 19 June; received up to 29 June, 25,0001. ; Nov. 


31,855). 
11 June; total receipts (9 Dec.) 34,1461. 
io June ; 26,o00l.; 19 June ; total, 33,935/.; 1 Dec. 
39,2991. 
1884. 15 June; 11 July; 32,0001. 

HospitaAL SATURDAYS IN LonpDoN for work- 
men, began 17 Oct. 1874, the movement being 
ereatly promoted by capt. Charles Mercier and lord 
Brabazon; about 6463/. said to have been collected : 


1882. 
1883. 


1875. 3rJdJuly. 53,3431. | 1880. 4 Sept. 6,6041. 
1876. 2Sept. . Regasl. | root. 3 Sept. \. 8,372. 
1877. rSept. . . 4,50ol. | 1882. 2Sept. . 8,86x1. 
1878. 7 Sept. . . 6,528. | 1883. 1 Sept. . 9,4971. 
1879. 6Sept. . 6,152l. | 1884. 6Sept. . . 10,1731. 


HOSPITALS, originally Hospitia for the 
reception of travellers. That at Jerusalem, built 
by the knights of St. John, 1112, was capable of 
receiving 2000 guests, and included an infirmary 
for the sick. The richly endowed ‘‘ five royal 
hospitals’? under ‘‘ the pious care of the lord-mayor 


HOST. 


424 


HUBERTSBURG. 


of London,’ &c., are St. Bartholomew’s, St. 

Thomas’s, Bridewell, Bethlehem, and Christ’s; 

which see, and Jnjfirmaries, and Dispensaries. 

Benjamin Attwood, who gave anonymously about 

250,000/. in cheques of 1000/. to hospitals, &c., 

died in 1874. 

Royal Commission respecting hospitals for in- 
fectious diseases (lord Blazhford, sir James 
Paget, and others) appointed ; Nov. 

Hospitals Association for the consideration and dis- 
cussion of hospital management, &c., originated 
in the National Social Science Association, 1881, 
et seg. ; establishment proposed . 1 Feb. 


1881 


1884 


Bethlehem (oldest lunatic asylum in Europe except 


one at Granada) founded . - 1547 
Cancer, Brompton . - : ; é : - 1851 
Charing-cross, founded 1818 ; new hospital built . 1831 
Consumption, Brompton . ; ‘ : . 1841 
Dental: + Ui vekaseate set rche . 1858 
Dreadnought ship (seaman’s) = 1eZE 
Evelina (baron Rothschild’s) . 1869 
Fever. : ; : i : 1802 
Free Royal, Gray’s Inn-lane . 1828 
German, Dalston . 1845 
Great Northern . 1856 
Guy’s (see Gwy’s) 2 : + 172t 
Hahnemann (homeopathic) . 1850 
Idiots’ ; : . 1847 
Incurables . 1850 
Jews’ . : sh 747 
King’s College . 1839 
Lock x 4G 
London . : ; ‘ ; ‘ * - 1740 
London Ophthalmic, Royal, Finsbury . : . 1804 
London Ophthalmic, Central, Gray’s Inn-road . . 1843 
Lying-in, British . ‘ . : : - 1749 

35 City of London 7 L750 

y General, Lambeth - 1765 

5 Queen Charlotte’s - £752 

a Queen Adelaide’s . 1824 
Middlesex R - 1745 
. Orthopeedie ‘ : ‘ : : : . 1838 
Samaritan Free, for women and children . . 1847 
Small Pox . : ; : ; ; : : - 1746 
St. Bartholomew’s (see Bartholomew, St.) . 1102, 1546 
St. George’s .  . F > ‘ é esta a3 
St. John’s, Leicester Square (skin) . - 1863 
St. Luke’s (lunatics) 3 : : a7 50 
St. Mark’s. P : 21635 
St. Mary-le-bone . : . 1871 
St. Mary’s, Paddington ; : - 1843 
St. Thomas’s (removed 1862 and 1871). SE RES Se 
Sick Children, 1851 ; new building opened . Nov. 1875 
Temperance Hospital, opened : ‘ Oct. 1873 
Throat and Ear diseases, Gray’s Inn-road March, 1874 
University College 4 A Seae ORS 
Westininster : ; : - 1719 
Westminster Ophthalmic, Royal . . 1816 
Women’s, Soho-square 1843 


Women and Children (superintended by women), 
Crawford-street : ; 5 : é . 1866 
HOST, ELEVATION OF THE, introduced into 

Roman Catholic worship, and prostration, said to 

have been enjoined about 1201. Pope Gregory IX. 

was the first pontiff who decreed a bell to be rung as 

a signal for the people to adore the host, 1228. Rees. 


HOT BLAST, see Blowing Machine. 
HOTEL DE VILLE, Paris, the residence 


of the chief magistrate, the prefect of the Seine, was . 


begun in 1533, and completed, after his own design, 
by Dominico da Cortona, 1628. Here La Fayette 
introduced Louis-Philippe, the citizen-king, to the 
people, Aug. 1830; and here the republic was pro- 
claimed, 26 Feb. 1848. The communists, who had 
established themselves here, set fire to the building, 
24 May, 1871, after their total defeat. The Hotel 
was ordered to be rebuilt, April, 1873, and was re- 
opened 13 July, 1882. 


HOTEL DIEU, sce Paris, 656, 187%. 
HOUR. The early Egyptians divided the da 


and night each into twelve hours, a custom ado 
by Jews or Greeks probably from the Babyloni 
The day is said to have been first divided into h 
from 293 B.c., when L. Papirius Cursor erect 
sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome. _ 
viously to the invention of water-clocks (which 
158 B.c., the time was called at Rome by pr 
criers. In England, the measurement of time 
in early days, uncertain: one expedient wa 
wax candles, three inches burning an hour, anc 
wax candles burning twenty-four hours, sai 
have been invented by Alfred, A.D. 886; see J 
For Hours of Prayer, see Breviary. The H 
daily conservative newspaper, first appeared 
March, 1873; last time, 11 Aug. 1876. 


HOUSE DUTY was imposed in 1695. 
rate was frequently changed till its repeal. It 
re-imposed as a substitute for the window-tax 
1851. In the year 1872-3 it produced 1,243,81 
in 1875-6, 1,421,052. See Zavxes. 


HOUSEHOLD SUFFRAGE, after 
year’s residence, was introduced into parliamen 
elections for boroughs, by the reform act passe 
Aug. 1867. Attempts have been frequently n 
to extend household suffrage to counties, and ] 
failed; Mr. G. O. Trevelyan’s proposal lost in 
commons (287 to 173), 13 May, 1874; (268 to1 
7 July, 1875; (264 to 165), 30 May, 18763 (27 
220), 29 June, 1877; (271 to 219), 22-23 Feb, 1. 
(291 to 226), 4 March, 1879. 


HOUSELESS POOR ACT (Metropoli 
passed, 1864; made perpetual, 1865. See Loor 


Artisans. 


HOUSE or Commons, Lorps, &¢., 
Parliament, Lords, and Commons. 


HOVAS, see Madagascar. 


HOWARD ASSOCIATION, institute: 
1866, under the patronage of the late lord Brougl 
for the improvement of prison discipline and 
vention of crime. See Prisons. The annual ay 
of a Howard medal was determined on by the | 
tistical Society of London, Dec. 1873. 


HOWARD FAMILY. John Howard, 
of Margaret, the heiress of the Mowbrays, 
created earl marshal and the 7th duke of Norfol 
1483. He was slain with his master, Richard | 
at Bosworth, 22 Aug, 1485. His son was rest 
to the earldom of Surrey in 1489; in reward 
having gained the victory of Flodden, 9 Sept. 1 
he was created the 8th duke of Norfolk, in 1 
Thomas, the 1oth duke, was beheaded for conspu 
against queen Elizabeth on behalf of Mary, qt 
of Scots, in 1572. Henry Fitzalan Howard, 1 
the 21st duke of Norfolk, and the 15th of 
Howard family, premier duke and earl of Engl 
and hereditary earl marshal, was born in 1847. 


HOWARD MEDAL. One was awarded 
the Statistical Society to the best essay “On 
Improvements in Education during the 18th : 
Toth centuries,’ in Noy. 1879. 

HOWITZER, a German piece of ordnat 
ranking between a cannon and a mortar, came 1 
use early in the 18th century. 


HUASCAR, see Peru, 1877 and 1879. 
HUBERTSBURG (Saxony). The tre 


between the empress, the king of Prussia, and | 
elector of Bavaria, signed here, 15 Feb. 1763, em 
the Seven years’ war, whereby Prussia gail 
Silesia. 


$$ 


HUDDERSFIELD. 


DDERSFIELD, a manufacturing town, 
Yorkshire, chiefly the property of the Rams- 
mily, Sir John Ramsden built the town- 
765. The theatre was burnt, 15th Feb. 1880; 
w market hall opened, 31 March, 1880. 
fusical Festival : : F 20-22 Oct. 1881 
+ and industrial exhibition opened 1 July, 1883 
ont park opened by the duke of Albany 

73°Oct. 5 
DIBRAS. The first three cantos of this 
al satire, by Samuel Butler, appeared in 
the other parts in 1664.and 1678. 


TDSON’S BAY, discovered by Sebastian 
1512, and re-discovered by captain Henry 
n, when in search of a north-west passage to 
acific Ocean, 1610, had been visited by 
her. The “governor and company of adven- 
of England trading to Hudson’s Bay,’’ obtained 
ter from Charles II. in 1670. The ‘‘fertile 
was settled by lord Selkirk in 1812. For 
territories the bishopric of Rupert’s Land 
unded, 1849. The charter having expired, 
ief part of the company’s territories, on the 
ition of earl Granville, the colonial secretary 
rch, 1869), were transferred to the Dominion 
ada for 300,000/., and a right to claim a cer- 
yrtion of land within fifty years, and other 
ees; the company having consented to this, 
], 1869. A portion of the people resisted the 
ation, and gen. Louis Riel proclaimed inde- 
ace and seized the company’s treasury, Jan. 
On 3 or 4 March he tried and shot Thomas 
a Canadian, who had escaped from his cus- 
Col. (afterwards lord) Wolseley con- 
|a Canadian expedition to the territories (now 
| Manitoba), and issued a proclamation to the 
inhabitants, 23 July, saying ‘‘our mission 
of peace.’’ Riel was unsupported and offered 
istance. The lieut.-governor, Adams George 
bald, arrived 3 Sept. See Manitoba. 
TH, see Tonguin, 1883. 
[TE AND CRY, the old common-law pro- 
‘pursuing ‘‘ with horn and with voice,”’ from 
ed to hundred, and. county to county, all 
s and felons. Formerly, the Awndred was 
to make good all loss occasioned by the rob- 
therein committed, unless the felon were 
; but by subsequent laws it is made answer- 
oly for damage committed by riotous 
dlies. The pursuit of a felon was aided 
description of him in the Hue and Cry, a 
e established for advertising felons in 1710. 


eet TEN, Baden; see Railway Acci- 
1882. 


‘GUENOTS, 2 term (derived by some from 
arman Lidgenossen, confederates; by others 
Lugues, a Genevese Calvinist) applied to the 
aed party in France, followers of Calvin. 
took up arms against their persecutors in 
_ After a delusive edict of toleration, a great 
rr were massacred at Vassy, 1 March, 1562, 
the civil wars began, which lasted with some 
ission till the edict of Nantes in 1598 


4 Aug. 1572, occurred during a truce; see 
ists, Protestants, Bartholomew, Edict, and 
wd. §.Smiles’s ‘ History of the Huguenots,”’ 
ed in 1867. The crypt in Canterbury cathe- 
assigned to French protestants in 1550, is 
ied by them for divine worship. 


LL (£. Yorkshire), a rising commercial 


: (re- | 
in 1685). The massacre of St. Bartholomew’s | 


426 


HUMMING-BIRDS. 


place in 1200, was named Kingston-upon-Hull in 
1296 by Edward I., who purchased the town, 
formed the port, and granted a charter. Great fire ; 
damage about 100,000/., 15 Aug. 1864. Royal 
Albert dock opened by the prince of Wales, 21 
July, 1869. Inauguration of the Alexandra dock, 
and the Hull and Barnsley railway, 23 Jan. 1883. 
Dr. Hillmuth appointed Suffragan Bishop of Huil 
(under Ripon), March, 1883. Fire at Messrs. Stead’s 
crushing mills, about 80,000/. damage, 16 March, 
1885. See under Popedlation. 


HULSE’S FOUNDATIONS. The rev. 
John Hulse, who died in 1790, bequeathed his 
estates in Cheshire to the university of Cambridge 
for the advancement of religious learning :—by the 
maintenance of two scholars; the payment of a 
prize of gol. annually for a theological dissertation ; 
the establishment of the office of Christian advocate 
(made a professorship of divinity, 1 Aug. 1860) ; and 
the payment of a lecturer, to be chosen annually. 
The first Hulsean lectures were given by the rev. 
Christopher Benson, in 1820. 


HUMAITA, astrong post on the river Para- 
guay, fortified at a great cost with a battery of 
300 cannon, by Lopez, the president of Paraguay, 
and believed to be impregnable, was passed by the 
Brazilian ironclads, 17 Feb. 1868. On the rgth, 
Caxias, the Brazilian general, stormed a work to 
the north of Humaité, and captured many stores. 
Humaita itself, after a severe slege, was abandoned, 


24 July, 1868. 
HUMANE SOCIETY, ROYAL (London), 


for the recovery of persons apparently drowned, 
was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, Heberden, 
Towers, Lettsom, Hawes, and Cogan, but princi- 
pally by the last three. ‘The society has above 280 
depdéts supplied with apparatus. ‘The principal one 
was erected in 1794, on a spot of ground given by 
George III. on the north side of the Serpentine 
river, Hyde-park. The motto of this society is 
appropriate — ‘‘ Lateat scintillula forsan’’—‘‘a 
small spark may perhaps lie hid;”’ see Drowning. 


HUMANISM, aname given to the philoso- 
phical study of man’s personality as distinguished 
from a elass, especially advanced by Petrarch and 
other energetic advocates of the revival of the study 
of ancient classic literature, termed the “new 
learning,” and (‘‘ litere humaniores”’) the age of 
the renaissance, in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centu- 
ries, whereby freedom of thought and language 
was greatly promoted. 


HUMANITARIANS, asmall sect in London, 
founded by Mr, Kaspary, a German Jew. Their 
moral principles are set forth in ‘‘The Fifteen Doc- 
trines of the Religion of God,’ written in 1866. 
These include pantheism and transmigration ofsouls. 


HUMANITY, RELIGION oF, see Positive 
Philosophy, and Secularism. 

HUMILIATI, a congregation of monks, said 
to have been formed by some Milanese nobles, who 
had been imprisoned by Frederick I. 1162. The 
order had more than ninety monasteries; but 
was abolished for luxury and cruelty by pope 
Pius V., and the houses were given to the 
Dominicans, Cordeliers, and other communities in 
1570. 


HUMMING-BIRDS. Mr. Gould’s beautiful 
collection of the skins of these birds exhibited at 
the Zoological Gardens, London, in 1851, was bought 
with other birds for the British museum for 3000/., 
April, 1881. His elaborate work on them in five 


HUNDRED. 


folio volumes, with richly coloured plates, was com- 
pleted in 1862. 


HUNDRED, a Danish institution, was a part 
of a shire, so called, as is supposed, from its having 
been composed of a hundred families, at the time 
the counties were originally divided, about 897. 
The hundred-court is a court-baron held for all the 
inhabitants of a hundred instead of a manor. 


HUNDRED DAYS; a term given to Napoleon’s resto- 
ration, dating from his arrival in Paris, 20 March, 
to his departure on 29 June, 

HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR, in French history, com- 
menced with the English i invasion in 1337. 


HUNGARY, part of the ancient Pannonia and 
Dacia, was subjected to the Romans about 106, and 
retained by them till the 3rd century, when it was 
seized by the Goths, who were expelled about nu 
by the Huns. See Avs, and Attila. After Attila’s 
death, in 453, the Gepide, and in 500the Lombards 
held the country. It was acquired by the Avars 
about 568, and retained by them till their destruc- 
tion by Charlemagne in 799. About 890 the 
country was settled by a Scythian tribe, named 
Vingours or Ungri (whence the German name 
Ungarn) and the Magyars of Finnish origin. The 
chief of the latter, Arpad (889), was the ancestor of 
a line of kings (see below). The progress of the 
Magyars westward was checked by their defeat by 
the emperor Henry the Fowler, 934. Population 
of the kingdom, including Transylvania, Fiume, 
Croatia, and Slavonia, 31 Dec. 1880, 15,642, 102. 
See Austria. 

Stephen, founder of the monarchy of Hungary, em- 
braces and establishes Christianity and subdues 
the Slaves, &ec., receives the title of the Apostolic 
king from the pope : - : < 

The Poles overrun Hungary 5 . I061 

Bela III. introduces the Greek civilisation 1174, WC. 

Ravages of the Tartars under the sons of Genghis 
Khan, throughout Hungary, Bohemia, and Russia, 

1241 et seq. 
personal 
- 1222 
- I301 


1815 


997 


Golden Bull of Andrew II. 
TIEHTS) As a A - - > 

Death of Andrew phe ag end of the Arpad dynasty 

Victories of Louis the Great in Bulgaria, Servia, 
and Dalmatia - 1344-82 

He marches into Italy and av enges the murder ot 
his brother, Andrew, king of Naples 

Sanguinary anarchy: Elizabeth, queen of Louis, 
is drowned: and King Mary, the daughter, mar- 
ries Sigismond, of Brandenburg ; eens av ern with 
great severity 


[The Hungarians had an aversion to the name e of 
queen; and whenever a female succeeded to the 
throne, she was termed king. ] 

Sigismond’ 8 atrocious cruelties cor pel his subjects 
to invite the assistance of the Turks 

Battle of Nicopolis: Bajazet vanquishes Sigismond 
and a large army ae: Sept. 

Sigismond “obtains the crown ‘of Bohemia, and is 
elected emperor of Germany 

Albert of Austria succeeds 
Hungary 

Victories of the great John Hunniades (reputed 
illegitimate son of Sigismond) over the Turks mae 

Who obtain a truce of ten years . 1444 

Broken by Ladislas king of Hungary (at the pope’s 
instigation) ; he is defeated and slain, with the 
papal legate, at Varna TO NOV.) G 

John Hunniades escapes ; becomes regent 1444-53 

Raises siege of Belgrade, 14 July; dies 10 Nept. _». 1456 

Hungarians insult Turkish ambassadors ; war en- 
sues: Solyman IT. takes Buda . . 1526 

Disastrous battle of Mohatz (which see) 20,.Aug. 7/5 

Hungary subject to Austria . : 

Peace of Vienna, granting toleration to Pr otestants, 

23 June, 

John Sobieski defeats the Turks in several battles, 
anc raises the siege of Vienna . «2 Nov. 

The duke of Lorraine retakes Buda (which sce) 


granting 


to the throne of 


1606 


1683 
- 1686 


426 


HUNGARY. 


Prince Louis of Baden defeats the Turks at Salenc 


kemen tg Aug 
Prince Hugene defeats them at Zenta ir Sept 
Peace of Carlowitz 26 Jan 


Pragmatic sanction, authorising female SuUCCeSSI0: 
to the throne . 

Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey at the peac 
of Belgrade S 

The Hungarians enthusiastically support Marie 
Theresa against France and Bavaria A 

The protestants permitted to have churches. 

Independence of Hungary guaranteed 

The diet meets ; Hungarian academy established 

The people, long discontented with the Austria 
rule, break out into rebellion 11 Sept 


Murder of the military governor, count Lamberg 
by a mob at Pesth; the Hungarian diet appoin 
a provisional government under Kossuth an 
Louis Batthyany, 28 Sept. ; sel m3 defea 
the ban of Croatia . 3 9 Sept 

The diet denounces as traitors all who acknowl 
the emperor of Austria as king of Hungary 

8 Dec 

The insurgents defeated by the Austrians a 

Szaikszo, 21 Dec.; at Mohr by the ban Jellachich 
29 Dec 

Buda-Pesth taken by Windischgratz . 5 Jan 
Bem defeats the Austrians at Hermannstadt 
21 Jan 

Hungary declares itself a free state; Kossut 
supreme governor . 74 Ape 

The Hungarians defeat the Imperialists befor Gran 

18 April 

March of the Russian army through Gallicia t 
assist the Austrians . . z May 

The Austro-Russian troops “defeat the Hungarian 
at Pered 20 June 

Battles of Acs between the Hungarians and Aus 
trians; former retire . 2, 10 July 


Hungarians defeat Jellachich . - : July 
The Hungarians defeated by the Russians: Gorge 
retreats after three days’ battle . 15 July 


Battle before Komorn, between the insurgents an 
the Austro-Russian army . ‘ : 16 July 
Insurgents under Bem enter Moldavia, 23 July 
defeated by the Russians at Schissberg 31 July 
Utter defeat of the Hungarian army betore Temes 
war, by gen. Haynau to Aug 
Gorgey and his army surrender to the mee | 
13 ug 

Kossuth, Andrassy, Bem, &c., escape to the Turkis! 
sn and are placed under pera a 


New Orsova (see Turkey) . : 1 Aug 
Komorn surrenders to the Austrians; ibaa ‘of th 
war. 27 Sept 


Louis Batthyany tried at Pesth, and shot ; man, 
other insurgent chiefs put to death 6 Oct 

Amnesty g granted to the Hungarian insurgents, wh: 
return home . ; : A . . 16 Oct 

Bem dies at Aleppo. to Dec 
The country remains in an unsettled ‘state; man, 
executions 

Crown of St. Stephen and roy al insignia discovere 


and sent to Vienna. i 8 Sept 
Amnesty for political offenders of 1848-9 12 July 
The emperor and empress visit Buda . 4 May 


During the Italian war in 1859, an insurrection 11 
Hungary was in contemplation, and communica 
tions took place between Louis Napoleon an 
Kossuth; which circumstances it is said led tli 
emperor of Austria to accede to the peace of Villa 
franca so suddenly, and shortly afterwards t 
promise many reforms and to grant a libert; 
to the protestants in Hungary 5 Aug. -Oct 

Recall of archduke Albert; general Benedek ap 
pointed governor . April 

Demand for restoration of the old ‘constitution ; re 
union of the Banat and. Voivodina with Hons, 4 
OC. iaks s C 

Restoration of old constitution promised 20 Oct 


Schmerling appointed minister ; . 13 Dee 
National conference at Gran . “Dee 
Demand for the constitution of 1848 Jan 


The emperor promulgates a new liberal ie oe 


tion for the empire . _» 26 Fet 
Which does not satisfy the Hungarians March 
Hungarian diet opened . = . 6 April 


ei ; 


> ‘ ¥ 
h ’ 
Foy 


HUNGARY. 


¢ of the Reichsrath at Vienna: no deputies 
mt from Hungary or Croatia 29 April, 
Teleki (see Austria, 1860) found dead in his 
it Pesth: intense excitement . 8 May, 
+ votes an address to the emperor, desiring 
ration of the old constitution - sduly, 
litary begin to levy the taxes . July, 
al rescript refusing the entire independence 
angary, 21 July: the diet protests, 20 Aug. ; 
sdissolved 21 Aug. 
chbishop of Gran, the primate, indignantly 
sts against the act of the imperial govern- 
Sept. -Oct. 
ned ‘to Vienna; he stands firm 25 Oct. 
igistrates in the comitat of Pesth resign ; 
ary government established ; passive resist- 
of the nobility . : Dec. 
ty declared for political offences, and cessa- 
of prosecutions. @ 28: Nov; 
upers confiscated for publishing seditious 
hes . 29 March, 
nperor ‘visits Buda- Pesth; well accived: 
uration of a new policy ; the Seclaes of Hun- 
to be restored . 9 June, 
ul rescript, abolishing the PeeRatative con- 
tion of the empire, with the view of restoring 
vendence of Hungary, de. 21 Sept. 
ak or moderate party demand restoration of 
monarchy, with a responsible government, 
1 Nov. 


peror visits Pesth ; the diet opened, 14 Dec. ; 
Szentivanyi elected president o Dec. 
wr and empress arrive at Pesth 29 Jan. 
rian legions join the Prussian army, June; 
‘the peace, they were allowed to return to 
allegiance) A oe Oct: 
zed political negotiations for autonomy ; 
and national party wearied, threaten to 
a : Oct. 
rian diet opened by a conciliatory Based 
Nov. 
address in reply, demanding the fetes ation 
e constitution, adopted by the diet with a 
majority ts WCC: 
pposition to the convocation of the Reichs- 
Jan. 
tion of the constitution of 1848 ; ; an inde- 
ent ministry «healing headed by count 
s Andrassy wary Rebs 
roats protest as vainst rpesation. with 
sary : 25 May, 
uperor and empress ‘crowned at Buda with 
ncient ceremonies . 8 June, 
ty granted for all political offences g June, 
‘onation gift to the emperor of 50,000 ducats 
wed on orphans and invalids ro June, 
sion between the Austrians and Hungarians 
iting the division of the liability for the 


nal debt . Aug. -Sept. 
neial_ convention signed ‘by deputations, 
23 Sept. 


h’s letter to his constituents at~Waitzen, 


wing Deak and the moderate party Oct. 
ined by Klapka and other liberals Nov. 
Nazarenes,” a sect resembling Quakers, be- 
prominent Nov. 


or financial arrangement with ‘Austria, and 
2wish emancipation, received royal assent, 

29 Dec. 
Mal by jury of press offences; (fine and im- 
nment inflicted for publishing a letter of 
uth - 27 Feb. 
h (elected a member of the legislature) 
as by letter . ETA ADT, 
clan deputation accepts union with Bhhe gary, 


27 May, 

Napoleon Jerome’s visit; warmly received, 
June, 

» respecting the apportionment of the army 
id 5 Dec. 
ot of. 1865 closed with an address from the 
ror o Dec. 
3s of Hungarian Jews opened ; J oseph MibyoS 
ister . 14 Dee. 


‘al counter-addresses from eater and 
ath published ; Pie ell. 


dungarian guard organised J Se OuneD. 


427 


1861 


3? 


29 


3? 


1869 


2? 


HUNGARY. 


Chamber of deputies meet . _ 22 April, 
Remains of Louis Batthyany (executed and pri- 
vately buried, Oct. 1849), re-interred solemnly in 
the public cemetery, Pesth g June, 
Joseph Eodtvos, author, patriot, and pniotee died, 
deeply lamented, aged 58 a 3 Feb. 
Autumn military manceuvres, near Waitzen, 22 Sept. 
et seq. 
Andrassy succeeds count von Beust as foreign minis- 
ter at Vienna; count Lonyay, Hungarian | premier, 
Nov. 
The diet, dissolved, 
16 April, 
Elections ; increased majority of the Deak or con- 
stitutional party, July; diet opened 4 Sept. 
Resignation of the count Lonyay ministry, 2 Dec. ; 
Szlavy forms a ministry . ’ : Dec. 
The Fiume railway partly opened . - 24 June, 
Buda-Pesth formally constituted the capital, Nov. 
Ministry resigns ; crisis; Bitto forms a cabinet, 
20 March, 
Parliament closes or TA Aug. 
Ministry resigns, 11x Feb. ; coalition ministry under 
baron yon Wenckheim for med, 26 Feb.—1z March, 
Elections ; greatly in favour of ‘government J uly, 
Koloman Tisza, chief of the ministry 20 Oct, 
Death of the patriot, Francis Deak, 28 Jan., state 
funeral . 3 Feb. 
Ministerial crisis ; Tisza resigns ; remains in votes 
Feb. 
Projected raid into Roumania to favour the Turks 
checked ; censured by Klapka end of Sept. 


after sitting three years, 


| Miskolez nearly destroyed by a waterspout, 30 Aug. 


Resignation of Szell, finance minister, 26 Sept. ; 
followed by that of the Tisza ministry 4 Oct. 
Tisza ministry retained modified f 5 LDec, 
Distressing inundation at Szegedin ; great loss of 
life and property (see Jnuwndations), 
12, 13, March, and 12 Dee. 
Murder of lord chief justice George Von Majlath 
von Szekhely, about 4 29 Mar. 
Joseph Scharf and nine other Jews tried at Nyireghy- 
haza for alleged murder of a Christian maid, 
Esther Solymosi (on r April, 1882) - June, 
Acquitted A Aug. 
Violent anti-jewish riots Pesth, Zala, Egersseg, &e, 
July, Aug. ; martial law proclaimed 29-30 y Aug. 
Three men convicted of the murder of the chief 


justice : 6 Oct. 
Thirty-six Socialists arrested ‘at Pesth; many ex- 
pelled about . 13 Mar. 
Liberal majority in the ‘elections, about 13 June, 


SOVEREIGNS. 


1869 
1870 
1871 


39 


be) 


1884 


9 


997. St. Stephen, duke of Hungary (son of Geisa); es- 
tablished the Roman catholic religion (1000), 
and received from the pope the title of Apostolic 
King, still borne by the emperor of Austria, as 


king of Hungary. 
Peter, the German ; 
Aba or Owen. 
Peter, again: deposed; and his eyes put out. 
Andrew I.; deposed. 
Bela I.: killed by the fall of a ruinous tower. 
Salamon, son of Andrew. 
Geisa I. son of Bela. 
Ladislas I. the Pious. 
Coloman, son of Geisa. 
Stephen IT. named Thunder. 
Bela II.: had his eyes put out. 
Geisa II.: succeeded by his son, 
Stephen III.: and Stephen IV. (anarchy). 
Bela III.: succeeded by his son, 
Emeric: succeeded by his son, 
Ladislas II.; reigned six months only. 


1038. deposed. 
1041. 
1044. 
1047. 
1061. 
1064. 
1075. 
1077. 
1095- 
I1I4. 
1131. 
II4I. 
1161. 
1173- 
1196. 
1204. 


1205. Andrew II. son of Bela ITI. 
1235. Bela IV. 
1270. Stephen IV. (or V.) his son. 


1272. Ladislas III.: killed. 
1290. 
Rodolph of Hapsburg 
of the house of Arpad), died 1301. 
1301. 
who gave way to 
1309. Charobert, or Charles Robert of Anjou. 
1342. 


1382. Mary, called King Mary, daughter of Louis. 


Andrew III. surnamed the Venetian, son-in-law of 
, emperor of Germany (last 


Wenceslas of Bohemia, and (1305) Otho of Bavaria, 


Louis I. the Great; elected king of Poland, 1370 


_« 
‘ 
‘ i 


‘ 


HUNGERFORD BRIDGE. 


428 


HYDE PARK. 


7385-6. Charles Durazzo. 

1387. Mary and her consort Sigismond: the latter be- 
came king of Bohemia, and was elected emperor 
in 1410. 

Sigismond alone (on the death of Mary). 

Albert, duke of Austria, married Elizabeth, daughter 
of Sigismond, and obtains the thrones of Hun- 
gary, Bohemia, and Germany ; dies suddenly. 

Elizabeth alone: she marries 

Ladislas IV. king of Poland, of which kingdom he 
was Ladislas VI.: slain at Varna. 

[Interregnum. ] 

John Hunniades, regent. 

Ladislas V. posthumous son of Albert: poisoned. 

Matthias-Corvinus, son of Hunniades. 

Ladislas VI. king of Bohemia: the emperor Maxi- 
milian laid claim to both kingdoms. 

Louis II. of Hungary (I. of Bohemia): loses his 
life at the battle of Mohatz. 

(John Zapolski, waivode of Transylvania, elected 
by the Hungarians, and supported by the sul- 
tan Solyman; by treaty with Ferdinand, he 
founds the principality of Transylvania, 


1392. 
1437. 


1439. 
1440. 


1444. 
1445. 
1458. 


1490. 


1516. 


1526. ~ 


15306. 

[resthiana I. king of Bohemia, brother to the 

emperor Charles V.; rival kings. 

. Ferdinand alone: elected emperor, 1558. 

. Maximilian, son; emperor in 1564. 

. Rodolph, son; emperor in 1576. 

. Matthias II. brother; emperor in 1612. 

. Ferdinand II. cousin, emperor. 

. Ferdinand III. son; emperor, 1637. 

. Ferdinand IV. son; died in 1654, three years before 
his father. 

. Leopold I. brother: emperor, 1657. 

. Joseph I. son: emperor in 1705. 

. Charles VI. (of Germany), brother, and nominal 
king of Spain. 

. Maria-Theresa, daughter; empress; survived her 
consort, emperor Francis I., from 1765 until 
1780; see Germany. 

. Joseph II. son, emperor in 1765: succeeded to 
Hungary on the death of his mother. 

. Leopold II. brother; emperor; succeeded by his 
son, 

. Francis I. son (Francis II. as emperor of Ger- 
many): in 1804 he became emperor of Austria 
only. 

. Ferdinand V. son: Ferdinand I. as emperor of 
Austria. 

1848. Francis-Joseph, emperor of Austria, nephew; suc- 

ceeded on the abdication of his uncle, 2 Dec. 
1848; crowned king of Hungary, 8 June, 1867. 
See Austria. 


HUNGERFORD BRIDGE,* over the 
Thames from Hungerford-stairs to the Belvedere- 
road, Lambeth, opened I May, 1845, was taken 
down in July, 1862, to make way for the Charing- 
cross railway-bridge, and transferred to Clifton 
{which see). The market (opened in July, 1833), 
was removed at the same time. 


HUNS, a race of warlike Asiatics, said to have 
conquered China, about 210 B.c., and to have been 
expelled therefrom about a.D. 90. They invaded 
Hungary, about 376, and drove out the Goths. 
Marching westward, under Attila, they were tho- 
roughly beaten at Chalons by the consul Aétius, 
451; see Attila. 


HUNTERIAN SOCIETY (surgical) esta- 
blished Feb. 1819 ; first president, sir Wm. Blizard. 
See Surgeons, College of. : 


HUNTING: an ancient pastime. The “ Bokys 


* It was 14 feet wide, and 1342 feet long; the length 
of the central span, between the two piers, 676 feet; 
the height of the two towers 55 feet above the footway, 
and 84 above high water; the piers were in the Italian 
style, with the chains passing through the attie of each. 
The cost of the masonry was 60,o000l.; of the ironwork, 
exceeding 700 tons in weight, 17,000l.; of the approaches, 
13,000l.: total, 102,245l. Architect, I. K. Brunel, 


of Hawking and Huntyng,” by Dame Jul 
Barnes, was printed at St. Alban’s, 1486. 


HUNTINGDON, see Whitefieldites, 


HURRICANES, see Cyclones. 


HUSSARS, Hungarian militia, provide 
the landholders; instituted by Matthias Cory 
about 1359. (Hussar is derived from huss, 20: 
ar, price.) The British Hussars were enrolle 
1759: 

HUSSITES. After the death of Huss,*1 
of his followers took up arms, in 1419, and forn 
political party under John Ziska, and built 
city of Tabor. He defeated the emperor Sigisn: 
11 July, 1420, and a short truce followed. Z 
blinded at the siege of Rabi, beat all the wm 
sent against him. He died of the plague, 18 
1424, and is said to have ordered a drum to be: 
of his skin to terrify his enemies even after d 
Two Hussite generals, named Procopius, def 
the imperialists in 1431; and a temporary | 
ensued. Divisions took place among the Hus: 
and on 30 May, 1434, they were defeated, and 
copius the elder slain at Bomischbrod or Liy 
Toleration was granted by the treaty of Iglau, 
Sigismond entered Prague 23 Aug. 1436. The! 
sites opposed his successor, Albert of Austria, 
called Casimir of Poland to the throne; but 
defeated in 1438. A portion of the Hussites ex 
in the time of Luther, and were called ‘‘ Bohe 
brethren.” 


HUSTINGS (said to be derived from / 
court, an assembly among the Anglo-Saxons) 
ancient court of London, being its supreme cou 
judicature, as the court of common couneil | 
legislature. The court of hustyngs was grant 
the city of London, to be holden and kept we 
by Edward the Confessor, 1052. One was held to 
law defaulters, 6 Dec. 1870. Winchester, Lin 
York, &c., were also granted hustings courts. 


HUTCHINSONIANS included many 
nent clergy, who did not form any sect, but 
the opinions of John Hutchinson, of York 
(1674-1737) ; they rejected the Newtonian sys 
and contended that the scriptures contain a com 
system of natural philosophy. His work, “ i 
Principia,’ was published in 1724. He derive 
things from the air, whence, he said, proceeded 
light, and spirit, types of the Trinity. In 171 
invented a time-piece for finding the longitude 
died in 1737. 


HYDASPES, a river in India, where A 
ander the Great defeated Porus, after a sev 
contested engagement; 327 B.C. 


HYDE-PARK (London, W.), the an 
manor of Hyde, belonging to the abbey of ¥ 
minster, became crown property at the dissolw 
1535. It was sold by parliament in 1652; but 
resumed by the king at the restoration mm 1 
The Serpentine was formed 1730-33. 


Colossal statue of Achilles, cast from cannon taken 
in the battles of Salamanca, Vittoria, Toulouse, 


* The clergy having instigated the pope to issue 4 
against heretics, John Huss (born in Bohemia 1 13) 
zealous preacher of the Reformation, was cited to a] 
before a council of divines at Constance, the em 
Sigismond sending him a safe-conduct. He prest 
himself accordingly, but was thrown into prison, 
after some months’ confinement was adjudged t 
burned alive, which he endured with resignation, ¢ 
July, 1415. Jerome of Prague, his intimate friend, 
came to this council to support and second him, 
suffered death by fire, 30 May, 1416, although he als 
a safe-conduct. 


a 


a a 


HYDERABAD. 


Waterloo, and inscribed to ‘‘ Arthur, Duke of 
ington, and his brave companions inarms, by 
r countrywomen,” erected on. 18 June, 1822 
Park corner entrance erected. : SR tS 
, arch from Buckingham Palace set up at 
‘berland Gate. ; : . 29 March, 1850 
1 palace erected for the great exhibition. . 1857 
pances in consequence of a Sunday bill hay- 
yeen brought before parliament by lord Robert_ 
svenor, which was eventually withdrawn, 
Sundays, 24 June, and 1 and 8 July, 
is meetings held here, on account of the high 
3 of bread Sundays r4, 21, 28 Oct. 
*ratic meetings on the reform question, March, 
ieen reviewed 18,450 volunteers 23 June, 
neeting of admirers of Garibaldi, 28 Sept ; who 
riolently attacked by the Irish ; many persons 
nded 3 ; é ‘ ; : 5 Oct. 
meetings in the park henceforth ee 
c 5 > 
volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales, 

28 May, 1864 
sed reform meeting in the park opposed ; 
t rioting ; the palings broken down, and much 
age done ; fierce conflicts with the police, and 
yur ‘ : : « 23, 24 July, 
‘ul reform demonstrations in the park, 

6 May and 5 Aug. 
itions with restrictions on public meeting in 
parks issued (afterwards modified) Oct. 
ig of Fenian sympathisers in Hyde park con- 
y to the regulations : : SeINUVe 55 
and others prosecuted and fined . Tats Pe 
mvictions confirmed by the judges on appeal 
22 Jan. 
meeting on behalf of the Tichborne claimant, 
Kenealy and Mr. Guildford Onslow present, 

Easter Monday, 29 March, 1875 
meetings for and against government policy 
the eastern question 
Sundays 24 Feb. and ro March, 
orderly meeting to protest against arrest of 
1 agitators (Killen, Daly, and Davitt) 
| 30 Nov. 
| 40,000 persons meet to protest against 
3t of Mr. Parnell and others; Mr. O’Donnell 
f speaker ; little sympathy 23 Oct. 
meeting to support the London government 
. : “ : . : : rg JULY, 
‘demonstration ; seven meetings of trade dele- 
's, political clubs, &c., about 40,000, to pro- 

against the peers’ rejection of the franchise 
‘and to support the Gladstone Ministry 
| ar ouly;. 5; 
‘istration for abolition of house of lords; nine 
tings, Sunday BO OCLs ws, 


(DERABAD (S. India), the territory of the 
‘a, who derives his authority from Azof Jah, 
-f under Aurungzebe, who made him viceroy as 


1855 


9? 
1859 
1860 


1862 


1873 


1878 


1879 


1881 
1884 


a-ool-Moolk, regulator of the state. He died 
{8. 
ivar between his descendants ensues 1748-65 


t Ali dethroned his brother, 1761 ; ravaged 
Carnatic, 1765; made a treaty with the Hast 
a Company, 1766; he joined Hyder Ali ; left 
), 1768; acquired part of Tippoo Sultan’s terri- 
8; and became feudatory of the British 
ire, 1799, et seg.; died . é : : : 
f his suecessors, Secunder Jah, ruled feebly ; 
, Sueceeded by an illegitimate son 

fizam died, leaving his young son in charge 
Jalar Jung; enjoining him to support the 
ish during the mutiny, which he did faith- 
ash ; : ‘ 5 4 2 2 . 1857-8 
iar Jung made K.C.S8.I. ; visits Europe ; pre- 

ed to the Queen, 29 June ; returned to Bom- 

24 Aug. 1876; died . 3 : . 8 Feb. 1883 
joung Nizam Mir Mahbub Ali (aged 18) 

| uled at Hyderabad by the viceroy of India, 
Marquis of Ripon . : - : 5 Feb. 1884 


| “DRAULIC PRESS, see under Hydro- 
' 


|"DROCHLORIC ACID or CuitorHyD- 


{OID, the only known compound of chlorine 


429 


HYDROSTATICS. 


and hydrogen, was discovered by Dr. Priestley, 1772 ; 
its constitution determined by Davy, 1810. It is 
also called muriatic acid and spirits of salts; see 
under Alhalies. 


HYDROGEN (from hydor, water). Paracelsus 
observed a gas rise from a solution of iron in oil of 
vitriol, about 1500; Turquet de Mayerne discovered 
its inflammability, 1656; as did Boyle, 1672; Le- 
mery noticed its detonating power, 1700. In 1766 
Cavendish proved it to be an elementary body; and 
in 1781, he and Watt first showed that in the com- 
bination of this gas with oxygen, which takes place 
when it is burnt, water is produced; subsequently 
Lavoisier decomposed water into its elements, and 
gave hydrogen its present name instead of ‘‘inflam- 
mable air.”” One volume of oxygen combines with 
two volumes of hydrogen toform water. Hydrogen 
is never found in the free state. It was liquefied 
by Raoul Pictet and Cailletet, end of 1877. 


HYDROGENIUM, a hypothetical metal. 


| In a paper read before the Royal Society, 7 Jan. 


1869, Mr. Thomas Graham, master of the Mint, 
suggested that a piece of the metal palladium, into 
which hydrogen had been pressed, became an ‘alloy 
of the volatile metal hydrogenium.’’ 


HYDROGRAPHY is the description of the 
surface waters of the earth. The first sea-chart is 
attributed to Henry the Navigator, in the 16th cen- 
tury. There is a hydrographic department in the 
British admiralty, by which a series of charts has 
been issued. 


HYDROMETER, the instrument by which 
is measured the gravity, density, and other pro- 
perties of liquids. The oldest mention of the 
hydrometer occurs in the 5th century, and may be 
found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia; but it 
is not improbable that Archimedes was the inventor 
of it, though no proofs of it are to be found. Beck- 
mann, Archimedes was killed in 212 B.c., and 
Hypatia was torn to pieces at Alexandria, A.D. 415. 
Robert Boyle described a hydrometer in 1675: 
Baumé’s (1762) and Sykes’, about 1818, have been 
much employed. Modifications of the apparatus 
have been invented. 


HY DROPATHY, a term applied to the treat- 
ment of diseases by cold water, practised by Hippo- 
erates in the qth century B.c., by the Arabs in the 
Ioth century A.D., and revived by Dr. Currie in 
1797. Asystem was suggested in 1825 by Vincenz 
Priessnitz, of Grafenberg, in Austrian Silesia. The 
rational part of the doctrine was understood and 
maintained by Dr. Sydenham, before 1689. Priess- 
nitz died 26 Nov. 1851. 

A grand hydropathic establishment at Bushey. Herts, 


opened, 13 Feb. 1883. Many others exist throughout 
the kingdom. 


HYDROPHOBIA. M. Pasteur said to have 
discovered a method for mitigating the effects of 
this disease, analogous to vaccination. He ex- 
perimented with the virus upon rabbits, monkeys, 
&c. May; successful upon dogs, Aug. 1884. 

HYDROSTATICS, &c., were probably first 
studied in the Alexandrian school about 300 B.C, 


Pressure of fluids discovered by Archimedes, 
about B.c. 2 


50 
The forcing pump and air fountain invented by Hero 

about 120 

Water mills were known ZI ; . about A.D. I 
The science revived by Galileo, Castellio, Torricelli, 
and Pascal (who suggested the principle of the 
hydraulic press) . F : 17th century 

The theory of rivers scientifically understood in 1697 


The correct theory of fluids and oscillation of waves 
explained by Newton : : 


HYGEIOPOLIS. 


430 


HYTHE. 


A scientific form was given to hydro-dynamics, by 
Bernouilli : . : F : ; ‘ 
Joseph Bramah’s hydrostatic or hydraulic press pa- 
tented first in : 5 : 2 ; aye! 
Sir Wm. Armstrong’s hydraulic crane patented ek p40 
John Crowther’s . : ; : A ; ApVeg 
Dr. Emil Fleischer’s Hydromotor successfully ap- 
plied to the propulsion of ships on the Elbe, 
near Dresden : é tz Oct. 1883 


HYGEIOPOLIS (city of health), planned by 
Dr. B. Ward Richardson, in 1876. A company was 
proposed for its erection, Jan. 1877. No result. 


HYGIENE (Hygieia, goddess of health), see 
Life and Sanitary. 


HYGROMETER, an instrument for measur- 
ing the moisture in the atmosphere. That by 
Saussure (who died in 1799) is most employed. It 
consists of a human hair boiled in caustic lye, and 
acts on the principle of absorption. Brande. 
Daniell’s hygrometer (1820) is much esteemed. M. 
Crova’s new hygrometer, said to be very accurate, 
described, June, 1882. 


HYMNS. The song of Moses is the most an- 
cient, I49I1 B.c. (Hxod. xv.) The Psalms date 
from about 1060 B.c. to about 444 B.C. (from David 
to Ezra). The hymns of the Jews were frequently 
accompanied by instrumental music. Paul (A.D. 
64) speaks of Christians admonishing one another 
“in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs’’ (Cod. 
ili. 16.) The composition of hymns for the 
Christian church is very ancient. The hymns 


of Dr. Watts (died 1784), of John Wesley (died 


1791), and of his brother Charles (died 
are used by English churchmen and diss 
‘‘Hymns, Ancient and Modern,” edited by 1 
Henry Baker, first appeared in 1860. 


HYPNOTISM (Greek hypnos, sleep) o 
vous sleep, terms given by Mr. Braid (in 184: 
sleep-like condition, produced in a person by st 
fixing his mind on one particular object. 
surgical operations have, it is said, been perf 
without pain on persons in this state. See 
merism. 


HYPOTHEC, LAw of, in Scotland 
landlords a preferential right to levy for rei 
follow and seize crops and cattle. <A bill - 
abolition was brought in annually since 1874 
was read a second time 19 March, 1879, but ¢ 
pass till 24 March, 1880 (43 Vict. ¢. 12); 
came into operation 11 Nov. 1881. 


HYPSOMETERHER, a thermometrical bar 
for measuring altitudes, invented by F. J. Wol 
in 1817, much improved by Regnault, about | 


HYRCANIA, Asia, near the Caspian, : 
vince subject to Persia, B.C. 334 3 held 2 
thians, 244. It is now Mazenderan, a 
province. 


HYTHEH, Kent, a cinque-port. A sch 
musketry was established here in 1854, und 
charge of major-gen. Charles Crawford Hay 
resigned in 1867. Railway to Sandgate 9 
9 Oct. 1874. 


| ite 


IAMBIC VERSE. 


IDES. 


[BIC VERSE. Iambe, an attendant of 
ira, wife of Celeus, king of Sparta, when 
to exhilarate Ceres, while the latter was tra- 
over Attica in quest of her daughter Proser- 
atertained her with jokes, stories, and poetical 
ns; and from her, free and satirical verses 
een called Jambics. -Apollodorus. Jambic 
were first written about 700 B.c., by Archi- 
, who had courted Neobule, the daughter of 
bes; but, after a promise of marriage, the 
preferred another suitor, richer than the poet ; 
ipon Archilochus wrote so bitter a satire on 
d man’s avarice, that he hanged himself. 
tus. 


IRIA, see Georgia, and Spain. 


}. Galileo observed ice to be lighter than 
about 1597. See Congelation, where is a 
of the ice-making machines of Harrison and 
e. In 1841 there were sixteen companies in 
, U.S., engaged in exporting ice, brought 
Wenham lake and Fresh and Spy Ponds, 
[8 miles from that city. The trade was begun 
. Tudor in 1806. 156,540 tons were sent 
joston alone in 1854. In New York, in 1855, 
otons werestored up, of which 20,000 were for 
ation. The Wenham lake company import ice 
‘from their ponds near Christiania, Norway, 
whence 43,359 tons were shipped to Great 
1in 1865. : 
ion and other properties, exhibited by professor 
lay, in 1850, became the subject of investigation 
1inent physicists of the day, especially J. D. Forbes, 
yndall, and sir William Thomson. 
ight” or ‘‘ silver thaw” in London, 22 Jan. 1867. 
a severe frost came rain freezing as it fell. Many 
ents occurred in consequence of the glassy pave- 
s and roads, 


ILAND (North Sea), discovered by Norwe- 


ulefs, about 861 ; according to some accounts, 
been previously visited by a Scandinavian 


ed by Norwegians . 4 : : ; : 
republican government, and a flourishing 
ture, tillit was subjected to Hakon, king of 


874 


ay f ‘ 7 A : > 1264 
inity introduced : ‘ . about 1000 
aual general assembly was termed Althing : 
were four great schools, like universities, 
ot in the 11th century ; and education was 
at warrior, statesman, and poet, Snorri Stur- 
, Was murdered 3 22 Sept. 1241 
antism introduced about . : ; & Satsoe 
nds perished by famine through failure of 
cops é , ; ~ & : 1753-4 
constitution signed by the king, 5 Jan., 

into operation 1 Aug., when king Christian 
nmark visited Iceland, and the thousandth 
ersary of the colonisation was celebrated at 
ipital, Reykjavik . : ; - rAug. 1874 
*s great Icelandic-English Dictionary, pub- 
linEngland , 3 : : . 1869-73 
has Suffered much by volcanic eruptions, 
lally in 1783; and on 29 March, 1875, whole 

cts of pasture land were devastated. 

ted severe famine (see Mansion House funds). 
: Summer, 1882 
il given by prof. Magnusson to many 

Ts 


: . - : OGtiyrrs; 
Eddas and Hecla. 


ICENI, a British tribe which inhabited chiefly 
Suffolk and Norfolk. In 61, while Suetonius Pau- 
linus was reducing Mona (Anglesey) they marched 
southwards and destroyed Verulam, London, and 
other places, with great slaughter of the Romans; 
but were defeated by Suetonius near London, and 
their heroic queen Boadicea or Boudicea died or 
committed suicide. 


“ICH DIEN,” JZ serve, the motto under the 
plume of ostrich feathers found in the helmet of 
the king of Bohemia after he was slain at the battle 
of Cressy, at which he served as a volunteer in the 
French army, 26 Aug. 1346. Edward the Black 
Prince, in respect to his father, Edward III., who 
commanded that day, though the prince won the 
battle, adopted the motto, which has since been 
borne with the feathers, by the heirs to the crown of 
England. 


ICHNOLOGY, the science of footprints, treats 
of the impression made in mud or sand by the 
animals of former ages. Dr. Duncan discovered the 
footprints of a tortoise in the sandstone of Annan- 
dale, in 1828; since then numerous discoveries 
oe been made by Owen, Lyell, Huxley, and 
others. 


ICHTHYOLOGY, the science of fish. Emi- 
nent writers are Willoughby, Ray, Valenciennes, 
Cuvier, Owen, Agassiz, &c. Yarrell’s ‘ British 
Fishes’’ (1836-59) is a classical work; see Fish. 


ICONIUM (Syria). Here Paul and Barnabas 
preached, 38. Soliman the Seljuk founded a king- 
dom here in 1074, which lasted till 1307, when it 
was conquered by the Turks. It had been subdued 
by the Crusaders in 1097 and 1190; see Honieh. 


ICONOCLASTS (image-breakers). The con- 
troversy respecting images (which had been intro- 
duced into churches for popular instruction about 
300) was begun about 726, and occasioned much 
disturbance and loss of life in the Eastern Empire. 
Leo Isauricus published two edicts for demolishing 
images in churches in that year, and enforced them 
with great rigour in 736. The defenders of images 
were again persecuted in 752 and 761, when Con- 
stantine forbade his subjects becoming monks. The 
worship of images was restored by Irene in 780. 
This schism was the occasion of the second council 
of Nice, 787. Theophilus banished all the painters 
and statuaries from the Eastern Empire, 832. The 
Iconoclasts were finally excommunicated at the 
8th general council at Constantinople, 869-870. 
This controversy led to the separation of the Greek 
and Latin churches. Many images in churches 
were destroyed in Scotland and the Netherlands in 
the 16th century, and in England during the 
Reformation and the civil war, 1641-8. 


IDAHO, a northern “ territory’’ of the United 
States of North America, was organised as such on 
3 March, 1868. 


IDENTISCOPE, an optical apparatus for 
combining two photograph portraits into one, sold 
in 1884. See Composite Portraits. 


IDES (Latin Jdus), were eight days in the 
Roman and cburch calendar, following the Nones. 


IDIOTS. 


432 


i 


IMPEACHMENT. 


They were reckoned backward. In March, May, 
July, and October, the 8th Idus was on the 8th of 
the month, the 7th on the oth, &c., the first, or Ide, 
being the 15th. In the other months the 8th Ide fell 
on the 6th, and the first on the 13th. On the Idus 
of March (the 15th) 44 B.c., Julius Caesar was as- 
sassinated. 


IDIOTS. About 1855 there were in England, 
exclusive of lunatics, pauper idiots, or idiots pro- 
tected in national institutions, males, 3372; females, 
3893; total, 7265; see Lunacy. The Idiot Asylum 
at Karlswood, near Reigate, Surrey, began in 1847 ; 
was chartered, 1862; additional buildings were 
founded by the prince of Wales, 28 June, 1869. 
The foundation of the Imbecile Asylum, Caterham, 
was laid by Dr. Brewer, M.P., 17 April, 1869. 


IDOLS. Images are mentioned in Gen. xxx1. 
19, 30, 1739 B.c. The Jews frequently deserted the 
worship of God for idols till their captivity, 583 B.c. 
Edict of Theodosius for the suppression of idolatry, 
392. Idolatry was revived in Britain by the Saxons 
about 473, but it gave way in Britain, after the 
coming of Augustin, about 597. See Iconoclasts, 


Week. 
IDSTEDT (N. Germany). Here the insurgent 


army of Holstein and Schleswig, commanded by 
Willisen, was defeated by the Danes, 25 July, 1850. 


IDUM ABA, the country of the Edomites, the 
descendants of Esau, the brother of Jacob: see Gen. 
xxxvi., Josh. Xxiv. 4. 


The Edomites prevent the Israelites from passing 


through their country . : : B.C. 1453 
They are subjugated by David. . : Shen 1040 
They revolt against Ahaziah, 892 ; and are severely 

defeated by Amaziah . : : 2 , A Po27 
They join the Chaldeans against Judah, and are 

anathematised in Psalm ¢xxxvii. . about 570 
John Hyrcanus, the Maccabee, subjugates and en- 

deavours to incorporate them with the Jews . 125 
Herod the Great, son of Antipater an Idumean, 

king of Judza ; a 5 - ; : ye: 


IERNEBE, see Ireland. 

IGLAU, see Hussites. 

ILBERT BILL, see India, 1883. 
ILDEFONSO, ST., Spain. Here was signed a 


treaty between France and Spain, 19 Aug. 1796; 
and another by which France regained Louisiana, 


I Oct. 1800. 


TLIUM (Asia Minor). <A city was built here 
by Dardanus, and called Dardania, 1480 B.c. Troy 
(which see), another city, was founded by Troas, 
about 1341 B.c.; and Ilus, his successor, called the 
country Lliwm ; see Homer. 


TLLINOIS, 2 western state of North America, 
was settled by the French in 1749; acquired by 
the British, 1763; made a territory, 1809 ; and ad- 
mitted into the Union as a state, 3 Dec. 1818. 
Capital, Springfield. 

By flooding of a coal mine 75 men drowned 16 Feb. 1883 
Convent and school at Belleville burnt, about 
27 young persons perish 5-6 Jan, 1884 


ILLUMINATED BOOKS. The practice 
of adopting ornaments, drawings, and emblematical 
figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of 
great antiquity. Varro wrote the lives of 700 
illustrious Romans, which he embellished with 
their portraits, about 70 B.c. Plin, Nat. Hist. 
Some beautiful missals and other works were 
printed in the 15th and 16th centuries, ¢? sea. and 
fine imitations have lately appeared. 


ILLUMINATI, heretics who sprang 
Spain, where they were called Alombrados, 
1575. After their suppression in Spain, tl 
peared in France. One of their leaders w; 
Anthony Buchet. They professed to obtain 
and perfection by their sublime manner of } 
A secret society bearing this name, oppo 
tyranny and priestcraft, was founded at Ingol 
Bavaria, by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May 
and was suppressed in 1784-5. 


ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEW 
earliest publication of the kind, established | 
Herbert Ingram, M.P., first appeared on 14 
1842. 

He purchased the Illustrated Times, first publish 
g June, 1855, and incorporated it with the Pen 
Illustrated Paper, established by the Ingra 
family ; first number : > “ « 12.01 

Mr. Ingram and his eldest son were accidental 
drowned in the Lady Elgin in Lake Michiga 

(see Wrecks) 8 Sey 

Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News, begun 

English Illustrated Magazine begun by Maemill: 

Oc 


ILLYRIA (now Dalmatia, Croatia, and B 
after several wars (from 230 B.C.) was n 
Roman province, 167 B.c. In 1809 Napol 
gave the name of Illyrian provinces to Ca: 
Dalmatia, and other provinces, then part 
French empire, now Carinthia, Carniola, &e. 


ILMENIUM, a metal of the tantalum ; 
discovered by R. Herrmann, about 1847, b 
jected by chemists; its claims were reasser 
him in 1867. 


IMAGE WORSHIP, see Iconoclasts. 


“IMITATION OF JESUS CHE 
(De Imitatione Christi). The author of this 
tional work is unknown. It has been attribv 
an abbot Gersen (whose very existence is dou! 
to Jean Gerson, the celebrated chancellor of 
and to Thomas a Kempis, said to have been 1 
a compiler and editor; he died 25 July, 1471 


IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, se 


ception. 


IMMIGRATION into the United Kn 
first estimated in the Emigration Report for 
In 1870, 49,157; in 1874, 118,129; im 1875,9 
in 1876, 93,557; in 1877, 81,848; 1879, 5 
1881, 77,105 ; 1883, 100,503; 1884, 123,466. 
pare this with Lmigration. 


IMMORTALS (Greek, athanatoz), the 
of the Persian army, limited to 10,000 in nu 
and recruited from the nobility alone, abot 
B.C. The name was also given to the body-gu 
the emperors at Constantinople in the 4th au 
centuries. 


IMPEACHMENT. The first impeacl 
by the commons house of parliament, and th 
of a lord chancellor, Michael de la Pole, ¢ 
Suffolk, was in 1386. By statute 12 & 13 
& Mary, 1700, it was enacted that no pardon. 
the great seal shall be pleaded to an impeach 
by the commons in parliament. 


Impeachment of Warren Hastings, 13 Feb. 1783, 
April, 1795 ; acquittal. q 
Impeachment of lord Melville, 9g April; acquit 

June, 1806. 

Inquiry into the charges preferred by colonel 1 
against the duke of York, 27 Jan. to 20 Marcel, 
acquittal. 

Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of 
and penalties, before the house of lords, comm 
16 Aug. ; Mr. Brougham entered on her majest 


q 
‘ 


IMPERIAL CHAMBER. 


433 


IMPRESSIONISTES. 


————— SSeS 


nee, 3 Oct. ; and the last debate on the bill took place 
» Noy. 1820 ; see Queen Caroline. 
eachment of the president ; see United States, 1868. 


MPERIAL CHAMBER, see Alic Council. 
MPERIAL FEDERATION of Great Bri- 


.and her colonies (for defence, &c.), the principle 
affirmed, and a provisional committee of an 
ciation constituted at a great meeting of emi- 
f politicians of all parties, and representatives 
he colonies, held at Westminster Palace Hotel, 

W. E. Forster, M.P. in the chair, 29 July; 
igue constituted 18 Nov. 1884. The electric tele- 
yh hasnow brought the colonies into closer com- 
ication than Exeter and Newcastle were formerly. 
(885 many of the colonies offered military assist- 
2 in the Soudan; which was accepted. 


MPERIAL GUARD of France, was created 
Napoleon from the guard of the convention, the 
ctory, and the consulate, when he became 
eror in 1804. It consisted at first of 9775 men, 
was afterwards enlarged. It was subdividedin 
into the old and young guard. In Jan. 1814, 
numbered 102,706. It was dissolved by 
is XVIII. in 1815 ; revived by Napoleon III. in 
1. Itsurrendered with Metz to the Germans 
Jet. 1870; and was abolished by the defence 
rmment soon after. It took part in the Crimean 
in 1855. 

MPERIAL PARLIAMENT, see Commons, 


ds, Parliament, and Reform. 


MPERIAL THEATRE at the Aquarium, 


tminster (which see). 


MPERIALISM. The word was much used 
$78, to signify that which related to the welfare 
he British empire as a whole, in contradistinc- 

to that of Great Britain itself or any other 
rate part of the empire. 


MPORTS oF MERCHANDISE. The vast 
ressive increase of our commercial intercourse 
1 other countries is shown by our imports and 
rts (which see) :— 


LUE OF IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL 
PARTS OF THE WORLD. 


710 £4,753,777 | In 1865 £271,072,285 
750 . + 7,289,582 1866 + 295,290,274 
775 - + 14,815,855 1867 » 275,183,137 
800 30,570,605 1868 » 294,693,608 
810. mgt L30,135 1869 » 295,460,214 
820 36,514,564 1870 - 303,257,493 
830 46,245,241 1871 » 331,025,480 
840 62,004,000 1875 + 373:939)577 
845 85,281,958 1876 + 375,154,703 
850 + 95,252,084 1877 + 394,419,682 
351 - 103,579,582 1878 - 368,770,742 
356 - 172,544,154 1879 . . + 362,991,875 
357 . 187,844,441 T8890. = 401,220,505 
3590 + 179,182,5355 Loon 9. » 397,022,489 
361 » 217,485,024 O02,” + 413,019,608 
364 + 274,952,172 1883. - 420,811,579 

From foreign countries. Exports to 


(871 1875 1877 1877 
9071,062 £289,515,606 £304,865,684 | £176,593,870 
From British possessions. 

1944418 84,423,971 89,553,998 759752150 


WPOSTORS. The following are among the 
extraordinary :— 


met promulgated his creed, 604: see Mahometanism. 
ert, a Gaul, in 743, pretended he had a letter froin 

+ Redeemer, which fell from heaven at Jerusalem ; 

‘Seduced multitudes to follow him into woods and 

sts, and to live in imitation of John the Baptist. 
was condemned by a council at Rome in 745. 

alvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to be the angel 


thael in 1359: he was burnt by the inquisition in 
‘UN IN 1360, 


| criticisms see Zrials, 1878. 


George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, styled him- 
self the son of God, sent into the world to adopt 
children worthy of heaven: he denied the resurrection, 
preached in favour of a community of women, and 
taught that the body only could be defiled by sin ; he 
had many followers ; died at Basle, 1 556, promising to 

- rise again in three years. 

Otrefief, a monk, pretended to be Demetrius the son of 
Ivan, czar of Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris had 
put to death ; he maintained that another child had 
been substituted in his place: he was supported by 
Poland ; his success led the Russians to invite him to 
the throne, and deliver into his hands, Feodor, the 
reigning czar, and all his family: his imposition dis- 
covered, he was assassinated in his palace, 1606. 

Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused the Jews and 
Turks a long time at Constantinople and other places, 
by personating our Saviour, 1666. 

Joseph Smith, see Mormonites. 

Apparition of our Lady of Salette ; the imposture ex- 
posed and several persons prosecuted, April, 1846. 
The superstition revived and flourishing, Aug. 1872. 

Pilgrimage of about 20,000 persons to Lourdes, in the 
Pyrenees, on account of alleged miracles (the virgin 
was said to have appeared to two girls, 11 Feb. 1858), 
6 Oct. 1872 3 see France. 

Insurrection of the Mahdi, see Soudan, 1881 et seq. 


IN BRITISH HISTORY. 


A man pretending to be the Messiah, and a woman as- 
suming to be the Virgin Mary, were burnt, 1222. 

Jack Cade assumed the name of Mortimer ; see Cade, 1450. 

In 1487, Lambert Simnel, tutored by Richard Simon, a 
priest, supported by the duke of Burgundy, personated 
the earl of Warwick. Simnel’s army was defeated by 
Henry VII., and he was made a scullion in the king’s 
kitchen. 

For Warbeck’s imposture in 1492, see Warbeck. 

Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy Maid of Kent, spirited 
up to hinder the Reformation by pretending to inspires. 
tions from heaven, foretelling that the king would 
have an early and violent death if he divorced Cathe- 
rine of Spain and married Anne Boleyn. She and 
her confederates were executed at Tyburn, 21 April, 1 534. 

In 1553 (first year of Mary’s reign, after her marriage with 
Philip of Spain), Elizabeth Croft, a girl 18 years of age, 
was secreted in a wall, and with a whistle made for the 
purpose, uttered many seditious speeches against the 
queen and the prince, and also against the mass and 
confession, for which she did penance. 

William Hacket, a fanatie, personated our Saviour, and 
was executed for blasphemy, rsgr. 

Valentine Greatrix, an Irish impostor, who pretended to 
cure all diseases by stroking the patient: his imposture 
‘deceived the credulous, and occasioned very warm dis- 
putes in Ireland and England about 1666. Boyle and 
Flamsteed believed in him. 

Dr. Titus Oates, see Oates. 

Robert Young, a prisoner in Newgate, forged the hands 
of the earls of Marlborough, Salisbury, and other 
nobility, to a pretended association for restoring king 
James: the lords were imprisoned, but the imposture 
being detected, Young was fined roool., and put in the 
pillory, 1692. He was afterwards hanged for coining. 

Three French refugees pretend to be prophets, and raise 
tumults ; convicted as impostors, Nov. 1707. 

Mary Tofts of Godalming; by pretending she bred rabbits 
within her, so imposed upon many persons (among 
others, Mr. St. Andre, surgeon to the king), that they 
espoused her cause, 1726. 

The Cock-lane ghost impostures by William Parsons, his 
wife, and daughter, 1762 ; see Cock-lane Ghost. 

Johanna Southcote, who proclaimed her conception of 
the Messiah, and had a multitude of followers ; she 
died 27 Dec. 1814. 

W. Thom, see T'homites. 

Louis XVII., see France, list of sovereigns. 

[See Abstinence. ] 


IMPRESSIONISTES, a name giren to 
artists who aim at producing rapid’Gunstudied, 
effects independent of the canons of art, such as 
Manet, Duez, and others in France. In England 
Mr. Whistler exhibited such pictures in 1877, in- 
cluding moonlight scenes, &c., painted in two days, 
showing great sense of colour. For Mr.. Ruskin’s 
The Impressionistes 


FF 


IMPRESSMENT. 


are also characterized as illustrators of their own 
times by pure art; MM. Durand, Ruel, Degas, 
Renoir, and Monel, are French examples; they 
exhibited in London in June, 1882. 


IMPRESSMENT or SEAMEN, affirmed by 
sir M. Foster to be of ancient practice. The stat. 
2 Rich. II. speaks of impressment as a matter well 
known, 1378. The first commission for it was 
issued 29 Kdw. III. 1355. Pressing, either for the 
sea or land service, declared to be illegal by the 
parliament, Dec. 1641, but practised till present 
times. Impressment was not resorted to in the 
Russian war, 1854-5. 


IMPRISONMENT For DEBT, see Arrests, 
Debtors, and Ferrars’ Arrest. 


IMPROPRIATION (applying ecclesiastical 
property to lay purposes). On the suppression of 
abbeys in 1539, their incomes from the great tithes 
were distributed among his courtiers by Henry 
VIII.; and their successors constitute 7597 lay 
impropriators. 


INCAS, see Peru. 
INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson 


was death by the Saxon laws and Gothic constitu- 
tions. In the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were 
burnt to death. This crime was made high treason 
by stat. 8 Hen. VI. 1429; and was denied benefit 
of clergy, 21 Hen? VIII. 1528. Great incendiary 
fires commenced in and about Kent, in Aug. 1830; 
and in Suttolk and other counties since. The 
punishment of death was remitted, except in special 
cases, in 1827. The acts relating to arson were 
amended in 1837 and 1844. 


INCEST. Marriage with very near relations, 
almost universally forbidden, took place in Egypt, 
Persia, and Greece. For recent cases see Portugal, 
1760, 1777, and 1826. The table of kindred in the 
book of common prayer was set forth in 1563. For 
the Hebrew law see Leviticus, chap. xviii. 1490 B.c. 


INCH. It was defined in 1824 by act of par- 
liament, that 39°13929 inches is the length of a 
seconds pendulum in the latitude of London, vi- 
brating in vacuo at the sea level, at the temperature 
of 62° Fahrenheit; see Candle, and Standard. 


INCHCAPE BELL, see Bell Rock. 
INCLOSURE ACT, to facilitate the inclo- 


sure and improvement of commons, appointing 
commissioners, etc., 8 & 9 Vict. c. 118, passed 
8 Aug. 1845; another act passed in 1876; see 
Commons. 


INCOME TAX. In 1512, parliament granted 
a subsidy of two-fifteenths from the commons, and 
two-tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to 
enter on a war with France. In Dec. 1798, Mr. 
Pitt proposed and carried, amid great opposition, 
resolutions for increased taxes ‘‘as an aid for the 
prosecution of the war’’ with France. 


Graduated duties on income imposed, beginning with 
6ol, per annum, by the act passed g Jan. 1799. 

The “ property tax” passed which levied a rate of s per 
cent. on all incomes above r50l. and lower rates on 
smaller incomes, rr Aug. 1803. 

Increased to 6; per cent. 1805 ; ro per cent., embracing 
the dividends at the bank, 1806. 

In 1800 the tax produced 5,716,5721. ; in 1804, 4,650,001. ; 
in 1806, 11,500,000l.; in 1808, 16,548,985/. ; in 1815, 
14,978,5571. 

The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, &e., 
8,657,9371.; from funded and _ stock properties, 
2,885,505/.; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,0881. ; 
and salaries and pensions, 1,174,456. Repealed 18 
March, 1816, on motion of H. Brougham. 


434 


INCOME TAX. 


Sir Robert Peel’s bill imposing the present tax at 
of 7d. in the pound (el. 18s. 4d. per cent.) per ar 
three years) passed 22 June, 1842. 


It produced about 5,350,000l. a-year; and led to re 
about 12,000,o00l. indirect taxes. 

Renewed for three years, 1845 ; and 1848. 

Large meetings assembled in Trafalgar-square, I 
(for the ostensible purpose of opposing the incom 
rioting ensued, which was soon quelled, 6, 7 . 
1848. 

Tax continued for one year in 1851 and 1852. 

The tax of 7d. limited to seven years (till 1860) 
gradually reduced in amount; but all income 
tool. to r50/. made liable to 5d. in the pound 
that period: the tax also extended to Ireland, 
1853. 

In consequence of the Crimean war, the rate was d 
14d., 1854. 

2d. (making 16d.) added to the tax on incomes 
rsol., and r4d. on those between rool. and r15¢ 
former being rs. 4d., the latter 113d. in the pounce 

The former assessment reduced to 7d., the latter 
1857. Both became sd., 1858. 

The former raised to od., the latter to 64d. ; and t 
on incomes, derived from lands, tenements, &c., 
from 34d. to 54d. for England, and from 23d. to 
Scotland and Ireland, July, 1859. 

The assessment on incomes raised—on those abo} 
to 7d. ; on those above rsol. to rod. 

[The object of the increase was to provide for a def 
occasioned by extra expenditure for defendi 
country, April, 1860. ] 

A committee to inquire into the working of the } 
tax appointed, 14 Feb. 186r. 

Reduction of the last assessment from 7d. to 6¢ 
from rod. to od. for three-quarters of the financi 
1861-62. 

The rates of 6d. and od. to continue, April, 1862. 

The rate of 7d. on all chargeable incomes; 3 
farms, &c., in England ; and 24d. in Scotland al 
land. Incomes under rool. a-year exempted ; 
above rool. and under 2ool. allowed an abatem 
6ol., 8 June, 1863. 

The rate of 6d. on chargeable incomes, with some ¢ 
tions and abatement, 13 May, 1864. . 

The rate of 4d. on chargeable incomes, with same ¢ 
tions and abatement, May, 1865; continued, 18 
1867. 

Raised to 5d. (for year ending x April, 1868), to 7 
for Abyssinian war, Nov. 1867. 

Raised to 6d. (for 1868-9), May, 1868. \ 

Reduced to 5d. in the pound, April, 1869; to 4d, 
1870. Raised to 6d. on account of re-organisal 
army, abolishing purchase, 1871. Reduced 1 
April, 1872. 

Renewed agitation against the tax ; conference ¢ 
mingham, 22 May; at the Mansion-house, L 
proposed formation of a National Anti-Incon 
League, 13 Dec. 1872. : 

Reduced to 3d. from 6 April, 1873 ; to 2d., 23 Apri! 

Mr. C. Lewis’s motion for reducing or abolishi 
tax defeated (139-38), 3 July, 1874. 

Raised to 3d.; incomes under isol, to be ex 
r2ol. of incomes under 4ool. exempt, April, 1876 

Raised to 5d. (through preparations for war), April 

Raised to 6d. by Mr. Gladstone, June; act pas: 
Aug. 1880. | 

Reduced to sd. by Mr. Gladstone ; budget 4 April 

Raised to 6$d. for the year (in consequence ¢ 
Egyptian expedition), Aug. 1882. 

Reduced to 5d. April, 1883. 

Raised to 6d. 1 Dec. 1884; to 8d. 30 April, 1885. 


PRODUCE OF THE INCOME TAX. 


1842 . £571,055 | 1864 (31 March). £9,¢ 
1844. 5,191,597 | 1865 > ae 
Se 5,395,391 | 1866 35 6,3 
TOSOa Ne 4 5,509,637 | 186 » 517 
1855 (3x March). Bey ee 1866 » - 6 
1856 Ar - 15,070,958 | 1869 ” 8,6 
1857 > - 16,089,933 | 1870 ” 10,0 
1858 e. . 11,586,115 | 1872 » - 63 
£86040) viz 6,683,587 | 1872 3 + 9,0 
1860 es - 9,596,106 | 1873 » : Te 
1861 ‘5 - 10,923,186 | 1874 ” a3 
1862 38 - 10,365,000 | 1875 ” + 453 
1863 A . 10,567,000 4 


1876 ”? 


JUMBENTS’ RESIGNATION ACT. 435 


st March) . £5,284,09r | 1881 (31 March) £10,650,000 
” + 5,820,000 | 1882 »” 9,945,000 
4 - 8,710,000 | 1883 5 + II,900,000 
a + 9 230,000 | 1884 + 10,718,000 


vated that 1d. in the pound yields 1,727,000l. 
ar, 1876 ; 1,900,000l., 1878.) 


INDIA. 


TOTAL ANNUAL VALUE OF PROPERTY AND PROFITS 
ASSESSED, UNITED KINGDOM. 


1868 - £430,368,976 
1873°. 513,907,284 
1878 578,294,972 
1882 . 601,450,977 


ESTIMATED ANNUAL INCOME. 
a 


ENGLAND AND WALES. SCOTLAND. IRELAND. 
1814 1873 1814 1873 1854 1873 
roperty, land, &e. 53,495,000 | 175,280,000 6,643,000 23,068,000 11,892,000 14,647,000 
sions, trades, &c. 34,288,000 | 170,685,000 2,771,000 18,437,000 || 4,780,000 8,115,000 
87,783,000 | 345,965,000 9,414,000 41,505,000 16,672,000 | 22,762,000 
CUMBENTS’ RESIGNATION ACT, | America was founded by the followers of John 
rovision for pensions, passed 13 July, 1871. 


SUMBERED ESTATES, see ZEncum- 
Estates. 


JURABLES. The royal hospital for in- 
es, founded by Dr. Andrew Reed, at Car- 
n in Surrey, in 1850, has since been removed 
ney. 

_ Home for Incurables, Clapham-rise, esta- 

e . 5 . . . . e . 1861 
al Hospital for Incurables, Oxford . . 1874 
for Incurable Children, Maida-vale . 1875 


DEMNITY BILL, by which the minister 
crown or the government is relieved from 
sponsibility of measures adopted in extreme 
gent cases, without the previous sanction of 
nent. One was passed 19 April, 1801; an- 
to indemnify ministers against their acts 
‘ the suspension of the Habeas Corpus act, 
uried in the commons (principal divisions, 
64); and in the lords (93 to 27), 10 March, 
In 1848 and 1857, bills of indemnity were 
for the suspension of the Bank Charter act 
ministry; see Oblivion. An indemnity bill 
ed at the end of every session of parliament 
sons who transgress through ignorance of the 
The practice began in 1715. 


JEPENDENTS or ConGREGATIONAL- 
hold that each church or congregation is 
adent of all others in religious matters; that 
sno absolute occasion for synods or councils, 
resolutions may be taken for advice, but not 
sions to be peremptorily obeyed; and that one 
may advise or reprove another, but has 
hority to excommunicate. Robert Brown 
od these doctrines about 1585, but, after 32 
mments, he eventually conformed to the 
hed church. A church was formed in Lon- 
1593, when there were 20,000 independents. 
rere driven by persecution to Holland, where 
rmed several churches; that at Leyden was 
Wr. Robinson, often regarded as the author 
pendency. In 1616 Henry Jacobs returned 
and and founded a meeting-house. Crom- 
imself an independent, obtained them tole- 
in opposition to the Presbyterians. The 
idents published an epitome of their 
lrawn up at a conference at the Savoy, in 
and the congregational union of England 
ules formed in 1831, published their ‘ de- 
n of faith, order, and discipline,” in 1833. 
_ they had 3244 chapels for 1,067,760 per- 
England and ales; see Worship. The 
dependents in Scotland were the Glasites 

see). The first. independent church in 


Robinson, at Plymouth, New England, in 1620. 
Congregational Fund Board to assist poor minis- 
ters, established : , : : = L005 
Congregational Board of Education, Homerton. 1843 
Nonconformist Bicentenary fund begun ; - 1262 
The Congregationalist Memorial Hall, Farringdon- 
street, London, erected in memory of the minis- 
ters ejected in 1662, as a home for religious 
societies, was subscribed for and opened 19 Jan. 
An important congregationalist synod, held in 
London ‘ : : : . early in Oct. 
Rev. John Waddington’s “ Congregational History, 
r200-1854,” published ; : 1869-78 


INDEXES OF PROHIBITED BOOKS. 
The Index by which the reading of the Scriptures 
was forbidden (with certain exceptions) to the laity, 
was confirmed by a bull of pope Clement VIII. in 
1595. 

The council of Nice (325) forbade magical books. 

Pope Paul IV., 1555, began the ‘‘ Index” published by 
Pius IV., 1559. The Talmud and heretical books were 
especially prohibited, causing much dissatisfaction. 
The Inquisition was engaged in the work, which was 
organized by the Council of Trent. The Congregation 
of the Index was instituted and rules laid down. 

The Indexes are—xz. Prohibitorius, of books absolutely 
forbidden to be read; 2. Expurgatorius, of books not 
to be licensed till purged from error. 

Many of the works of the great authors of France, 
Spain, Germany, and England, are thus prohibited. 
On 25 June, 1864, Hugo’s “Les Misérables” and 
other books were added to the number; and many 
others since. 


INDEX SOCIETY, established by the libra- 
rians of various London scientific and literary 
institutions and societies, and literary men, to form 
a library of indexes, and to make indexes to rare 
serial works, important books, &e. 17 Dec. 1877. 


INDIA. or Hrnpostran. The Hindoo his- 
tories ascribe their origin to a period ages before 
the ordinary chronologies. A race of kings is 
mentioned as reigning 2300 B.c., and Buddhism is 
said to have been introduced 956 n.c. Several 
ancient nations, particularly the Tyrians and 
Egyptians, carried on commerce with India. It 
was partially conquered by Darius Hystaspes, who 
formed an Indian satrapy, in 512 B.c., and by Alex- 
ander, 327 B.C., and subsequently the intercourse 
between India and the Roman empire was much 
increased. + The authentic history of Hindostan 
commences with the conquest of Mahmud Ghuzni, 
1004. tennell. See Secretaries, Bengal, Bombay, 
Calcutta, Madras, and Oude, for further details. * 
For the new route to India, see Waghorn. 


1875 


39 


* British India extends from 8° to 34° N. lat. and trom 
70° to go” E. long. (exclusive of the Burmese adiitions}, 


FRQ2 


© 


INDIA. 


436 


INDIA. 


The religion of Brahma introduced . about B.C. 2000 
Buddhism introduced . z . : . about 956 
Invasion of Alexander : , A : « © 327 
Irruptions of the Mahometans, under Mahmud 
Ghuzni, 1oor-24. He captured Somnath . A.D. 1024 
Extinction of the house of Ghuzni, 1186; rule of the 
slave-kings of Delhi, 1206-1288 ; of the Kilghis and 
house of Toghlak, 1288-1412; of the Syuds, 1 I412-503 
of the house of Lodi. : a 526 
Patan, or Afghan empire, founded 


. 1205 
Invasion of the Moguls under Genghis Khan, 1219 ; : 
he died Rely 
The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct of Timour, 
or Tamerlane, invade Hindostan, and take Delhi; 
defeat the Indian army, 1397; conquer Hindostan, 
and butcher 100,000 of its people - 1398-9 
Passage to India discovered by Vasco da Gama . 1497 
The first European settlement (Portuguese) estab- 
lished by him at Cochin (8. Coast) . .. L502 


Albuquerque governor-general, 1508 ; dies at Goa, 1514 
Conquest of India completed by the sultan Baber, 
founder of the Mogul empire . 1519-26 


Reign of his son Humayun - 1531-56 

Reign of Akbar, greatest sovereign of Hindostan 
1556-1605 

The Portuguese introduce tobacco 1600 


The Dutch first visit India, r60z ; establish a United 


East India Company. 1602 
Tranquebar granted to the Danes 1619 
Reign of Jehang hir 1605-27 


Reign of Shah Jehan ; golden age of the Moguls, 1627-58 
Aurungzebe dethrones his father and murders his 
brothers, 1658; reigns : 1658-1707 
French East India Company established . . 1664 
Rise of the Mahratta power under Nevalee, Beat: he 
assumes royalty, 1674; dies 
Aurungzebe conquers Golconda, &c. 
His prosperity wanes, 1702; dies . 
Bahadoor Shah succeeds, 1707; dies : 
Jehander Shah, 1713; dethroned and killed 
Accession of Mahomed Shah 
Independence of the Nizam of the Deccan : 
Rise of the Mahratta families, Holkar and Sindiah. 
Invasion of the Persian Nadir Shah or Kouli Khan: 
at Delhi he orders a general massacre, and 150,000 
persons perish; carries away treasure amounting 
tO 125,000,000. sterling . : A : . 1739 
Mahomed Shah dies . 1748 
[The Mogul empire now became merely hominaly in- 
dependent sovereignties being formed by petty 
princes. In 1761, “Shah Alum Il. attacking the 
English was defeated at Patna, 15 Jan. In 1764, 
after the battle of Buxar, he was thrown upon the 
protection of the English, who established him at 
Allahabad. After the victory at Delhi in 1803, 
gen. Lake restored the aged monarch toa nominal 
sovereignty, which descended at his death to his 
son, Akbar Shah. Akbar died in 1837, and was 
succeeded by the last king of Delhi (his son), who 
received a pension of about 125,000l. per annum, 
He joined the mutiny in 1857; was tried in 1858, 
and transported to Rangoon; died there, 11 Noy. 
1862. | 


1680 

. 1687 

. 22 Feb. 1707 
: . A712 
L7LS 
aL 7iO 
1723 
1730 


BRITISH POWER IN INDIA. 


Attempt made to reach India A the north-east and 
north-west passages ; d : - 1528 


about 1,500,000 square miles. The population in 1860, 
155,348,090; 1871-2 (first regular census), 190,563,048; 
in 1881, 252,541,210. Cotton was planted in 1839, and the 
tea-plaut in 1834. Railways (8545«mniles in 1879) and the 
electric telegraph are being rapidly constructed, and canals 
for irrigation ; see Ganges Canal. The Indian revenue in 
1854-5 WaS 20,371,450l. The expenditure, 22,915,160l. In 
1858-9 : revenue, 36,060,788/. ; expenditure, 49,642,3501. In 
1869-70: revenue, 52, 942,482. ; expenditure, 56,184,480]. 
In 1873-4, about 127,000 Hindoos, 48,000 Mahometans, 
15,000,000 casteless races ; rest miscellaneous ; ; revenue, 
49,598,253/., expenditure 54,959,228/. In 1875-6, revenue, 
52,515,790l.; expenditure, 55,117,536l. Native troops in. 
British service about 120,000 (19,000 cavalry). In 1877-8, 
revenue, 58,969, 3011. ; expenditure, 65,917,000. ; in 1878- -9, 
revenue, 65,207,1941. : expenditure, 67,545,2011. ; ; 1881-2, 
revenue, 73,606,ocol,; expenditure, 71,113,000l. ; 1882-3 
revenue, 67,914,000l.; expenditure, 67,854,000. ; A 1883-4, 
revenue, 67,274,000l. ; expenditure, 66,617,000l. 


Sir Francis Drake’s expedition . 7 aera 
Levant company’s land expedition . 4 
First commercial adventure from England . . 
Hirst charter to the London company of mercha 
(see India Company)  . : : : 
Factories established at Surat, eae. : ‘ 
Sir Thos. Roe, first English ambassador . 
Madras founded, 1640; made a presidency . : 
Bombay ceded ‘to England as part of eh 
Catherine, queen of Charles II. . : 
French company established 3 : F 
They settle at Pree te é 
Calcutta purchased 
War between the English and French in India 
English besiege Pondicherry, the seat of the Fre 
government, without success : 2 
Clive takes Arcot . : ; ‘ 2 : 
Peace made : 
Severndroog and other strongholds of the pit 
Angria taken ; 11 F 
Capture of Calcutta by Surajah Dowla: suffocat 
of English in the Black hole (which see) 20 JU 
Calcutta retaken by Clive, 2 Jan.; he ee 


Soubah at Plassey ‘ 3 du 
Fort William, the strongest fort in India, built 
French successful under Lally : : 


But lose nearly all their power 
The French under Lally defeated by sir Eyre Co 
near Wandewash j 2 dv 


Hyder Ali usurps the soverntadity of Mysore 


Conquest of Patna s : 6N 

Battle of Buxar (which see) 23 C 

The nabob becomes subject to the English 

Lord Clive obtains the Dewanny by an impe 
grant, which constitutes the company the receiy 
of the revenue of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, 
gives the British the virtual sovereignty of th 


countries 2A 
Treaty with Nizam Ali: the English obtail 
Northern Cirears Z A 12 N 
Hyder Ali ravages the Carnatic : ; J 


Frightful famine in Bengal . 4 
Warren Hastings governor of Bengal 13 Ap 
ete Bill; supreme court established (see In 
Bills) . A 3 ; : . 
Treaty with Bhootan : *” 
Death of Clive ; ungratefully treated 
Accusations commence against Warren Hastin; 
accused of taking a bribe from a concubine 
Meer Jaffier (see Hastings) 30 M 
Nuncomar, a Brahmin, accuses Warren Hastie 
receiving bribes : 5 ~ rz Mar 
Is hanged for forgery ‘ : 5 r 5A 
Pondicherry taken. « 15 
Fortress of Gwalior taken by Popham 4A 
Hyder Ali overruns the Carnatic, and defeats | 
British, ro Sept. ; takes Arcot ; 3p 
Hyder Ali defeated by sir Eyre Coote rJu 
Warren Hastings accused of taking more bribes (: 
Chunar). 19 Se] 
Bussy lands with a ‘French detachment - art 
War with Hyder Ali aided by the French : 
Hyder Ali overthrown by Coote : 5 
Death of Hyder, and accession of his son, tip 
Sahib 
Tippoo, who “had taken Cuddalore, now tak 
Bednore Apr 
Pondicherry restored to the French, and Tri 
comalee to the Dutch Z 
Fox’s India bill thrown out. . 
Pitt’s India bill establishing the board of conti 
(which see) , 


Ignoble peace with Tippoo II Mare 
Charges against Warren mons 2 
His trial begun 13 Fe 


War with Tippoo renewed : : - 


Bangalore taken (see Bangalore) 21 Mare! 
Cornwallis defeats Tippoo at Arikera 15 Ma 
Fortress of Saverndroog taken ar De 


Definitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two sons 5 aad 
19 Ma 

Civil and criminal courts erected ; 4 . 

Pondicherry again taken 


Tippoo’s sons restored F 29 " Mavel 

First dispute with the Burmese; aajusted D 
general Erskine : ; : 

Warren Hastings acquitted . . 23 Apri 


al 


< 
pete 


INDIA. 


437 


INDIA. 


pent of lord etn, He ha mar- 
Wellesley . May, 1798 
patam stormed by gen. Baird ; ee Sahib 
|, 4 May; Mysore divided . 22 June, 31799 
Ss of the British ; the Carnatic conquered 1800 
ob of Furruckabad cedes his Sy eerie to 
nglish for a pension 


: June, 1802 
mt treaty of Bassein (with viabraites 


t Dec 9? 
@ war. Victories of sir Arthur Wellesiey 


eneral Lake 
“y's great victory at Assaye 
erry (restored ee) retaken 


eros 
23 Sept. ,, 
Pe DeGH* 4; 
+h Holkar : 1804-5 
of Bhurtpore 2 April, 1805 
ellesley superseded by the marquis Corn- 


,whodies . 5 Oct. 
ahratta chief, Scindiah, defeated 4 the 


? 


h; treaty of peace on Ome 5 
yf peace with Holkar 24 Dee. ,, 
tiny at Vellore; 800 executed ay uly, 1806 


a surrenders. 


21 Nov. 1807 
at Seringapatam. quelled 


23 Aug. 1809 


ning the trade to India July, 1813 
h Nepaul : -  18r4-15 
lefeated by sir T. Hislop . 21 Dec. 1817 
ewar. English successful - 1817-18 
ith Holkar . 6 Jan. 1818 
‘war. The British take Rangoon 5 May, 1824 
mbermere commands in India 3 : + 
ceded, aud Singapore purchased ; He 
pore mutiny, many sepoys killed Nov. ,; 
Campbell defeats the Burmese near Prome, 
25 Dec. 1825 | 

re stormed by Combermere - 18Jan. 1826 
ith the Burmese 24 Feb. 


AY 1,000,0001, sterling, and cede a “Heat 
; of territory. ] 
n of suttees, or the burning of widows (see 


$ 7 Dec. 1829 
ning the trade to India, and tea fae &e., 
lina, forming a new era in British com- 

28 Aug. 1833 
inexed ; Rajah deposed . 10 April, 1834 
ives admitted to the magistracy To Maye Aa 
wab Shumsoodden put to death for the 
r of Mr. Frazer, British resident 8 Oct. 1835 
umine ; 5 1837-8 
abolished . r Aug. 1838 
war. Proclamation against Dost Mahomed 


r OCt: &;; 
tish occupy Candahar . 21 April, 1839 
f Ghiznee ; victory of sir John (afterwards 


<eane (see Ghiznee) Sores UbVs er, 5 
rees the Khyber pass 26 July, ,, 
defeat Dost Mahomed . 18 Oct. 1840 


: Singh, king of Lahore, dies ; “at his funeral 
iecessor is killed by accident, and Dost 


ned, next heir, surrenders to England 5 NOV.0 3; 


against the British at Cabul ; sir Alex. 

s and others murdered : 2 Nov. 1841 
Macnaghten assassinated . 2a WCC me; 5 
id held by sir R. Sale x 1841-2 


tish under a convention evacuate Cabul, 
8 lady Sale, &c., as hostages with Akbar 
5; & massacre ensues of about 16,000 men, 
a, and children A 4 - 6-13 Jan. 
ish evacuate Ghiznee . z March, 
‘om Jellalabad ; general Pollock forces the 


pass. : 5 April, ,, 
retaken by general cone, .. 6 Sept. ,, 
Pollock enters Cabul 16 Sept. ,, 


ue and other prisoners rescued by sir R. 
/peare ; arrive at gen. Pollock’s camp 21 Sept. 
vacuated after destroying the fortifications 
x2 Oct. 
ar. Ameers defeated by sir Charles Napier 
mee «= «27 Heb. 
nmnexed to the British’ empire ; sir Chases 
governor : . June, 
war. Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar : 
rong fort of Gwalior, the ‘‘ Gibraltar of the 
‘taken =, 29 Dec. 


| Lord Gough attacks the enemy’s advanced position: 


‘possessions in India purchased 
hs * The Sikhs cross the Sutlej river and 
«the British at Ferozepore 14 Dec. 


> 


Wjeet Singh, long the ruler of the Sikhs and the 


Sir H. Hardinge, after a long rapid march, reaches 
Moodkee ; the Sikhs (20, 000) make an attack ; 
after a hard contest they retire, abandoning their 


guns (see Moodkee) A 18 Dee. 1845 
Battle of Ferozeshah (which see) 2E, 2oVECA se 
Battle of Aliwal ; the Sikhs defeated (see Aliwal 

and Swtlej) 28 Jan. 1846 


Great battle of Sobraon ; the enemy defeated with 
immense loss (see Sobraon) ro Feb. 
Citadel of Lahore occupied by sir Hugh Gough, and 
the war terminates « 20 Feb: 
Sir R. Sale dies of his wounds received at Moodkee 
(x8 Dec. 1845) . 23 Feb. 
The governor-general and sir “Hugh Gough rained to 
the peerage, as viscount Hardinge and baron 
Gough ; receive the thanks of parliament and of 
the BE. L company . 2,6March, ,, 
Treaty of Lahore signed - 9 March, 
Vizier Lall Singh deposed ; 13 Jan. 
Mr. Vans Agnew and lieut. Anderson killed by 
the troops of the dewan Moolraj at April, 
Lieut. Edwardes joins general Courtland, and most 
gallantly engages the army of Moolraj, which he 
defeats after a sanguinary battle of nine hours, at 
Kennyrce ; . 18 June, 
General Whish raises the : siege of Mooltan thr ough 
the desertion of Shere Singh 22 Sept. 
Cavalry skirmish at Ramnuggur . 22 Nov. 
Shere Singh, entrenched on “the right bank of the 
Chenab, with 40,000 men and 28 pieces of artil- 
lery ; gen. Thackwell crosses the river with 8 
infantry regiments, with cavalry and cannon, r 
Dec., and attacks his left flank at Sadoolapore, 
3 Dec. 


victory ‘of Chillianwallah (which see) 13 Jan. 
Unconditional surrender of the citadel of Mooltan 
by Moolraj (see Mooltai) : 22 Jan. 
Victory of Guzerat (which see) : ar Feb. 
Sir Chas. Napier appointed comm. -in-chief, 
7 March, 
The Sikhs surrender unconditionally 14 March, 
Formal annexation of the Punjab to the British 
dominions ; Dhuleep Singh obtains a pension of 
40,0001. 29 March, 
Moolraj sentenced to death for the murder of Mr. 
Agnew and lieut. Anderson, Aug. ; commuted to 
transportation for life 2 Sept. 
Sir Charles Napier disbands the 66th Pepgatt native 
infantry, for mutiny . 27 Feb. 
Dr. Healy, of the Bengal army, and his ahicadanty: 
murdered by the Affredis . 20 March, 
Embassy from the king of Nepaul to the queen 
of Great Britain arrives in England (see Nepawl) 
25 May, 
Resignation of his command in India by sir Charles 
Napier ; . 2duly, 
His farewell address to the Indian army 15 Dec. 
Burmese war. Death of Bajee Rao, ex-peishwa of 
the Mahrattas. [His nephew Nana Sahib’s claim 
for continuance of the pension (80,000. ) refused. ] 
28 Jan. 
A British naval force arrives before Rangoon, in 
the Burman empire, and commodore Lambert 
allows the viceroy thirty-five days to obtain in- 
structions from Ava : 29 Oct. 
The viceroy of Rangoon interdicts Cneepi sation 
between the shore and the British ships of war ; 
and erects batteries to prevent their departure, 
4 Jan. 
[Commodore Lambert blockades the Irawaddy ; 
the Fox, Hermes, &c., attacked by the batteries, 
destroy the fortifications, and kill nearly 300 of 
the enemy. ] 
Martaban (5 April), Rangoon (14 April), and Bassein 


1851 


29 


1852 


stormed by the British - 19 May, ;, 
Pegu captured, afterwards abandoned 4June, ,, 

| Prome captured by capt. Tarleton oJ uly, oe 
Pegu recaptured by general Godwin at NOV. 75, 


Punjab, lived in amity with the British. After his death, 

27 June, 1839, several of his successors (children and 
erandchildren) were in turn assassinated. During the 
minority of his grandson Dhuleep Singh, the favourite of 
the Maha Ranee, Lall Singh, ruled ; : and finding the 
army ungovernable, sanctioned the unprovoked attack 
on the British, as given above. 


INDIA. 438 INDIA. 
Pegu annexed to our Indian empire by proclama- Sir H. Lawrence dies of his wounds at Luckno 
tion of the governor-general 20 Dee. 1852 4 Jul 


Revolution at Ava; the king of Ava deposed by his 
younger brother : . . Jan, 

Rangoon devastated by fire : T4 HED, 5 
Capt. Lock and many men killed i in an sack o on the 
stronghold of a robber chief, 3 Feb. ; which is 
taken. by sir J. Cheape : pearo March as. 

First Indian railway ee (from Bombay to 


Tannah) : 16 April, ,; 
Termination of the war JUNG, bis 
New India bill passed 20 AUS) 5, 
Death of general Godwin 26 Oct. ;; 
Assassination of capt. Latter 8 Decin %3 


Rajah of Nagpoor dies, and his territories fall to 


the H. I. Company . t EAC A may 
Opening of Ganges Canal 1854 
Opening of the Galeutta railway 3 Feb. 1855 


Treaty of friendship with Dost Mahomed of Cabal 
30 March, ,, 


Insurrection of the Sonthals (which see) J uly, x 
Which is only finally suppressed May, 1856 
Oude annexed (see Oude) . 2 IE iss 
MUTINY OF THE NATIVE ARMY. 

Mutinies in the Bengal army: at Barrackpore, &., ~ 

several regiments disbanded : . March, 1857 
‘India is quiet throughout.”—Bombay Gazette. 

x Mays) is, 


Mutiny at Meerut* ‘(near Delhi) 10 May. The 
mutineers seize Delhi, commit dreadful out- 
rages, and proclaim the king of Delhi emperor, 

1r-12 May, &c. . ,, 

Three native regiments disbanded at Lahore by 
the energy of Mr. Montgomery and brigadier 
Corbett, who save the Punjab 12 May, ,, 

Martial law proclaimed by the British lieut.-gover- 
nor, J. R. Colvin Maye 3; 

British troops under general Anson advance on 


Delhi: his death : Sie aE he ae 
Mutineers often defeated . 30 May-23 June, ,, 
Mutiny at Lucknow . o May. ts 


Neill suppresses the mutiny at Benares, : hia 
and recovers Allahabad 4 June, < 
Mutiny spreads throughout Bengal: fearful atroci- 
ties committedt . 
Native troops disbanded at Mooltan, 
saved ; kt AONE, ys 
Ex-king of Oude arrested. 14June, ,, 
Siege of the residency at Lucknow by the Tebales 
commences : : : I July, ap 


which is 


* On the introduction of the improved (Enfield) mus- 
ket in the Indian army, greased cartridges had been 
brought from England. These were objected to by the 
native soldiers, and the issue of them was immediately 
discontinued by orders in Jan. 1857. A mutinous spirit 
however gradually arose in the Bengal native army. 
In March several regiments were disbanded, followed by 
others, till in June the army had lost by disbandment 
and desertion, about 30,000men. On 5 April, a sepoy, 
and on 20 April, a jemadar, or native lieutenant, were 
executed. Atthe end of May 34 regiments were lost. 
In April, 85 of the 3rd Bengal native | cavalry at Meerut 
refused to use their cartridges. On 9 May they were 
committed to gaol. On Sunday, the ta a mutiny in 
the native troops broke out ; they fired on their officers, 
killing col. Finnis and others. They then released their 
comrades, massacred many Europeans, and fired the 
public buildings. The European troops rallied and drove 
them from their cantonments. The mutineers then fled 
to Delhi (which see). 

+ At the end of June the native troops at the follow- 
ing places were in open mutiny: Meerut, Delhi, Feroze- 
pore, Allyghur, Roorkee, Murdaun, Lucknow, Cawnpore, 
N usseerabad, Neemuch, Hansi, Hissar, Jhansi, Mehidpore, 
Jullundur, Azimghur, Futtehghur, ‘Jaunpore, Bareilly, 
Shahjehanpore, Allahabad. At the stations printed in 
italics, European women and children were massacred. 
—The "Relief Fund for the sufferers in India was com- 
menced 25 Aug. 1857. The Queen, the emperor Napo- 
leon, and the ‘Sultan, gave each 1oool. In Nov. 1857, 
280,749l. had been collected ; in Nov. 1858, 433,620l. In 
Dee. 1861, 140,000l. had been distributed to sufferers in 
India; and 100,000l. to those at home; 246,069. re- 
mained for the benefit of widows and orphans, A fast 
was observed on 7 Oct. 


The liberty of the press restricted 4 -4du 
Sir H. Barnard commanding before Delhi dies 
cholera, succeeded by general Reed 5Ju 
General Nicholson destroys a large body of” rebi 
at Sealcote - Taam 
Cawnpore surrenders to N. ana Sahib, who kills t 
garrison, &c., 28 June ; he is defeated by gene: 
Havelock, 16 J uly: who re-captures a 
(see Cawnpore) 7 Ju 
Mutinies suppressed at Hyderabad, 18 J uly ‘and 
Lahore ; oJu 
General Reed retires, and sir Archdale Wilson tak 


the command before Delhi. . . 22d 
Revolt at Dinapore: the British ‘yepulsed wi 
severe loss at Arrah . 25 Ju 


Heroic exertions and numerous victories of gene 
Havelock and his army, although suffering fr 


disease = . 29d uly, to 16 AN 
Lord Canning’ s so-called se cleaenay $ proclan 
tion . 31 Ju 
Victory of Neill at Pandoo Nuddee . 15 Al 


General Nicholsoh’s Mga! at Nujuffghur [he d 
23 Sept.]. . 25 Al 
Recent of Delhi, 14 Sept. ; taken, 20 Sept. ; t 
king captured, 21 Sept. ; his son and grands 
slain by colonel Hodson . : 22 Se] 
Sir James Outram joins Havelock and serves unt 
him . 16 Se] 
Havelock marches to Lucknow and relieves the | 
sieged residency ; retires and leaves sip 
command ; Neill killed  . 268 

Colonel Greathed defeats the rebels at Boliad 
hur, 27 Sept. ; destroys a fort at Molaghur, 
Sept. ; takes ‘Allyghur, 5 Oct. ; and tk reb 
at ‘Agra ; one) 

Sir Colin Campbell (afters. lord Clyde) appolll 
commander-in-chief, rz July ; arrives at oN 

3 Ne 

Marches to Alumbagh, near Lucknow, 9 etl sa 
takes Secunderabagh . 

Joined by Havelock, he attacks the rebels ; 
rescues the besieged i in the residency, 18-25 Nc 

Havelock* dies of dysentery at Alumbagh, 24 Ne 

General Windham (at Cawnpore) repulsed wi 
loss in an attack on the Gwalior contingent, w 
take part of Cawnpore . . 27 N 

Sir C. Campbell arrives at Cawnpore, which he - 
takes, 28 Nov. ; and defeats the Gwalior Ps 

6 Di 

The rebels defeated by Seaton, 14, 17, and 27 De 
at Goruckpore by Rowcroft, 27 Dec. ; and at F 
tehghur by sir C. Campbell : .2di 

Lucknow strongly fortified by the rebels” Ja 

Generals Rose, Roberts, Inglis, and Grant, vic 
rious in many encounters Jan. and F 

Trial of king of Delhi ; sentenced to transportati 

27 Jan. to 9 Mare 

Sir C. Campbell marches to Lucknow, 11 Feb. ; + 
siege commences, 8 March ; taken by successi 
assaults; the enemy retreat; Hodson kille 

14-19 Mare 

Severe proclamation of the governor-general 
Oudet .. ; 14 Marc 

General Roberts takes Kotah 30 Mare 

Sir Hugh Rose beats the enemy severely, and tak 
Jhansi. A . 4 Apr 

General Whitelock takes Budaon . . Ig Apt 

Death of capt. sir W. Peel, of small-pox, at Caw 
pore . 27 Apr 

General Penny killed in Rohileund . ‘ ‘ a 

Bareilly recaptured . 

Sir Hugh Rose defeats the rebels several mie 
Kooneh, May 11, and near Calpee, which he 1 
takes . .  23Ma 

Victory of sir E. Lugard. at J ugdespore 29 hia 


* Born 5 April, 1795 ; educated at the Charte 
London, where he was ¢alled ‘‘ old Phlos ;” bi t 
1823 ; served in the Burmese war, 1824; 4 
Sikh war, 1845. He was a Baptist. 

+ Lord Ellenborough, the minister for India, F 
known to his colleagues, a despatch severely cé 
this proclamation. This despatch became pub 
led to his resignation and very nearly to 
the ministry, a vote of censure being moved fc 
houses of parliament, but not carried. ee 


eed) 
4 é 
i“ ’ 
x ray 
a 
’ 
At 


: INDIA. 


439 


INDIA. 


ebels seize Gwalior, the capital of Scindiah, 
9 escapes to Agra ; j : 
rebels defeated by sir H. Rose (the heroic 
,ee of Jhansi killed), t7 June ; Gwalior retaken 
| Scindiah reinstated . ; uw» 29 June; 
a Topee heads a division of the rebels. . ‘ 
is of Jeypore, &c., surrender ; Rohileund and 


er provinces tranquillised , P July, 
ral Roberts destroys the remains of the 
alior rebels. ; , Ph: 14 Aug. 
Oude chiefs surrender Aug. 


tempt of disbanded regiments to retake their 
as at Mooltan, suppressed by major Hamilton 
5 killed on the spot, and 800 slain or captured 


erwards) . : : : ; waz Aue: 
jovernment of the East India Company ceases, 

xr Sept. 
ral Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee, near Raj- 
1h. : é : : : 15 Sept. 
jueen proclaimed throughout India—lord Can- 
i to be the first viceroy t Nov. 


vaign in Oude begins ; several chiefs submit, 
1ers subdued . : 3 c . 1-30 Novy. 
hooden Khera lord Clyde (formerly sir C. Camp- 
1) defeats Beni Mahdo : . 24 Nov. 
it of Tantia Topee—he is beaten in Guzerat by 
jor Sutherland , : : 25 Nov. 
ex-king of Delhi sails for the Cape of Good 
ype, 4-11 Dec. ; the colonists refuse to receive 
n; heis sent to Rangoon . 
udier John Jacob dies at 
mented) . a : F : : Dec. 
cisive skirmishes with Ferozeshah Dec. 
joins Tantia Topee: they are defeated in 
yeral small engagements . . : 
reement of the Disarming Act in the north- 
st provinces .-. F . , Jan. 
Punjaub made a distinct presidency r Jan. 
ls completely expelled from Oude; enter Ne- 
ul : : i E : : Jan, 
jlla warfare continues in Rohileuna Feb. 
ia Topee hemmed in ; deserted by his troops, 
about 25 Feb. 

at of the Begum of Oude and Nana Sahib by 


Jacobabad (greatly 
6 


neral Horsford F . , to Feb. 
new Indian tariff creates much dissatisfaction, 

March, 
n Singh surrenders . 4 ; 2 April, 
ia Topee taken, 7 April ; hanged 18 April, 


iksgiving in England for pacification of India 

t May, 
inous conduct of British troops lately in the 
mpany’s service at Meerut and other places, on 
count of their transfer to the queen’s service 
thout bounty : ‘ ‘ , . 5 May, 
Jope Grant defeats Nana Sahib in the Jorwah 


Soe . : ‘ - F 23 May, 
urt of inquiry appointed ; June, 
‘has. Wood becomes sec. for India. 22 June, 


atisfaction among the troops at their transfer 
ym the service of the company to that of the 
own, without a. bounty, settled by discharge 
ered to them, which about 10,000 accept July, 
iksgiving day observed in India . 28 July, 
income tax bill (called ‘‘the Trades’ and Pro- 
ssions’ Licensing Bill”) passes the legislative 
uneil ; great meetings at Calcutta and Madras 
otesting against it . : : : Sept. 
ih Jey-loll Singh hanged 2 ; r Oct. 
| Sahib, in force, in Nepaul on the frontiers of 
ide. ae : : ; : eC 
irgents in Nepaul dispersed : Eee 2a Lec: 
ortant financial changes made by Mr. James 
jilson, new finance secretary ae 

‘pany formed to obtain cotton, flax, &c., from 
iden >. p ; : ; Z March, 
er currency determined on. : . March, 
‘adoor Khan, ex-king of Bareilly, hanged for 
urders caused by him . : : . 2 March, 
Chas. Trevelyan recalled from Madras, for pub- 
shing a government minute against Mr. Wilson’s 
mmiercial scheme . ; : d Ab om is 
‘Hugh Rose takes command of the Indian army, 
| mated with the British July, 
Clyde arrivesin London. 18 July, 
d Canning’s recommendation that the adopted 
1ecessors of Indian princes should be recognised 
sreed to by the home government a1 July, 


&. 
oe 


ay : 
4 n 
° ' 


. 13 June, 1858 


a? 


> 


Jan. 185¢ 


99 


Feb. 1860 


3? 


2? 


>? 


>? 


Death of sir H. Ward, new governor at Madras, 
3 Aug. ; and of Mr. James Wilson 
Nana Sahib, supposed to have died of jungle fever 
in Aug. 1858, is said to be livingin Tibet . Dec. 
Mutiny of 5th European regiment at Dinapore, sup- 
pressed; breaks out again, 5 Oct. ; is again sup- 
pressed, Wim. Johnson shot, and the regiment dis- 
banded : : ; : : 13 Nov. 
British troops repulsed at Sikkim Nov. 
Agitation against the income tax suppressed at 


Bombay and other places . ; A « Dec. 
Excitement against sir Chas. Wooc’s grant of 
520,000l. to descendants of Tippoo Sahib _. Dec. 


Mr. Samuel Laing, successor to Mr. James Wilson, 
arrives . : : ; : : é 
Awful famine in N.W. provinces through failure 
of the crops ; immense exertions of the govern- 
ment and others to relieve the sufferers, 
Jan.-June, 
Expedition, marches against Sikkim ; natives retire 
Feb. 
Disturbances in the indigo districts . March, 
Kootoob-ood-deen, grandson of Tippoo Sahib, mur- 
dered by his servants : : . 31 March, 
British subscriptions for relief of the famine com- 
mence at the Mansion-house, London, with 4oool., 
28 March; 52,0001. subscribed 20 April; closes 
with 114,807l. . } : 3 / ce UNOV: 
Order of the “‘ Star of India” (which see) constituted 
25 June, 
Excitement through the printing and circulation of 
‘Nil Darpan,” a Hindu drama libelling the indigo 
planters i ‘ ; : : : June, 
The rey. James Long, the translator, sentenced to 
fine and imprisonment . . 2 ; . Aug. 
New Indian council and new high court of judicature 
established . ; ‘ : 5 ; ay AUS 
Mr. J. P. Grant, lieut.-governor of Bengal (who had 
authorised the translation of ‘‘ Nil Darpan”’) and 
Mr. Seton Kerr, his secretary (who had, without 
authority, distributed copies) are censured and 


resign . ; : : : : ; Sept. 
Law of property in India altered; sale of waste 
lands authorised ; : Oct. 


Lords Harris and Clyde, sir J. Lawrence, Dhuleep 
Singh, and others invested with the Star of India 
by the queen . ‘ : : : : rt Nov. 

Reported prosperity of Indian finances ; licence tax 
not to be reimposed . : at ae Ne 32 Dec: 

First meeting of new legislative council ; includes 
several Indian princes . a 3 . 

Lord Elgin, new governor-general, installed at Cal- 
cutta . ; 12 March, 

Lord Canning 26 April ; 
dies - : , ; : ; « ,t7 June, 

Mr. S. Laing returns to England through ill health ; 
censured by sir C. Wood; he justifies himself and 
resigns : : 5 F : : =) July. 

High court of judicature at Bengal* invugurated 

12 July, 

Reported suspension of sale of waste lands —_ Aug. 

Rao Sahib hanged for murders during the revolt 

8 Sept. 

Great increase in the cultivation of cotton in India, 
reported . : ; : : - : . Oct. 

Sir Charles Trevelyan, new finance minister, arrives 


arrives at Southampton, 


. ir Aug. 1860 


bed 


9? 


”? 


to Jan. 1861 


> 


9? 


” 


> 


> 


3° 


>> 


a9 


>> 


3? 


> 


”? 


” 


r8 Jan. 1862 


9? 


> 


> 


> 


2? 


8 Jan. 1863 


First agricultural exhibition at Calcutta 19-30 Jan. 
Rise of Ram Singh, a fanatic, in N.W. provinces Oct. 
War with warlike hill-tribes on the N.W. frontiers, 
Oct. ; severe conflict, gen. Chamberlain wounded, 
20 Noy. ; command assumed by major-gen. John 
Garvock, who totally defeated the enemy (about 
15,000) in Chamta pass, 15, 16 Dec. ; war ended 


29 Dec. 

The Hindu religion deprived of government support 
Dee. 

Death of the viceroy, lord Elgin 20 Nov. 


Sir John Lawrence, his successor, assumes office 


39> 


> 


> 


” 


) 


r2 Jan. 1864 


Excitement amongst the Hindoos on account of go- 
vernment suppressing funeral rites on sanitary 


grounds . : : : : : March, 
Prosperous financial statement of sir Charles Tre- 
velyan . . April, 


Mr. Ashley Eden, ‘envoy at Bhootan, seized and 
compelled to sign a treaty giving up Assam 
about April, 


9? 


am 


” 


INDIA. 


Gold currency (a sovereign = ro rupees) ordered to 
be introduced at Christmas July, 
Terrific cyclone—immense loss of life, property, and 
ships at Calcutta and elsewhere . : ~ 5 Oct. 
Grand durbar, held by sir John ie ated at La- 
hore ; 604 native princes present Oct. 

War with the Bhootanese--fortress of Dhalimnoats 
taken . 12 Dee. 

Much commercial speculation at Bombay paw ee: 

The Bhootanese attack on Dewangiri repulsed 
with severe loss, 29 Jan., evacuated by the British 

Feb. 

Opening of the Indo-European telegraph—a tele- 
gram from Kurrachee received . t March, 

W. Massey succeeds sir C. Trevelyan as finance 
minister; he arrives at Calcutta 31 March, 

Sir Charles Trevelyan declares a large deficit in the 
revenue . t April, 

Dewangiri recaptur ed by gen. Tombs ; 2 April, 

Sir Hugh Rose retires from comnrand of the army ; 
which is assumed by sir Wm. Mansfield, 23 April, 

Sir Charles Trevelyan’s plans reversed by sir C. 
Wiood) ay. . May, 

Death of the able and beneficent hon. J uggonath 
Sunkersett, the recognised representative of the 
Hindoo community : 31 July, 

Negotiation with the Bhootanese_ : July, 

Shipwreck of the Eagle Speed near Calcutta; 265 
coolies perish through neglect . . 24 Aug. 

Peace with the Bhootanese signed . 13 Nov. 

Much dissatisfaction at mildewed cotton goods 
being received from England. July-Oct. 

Settlement of the question respecting marriage of 

Hindoo converts . April, 

Simla Scandal.” Trial of capt. E. Jervis; ac- 

quitted on charge of peculation of stores belong- 

ing to sir W. Mansfield, commander-in-chief, but 
condemned for insubordination ; sentence (dis- 

missal from the service) approved by sir W. 

Mansfield 2 eae De 

Awful famine in Orissa, Bengal : ‘about 1,500,000 
perished : 4 Aug. -Nov. 

Relief by Gov ernment. . Oct. 

Dr. Cotton, bishop of Calcutta, accidentally drowned 

6 Oct. 

Famine abating ; official inquiry ordered Nov. 

Great durbar held at Agra, by sir J. Lawrence 

ro-20 Nov. 

Simla case ; sentence against capt. Jervis confirmed, 
and sir W. Mansfield censured by the duke of 
Cambridge, by letter dated . ; 17 Jan. 

Deficiencies in the revenue ; Massey’s proposed new 
licence tax much opposed . April & May, 

False rumour of mutiny at Meerut. 20 May, 

Report on Orissa famine; authorities blamed, June, 

Deficiency in revenue for 1867, 2,400,0o00l. reported 

Aug. 

Massacre of Hindoo chiefs by the nawab of Tonk 
(for which he was deposed) 1 Aug. 

Grand durbar at Lucknow - 9-17 Nov. 

The fierce Wagheers of Kattywar, in a night attack, 
are nearly exterminated ; capts. Hibbert and La 
Touche killed 5 29 Dec. 

Mr. Massey’s budget ; surplus of 800,00cl. ; licence 
tax abolished, tax on trades, &c., substituted ; ex- 
penditure of 1,700,000l. on public works pr oposed 

14 March, 

War on the N.W. frontier; the Bazotees, fatatioal 
Mahometans, defeated by general Wilde; 30 killed 
and w ounded ; all dispersed, 4 Oct. ; villages burnt 
as punishment for outrages ey TOets 

Death of the begum of Bhopal, “who helped the 
British during the mutiny 30 Aug. 

The duke of Argyll secretary for India 9 Dec. 

Arrival of the earl of May ° the new viceroy, at 
Calcutta j : . 12 Jan. 

Severe famine . 

Sir R. Temple's budget ; 
2,750,000l.; a I per “cent. 
(excessively opposed) . March, 

Meeting of the viceroy and Shere Ali, the Afghan 
sovereign, who receives a subsidy and presents 

27 March, 

New divorce act in operation . Pat April, 

Rise of a body of Indian religious reformers termed 
the Brahmo-Somaj (see. Deism) . : . Aug. 

Act for the better governing India and defining the 
governor-general’s Lah passed . II ‘Aug. 


ee 


deficiency “of about 
income tax put on 


440 


1864 


29 


9) 


9? 


1869 


1865- “9 


1869 


INDIA. 


India visited by the duke of Edinburgh, Dec. 186 
pet 


pru, 

Railway between Calcutta and Bombay completed 

March, 

Announced deficiency in the revenue; increased 

taxation proposed; much opposition to the in- 

come tax , uy 
Grand durbar at Bhurtpore 

Lamented death of sir H. Durand, from fall foul an 


elephant x Jan, 
Sir Proby Cautley, designed Ganges canal works, 
&ec., died, aged 68 . - 25 Jan. 
Volunteer system proposed for India. . dan. 
Indian finance committee appointed . 4 Feb. 
Sir R. Temple’s budget . 9 March, 


Moulvi Liakat Ali, a cruel rebel who in 1857 ruled 
as viceroy at Allahabad, apprehended . 5 July, 
Indian civil engineering college, Cooper’s-hill, opened 
by the duke of Argyll, secretary for India, 5 Aug. 
Justice Norman stabbed at Calcutta, 20 Sept. ; dies 
at Sept. ; assassin convicted, 28 Sept.; executed 
Noy. 
Much corrupt opposition to the income tax rea 
Ov. 
Lord Mayo visits Palumpore fair, and holds a rural 
durbar. : 6 Nov. 
Military expedition under generals Nutthall and 
Bourchier, aided by the rajah of Munnipore, against 
the Looshais, about 13 Noy. ; skirmishes, 1 Dee. 
Death of the earl of Ellenborough, a late governor- 
general (see Somnath) : . 22 Dee 
Skirmishes with the Looshais, ot, 23 Dec. ; they 
sue for peace. - 29 Dee. 
The king of Siam visits ‘Calcutta . 7-12 Jan, 
Outbr eak of the Kookas, near Loodiana, severely 
suppressed by commissioners Cowan and Forsyth 


(see Kookas) 15-17 Jan. 
Camp at Delhi; military manceuvres, by sir H. 
Tombs and others 13-23 Jan. 


Looshais repulsed and strongholds taken ~ 28 Jan. 
The viceroy arrives at Rangoon, 28 Jan. ; on his 
return he visits the conyict establishment in the 
Andaman Islands, and is assassinated at Port 
Blair by Shere Ali, a convict, while about to 
embark in the Glasgow 8 Feb. 
Lord Napier acts as viceroy : 23 Feb. 
Looshais surrender unconditionally ; army returning 
28 Feb. 
The Kamous tribe, while carrying off Looshai eap- 
tives, defeated, and captives rescued ; British re- 
turning to Caleutta ‘ 7 March, 
Shere Ali hanged, without confessing me 
2 March, 
Annual pension from Indian EE to lady 
Mayo, toool.; grant of 20,oool. for children, 
March, 
Sir Richard Temple’s budget favourable ; income 
tax to be reduced : : . April, 
Lord Northbrook sworn in as viceroy 3 May, 
Liakat Ali, on confession, condemned to i 
tion for life . ‘ : 7 
Christian marriage bill passed . 
The begum of Bhopal made a knight of the Star of 
India at Bombay ‘ 16 Nov. 
Changes in criminal procedure ; compromise in 
The income tax not renewed . 2t March, 
Riots of the Moplahs, Mahometan fanatics, on 
coast of Malabar, suppressed by military ; about 
13, 14 Sept. 
New tax (road cess) reported successful Oct. 
Messrs. Bernard, Geddes, & Robinson appointed 
commissioners in anticipation of famine in 
Bengal Nov. 
Sir R. Temple appointed superintendent of relief 
in Behar ‘Jan. | 
15 districts (25, 000,000 inhabitants) much dis- 
tressed ; rz districts (14,000,000) affected 
middle of Jan, 
Subscriptions at Mansion-house (which see), London 
begun 24 Jan. 
1,oool. given by the Queen . 4 Feb. 
The mar quis of Salisbury secretary for ‘India, ar Feb. 
Report from Calcutta: ‘‘ people well employed on 
publie works ; ; no adult should die now from 
starvation ” . 25 March, 
A loan, not exceeding 10,000, cool. for mnie Gove 
ment authorised by parliament o M 
Sir R. Temple installed lieut.-goy. of Dougal 3 


4s i 
es | 


_ 


INDIA. 


441 


INDIA. 


— George Campbell: about 500 deaths 
lisedse and hunger reported, about 8 April, 
nine kept under; estimated net expendi- 
yn relief, 6,500,000l. (see Mansion-house) 
May, 
f famine past; reported declining; much 
good prospects . June, 
deaths from famine alone ; 3 12 5,000. raised. 
lief in London ; . 27 July, 
nee of rain . Sept. 
Khan, a cruel leader in the imutiny, s sen- 
ito death . Sept. 
n said to be Nana Sahib captur ed at Gwalior 
e Maharajah Scindia (identity since sees 
d ‘ ct 
ts to poison col. Phayre, resident at arods: 
_ heis replaced by col. Pelly . ee Dec: 
s of Dufilatribes on N. W. frontier (trouble- 
1838-9 ; 1852; Feb. 1873); expedition against 
Wee: 
Rao, ‘guicowar of Baroda, carried to Caleutta 
al for attempting to poison col. Phayre ; 
uild recognised as his successor, provision- 
- 14 Jan. 
fla tribes surrender and pay fine . 29 Jan. 
cowar’s trial begins, 3 native judges (Scin- 
the maharajah of J eypore, and one other) 
British . z 23 Feb. 
Tolcombe and a surveying party (about 70) 
am, massacred by Naga natives 
about 24 Feb. 
‘Inquiry into the conduct of the guicowar 
oda ; verdict of 3 British judges, guilty ; of 
ves, “not proved ; 30 March; he is deposed 
isgovernment by the viceroy, and ordered 
2 in British India with suitable provision ; 
mation that a successor be appointed 
23 April, 
bes chastised severely ; the BMects of the 
ition accomplished 15-25 March, 
on of the guicowar appointed successor 
22 May, 
ies with Burmah . May, 
of sir Douglas Forsyth to Mandalay ae 
uh) A . June, 
icowar of Bardda_ installed . 3 June, 
shhment of anew Mahometan college for the 
provinces (chiefly by Ahmed Khan); an- 
ed Jul y; 
h from marquis ‘of Salisbury on repeal of 
1 duties : . Sept. 
nee of Wales sails for India, rx Oct., arrives 
mbay 8 Nov.; warmly received at ‘Baroda. 
; at Goa, 27 Nov. ; in Ceylon, 1-8 Dec. ; 
dras, Ty Dec. ; at Calcutta, 23 Dec. ; grand 
sion of Indian potentates : 24 Dec. 
d statue of Lord Mayo at Caleutta . 1 Jan. 
res, Lucknow, &c., 5 Jan., et seg.; in Nepaul, 
b. ; sails from’ Bombay 13 March, 
rtton, new viceroy, takes oath at Calcutta, 
12 April, 
sen proclaimed Empress of India in London 
rt May, 
finances: deficiency through depreciation 
ver currency; loss about 2,300,000. pro- 
loan of 4,000,0001. . ir Aug. 
al proclamation of the Queen’ s title, 
oress of India ;” (to be proclaimed at Delhi, 
9 0077). . 19 Aug. 
n Strachey appointed financial Eaniater, 
17 Oct. ; governor of N.W. Provinces Nov. 
. Mr. Fuller slapped for neglect a native 
it, 31 Oct. 1875, who died soon after; he 
ned by a mugistrate ; sentence considered 
ght by the high court ; the viceroy in a 
e censured all; this caused much dissatis- 
be (lord Salisbury supported the viceroy, 
: J uly, 
in Bombay, Madras, &e. Nov., Dec. 
ation of the queen as empress pf "India 
‘auch magnificence at Delhi, by the viceroy ; 
5 Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay 1 Jan. 
ie the “Order of the Empire of India” an- 
r Jan. 
omple removed from Bengal to ees 
Jan. 
: orks preening, pe geable Moparts an- 
ad 29 April, 


. . 


+) 


Copious 


Treaty of peace signed at Gandamuk (w h ish see), 


The raids of the Afreedees on N.W. frontiers sup- 
pressed ; announced end of April, 
Famine formidable, but energetically met June, 
Misery increasing; establishment of ‘ Mansion- 
house relief fund” (which, see) 12 Aug. 
The secretary for India authorised by parliament 
to raise a loan for 5,000,000/. . ; 14 Aug. 
919,771 employed by government ; 1,326,971 relieved 
gratuitously ; reported 29 Aug. 
Disturbances on N.W. frontier ; raids of the. Jawa- 
kaies, or Jowakies, an Afreedee tr ibe ; chastised 
by expedition under sir Rd. Pollock, 29) 30 Aug. ; 
again by gen. Keyes ; Nov. 
rain in the south reported ; greatly im- 
proved prospects Sept., Oct. 


_ Formation of a new N.W. government pr oposed 


Oct., Nov. 


' Mansion-house Indian fund closed, by request of 


the duke of Buckingham (by telegram) 5 Nov. 
Jummu, the Jawakies’ stronghold, taken; they 
are defeated and dispersed Nov., Dec. 
Sir John Strachey’s budget; 1,500,cool. to be 
raised annually for famines (they cost 16,000,000l. 
in five years); taxation raised; trade licences, 
DC. Dee. 
“<Tmperial Order of the Crown of India, ie for ladies 3 
instituted sat Dee 
The Jawakies defeated by cay alry, x5) Hepes sur- 
render unconditionally ; announced 2 Feb. 
Bill to restrain licence of the native press, Aes 
by the council at Calcutta 14 March, 
The Indian press commission to help and control 
the press, established ; 2 
Budget; cost of famine about 3,450, Scape March, 
Native Indian troops sent to Malta, April; com- 
mended by the duke of Cambridge, June; re- 
moved to Cyprus : Aug. 
War with Afghanistan (which see) Sept. 
England now holds the passes through which India 
is accessible by land Feb. 
Revenue—Gross receipts, 65,207,694. 
Expenditure, 67,545,201/. 


8545 miles of railways opened Cea about” 


120,000,000l.) up to t March, 
26 May, 
Indian railways guarantee act passed rr Aug. 
Loan of sum under 5,000,000l. for India ; authorized 
by act 15 Aug. 
Disaffection and plunder ing of the Rumpa hill tribes, 
Aug. ; subdued : Oct. 
Mutiny and massacres at Cabul ‘(see Aft yhanista n), 
3 Sept. 
Murder of Mr. Damant, commissioner, in Naga 
hills by natives, during an outbreak 14 Oct. 
New stringent rules for newspaper correspondents 
with army ; issued Oct. 
Lord Lytton fired at by ‘Busa, a half- mad, intoxi- 
cated East Indian ; no injury 2 Dec. 


Rumpa rebellion in Central India dying out ; ee 
defeats of rebels. 2 - ; 4 i F 
Naga raids and murders Jan. 


Indian budget, by sir John Saachee : eariee of 
119,000l. reported : 24 Feb. 

Marquis of Ripon, new viceroy, arrives at Caron: 
col. Gordon, his secretary 

Errors in the budget, through mistakes in esti- 

‘mating Afghan war expenses ; large deficiency ; 
announced - May ; sir John Strachey resigns (suc 
ceeded by major Baring) ‘ June, 

Deficiency stated to be about 9,000, cool. by marquis 
of Hartington . 5 duly, 


By a landslip the hill station Nynee Tal or Naini 
Tal, in the Himalayas, hs Wa many lives lost 
(see Landslips) 18 Sept. 

Sir Donald Stewart appointed. commander-in-chief 
of the Indian army Jan. 

Death of Gholam Hussein Khan, able and faithful 
friend to the British s March, 

War declared against the Wazaris, I2 > April ; ends 
with their submission . about 8 May, 

Proposals for loan of 3,000, oool., issued, 27 June, 

Budget introduced by the marquis of Hartington ; : 
revenue, 68,484,666l. ; expenditure, 69,667,615). : 
deficit, 1,182,949l. . 3/22 Aug. 

The pudget for 1852-3—Revenue, 66,439,000. 9 Mar. 

Expenditure, 66,174,o00l. . 


1879 


. 1878-9 


39 


1879 


INDIA. 


442 


INDIA COMPANY, HA 


The Indian contingent distinguished in Egyptian 
war. ; : : . Aug.—Sept. 
Officers: visit London : . : : Nov. 
The Sirhind canal (502 miles, for irrigation) opened 
by the viceroy . : : J : 24 Novy. 
Mr. Ilbert’s Criminal Procedure Amendment bill 
strongly opposed by all the non-official Europeans 
and the army throughout India; very great 
meeting at Calcutta : i , . 28 Feb. 
European and Anglo-Indian defence association, 
Calcutta, formed ; first meeting 29 March, 
An Anglo-Indian association for the natives formed 
in London . 3 : Ae April, 
Mr. Banerjee, editor of the Bengalee, sentenced to 
two months’ imprisonment for gross libel against 
judge Norris; great excitement of Hindoos, 
monster meeting at Calcutta [appeal refused in 
England, July] : ah Ne about 11 May, 
Dreadful inundation in Cachar, N.E. Calcutta, caus- 
ing great distress ; prompt British help 16 May, 
Major Baring succeeded by sir Auckland Colvin as 
finance minister 4 : é Fea aly, 
High courts of Bombay and Madras favour, that of 
Calcutta opposes, the Ibert bill . July—<Aug. 
Abundant food supply and great prosperity Oct. 
Ilbert bill: compromise announced ;. Europeans 
allowed to claim a jury wholly or partly European 
ai Dec. 

Akha raids into Assam; major Beresford’s forces 


repulsed, ‘ E : 2 . 24 Dec. 
The Akhas dispersed by gen. Hill 8 Jan. 
He returns ; : 2 Jan. 
Ibert bill amended and passed 25 Jan. 


Great increase of cultivation and exports through 
railways since 1848. 
Exports : 25,000,001. raised to 147,837,920l. in 1883 
announced 
Indian budget: finances sound and improving, 8 Aug. 
Expedition to the Zhob valley to punish the Kakar 
Pathans for their raids into British territory 
about 22 Sept. 
They are defeated by gen. Tanner ; 56 killed 23 Oct. 
No resistance reported, 6 Nov.; troops return 
22 Nov. 
Upwards of 1000 addresses from natives to the 
marquis of Ripen on his leaving India Noy. 
Ear] of Dufferin installed viceroy at Calcutta 13 Dee. 
Important Bengal tenancy bill passed iz Mareh, 
Sir A. Colvin’s budget ; combined surplus of 3 years 
(1882-5), 1,378,000l. ; lessened by depreciation of 
Silver currency ; revenue for 1885-6, 7,209,040. ; 
expenditure, 1885-6, 7,158,230l. . 17 March, 
Sir Donald Stewart, with 50,000 men, ordered to 
advance to Quetta . 4 ; . - March, 
Meeting of the Ameer of Afghanistan and the viceroy 
at Rawul Pindi conference and durbar 2-12 April, 


GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF INDIA, &c.* 
Warren Hastings assumes the govt. . . 13 April, 
Sir John Macpherson . t Feb. 
Lord Cornwallis : ; 5 12 Sept. 
Sir John Shore (afterwards lord Teignmouth) 28 Oct. 
Lord (afterwards marquis) Cornwallis again: he 
relinquished the appointment. 
Sir Alured Clarke . : 


. : : : 6 April, 

Lord Mornington (afterwards Marquis Wellesley) 
; 17 May, 
Marquis Cornwallis again . 30 July, 
Sir George Hilaro Barlow . ro Oct. 
Lord Minto 31 July, 


Earl of Moira, afterwards marquis of Hastings, 4 Oct. 
Hon. John Adam 2 : : 13 Jan. 
George Canning, relinquished the appointment 
William, Lord (afterwards earl) Amherst. rt Aug. 
Hon. W. Butterworth Bayley 13 Mareh 
Lord Wm. Cavendish Bentinck 4d uly, 
[This nobleman became the first governor-general 
of India, under the act 3 & 4 Will. IV. e. 85% 
Aug 28, 1833. ] 
Sir Charles Theophilus Metcalfe (afterwards lord 
Metcalfe) : : ‘ : . 20 March, 
William, lord Heytesbury ; did not proceed . 


* Several of these appointments were p 


1882 


1798 | 


39 


rovisional, as, 


for instance, sir Alured Clarke, sir George Hilaro Barlow 
hon. William Butterworth Bayley, William Wilberforce 
Bird, &. The appointments of governors-general were 
of course, of earlier date than their assumption of office. 


George, lord Auckland (afterwards earl of Aucklan 


4 Mare 
Edward, lord Ellenborough . . . 28 Fe 
William Wilberforce Bird. : : 15 Jun 
Sir Henry (afterwards viscount) Hardinge, 23 Jul 


James-Andrew, earl (afterwards marquis) of D; 
housie . P : ; é - 4 12 Ja 
Charles John, viscount Canning, appointed, Jul 
Proclaimed the first viceroy throughout India, x N¢ 
James, earl of Elgin, appointed, Aug. 1861; di 
20 No 
Sir John Lawrence appointed . 4 : e 
Richard, earl of Mayo (see Mayo) appointed. O¢ 
[Assassinated 8 Feb. 1872. ] 
Thomas George Baring, lord Northbrook . Fe 
Edward Robert Bulwer Lytton, lord Lytton, toc 


oath at Calcutta . } , ‘ .. 12 Apr 
George Frederick Samuel Robinson, marquis 


Ripon . ; : ‘ : , - . Ma 
Frederick Temple Hamilton-Blackwood, earl — 
Dufferin . 3 : Sey 


INDIA COMPANY, EAST. Thefir: 
mercial intercourse of the English with th 
Indies was a private adventure of three ship 
out in 1591. Only one of them reached Indis 
after a voyage of three years, the commande 
tain Lancaster, was brought home in anothe 
the sailors having seized his own; but h 
formation gave rise to a mercantile voyage, a 
establishment of a company, whose first char 
Dec. 1600, was renewed in 1609, 1657, 1661. 
and 1744. Its stock in 1600 consisted of 72 
when it fitted out four sbips. Meeting with s 
it continued to trade, and India stock sold at 
for a share of 100/. in 1683. 


A new company (the ‘‘ Knglish”) was chartered 
Sept. 1698, and the old (the ‘‘ London”) suspende 
froin trading for three years ; the two were unite 

New East India company established . 5 ‘ 

Privileges of the company continued till 1783 . 

Affairs of the company were brought before parli 
ment, and a committee exposed a series of i 
trigues and crimes . ; ; 5 .) oo, 

As remedial measures, two acts passed (one auth 
rised a loan of 1,000,0001. to the company; tl 
other celebrated as the India bill) effected mo: 
important changes in the constitution of ti 
company and its relations to India. A governo 
general was appointed to reside in Bengal, 1 
which the other presidencies were then ma¢ 
subordinate ; a supreme court of judicature w: 
instituted at Calcutta: the salary of the govern 
was fixed at 25,oool. per year; that of the coun¢ 
at 10,000. each ; and of the chief judge at 80o0!. 
the affairs of the company were controlled ; allt! 
departments were re-organised, and all the ter? 
torial correspondence was henceforth to be lai 
before the British ministry : a 

Mr. Pitt’s bill appointing the Board of Cont 
(which see), passed ; ‘ : . 18 My 

The company’s charter was rené¢wed for 20 years — 

Trade with India thrown open . , 


The government of India was continued in t 
hands of the company till parliament shor 
otherwise provide . : : : ‘ mi 

In consequence of the mutiny of 1857, and the «i 
appearance of the company’s army, the govel 
ment of India was transferred to the crown, 
Board of Control was abolished, and a Counci 
State for India instituted by the act 21 & 22 V 
c. 106, which received the royal assent, 2 AU 

The company’s political power ceased on 1 
and the queen was proclaimed as Queen of Gr 


* Lord Palmerston brought in a bill for the pul 
12 Feb., which was accepted by the house on 3 
He resigned oft the following day, and the bill d 
A similar bill was introduced by Mr. Disraeli on 12. 
but many of its details being objected to, it wi 
drawn. On lord John Russell’s proposition, t 
proceeded to eonsider the matter by way of re 
on 17 June, lord Stanley brought in the above mei 
bill, being the third on the subject introduced d 
session. 


| Trade to China opened ; Charter renewed till nt 


INDIA, COUNCIL OF. 


tain and the Colonies, &c., in the principal 
ces in India, amid much enthusiasm 1 Noy. 1858 
xompany to be dissolved, x June, 1874, and 
idends redeemed, by the “‘ East India Stock 
ridend Redemption Act,” passed 15 May, 1873 
Jast InDIA-HovusE built 1726; enlarged anda 
v front erected, 1799 ; sold with the furniture, 
1; pulled down in Sept. and Oct. . 1862 


(DIA, CouNcIL oF, established by act of 
ament, 2 Aug. 1858, in the place of the board 
mtrol (which see). It consists of 15 members 
ry 1200/. a year), eight of whom were appointed 


1e queen, and seven elected by the directors of | 


Bast India company. The members may not 
| parliament. The council met first on 3 Sept. 
, when lord Stanley, secretary of state for India, 
ded. ‘The members of the jivst council are 
recorded :— 


ELECTED. 
arles Mills. Sir J. Weir Hogg. 
in Shepherd. Elliot Macnaghten. 


ss D. Mangles. 

liam J. Eastwick. 
APPOINTED. 

Frederick Currie. Sir John Lawrence. 

Henry Rawlinson, Sir Henry Montgomery. 

R. Hussey Vivian. Sir Proby Cautley, and 

Pollard Willoughby. Wm. Arbuthnot. 


NDIA, EMPRESS OF ; queen Victoria so pro- 
med in London, 1 May, 1876, in India, 1 Jan. 
. Order of the Indian Empire instituted, 
n. 1878. 


YDIA MUSEUM, THE, was proposed by 
harles Wilkins and approved by the Kast India 
any in 1798. The valuable collections were 
yved from Leadenhall-street to Fife house, 
nd the chapel royal, Whitehall, and opened 
July, 1861; removed to the East India 
eum, which was opened to the public May, 
'; removed to South Kensington, opened June, 
; closed 25 Oct. 1879, and the collections re- 
ed to Kew Gardens Museum, there re-opened 
[ay, 1880. 


VDIANA, 2 western state of North America. 
as included in Ohio till 1801; was constituted 
rritory in 1809, and admitted into the Union 
lec. 1816; capital, Indianopolis. 


YDIAN CIVIL SERVICE COLLEGE, 
plished at Cooper’s hill, Surrey, 1870. 


YDIAN INSTITUTE, Oxford; promoted 
professor Monier Williams, 1875 ct seq.; 
jlished 1878; first stone of the building laid, 
wy, 1883; opened, 14 Oct. 1884. 


YDIANS occupying the south-western parts 
he United States, in direct connexion with 
government, were numbered at 239,506 in 
; 261,912 in 1881. The larger tribes are 
Cherokees (22,000), the Chocktaws (18,000), 
Creeks (13,550), and the Chickasaws (5000). 
arge proportion are in comfortable circum- 
ces, and have schools and churches; other tribes 
the Delawares, Sacs, Foxes, Shawnees, Sioux, 
loways. During the American civil war in 1861, 
Choctaws joined the confederates, who per- 
ed two Choctaw delegates to sit in congress ; 
first being Sampson Folsom and Eastman Lo- 
_; but the principal chief of the Cherokees, on 
ay, 1861, issued a proclamation of neutrality, 
h was maintained with great difficulty. Ina war 
-oked by outrages general Sheridan defeated the 
ans, and they surrendered unconditionally Dec. 
ie Negotiations undertaken by the Quakers had 
ffect, and the war was renewed June, 1869. 
1. chastisement for murders and other outrages 
or Baker killed 173 Indians, including women 


| Henry T. Prinsep. 


: 4 : 


443 


INDIGO. 


and children, Jan. 1870. In June following 4 
deputation of eminent chiefs was received by the 
president at Washington, and promises and presents 
were made tothem. On 1 Oct. 1869 prince Arthur 
visited the villages of the Canadian Indians, and 
was made a chief of the ‘‘Six Nations.’”’ A depu- 
tation of Indian chiefs were well received by the 
president at Washington, Jan. 1870. A meeting of 

delegates from various tribes met at Ocmulgee, 5-17 

June, 1871, and agreed to a constitution for the 

common government by means of a senate and par- 

liament representing 17 tribes of 60,000 people; see 

Modoe. 

Professor Marsh reports to the president of the 
United States the corruption and. fraudulent 
conduct of the ‘‘ Indian Ring,” the officials em- 
ployed to pay compensation, and deal with the 
Indians (this said to cause war of 1876); cor- 
roborated by gen. Custer . - ; ened War, 

[Bishop Butler, an American, said that if the In- 
dians were treated as fairly as they are in Canada 
there would be no wars, 1878. ] 

Thirteen Iroquois and 14 Canadians performed the 
Canadian national game ‘‘ La Crosse,” before the 
Queen at Windsor F : 2 27 June, 

Gen. Geo, A. Custer, a brave, able officer, attacks 
about 2,500 Sioux Indians on Little Horn river, 
Montana, in a ravine; he and his family and 
nearly all his force destroyed (275 killed, 60 
wounded) 2 ; : : . . 25 0une 955 

Urgent measures taken by the United States govern- 
ment, Sheridan put in command . July" es 

Sheridan unsuccessful; commissioners arrange a 
treaty with the Sioux Indians to remove for self- 
sustentation 7—27 Oct. 

War going on; to an able 
chief, Joseph : ‘ : ; " July, 

The tribe ‘‘Nez Percés” defeat the U.S. troops in 
Idaho, and kill about 33, during and after the 
battle : : : ; ; about 14 Sept. ,, 

Great conference of Indian chiefs with president 


Hayes, at Washington ; they accept terms 
end of Sept. 


“Sitting Bull” and Sioux Indians defeated in a 
raid retire to Canada, and decide to remain in 
Canada < 5 A Z ; 7 July, 

Fighting with Indians at Mill creek, near Rawlins, 
in Colorado; 17 whites and major Thornbury 
killed, 29 Sept.; gen. Merritt entrenched ; said 
to be surrounded ; reinforced; Indians retreat 

14 Oct. 

200 Apache Indians turn and kill 32 of the pursuing 
whites : “ ; : : ae eG UNOY, 

Indians in Canada: In 1883, 110,503 ; numbers in- 
creasing ; condition improving. 


INDIA RUBBER, see Caoutchoue. 
INDICTION, a cycle of tributes of corn de- 


mandedevery fifteen years, not known before the time 
of Constantine. The first examples in the Theo- 
dosian code are of the reign of Constantius, who 
died 361.—In memory of the great victory obtained 
by Constantine over Mezentius, 8 Cal. Oct. 312, 
the council of Nice ordained that the accounts of 
years should be no longer kept by the Olympiads, 
but by the Indiction, which has its epocha I Jan. 
313. It was first used by the Latin church in 342. 


INDIGO, the dye obtained from the woad 
plant, isatis tinetoria, was used by the Egyptians, 
and other ancient nations; and the processes are 
described by Pliny, After the passage of the Cape of 
Good Hope, in 1497, it was gradually superseded by 
the eastern indigo, got from the indigofera. The 
mention of indigo occurs in English statutes in 15ST. 
Its cultivation was begun in Carolina in 1747. The 
quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840 was 


1875 


gen. Howard opposed 


5,831,209 lbs.; in 1845, 10,127,488 lbs. ; in 1850, 
0,482 cwt.; in 1859, 63,237 ewt. ; in 1861, 
109 ewt.; in 1866, 74,250 ewt.; In 1869, 

86,721 cewt.; in 1870, 79,255 ewt.; in 1577; 

106,307 cwt.; in 1874, 85,707 ewt.; in 1876, 


INDIRECT CLAIMS. 


444 


INFIRMARIES. 


88,722 cwt.; in 1877, 60,640 ewt.; in 1879, 80,146 
ewt. ; in 1880, 58,283 cwt.; in 1881, 81,088 cwt. ; 
in 1882, 95,272 cwt.; in 1883, 100,243 cwt. 

After long continued experiments, especially by 
prof. A. Baeyer, the dye has been prepared artifi- 
cially from its chemical elements in coal tar 1869-80 

Professor H. E. Roscoe, at the Royal Institution, 
proved that the properties of the artificial and 
natural indigo were identical 27 May, 1881 


_ INDIRECT CLAIMS, see Alabama, Wash- 


engton. 


INDIUM, a metal discovered in the arsenical 
pyrites of Freiberg by F. Reich and T. Richter in 
1363. Its name is due to its giving an indigo blue 
ray in its spectrum. 


INDIVIDUALIST CLUB, proposed to be 
formed for the physical and political benefit of the 
ae classes, on the principle of self-help, Feb. 
1885. 


INDUCTION of electric currents, discovered 
by Faraday, and announced in his ‘‘ Experimental 
Researches,’ published in 1831-2. Ruhmkorft’s 
magneto-electric induction coil was constructed in 
1850. See under Electricity. 


INDUCTIVE PHILOSOPHY, based on 
the results of observations and experiments, really 
common sense, is especially expounded by Bacon in 
the second book of his “* Novwm Organon,”’ pub- 
lished 1620. 


INDULGENCES in the early church were 
the moderation of ecclesiastical punishment. The 
papal system for the absolute pardon of sin, com- 
menced by Leo. III. about 800, were granted in 
the 11th century by Gregory VII., and by Urban 
I1., and by others, in the 12th century as rewards 
to the crusaders. Clement V. was the first pope 
who made public sale of indulgences, 1313. In 
1517, Leo X. published general indulgences 
throughout Europe, and the resistance to them led 
to the Reformation. 


INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS, in Great 

ritain, are now frequent. One for South London 
‘was opened at Lambeth, 1 March, 1864; for North 
Lcndon, by earl Russell, at the Agricultural hall, 
Islington, 17 Oct. 1864; for West London, at the 
Floral hall, Covent-garden, 1 May, 1865; for the 
city of London, at Guildhall, 6 March, 1866; one 
was opened at York, 24 July, 1866; and several 
since. The Workmen’s International Exhibition, 
Agricultural Hall, London, was opened 16 July; 
closed, 31 Oct. 1870. 


INDUSTRIAL PROPERTY ; an inter- 
national conference for its protection was opened at 
Paris, 6 March, 1883. 


INDUSTRIAL REMUNERATION 
CONFERENCES, at Prince’s Hall, Piccadilly, 
London, held 28-30 Jan. 1885. Papers read on the 
relation between Capital and Labour, &c. by lord 
Bramwell, sir Charles Dilke, sir Thomas Brassey, 
and others. 


INDUSTRIAL AND PROVIDENT 
SOCIETIES’ ACTS, 1852 and 1862, were 
amended by acts passed 1867, 1871, and 1876. 


INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS ACT, 21 & 22 
Vict. c. 48 (1857) was enacted to make better pro- 
vision for the care and education of vagrant, desti- 
tute, and disorderly children. Another act was 
passed, 1861. These acts were consolidated by an 
act passed in Aug. 1806. Forty-seven of these 


schools had been certified under these acts uj 
29 Sept. 1864. The act was extended to Irel: 
1868. England and Wales, 1872, 71 schools (¢ 
boys, 1516 girls) ; 1882, 49 schools. 


INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES, see Co-op 


tive Societies. 
INDUSTRY, see Scientific. 
INFALLIBILITY OF THE POPE 


regard to faith and morals, was decreed by the 
tican Council, and promulgated, 18 July, 1870. | 
doctrine was much opposed in Germany, and le 
the constitution of the church named ‘Old 
tholics,” which see. Mr. Gladstone’s pamph 
‘¢The Vatican Decrees in their bearing on ( 
Allegiance,’ published Nov. 1874, and “Y 
canism,’’ in Feb. 1875. 


INFANTICIDH, especially female, was \ 
prevalent in barbarous countries. Lord Macart 
stated that 20,000 infants were killed annually 
is now gradually decreasing in India. On 12 
1851, Mr. Raikes induced the Chohan chief 
agree to resolutions against it, and a great mee’ 
in the Punjab was held for the same p 
14 Noy. 1853. Much suspicion was caused in 
don in 1867 through the deaths of children fan 
out, or given up to persons advertising for chil¢ 
to adopt, with a premium. The agitation revi 
June, 1870. Margaret Waters was convicted of 
murder of John Cowen, an illegitimate infant 
poison and neglect, 23 Sept. 1870. She had adoy 
about 40 children, receiving a few pounds as] 
mium; in four years, many had died. John 
Catherine Barns, of Tranmere, near Birkenh: 
convicted of manslaughter 29 Oct. 1879; a gi 
case. See Trials, 1879. The Infant Life Pro 
tion act passed 25 July, 1872. Female infanti 
prohibited in China about June, 1873. 


INFANTRY, foot soldiers; their organisa' 
much improved during the wars of Charles V. 
Francis I., in the 16th century. The British a1 
comprised 99 regiments of regular infantry in 1! 
when the Canadians raised a regiment whicl 
termed the rooth. The number, now 109, inelv 
the nine regiments formerly in the pay of the I 
India company, and several colonial corps. Mars 
Soult (or marshal Bugeaud) said, “The Bri 
infantry is the finest in the world: happily th 
is not much of it.’”’ In Dec, 1884, 115,245. 


INFANTS’ RELIEF ACT, passed 7 A 
1874, to amend the law relating to contracts m 
by persons under age. 


The powers of wives and widows in respect to the | 
and training of their children, were somewhat 
larged in 1839, more so in 1873, and very much n 
by a bill brought in by Mr. James Bryce, read ase¢ 
time 26 March, 1884. 


INFANT SCHOOLS began in New Lané 
Scotland, in 1815; in London in 1818. 


INFERNAL MACHINES, see France, tf 
1835, and 1858; Baltic, note; Dynamite; lus 
Bor ; Liverpool, 1881 ; Explosives. 


INFIRMARIES. Ancient Rome had 
houses for the cure of the sick; diseased pers 
were carried to the temple of AZsculapius for © 
Institutions for the accommodation’ of travell 
the indigent, and sick were founded by the « 
peror Julian about 362; and infirmaries or hospi 
were frequently built to cathedrals and mo 
teries. The emperor Louis IL. caused a 
situated on mountains to be visited, 855. In Je 


{ salem the knights and brothers attended on 


- | 
J 
ih 


5s 
aa 


INFLUENZA. 


445 


There were hospitals for the sick at Constan- 
le, in the 11th century. The oldest mention 
iysicians and surgeons established in infirm- 
occurs in 1437. Beckmann; see Hospitals. 


IFLUENZA, an epidemic which prevailed 
ngland in 1831, 1833, 1836, and 1847, appears 
ve been known in the 16th century. 


[FORMERS, upon penal statutes, com- 
ding with defendants without leave of the 
;, were punishable with fine and pillory, by 
Hig. ¢. 5 (1 379): Their share of a penalty was 
lated by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 71 (1839). 


YFUSORIA, see Animaicules. 


YGESTRE HALL, Staffordshire, destroyed 
re 12 Oct. 1882. It was built in 1676. Many 
able portraits, &c. were destroyed. 


YGOUR, a river rising in the Caucasus and 
ng into the Black Sea. Omar Pasha, marching 
e relief of Kars, crossed this river on 6 Noy. 
, with 10,000 men, and attacked the Russians, 
0 strong, who, after a struggle, retreated with 
oss of 4oomen. The Turks had 68 killed and 
wounded. Kars, however, was not saved. 


VK. Theancient black inks were composed of 
and ivory black, and Vitruvius and Pliny men- 

lamp-black; but they had ink of various 
irs, as red, gold, silver, and purple. Red ink 
made of vermilion and gum. INDIAN INK was 
ght from China, and must have been in use by 
veople of the east from the earliest ages. INvis- 
or SYMPATHETIC INKs, were known at early 
ds. Ovid (A.D. 2) teaches young women to 
e with new milk. Receipts for preparing in- 
ile ink were given by Peter Borel, in 1653, and 
e@ Mort, in 1669. Beckmann. 


VKERMANN (Crimea). The Russian army 


ut 40,000) having received reinforcements, and 


¢ encouraged by the presence of the granddukes’ 


iael and Nicholas, attacked the British (8000) 
‘the old fort of Inkermann, before daybreak, 
iv. 1854. They were kept at bay for six hours 
ihe arrival of 6000 French. The Russians were 
_ repulsed, leaving 9000 killed and wounded. 
loss of the allies was 462 killed, 1952 wounded, 
I9I missing. Sir George Cathcart, and generals 
ngways, Goldie, and Torrens, were among the 
. On 15 Nov. 1855, an explosion of about 
900 lbs. of gunpowder occurred near Inker- 
n, and caused great loss of life. 


NLAND REVENUE BOARD vas con- 
ted in Feb. 1849. It comprises the boards of 
se, Stamps, and Taxes (which see). The law 
»eting the inland revenue amended 1871. 


YNOCENTS’ DAY, 28 Dec. in the western 
ch; 29 Dec. in the Greek or eastern church ; 
thildermas. 


YNS at Rome were regulated by laws; and 
ard IIT. enacted that they should be subjected 
quiry, 1353. See Zaverns, and Victuallers. 


YNS OF COURT (London) were established 
fferent periods, in some degree as colleges for 
ung the law. Annual revenue in 1872 said to 
out 25,0002. 

, Zemple founded, and the church built by 
ights Templars . : : ; : : Se TLSS 
/ Inner and Middle Temple made inns of law 


ut 1340 ; the Outer about (Stow) E500 
ard’s Inn, aninn of Chancery . - 1445 
-ent’s Inn, 18 Edw. IV. . 2 4 ; - 1478 
-rd’s Inn, 20 Edw. III. A - 2 - 1345 


INQUISITION. 

Furnival’s Inn, 5 Eliz. . . 1563 
Gray’s Inn, 32 Edw. IIT. . : Baie Io 
Lincoln’s Inn, 4 Edw. IT. . 1310 OF 13r2 
Lyon’s Inn a F . 1420 
New Inn, t Hen. VII. . : . 1485 
Serjeants’ Inn, Fleet Street : é : . 1429 
Serjeants’ Inn, Chancery-lane (sold for 57,0001. 23 

Webs. 2877). SS i Br nla NRE oy 
Staples Inn, 4 Hen. V.. . 1415 
Thavies’ Inn, ro Hen. VIII. : 2 : » .. I5IQ 
Staple Inn, Barnard’s Inn, Clement’s Inn, and 

Clifford’s Inn said to be sold to builders Dec. 1884 


INNSBRUCK, capital of the Tyrol, captured 
by Maurice of Saxony in 1552; by the Bavarians 
in 1703; by the French and Bavarians. 1805. 
Much fighting took place in 1809, and Innsbriick 
changed masters several times, being finally taken 
by the Austrians, 12 Aug. 


INOCULATION, see Smaii Pox. Lady Mary 
Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation from 
small pox to England from Turkey. In 1718 she 
had her son inoculated at Adrianople with success. 
She was allowed to have it first tried in England on 
seven condemned criminals, 1721 ; andin 1722 two 
of the royal family were inoculated. The practice 
was preached against by many of the bishops and 
clergy until 1760. Dr. Mead practised inoculation 
very successfully up to 1754, and Dr. Dimsdale of 
London, inoculated Catherine II., empress of 
Russia, in 1768. Of 5964 who were inoculated in 
1797-99, only three died. An inoculation hospital 
was established in 1746. Vaccine inoculation was 
introduced by Dr. Jenner, 21 Jan. 1799; he had 
discovered its virtue in 1796, and had been making 
experiments during the intermediate three years. 
Inoculation was forbidden by law in 1840. See 
Vaccination, and Sheep. 


INQUESTS, see Coroner. 
INQUISITION or Hoty OFrrice. Pre- 


vious to Constantine (306), heresy and _ spiritual 
offences were punished by excommunication only ; 
but shortly after his death capital punishments: 
were added, and inquisitors were appointed by 
Theodosius, 382. Priscillian was put to death in 384. 
by the emperor Maximus. Justinian decreed the 
doctrine of the four holy synods as to the holy scrip- 
tures and their canons to be observed as laws, 529; 
hence the penal code against heretics. About 800 
the power of the western bishops was enlarged, and 
courts were established for trying and punishing spi- 
ritual offenders,even with death; the punishment be- 
ing termed in Spain auto-da-fe, ‘‘ an act of faith.’’ 
In the 12th century many heresies arose, and during 
the crusades against the Albigenses, Gregory IX., 
in 1233, established by rules the inquisitorial 
missions sent out by Innocent III., 1210-15, and 
committed them to the Dominicans. Pietro da 
Verona (styled Peter Martyr), the first inquisitor 
who burnt heretics, assassinated by an accused gon- 
falonier,6 April, 1252, was canonized. 
Pierre de Castelnau sent against the Albigenses, 
1210; St. Dominic made the first inquisitor- 
general 


° . . . . . . . Fite F = 
The Inquisition constituted by Gregory IX., 1233 ; il 
established in Aragon, 1233; Venice, 1249; 
France, 1255; Castile . : : : . 1290 
The Inquisition revived by a bull r Nov. 1478 
The Holy Office was reinstituted in Spain by Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella; Torquemada  inquisitor- 
general . P : F . . ; . 1480 
Nearly 3000 persons burnt in Andalusia, and 17,000 
suffer other penalties : ; ‘ erase 
‘Instructions ” of the new tribunal promulgated, 
29 Noy. 1484 
New articles were added 1488 & 1408 
Established in Portugal 1520 


The establishment resisted in Naples, and only 


INSANITY. 


introduced into other parts of Italy with jealous 


limitations by the temporal power ; F 1546-7 
New ordinances in 81 articles compiled by the 
inquisitor-general Valdez . 3 : F <) MLS OL 
Suppressed in France by edict of Nantes. ; . 1598 
Carnesecchi executed at Rome, 1567, and Galileo 
compelled to abjure his philosophical opinions 
Louis XIV. revoked the edict of Nantes, but re- 
fused to introduce the Inquisition . : 5 ae 


20 persons perish at an auto-da-fe at Coa str7I7 
Gabriel Malagrida, a jesuit, burnt at Lisbon be LZ OL 


A woman accused of making a contract with the 
devil burnt at Seville : - . 7 Nov. 

‘The tribunal abolished in Tuscany and Lombardy . 

Suppressed in Spain by Napoleon, 4 Dec. 1808, and 
by the Cortes : : 2 3; 7-12. Rep: 

Restored by Ferdinand VII. : az July, 

Finally abolished by the Cortes ; - : : 

{ Llorente states that in 236 years the total number 
of persons put to death in Spain by the Inquisi- 
tion was about 32,000 ; 291,000 were subjected to 
other punishments. } 


INSANITY, see Lunatics. 


INSECTS. About 200,000 species known, Jan. 
1877. An exhibition of these creatures, illustrat- 
ing their structure, food, and habits, was opened 
in the gardens of the Tuileries, at Paris, 7 Sept., 
1874; at the Westminster Aquarium, 9 March, 1878 ; 
and in the Zoological gardens, Regent’s park, 1881. 
See Entomology. 


INSOLVENCY. The first insolvent act was 
passed in 1649, but it was of limited operation; a 
number of acts of more extensive operation were 
passed at various periods, and particularly in the 
reion of George III. The benefit of the act known 
as the Great Insolvent Act, was taken in England by 
50,733 insolvents from the time of its passing in 
1814, to March, 1827, a period of thirteen years. 
Since then the acts relating to insolvency have 
‘been several times amended. Persons not traders, 
or being traders whose debts are less than 300/., 
might petition the court of bankruptcy, and pro- 
pose compositions, and have pro tem. protection 
from all process against their persons and property, 
by 6 Vict. c. 116 (1842). In 1861, by a new bank- 
ruptcy act, the business of the insolvent debtors’ 
court was transferred to the court of bankruptcy ; 
and anumber of imprisoned debtors were released 
in Noy. 1861. See Bankrupts. 


INSTITUTE oF FRANCE, see Academies 
(Paris). On 25 Oct. 1795, all the Royal Academies, 
viz., the French academy, the academy of inscrip- 
tions and belles lettres, that of the mathematical 
and physical sciences, of the fine arts, and of the 
moral and political sciences, were combined in one 
body, under the title of “‘ Institut National,” after- 
wards Royal, Imperial, and again National. 

INSTITUTES, see Code, Actuaries, Agricul- 
gure, Architects, Chemistry, Inventors, §e. 

INSTITUTION, see Royal, London, 
Engineers, &c. 

INSURANCE own SHips AND MERCHAN- 


DISE. Suetonius conjectures that Claudius was 

the first contriver of the insurance of ships, 

ADs 43: 

Insurance in general use in Italy, rr94, and in 
England . ; - 1560 


wl 


Insurance policies first used in Florence . . «hkg28 
The first law relating to insurance was enacted . 1601 


Insurance of houses and goods against Fire, in 
London, began the year following the Great Fire 
of London . m : ; A a ; An 

An office set up for insuring houses and buildings, 
chiefly on the plan of Dr. Barton, one of the first 
and most considerable builders of London . 3 

The first regular office set up in London was the 
Hand-in-Hand . . . ° : : - 1696 


1667 


INTEREST. 


First Life Insurance Office (the Amicable), esta 
blished . x : : 4 " cee | 
Sw fire-office established . : : 5 Py» 
The first Marine Insurance was the Royal Exchange 
Insurance, and the London Insurance . : 
Duty first laid on insurances of 1s. 6d. per tool. in. 
sured, r782; duty increased . : : Ay 
In 1857, 1,451,110l. were paid as duty for fire insur. 
ances, on property amounting to 72,136,585). 
There were 33 London fire insurance offices ; 2: 
country offices ; 7 Scotch, and 2 Ivish . 
165 such offices in London . : 3 i sae 
A new Commercial Union fire insurance, founded 
in consequence of the increased charges of the 
companies : 3 ‘ 5 : Sept. 
Rate of tax on insurance, reduced from 3s. to 1s. 6d, 
per cent. on stock in trade, from 13 May, 1864, 
on household goods . : ‘ ; F Ae 
Sea insurance duties reduced - 3r May, 
Policies of Assurance act (enabling assignees 0} 
assurances to sue in their own names for policy 
monies), passed : : 3 : 20 Aug. 
Fire insurance duties totally repealed . 24 June 
Albert Assurance Company fail for about 8,000,000. 
A 


Acts amending the law respecting life assure 
companies passed . é A : : 18 
The ‘‘ People’s Provident Assurance Society,” estab! 
2 Sept. 1854; named Hwropean Asswrance Society, 
said to have absorbed 44 other societies ; br 
into chancery, 1871; subjected to arbitration } 
of parliament, 1872; first meeting before lord 
bury, 22 Oct. 1872; successive arbitrators, 
Romilly, sir Wm. James; Mr. Francis Reilly ( 
final award signed 2 Sept. 1879. Immense lo 


shareholders. 
AMOUNT INSURED. 
1782. £130,000,0¢ 
1802. 220,000,0¢ 
1822. 399,000,0¢ 
1842. 652,000,00 
1862. I,007,000,0¢ 


Sum insured in 125 offices, about 338,000,000. 
cumulated life-funds, 94,000,c0c0l. ; premium im 
nearly 11,000,000l.—Board of Trade Report, 1874. 


INSURRECTIONS, see Conspiracies, . 


sacres, Rebellions, Riots, &e. 


INTENDMENT oF Crimes. In cas 
treason, wounding, burglary, &c., intention pr 
was made as punishable as crime completed, — 
Geo. II. 1734. The rigour was modified b 
Robert Peel’s revision of the statutes, 4-10 Geo 
1823-29. ; ; 


INTERDICT or EcoLEstAsticaAL € 
SURE, seldom decreed in Europe till the tin 
Gregory VII. 1073, but often afterwards. Wh 
prince was excommunicated, all his subject: 
taining their allegiance were excommunicated 
and the clergy were forbidden to perform any 
of divine service, or any clerical duties, save 
baptism of infants, and taking the confession 
dying penitents. In 1170, pope Alexander pu 
England under an interdict ; and when king . 
was excommunicated in 1208, the kingdom 
under a papal interdict for six years. England 
put under an interdict, on Henry VIII. shakin 
the pope’s supremacy, 1535; and pope Sixtu 
published a crusade against queen Elizabet 
England in 1588; see Lxcommunication. 


INTEREST, see Usury. The word int 
was first used in an act of parliament of the. 
James I. 1623, wherein it was made to sign! 
lawful increase by way of compensation for the 
of money lent. The rate fixed by the act wa‘ 
for the use of 100/. for a year, in place of usut 
tol. before taken. The Commonwealth lowere¢ 
rate to 6/.in 1651; confirmed in 1660; and by 
act of the 13th of queen Anne, 1713, it wasred 
to 5/. The restraint being found prejudicia 


Pt 


INTERIM. 


se, it was totally removed by 17 & 18 
go (1854). 
ERIM oF AUGSBURG, 2 decree issued 
mperor Charles V. in 1548, with the view 
pting to reconcile the Catholics and Pro- 
in which it entirely failed. It was revoked 
' The term Interim has been applied to 
erees and treaties. 


ERMEDIATE EDUCATION AC 
ind, passed 16 Aug. 1878. : 


ERMEZZI, light dramatic entertain- 
introduced between the acts of a tragedy, 
, or grand opera; of very ancient origin. 
4“vame more important in the 16th century. 
connected with Bardi’s ‘‘ Amico Fido,”’ 
ere very fine, 

ERMITTENT FILTRATION of 
,a process much advocated by Professor E. 
md and others, in 1875, and stated to have 
ecessful at Merthyr ‘l'ydvil since 1872. 


BRNATIONAL AFRICAN ASSO- 
LON, see Congo. 


ERNATIONAL, see under Chess, 
, Copyright, Education, Electricity, Exhi- 
Geneva, Havre, Horticulture, Literary, 
ies, Scientific, Working-men, and Wounded. 


ERNATIONAL LAW. Sce Neutral 


sfessorship of international law, at Cambridge, 
ved by bequest of Dr. Wm. Whewell, master of 
ty College, 1867. 

sociation for the Reform and Codification of the 
of Nations first met at Brussels, 10 Oct. 1873; 
va, 2-5 Sept. 1874; The Hague, Sept. 1875; 
en, 1876; Antwerp, 30 Aug.—3 Sept. 1877 ; 
kfort, about 20 Aug. 1878; London, rx Aug. 1879; 
2, 24 Aug. 1880; Cologne, 16-19 Aug. 1881; Liver- 
about 15 Aug. 1882; Turin, 11 Sept. 1882; Milan, 
pt. 1883. 

stitute of International Law was organized at 
it by Dr. Lieber, M. Jaquemyns, and M. Moy- 
in 1873. 
Hague, 1875; Zurich, 1876; Paris, 1878; Brus- 
Sept. 1879; Oxford, 6-10 Sept. 1880; Turin, 1882; 
ich, 4 Sept. 1883. 

_ See under Peace. 


TEROCEANIC CANAL between the. 


ic and Pacific. See Panama. 


[TERREGNUM, see Commonwealth. 
TRANSIGENTES, or Irreconcileables, a 


of extreme republicans in Spain, who with- 
from the Cortes and became very troublesome, 
, 1873; joined by communists they held Car- 
1a from August to 12 Jan. 1874. 


447 


It has since met at Geneva, 1874; | 


‘INUNDATIONS. 


At the Texel, which first raised the commerce of 
Amsterdam . ; ; ; . eae ; 
The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 villages, 
and 100,000 people (see Dort) . 17 April, 142 
The Severn overflowed during ten days, and carried 
away men, women, and children, in their beds, 
and covered the tops of many mountains ; the 
waters settled upon the lands, and were called the 
Great Waters for roo years after, x Richard ILI. 
Hollinshed. . : ; é 5 ; : . 
A general inundation by the failure of the dikes in 
Holland ; the number of drowned said to have 
been 400,000 . : : : ; : : : 
The waters rose above the tops of the houses, and 
above 100 persons perished in Somersetshire and 
Gloucestershire . x ; y : ; 0 1607 
At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perished - 1617 
An inundation in Yorkshire, when a rock opened, 
and poured out water to the height of a church 
steeple. VidePhil. Trans. . : : : # 
Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants were 
drowned, and incredible damage was done at Ham- 
burge. é , > : i é blog 
At Madrid, several of the Spanish nobility and 
other persons of distinction perished . . . ‘ 
In Yorkshire, a dreadful inundation, called Ripon 
Flood . $ : : : : ; i ar 
In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their lives by 
the torrents from the mountains . Sept. 
Inundation of the Liffey, which did immense 
damage in Dublin, 12 Nov. 1787 ; again, 2-3 Dec. 
Lorea, a city of Murcia, in Spain, destroyed by the 
bursting of a reservoir, which inundated more 
than 20 leagues, and killed rooo persons, besides 
cattle _ : : 7 , : : 14 April, 
At Pesth, near Presburg, the overflow of the 
Danube, by which 24 villages and their inhabi- 
tants were swept away . April, 
In the vicinity of Salop, by the bursting of a cloud 
during a storm, many persons and much stock 
perished : : ; ; ; : . May, 
Dreadful inundation in Hungary, Austria, and 
Poland, in the summer of . ; : : ates 
Overflow of the Danube ; a Turkish corps of 2000 
men, on a small island near Widdin, surprised, 
and met instant death . : : 14 Sept. 
In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the ruin 
of the French army under Macdonald was accele- 
rated by the floods; also in Poland 4000 lives 
were supposed to have been lost . F x - 
At Strabane, Ireland, by the melting of the snow 
on the surrounding mountains, most destructive 
floods were occasioned ; - . 2dan. 1816 
In Germany, the Vistula overflowed ; many villages 
were laid under water, and great loss of life and 
property was sustained : F . 21 March, 
In England, 5000 acres were deluged in the Fen 
countries e j : : . : . dune, 1819 
Inundation at Dantzic, occasioned by the Vistula 
breaking through some of its dikes, by which 
10,000 head of cattle and 4000 houses were de- 
stroyed, and numerous lives lost . . g April, 1829 
The ‘* Moray Floods,” caused by rainfall, when the 
Spey and Findhorn rose in some places so feet 
above their ordinary leyel, and caused great de- 
struction of property. Many lives were lost, and 
whole families who took refuge on elevated places 


I400 


1483 


1530 


1686 


I717 
1723 
I77r 
1787 


1802 


37 


” 


3? 


3? 


UNDATIONS. The following are among | 


ost remarkable :— 
indation of the sea in Lincolnshire laid under 


or many thousand acres. Camden A.D. 245 
er in Cheshire, by which 3000 persons and 
nnumerable quantity of cattle perished EGE! 


andation at Glasgow, which drowned more 
1400 families. Fordun . ‘ 5 r : 758 
weed overflowed its banks, and laid waste 


country for 30 miles round : : He Feito, 
amdation on the English coasts, demolished a 
iber of sea-port towns : : » IOr4 
xodwin’s lands, exceeding 4000 acres, over- 
ed by the sea, and an immense sand-bank 
aed on the coast of Kent, now known by the 
te of the Godwin sands. Camden. . en EXGS 
ers inundated by the sea, and the town and 
your of Ostend totally immersed .  .  « 1108 
than 300 houses overwhelmed at Winchelsea 
m inundation of the sea “ . 1280 


were with difficulty rescued. Sir 7’. Dick Lauder. 


A, : _ 32 49,27, Aug. 5 
| At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its inhabitants 
laid under water ; : ‘ Feb. 1830 


10,000 houses swept away, and about rooo persons 
perished, at Canton, in China, in consequence of 
an inundation, occasioned by incessant rains. 
Equal or greater calamity was produced by the 
same cause in other ports of China Oct. 1833 
Awful inundation in France : the Saone poured its 
waters into the Rhone, broke through its banks, 
and covered 60,000 acres ; Lyons was inundated ; 
in Avignon 1oo houses were swept away; 218 
houses were carried away at La Guillotiére ; and 
‘upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and Nismes ; 
the Saone had not attained such a height for 238 
years P : : ; . 31 Oct. to 4 Nov. 1840 
Lamentable inundation at Brentford and the sur- 
rounding country ; several lives lost, and 1m- 
mense property destroyed . ‘ 16 Jan. 1841 


se 


INUNDATIONS. 


INVERNESS. 


Disastrous inundation in the centre, west, and 
south-west of France; numerous bridges, with 
the Orleans and Vierzon viaduct, swept away ; 
the latter had cost 6,000,000 of francs. The 
damage done exceeded 4,000,000/. sterling. The 
Loire rose twenty feet in one night 22 Oct. 1846 
Lamentable catastrophe at Holmfirth (see Holm- 


firth Flood) ? . 4Feb. 1852 
TInundation of the valleys of the Severn ead: Teme 
after a violent thunderstorm 2 5 Sept. ,, 


Inundations of the basins of the Rhine waa the 
Rhone, overflowing the country to agreat extent, 
19 Sept. iy 
Hamburg half-flooded by the Elbe . rJan. 1855 
Inundations in south of France, with immense 
damage (see France) May and June, 1856 
In Holland, nearly 40,000 acres submerged, Jan. 1861 
Great inundation through the bursting “of the out- 
fall sluice at St. Germain’s, near “King’s Lynn 
(see Levels) ; 4-15 May, 1862 
Another marshland sluice bursts ; many aaa 
inundated E 4 Oet.* 5; 
nace of the Bradfield reservoir (see Sheffield) : 
ut : 250 persons drowned 1z March, 1864 
Gres Bil asnenons in France . 26 Sept. et seq. 1866 
Great floods in north of England, immense damage 
in Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Derbyshire ; farms 
destroyed, mines flooded, mills thrown down, 
railways stopped ; and much suffering at Leeds 
(about 20 drowned) Manchester, Preston, Wake- 
field, &c. 16-17 Nov. ,, 
Inundations at Cork, Dublin, and other places, 
about 30 Jan. 1869 
Inundation at Rome, causing great distress ; re- 
lieved by the king 4 28, 29 Dee. 1870 
Great inundations tr om the mountains i in N. Italy ; 
the Po and other rivers overflow ; thousands of 
people unhoused ; Mantua, Ferrara, &e., suffer 
much. latter part of Oct. 1872 
Floods on banks of the Thames thr ough very high 
tide. » +20 March, 1874 
Mill River Vv alley, near Northampton, Massa- 
chusetts, U. 8., several villages destroyed 
through the bur sting of a reservoir, badly dam- 
med ; “above e144 peri ished ‘ .) ro) May, ee 
Eureka, Nevada ; through rain and a waterspout ; 
between 20 and 30 persons perish 24 July a 
Pittsbur ¢ and Alleghany, W., Pennsylvania; storm 
of rain; the rivers ov erflow ; ; about 220 persons 
drowned ueeOruuly ues 
A large part of T oulouse destr oyed by the rising of 
the Gar onne ; about 1ooo lives lost and much 
property (St. Cc yprieu quarter, a sepulchre) 
June, 1875 
Heavy rains cause inundations in West of England 
and Wales; destruction and loss of life at New- 
port and Monmouth, 15-16 July; in the midland 
and western counties, especially near Notting- 
ham, about 17-23 Oct. ; again . . 13-16 Nov. + 
Great *storms in Ir dia ; Ahmedabad inundated ; 
ahout 20,000 homeless. . 22-24 Sept. A 
Severe inundations in Holland and France Mar. 1876 
Severe floods in England through heavy rain, 


 Tageax Dec.® 3, 
Piers at Folkestone, Dover, and Hastings much in- 
jured 1 Jan. 1877 


Much damage through floods" on “banks of the 
Thames, and throughout the country, middle of 
EES Wiss 
Inundations in London through heavy rain, 
ro, rr April, 1878 
Szegedin, Hungary; through storms and rain, the 
dams of the river Theiss gave way ; the town was 
nearly destroyed ; out of 6566 houses, only 331 
stood; about 77 persons drowned ; ‘thousands 
homeless 12-13 March, 1879 
North Italy ; much damage through overflowing 
of the Po and Mincio : : June, Ae 
Inundations in Murcia, Spain, through heavy rains ; 
provinces of And: uusia, Alicante, Almaria, and 
Malaga ; about 1000 lives lost ; much damage to 
property ; about 2000 houses destroy ed, 
16, 17 OG ays 
Again in Hungary . about ro Dec. 
Midland counties of England ; "much dama ge, 
about 8-11 Oct. 1880 
Much rain; floods in Cheshire, Lancashire, &c. 
Aug. 1881 


Great inundations in 8.H. Europe through raj 
Oc 

Inundations by the rising of the Lossie and Spe 

N. Scotland ; bridge is broken and other dama; 
mid. Sey 

Inundations in the Tyrol; much damage with iF 
of life in north Italy and Hungary, and ah 
France . 

In Germany : great rise of the Rhine and Dau 
Nov.—Dec.; destruction of five villages wi 
above 250 houses, hear Wiesbaden . - De 

Great floods in the Thames valley and mit 
counties of England 4 

Much destruction near Worms ; ; about 60 drow 

early in Ja 

Raab in Hungary partly submerged - IoJda 

In Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Cincinnati .. . Fe 

Cachar in India in great distress . 16 “Ma 

In Silesia, the river Neisse rises; much dama: 

about 21 Jun 

In Thames valley, Ontario, Canada, much destru 
tion of property, about 30 lives lost 

about 11-12 Jub 

Overflow of the river Penens, Thessaly, Greee 
much damage . . announced 29 Oe 

Great inundations in Ohio, Pennsylvania, &e. 
about 15 deaths and 5000 homeless about 7 Fe 

Disastrous floods in B. Spain end of Ma 

Floods in Galicia; new railway bridge over tl 
Vistula destroyed ; 20 lives lost about 23 Jun 

Great inundation through heavy rains in easte1 
Spain ; much distress in Alicante, Almeria av 
Valencia . : 2 : : ; . oe 

See Mansion House Funds. 


INVALIDES, HOTEL DEs, founded i 
by Louis XIV. Its chapel contains the b 
Napoleon I., deposited there 15 Dec. 1840. 


IN VASIONS OF THE BritisH Ist. 
see Britain, and Danes. From the death of E 
the Confessor, only the following invasions n 
(s) have been successful :— 


William of Normandy (s.). 29 Sep 
The Irish : : : 
The Scots, rogz ; king Malcolm killed 

Robert of N ormandy ; F 

The Seots . : : 

The empress Maud ‘ ‘ : - 
Treland, by Fitz-Stephen (s. 7 : P : : 


Ireland, by Edward Bruce . 7 é é 
Isabel, queen of Edward IT. Me you : y 
Duke of Lancaster (Sa) : i 5 P 


Queen of Henry VI. . : A é : 5 
Earl of Warwick (s.). - ; ; a: 
Edward IV. (s.) . A é ; : 
Queen of Henry VI. . 

Earl of Richmond (s. Ae , 3 F y 
Lambert Simnel . ; ; : 3 4 
Perkin Warbeck ‘ j ; 
Spaniards and Italians, Ireland 

Treland, Spaniards : 

Duke of Monmouth 

William of Orange (s.) é 5 
James II., Ireland 4 : 2 4 A 
Old Pretender . 

Pretender again 

Young Pretender ; , 4 ? ; 
Treland (see Thurot) . : "I : + 
Wales, the French 

Ir eland ; the French land at Killala (which see) . 


INVENTION. See Cross, Patents. An 
national exhibition of inventions and mu 
South Kensington in 1885; proposed, Aug. 
opened by the. prince of Wales, 4 May, 1885. 


INVENTORS’ INSTITUTE, establist 
May, 1862; first president, sir David Brewste 


INVERARY, Argyllshire, made a royal b 
1648. The duke of Argyll’s castle, rebuilt by 4 
1745-8, was greatly injured by fire, 12 Oct. 18 


INVERNESS (N.W. Scotland), a city ¢ 
Picts up to 843. It was taken by dwar 
taken by Bruce, 1313; burnt by the lord { 


| 


INVESTIGATION. 


1411; taken by Cromwell, 1649; and by 
e Uharles Edward in 1746. He was totally 
ted at Culloden, about five miles from Inver- 
16 April, 1746. 


VESTIGATION. See Delicate. 
VESTITURE or EccLeEstIAstics, was a 


of discord between the pope and temporal 
signs in the middle ages; and led to actual 
etween Gregory VII. and the emperor Henry 
075-1085. ‘The pope endeavonred to deprive 
overeign of the right of nominating bishops 
ibbots, and of investing them with the cross 
ing. Henry V. gave up the right, by treaty, 
II11; but other sovereigns resolutely refused 
cede it. 


VINCIBLE ARMADA or SPANISH 
ADA, see Armada. 


VOCATION oF THE VIRGIN AND 
Tg to intercede with God. This practice of 
tomish church has been traced to the time 
egory the Great, 593. The Eastern church 
(in the 5th century) by calling upon the 
and demanding their suffrage as present in 
‘vine offices. — 


DINE (from the Greek i6dés, violet-like), 
liscovered by M. De Courtois, a manufacturer 
tpetre at Paris in 1812, and investigated by 
ement, 1813. On the application of heat it 
in the form of a dense violet-coloured vapour, 
evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees: it 
es vegetable blues to yellow, and a seven- 
andth part converts water to a deep yellow 
r, and starch into a purple. 


NA, ICOLMKILL, or Hi, one of the 
des. About 565 St. Columba founded a 
stery here, which flourished till the 8th and 
enturies, when it was frequently ravaged by 
Jorsemen. Other religious bodies afterwards 
ee here, and the isle was long esteemed 


NIA (Asia Minor). About 1040 B.c. the 
, a Pelasgic race, emigrated from Greece, and 
dhere and onthe adjoiningislands. They built 
sus, Smyrna, and other noble cities. They 
conquered by the great Cyrus about 548 B.c. ; 
ied 504, but were again subdued. After the 
‘ies of Cimon, Ionia became independent and 
ned so till 387, when it was once more sub- 
to Persia. It formed part of the dominions 
exander and his successors; was annexed to 
‘oman empire, 133, and conquered by the 
—Ionia was renowned for poets, historians, 
hilosophers. 


NIAN ISLANDS (on W. coast of Greece). 
, the capital, Cephalonia, Zante, Ithaca, Santa 
je Cerigo, and Paxo. They were colonised by 
mes, and partook of the fortunes of the Greek 
2; were subject to Naples in the 13th cen- 
and in the 14th to Venice. 

lands ceded to France by the treaty of Campo 

nio : = ; : : - - 17 Oct. 1797 
id into the republic of the seven islands under 


sia and Turkey : ‘ - 21 March, 1800 
red to France by treaty of Tilsit 7 July, 1807 
by the English 3-12 Oct. 1809 


d into an independent state under the protec- 
of Great Britain (sir Thomas Maitland, lord 


1 commissioner) et. . 5 Noy. 1815 
Stitution ratified . . . . xrduly, 1817 
Yersity established at Corfu ; : 1823 


nstitution liberalised during the government 
rd Seaton ; : : § : 1848-9 


449 


IRELAND. 


In consequence of complaints, Mr. W. E. Gladstone 
went out on a commission of inquiry, &c. . Nov. 1858 
Sir H. Storks, lord high commissioner Feb. 1859 
The parliament declare for annexation to Greece, 
, March, 1861, and April, 1862 
The islands annexed to Greece, 28 May ; the British 
troops retired, 2 June, and king George I. arrived 
at Corfu (see Greece) 6 June, 1864 


_ IONIC ORDER oF ARCHITECTURE, an 
improvement on the Doric, was invented by the 
Tonians about 13508.c. Vitruvius. Its distinguish- 
ing characters are the slenderness and flutings of 
its columns, and the volutes of rams’ horns that 
adorn the capital. 


IONIC SECT or PHILOSOPHERS, founded 
by Thales of Miletus about 600 B.c. distinguished 
for its abstruse speculations under his successors 
and pupils, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxa- 
goras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. They 
held that the world is a living being, and that water 
is the origin of all things. 


IOWA, a western state of North America, was 
organised as a territory 12 June, 1838; and ad- 
mitted into the Union, 28 Dec. 1846. Capital, Des 
Moines. 


IPSUS (Phrygia), BATTLE OF, Aug. 301 B.C., 
when Seleucus was confirmed in his kingdom of 
Syria by the defeat and death of Antigonus, king 
of Asia. The latter led into the field an army of 
about 70,000 foot, and 10,000 horse, with 75 ele- 
phants. The former had 64,000 infantry, besides 
10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. 
Plutarch. 


IPSWICH. (Suffolk), the Saxon Gippeswic, 
was ravaged by the Danes, 991 and 1000. Wolsey 
was born here, 1471; and founded a school in 1525. 
The port was greatly improved by the erection of 
wet docks, 1837-42. The railway to London was 
opened 25 June, 1846; and the new town-hall, 
ah an. 1868. New corn exchange opened, 26 July, 
1882, 


IQUIQUE, see Chili, 1879, 
IRELAND, anciently named Eri or Erin, 


Terne and Hibernia, is said to have been first 
colonised by Phcenicians. Some assert that Par- 
tholani landed in Ireland about 2048 B.c.; that 
the descent of the Damnonii was made about 
1463 B.c.; and that this was followed by the de- 
scent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian princes, 
from Galicia, in Spain, who conquered Irelaud, and 
gave to its throne a race of 171 kings. See Church 
of Ireland, and Population. 


1849. 1857. 
Paupers in workhouse 620,000 65,000. 
Notes in circulation 3,850,450l.  7,150,0001. 
Bullion in banks . 1,625,000l. 2,492,000l. 


Deposits in Irish joint stock banks, 1862, 22,672,000l. ; in 
1871, 20,049,0001. 

Deposits in Irish saving banks, 1869, 2,452,898/. ; 1871, 
2,794,0271. Capital: 1877, 2,271,883/.; also in post- 
office savings-banks, 1,256,7241. 

A.D. 

Arrival of St. Patrick about 432 

Christianity established : F : about 448 

The Danes and Normans, known by the name of 
Easterlings, or Ostmen, invade Ireland - 795 

They build Dublin and other cities . . about 800 

Brian Boroimhe totally defeats the Danes at Clon- 
tarf; and is killed : : 3 23 April, 1014 

[In the 12th century Ireland is divided into five 
kingdoms, viz.: Ulster, Leinster, Meath, Con- 
naught, and Munster, besides a number of petty 
principalities, whose sovereigns continually warred 
with each other. J 

Adrian IV. permitted Henry II. to invade Ireland, 
on condition that he compelled every Irish family 


G@ 


2 aa 
\ 
¥ 
7 
‘ 


£ 


IRELAND. 


to pay a carolus to the holy see, and held it as a 


450 


fief of the Church . II55 
Dermot MacMurrough, king of Leinster, drivenfrom 

his throne for his oppression 1166 
Flees to England, where he takes an oath of fidelity 

to Henry ‘IL. who promises to restore him . 1168 
Invasion of the English under Fitz-Stephen . 1169 
Landing of Strongbow at Waterford SPs 
Dermot dies , II7I 


Henry II. lands near Waterford, and receives the 
submission of the princes of the country, settles 
the government, and makes his son J ohn lord of 
Ireland we nay, 

The English settlers generally adoy: t Irish names and 
manners about 

Ireland reduced to temporary obedience by king 
John . 

Invasion of Edward Bruce, 131 Ce “crowned king 

Defeated and slain at Foughart, near Dundalk 

Lionel, duke of Clarence, third son of Edward III., 
marries Elizabeth de Burgh, héiress of Ulster 

Statute of Kilkenny passed by him (which see) 

Richard II. lands at Waterford witha train of nobles, 
4000 men-at-arms, and 30,000 archers ; gains the 
affection of the people by his munificence, and 
confers the honour of knighthood on their chiefs 

Richard again lands in Ireland 


The sanguinary Head act passed at Trim, by tha 
earl of Desmond, deputy. This act ordained, 
“That it shall be lawful to all manner of men 
that find any theeves robbing by day or night, or 
going or coming to rob or steal, or any persons 
going or coming, having no faithful man of good 
name and fame in their company in English ap- 
parell, that it shall be lawful to take and kill 
those, and to cut off their heads, without any im- 
peachment of our sovereign lord the king. And 
of any head so cut off in the county of Meath, 
that the cutter and his ayders there to him cause 
the said head so cut off to be brought to the por- 
treffe to put it upon a stake or spear, upon the 
castle of Trim; and that the said portreffe shall 
testify the bringing of the same to him. And 
that it shall be lawful for the said bringer of the 
said head to distrain and levy by his own hand 
(as his reward) of every man having one plough- 
land in the barony, two-pence ; and of every man 
having half a ploughland, one peny ; and of every 
man having one house and goods, value forty 
shillings, one peny; and of every other cottier 
having house and smoak, one half-peny,” &c. 
Much “slaughter is said to have ensued 


Apparel and surname act (the Irish to dress like a6 
English, and to adopt surnames) . 

“« Poynings’ law,” subjecting the Irish parliament 
to the English council ; 

Great rebellion of the Fitzgeralds ‘subdued. 

Henry VIII. assumes the “title of king, instead of 
lord of Ireland 

The reformed religion embraced by some of the Eng- 
lish settlers in the reign of Edward VI. 

Treland finally divided into shires : 

Printing in Irish characters introduced by N. Walsh, 
chancellor of St. Patrick’s 

700 Italians, headed by Fitzmaurice, Jand in Kerry ; 
they are Operate butchered by the earl of 
Ormond . 

0’ Neill revolts, I 1507; : defeats the English at Black- 
water. 14 Aug. 

He invites over the Spaniards, and settles then in 


1177 


1200 


I2to 


. 1316 


1318 


A byeleie 
- 1367 


1394 
- 1399 


. 1465 


>? 


- 1494 


1534 
1542 


. 1547 


1569 
- 1571 


1580 


1598 


Kinsale ; defeated by the lord deputy Mountjoy 1601-2 


In consequence of repeated rebellions and for- 


feitures, 511,465 acres of land in the province of 


Ulster became vested in the crown, and James I. 
after removing the Irish from their hills and fast- 
nesses, divides the land among such of his English 
and Scottish protestant subjects as choose to 
settle there. (See Irish Society) . : 
Ulster civil war: More and Maguire’ s rebellion : the 
catholics said to conspire to expel the English, 
and massacre the protestant settlers in Ulster, 
commenced on St. Ignatius’ day [some doubt the 


massacre] - 23 Oct. 164x 
‘O’Neill defeats the English under Monroe be Ben- 
burb . 5 June, 1646 


Massacre and. capture of Drogheda by ramet 


iz Sept. 1649 


1609-12 


IRELAND. 


Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole owes: 
obedience 3 ; 16. 


Landing of James II. . 12 Marcel 
3000 pr’ otestants attainted » aR 
William III. lands at Carrickfergus 14 Juni 
Battle of the Boyne ; James defeated r July 
Treaty of Limerick (see Limerick) 3 Oe 
Linen manufacture encouraged : 


Popery act passed 

Excitement against Wood’s halfpence (which see) 

Thurot’s invasion (see Thurot) . 

Indulgences granted to the. catholics byt the reli 
bill 


Ireland admitted to a free trade : 
Released from submission to an English council 
Poynings’ law repealed. 
Genevese refugees received in Ireland, and an asylw 
given them in Waterford. - : 3; 
Order of St. Patrick established . : , 3 
Society of United lrishmen founded . 
Orange clubs, &c., formed (see Diamond) J 
Irish rebellion commenced 4 May, 1798 ; cost 150,0¢ 
Irish lives, 20,000 English ; gradually suppresse 
Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland 
1 Jal 
Emmett’s insurrection . 23 Jul 
English and Irish exchequers consolidated 5 Jal 
Visit to Ireland of George LY. . 11 Aug.-16 Sep 
The currency assimilated .. ae 
Roman catholic emancipation act passed 13 Apri 
Customs consolidated . 6 Jal 
Dr. Whately, supporter of Irish National Scho 
system, becomes abp. of Dublin . E 
Irish reform act passed ‘ 5 
Poor laws introduced : act passed 
‘Young Ireland” (which see) party formed 
Population by census, 8,196,507 
Great Repeal movement ; meeting at Trim (see R 
peal) . 16 Marcl 
Molly Maguire, a secret society, formed . 
O’Connell’s trial (for political conspiracy), foun 
guilty (see Trials) ~ 15 Jan.-12 Fel 
Appointment of new commissioners of charitab) 
bequests (rank of the R. C. bishops recogni 
18 De 
Irish National Education Board incorporated 
23 Sep 
Committal of William Smith O’Brien to the custod 
of the serjeant-at-arms, for contempt in not obe} 
ing an order of the house of commons to attend 
committee . 30 Apri 
Failure of the potato crop throughout Ireland 
sufferers relieved by parliament 
William Smith O’Brien and the ‘‘ Young Treland, O 
physical force party, secede from the Repeal Ass: 
ciation . - 29 Jul} 
O‘Connell’s last speech i in the commons 8 Fet 
Grants from Parliament amounting to 10,000,000 
to relieve the people suffering from famine al 
disease . 
Death of O’Connell at Genoa, on his way to Rom 
in his 73rd year ; he bequeathed his heart to Rom 
15 Ma) 
Deputation from the Irish people (?)—Smith O’ Brier 
Meagher, O’Gorman, &c.—to Lamartine an 
others, members of the provisional government 4 
Paris : Apri 
Great meeting of « Young Irelanders” at Dubli 


7 Au; 
31 July 


4 Apri 

Arrest of Mitchell, editor of the ‘“‘ United Irishman 
13th Maj 

State trials in the Irish queen’s bench 15-27 Maj 


Mitchell found guilty and sentenced to aie 
tion for 14 years 5 . 26 May 
Arrest of Gavan Duffy, Martin, "Meagher, Doheny 
&c., for felonious writings, speeches, &e. 8 July 


Confederate clubs prohibited . 26 July 
The Habeas Corpus act suspended 26 July 
O’Brien’s rebellion suppressed . 29 July 


Arrest of Smith O’Brien at Thurles ; he is conveye 


to Kilmainham gaol, Dublin 5 Aug 
Arrest of Meagher, O’Donoghue, &c. . . 12 Aug 
Martin sentenced to transportation 14 Aug 
Encumbered estates act passed Sept 


Smith O’Brien, Meagher, and the other confederate 
tried and sentenced to death . : g Oct 
The Irish court of queen’s bench gives judgmen 


: 
eg 
Mi ‘ 


" 


IRELAND. 


n writs of error sued out by the prisoners con- 
icted of high treason, and confirms the judgment 
f the court Sbelow . - 16 Jan. 

rien, Meagher, McManus, and’ Donoghue trans- 
orted . oJ uly, 
Inge and catholic affray at Dolly’ s Brae ; sever al 
ives lost Geine wily, 
r majesty visits Ireland, and holds her court at 
ublin castle 5 Aug. 

st court under the encumbered estates act (which 
ve) held in Dublin 24 Oct. 
een’s university in Ir eland established 15 Aug. 
10d of Thurles condemns queen’s colleges 22 Aug. 
isus taken ; population, 6,574,278 30 March, 
man catholic university originated, and large 
ums subscribed . - 5 May, 
ath of R. Lalor Sheil, at Florence 25 May, 
Manus escapes from ‘transportation, and arrives 
t San Francisco, in California . 5 June, 
> Trish Tenant League hold a meeting on the site 


f the battle of the ‘Boyne : Tea Uy, 
st meeting of the ‘‘ Catholic Defence Association” 
17 Oct. 
agher escapes from Van Diemen’s Land and. ar- 
ives at New York . . é . 24 May, 
‘k National Exhibition opened to June, 


sh Industrial Exhibition set on foot; Mr. Dargan, 
railway contractor, contributes towards it 26, ool. 


24 a une, 
enant Right” demonstration at Warrenstown 
lispersed by the magistrates ; Pa uty, 
ree religious riots at Belfast 14 July, 


ral election riot at Six-Mile Bridge 22 July, 
sh members of parliament found a “ Religious 


iquality Association ” ro Sept. 
rk Industrial Exhibition closed rr Sept. 
ome tax extended to Ireland June, 
tchell escapes from Hobart Town - gJune, 
blin Exhibition opens 12 May, 
een visits Ireland : - : 29 Aug. 
nant Right League conference : san 4 Ot: 
eadful railway accident near Dublin - 5 Oct. 


blin Exhibition closed : 4 rt Nov. 
iin wilfully upset after an Or ange demonstration 
it Londonderry, one person killed and ma hurt 


5 Sept. 
pardon granted to O’Brien ; he “atte after re- 
ured to Ireland . 3 ‘ 3 May, 
ligious riots at Belfast . : » ‘Sept. 
ogress of cardinal Wiseman in Ireland Sept. 


packet from Galway reaches N. America in six 


lays . ; Pee Sept. 
oclamation against secr et societies A Nov. 
rests of members of Phoenix Society Dec. 


oposed demonstration of landlords (headed by 


narquis of Downshire) given up . - 27dan. 
‘tional Gallery founded . Feb. 
‘itation against the Irish N. ational School system, 
Sept. 
ligious revival movement in the north, particu- 
arly at Belfast . : 2 * Oct. 


eat emigration to America in the spring : : 
iny Irishmen enlist in the service of the pope, 
May, June ; many return dissatisfied ‘July, 
e remainder taken prisoners by the Sardinians are 
released, and return to Dublin, where they receive 
movation . » Nov. 
tempted revival of Repeal ‘agitation Dec. 
Tarian outrages ; alderman Sheehy murder ed, 

\23 Oct. 
asus taken ; population, 5,798,967 8 April, 
spension of packet service between Galway and 
America through the company’s breach of contract, 

2 May, 
sit of the prince of Wales, 29 June ; and reine 
ind prince consort : , 24-31 Aug. 
‘sh Law Court commission appointed 13 Dee. 
umerous agrarian murders ; Gustav Thiebault, 28 
April; Francis Fitzgerald, 16 May (and others) ; 
Michael Hayes shoots Mr. John Braddell, 

30 July, 
e primate, J. G. Beresford, abp. of pobene dies, 
aged 89. ¢ oJ uly, 
Vey vd for the catholic university founded, 

20 July, 
4 Orange demonstration at Belfast leads to de- 
structive riots : P 17 Sept. 


451 


»? 


IRELAND. 


| Great agricultural distress ; many murders and out- 


rages, end of 1862, beginning Olas . 1863 
Galway’ packet service restored. by subsidy of 70, ),0001. 

(see Galway) vie SAU es 
Insignificant ‘‘ Nationalist ” meeting g I5 Aug. i 
Death of archbishop Whately : 8 Oct. op 
Great emigration of able-bodied labourers in . Pr 
Appearanc: e of the Fenians (which see) . Jan. 1864 


Death of Smith O’Brien, descendant of king Brian 
Boroimhe x i6 JUNE, ~ 55 

Address of, the ‘ National Association = £0 liberate 
tenant capital, recover the property of the Catho- 


lie church, &e. 12 Jan. 1865 
Opening of the International Exhibition at Dublin 
by the prince of Wales go May; > 
General election favourable to the gov eueh ene and 
liberal party . JULY, 5 
Importation of cattle ‘from England prohibited on 
account of the plague 5 AUS. 5, 
Seizure of the newspaper “Trish People” en 30 
Fenians (see Fenians) 15-17 Sept. 14 Oct. ,, 
International Exhibition closed : mo UNOw Gees 
Stephens escapes from gaol . 24-25 Nov. ,, 
Fenian trials began at Dublin, 27 Nov. ; Thomas 
Clarke Luby convicted of treason felony ; sen- 
tenced to 20 years’ penal servitude we DEC ans 
O’Leary and others convicted, Dec. ; O'Donovan 
Rossa sentenced to imprisonment for life, 
73 WC os 
More Fenians arrested and convicted at Cort and 
Dublin Jan., Feb. 1866 
Discovery of an arms manufactory at Dublin ; the 


city and county proclaimed as put under the pro- 
visions of the Peace Preservation act, TEI Aly 13s 
Habeas Corpus act suspended ; many Fenians flee 
17 Kebiy = 45 
Agitation respecting Irish church ; debates in par- 
Jiament April, ;; 
Lord Abercorn made lord- lieutenant July; 5; 
About 320 suspected Fenians remain in prison, 
rdepty +4 
Great seizure of fire-arms MAE SHIOCH a5. 
Clare and other counties proclaimed under Peace 


Preservation act Deen 45 
Election riots at Dungarvan ; capt. Barthol- Kelly 
killed F $628, Dec.) 53 
Death of Wm. Dargan, promoter of Irish Exhibition, 
7 Feb. 1867 


Irish college of science established atDublin early in _,, 
Another Fenian outbreak (see Fenian S)y 5-73. Marches, 
Appointment of commission respecting church of 

Ireland agreed to : 24June, ,, 
Chancery and Common- law Offices ‘act passed, 2zoAug. ,, 
Irish church commission appointed, earl Bienen 

chairman. : ° ; é Oo. OCENL: 
More trials of Fenians 3 2 She 33 
Execution of Fenians (Allen, Gould, and Larkin) 

for murder of Brett, a policeman, at Manchester, 


23 Nov. 4s 
Funeral demonstrations for them at Cork, 24 Nov. ; ,, 
Dublin and Limerick 7 1t. Decsa< 


Party funeral processions prohibited . ere DEChers 
Protest of Irish noblemen and gentlemen against 
Irish church establishment signed, about 12 Dec. _,, 
Declaration of many Roman catholic clergy profes- 
sing loyalty, but claiming self-government for 
Ireland . 23) Deca is, 
Bp. Moriarty, of Kerry, publishes acireular censur- 


ing the funeral processions for F enians 20 Dean ,5 
Prosecution of the “Irishman” newspaper for 
sedition . ro Jan. 1868 


Arrest of Geo. Francis Train on his arrival from 
America, on suspicion of Fenianism ; soon dis- 
charged (claimed 10,0001.) . 3 18 Jan. .,, 

Publication of facts proving the increased pros- 
perity of the country 28 Jan, 53 

Great protestant defence meeting a at Dublin, many 
peers present : Feb. 

Habeas Corpus act suspended till: M March, 1869 (83 
persons detained on suspicion) . “ asKeD.ys 

Messrs. Sullivan and Pigott, convicted of seditious 
libels in their newspapers (the ‘‘ Weekly News” 
and ‘‘Irishman”), sentenced to imprisonment 
and fine . 18, 19 Kebs.; 

Mr. J ohnston, gr and ‘master of an Or. ange lode im- 
prisoned for infraction of Party Processions act, 

March, . 
3 March, ,, 
GG 2 


Train arrested for debt ; ‘ : 


" 


IRELAND. 


Four nights’ debate on Ireland in the Commons 
ended (Mr. Gladstone declared for disestabiish- 
ment of the Irish protestant church) 16 March, 

Irish reform bill introduced into the Commons, 

19 March, 

Debate on Mr. Gladstone's proposal for a committee 
on his resolutions for the disestablishment of the 
church (carried by 328 to 272), 30 March to early 
morning of . 4 April, 

Mr. "Featherstonehaugh, J. P., a deputy Sent. shot 
dead while returning from Dublin (he had re- 
cently raised the rent of his tenants) . 15 April, 

Visit of prince and princess of Wales ; arrive at 
Dublin ; intense enthusiasm . 15 April, 

The prince and princess at Punchestown races, 

16 April, 

The prince installed as a knight of St. Patrick, 

18 April, 

The prince and princess at review in Pheenix-park, 
20 April ; leave Dublin 24 April, 

Increased emigration to United States April, 


Mr. Gladstone’s first resolution passed in the Com- 
mons (by 330 to 265) early on 1 May ; second and 
third resolutions passed : A 7 May, 

Irish archbishops and bishops pr esent tad ess to 
the queen at Windsor, on behalf of the Irish 
Church establishment : . 14 May, 

Trish Church commission recommend consolidation 
of dioceses and other reforms (1st report), 27 July, 

Earl Spencer lord lieutenant . < Dec. 

Visit of prince Arthur ‘ A185 ‘April et seq. 

Many murders: Mr. Anketell, 31 March ; Mr. Brad- 
shaw, J.P., 24 April; Capt. Tarleton 28 Anril, 

Mayor of Cork, for a speech eulogizing Fenians, 27 
April, compelled to resign II May, 

Address of archbishop Leahy condemning agrarian 
murders. 16 May, 

Trish Church bill introduced into the commons, 1 
March ; after much opposition passed, 26 July, 

Trish mixed schools denounced by abp. Cullen ; 
support for a Catholic university demanded in a 
circular dated 7 18 Aug. 

Great agitation for amnesty to the Fenian conv iets, 

Oct. 

Tenant-right agitation ; a conference at Cork, 10 


Sept. ; ‘county meeting at Kilkenny 18 Oct. 
Jeremiah O’Donovan Rossa, a Fenian convict, 
elected M.P. for Tipperary 25 Nov. 
Many agrarian outrages ; Jan., Feb. 
0’ Donovan Rossa’s election annulled 10 Feb. 


Trish Chureh convention met about 21 Feb. 
Irish Land bill, read a second time in commons 
(442 against 11), 1 A.M., 12 March ; read second 


time in the lords . : Sey 4 iG PAs 
New ‘‘Irish Peace Preservation act” passed, 
4 April, 

Eight counties placed under this act 29 April, 


Repor ted growth of a ‘‘ Nationality ” au among 
the Protestants . P : ; sin) uly, 
Trish Land act passed F ~ eer Aug: 
The ‘‘ Home Government Association, »” to include 
all parties, meet at Dublin . x Sept. 
Aggressive outrages and murders Noy. 
Some Fenian convicts released from prison, Jan. 
John Martin, a nationalist, elected M.P., for Meath, 
5 Jan. 

Census taken ; population, 5,402,759 2= s/April> 
Bill for protection of life and property in West- 
meath brought in (and soon passed) on account 


of ribandism . 2 May, 
Chief constable Talbot shot, night of 11 J aly ; died 
15 July, 


Visit of the prince of Wales to open the Royal 
Agricultural exhibition ‘ x Aug. 
Riot through attempted repression of Fenian 
sympathisers ; several killed 7 Aug. 
French deputation (comte de Flavigny and other: s) 
to thank the Irish for the assistance of the Irish 
ambulance during the war; warmly received 
with seditious demonstrations against England, 
16- 28 Aug. 
Mr. Isaac Butt, leader of Home-rule movement, 
elected M.P. for Limerick. epee Sept. 
The R. C. bishop of Derry, the 0’ Donoghue, and 
others, declare against the movement, Jan. ; 
members in its favour elected for Galway and 
Kerry. F 4 3 ; : . Feb. 


452 


1868 


2? 


23 


1872 


IRELAND. 


few prisoners for trial, 
March, 
Mrs. Neill murdered at her own door near Dublin, 
27 Ma 
Capt. Nolan, M.P. for Galway, unseated for tied 
dation by his agents; the R. C. bishops and 
clergy severely “censured by justice Keogh in 
giving sentence . . about 27 May, 
O’ Byrne v. Marquis of Hartington, and others 
(police) for exceeding duty in suppressing a 
meeting in Phcenix-park, Dublin, in Aug. 1871 ; 
verdict for plaintiff, 251. damages ir July, 
Fathers Loftus and Quain tried for undue interfer- 
ence in Galway election ; jury disagreed, 10-14 Feb. 
Mr. Gladstone brings into the commons the Irish 
University bill (x ejected and withdrawn) 13 Feb. 
The R. C. bishop of Clonfert, Dr. Duggan, tried 
and acquitted (see Dwblin) . 15-19 Feb. 
Trial : O’Keeffe v. Cardinal Cullen ; begins (see Trials 
12 May, 
Home rule and amnesty associations active, Oct. 
Motions in favour of Home-rule Lae see) defeated 
in parliament . o March & 3 July, 
Treland reported very proaperaah A . Aug. 
John Mitchell (see above, 1848, 1853), elected M. P, 
for Tipperary, 16 Feb. ; election declared null by 
the Commons; he died 20 March; his friends, 
John Martin, M. P., died 29 March ; and sir J ohn 


Peaceful state of the south ; 


Gray, M.P. died : 9 April, 
Mitchell's election declared void . : 26 May, 
Peace Preservation Act renewed 28 May, 


Centenary of the birth of Daniel O’Comnell cele- 
brated at Dublin, many foreign R. C. dignitaries 
present ; much dissension at the banquet between 
the Clerical and Home-rule parties . . 6 Aug, 

Mr. MecSwiney, lord mayor of Dublin, endeavours 
to form a new party for ‘‘ faith and fatherland,” 
opposed to Home-rule_. . Aug. Sept. 

Catholic synod at Maynooth ; “mixed education 
censured - Sept. 

Riots at Callan, Mr. 0” Keeffe’ s chapel. and house 
attacked (28 men committed for trial) . rz Oct. 

Dissension between members of O’Connell cen- 
tenary committee, whichis dissolved . 26 Noy. 

Agrarian outrage, Mr, Bridges and party fired on in 
daylight, the coachman killed ; several wounded 
at Mitchelstown, Cork (Crowe convicted of mur- 
der 25 July, executed 25 Aug.) . . 30 March, 

O’Keeffe (see above, May, 1873) submits to as 
Cullen for compensation : May, 

An Irish university bill introduced by Mr. Butt 
(withdrawn) . = : 16 May, 

County officers and courts act passed . 14 Aug. 

Supreme court of judicature act for Ireland, vaste 


14 Aug. 
Temporary strike of men on Great Southern and 


Western railway, about . . 14-22 Sept. 
Dr. Moriarty, R.C., bp. of Kerry, patriotic, judi- 
cious 2. 2 died x Oct. 
Mr. Gladstone’s "private visit. 17 Oct. et seq. 


The judicature act comes into operation . 1x Jan, 

The earl of Leitrim (eccentric), his clerk, and arty 
shot dead near his lodge, Manor Vaughan, Done- 
gal . . 2 April, 

Bill for reducing Trish borough suffrage in xl, re- 
jected in the commons (232-26) : oo yan 


Trish Sunday closing (public houses) bill, mu i 

posed ; passed A = Aug. 
Irish intermediate education act passed i a Aug. 
Trish volunteer billlost . . : . 7 Aug. 


Bill to abolish the Queen’s University, and to 
establish a new university (for Roman catholics), 
introduced by lord chancellor Cairns, 30 June; 
carried in commons (257-90), 25 July ; passed 

15 4 

An Irish national convention to meet at Dublin, 
proposed by Mr. Parnell (see Home Rule) 11 Sept. 

Progresses of Mr. Parnell; much anti-rent agitation 

autumn, 

Appeal for the Irish national land league by Mr. 
Parnell, soliciting subscriptions to buy the land 


for the tenants : g Oct. 
Exciting speeches of "Mr. Parnell at Navan 
11, 13 Oct. 


James Bryce Killen, barrister, J. W. Daly, pro- 
prietor of ‘‘Connaught Telegraph,” and Michael 
Davitt (ex-Fenian, on oo de of leave) arrested at 


a 


IRELAND. 


ublin for sedition (at anti-rent meeting at 
urteen, Sligo, 2 Nov.); [prosecution lapsed,] 


g Nov. 

at orderly meetings held at Dublin, Balla’ &e. 
2t Nov. et seq. 

ernment arrangements for relieving distress 
ablished in Dublin . : - 22 Nov. 
toral by abp. McCabe against the agitation ; 
ad . 23 Nov. 
S. Brennan ‘arrested for seditious speech (at 
alla, on 22 Nov.) PS LeG. 


duchess of Marlborough (the viceroy’ Ss wife) 
speals for help for distress in the west oe 
ee under Mansion House, 1879) i Dec. 
Parnell arrives at New York to agitate fon help 
) relieve Ireland politically and pecuniarily 
2 Jan. 
ts at Carraroe, Connemara, and other places in 
alway, in consequence of notices of eviction 
2 Jan. et seq. 
tributions to the famine funds arrive from 
anada, Australia, India, United States, &e. 
J an. Feb. 
Parnell’s agitation said to be a dead failure Feb. 
ool. received from lord mayor of London; 
Jublin co. returns, 82,4221.) . ‘ 28 Feb. 
1 supply act passed : xt March, 
ief of distress (Ireland) act passed 15 March, 
ief fund: 129,000l. received up to 25 March; 
41,5621. . 5 up to 17 April, 
rter for new Irish university signed by the queen 
1g April, 
ief for Irish distress brought in the adelinten 
‘om United States ; arrives at Cork 20 April, 
seived for Irish distress, 177,401/. ; distributed, 
70,357 - up to 23 J uly, 
npensation ‘for Disturbance bill (to check evic- 
ions, restrain landlords, and benefit tenants), 
nd reading in commons (295-217), 5-6 July; 
assed in commons (303-237), 27 July ; eres 
y the lords (282-51). \ Aug. 
Thos. Boyd, crown solicitor, and sons fired at 
nd wounded, Charles killed, at Shanlough, near 
Yew Ross Sunday, Aug. 8 
cases of arms (960 weapons), stolen from the 
uno, a Norwegian vessel, in the docks at Cork, 
1 Aug. ; some » found concealed : 13 ‘Aug. 
ting at Dungannon, Belfast F 15-18 Aug. 
lent speech of Mr. Dillon, M.P., at Kildare, in 
wour of the land league 15 Aug.; termed 
‘wicked and cowardly” “by Mr. W. E E. Forster, 
rho justifies the terms in parliament 23 Aug. 
. Parnell proposes that tenant should become 
wner of land after paying 35 years’ just rent Sept 
+ duchess of Marlborough’s relief fund ; total re- 
eived from all parts 13552451, and 119]. interest 
om the Bank of Ireland ; reported 1g Sept. 
‘d Mountmorres shot at Rutheen near Clonbar, 
ralway, about 8 p.m. 2 25 Sept. 
gress of agitation ; exciting speeches of Messrs. 
‘arnell, Redpath, Dillon, and others Sept. Oct. 
leading landowners with agents wait on the 
rd lieutenant at Dublin, describing the terrorist 
tate of the south and west of the country and 
eed of protection . 5 - : 7 Oct. 
C. abp. McCabe’s pastoral against agitation and 
1urders ; read in chapels = = to Oct. 
rarian outrages ; John Downing, a driver, killed 
vy a shot aimed at his employer, Mr. Samuel 
dTutchins, near Drimoleague, Cork 16 Oct. 
‘est of Timothy M. Healy, Mr. Parnell’s secre- 
ary, and Mr. Walsh, for intimidation of Mr. 
fanning (on 16 Oct.) . 2 : 26, 27 Oct. 
ssrs. Parnell and others arrested for conspiracy 
nd intimidation to prevent tenants paying rent, 
t¢. (19 counts) ; notices served 3 Nov. et seq. 
- Boycott of Lough Mask farm, near Ballinrobe, 
Mayo, besieged ; his labourers threatened ; his 
radesmen refuse to supply him ;—his crops 
sathered by immigrant labourers, protected by 
nilitary, &e. err, 12 Nov. 
’. Henry Wheeler, land agent, ‘murdered 12 Nov. 
-. Forster, Trish Secretary, sends a circular to the 
hagistrates reminding them of their statutory 
vowers : about 8 Dec, 
. W. Bence Jones of Ballinascorthy, t treated like 
\r, Boycott . ‘ Dee. 


IRELAND. 


Three judges (Fitzgerald, Barry, and Dowse), de- 
liver alarming charges on state of country Dec. 
Trial of Mr. Parnell and others for conspiracy, 
begins (see T'rials) . : 28 Dec 
Jury disagree ; discharged 25 Jan. 
About 25,000 soldiers in Ireland : Jan. 
Report of Agricultural Commission (for Ireland) 
issued ; great distress, 1877-9; good harvest, 
1880 ; it opposes the three F's. ; recommends emi- 
gration in some districts . . Jan. 
Bill for protection of life and property (termed 
coercion bill) brought in by Mr. Forster, 24 Jan. 
long debates ; much obstruction (see Parliament) : 
passed commons, (281-36), 25, 26 Feb. ; passed 
lords, 1-3 March ; royal assent 3 March, 
Peace preservation bill (arms bill) ; introduced 1 
March ; passed commons, 11, 12 March ; passed 
lords, 18 March ; roya] assent . 2t March, 
Many agitators arrested ; 23 in Kilmainham gaol, 
10 Mar ch, 
‘Clan Nagael” secret society to replace Fenians 
~ said to be formed March, 
Trish land bill ¢‘‘ legalized confiscation ”—Beacons- 
jield) introduced into the commons by Mr. Glad- 
stone . ae 7 Apri, 
More arrests (total about ote “up to oo April, 
Cruel outrages in different places ; Dublin city pro- 
claimed under coercion act, 1 May ; ; John Dillon, 
M.P. arrested [released Aug. ] : aE May, 
Division in Irish parliamentary party ; Mr. Parnell 
and others oppose the land bill, about . 5 May, 
Increase in amount of crime April, ah ; 
Total arrests, 54; increase of evictions : 
Irish land bill read 2nd time (352-176); Mr. Parnell 
and about zo retire, 19, 20 May ; 3rd time (220-14) 


29 July, 
Agrarian outrages, 439, Jan.; 170, Feb.; 146, 
“March ; 3 296, April ; 238 in Gives weeks May, 


Riots connected with evictions at Scareff, co. Clare ; 
some persons killed ; many injured . 2d une, 
Rioting at various places in co. Cork., &., 
, 6, 7 June, 
Population diminished one ninth in ian years (by 
census) : June, 
Land bill in house of. lords ; read ond time, 2, 3 
Aug. ; 3rd time (with amendments), 8 Aug.; the 
commons reject some of the amendments, 12 
Aug.; the lords resist, 13 Aug. ; the commons 
modify the amendments, 15 Aug.; the lords 
yield, 16 Aug.; royal assent 22 Aug. 
Increased boycotting of shop-keepers ‘and others, 
and much cruelty . x Sept. 
Great meeting of delegates from the Land Peart 
denouncing the land act as a sham ; Mr. Parnell 
present A - 17-19 Sept. 
Mr. Parnell arrested on charge ‘of inciting to in- 
timidation and for urging non-payment of rent ; 
put into Kilmainham gaol, Dublin . 3 Oct. 
This arrest ‘‘legal, merited, and expedient,” Times 
t5 Oct. 
Arrest of Messrs. Sexton, O’Kelly, J. P. Quinn, 
secretary of Land League, Dillon, O’Brien, and 
others 14 -16 Oct. 
Violent rioting at Dublin ‘and Tmertek « about 
20001, damage ; soon suppressed; more arrests 
15-18 Oct. 
More troops sent to Ireland from Gnatiaia: &e. 3 
manifesto of the Land League denouncing the 
government, and ordering non-payment of Se 
Oct. 
This manifesto censured by archbishop “Croke 
c 
First meeting of the Irish Land Commission poGrks 
addressed by justice O’Hagan Sy 20. 0Ct. 
Great calm at Dublin and Limerick 20 Oct. et seq. 
The lord lieutenant proclaims the suppression of 
the Land League as an illegal and criminal 
organization, 20 Oct.; the leaders declare for 
passive resistance ; archbishop M‘Cabe’s pastoral 
against the Land League manifesto read in R. C. 
churches in Dublin - . 30 Oct. 
Important decisions in favour of tenants’ by sub- 
commissions at Belfast, &c.. : Nov. 
2448 persons in prison; more arrests ; some released 
announced 5 Nov. 


Home rule meeting at Dublin. 8 Nov. 
Death of Dr. M‘ Hale, archbishop of Tuam, ** Lion 
of the fold of Judah” . 4 oie SUNOV: 


»” 


IRELAND. 


Above 40,000 applications to the land courts 


454 


12 Nov. 1881 


Continuance of agrarian murders and outrages Noy. 
Strike against payment of rent in Limerick; evic- 
tions ordered. - 30 Nov 
Irish Property Defence association (formed Nov. 
1880) active and successful (see Mansion-house 
Hund) . Nov.—Dec. 
Great increase of crime in Munster announced Dec. 
An association formed to support the law 

about 20 Dec. 

Proclamation against possession of arms in Dublin, 
we. ; 27 Dec. 
Appointment of five special magistrates, with extra 
powers, in disturbed districts; 4439 agrarian 
outrages in the year : . about 30 Dec. 
Several lady land leaguers arrested 2 Jan. et seq. 


Day of humiliation for Protestants 13 Jan. 
bout 40 suspects arrested > 28 Jan. 
Frequent murders reported . Feb. 


Cominittee to enquire into working of land act 


voted by lords (96—s3, 17 Feb. )s earl Cairns, 
chairman 2 , sea. heb. 
Michael Davitt, convict, elected M.P. for co. 
Meath, 22 Feb.; annulled by the commons, 


28 Feb. 
Bailey, an informer against Land League, murdered 
at Dublin : .25 Feb. 
Mr. Gladstone’s resolution against the ieee com- 
mittee, 27 Feb. ; carried (303235) g-10 March, 
The lords’ committee sit. “ - March, 
Continuance of murderous outrages : March, 
Archbishop M‘Cabe created cardinal 27 March, 
Mr. Forster confesses failure of government policy 
through influence of secret societies 27 March, 
511 Suspects in prison . . r April, 
Mr. Parnell released en parole ‘for ten days, 
to April, 
New government policy; resignation of Mr. W. E. 
Forster; release of Mr. Parnell and other sus- 
pects; earl Spencer appointed lord lieutenant 
about 2 May, 1882; release of Michael Piva 
May, 
Earl Spencer enters Dublin ; lord Frederick Cae 
dish, new chief secretary, and Mr, T. H. Burke, 
permanent under-secretary, assassinated by stab- 
bing, by four men, about 7 p.m., in Phoenix-park, 
Dublin, 6 May ; manifesto expressing abhorrence 
of the deed signed by C. 8. Parnell, J. Dillon, 
and M. Davitt . A 7 May, 


Government offers 1o, Sonia reward for discoveries 
of the murderers ; Mr. G.O. Trevelyan appointed 
chief secretary : SPER OLAY, 

Bill for the prevention of crime in Ireland intro- 
duced by sir W. V. Harcourt (new tribunal of 
three judges without jury ; for special occasions ; 
powers of police increased; alien act to be 
revived ; supervision of newspapers and of assem- 
blies, &c.), xz: May, 1882; second reading 
(383—45) . 19-20 May, 

Many arrests 12 May et seq. 

Alleged agreement of the gov ernment with Mr. Par- 
nelland party, early M ay, 1882, sarcastically termed 
the treaty of Kilmainham ; arrears of rent bill, 
second reading (269— 157) 3 23-24 I May, 

Mr. Walter Bourke and narode Wallace, his escort, 
shot dead by five men near Gort, Galway 8 June, 

Mr. John Henry Blake, agent to the marquis of 
Clanricarde, and his ’ stewar d, Mr. Ree shot 
dead near Loughrea . : : June, 

A long discussion in the commons on the preven- 
tion of crime bill; 23 Irish members suspended, 

30 June—tz July, 

Mr. Parnell and home rulers withdraw, July, 1882; 
22 arrests at Loughrea, 4 July ; government de- 
feated in an amendment checking domiciliary 
visits of suspected persons at night, 207—1094 5 
prevention of crime bill read third time, 7-8 July 5 
passed by the lords, 11 July; royal assent, 


12d uly, 

17 counties proclaimed. 2 . about 13 July, 
170 Suspects in custody : « 2 Aug, 
‘Lhe Lords’ committee on the land act enlouran 
5 Aug. 


Mr. Edmund Dwyer Gray, M.P., high Bhar of 
Dublin, ex-lord mayor, sentenced to three months’ 
imprisonment and a fine of sool. for contempt of 


3 


3) 


3 
>> 


IRELAND. 


court in articles in Freeman's Jowrnal attacking 
the jury on trial of Francis Hynes 16 Aug. 
Arrears bill passed in the commons (285—177), ar 
July; by the lords, with injurious amendments 
(169—98), 31 July; which are modified or nega- 
tived by the commons, 8, 9 Aug.; the revision 
accepted by the lords, 10 Aug.; royal assent, 
18 Aug. 
50 suspects released . 4 5 . about 18 Aug. 
John Joyce and his wife, son, and daughter, shot 
dead by band of men near Maamtrasma, in 
Clonder district, Galway, for giving information 
to the police - . - 17-18 Aug. 
John Leahy, aged farmer, of Scarteen, titlarneg 
murdered by : a moonlight party 20 Aug. 
Discontent and insubordination of the constabulary 
at Dublin, Cork, and especially at Limerick, 
settled by. firmness and judicious concessions 
end of Aug. 
Dismissal of some police for holding a public meet- 
ing in Dublin; all the police of ‘the city resign ; 
order maintained by the military, who charge | on 
rioters in the evening, 1 Sept. ; special constables 
sworn in 2 Sept.; resignation withdrawn peni- 
tently with respectful petition, 3 Sept.; 208 re- 
instated’ . : 5 6-7 Sept. 
Execution of Francis Hynes (for murder of John 
Doloughty)at Limerick,1z Sept.; of Patrick Walsh, 
for murder of Martin Lyden, at Galway, 22 Sept. 
Successful progress of the lord lieutenant, earl 
Spencer, in the west 3 5 . middle Sept. 
Conviction of Michael Walsh, for murder of Kava- 
. nhagh, a policeman, 29 Sept. ; a servitude for 
life ° 4 19 Oct. 
Mr. E. D. Gray released . . 30 Sept. 
Expiration of coercion act; all suspects released 
o Sept. 
Land league fund in North America closed 6 Oct. 
Nationalistic conference at Dublin constitutes a 
new Irish National League (ultra) to obtain self- 
government and land-law reform . 17 Oct. 
Diminution of agrarian crime . . April—Nov. 
Murderous assault on justice Lawson at Dublin by 
Patrick Delany, a returned convict . 11 Nov. 
Trish land commission report issued about 13 Noy. 
The land corporation of Ireland dissolved Noy. 
Conviction of murderers of Joyce family ; Patrick 
Joyce, 15 Nov.; Patrick Casey, 17 Noy. ; Myles 
Joyce, 18 Nov. {all executed, 15 Dec.]; Michael 
Casey, Thomas Joyce, John’ Casey, and Martin 
Joyce, confess; sentence commuted ; Thomas 
Casey and Philbyn, approvers. . 21 Noy. 
Murderous assault on detectives in Dublin; Cox 
killed; his murderer, Dowling, severely wounded 
25 Nov. 
Mr. Field, a juryman, stabbed, 27 Nov. ; reward of 
sooo/. for assassin; Dublin proclaimed under 
martial law 4 2 28 Noy. 
Patrick and Thomas Higgins convicted of murder 
of Haddys at Lough Mask [executed 15-17 Jan. 
1883] = : ‘ . 13 and 16 Dec. 
Also Michael Flyn “ A 5 : . 20 Dec. 


Sylvester Poff, James Barrett, convicted of ee | 
at Cork - 2 Dec. 
Emigration from Ireland, 89, 566 i in the yo b 


Great distress in Donegal in the north-west ; 3433 
agrarian outrages in the years i. . Dec. 1882— 

Arrest in Dublin of 21 persons, suspected of con- 
spiracy to murder . . 12, 13 Jan. 

Robert Farrell, approver, reveals plot for assassi- 
nation of the government . 5 . 19 Jan. 


The pope’s letter to archbishop McCabe, exhorting 
the clergy against secret societies, &c. about 20Jan. 


Execution of Sylvester Poff and James ha at 
Tralee, for murder , 3 Jan 
M. Davitt, Thos. Healy, M. P. , and P. Quinn pound 
over for seditious speeches, 24 Jan.; elect to be 
imprisoned, 6 Feb.; imprisoned . 8 Feb. 


Eight men charged with complicity in mariee of 
lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr. Burke 3 Feb. 

Irish national league, first meeting . . 7 Feb. 

Revelations of James Carey, approver, implicating 
the Land League (Thos. Brennan, sec., and P. J. 
Sheridan) ; statement respecting the Irish Invin- 
cibles ; arrest of Mrs. F. Byrne, charged with trans- 
mitting arms, é¢., 17 Feb. ; discharged 20 Feb. 


7 


\ 


IRELAND. 


ised prisoners committed for trial 
W. B. Forster’s defenve in the commons, and 
arges against Mr. Parnell; Mr. O'Kelly sus- 
nded fora week, for givinghim the lie 22-23 Feb. 
Parnell’s unsatisfactory reply - . 23 Feb. 
st of Mr. Byrne at Paris, 27 Feb. ; released, 
about 9 March, 
xt of Patrick Egan, treasurer of the Land 
ague, from Dublin, x March; in New York, 
12 March, 
y thousand young forest trees for planting 
yen by English, Scotch, and Irish nurserymen, 
. spring, 
_ bishops advocate government relief for dis- 
ssin Connaught, Jan. ; refused, poor-law relief, 
‘koned sutticient . ; x : . March, 
ye members of the ‘‘ Patriotic Brotherhood” 
tablished at Crossmaglen, 1881) sentenced to 
nal servitude for conspiracy to murder land- 
ds > 2 4 : “ : 28 March, 
nix-park murders; Robt. Farrell, Jas. Carey, 
d others, approvers; trial of Joseph Brady, 
nvicted, 11-13 April; Timothy Kelly, third 
al, 7-9 May; Thomas Catirey pleads guilty, 
fay ; Patrick Delany and Daniel Curley, 16-18 
wil; Michael Fagan . é . 25-27 April, 
convention at Philadelphia; Parnell’s policy 
opted ; dynamiters defeated 
etion of conspiracy of the ‘‘ Vigilance” murder 
ranization at Dublin; prisoners examined, 
May, 
srful circular from the pepe, strictly enjoining 
» bishops to abstain from favouring disatlection 
the government, not to subscribe to testimo- 
us, &e. [archbishop Croke, of Cashel, had given 
. to the Parnell testimonial, &c.] . 11 May, 
»s FitzHarris and others convicted of con- 
racy to murder ; sentenced to penal servitude 
16 May et seq. 
irs. Davitt, Healy, and Quin released 4 June, 
uted: Joseph Brady (actual murderer), 14 
iy; Daniel Curley, 18 May ; Michael Fagan, 28 
ily; Thomas Caffrey, 2 June; Timothy Kelly, 
June, 
lace exhibition at the Mansion-house, London 
25 June—7 July, 
%8 Carey, the approver, shot dead by Patrick 
Donnell, 29 July, on board the Melrose Castle, 
ar Port Elizabeth, South Africa 29 July, 
is amounting to 4,600,000l. for public works 
thorised by parliament . ‘ . 25 Aug. 
onal League invade Ulster, strongly resisted 
the Orangemen at Auchnacloy, Dungannon, 
dother places . . - end of Sept. 
tafford Northcote warmly received at Belfast, 
nmdonderry, &c. .. - A : oS Ck: 
ing of National League at Ennis prohibited 
5 Oct. 
ings of Orangemen and National Leaguers at 
rrison, Fermanagh, prohibited . » 13 Nov, 
ick O’Donnell convicted 7 Aree: 
Trevelyan reports great diminution in agrarian 
eee. sl) 6 «6Oct.—Dec. 
ol. presented to Mr. Parnell (‘fas a national 
bute” from the Irish people) at a banquct at 
e Rotunda, Dublin 4 ; ‘ 11 Dec. 
tution of Patrick O’Donnell (see 29 July), at 
ywgate, 17 Dec.; of James Poole, at Dublin, 
tmurder of John Kenny, informer . 18 Dec. 
umellite land law amendment bill rejected by 
e commons (as tending to confiscation), by 
‘S72 (tw fs . 7 : - March, 
Spencer warmly received at Belfast 18 June, 
us libellous charges against Mr. Bolton, crown 
licitor; subornation of witnesses, Wc. 
7 July, Aug. 
‘rges disproved ; letter from earl Spencer 23 Aug. 
‘1 National League convention at Dublin, Mr. 
‘O'Connor in the chair ; urges revival of agita- 


‘on against the government. . . 6 Sept. 
th of Mr. A, M. Sullivan, eminent Nationalist 
17 Oct. 
H. Campbell-Bannerman, chief secretary, 


yornin = , : 4 ; : 2 . 24 Oct. 
-mtrasma trial impugned; their verdict sup- 
orted by the cormmons (219—48) 28 Oct. 
/sapted explosion of Edinburn-house (Samuel 


a,” 
ee. 


25-27 April, , 


al 


. 20 Feb. 1883 


) 


455 


IRELAND. 


Hussey, land agent) by dynamite, near Tralee, 
Kerry ; nodeaths . i : ; 28 Nov. 1884 

Death of cardinal McCabe, pacific and loyal 11 Feb. 1835 

Parnellite manifesto directing Nationalist corpora- b 
tions to maintain an attitude of reserve during the 


prince of Wales’ visit in April, issued about 16 Mar. 


KINGS AND GOVERNORS OF IRELAND.* 
KINGS. 
979 Or 980. Maol Ceachlin II. (Malachi) deposed. 
toot OF 1002. Brian Baromy or Boroimhe; slain after 
totally defeating the Danes at Clontarf, 23 April, 


IOI4. 

1014. Maol Ceachlin II. restored ; dies 1022 or 1023. 
[Disputed succession. ] 

1058. Donough, or Denis, O’Brian, son. 


1072. ‘Tirloch, or Turlough, nephew ; dies 1086. 
1086-1132. The kingdom divided ; fierce contests for it. 
1132. Tordel Vach; killed in battle. 

1166. Roderic, or Roger, O’Connor. 

1172. Henry II. king of Engiand. 


[The English monarchs were styled ‘Lords of 
Ireland” until the reign of Henry VIII., who 
first styled himself king. ] 


GOVERNORS OF IRELAND (with various titles.) 


1172. Hugues de Lasci. 1173, Rich. Fitz-Gislebert, earl of 
Pembroke. 1176, Raymond le Gros. 1177,prince 
John (afterwards king), made lord of Ireland. 

1184 et sey. Justiciars. The changes were so Srequent 
that the more important officers only are given. 
See ‘‘Gilbert’s History of the Viceroys,” 1865. 

1189, 1203, 1205. Hugues de Lasci. 

1199, 1204. Meiller Fitz-Henri (son of Henry IT.) 

1215, 1226. Geoffrey de Marreis. 

1229-32-33. Maurice Fitzgerald. 

1308. Piers Gaveston, earl of Cornwall. 1312, Edmund 
le Botiller. 1316, Roger de Mortimer. 1320, 
Thomas Fitzgerald. 1321, John de Bermingham. 
1327, earl of Kildare. 1328 and 1340, Prior 
Roger Utlagh. 1332, sir John d’Arcy. 1337, 
sir John de Cherlton. 1344, sir Raoul d’Ufford. 
1346, sir Roger d’Arcy; sir John Moriz. 1348, 
Walter de Bermingham. 1355, Maurice, earl of 
Desmond. 1356, Thomas de Rokeby. 1357, 
Almerie de St. Amand. 1359, James, earl of 
Ormond. 1361, Lionel, duke of Clarence. 1367, 
Gerald, earl of Desmond. 1369 and 1374, Wil- 
liam de Windsor. 1376, Maurice, earl of Kildare, 
and James, earl of Ormond. 1380, Edmund Mor- 
timer, earl of March. 1385, Robert de Vere, 
earl of Oxford. 1389 and 1398, sir John Stanley. 
1391, James, earl of Ormond. 1393, Thomas, 
duke of Gloucester. 1395, Roger de Mortimer, 
earl of March, killed. 1398, Reginald Grey and 
Thomas de Holland. 

1401 and 1408, Thomas, earlof Lancaster. 1413, sirJohn 
Stanley and sir John Talbot. 1420, James, earl 
of Ormond. 1423, Edmund de Mortimer, earl of 
March. 1425, sir John Talbot. 1427, sir John 
de Grey. 1428, sir John Sutton, lord Dudley. 
1431 and 1435, sir Thomas Stanley. 1438, Leon, 
lord de Welles. 1446, John, earl of Shrewsbury. 
1449, Richard, duke*of York. 1461, George, 


* The list of Irish sovereigns, printed in previous edi- 
tions, has been omitted. The Irish writers carry their 
succession of kings very high. The learned antiquary, 
Thomas Innes, of the Scots’ College of Paris, expressed 
his wonder that ‘‘the learned men of the Irish nation 
have not, like those of other nations, yet published the 
valuable remains of their ancient history whole and en- 
tire, with just translations, in order to separate what is 
fabulous, and only grounded on the traditions of their 
poets and bards, from what is certain history.” ‘‘O’Fla- 
herty, Keating, Toland, Kennedy, and other modern 
Trish historians, have rendered all uncertain, by deducing 
their history from the Deluge with as much assurance as 
they deliver the transactions of Ireland from St. Patrick’s 
time.”—Anderson. The “‘ Annals of the Four Masters,” 
edited by Dr. Donovan, were published in Trish and 
Englishin 1848. 

+ Lords justices and deputies, and latterly Lorps 
LrevrTeNant. It has been several times proposed to 
abolish the viceroyalty of Ireland, but without success, 


The last time 25 March, 1858. 


IRELAND. 


1603. 


1700. 


shel Sif 
1772. 
1777- 
1780. 
1782. 


39 
1783. 
1784. 
1787. 


1790. 
1794- 
>> 
17098. 
1801. 
1806. 
1807. 
1813. 
1817. 
182r. 
1828. 
18209. 
1830. 
1833. 
1834. 
1835. 
1839. 


1841. 


1844. 
1846. 


1847. 
1852. 


1853. 
1855. 
1858. 


1859. 
1864. 


1866. 
1868. 
1874. 
1876. 
1880. 


1882. 


duke of Clarence. 1470, earl of Worcester. 1478, 
John de la Pote, earl of Suffolk. 1481, Richard, 
earl of Kildare. 1483, Gerald, earl of Kildare. 
1484, John de la Pole, earl of Lincoln. 1485, 
Jasper, duke of Bedford. 1494, Henry, duke of 
York, afterwards Henry VIII. (his deputy, sir 
E. Poynings). 1496, Gerald, earl of Kildare, 
and in 1504, 1513. 1521, Thomas Howard, earl 
of Surrey. 1529, Henry, duke of Richmond. 
Gerald, his son, 1556-61. Thomas, earl of 
Sussex. [Among the lord deputies, 1560, &c., 
sir Wm. Fitzwilliam. 1584, sir John Perrot]. 
1599, Robert, earl of Essex. 

Sir Charles Blount, lord Mountjoy, made earl of 
Devonshire. 1640, Thos., viscount Wentworth, 
earl of Strafford. 1643 and 1648, James, marquis 
of Ormond. 1647, Philip, lord Lisle. 1649, Oliver 
Cromwell. 1657, HenryCromwell. 1662, James 
Butler, duke of Ormond. 1669, John Roberts, 
lord Roberts. 1670, John, lord Berkeley. 1672, 
Arthur Capel, earlof Essex. 1677, James Butler, 
duke of Ormond. 1685, Henry Hyde, earl of 
Clarendon. 1687, Richard Talbot, earl of Tyr- 
connel. 1690, Henry Sydney, lord Sydney. 1695, 
Henry Capel, lord Capel. 

Laurence Hyde, earl of Rochester. 1703, James 
Butler, duke of Ormond. 1707, Thomas, earl of 
Pembroke. 1709, Thomas, earl of Wharton. 
1710, James, duke of Ormond, again. 1713, 
Charles, duke of Shrewsbury. 1717, Charles, 
duke of Bolton. 1721, Charles, duke of Grafton. 
1724, John, lord Carteret. 1731, Lionel, duke of 
Dorset. 1737, William, duke of Devonshire. 
1745, Philip, earl of Chesterfield. 1747, William, 
earl of Harrington. 1751, Lionel, duke of Dor- 
set, again. 1755, William, duke of Devonshire, 
1757, John, duke of Bedford. 1761, George, earl 
of Halifax. 1763, Hugh, earl of Northumberland. 
1765, Francis, earl of Hertford. 

George, viscount Townshend, 14 Oct. 

Simon, earl of Harcourt, 30 Nov. 

John, earl of Buckinghamshire, 25 Jan. 

Fred., earl of Carlisle, 23 Dec. 

Wm. Henry, duke of Portland, 14 April. 

George, earl Temple, 15 Sept. 

Robert, earl of Northington, 3 June. 

Charles, duke of Rutland, 24 Feb.; died 24 Oct. 
1787. 

George, marquis of Buckingham (late earl Temple), 
again, 2 Nov. 

John, earl of Westmorland, 5 Jan. 

William, earl Fitzwilliam, ro Dee. 

John, earl Camden, rz March. 

Charles, marquis Cornwallis, 13 June. 

Philip, earl of Hardwicke, 25 May. 

John, duke of Bedford, 18 March. 

Charles, duke of Richmond, 19 April. 

Charles, earl Whitworth, 26 Aug. 

Charles, earl Talbot, 9 Oct. 

Richard, marquis Wellesley, 29 Dec. 

Henry, marquis of Anglesey, x March, 

Hugh, duke of Northuinberland, 6 March. 

Henry, marquis of Anglesey, again, 23 Dee. 

Marquis Wellesley, again, 26 Sept. 

Thomas, earl of Haddington, 29 Dee. 

Henry, marquis of Normanby, 23 April. 

Hugh, viscount Ebrington, afterwards earl For- 
tescue, 3 April. 

Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, 15 Sept. 

William, lord Heytesbury, 12 July. 

John William, earl of Bessborough, 9 July died 
16 May, 1847. 

George William Frederick, earl of Clarendon, 26 May. 

Archibald William, earl of Eglinton, 28 Feb. 

Edward Granville, earl of St. Germans, Jan. 

George, earl of Carlisle, March. 

Archibald, earl of Eglinton, again, Feb., resigned. 

George, earl of Carlisle,again, June; died 5 Dec. 1864. 

John, lord Wodehouse, afterwards earl of Kimber- 
ley, x Nov. 

James, marquis of Abercorn, July ; made duke, 
6 Aug. 1868. 

John, earl Spencer, Dec. 

James, duke of Abercorn, Feb. 

John, duke of Marlborough, 28 Nov. 

Francis T. de Grey, earl Cowper, 5 May. Resigned 
April, 1882. 

John Poyntz, earl Spencer, May. 


456 


7 


IRISH REPUBLIC. 
IRELAND FORGERIES. In 1786 W 


Treland made public the Shakspeare manusc1 
which he had forged, and deceived many eri 
The play, ‘‘ Vortigern,’’ was performed at Dr 
lane theatre on 2 April, 1796. He shortly afte: 
knowledged the forgery, and published his ‘| 
fessions’’ in 1805. He died in 1835. 


IRELAND, YOUNG, a party (or ra 
“school”’), formed for the regeneration of 
country, founded by Thos, Osborne, Charles G: 
Duffy (who established and conducted “ 
Nation’’ from 1842 to 1855), Smith O’Brien 
others in 1840. Some of their proceedings led t 
state trials of 1843 and 1848. Mr. Duffy (afterw 
ae of Victoria, Australia, and K.C.M.G.) | 
ished “Young Ireland, a Fragment of Irish His 
1840-50,” in 1880. 


IRIDIUM and OSMIUM. In 1804 Ten 
discovered these two rare metals in the o 
platinum, in which, in 1845, Claus discover 
third, Ruthenium. Iridium is said to be 
heaviest known metal, 1878. See Weights. 


IRISH CHURCH; see Church of Ire 
The Irish Presbyterian Church act, passed 16 J 
1871, regulates the management of certain 
properties for that church. 


IRISH INVINCIBLES, a secret soc 
said by James Carey, a member, to have 
formed in Dublin by one Walsh and others, 
England, to ‘‘make history”? by killing tyr 
Each member was bound to obey orders, 1 
pain of death. By some of its members the l 
Mr. W. E. Forster and judge Lawson was attem 
and lord Frederick Cavendish and~Mr. I 
murdered. See Ireland, 1882-3. In Feb. 
there were said to be 250 members in Great Bi 
and Ireland. ‘‘The general No. 1,’’ was said 
a wealthy man. ‘‘ Murder leagues,’ and *: 
sination circles’’ were mentioned. 


TRISH LAND BILLS, see Jreland, 
1880-81. 


IRISH LAND LAW ACT (40 &45 
c. 49, passed 22 Aug. 1881. See Ireland, A 
Aug. 1881). It settles the rights of landlord 
tenants; establishes a court of commission, ¥ 
first met, 20 Oct. 1881, to try differences bet 
them, and determines the conditions by v 
tenants may become proprietors; it affirm: 
virtual ownership of tenants with the pow 
selling their rights, securing the payment of 3 
rent to the landlords to be settled by the court 
restricting evictions. First court of commi: 
sergeant O’Hagan, Edward Falconer Litton, 
John Edward Vernon. Royal Assent, 22 
1881. 

Important decisions in favour of tenants by the 
sub-commissions at Belfast, &e. . A Nov. 
Above 2500 applications to the land courts up t¢ 
11 Nov. 

Bill for amending purchase clauses of land act: 
means of purchase greatly facilitated : not above 

5,000,0001, to be advanced by the state in oné 

year, and not more than 20,000,000l. in all; bill 

introduced by Mr. Trevelyan, 27 May, Mion 
Io ; 


TRISH NATIONAL LEAGUE. See 
land, 17 Oct. 1882. 


IRISH PROPERTY DEFENCE AS 
CIATION, formed by landlords, Noy. 1880. 


IRISH REPUBLIC. Treasonable plan 
its establishment, dated 1869, were discover« 


\ 


. al 
ia 
y 


IRISH SOCIETY. 


457 


IRON MASK. 


3 F. Egan’s garden in Birmingham, April, 


ISH SOCIETY, THE HonovurRABLeE, 
ame given to a committee of citizens of twelve 
on companies invited by king James I. to 
ize the confiscated lands in the north of 
id, termed the Ulster plantations, including 
onderry and Coleraine, 1613. The committee 
red a charter, which was taken away in 1637, 
restored after various changes 1670. ‘The 
3 of this company and its methods of business 
discussed in parliament in 1868 and 1869. 


ISH UNIVERSITY BILL (to com- 
Trinity College and the Catholic College), in- 
ced by Mr. I. Butt, 16 May, 1876; withdrawn. 


ON found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, 
r to the forest having been burnt by lightning, 
g.c. Arundelian Marbles (1407, Hales; 1283, 
am.| ‘The Greeks ascribed the discovery of 
0 themselves, and referred glass to the Phe- 
as. Moses relates that iron was wrought by 
l-Cain (Gen. iv. 22). Swedish iron is very 
rated, and Dannemora is the greatest mine of 
en.—The weekly publication ‘‘ Jron’’ began 
n, 1873. See Szeel. 


im, an early seat of the iron manufacture ; coal said 
ave been employed at Marche-les-dames, 1340. 

h iron cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in 
sex, 1543. Jtymer’s Federa. 

aills used for slitting iron into bars for smiths, by 
frey Bochs, 1590. 

ig of iron introduced from Bohemia, 1681. Till 
at 1730 iron ores were smelted entirely with wood 
reoal, which did not wholly give way to coal and 
2 till 1788. 

(peration termed puddling, and other very great 
rovements in the manufacture, invented by Mr. 
iry Cort, about 1781, who did not reap the due re- 
d of his ingenuity. He died in 1800. 

fenry Bessemer patented his method of manufac- 
ng iron and steel, 17 Oct., 5 Dec., 1855; 12 Feb., 


}. 

, of the puddlers and lock-out of the masters in 
fordshire, Northumberland, &., lasted during 
‘ch, April, and May, 1865. 

orkers of Great Britain determine to form one 
‘les’ union, with one executive, Oct. 1866. 

of iron workers in the north over, 31 Dec. 1866. 
Wm. Robinson announced a method of making 
-ught iron from cast iron by means of magnetism, 
| Fgun867. 
ohn Heaton’s process for making steel announced 
ut Nov. 1867, discussed Oct. 1868. 
of the finest, thickest, and heaviest armour-plates 
‘vr rolled in the world was pressed into the very per- 
‘ion of a manufactured armour-plate at the great 
1s Ironworks of sir John Brown and Co., Sheffield. 
. Size of it when in the furnace was a little over 20 
_ long by about 4 feet broad and 21 inches thick. 
rough weight was over 21 tons. It was built up in 
furnace before being rolled by five mould plates, 
13 inches thick, and one solid plate of 6 inches. 
3 mass when reduced by intense heat to the con- 
‘eney of dough, was withdrawn from the furnace, 
. in the course of less than a quarter of an hour was 
sed between the enormous rollers many times, was 
iced to a compact slab of iron of a uniform thick- 
/s of x5 inches, and then passed on to its bed to cool 
fit for having its rough edges planed down to the 
-oer dimensions, 6 Sept. 1867. Armour-plate 24 
-.es thick rolled at same works, Oct. 1876. 
_orts (cost about 1,000,000, made by Whitworth and 
at Manchester) put up at Spithead early in 1872. 
“tampton’s iron furnace, in which definite propor- 
8 of coal dust and air are introduced under pressure, 
h be at Woolwich and was reported successful, 
', 1073. 
“one miners in Yorkshire; great strike through 
iction in wages, May, 1874. 
tades, see Employers. 

ierchant vessels: built in 1860, 181; in 1877, 545. 


IRON PRODUCED IN GREAT BRITAIN. 


1740 59 furnaces . 17,350 tons. 
1788 eee 3 61,920 ,, 
1796. uLor — 124,789 55 
1802 . 168 Ae 227,000 455 
1806 227, fe 250,000 ,, 
1820 - 260 ap 400,000 ,, 
1825 5 eyes ”? 7. 582,307 5s 
1840 - 402 i +I 5390;400 miss 
1848 . 623 ) + 3,998,558 55 
1852 - 655 Sp 2} 2) JOL,C00! 55 


In 1855, 3,217,154 tons of pig iron were produced ; in 
1857, 3,059,447 tons; in 1865, 4,819,254 tons; in 1869, 
5,445,757 tons; in 1873, 6,566,451 tons ; in 1876, 6,555,997 
4 GL in 1879, 5,995,337 tons; in 1882, pig, 8,586,680 

ons. 

Iron Manufacture : between 1865-75 the capital invested 
rose from 7,000,000l. t0 29,000,000. Number of pud- 
dling furnaces rose from 3462 to 7159; also great 
increase in blast furnaces. 

Great depression since 1876; due to excessive production 
and increased and cheap manufacture of steel, 1878-9. 
Exports of Iron and Steel, from United Kingdom, 

1860, 1,502,500 tons; 1865, 1,687,071 tons; 1870, 

2,825,575, tons; 1875, 2,457,306 tous; 1879, 2,883,484 

tons ; 1883, 4,043,308 tons, 


IRON anp STEEL INSTITUTE, the duke 
of Devonshire, president, held its first meeting in 
London 22 June, 1869, first provincial meeting at 
Merthyr-Tydvil, 6Sept. 1870; first foreign meeting at 
Liége, 18 Aug. 1873; second at Paris, 16 Sept. 1878. 
Frequently at other places, Vienna, 19 Sept. 1882 ; 
Middlesborough, 18 Sept. 1883; Chester, 23 Sept. 
1884. 


IRONCLADS, see Circular, Navy, and United 
States, 1862; Germany, 1878. 


IRON CROSS, an order of knighthood esta- 
blished by Frederick William III. of Prussia, 
10 March, 1813, to honour patriotic bravery in_the 
war against France; was revived by William I. in 
the Franco-Prussian war, and awarded by him to 
his son for his victory at Wissembourg, 4 Aug. 
1870. About 40,000 persons were decorated in 
1870-71. 

IRON CROWN (of Italy), of gold and pre- 
cious stones, set in a thin ring of iron, said to have 
been forged from a nail of Christ’s cross, was made 
by order of Theudelinde for her husband, Agilulf, 
king of the Longobards, 591. She presented it (to 
be kept) to the church at Monza. Charlemagne 
was crowned with this crown, and after him all 
the emperors who were kings of Lombardy; 
Napoleon I. at Milan, on 26 May, 1805, put it on 
his head, saying, ‘‘ Diew me l’a donnée ; gare d gut 
y touchera.”’ (God has given it to me; woe to 
him who touches it.) The crown was removed from 
Monza to Mantua by the Austrians, on 23 April, 
1859. After the peace of Vienna in 1866, the 
crown was given up to general Menabrea on 
II Oct., and presented to king Victor Emmanuel, 
at Turin, on 4 Nov. The order of the ‘ Iron 
Crown of Italy,” instituted by Napoleon 26 May, 
1805, was abolished in 1814, but revived by the 
emperor of Austria 12 Feb. 1816; see Gotha. The 
order of the Crown of Italy was instituted by king 
Victor Emmanuel 20 Feb. 1868. 


TRON-MASK, THE MAN WITH THE.* A 


* The following conjectures have been made as to his 
identity :—An Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from 
Constantinople (who died ten years before the mask) ; 
the duc de Vermandois, son of Louis XIY., reported to 
have perished in the camp before Dixmude ; the duc de 
Beaufort, whose head is reported to have been taken off 
before Candia; James, duke of Monmouth, executed on 
Tower-hill ; a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis 
XIIL., either by cardinal Mazarine, or by the duke of 


IRON-PLATED SHIPS. 4 


4 


rT] 


8 ISTRIA. 


mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a mask and 
closely confined under M. de St. Mars, at Pignerol 
(1679), Exilles (1681), Sainte Marguerite (1687), and 
at the Bastille (1698), where he died 19 Nov. 1703. 
He was of noble mien, and was treated with pro- 
found respect; but his keepers had orders to des- 
patch him if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself 
always placed the dishes on his table, and stood in 


- 


his presence. 
ITRON-PLATED SHIPS, see Jronclads. 
IRREDENTA CRY, see Jtaly, 1878. 
IRRIGATION, practised in the east and in 


Egypt from the most remote ages. It was strenu- 
ously advocated for India by sir A. Cotton and 
others at the Social Science Congress at Manchester, 
Oct. 1866. In 1865 acts were passed for utilising 
London sewage in the irrigation of grass land, and 
the results are said to be generally favourable. The 
subject was much discussed, Aug. 1873. A method 
of producing artificial rain from ponds by means of 
steam-power, patented by Isaac Brown, of Edin- 
burgh, was tried by Mr. Coleman, at Stoke Park, 
and reported successful; see Sewage, and Jnter- 
mittent Filtration. 


IRUN (a frontier village of Spain). On16 May, 
1837, the British auxiliary legion under general 
Evans, marched from St. Sebastian to attack Irun 
(held by the Carlists), which after a desperate re- 
sistance was carried by assault, 17 May. 


IRVINGITES, followers of Edward Irving,* 
now called the ‘‘ Holy Catholic Apostolic Church.” 
They use a liturgy (framed in 1842, and enlarged 
1853), and have church officers named apostles, 
angels, prophets, &c. In 1852 lighted candles were 
placed on the magnificent altar, and burning of 
incense during prayers was prescribed. The Gothic 
church in Gordon-square was solemnly opened 
I Jan. 1854. It is said that all who join the church 
offer it a tenth of their income. They had 30 
chapels in England in 1851. 


ISANDULA, Isandlana, or Isandlwana, termed 
the “English Cremera’’; see Zululand, 22 Jan. 
1879. 


ISAURIA (a province in Asia Minor), con- 
quered by the Romans B.c. 78, by the Saracens 
A.D. 650; was retaken by the emperor Leo III., 
who founded the Isaurian dynasty, 718, which 
ended with Constantine VI. in 797. Isauria was 
incorporated with Turkey 1387. 


ISCHIA, see Earthquakes, 1883. 


Buckingham ; the twin brother of Louis XIV. (a conjec- 
ture received by Voltaire and others); Foucquet, an 
eminent statesman in the time of Louis XIV.; and a 
count Matthioli, secretary of state to Charles III, duke 
of Mantua. M. Delort and the right hon. Agar Ellis 
(afterwards lord Dover) endeavoured to prove Matthioli 
to have been the person. The mask, it seems, was not 
made of iron ; but of black velvet, strengthened with 
whalebone, and fastened behind the head with a padlock. 

* Kdward Irving was born 15 Aug. 1792, and was en- 
gaged as assistant to Dr. Chalmers, at Glasgow, in 
1819. In 1823 he attracted immense crowds of distin- 
guished persons to his sermons at the Scotch church, 
Hatton-garden. A new church was built for him ‘in 
Regent-square in 1827. Soon after, he propounded new 
doctrines on the human nature of Christ: and the ‘“ Ut- 
terances of Unknown Tongues,” which began in his con- 
gregation with a Miss Hall and Mr. Taplin, 16 Oct. 1831, 
were countenanced by him, as of divine inspiration. He 
was expelled from the Scotch church, 15 March, 1833. 
His church, ‘‘ reconstituted with the threefold cord of a 
sevenfold ministry,” was remoyed to Newman-street. 
He died 8 Dec. 1834. 


ISERNIA (S. Italy). Here the Sard 
aeAe Cialdini defeated the Neapolitans, 17 
1860. 


ISLAM, or EstAm, submission to Go 
name given to Mahometanism (which see). 


ISLE oF France, MAN, &c., see 
tius, Man, &e. 


ISLES, BisHoprio oF. This see cont 
not only the Hebrides, or Western Isles, bx 
Isle of Man, which for nearly 400 years had }: 
separate bishopric. The first bishop of the 
was Amphibalus, 360; see Jona. Since the 
lution (when this bishopric was discontinue: 
Isles have been joined to Moray and Ross, 
Ross alone. In 1847, however, Argyll and the 
were made a seventh post-revolution and di 
bishopric ; see Bishops. 


ISLINGTON (anciently Isendone, Isel 
and ‘*Merrie’’), a large suburban parish i 
London, still containing Roman and med 


remains, and old buildings, all gradually « 


pearing. Four members were allotted to Isli 
by the Redistribution bill of 1885. 


ISLY (N.W. Africa). Here Abd-el-Kade 
Arab chief, was totally defeated by the Fr 
under Bugeaud, 14 Aug. 1844. 


ISMAIL (Bessarabia). After a long sie, 
the Russians, who lost 20,000 men before the | 
the town was taken by storm, 22 Dec. 1790; 
Suwarrow, the most merciless warrior of m 
times, put the brave Turkish garrison (30,000 
to the sword and delivered up Ismail to pillage 
ordered the massacre of 6000 women. It was. 
captured by the Russians 26 Sept. 1809, an 
tained till the treaty of Paris in 1856, when1 
ceded to Moldavia. 


ISMAILIA, the half way station on the 
Canal. Itis supposed to occupy nearly the s 
Rameses. Sir Samuel Baker named it Ismail 
stead of Gondokoro, May, 1869. ‘The rebel I 
tian army was defeated near here by the Briti 
Aug. 1882. See Egypt. 


ISPAHAN was made the capital of Per: 
Abbas the Great, in 1590. It lost its supreme 
1796, when Teheran became the capital. 


ISRAEL, Kryepom op, see Jews.—Ha 
oratorio, ‘‘ Israel in Egypt,”’ first performed 4; 
1739. 

ISSUS (Asia Minor), the site of Alexa 
sécond great battle with Darins, whose quee! 
family were captured, Oct. 333 B.c. The Pi 
army, according to Justin, consisted of 4¢ 
foot and 100,000 horse; 61,000 of the forme 
10,000 of the latter were left dead on the 
and 40,000 were taken prisoners. Here the em 
Septimius defeated his rival Niger, A.D. 194. 


ISTAMBOUL, see Constantinople. 
ISTER, see Danube. 
ISTHMIAN GAMES received their 


from the isthmus of Corinth, where they wel 
served: instituted by Sisyphus, about 14068. 
honour of Melicertes, a sea-god. Lenglet. 
instituted in honour of Neptune by Theseus 
1239 B.c.; and their celebration was held so 
that even a public calamity did not preve 
The games were revived by Julius Owsar, 60 
and by the emperor Julian, a.D. 362. 


| ISTRIA was finally subdued by the Ro 


sae 


“TPALIA. IRREDENTA. 


>, After various changes it came under the 
‘Venice in 1378, and was annexed 1420. It 
stained by Austria 1796; by France 1806; 
stria 1814. 


‘LIA IRREDENTA (‘unredeemed 
)» a secret society which first appeared in 
Noy. 1877, and said to have 200 committees, 
ief at Naples. Its professed object is to add 
Italian kingdom Trieste, the Tyrol, and other 
an provinces on the Adriatic. 

79, col. Haymerle, an Austrian military resident 
e, me ** Res Italice,” freely discussing the 
. The Italians were much annoyed, and the pub- 
was disavowed by the Austrian government. 


LIAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE 
NCEMENT OF SCIENCE, first met at 
under the patronage of the grand duke of 
ry, in 1837. It met in Rome, 20 Oct. 1873. 


\LIAN BENEVOLENT SOCIETY, 
n, founded by the king of Italy and others, 


LIAN CATHOLIC CHURCH (be- 
two and three thousand persons); first 
, Domenico Panelli; a synod met at Naples 


> 

tatute (of 62 articles) asserts that the Catholic 
is nothing but the society of all believers in 
‘hrist, and that he only is its supreme head and 
; rejects all miracles since the death of the 
8; declares that the Catholic faith is only that 
d in the Holy Scriptures, &c. The congregation 
Paul, of the Italian Catholic church headed by 
Savarese, declared heretical, Oct. 1884. 


LIAN LANGUAGE, based on Latin, is 
y Dante to be formed of a selection of the 
ortions of the different dialects. Pure ele- 
etry was written by Guido Cavalcanti, who 
(01 ; and good prose by Malespini, about 1250. 


PRINCIPAL ITALIAN AUTHORS. 


Born Died Born Died 

j 1265 1321 | Goldoni 1707 1795 
&. . 1304 1374 | Parini 1729 1799 
0. 1313 1375 | Alfieri . 1749 1803 
velli. 1469 1527| Volta 1745 1826 
_: 1474 1533 | Monti 1754 1828 
rdini 1482 1540 | Leopardi 1798 1837 
fees IS44 1595 | Gioberti 1801 1852 
- 1564 1642 | Nicolini . 1782 1861 
slo . 1698 1782 | Manzoni 1784 1873 


following terms are often used with reference to 
periods in the history of Italian literature and 


mto (three hundred), from the birth of Dante 

) to the death of Boccaccio (1375), which two, 
a are styled ‘‘the triumvirate of the 

nto.’ 

trocento (four hundred), from 1375 to the revival 

lian literature by Lorenzo de’ Medici in the r5th 
ry. During this period Latin was revived, to the 
dice of Italian. 

_uecento (five hundred), from about 1480 to 1590. 

‘\stious style of art, founded on the heathen my- 
gy, began to prevail. 

‘nto (six hundred), from 1590 to 1700. The bad 
which prevailed during this period is ascribed to 

fluence of the Spaniards and the Jesuits through- 

taly. Seicentisti is a term of reproach. 

aan and Cinquecento were the most flourishing 


ALIAN REPUBLIC was the name given 
' Yemodelled Cisalpine republic. Napoleon 
arte, president, Jan. 1802. 


ALY (either from Italus, an early king, or 
-@ bull calf) was called the garden of Europe. 
ayading Pelasgians from Greece, and the 
“ines (Umbrians, Oscans, and Etruscans), 


ITALY. 


combined, form the Latin race, still possessing the 
southern part of Europe. The history of Italy is 
soon absorbed into that of Rome, founded 753 B.c. 
Previous to the 15th century it was desolated by 
intestine wars and the interference of the German 
emperors; since then, Spain, France, and Germany 
struggled for the possession of the country, which 
has been divided among them several times. 
Spain predominated in Italy during the 16th and 
17th centuries; yielded to the house of Austria at 
the beginning of the 18th. The victories of Bona- 
parte in 1797-8 changed the government of Italy; 
but the Austrian rule was re-established at the 
peace in 1814. In 1848 the Milanese and Venetians 
revolted and joined Piedmont, but were subdued by 
Radetzky ; see below. The hostile feeling between 
Austria and Piedmont gradually increased till war 
broke out in April, 1859. The Austrians were 
defeated, and the kingdom of Italy, comprising 
Piedmont, Sardinia, Lombardy, Tuscany, Modena, 
Parma, the Romagna, Naples, and Sicily was re-_ 
established, 17 March, 1861, by the Italian parlia- 
ment (consisting of 443 deputies from 59 provinces). 
On 29 Oct., 1861, the internal government was re- 
organized; the 59 provinces were placed under pre- 
fects, subject to four directors-general. War with 
Austria was declared 18 June, 1866; and on 3 Oct., 
peace was signed at Vienna, and Venetia was ceded 
to Italy ; see delow for the events. The kingdom of 
Italy was consummated by the occupation of Rome 
as the capital, 1870. Estimated population of the 
kingdom, 1862, 25,003,635 (Rome was added in 
1870). 1878, 28,209,620; Jan. 1882, 28,452,639. 
For other details see ome and the various Italian 
cities throughout the volume. 


Italy (Saturnia) fabled to have been ruled by Saturn 
during the golden age ; : : . B.C. 2450 

Arrival of Ginotrus from Arcadia, 1710; and of 
Evander ; reign of Latinus : : about 1240 

neas the Trojan said to land in Italy, defeat and 

kill Turnus, marry Lavinia, daughter of king 
Latinus, and found Lavinium, in South Italy, 1182, &c. 
Greek colonies (see Magna Grecia) founded - 974-443 
Romulus builds Rome . ; : : 4 - 753 
[For subsequent history, see Rome.] 


Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, establishes the king- A.D. 
dom of Italy : ; : : - * Jo al 470 
The Ostrogoths invade Italy, 489, and retain it till 49x 
They are expelled by the Imperial generals Narses 
and Belisarius : : ; 2 : : S52 
[See Kincs oF ITAty, p. 464, and Iron Crown. ] 
Narses, governor of Italy, invites the Lombards 
from Germany, 568 ; who overrun Italy . 596 
Invasion and defeat of Constans II. 662 
Venice first governed by a doge . 697 
Pepin gives Ravenna to the pope : é - 754 
Charlemagne invades ltaly, 774 ; overcomes the Lom- 
bards ; crowned emperor of the west at Rome by 
pope Leo lll. . é q ; : 25 Dec. 800 
The Saracens invade Italy and settle at Bari . 842 
Invasion of Otho I. 951 ; crowned emperor, 2 Feb. 962 
Genoa becomes important . i 7 5 . I000 
The Saracens expelled by the Normans IOI6O-17 
The Normans acquire Naples from the pope Io5t 
Pope Gregory VII., Hildebrand, pretends to uni- 
versal sovereignty, in which he is assisted by 
Matilda, countess of Tuscany, mistress of the 
greater part of Italy 1073-85 


Disputes between the popes and emperors, relative 
to ecclesiastical investitures, begin (and long agi- 
tate Italy and Germany) : . about 1073 
Rise of the Lombard cities . . about 1120 
Who war with each other . ‘ : : 7 TL4A 
The Venetians obtain many victories over the 


Eastern emperors. 2 : , : + a EE2S, 
Wars of the Guelfs and Ghibelines (which see) begin 

about 1161 

Frederic I. (Barbarossa) interferes: his wars 1154-75 

Lombard league formed. ; - + 1167 

His defeat at Legnano 29 May, 1176 

Peace of Constance - a F183 


ITALY. 460 ITALY. 
Civil wars again . : 3 r199, &c. Florence, Modena, Parma, &c. ; resignation « 
Rise of the Medici at Florence . about 1251 count Cavour as minister 


Wars of Frederick II. and the Lombard ‘league, 1236-50 


His natural son, Manfred, king of Sicily, defeated 
and killed at the battle of Benevento, by Charles 


of Anjou . 26 Feb. 1266 
Who defeats Conradin, at Tagliacozzo i 23 Aug. 1268 
The Visconti rule at Milan 1277 
The Sicilian vespers ; massacre of the French, who 

are expelled from Sicily o March, 1282 
Clement V. (pope, 1305), fixes his reridence, at Avig- 

non in France 1309 
Louis Gonzaga makes himself master of Mantua, 

with the title of imperial vicar 1328 
First doge of Genoa appointed 1330 
Lucca independent « £370 
Rome again the seat of the pope : 1377 
Charles VIII. of France invades Italy, 14945 and 

conquers Naples, 1495 ; loses it in 1496 
Louis XII. joins Venice and conquers Milan (soon 

lost) . 1499 
League of Cambray (x 508) against Venice, which is 

despoiled of its Italian possessions : - 1509 
Leo X. pope, patron of literature and art - 1513-22 
Wars of Charles V. and Francis I. oe bE 5-22 
Francis defeated and prisoner at Pavia 24 Feb. 1525 
Parma and Placentia made a duchy for his family 

by pope Paul III. (Alexander Aronson ser545 
Peace of Cateau-Cambresis . - 1559 
War of the Mantuan succession 1627-31 
Catinat and the French defeat the duke of Savoy 

at Marsaglia : . 4 Oct. 1693 
War of Spanish succession commences in Taly . I701 
Battle of Turin . : 7 Sept. 1706 
Division of Italy at the peace ‘of Utrecht, II ” April: 1713 
The duke of Savoy becomes king of Sardinia : oar7eo 
Successful French campaign in Italy . - 1745 
Milan, &c., obtained by the house of Austria, 1706 ; 

confirmed by treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle . i 1748 
Italy overrun by the French . May—Dec. 1796 
Division of the Venetian states by France and 

Austria by the treaty of panees Formio ; Cisal- 

pine republic founded oer OCKUELIO7 
Pius VI. deposed by Bonaparte. Feb. 1798 
The Russians, under Suwarrow, defeat the French 

at Trebia, &e, 1799 
Bonaparte crosses the Alps, 16-20 May ; defeats the 

Austrians at Marengo . 14 June, 1800 
The Cisalpine becomes the Italian republic (Bona- 

parte, president) : Jan. 1802 
Napoleon crowned king of Italy 26 May, 1805 
Eugéne Beauharnois made vicer oy of Italy . " 
Austria loses her Italian possessions by the treaty 

of Presburg ; ratified k 1 Jan. 1806 
The kingdom ceases on the overthrow of Napoleon, 

1814; the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom esta- 

blished for Austria . 7 April, 1815 
Formation of the young Italy party by Mazzini ; in- 

surrections 1831-33 
Italian Association for Science first met (at Pisa) Si aasleh 
Insurrection in Lombardy and Venice, March; sup- 

ported by the king of Sardinia and by the pope, 

April, 1848 
The king defeated at Novara, abdicates, 23 March ; 
and Lombardy reverts to Austria . May, 1849 
[See Sardinia and Austria. ] 
** Napoleon III. et l’Italie” published Feb. 1859 


The Austrian ultimatum, rejected by Sardinia, 
26 April, 

The Austrians cross the Ticino, 27 April; and the 
French enter Genoa . 
Peaceful revolution at Florence, 27 April; earns 


3 May; Modena . . 5 June, 
The Austrians defeated at Montebello, o May; 
Palestro, 30-31 May ; Magenta, 4 June; Marig- 
nano, 8 June; Solferino 24 June, 


Provisional governments established at Florence, 
27 April; Parma, May; and Modena [the sove- 
reigns retir e] 


Insurrection in the papal states " Bologna, Fer- 


rara, &c. . . 13-15 June, 
Massacre of the insurgents at Perugia by the Swiss 
troops . : 2o June, 
The allies cross the Mincio | : iJ uly, 
Armistice between Austria and France 8 July, 
Preliminaries of peace signed at Villafranca ; Lom- 
bardy surrendered to Sardinia . rr July, 


Italy dismayed at the peace ; agitation at Milan, 


3 May, 


r5 June, ~ 


‘ July 
The pope appeals to Europe against the king 


Sardinia : «| Sroka 
Garibaldi exhorts the Italians toarm 19 Jul: 
Grand duke of Tuscany abdicates ar Jub 


Constitutional assemblies meet at Florence, rr Aug 
and at Modena 3 > 16 Au; 
Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and ‘the Romagna et 
into a defensive alliance, and declare for annex. 
tion to Piedmont, 20 Aug.-1o0 Sept. ; fiscal restri 
tions between them and Piedmont ahaa 
Io UC 
Assassination of col. Anviti at Parma 5 Oc 
Garibaldi appeals to the Neapolitans ; subscription 
in Italy and elsewhere to supply arms for r 
Italians 
Tuscany, &c., choose the prince Eugéne of Canter 
Savoy, as regent of central Italy, 5 Nov. ; the ki 
of Sardinia refusing his consent, the prince d 
clines the office, but recommends the —. 
Buoncampagni 4 No 
Treaty of Zurich (establishing Ttalian contedii 


&c.), signed 5 to No 
Garibaldi retires from Sardinian service . 18 No 
New Sardinian constitution proclaimed 7 De 


The pope condemns the pamphlet “‘ Le ‘o et 
Congres” t De 

The emperor Napoleon yecommends the Som 
give up the legations 5 2 gre 

The pope refuses and denounces the emper 


8 Ja 
Count Cavour charged with the formation of 
ministry 16 Ja 


Annexation to Sardinia voted for (by universal sl 
frage) in Parma, Modena, and the Romagna, 
March ; Tuscany, 16 March ; accepted by the kir 

18-22 Marc 

Treaty ceding Savoy and Nice to France signed, 

March; approved by the Sardinian parliame: 


29 Me 
The French troops retire from Italy Oe 
Vain insurrections in Sicily 4 April; 2 Ma 


Garibaldi lands at Marsala in Sicily, 11 May; : é 
sumes the office of dictator, 14 May ; defe: 
the Neapolitans at Calatifimi, 15 May; @ 
at Melazzo, 20 July; by a convention t 
Neapolitans agree to evacuate Sicily (see a | 
o Ju 
Garibaldi lands at Reggio in Calabria, 3 = 
enters Naples ; king Francis retires 
Insurrection in Papal States, 8 Sept. ; the Sar 
nians enter, 11 Sept. ; defeat the papal troo 
at Castel-fidardo, 18 Sept. ; take Ane 
-29 Se] 
Victor-Emmanuel takes the command of his am: 
4 ( 
The Sardinians enter kingdom of Naples, 15 Oct 
defeat Neapolitans at Isernia : 17 O1 
Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans at theVolturno, 10 
1860 : meets Victor-Emmanuel, and says, ‘ Ki 
of Italy!” the latter replies, ‘‘I thank eis 
Di ( 
By universal suffrage (plebiscitum), Sicily a 
Naples vote for annexation to Sardinia 21 O 
Capua bombarded ; the Neapolitans retire, a No 
and are defeated at the Garigliano : 
Victor-Emmanuel enters Naples as king, 7 i: 
Garibaldi resigns the dictatorship and ae 
Caprera ge 
Victor-Emmanuel receives homage from the ‘a 
litan clergy, &c. ; gives money to encourage edu‘ 
tion ; appoints a Tninistr y, including Poerio, & 


Siege of Gaéta commences; attack by Sea }) 
vented by the presence of the French flee’ 


Noy. 4 
Treaty of Zurich signed (see Zurich) to Nt 
Decree in honour of Garibaldi’s army . 16 N¢ 
Reactionary movements suppressed Noy.-Di 


Prince of Carignan-Savoy appointed heute 
Naples 

The renin fleet retires from Gaéta, x g Jan. ; af 
severe bombardment it snerentaeeee Francis 
retires to Rome . 13 It 

Monastic establishments in Naples “abolished, Wi 
compensation to the inmates ; schools estan 


i 


ITALY. 


ITALY. 


a 


ly of the first Italian parliament, 18 Feb., 
decrees Victor-Emmanuel king of Italy, 
26 Feb. and 14 March, 
msettléd through reactionary intrigues of 
palparty . Fs . March and April, 
ognised by Great Britain 31 March, 
r the levy of 70,000 soldiers April, 
forms anew ministry, including members 
Wl parts of Italy . ; : . April, 
e protests against the kingdom, 1s April, 
ion in parliament between Cavour and 
Udi, 18 April ; reconciled 25 April, 
ist bands defeated 7 May, &e. 
f Carignan resigns ; San Martino appointed 
1ant at Naples i = 13 May, 
Feount Cavour, aged 52 6 June, 
forms aministry to continue Cayour’s policy, 
rr June, 
zdom recognised by France 24 June, 
rtino resigns the government of Naples ; 
measures taken against the insurgents and 
ds by Cialdini, his successor, appointed, 
16 July, 
z opens the exhibition of Italian industry 
rence . ; ; A ¢ 14 Sept. 
zdom recognised by Portugal and Belgium, 
; divided into fifty-nine prefectures, &c., 
me 53 Oct: 
1es in the south with brigands and foreign 
iries in the cause of Francis II. . . Oct. 
retires, and La Marmora becomes lieu- 
general of Naples . a <a 2p NOV: 
age still prevailing in the south, aided by 
ng of Naples ; insurgents defeated ; and 
Red = : ; : : 19 Noy. 
ges, a Spaniard, lands in Calabria, 15 
calls on the people to rise for Francis II., 
; taken and shot . , é 8 Dee. 
etionist warfare continues; cruelties of 
‘igands lead to reprisals, 
Dec. 1861, Jan. and Feb. 
compelled to resign by court influence, 
rch; Rattazzi forms an administration, 
3 March, 
zdom recognised by Prussia . t March, 
er of Civatella del Tronto, the last Bourbon 
38 in Sicily : ; : 14 March, 
1ant progress of Garibaldi through Italy, 
ishing rifle clubs f March and April, 
F. Bishop, an active English Bourbonist 
vandist, captured . : : . 2 April, 
acy among the Neapolitan soldiers at Milan 


essed . Z : : 2 . 19 April, 
sreceived at Naples with great enthusiasm, 
28 April, 


nch general Guyon aids in the suppression 
Bourbonist brigands : 5. eyallle 
gdom recognised by Russia . 3 July, 
li proceeds to Sicily ; at Marsala he calls 


lunteers, giving as his watchword, ‘‘ Rome 
th!”. : ; é ; : 19 July, 
the Hungarians to rise 26 July, 


Z issues a proclamation against his proceed- 
ts tending to rebellion . Peo CAURS 
Denters Catania, and organises a provisional 

enti «. Sl Hate ; FE 1g Aug. 
ocilaimed to be in a state of siege, 2x Aug. ; 
it wnder general Cialdini 22 Aug. 
iissues his last proclamation ; embarks at 
a; la\nds at Melito, in Calabria, and marches 
ls Relggio, 25 Aug. ; La Marmora proclaims 
1of s\iege, 26 Aug. ; Garibaldi and his fol- 
fall ij with the royalists- under Pallavicini, 
romorite, where, after a short skirmish, he 
nded and taken prisoner, 29 Aug. ; removed 
ignano) near Spezzia : . r Sept. 
. Bishoyp sentenced to zo years’ imprison- 
‘mae 6|CU!CUC tC‘ CS;*é‘eS*é~SS!SC pte 
Durando | issues a diplomatic circular con- 
ag Garibaldi’s proceedings, yet asserting 
cessity of ‘the Italian government possess- 
ome ae. : : : ; 10 Sept. 
iption in England. enables professor Part- 
of King’s College, London, to go to Garibaldi, 


: f 19 Sept. 
‘Maria Pia married by proxy to the king of 
al 27 Sept. 


‘Lissues a rhetorical appeal to the English 


29 


39 


”° 


nation, urging its intervention for the cause of 
liberty ; ; ; i - - 28 Sept. 
Inflammatory manifesto addressed to the people of 
Italy by Joseph Mazzini . : ‘ . Sept. 
Amnesty granted to Garibaldi and his followers, 
Oct. 
Sharp reply of M. Drouyn de Lhuys to Danae 
note : A 3 3 5 - 8 Oct. 
End of state of siege in Naples and Sicily . 17 Oct. 
Disorderly encounter between Italians and Austrians 
on the banks of the Po : ; . 1 Novy. 
Father Passaglia and 10,000 (out of 80,000) Italian 
priests sign a declaration against the temporal 
authority of the pope . : ; : . Nov. 
Garibaldi removed to Pisa, g Noy. ; ball extracted 
from his foot by Zanetti . é : - 23 Nov. 
Meeting of parliament ; determined opposition to 
Rattazzi, 18 Nov. ; he resigns 3 
New ministry formed by Farina i : 
It declines further negotiations with France on the 
Roman question . : : 5 18 Dec. 
Commercial treaty with France signed . 17 Jan. 
Farina resigns ; Minghetti succeeds - 24 March, 
Grand Cavour canal for irrigation of Piedmont 
opened. . - 3 i - 1 June, 
Income tax bill passed : ; . July, 
Tristany and other bandits captured . July, 
Commercial treaty with Great Britain signed, 
- og, 
Death of Farina : : : : Q Sent. 
Several bandits captured on board the French ship 
Aunis ; given up to France, July ; restored to Italy, 
12 Sept. 
The army of Piedmont (50,000) consolidated by Te 
Marmora and expanded into the “‘army of Italy” 
(250,000) . : : ‘ Ns ; : Oct. 
The king visits Naples ; reviews National Guard, &e. 
11-17 Nov. 
General election ; triumph of the moderate party, 
Jan. 
Garibaldi’s visitto England amidst much enthusiasm, 
April 
Franco-Italian convention signed (French ea to 
quit Rome in two years [from 6 Feb. 1865], 
Florence to be the capital of Italy, &c.), 
; ave, 15 Sept. 
Riots at Turin in consequence ; many persons killed 
by the military . : : : . 21-22 Sept. 
Minghetti and his colleagues blamed ; resigned ; a 
ministry formed by La Marmora . 24 Sept. 
Garibaldi denounces the convention to Oct. 
Desperate state of the finances announced by Sella, 
the minister; he proposes stringent remedies, 
Nov. 
Railway from Turin to Florence opened . 4 Nov. 
The convention approved by the chamber of depu- 
ties, 19 Nov. ; by the senate (after an able speech 
by Cialdini, 6 Dee.) . : : - 9 Dec. 
Decree for transfer of the capital published, rz Dec. 
Prince Humbert resides at Naples . : . Dee. 
Stated that 346 brigands had been killed in action : 
453 taken in action, and 132 surrendered ; about 
300 remain to be tracked; many pretend to be 
subjects of the ex-king Francis II. of Naples, 
Dec. 
Demonstration against the king at Turin, 30 J ine f 
he goes to Florence . c c ; - 3 Feb. 
Amnesty for political offences published ; brigandage 
in the Neapolitan and Roman states increasing, 
: . March, 
Fruitless negotiations with the pope by Vegezzi 
respecting the position of bishops, 


9 Dee. 


April to July, 

The king and court proceed to Florence, 13 May : 
he opens the Dante festival, the 6ooth anniversary 
of the poet’s birth . é © : - 14 May, 
Mr. Moens, a British subject, seized and retained 
by brigands : 3 3 : ; 15 May, 
45 monks and others arrested at Salerno on charge 
of a Bourbonist conspiracy . - - 12 June, 
Inauguration of a national rifle meeting at Florence ; 
the king fires the first shot ; 18 June, 
Numerous atrocities committed hy brigands ; Giar- 
dullo and 8 brigands captured Ig June, 
The kingdom recognised by Spain - June, 
Mr. Moens released after a ransom of soool. had 
been paid. : : : : 26 Aug. 
Bank of Italy established . } “i -7 Noy. 


1862 


3° 


” 


ITALY. 


462 


ITALY. 


French troops leaving Italy ; general election, the 
moderate party predominate : 3 . Nov. 
The new parliament meets at Florence . 18 Nov. 
Serious financial deficiency ; heavy taxation pro- 
posed, 13 Dec. ; much dissatisfaction ; the minis- 
ters resign, 21 Dec. ; anew ministry formed under 
La Marmora. eax Deg: 
Death of the patriot and soldier, Massimo D’Azeglio, 
15 Jan. 
Formation of the ‘‘Consorzio Nazionale,” a public 
subscription for reducing the national debt, 


27 Feb. 

Massacre of Protestants at Barletta, Naples ; attri- 
buted to priests. : 4 ° zg March, 
Alliance with Prussia . é 12 May, 
Volunteers numerously enlisted 7 June, et seq. 
War declared against Austria. “ 18 June, 
New ministry formed under Ricasoli - 2oJune, 


Royal manifesto to the people. zo June, 
The army, headed by the king, erosses the Mincio, 
23 June ; defeated at Custozza. - 24 June, 
Venetia ceded to France by the emperor of Austria, 
3 July, 


Fruitless conflicts; the volunteers under Gari- 


baldi defeated at Monte Suello 4 July, 
Bill for suppression of monasteries a confiscation 
of property passed 7 July, 


Cialdini crosses the Po, and enters Venetia, 8 July, 
Naval battle near Lissa ; Italians defeated by Aus- 

trians (Re d’Italia and Palestro blown up), 20 July, 
The Italians beaten at Versa; the last conflict, 


26 July, 

Armistice for four weeks signed . . . 12 Aug. 
Volunteers disbanded ; Garibaldi retires to Caprera, 
15 Aug. 

Treaty of peace with Austria signed at Vienna, 
3 Oct: ratified. i 12 Oct. 
Court constituted at Florence to tr Vv ‘admiral Persano 
for neglect of duty at battle of Lissa > aL Oct: 
The Austrians retire from Peschiera, 9 Oct. ; 
Mantua, ro Oct.; Verona, 16 Oct. ; Venice, 
17 Oct. 


General Menabrea pays to count Mensdorff a sum 
of money, and receives the iron crown of Italy, 


rr Oct. 

National loan freely subscribed az Oct. 
Plebiscitum in Venetia ; for annexation with Italy, 
641,758 ; against, 69 21 Oct. 


This result reported, aa the i iron crown presented 
to the king at Turin . 4Nov. 
The king enters Venice, 7 Nov. : visits Pokohies 
M antua, &e. s Noy. 
Circular of Ricasoli to the prefects, recommending 
industrial development and commerce, for bidding 
agitation, and enjoining neutrality regarding Rome. ; 
15 Nov. 
Letter from Ricasoli to the clergy recommending a 
free church in a free state : E . 26 Noy. 
Persano committed for trial ; examination begins, 
rt Dec. 
Parliament opened by the king, who declares that 
“Ttaly is now restored to herself”. 15 Dee. 
Sig. Tonello received by the pope, 15 Dec. ; many 


bishops return to their dioceses : DEG; 
Persano acquitted of cowardice at Lissa. 30 Jan. 


Government proposal for investing part of the 
property of the religious. bodies for support of 
clergy (‘‘ Free Church and Ecclesiastical Liquida- 
tion bill”) brought forward : all. 

Great reduction in the army (to 146, 000) ordered, 

Jan. 

Defeat of the ministry on question of the right of 
public meetings in Venetia, rz Feb. ; parliament 
dissolved : A oP ere Rep: 

-Ricasoli reconstructs his ministr VTP, 17 Feb. 

The pope accepts Italian help to suppress brigandage, 

March, 

Elections give a majority for government | March, 

Resignation of Ricasoli, 5 April ; a ministry formed 
by “Rattazzi ; 4 8 April, 

Persano condemned ; degraded and dismissed the 
service for disobedience, incapacity, and negli- 
gence ; 15 April, 

Treaty of commerce with Austria signed at Florence, 

23 April, 

Public funeral of the patriot Carlo Poerio 1 May, 

Italy joins in the conference at London. respecting 
the Luxemburg question. = 7-11 May, 


1865 


> 


29 


1866 


9? 


99 
29 


> 


be 


9 


9 


”? 


> 


o> 


ted 


? 


” 
” 
”” 
a? 


” 
” 


> 


” 


>”? 


”? 


National financial embarrassments; the 
gives up part of his civil list; proposed 
of church lands, and reduction ‘of sit Na 


May, e 
17,200,000l. advanced for church lands by i 
and others of Paris .. 2 - ] 
Church property bill passed 5 : d 


Garibaldi, about to enter the Roman territory 
volunteers, captured by Italian governme; 
Sinalunga (or Asinalunga) and sent to Alessanc 

238 

Sent to Caprera, 27 Sept. ; escapes to Leg 
and is sent back : «oe 

Bands of Garibaldians invade Roman territorie 

Sept.- 

Garibaldi escapes from Caprera : . sé 5 

Embarkation of French troops at Toulon, suspen 
by the resignation of Rattazzi and his minis 

. Sox 

Cialdini tries to form a ministry in vain, 21-25 ( 

Garibaldi at Florence announces an expedi 
against Rome = 3 22 | 

The French minister Moustier's ‘cireular aga 
the invasion . j . 25it 

Garibaldians defeated at Viterbo . : 25 ( 

Enter Roman territories ; defeat papal irooeae | 
take Monte Rotondo = - 26,278 

Menabrea’s ministry formed ; proclamation of | 
tor-Emmanuel against the Garibaldian i invas 

27 ( 

Riots at Naples, Turin, Pavia, and other oe 
suppressed. 26-28 Oct. YS 

French army arrives at Civita Vecchia, 28 Oct.; 
brigades enter Rome . 30 ‘ 

Royal Italian troops enter papal territory ; Me 
brea’s justificatory circular ; suppression of j ins 
rectional committees in Italy : +» 3a0 

De Moustier’s reply . IN 

Garibaldi defeated at Mentana, 3 Nov.; Tebrealinl i 
Italy with his son; captured and sent to V 


ignano, gulf of Spezzia : ° .) aa 
Fiery manifesto of Mazzini . : » isa 
Garibaldi sent to Caprera . 3 . 25 N 
French proposal of a European conference 
Roman question discussed . = 9 Nov.-D 


French troops left Rome for Civita Veteuinn 3D 
Meeting of parliament; judicious firmness; 
amnesty for Garibaldians proclaimed . 5 D 
Long army debate ; vote against the ministry (. 
to. 199); Menabrea resigns . . |e 
His ministry reconstituted . 5 Ji 
M. Cambray Digny’s financial statement : gr 


deficit ; a grist tax proposed . f . 2rdi 
Exculpatory | letter of La Marmoraissued  . F¥% 
Government financial measures announced ‘FY 


New order of knighthood, the ‘Crown of Ital; 

constituted : F 20 F¢ 
Grist tax adopted after 21 days’ debate . 1 Ap 
Enthusiastic reception of the crown prince of Pruss 


20, 21 Apt 

Marriage of prince Humbert to his cousin Mi 

gherita at Turin : Z 22 Aj 
Frightful atrocities committed by brigands 

south Italy . x April, Mé 

Grist tax adopted by the senate . - dun 


Arrangement made for debt of the late pa 
vinces 30 
Governnenttobacco ‘monopoly ordered to be farme 
resignation of the ministers, Lanza and ra 
8 Au 
Long continued rain; dreadful inundations in # 
Alpine regions ; great storm £ . ja Bef 
Meeting of chamber of deputies; Garibaldi t 
draws 
Ministerial victory respecting the grist an tl 
chambers : 26 Jai 
Thomas, duke of Genoa, entered a pupil y Haire 
(see Spain, 1870) A 
Circular of Menabrea against the coun vil at a9 


m 


Victor-Emmanuel Ferdinal , son of | prince fia 
bert, born at Naples. . 11 No 
Serious illness and recovery o! the king, whe No 

Offered resignation of Menabrd., about ar 
ya 


Cialdini and Sella unable to form a min 
Dee. ; Lanza and Sella suevweed . 

Gcumenical council at Rorne (see Rome, Canal 
opened . ‘ a ae Ty z F F 8 De 


ITALY. 


463 


A PASI 


ican risings in Pavia and other places quelled, 
about 24 March, 

ity in the Franco-Prussian war announced, 
ly, additional armaments ordered . 4 Aug. 
_ arrested at Palermo and sent to Gaéta, 
14 Aug. 
3s mission of prince Napoleon to obtain help 
rance 4 : : . 21-25 Aug. 
r note from the government recounting the 
e of all attempts tu conciliate the pope since 
-and proposing favourable terms 29 Aug. 
vessel Orénoque placed at Civita Vecchia on 
fofthe pope . : i : AI o 
tful letter from the king to the pope, 
icing the occupation of Rome necessary to 
a " 3 ; ; : % 8 Sept. 
lian troops enter the papal territories (see 
); occupy Viterbo and other places, r2 Sept. 
| Bixio marches towards Rome, 18, 19 Sept. 
short resistance, the Italians under General 
na enter Rome. [Fordetails see Rome. ]20Sept. 
te in papal territories: for union with the 
lom of Italy (out of 167,548 voters) 133,68: ; 
St 1507 . bi 2 : F : 2 Oct. 
ig receives the result of the plébiscite, 8 Oct. 
incorporated with Italy by royal decree, 
al La Marmora governor é 9 Oct. 
of La Marmora at Rome as viceroy ; reported 
tion in Nice for reunion with Italy or 


1omy : 4 ; : : ; Oct. 
e and death of Pilone, a great Bourbonist 
nd chief , F 14 Oct. 


ding Mazzini F : 5 : 16 Oct. 
atic circular announcing the occupation of 
e as the capital of Italy em LOC 
provinces united into one, with five sub- 


ctures . ‘ ‘ f : 19 Oct. 
rial changes completed 2 30° Oct, 
li retires into private life ; about 14 Nov. 


us, duke of Aosta, the king’s second son, 
ed king by the Spanish cortes 16 Nov. 
ms favourable to the government; all the 
sters elected . = : about 28 Nov. 
nent meets ; the king declares Rome to be 
apital of Italy . F r . 5 Dec. 
ntroduced for the transfer of the capital and 
preservation of the pope’s rights, about 


to Dee. 
nis tunnel completed . “ . 25 Dec. 
nundation ; the king visits Rome 31 Dec. 


mate vote the transfer of the capital from 
mee to Rome (94—39) 26 Jan. 
ng and ministers remove to Rome, 1, 2 July, 


th is inaugurated as the capital 3 July, 
rliament opened there by the king 27 Nov. 
whic conference at Rome 18 Dee. 
( Mazzini dies at Pisa . - to March, 
ms favourable to the liberals Aug. 


‘mundations in the valley of the Po, &c., loss 
‘e and of much property ; much saved by the 


tions of the military : : , Oct. 
ition to the income-tax in the assembly ; 
wity for government (144—116) . Dee. 


sorrow at the death of Napoleon III., 9 Jan. 
osals for monument in Milan . dan. 
aling with the religious establishments at 
‘e introduced é é : April, 
iza-Sella ministry resign; but resume office at 
vequest of the king = 5 about 4 May, 
of Alessandro Manzoni . > . 22 May, 


of Urbano Rattazzi ; x - s June, 
vr expulsion of Jesuits passed . 25 June, 


Jesuits. 
and Sella resign, 26 June ; aministry formed 
finghetti E (i wae tO}d LLY, 
ng’s visit to Vienna, 17 Sept. ; to Berlin, 
22-26 Sept. 
nents to Cavour at Turin inaugurated Pe the 
ies ? < 5 F : ; - 8Nov. 
‘ing opens parliament with congratulatory 
Ghia r i 3 A ‘ Mere Nov: 
my of San Luca replaced by a new academy, 
Jan. 
jal festival on the 25th anniversary of the 
;Saccession . . 23 March, 


Minghetti ministry defeated ona finance bill; their 
resignation not accepted by the king 24 May, 
Accoltellatori (secret assassinating societies) re- 
ported in Ravenna and other places, Sept.-Oct. 
About 80 secret extortioners (see Camorra) in 
Naples seized and transported . Sept.-Oct. 
Teodali, a papal chamberlain, seized by brigands, 
ransomed for 2000l.  . . - about 8, 9 Oct. 

The Orénoque (French) sails from Civita Veechia 
13 Oct. 

Jesuits ordered to quit their establishments 
t5 Oct. 
Result of elections in support of government, So: 
The Camorra, Maffei, and Brigantaggio (terrorist 
secret societies) prevalent in south Italy 
Garibaldi declines a sum of money (3500/.) voted to 
him : 0 : é / A, elie BYFo. 
He enters Rome amid great excitement, takes his 
seat in the chamber of deputies, and takes the 
oath to the king 2 ‘ : 
Accepts the sum voted and devotes it to improve- 
ment of the Tiber, &e. Z : . «m2 Feb. 
The emperor of Austria and king of Italy meet at 
Venice f 2 : = eee or 7 aL ril 
Treaty of commerce with Great Britain, to expire 
26 June, 1876, announced P . June, 
Synod of Italian Catholic church (which see) held 
at Naples 3 : A - : Ae, 
Elections of parish priests declared valid in opposi- 
tion to the bishops : July-Aug. 
Michel-Angelo féte at Florence ; sur2isepte 
Italian Catholic congress, blessed hy the pope, 
meets at Florence; scanty attendance,22-25 Sept. 
Visit of the emperor of Germany to Milan; warinly 
received by the king and people . - 18-23 Oct. 
Minghetti ministry defeated on the budget,18 Mar. : 
resign . : : : : : 1g March, 
Agostino Depretis forms a cabinet March, 
The Duwilio, great iron-clad, launched at Castella- 
mare, in presence of the king . ’ . 8 May, 
Discovery of a ‘‘ black book” in the home-oftice, re- 
cording misdeeds of many officials, &c. ; gives 
much offence ‘ : ‘ ° . June. 
Italian geographical society’s expedition in Africa ; 
ill-treated at Zeila ; the khedive informed July, 
Marchese Mantegazza tried for forging the signa- 
tures of the king and prince Humbert on bills 
aud letters to obtain money ; confessed, but re- 
fused to disclose name of associate or instigator, 
18 Aug. ; sentence, 8 years’ penal servitude 

31 Aug. 

Elections; great majority for Depretis ministry, 
about 6 Nov. 
Maria Vittoria, duchess of Aosta, ex-queen of Spain, 
aged 28, dies, greatly lamented 5 - 8 Nov. 
Parliament opened by the king a . 20 Nov. 
Discovery near Verona of above 50,000 coins of Gal- 
lienus and others, chiefly bronze ; 
Bill for repressing clerical abuses adopted by the 
deputies ; the pope expresses great displeasure in 
his circular to foreign powers, 2x March; the 
bill rejected by the senate we 7a Mays 
Antonelli Case—Countess Loreta Lambertini claims 
property of her alleged father, cardinal Antonelli; 
resisted by his brothers, 30June; trial; her case 
not proved ; A - : - 6 Dee. 
Ministerial changes { « . about tz Nov. 

Monument at Mentana (which see) inaugurated, 
25 Nov. 
Resignation of the ministry, 15 Dec.; Depretis 
re-forms his ministry (Nicotera replaced by 
Crispi) A A ; : ; - 16-26 Dee. 
Father Curci (see Jesuits) publishes ‘‘ Dissidio Mo- 
derno fra la Chiesa e l’Italia,” against the pope’s 
temporal power . > < 4 , SE Wes 
Death of La Marmora, aged 74, 5 Jan. ; death of 
king Victor Emmanuel II., 9 Jan. ; his funeral ; 
procession 2 miles long; buried in the Pantheon, 
Rome : . ‘ - : : - «17. Jan; 
Death of pope Pius IX. 7 Feb.; election of Leo 
XIII ; ; : - 20Feb. 
permitted to appear in 


Antonelli Case—the countess 
court: the case deferred . A Feb. 
Resignation of the Depretis ministry . 10 March, 
Cairoli forms a liberal ministry, Corti foreign mi- 

nister ; hew men Y A F - 23 March, 
Seismet Doda, finance minister, announces probable 
surplus. . t - June, 


9) 


1874-5 


1874 


24 Jan. 1875 


9 


2? 


1876 


o> 


3? 


2? 


2? 


39 


Jan. 1877 


” 


9 


2? 


>? 


>> 


1878 


s \7 
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eo 


ITALY. 


Dandolo, largest Italian ironclad, launched at 
Spezzia, in presence of the king ro July, 
Popular discontent at the Berlin treaty ; desire for 
acquiring Trent and Trieste ; cry of ‘‘ Italia irre- 
denta!” meetings at Rome, &c. about 21 July, 
Death of Giorgio Pallavicino, senator, patriot, friend, 
of Cavour, aged Sau " - es AUL, 
David Lazzaretti, se se saint, ” a peasant, aged 48, 
founder of areligious socialistic sect in 1368, with 
12 apostles, &c., and creed somewhat protestant ; 
proposed to erect seven hermitages ; marched to- 
wards Arcidosso, in Tuscany, with between two 
and three thousand followers; David, clad in a 
half-regal, half-pontifical costume, proclaiming 
the Christian republic, resisted dispersion by the 
police, who, when fired on, fired and killed David 
and one of his followers ; these retired, carrying 
off David’s body : 
Ministerial crisis ; resignation of Corti and others, 
1g Oct.; of all the Cairoli ministry a uzziOCts 
Sig. Cairoli reconstitutes the ministry é as Oct. 
‘Attempted assassination of the king at Naples by 
Giovanni Passanante, an internationalist, aged 29 5 
the king and Cairoli, the minister, slightly 
wounded : 8 Noy. 
“Pietro Barsanti” Clubs (in memor y of a Seca 
executed for gross insubordination a few years 
ago) become prominent ; oppose ministry, 
autumn, 
The Cairoli ministry defeated on vote of confidence 
(263-189), 11 Dee. ; resign 12 Dec. 
Sig. Depretis’s ministry takes office g Dec. 
Passanante condemned to death at Naples, 7 aed : 
to perpetual imprisonment (by the king),29 March, 
Antonelli case: the countess Lambertini’s appeal 
rejected . sare iilys 
Government defeated on the gr ist bill (251- een re- 
signs 3 July, 
Sig. “Cairoli forms a ministry 8- Ai July, 
New clerical conservative party issues a manifesto, 
r2 Aug. 
“¢ Res Italice”’ pamphlet (see Italia Irredenta), Aug. 
The followers of Lazzaretti tried and acquitted, 
12 Nov. 
Cairoli ministry reconstructed 18-24 Nov. 
First publication of ‘‘ Aurora,” a papal daily news- 
paper, at Rome = oer Jane 
Parliament opened by the king; relief of taxation 
promised 7 Feb. 
Majority in chamber against ministers, 17 po its 
resignation not accepted by the king, 29 April ; 
dissolution of the chamber 2 May, 
Elections : absolute majority for the Cairoli minis: 
try ; parliament meets . 26 May, 
Cordigliani, a half-mad tailor, condemned to im: 
prisonment for throwing paving-stones at a group 
of deputies (25 June) . ‘ 26 Aug. 
Celebration of capture of Rome by Italians in 1870, 
20 Sept. 
Italia, great ironclad, launched at Castellamare, 
29 Sept. 
Garibaldi (and his son Menotti) resign as deputies 
on account of the imprisonment of his son-in-law, 
gen. Canzio, for republican manifestations, 27 
Sept. ; Garibaldi goes to Genoa, Oct.; Canzio re- 
leased. =) srouOGE: 
Col. John Whitehead, “ Garibaldi’s deacpneee Ss 
dies, aged 69 1 Nov. 
Resignation of Cairoli and his cabinet, 8 Apes re- 
turn to office ; censured on account ‘of the Tunis 
BiaIT Sls. : SPEC EADIE, 
The Cairoli ministry again resign : 
M. Depretis forms a ministry y> 
Father Curci publishes ‘‘ New Italy and Old Zealots, * 
J une, 
The king and queen warmly received at Vienna, 
28-31 Oct. 
The government complain of Vatican intrigues 
about 28 Dec. 
Death of Lanza, General Medici patriot, died 
Mar. 
Opening of St. Gothard railway from Lucerne to 
Milan - 20, 21 May, 
Death of Garibaldi at Caprera deeply lamented 
2 June 
Buried there in the presence of thousands 8 J une, 
Parliament dissolved 4 Oct. 
Destructive floods in North Italy bg Fike Oct, 


18 Aug. 


464 


ITALY. 


Elections in favour of the ministry about 28 0 
First reform parliament opened by King Humt 
22N 

Death of the duke of Sermoneta . ; nee 
Demonstrations against Austria on. account 
execution of Oberdank for threatening - 


emperor's life 5 : 20-22 D 
International fine art exhibition opened at Ro 
21d 


Specie payments resumed 2 Ap 
Lepanto, Italian built iron-clad launched at L 
horn; the king present . 5 7M 
The four-hundredth anniversary of Raphael’ A bi 
celebrated at Rome . 28 
Confidence in the Depretis ministry voted (348-2 


it resigns, andreturns . - 25, 26M 
New important treaty with Great Britain Be. 
5 Ju 


About 50 persons perish by fire in a thea 
Dervio, near Como . 24 Ju 
King Victor Emmanuel’s body sarhover to the F 
theon 5 Jan.; thousands of pilgrims visit his to 
up to A ard 
Death of Sig. Sella, great financial minister, 14M 
Resignation of the Depretis ministry, 20 Mé 
reconstituted : 22 Mar.-10 Ap 
Discussion respecting the sale of the Fropaga 
property at Rome . Ap 
National exhibition at Turin opened by the ki 
26 April, closed . : 20 N 
Fifth ironclad launched at Castellamare J 
Twenty-one new members added to the Sen 
28 N 
Total number of soldiers in the army, 2,113, 


I 
Navy consisted of 112 vessels afloat or build 
rd 
Heavy snow storms in Piedmont, near Mont Ce1 
many avalanches; many villages destroyed; yv 
great loss of life . 4 16-28 J 
Expedition to Assab to avenge the massacre 
Guiletti and Bianchi. : 
Tronclad Castelfidardo arrived at Beilul . " 9g J 
The ministry determine to assist Great Britain 


the Soudan . .- i 
Italian flag hoisted at Massowah (see Souda 
6k 


Additional expeditions sent to the Red Sea. F 
KINGS OF ITALY. 


476. Odoacer, king of the Heruli, invades It 
becomes king, conquered and slain by 

493. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, an able 
He put to death the philosophers Boét! 
Symmachus, falsely accused, about 525. 

526. Athalaric, his grandson, dies of the plague 

534. Theodatus elected ; assassinated. 

536. Vitiges elected. 

540. Theodebald (Hildibald) elected ; assassina 

541. Totila, or Badiula, a great prince ; killed - 
against the imperial army under Narses. 

552. Theias falls in battle. 

Italy subject to the eastern empire till 

568. Alboin, king of the Lombards, with a hug 
army, conquers Italy ; poisoned by | 
Rosamond, for compelling her to drink’ 
of a cup formed of her father’s skull. 

573- Cleoph; assassinated. 

575- Autharis ; poisoned. 

sor. Agilulph. 

615. Adaloald ; poisoned. 

625. Arioald. 

636. Rotharis; married the widow of Arioal| 
lished a code of laws. 

652. Rodoald WSC? assassinated. 

653. Aribert I. (uncle) 

661. Bertharit and Godebert (sons) ; dethnoute: 

662. Grimoald, duke of Benevento. 

671. Bertharit re-established. 

686. Cunibert (son). 

zoo. Luitbert; dethroned by 

zor. Ragimbert. 


»,  Aribert IT. (son). 


712. Ansprand elected. 
»,  uitprand (son), a great prince, and a fav 
the church. 
744. Hildebrand (nephew) ; deposed. 


_ ; Rachis, duke of Friuli, elected ; became a! 


a 
irae 
ee 
ws 


ITALY. 


Astolph (brother). 

Desiderius (Didier), quarrelled with the pope 
Adrian, who invited Charlemagne into Italy, by 
whom Desiderius was deposed, and an end put 
to the Lombard kingdom. 

Pepin or Carloman (son of Charlemagne). 

Bernard. 

Lothaire (son of Louis le Débonnaire). 


EMPERORS, 


Charles the Bald. 
Carloman. 
Charles the Fat. 
Berenger I. 
“5 and Guy. 
= and Lambert. 
ae and Rudolph of Burgundy. 


Hugh of Provence. 

Lothaire IT. 

Berenger II. and Adalbert his son ; deposed in 961 
by the emperor Otho the Great, who added Italy 
to the German empire. 


MODERN KINGS OF ITALY. 


Napoleon I. proclaimed kiug of Italy, 18 March ; 
crowned at Milan, 26 May ; abdicated, 1814. 

Victor-Emmanuel II. (of Sardinia, which see), born 
14 March, 1820; declared king of Italy by the 
parliament, 17 March, 1861; died 9 Jan. 1878. 

Humbert (son), born 14 March, 1844; married his 


465 


IVRY. 


cousin Margherita (born 20 Nov. 1851), 22 April, 
1868. ' 

Heir: Victor-Emmanuel (son), prince of Naples, 
born rr Nov. 1869. 


ITHACA, kingdom of Ulysses, see Ionian 
Isles. It was explored by Dr. Schliemann, in 1878 ; 
few discoveries being made. 


ITINERARIES. The Roman Itinerarium 
was a table of the stages between important places. 
The ‘‘Itineraria Antonini,’ embracing the whole 
Roman empire, usually ascribed to the emperor 
Aurelius Antonius, and his successors, A.D. 138-180, 


was probably based upon the survey made by order 


of Julius Cesar, 44 B.c. The ‘‘Itinerarium 
Hierosolymitanum”’ was drawn up for the use of 
the pilgrims about A.D. 333. 

IVORY was brought to Solomon from Tarshish, 
about 992 B.c. (I Kings x. 22). The colossal statues 
of Jupiter, Minerva, &c., by Phidias, were formed 
of ivory and gold, 444 B.c. Ivory tusk, 7 feet long, 
sent by the Zulu king Cetywayo to lord Chelms- 
ford, as a token of peace, summer, 1879. 


IVRY (near Evreux, N.W. France). Here 
Henry IV. totally defeated the due de Mayenne, 
and the League army, 14 March, 1590. 


neh Ns | 


J. 


J ACOBINS. 


JAMAICA. 


J was distinguished from I by the Dutch scholars 
of the 16th century, and introduced into the alphabet 
by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1550. Dufresnoy. 


JACOBINS, a name given to the Dominicans 
in France, because their first convent was the 
hospital of the pilgrims of St. James (Jacobus), 
at Paris, at the request of pope Honorius III. 
(1216-27). The Jacobin club (first called ‘club 
Breton’) consisted of about forty gentlemen 
and men of letters, who met in the hall of, the 
Jacobin friars, at Paris, in Oct. 1789, to discuss 
political and other questions. Similar societies 
were instituted in all the principal towns of the 
kingdom. The club was closed 11 Nov. 1794. 


JACOBITES, a Christian sect, so called from 
Jacob Baradeus, a Syrian, about 541; see Huty- 
chians.—The partisans of James II. (Latin, 
Jacobus II.) were so named after his expulsion from 
England in 1688. 


JACOBUS, a gold coin, so called from king 
James I. of England, in whose reign it was struck, 
1603-25. 

JACQUARD LOOM, for figured fabrics, in- 
vented by Joseph Marie Jacquard, of Lyons, and 
patented 23 Dec. 1801. 


JACQUERIE, 2a term applied to bands of 
revolted peasants (headed by one Caillot, called 
Jacques Bonhomme), who ravaged France during 
the captivity of king John in 1358, and were quelled 
with much bloodshed. Similar insurrections oc- 
curred in Germany. One was termed the Bundschuh, 
from the large shoe especially worn by peasants, in 
1502; and another termed the Bund (or league) of 
the Poor Conrad, 1514 and 1524, which also cost 
about 100,000 lives, and led to the insurrection of 
the anabaptists. 


JAFFA, a seaport of Syria, celebrated in scrip- 
ture as Joppa, whence Jonah embarked (about 862 
B.c.), and where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead 
(A.D. 38) ; in mythology the place whence Perseus 
delivered Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by the 
caliph Omar, in 636; by the Crusaders, 1099; by 
Saladin, 1193; by LouisIX., 1252; and by Bonaparte, 
7 March, 1799; the French were driven out by the 
British in June, the same year. Here, according to 
sir Robert Wilson, were massacred 3800 prisoners 
by Bonaparte; but thisis doubted. Jaffa suffered 
by an earthquake in Jan. 1837, when it is said that 
13,000 persons were killed. 


J AGELLONS, adynasty whichat times reigned 
over Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia, 
beginning with Jagellon, duke of Lithuania 
(husband of Hedwig, daughter of Louis of Hungary, 
1384), who became king of Poland as Ladislas III. 
or V. in 1399, and ending with Sigismund II., who 
died in 1572. 

JAINS, see Jeynes. 


JAMAICA, a W. India island, discovered by 
Columbus, 3 May, 1494, and named St. Jago. It 
was conquered from the Spaniards by admiral 
Penn, with land forces commanded by Venables, 
3 May, 1655, and settled soon after. Population in 
I86I, 13,816 whites; 81,074 coloured; 346,374 


blacks; in 1871, 506,154; whites, 13,101; col 
100,346; blacks, 392, 707; in 1881, 585,536. 


An awful earthquake here P : . 2dune 
The Maroons (runaway slaves) permitted to settl 
in the north of the island " 


Desolating hurricanes in . ; - 1722, 1734g0 
In June, 1795, the Maroons rose against the English 
and were not quelled till . - = . March 
Many transported to Sierra Leone . . ‘ 
Slave trade abolished . : is f . r May 
Tremendous hurricane, by which the whole islan 
was deluged, hundreds of houses washed away 
vessels wrecked, and rooo persons drowned, Oct 
Bishopric established : x : 5 p 
Insurrection of the negro slaves ; numerous planta 
tions burnt; the governor, lord Belmore, declare: 
martial law. F ‘ 7 . . 
Emancipation of the slaves , . . 
About 50,000 die of cholerain . A F cs 
In May, 1853, the dissension between the colonia 
legislature and sir Charles Grey, the governor 
occasioned his recall ; his successor, sir H. Barkly 
arrived . : : A ; : » . Oct. 
Bishopric of Kingston established =. + 
Charles Henry Darling appointed governor . 
Edward John Eyre appointed governor July. 
Negro insurrection begins at Morant-bay, by resist 
ing the capture of a negro criminal, 7 Oct. ; the 
court-house fired on; baron Ketelholdt, rev. V. 
Herschell, and others cruelly murdered, and many 
wounded. : ‘: : : : . xz Oct. 
Rebellion spreads, and many atrocities are com. 
mitted; it is suppressed by the energy of the 
governor, the military and naval officers, volun. 
teers, the Maroons, and the loyal negroes, as 
13-24 Oct. 
George Wm. Gordon, a coloured hemp of the 


lion, 21 Oct. ; executed . F 3 23 Oct. 
Paul Bogle executed . » . -« . 24 Oct. 
Numerous executions . Oct. & Nov. 


Sir Henry Storks summoned from Malta, and sent 
to Jamaica, with Messrs. Russell Gurney and John 
B. Maule, as commissioners, to inquire respecting 
the disturbances, and the measures taken in sup- 
pressing them 4 : ‘ - ir Dee. et seq. 

Governor Eyre temporarily suspended ; sir Henry 
Storks arrives in Jamaica. : . . 6 Jan. 

The legislative assembly of Jamaica dissolves itself, 
and abrogates the constitution (which had existed 
200 years) . s s : . . x7 dan. 

1600]. subscribed at Jamaica for defence of gov. 
Eyre . : : ; 4 } 5 Feb. 

Commission opened 23 Jan. ; closed _—. 2x March, 

They receive evidence of the existence of widely 
spread discontent during 1865; they reported that 
439 persons had suffered by martial law ; thatabout 
tooo dwellings had been burnt; that about 600 
(many women) had been flogged; that they con- 
sidered the punishments inflicted excessive, the 
executions unnecessarily frequent, the buming 
the houses wanton; and that they saw no proof 
of Gordon’s complicity in the outbreak, or im 
an organised conspiracy against government, _ 

g April, 

The “ Jamaica Government act” passed in England 

23 March, 

SirJ. P. Grant gazetted governor in room of governor 
Eyre . : ‘ . ‘ 4 . zwduly, 

A “Jamaica Committee,” J. S. Mill, chairman, pro- 
pose prosecution of governor Eyre . . 27 July, 

He arrives at Southampton, 12 Aug. ; welcomed by 
abanquet . F : : ; . « Bias 

A committee for his defence formed . . _ Sept. 

The governor, sir J. P. Grant, promulgates the new 
constitution ; opening of the legislative council 
(consisting of the governor and six a 

I c 


- JAMES’S HALL, ST. 


467 


JAPAN. 


). Ramsay, accused of murder, discharged by 
andjury . ’ “ = : seers Oct, 
rants issued against gov. Eyre, col. Nelson, and 
ut. Brand, Feb. ; the grand jury discharges 
e bills against Eyre, 29 March, and the others, 
zz April, 

jill of indictment for misdemeanor against 
vernor Eyre brought in, 15 May ; discharged by 
and jury . 2 ‘ ‘ 2 June, 
f-justice Cockburn disclaimed agreement with 
ut of justice Blackburn’s charge on the occasion ; 
. almost unexampled case . 8 June, 
lof Phillips v. Eyre (for beating and imprison- 
ent during the rebellion of 1866); Eyre pleaded 
t of indemnity ; verdict for defendant 29 Jan. 
scopal church disestablished . : . 31 Dec. 
eals in England for its support . July, 
ul expenses of Mr. Eyre ordered to be paid, after 
scussion in the commons : . § July, 
y estates in Jamaica offered for sale in the 
mdon papers 5 4 Fs July, 
ining prosperity reported . May, 
Win. Grey appointed governor . March, 
Anthony Musgrave, appointed governor. Novy. 
rard Everard Rushworth, governor, April, 1877 ; 
n. sir Henry W. Norman . A A 7 Oct 
ructive fire at Port Antonio : . 18 Oct. 
oduction of representative government pro- 
sed ; Sir Henry Norman arrives 21 Dec. 
ut public dissatisfaction at the proposals, Feb. 
legislature rejects proposed confederation 
ith Canada é c . ; rr Nov. 


AMES’S HALL, ST., near Piccadilly, 
ted for public meetings, &c., was opened on 
March, 1Be8, with a concert for the benefit of 
Middlesex hospital. Mr. Owen Jones was the 
uitect. The ‘‘ Popular Monday Concerts’”’ here 
an 14 Feb. 1859. 


AMES’S PALACH, ST., &c., London, was 
tt by Henry VIII. on the site of an hospital of 
same name, 1530-6. It has been the official 
n-residence of the English court since the fire at 
itehall in 1698. 


PaRK a marsh till Henry VIII. enclosed and 


1866 


1867 


1868 


1869 
1870 
1872 
1873 
1874 
1876 
1883 
>? 


I 884 


” 


idit outin walks . : ; i : fale LESSO 
‘+h improved by Charles II., who employed Le 
dtre to plant lime-trees, and to lay out ‘‘ the 
all,” for the purpose of playing a game with a 
Ul called a mall . : : : ; - . 1668 
liam III. granted a passage into it from Spring- 
wrdens 1699 


rand display of fireworks took place here at the 
ace, When the pagoda bridge erected here by 
r W. Congreve was burnt . zr Aug. 1814 
park improved by Geo. IV. . A . 1827 et seq. 
enclosure first opened to the public in Jan. 

129: the opening by Carlton-steps in . pecogl 
marble arch at Buckingham-palace removed 

i Cumberland-gate, Hyde-park 29 March, 185t 
iron bridge over the ornamental water con- 

ructed ., 5 . 1857 


AMES’S THEATRE, ST., erected by 
zley for John Braham, the singer; opened 
Jec. 1835. 


ANINA, see Albania. 
ANISSARIES (Turkish iéni tchéri, new 


lers), an order of infantry in the Turkish army; 
‘nally, young prisoners trained to arms; were 
/ organised by Orcan, about 1330, and remodelled 
1is son Amurath I. 1360; their numbers being 
eased by following sultans. In later days they 
merated from their strict discipline, and several 
2s deposed and killed the sultans. During an in- 
‘ection, 14-15 June, 1826, when nearly 3000 of 
n were killed, the Ottoman army was re-orga- 
d by Mahmud II. and a firman was issued on 
une, abolishing the Janissaries, 


ANSENISTS, persons who embraced the 
tines of Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres, who 


| died in 1638. The publication of his ‘* Augustinus,”’ 
1640, in which he maintained the doctrine of free 
grace, kindled a fierce controversy, and was con- 
demned by a bull of pope Urban VIII. in 1642. 
Through the Jesuits Jansenism was condemned by 
Innocent X. in 1653, and by Clement XI., in 1713, 
by the bull Unigenitus. This bull the French 
church rejected. Jansenism still exists at Utrecht 
and Haarlem; see Port Royalists. Loos, abp. of 
Utrecht, died, June, 1873. 


JANUARY derives its name from Janus, an 
early Roman divinity. January was added to the 
Roman calendar by Numa, 713 B.c. He placed it 
about the winter solstice, and made it the first 
month, because Janus was supposed to preside over 
the beginning of all business. In 1751 the legal 
year in England was ordered to begin on I Jan. in- 
stead of 25 March. 


JANUS, TEMPLE OF, at Rome, was erected 
by Romulus, and kept open in time of war, and 
closed in time of peace. During above 700 years 
it was shut only—under Numa, 714 B.c.; at the close 
of the first Punic war, 235 B.c. ; and under Augustus, 
29, 25, and 5 B.c. 


JAPAN, an Asiatic empire, composed of Japan 
or Niphon, and about 3850 isles, with 36,700,110 
inhabitants. It was visited by Marco Polo, the 
Venetian traveller, in the 13th century; and by 
Mendez Pinto, a Portuguese, about 1535 or 1542; 
whose countrymen shortly after obtained per- 
mission to found a settlement. The Jesuit mis- 
sionaries followed, and made a number of 
converts, who sent a deputation to pepe Gregory 
XIII. in 1585; but a fierce persecution of the 
Christians began in 1590, aggravated it is said 
by the indiscreet zeal and arrogance of the Jesuits : 
thousands of the converts suffered death; and the 
Portuguese were utterly expelled, 1637-42. The 
Dutch trade with Japan commenced about 1600 
under severe restrictions, and has since been fre- 
quently suspended; other nations, except Chinese, 
being excluded. The learned Engelbert Kaempfer 
visited Japan in 1690, and published an account of 
it with plates. 


Sir Rutherford Alcock’s ‘‘ Japan,” published - 1863 

Sir Edward J. Reed’s “Japan,” and Miss Isabella 
Bird’s ‘‘ Unbeaten Tracks in Japan,” in : 

An American expedition, under commodore Parry, 
reaches Jeddo, and is favourably received ; but 


1880 


remains only a few days ;: : - &dJuly,.1853 
A treaty of commercial alliance concluded between 

the two countries. 4 : 31 March, 1854 
A similar treaty with Great Britain 14 OCT eS 
With Russia ; 4 A : : . 26 Jan. 1855 
Nagasaki and Hakodadi opened to European com- 

merce : : } : . ; . 1856 
Commercial treaty with Russia . 19 Aug. 1858 


Lord Elgin visits Japan, witha present of a steamer 
for the emperor, and is honourably received, 
July; obtains the treaty of Jeddo, opening 


Japan to British commerce . : 26 Aug. ,, 
The secular emperor dies (aged 36) 16 Sept. ,, 


Mr. (afterwards sir) Rutherford Alcock appointed 
consul-general, Dec. 1858 ; envoy extraordinary, 
a 


Nov. 1859 
A Japanese embassy visits Washington, New York, 
&e., United States - 14 May—3o June, 1860 
Attack on the British embassy at Jeddo; some 
persons wounded . : : 5 July, 1861 
Embassy received at Paris, 13 April; London, June; 
in Holland, Prussia, &e. 6 July—Sept. 1862 


Another attack on the English chargé d'affaires 
frustrated : ‘ : n . 26, 27 June, 
Foreign ministers transfer the residence from Jeddo 
to Yokohama A : : : 27 June, 
Mr. Richardson murdered and his companions 
eruelly assailed by a Japanese noble and his suite, 
14 Sept. 
H H 2 


” 


JAPAN. 


468 


JAVA. 


{Monument erected by Mr. Kurokawa, a Japanese 
gentleman, in honour of Mr. Richardson, 1884.] 
The batteries and vessels of the prince of 
Nagato fire on an English and a French vessel 
at the entrance of the straits of Simonosaki, 
15, 19 Nov. 
Some English, French, and American vessels bom- 
bard his forts and his vessels 15-19 July, 
Reparation demanded ; 100,000l. paid by the govern- 
nent ; the prince of Satsuma resists payment of 
25,000l., his portion ; admiral Kuper enters the 
bay of Kagosima, and is fired wpon ; whereupon he 
bombards the town and burns the prince’s 
steamers ? 5 s > : 15 Aug. 
The Japanese minister announces that the ports 
opened by virtue of the treaties will be closed, 
24 June, 
The prince of Satsuma pays the 25,000. 11 Dec. 
The Japanese government refuse to abide by the 
treaties ; a combined fleet enters the straits of 
Simonosaki, 4 Sept. ; and attacks and destroys 
the Japanese batteries 4 Z - 5, 6 Sept. 
Major Baldwin and lieut. Bird murdered, 20 Nov. ; 
two assassins executed . : : ; Dec. 
Sir Harry Parkes appointed to succeed sir R. 
Alcock as envoy 5 3 4 .. April, 
Treaties with England, France, &c., ratified, 25 Nov. 
Two more ports opened : 5 sb elereiaull: 
Death of the tycoon: his successor said to be 
favourable to foreigners 5 Sept. 
Civil dissensions reported . ‘ F a eeOCe: 
Town of Yokohama and third part of European 
settlement destroyed by fire 26 Nov. 
Jeddo and other places opened to trade, by the 
government : 3 : 3 : 25 April, 
Visit of sir Harry Parkes to the tycoon, Stots Bashi, 
rt May, 
Prince Minbontaiyou, brother of the tycoon, ar- 
rives at Dover, 2 Dec. ; presented to the queen, 
4 Dec. 
Osaka and Niogo opened to European commerce, 
r Jan. 
Insurrection of the Daimios ; rivalry between the 
mnikado and tycoon, Dec. ; foreigners neutral, 
27 Jan.—Feb. 
Japanese outrages on French sailors ; culprits exe- 
cuted, 16 March; further outrages punished, 
23 March, 
The mikado’s troops defeat the tycoon’s, who flies, 
26-30 Jan.; the mikado’s defeated near Jeddo, 
10-17 May, 
After long war and varying success the rebellion 
ends ; the mikado re-established . duly, 
Majority of the mikado proclaimed . : Nov. 
His marriage, 9 Feb. ; another rebellion of the 
tycoon’s partisans : : ; P . Feb. 
Visit of the duke of Edinburgh, 29 Aug. ; received 
by the mikado : ; ; . 22 Sept. 
The tycoon submits to the mikado Dec. 
Great progress of internal improvements, and 
assimilation to European civilisation ; proposed 
establishment of railways, telegraphs, &c. 
Industrial exhibition opened at Kioto to April, 
Destructive fire at Jeddo Z : May, 
Embassy of distinguished Japanese arrives at 
Washington, 4 March: in London . . 17 Aug. 
Pacific mail screw steamer America burnt at Yoko- 
hama ; about 4o killed 4 , 24 Aug. 
First railway (from Yokohama to Shinagawa) 
opened, 12June, to Jeddo; opened by the mikado, 
Oct. 
Japanese ambassadors received by queen Victoria. 
5 Dec. 
English proposed as the national tongue Dee, 
Insurrection, through desire for war with Corea ; 
- soon suppressed F : Feb.-April, 
A successful expedition against Formosa to chas- 
tise savage tribes for massacring Japanese sailors, 
May ; Chinese protest, Aug. ; Japanese withdraw 
(see Formosa), announced re i . Nov. 
Mr. L. Haber, German consul, murdered at Hako- 
dadi, by a fanatic, 8 Aug., executed 26 Sept. 
The Japanese minister received by queen Victoria, 
3 Mar. 
The mikado decrees a new constitution; 2 cham- 
bers, &e. > F 5 % - 14 April, 
The mikado opens a parliament of officials, nomi- 
nated by himself, in Jeddo . » . 20 June, 


1862 
1863 


” 


1868 


1870-71 


1872 


9 


Industrial exhibition . y . ‘ re 
Insurrection of Satsuma and other clans specially 
against the ministry, Feb.; suppression an- 
nounced . i ‘ : ;: ¥ : Sept, 
** Foo Soo,” iron-clad man-of-war, launched at Pop- 
lar, London, Chinese ambassador present, 14 Apl. 
Insurrection suppressed; power of the Daimios 
virtually suppressed ; principals only punished; 
announced . : A . : 13 Oct. 
Progress in Japan: 3744 post-offices ; 22,053,430 
letters, and 7,372,566 domestic newspapers sent 
by post ; 2 railways in operation ; 34 lighthouses ; 
ample religious freedom and virtual free trade 
Okubo, able reforming minister of the interior, 
killed by six men (political motives) . 14 May, 
Scientific works in English, published by Tokio 
university : . : 5 : ey 
Imperial decree convoking a national assembly in 
1890 . A : : $ : - _ 12 Oct. 
53,700 primary schools and compulsory education 
established ‘ : 5 : autumn, 
The Japanese commander in chief with presents 
received by the queen at Windsor 25 Noy. 
Rev. Arthur W. Poole, consecrated Anglican bishop 
of Japan : . ; : : -' 38 Ont 
All Japan to be thrown open to foreign trade, with 
mixed tribunals : ‘ - announced Noy, 
Death of the last Tycoon . . < . April, 
A new order of hereditary nobility instituted Sept. 
The national religion dis-established and freedom 
given to other religions 4 . .  TroNge 
A Japanese village exhibited in London . . . 


REIGNING EMPEROR OR MIKADO. 
Moutz Hito, born 1852; succeeded his father, K 
Tenno, 1867. 


JARGONIUM, a new metal discovered 
professor A. Church in combination with the zi 
of Ceylon. The spectrum was shown by Mr. 
Sorby, 6 March, 1869. 


JARNAC (W. France). On 13 March, 1 
the duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. of Fra 
here defeated the Huguenots under Louis, prin 
Condé, who was killed in cold blood by Montesqu 
The victor (seventeen years of age), on accoun 
his success here and at Moncontour, was eh 
king of Poland. 

A Jarnac Stroke ; a term of opprobrium, is derived 
from the Seigneur de Jarnac, who, in a duel with 

La Chataigneraye, for a great insult, disabled 


his antagonist by an unexpected wound in the 
ham 


JASMINE or JESSAMINE (Jasminum 9; 
nale), native of Persia, &c., was brought hither f 
Circassia, before 1548. The. Catalonian jasmine & 
from the East Indies, in 1629, and the yellow Lx 
jasmine in 1656. 


JASSY, the capital of Moldavia, freque 
occupied by the Russians; taken by them in I 
1769, and 1828. <A treaty between them and 
Turks was signed here, 9 Jan. 1792. 


JAVA, a large island in the Eastern Ar 
pelago, is said to have been reached by the Po 
guese in IS1I, and by the Dutch in_ 1595. 
latter, who now possess it, built Batavia, — 
capital, about 1619; see Batavia. The atroa 
massacre of 20,000 of the unarmed natives by 
Dutch, sparing neither women nor children 
possess their effects, took place in 1740. . 
island capitulated to the British, 18 Sept. i 
The sultan was dethroned by the English, and 
hereditary prince raised to the throne, in Ju 
1813. Java was restored to Holland in 1814. 
English promoted free labour instead of fore 
but the Dutch reverted to the old system, and 
1830 abolished free labour, introducing the ““¢ 
ture system,” by which the government cont 
the cultivation of the land and buys the produce 
its own price. In Aug. 1860, the Swiss sold 


. 


P 


- 


JAWAKIES. 


aided by the natives, mutinied, but were soon 


eed, and many suffered death. The diminished | 


verity of Java led to warm discussions in the 
h chamber in 1866. 

has a great many volcanoes, and has frequently 
n devastated by eruptions and earthquakes ; those 
5 Jan. 1699, 31 Oct. 1876, and 10 June, 1877, were 
y destructive. 

and neighbouring isles desolated by a series of 
lent eruptions from about two-thirds of its 46 vol- 
oes, beginning with Krakatoa, casting up immense 
tities of lava, mud, ashes, and fragments of rocks, 
kening the air for about 50 square miles. Moun- 
is were split up, some disappeared, and many new 
ters were formed. Rumbling noises heard 25 Aug., 
lent eruptions of Krakatoa 26 Aug. There was 
ch submarine disturbance, and an immense “ tidal 
ye” destroyed Anjer and other places, 27 Aug. 
: lighthouses in the straits of Sunda were swallowed 
and new volcanic peaks appeared, rendering navi- 
ion highly dangerous. Loss of life estimated at 
900, 25-28 Aug. Great atmospheric, oceanic, and 
strical disturbances for thousands of square miles. 
under Sun, 1883. 


\WAKIKS, see India, 1877-8. 
IAN DE LUZ, ST. (S. France, near the 


aees). Soult’s strong position here was taken 
eneral Hill and marshal Beresford, 10 Noy. 


IDDA, the port of Mecca, Arabia. On 15 June, 
the fanatic Mahometans massacred twenty-six 
2 Christian inhabitants, among them the Rag? 
md French consuls and part of their families; 
many fled to the shipping. On the delay of 
xe, commodore Pullen, with the Cyclops, bom- 
idthe town, 25, 26 July. On 6 Aug. eleven of 
ssassins were executed; the ringleaders after- 
3. 


IDDO or YEDDo (the name was changed 
dkio about 1869), the capital of Japan, on 
‘land of Niphon. Here was signed the treaty 
Great Britain, 26 Aug. 1858; see Japan. 5000 
is destroyed by fire, 8 Dec. 1873. 


IH AD, see Jihad. 


iLLALABAD, Afghanistan, defended by sir 
tt Sale from 8 Jan. to 5 April, 1842, when the 
was raised by general G. Pollock, who de- 
ad the fortifications. 


i MAINTIENDRAT, ‘TI will maintain,” 
\otto of the house of Nassau. When William 
same to the throne of England, he continued 
but added ‘‘the liberties of England and the 
stant religion,’’ at the same time ordering 
he old motto of the royal arms, ‘*‘ Diew et mon 
” should be retained on the great seal, 1689. 


\MAPPES (N.W. Belgium), the site of the 
‘itched battle gained by the French republicans 
x Dumouriez), in which 40,000 French troops 

out 19,000 Austrians, who were entrenched 
ods and mountains, defended by redoubts and 
cannon, 6 Noy. 1792. The number killed on 
side was reckoned at 5000. 


“NA and AvEeRsTapT (Central Germany), 
+ two battles were fought, 14 Oct. 1806, be- 
i the French and Prussians. The French were 
anded at Jena by Napoleon, and at Auerstadt 
Voust: the Prussians by prince Hohenlohe at 
‘omer place, and the king of Prussia at the 
» The Prussians were defeated, losing nearly 
) killed and wounded, and nearly as many 
ers, and 200 field pieces; the French lost 
) men. Napoleon advanced to Berlin, and 
. the Berlin decree (which sce). 


469 


} 
| 


. ; ° . 9 
| Greatly benefited by sir Moses Montefiore, who 


JERUSALEM. 
JENKINDS’ EAR. An ear of Robert Jenkins, 


captain of a merchant-vessel, was torn off, with 
many insults, by a Spanish pirate in 1731. He 
appeared before parliament in 1738, when the con- 
vention of the Pardo was severely discussed. 


JENNERIAN INSTITUTION, founded 


1803; see Vaccination. 


JEPHTHAH, Handel’s last oratorio; com- 
posed 21 Jan.—30 Aug. 1751; performed 26 Feb. 1752. 


JERSEY. The chief island of the channel 
archipelago (which includes Guernsey, Sark, Alder- 
ney, &c.), formerly held by the Romans in the 3rd 
and.4th centuries after Christ—Jersey being termed 
Cesarea. The isles were captured by Rollo, and 
thus became an appanage of the duchy of Nor- 
mandy, and wére united to the crown of England 
by his descendant, William the Conqueror. The 
inhabitants of the Channel Islands preferred to re- 
main subjects of king John, at the period of the 
conquest of Normandy by Philip Augustus, and 
while retaining the laws, customs, and (until lately) 
the language of their continental ancestors, have 
always remained firm in.their allegiance to Eng- 
land. Almost every war with France has been 
characterised by an attack on Jersey, the most for- 
midable of which, under the baron de Rullecour, 
was defeated by the English garrison and Jersey 
militia, commanded by major Pierson, 6 Jan. 1781. 
Mr. J. Bertrand Payne, in his ‘‘ Armorial of Jersey,” 
and his ‘‘ Gossiping Guide,’’ has exhaustively treated 
the general and family history of the island. Jersey 
became a place of refuge for MM. Rouher, Baroche, 
Drouyn de Lhuys, and other distinguished French 
imperialists, Sept. 1870. Some of the Trappists 
and other monks expelled from France, settle in 
Jersey, 1880-1. The population of the channel isles 
in 1861 was 90,978; in 1871, 90,563; in 1881, 
87,702. 

JERUSALEM, called also SALEM, 1913 B.C. 
(Gen. xiv. 18). Its king was slain by Joshua, 1451 
B.c. It was taken by David, 1048 B.c., who dwelt 
in the fort, calling it the city of David; see Jews, 
and Holy Places. Population about 28,000. 

The first temple founded by Solomon, ror2 B.C. ; and 

solemnly dedicated on Friday 30 Oct. 1004 

[See under article Jews. ] 
Jerusalem taken by Chosroes the Persian, A.D. 

614; retaken by the emperor Heraclius, 628; by 

the Saracens, 637; and by the Crusaders, when 

70,000 infidels were put to the sword; a new 


kingdom founded 5 C : 15 July, 1099 
The ‘‘assize of Jerusalem,” a code of laws, estab- 
lished by Godfrey of Bouillon, king ILOo 


King Guy defeated at Tiberias, and Jerusalem taken 

by Saladin. : : : ; pe) 2 OCLs 1187 
By the Turks, who drive away the Saracens, 1217 & 1239 
Surrendered to the emperor Frederick II. by treaty, 1228 


Surrendered to the Crusaders. ‘ : ae t243 
Taken by Carismians 2 : - 4 - . 1244 
Taken from the Christians . 1291 
Taken by the Turks . F : a ‘ - 1516 
Held by the French under Bonaparte Feb. 1799 


Jerusalem visited by the prince of Wales, &c., 
31 March, 

Convention for the preservation of the holy sepul- 
chre, signed on behalf of Russia, France, and 
Turkey : 3 . : : : . 5 Sept. 
Jerusalem and the neighbourhood surveyed by a 
party of royal engineers since : Sept. 
Visited by the prince of Prussia, 4 Nov. ; by_the 
emperor of Austria Nov. 


1862 


visited it for the seventh time, when aged go 


CHRISTIAN KINGS. 
Godfrey of Bouillon (styled himself ‘‘ baron of the 
holy sepulchre’’) : ‘ s : “ b 
Baldwin I. . : P ; . . ’ 


& 
i 
‘ . ’ 


q 


“JERUSALEM DELIVERED.” 470 JEWEL ROBBERIES. 
Baldwin II. . 4 é : A 5 - . 1118 | In consequence of the activity of the order on be- 
Fulk of Anjou . 5 ‘ , F : : SPLige half of the papal supremacy, a bill for its expul- 
Baldwin IIL. . : : F i : : 4) 3eRI44 sion from Germany passed by the parliament at 
Amauri (or Almeric) . ; : . ’ we L102 Berlin (131-93), 19 June; promulgated. 5 July, 
Baldwin IV, . 2 : ; s i 4 - . 1173 | The head quarters of the order proposed to be re- 
Sibyl, then his son Baldwin V. : : F . 1185 moved from Rome to Malta . : é. - OCG 
Guy de Lusignan . : ‘ ‘ 5 _ - . 1186 | Expulsion of the Jesuits from Italy, decreed 25 June ; 


Henry of Champagne 
Amauri de Lusignan 
Jeanne de Brienne 4 : : - 1210 
Emperor Frederick IT. . 3 : Fi « 1229-39 
Protestant Bishopric of Jerusalem erected, under the 
protection of Great Britain and Prussia: 
8S. M. 8. Alexander consecrated bishop, 7 Nov. . 1841 
Samuel Gobat, bishop, 1846 ; died 11 May . 1879 
Joseph Barclay, LL.D., consecrated 25 July, 1879 ; 
led ies e ; : 2 : 22 Oct. 1881 
{No successor appointed up to March, 1885.] 


‘‘ JERUSALEM DELIVERED,” the great 
Italian epic, by Tasso, was published in 1580. 


JERVIS’S ACTS, 11 & 12 Vict., cc. 42, 43 


(1848), relate to legal proceedings against criminals. 


JESTER is described as ‘‘a witty and jocose 
person, kept a princes to inform them of their 
faults, and of those of others, under the disguise of 
a waggish story.”” Several of our kings, particu- 
larly the Tudors, kept jesters. Rahere, the 
founder of St. Bartholomew’s priory, West Smith- 
field, London, 1133, is said to have been a court 
jester and minstrel. There was a jester at court in 
the reigns of James I. and Charles I., but we hear 
of no licensed jester afterwards. 


JESUITS. The society or company of Jesus, was 
founded by Ignatius Loyola, a page to Ferdinand V. 
of Spain, subsequently an officer in his army, and 
afterwards canonised. Having been wounded in 
both legs at the siege of Pampeluna, in 1521, he 
devoted himself to theology, and renounced the 
military for the ecclesiastical profession. He dedi- 
cated his life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight; 
made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and on his 
return laid the foundation of his society at Paris, 
16 Aug. 1534. He presented his institutes, in 
1539, to pope Paul III., who made many objec- 
tions ; but Ignatius adding to the vows of chastity, 
poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit sub- 
mission to the holy see, the institution was con- 
firmed by a bull, 27 Sept. 1540. The number of 
members was not to exceed sixty, but that restric- 
tion was taken off by another bull, 14 March, 1543; 
and popes Julius III., Pius V., and Gregory 
granted many privileges. Loyola died 31 July, 
1556. Francis Xavier, and other missionaries, the 
first brethren, carried the order to the extremities 
of the habitable globe, but it met with great opposi- 
tion in Europe, particularly in Paris; see Paraguay 
and Jansenists. The order still exists in many 
European states contrary to the laws. 

The society condemned by the Sorbonne, Paris, 
1554; expelled from France, 1594; re-admitted, 
1604; but after several decrees is totally sup- 
pressed in France and its property confiscated 

Ordered by parliament to be expelled from Eng- 
land, 1579, 1581, 1586, 1602; and by the Catholic 
relief act in b 3 ¢ : é : eas 

Expelled from—Venice, 1607; Holland, 1708; Por- 
tugal, 1759; Spain . 5 . : 

Abolished by Clement XIV. . 

Restored by Pius VI. . i ‘ é 

Father Pierre J. Beckx, elected general ne 

Expelled from—Belgium, 1818; Russia, 1820; Spain, 
1820, 1835; France, 1831, 1845; Portugal, 1834; 
Sardinia, Austria, and other states, 1848; Italy 
and Sicily . . : : : ; : oe oes 

The chief of the order appeals to the king of Sar- 
dinia for redress of grievances : - of OCR 

Report of the order; total number of Jesuits, 8167: 
in France, 2422; in . 5 ep K | 


tro? 
4 LL07) 


ar J uly, 
7 Aug. 


se 


carried into execution, 20 Oct.—2 Nov. . eh 
Father Curci, orthodox and eloquent, resigned (vir- 
tually expelled) for recommending the pope to 
submit to loss of temporal power, Oct. 1877 ; 
publishes ‘‘il Moderno Dissidio fra la Chiesa e 
Litaliae aaa 3 ; ‘ ‘ : . “Dee 
Submits to the Pope in a humble letter; received 
into favour : 3 : about 16 Oct. 
27 Jesuits’ colleges in France ; 848 teachers 
The order in France dissolved by decree, 30 March, 
Decree for expulsion of Jesuits and other orders 
from France, 30 March ; carried out 30 June, 
A large gathering of Jesuits of all countries at Rome; 
Father Anderledy appointed Vicar-General Sept. 


JESUIT’S BARK, called by the Span 
fever-wood, from the cinchona or chinchona 
discovered, it is said, by a Jesuit, about 1535 
used by the order). Its virtues were not gene 
known till 1633, or 1638, when it cured offeve 
wife of the viceroy (Chinchona) at Peru, bh 
termed pelvis comitisse. It was sold at one p 
for its weight in silver, and was introduced 
France in 1649; and is said to have cured J 
XIV. of fever when he was dauphin. It came 
general use in 1680, and sir Hans Sloane i 
duced it here about 1700. The cinchona p 


largely planted in the Neilgherry hills, Indi 


1861, is said to be thriving greatly, and al: 
Ceylon; see Quinine. 


JESUS CHRIST, the Saviour oF 
WORLD, see Nativity. For his birth see - 
Domini, The following dates are given by ec 
astical writers :— 

Christ’s baptism by John, and his first ministry 

(English Bible) : s 5 : 5 AD. 
He celebrated the last passover, and instituted the 


sacrament on Thursday A F . 2 April, 
Was first crucified on 3 April, at three o’clock in 
the afternoon; arose. ; % ‘ 5 April, 
Ascended to heaven from Mount Olivet 14 May, 


The Holy Spirit descended on his disciples on Sun- 
day, the day of Pentecost . A 2 24 May, 
The divinity of Christ, denied by the Arians, was 
affirmed by the council of Nice . é q 


JEU DE PAUME (the tennis court). 
king having closed the hall of the assembly at 
sailles, the third estate (tiers-état) met in 
place, and swore not to dissolve till a constit 
was established, 20 June, 1789. (It is the su 


as : painting by David.) Commemorated 20 J 
1883. 


JEWELLERY was received by Rebekah 
matriage gift, 1857 B.c. (Gen. xxiv. 53). Plin 
elder says he saw Lollia Paulina (wife of | 
Ceesar, and afterwards Caligula) wearing ornan 
valued at a sum equal to 322,916/. sterling. Ji 
were worn in France by Agnes Sorel in 1434, 
encouraged in England about 1685. The stat 
of gold for jewellery, except wedding rings, 
lowered by parliament in 1854. 


JEWEL ROBBERIES, see Zrials, 1871, 


The countess of Dudley’s jewels (value 15,0001.) 
stolen at Great Western Railway Station 12 Dee. 
Messrs. Williams, of Hatton Garden, London, 
robbed of 25,o00/. worth . A . 25 March, 
Duchess of Cleveland, at Battle Abbey, Sussex, 
robbed of between so000l. and 10,000/. worth, 
early in Feb. 


| Countess of Aberdeen’s (value above soool.) stolen, 


Halstead Place, Sevenoaks, Kent 19 Nov. 


JEWISH DISABILITIES. 


471 


~ JEWS. 


Tene ne eee 


nm Garden Post-Office, London ; gas suddenly 
nguished at 5 p.m., two mail bags stolen, one 
taining diamonds, and other jewels, watches, 
in registered letters; value above 15,o00l. 
16 Nov. 1881 
Arthur Hill Trevor’s house, Bryn-Kinalet, near 
rk, Wales, robbed of jewels valued 60,000l. 
Sunday, 4 Dec. ,, 


lee DISABILITIES, see under Jews, 
1867. 


\WISH ERA AND CALENDAR. The Jews 
ily employed the era of the Seleucide until the 
century, when a new mode of computing was 
ed. They date from the creation, which they 
der to have been 3760 years and 3 months 
e the commencement of our era. To reduce 
sh time to ours, subtract 3761 years. The Jewish 
consists of either twelve or thirteen months, of 
30 days. The civil year commences with the 
h Tisri, immediately after the new moon fol- 
. the autumnal equinox; the ecclesiastical 
begins with Nisan. 


? 


wil year, 5645. 
ena : . . began 20 Sept. 1884 


resvan - 5 “ 2 20 Oct. ,, 

Sat ae 4 > : 2 j . TOPN ON sales 

t ‘ ; 4 - : A Se rg UEGI ass 

aia. 2 . - : : = 17 Jan. 1885 
r = ; © PE STOUR Gi an, 


17 March, ,, 
TO ADIT, 4, 
15 May, ” 
i4June ,, 
RRO big) ane 
T2pAUS ow ss 


.orAbib . ° . . : 
muz . . . ° e . e 


. ° . ° ° . . 


1WS, the descendants of Abraham, with whom 


KINGDOM OF JUDAH. 
Shishak, king of Egypt, takes Jerusalem, and pil- 


lages the temple - : : 5 : eG 
Abijah defeats the king of Israel, 500,000 men are 
slain in battle - : : : : 2st O57 
Asa defeats the Ethiopians ; abolishes idolatry . 941 
Jehoshaphat orders the law to be taught 912; defeats 
the Ammonites, &c. ; : : : : . 896 
Usurpation and death of Athaliah . x P 884 
Hazael desolates Judah . : ; : : « 2 OST 
Pekah, king of Israel, lays siege to Jerusalem ; 
120,000 of the men of Judah are slain in one day. 741 
Hezekiah abolishes idolatry . . 5 A bie 
Sennacherib invades Judea, but the destroying angel 
enters the camp of the Assyrians, and in one night 
destroys 185,000 of them . : - P a eG iie 
Holofernes said to have been killed at the siege of 
Bethulia by Judith : 5 p : . 656 
In repairing the temple, Hilkiah discovers the book 
of the law, and Josiah keeps a solemn Passover . 624 
Nebuchadnezzar subjugates Judea . “ <. 005 
He takes Jerusalem after a long siege . “ 5 le bom 
Jerusalem fired, the temple burnt, the walls razed 
to the ground . ¢ ; . : : .- 587 
KINGS. PROPHETS. 
Saul began to reign B.C. 1095 Samuel. 
Nathan. 


David, king of Judah, 105 53 of all Tsrael, 1048 
Solomon me . a : IOI5 


Kings of Israel. 


B.c. Kings of Judah. 
. Jeroboam I. 


. Ahijah. 


975. Rehoboam . 
958. Abijah ~ +5 
955. Asa . Nadab (954) - Azariah. 
953+) ss P fe paashas. . Hanani. 
Q20u Fss - : oy lah. . » vehu. 
929. »> : Bae VAL uly 3 ‘ oy ae 
925. 55 ‘ . Omri ops 
QI. 55 : ee ALS Oe, . Elijah. 
914. Jehoshaphat oc 7 é yA 
897: Z ; . . Ahaziah A . Elisha. 
896.) . é “ . Jehoram or Joram. Jahaziel. 
889. Jehoram s4u6 hs Af 
885. Ahaziah . 3 =F 
884. Athaliah . Jehu, 
878. JoashorJehoahaz _,, 
S57 55 . Jehoahaz. 
839. Amaziah . Jehoash (841) 
825. a . Jeroboam II. . . Jonah. 
: ; ee Hosea. 
810. Uzziah or Azariah F he ‘ A ide 
784. ae oy td ADATCIY: 
773- aS » «+ Zechariah . 9 = JOEL 
Shallum. 
iP: hy 2» ° ( Menahem. 
761. cs Se het va 
: 3 . Pekah. 
hey ‘ fe ( Isaiah & 
758. Jotham . mts 33 ° “ + Micah. 
742. Ahaz . - : 5 
Oc Wie x . » Hoshea. 
726. Hezekiah . . (Captivity, 721.] Nahum. 
698. Manasseh. : 
643. AMon . cans ° : = . Jeremiah. 
64x. Josiah 4 tis . “ : . Zephaniah 
Jehoahaz 
610 (Shallum). \ ‘ ‘ z . . Habakkuk 
Jehoiakim. 
rere \ ages. |‘. +. Daniel. 
: Coniah), ; 
=74 | Sapte F : . . Ezekiel. 
BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY. 
Daniel prophesies at Babylon . LBC “603 


Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego, refusing to wor- 
ship the golden image, are cast into a fiery fur- 


made a covenant, 1898 B.c. Gen. xvii. See 
ialem. 

fAbram . : ° . ° : 3, B.C. 1921 
born to Abraham : : F ~~» 1896 
of Esau and Jacob . ‘ ‘ > . 1837 
tof Abraham . ‘ ° ° Fue toes 
hsoldinto Egypt . : 3 F . 1729 
iale children of the Israelites thrown into the 

3; Moses born. A : ~ ; ei S7 1 
>assover instituted ; the Israelites go out of 

‘pt, and cross the Red Sea P 5 - 1491 
ww promulgated from Mount Sinai . I4Q1 
‘abernacle setup . 2 : 5 - 1490 
(a leads the Israelites into Canaan » 1451 
rst bondage (Othniel, judge, 1405) . Seiad) 
econd bondage (Ehud, 1325) : ‘ s71343 
hird bondage (Deborah and Barak, 1285) = 1305 
surth bondage (Gideon, 1245) 5 . 1252 
fth bondage (Jephthah, 1187) . A . 1206 
ixth bondage z : : : : prs 7 
om slays the Philistines . “ 5 31230 
el governs as judge, about . 4 : ty Pe AT 20 
mm pulls down the temple of Dagon . . He G 
made king . 3 3 3 A . * +» 1095 
{slays Goliath, about , : 5 : . 1063 
tof Saul; David made king ‘ : seek LOS5 
lL besieges and takes Jerusalem, and makes it 
capital =. ; F : t ‘ : . 1048 
1on king, ro15; lays the foundation of the 

ple, ror2 ; which is dedicated ‘ . 1004 
of Solomon ; the kingdom divided . eon9-O75 
|v KINGDOM OF ISRAEL. 

iam establishes idolatry . 5 e075 
ol taken from Jeroboam ; 500,000 Israelites 
on .- : : , : : : ; . 
j: afflicted with the famine predicted by Elijah 306 
oyrians besiege Samaria 5 7 : eae oor 
-.translated to heaven . ; “ 896 
JlesofElishathe prophet . .  . 895 
Assyrian invasion under Phul . F ang 7 x 
lbesieges Jerusalem . 7 “ : ey cuneZ at 
Tia taken by the king of Assyria : the ten tribes 
_ carried into captivity, and an end is put to the 
-gdom of Israel . " Bais z ; s - 721 


nace, but are delivered by the angel 587 
Obadiah prophesies . 3 ; : : 3 ees 
Daniel declares the meaning of the handwriting 

against Belshazzar ; cast into the lion’s den ; pro- 

phesies the return from captivity, and the coming 

of the Messiah . ° 5 5 , x 538 

RETURN FROM CAPTIVITY. 
Cyrus, sovereign of all Asia, publishes an edict for 
the return of the Jews and rebuilding of the 
V1) Copa a ean : 2 j ae ale 


JEWS. 


Haggai and Zechariah prophets ‘ 


472 


‘ A = 520 

The second temple finished . roMarch, 515 

The Jews delivered from Haman by Esther 510 

Ezra, the priest, arrives in Jerusalem to reform 
abuses 458 

Here begin the. 70 weeks of years predicted by 
Daniel, being 490 years before the crucifixion of 
the Redeemer ‘ 4 . + + 457 

The walls of Jerusalem built. é ° ‘ » 445 

Malachi the prophet : 415 

[The Scripture history of the Jews ends, according 
to Lusebius, in 442 B.C. ; and from this time Jo- 
sephus and the Roman historians give the best 
account of the Jews. ] 

Alexander the Great marches against Jerusalem to 
besiege it, but, it is said, on seeing Jaddus, the 
high- -priest, clad in his robes, he declares he had 
seen such a figure in Macedonia, inviting him to 
Asia, and promising to deliver the Persian empire 
into his hands ; he § goes to the temple, and offers 
sacrifices to the God of the Jews . 332 

Jerusalem taken by Ptolemy Soter 320 

Ptolemy Philadelphus said to Pa oF 72 Tews to 
translate the Scriptures about 285 

The Sadducee sect formed , sas 250 

Jews massacred at Alexandria . 216 

Antiochus takes Jerusalem, pillages the temple bud 
slays 40,000 of the inhabitants 170 

Government of the Maccabees begins . 166 

Treaty with the Romans ; the first on record wit : 
the Jews 161 

Judas Hyrceanus Aristobulus assumes the title of 
‘king of the Jews” . ; 107 

Alexander Janneus suppresses a febellfon of Park i- 
sees cruelly 86 

Jerusalem taken by the Roman “legions under 
Pompey. 63 

The temple plundered by Crassus 54 

Antipater made intendant of Juda by Julius 
Cesar 49 

Herod, son of Antipater, marries “Mariamne, grand- 
daughter of the high priest 42 

Invasion. of the Parthians 40 

Herod employs the aid of the senate ; they decree 
him to be the king . aS 

Jerusalem taken by “Herod and the Roman general 
Sosius 37 

Herod kills Mariamne, 29; rebuilds the temple " 99-18 

JESUS CHRIST born : 2 4 

Pontius Pilate is made proc urator of J udea AyD. 20 

John the Baptist begins to preach Fr 

Christ’s ministry and miracles, 27-33 ; his cruci- 
fixion and resurrection . 33 

The Jews persecuted for refusing to w orship Cali- 
gula : : A 8 

Receive the right of Roman citizenship : re 

Claudius banishes Jews from Rome 50 

Invasion of Vespasian . A 68 

Jews settle at Merida, Spain 69 

Titus takes Jer usalem ; the city and temple sacked 
and burnt, and 1,100,000 of the Jews perish, 8 Sept. 70 

Targum of Onkelos written about : 100 

Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem (¢alling it Elia Capito- 
lina), and erects a temple to Jupiter ERIS 

Rebellion of Bar-cochbz; takes Jerusalem 1 3255 
killed in war with Julius Sever us, 135; desola- 
tion of Judea 135-136 

More than 580,000 of the J ews are slain by ine 
Romans 

Jews favoured by Antoninus Pius ; “college of J am- 
nia opened . 138 

The Mischna (see Talmud) compiled by Rabbid udah, 
the prince . : before 200 

The Jews favoured by Sev erus, 196 ; by Constan- 
tine, 310; by Julian, 363 ; persecuted by Constans 353 

Jews massacred at Alexandria } 415 

The Babylonian Talmud completed . ‘ about 600 

Jerusalem taken by Omar itu OSS 

Jews first mentioned in English chronicles’ é 740 

Formation of the sect termed Karaites (which see) 
by Anan, about ‘ ; 754 

Jewish college founded at Cordova . * + + 948 

Talmud translated into Arabic . - 1006 

Jews said to be banished from England by Canute 1020 

Polygamy in Christian countries prohibited by the 
Jewish synod at Worms i . ‘ ° + 1030 


JEWS. 


Jews return to England 
(Chiefly settled in London and. Lincoln.} 

The Jews massacred in London, on the coronation 
day of Richard I., at the instigation of the priests 

500 Jews besieged in York castle by the mob, cut 

each other's throats to avoid their fury 3 

Jews of both sexes imprisoned ; their eyes or teeth 
plucked out, and numbers inhumanly butchered, 
by king J ohn : : 

The Rabbi Moses Maimonides died . . 

7oo Jews are slain in London, a Jew having forced a 
Christian to pay him more than 2s. per week as 
interest on a loan of 20s. (Stow.) oun 

Statute that no Jew should enjoy a freehold : i 

Every Jew lending money on interest compelled to 
wear a plate on his breast, signifying that he was 
a usurer, or to quit the realm. (Stow.) ; 

267 Jews hanged and quartered, accused of clipping 
coin 

All Jews (x6, 511) banished from England. (Rapin.) 

Much pillaged and persecuted in France during the 
14th and 15th centuries. 

A fatal distemper raging in Europe; they are sus- 
pected of having poisoned the springs, and num- 
bers are massacred. (Lenglet.) ; 

Several hundred thousand Jews banished from 
Spain, Portugal, and France : i 

Edicts against Jews rescinded by pope Sixtus V. 

Jews favoured in Holland 

After having been banished England 370 years, they 
are permitted to return by Cromwell J a 

Who grants a pension to Manasseh Ben Israel , 

First Portuguese synagogue, King-street, Duke’s- 
place, erected 

Statute to compel them to maintain their protestant 
children enacted . 

Jews acquire right to possess land in England. 

Bill to naturalise the professors of the Jewish reli- 
gion in Ireland (where 200 Jews then rosie 
refused the royal assent : ; 

Statute to naturalise them in England passed. Fi 

Repealed on the petition of all the cities . 

The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and Avignon are de- 
clared to be citizens of France . 

Sitting of the great Sanhedrim of Paris convened by 
the emperor Napoleon . ‘ . 18 Sept. 

Jews’ hospital, London, founded . 

London society for promoting Christianity among 
the Jews established 

Jews’ free school, Spitalfields, London, established 

Alexander of Russia grants land on the sea of A 
to converted Jews F ept. 

The brothers Rothschild made barons of the Ay 
trian empire . é ‘ . . 

Jews’ orphan asylum founded 

Mr. (aft. Sir) Francis H. Goldsmid, the first Jew 
called to the British bar. : 

Mr. David Salomons elected sheriff of London (the 
first Jewish one) ; an act passed to enable him to 
act . 24 June, 

Bill for Jewish emancipation in England ae on the 
second reading by a majority in the coma 228 
against 165 . 7 May, 

Moses Montefiore, esq., " elected sheriff of Landa | 
and knighted by the queen, being the first Jew oi! 
whom that honour has been conferred . -o Nov. 

Ukase of the emperor of Russia, permitting the title 
of citizen of the first class to be held by any Jew 
who renders himself worthy of it 

Owing to the disappearance of a Greek priest, a per- 
secution of the Jews began at Damascus (see Da- 


MAaSCUS) . . . peep 
Jewish mission to the East under sir Moses Monte- 
fiore . 5 


Congregation of British Jews formed (see below) 

Sir F. H. Goldsmid founded the Jewish Tnfant 
school ; 

Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, ‘the first Jew “made a 
Baronet . 

Act to relieve Jews elected to municipal Offices from 
taking oaths, &c., 9 Vict. 

Baron Lionel de Rothschild returned to Parliament 
for the city of London by a majority of 6619 votes ; 
ee opponent, lord John Manners, polling only 


I04 . Pa July, 
‘Aidenaie Salomons elected member for ad 
une, 

Neither permitted to sit~ . «2 no 


T 


4 
i 4 


By 


JEWS. 473 JIHAD. 
| 
s’ Oaths of fee eion bill passed the house and for simplifying the ritual observances. Their 
mons 3 July, 1851 West London Synagogue in Burton-street, opened 
tothschild again returned for the eee of zi Jan. 1842; removed to Margaret-street, Regent- 
m at the general elections, July, 1852; street, 1849; suceeeded by a magnificent syha- 
, 1857; July, 1857; and . July, 1865 gogue, in Upper Berkeley-street, consecrated, 
outbreak against the Jews in ‘Stockholm, 22 Sept. 1870 
3 Sept. 1852 | A Jew made M.A. at Oxford (after the abolition of 


ish Oath bill passed in commons, r5 April; 
n out in the lords 29 April, 
~ Salomons the first J ewish lord mayor of 
Nov. 
ish Oath bill several times passed in the 
ons and thrown out in the lords . 1854-7 
lortara, a Jewish child, forcibly taken from 
rents by order of the archbishop of Bologna, 
» plea of having been baptized when an in- 
by a Roman Catholic maid-servant 
24 June, 1858 
[. Goldsmid, the first Jew made Q.C. 
passed ghabling Jews to sit in par Hiament by 
tion of the house . uly, 
jionel de Rothschild takes his seat as M.P. 
mdon . 26 July, 
memorate this event he endowed a scholar- 
n the City of London School 
neh government having in vain urged Mor- 
restoration to his parents, sir Moses Monte- 
proceeds to Rome (but obtains no redress), 
22 Dec. 


an Salomons elected M.P. for Greenwich 
ah J pays 1873); baron Meyer de Rothschild 
. 15 Feb. 
Wee ccting the seizure of the boy Mortara 
d at London by the abp. of Canterbury, and 
ps, noblemen, and gentlemen, sent to the 
+h ambassador, Oct. ; and presented to lord 
Russell . Nov. 
of guardians for the relief of the Jewish 
one of the grand institutions of the Jews in 
lon, founded in 4 
sive laws against the J ews in the Austrian 
re annulled . 6, ro Jan. 1860 
ssed permitting Jewish M.P.’s to omit from 
ath the words “‘ on the faith of a Christian,” 

6 Aug. 
mal political privileges granted to the Jews 
assia, 26 Jan. ; and in Poland x June, 1862 
ersecuted at Rome Dec. 1864 
ian Benjamin Samuel Phillips, second Jewish 
mayor 9 Nov. 1865 
ation of Jews at Bucharest reported, July, 1866 
gogue at Berlin, said to be the largest and 
; beautiful in the world, consecrated, 5 Sept. 

emancipation bill, Hungary, received royal 

it 29 Dec. 1867 

ain Disraeli, of Jewish extraction, premier of 

and Feb. 1868 

synagogue at ‘Barnsbury, London, N., fodnded 

aron F. Rothschild, 24 Dee. 1867, consecrated 
29 March, 


rermitted to return to Spain . Oct. 
i congress at Pesth opened by the minister of 
ie worship, Eotvos  . Dec. 
ses and presents the new statutes 6 the 
sters i) 25 Heb. 1869 
i reform convention at Philadelphia, Us, 
ations in rituals, &c., resolved on Oct. 
Davis, a Jew, a munificent. benefactor of 
‘ation, Jewish and Christian, died 7 Jan. 
central synagogue in Great Portland- oh Wiss 
ded by baron Rothschild, x18 March, 1869 : é 
crated . 7 April, 
‘vew Literature Society » established in London 
2gJune, , 
Jewish Association constituted for the moral, 
‘ul, and intellectual progress of Jews (in con- 
ion with the Universal Israelitish Alliance, 
Paris). First president, the late Mr. Jacob 
ey, M.A. ‘ 2 July, 
‘mperor of Brazil attended worship at the 
_t Central London synagogue . - Siduly.e,; 
ermitted to work on Sundays by a Meshes 


1853 
1855 


3 


9 


92 


9 


1859 


> 


>? 


” 


>”? 


PP 


”? 


” 


1870 


? 


- 


'y formed at Birmingham to resist proselytism 
gation of British Jews, formed in 1840 and 
. by certain families of Spanish and German 
8, for uniting two sections of the community, 


tests) : ’ 22 June, 1871 
Sir George J essel, a J ew, solicitor- general, Noy. 
1871 ; master of the rolls 29 Aug. 1873 
Estimated number of Jews in Great Br itain, 51,520; 
in London, 39,833 L876 
New synagogue founded at Bayswater “9 June, 1877 
Movement against the Jews in Berlin, &c., (J uden- 
hetze); opposed by Mommsen, Virchow, and others; 
censured by the crown prince; debate in the cham- 
bers ; no vote, 22 Nov. Many Jews leave Berlin, 
Dec. 
Anti-Semitic league formed ; presents a_ petition to 
Bismarck to restrict the liberty of the x ussian 
Jews ‘ 3 April, 1882 
Jews severely persecuted at Kieff and altar places 
in South Russia . : é May, 
About 60,000 Russian Jews request permission to 
return to Spain, granted ‘ June, 
Persecution going on in Prussia, the emperor in- 
terfering to stopit . 5 5 Aug. 
Renewal of barbarous persec ution in ‘Russia, i April, 
1882, June, Nov.-Dec., 1884; denounced as 
an offence to civilisation at a great weg a 


880 


3) 
3) 


23 


the Mansion-house, London . 1882 
Many Jews go to America ‘ ; rer: oF 
Committees | formed at Berlin and London to receive 

money to help the emigration, April; 108,7501- 

received in London Oct; 
New synagogue at Abbey-road, ace N.W. 

consecrated P zo July, 4, 
The Jews violently ‘attacked at Presuurdk, Hun- 

gary; martial law proclaimed . - 298ept. ;, 
Trial of Jews (see Hungary) 1883 
Violent attacks on Jews at St. Petersburg, Pesth, 

Zala Egerszeg, &c. R July, Aug. ¥ 
Death of Charlotte, Baroness de Rothschild, great 

benefactress 5 ~ 13 “Mar. 1884 


Jews still persecuted in Russia Aug. “et seq. 
Commission to enquire into the condition and 
rights of the Jews : : en OCus 


Sir Moses Montefiore eanipletse his rooth year, 
celebrated by Jews all over the world as a 
very great benefactor (27 Oct. Jewish Calendar) 

25-26 Oct. 

The Jews enjoy at present full citizenship in Europe 
(with the exception of Portugal, Roumania, 
Russia and Spain) ; also in the United States. 


JEW’S HARP (probably Jaws’ harp), an 
ancient instrument. Charles Eulenstein produced 
remarkable effects with Jew’s harps at the Royal 
Institution, London, 15 Feb. 1828. 


JEYNES or JAINS, a sect of Buddhists, in 
India. They do not recognise a creator, but believe 
matter to be eternal, and refrain from destroying 
life, considering animals to be sacred. 


JEYPOOR, one of the four principal Rajpoot 
states of India, tributary to the British. The 
new capital, Jer poor, termed the Paris of India, 
was built in the last century. The Maharaja, 
friendly to the British, by whom he was supported, 
died in Sept. 1880 ; he nominated a successor, in- 
stalled 30 Sept. 1880. 


37 


2? 


” 


” 


JIHAD, orreligious warfare against unbelievers, 
although inculeated in the Mohammedan law, was 
prohibited by the Sheeahs, and only permitted by 
the Sonnites in some cases; certainly not wit 
any nation with whom they had made a treaty of 

eace. The Jihad was preached by fanatics in India 
in 1871, and prohibited by government. 
A jihad against the Russians was announced by the 

sheikh-ul- Islam, at Constantinople, about 28 May, 1877 
A jihad against the British in Afghanistan, pro- 

posed by Shere Ali. . ‘ . - Oct. 1878 


‘\ 


JINGO PARTY. 


474 


JOURNALS. 


A jihad against the British was proclaimed by 
Arabi Pasha A about 24 July, 1882 
See Hoypt. 


JINGO PARTY, a name given (in 1878) to 
persons who preferred war with Russia to submis- 
sion to her aggressive policy. A popular song said— 
‘* We don’t want to fight, but, by jingo if we do, 

We've got the ships, we’ve got the men, and we’ve got 

the money too.” 
‘* By jingo” occurs in Jarvis’s ** Don Quixote,” and the 

“* Vicar of Wakefield.” 


JOAN oF ARC, the maid of Orleans, born at 
Domremy, imagined that she had a divine com- 
mission to expel the English, who under the earl of 
Salisbury were besieging Orleans. Charles VII. 
entrusted her with the command of some French 
troops, and she raised the siege, and entered Orleans 
with supplies, 29 April, 1429; and the English, 
who were before the place from 12 Oct. preceding, 
abandoned the enterprise 8 May following. She 
captured several towns in the possession of the 
English, whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, 
18 June, 1429. She was wounded several times 
herself, but never shed any blood with her own 
hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiégne, 
25 May, 1430; and, after a trial, burnt for a witch 
at Rouen, 30 May, 1431. A statue of Joan of Arc, 
the work of the late princess Marie of France, was 
inaugurated at Orleans, 13 Sept. 1851, and the 
435th anniversary of the deliverance of the city 
was celebrated there on 14 May, 1865. The anni- 
versary of her death celebrated, 30 May, 1878. See 
Patay. 


JOCKEY CLUB, instituted in the reign of 
George II. (1727-60), is mentioned in Heber’s 
*¢ Racing Calendar,’’ 1758. Rules were made in 
1828, afterwards revised. See Races. 


JOHN BULL, a nickname given to English- 
men, is said to be derived from Dr. Arbuthnot’s 
satire ‘‘John Bull,’ published 1712.—Brewer. 
“‘John Bull,” a comedy, by George Colman the 
younger, was performed 1805. The ‘‘ John Bull,” 
a ‘lory newspaper, supported by Theodore Hook, 
was first published 1820. 


JOHN DOE And RICHARD ROE, names 
well known, as standing pledges for the prosecution 
of suits. In early times real and substantial per- 
sons were required to pledge themselves to answer 
to the crown for an amercement or fine set upon 
the plaintiff, for raising a false accusation, if he 
brought an action without cause, or failed in it; 
and in 1285, 13 Edw. I. sheriffs and bailiffs were, 
before they made deliverance of the distress, to re- 
ceive pledges for pursuing the suit, and for the 
return of the property, if return were awarded. 
But this becoming a matter of form, the fictitious 
names of Doe and Roe were used until the form was 
declared to be no longer necessary by the Common 
Law Procedure Act, 1852. 


JOHN O’GROAT’S HOUSE, an ancient 
house formerly situated on Duncan’s Bay Head, 
the most northerly point of Great Britain, deriving 
its name from John of Groat, or Groot, and his 
brothers, originally from Holland, said to have set- 
tled here about 1489. 

The house was of an octagon shape, being one room, with 
eight windows and eight doors, to admit eight mem- 
bers of the family, the heads of different branches of it, 
to prevent their quarrels for precedence at table. Each 
came in by this contrivance at his own door, and sat 
at an octagon table, at which, of course, there was no 
chief place or head, 


JOHN, ST., see Newfoundland, Camb 

New Brunswick and Oxford. 

St. John’s Night, or Midsummer eye, 23 June: hy 
are still made in Ireland, and in some parts of 
land, and thought to be the relic of a pagan ens 
resembling the Phoenician worship of Baal. 


JOHN, ST., KNIGHTS oF, see Malta, 


Tue Knicuts or St. JoHN (VJohanniter Ritter), a 
ran order of high rank, formed by Frederic] 
liam III. of Prussia, 23 May, 1812, and reorgani 
Oct. 1852. These knights co-operated with the k 
of St. John of Malta and various other boc 
rendering energetic assistance to the wounded | 
the Franco-Prussian war, in 1870-1; the chief 
being at the ancient gate of the priory of St. 
Clerkenwell, London, E.C.; the duke of Man¢ 
being a prior of the order. 

The Russian and English orders claim connectio 
the original institution at Malta as two of its lo 

The St. John Ambulance Association, originated wi 
order of St. John in 1877; its object is to disse: 
practical information respecting first aid to sv 
by accidents, and to register names of persons 
fied to act as nurses in time of war; 75 centre: 
been established in Great Britain, and indepen 
of these, 70 classes have received instruction. 
A. Lechmere, chairman ; John Furley, Esq. di 
capt. Perrott, secretary. 


JOHN’S GATE, ST. (St. John’s § 
Clerkenwell, London), a fine vestige of mc 
building, was the gate of the priory of St. Jo 
Jerusalem (suppressed in 1540), and was the 
where the Gentleman's Magazine was first 
lished, 6 March, 1731. The house was often 
by Dr. Johnson, Garrick, and their friends. 
gate was purchased for the Order of the Knis 
St. John, by Sir Edmund A. H. Lechmere 
secretary of the English league. The first m 
held here 24 June, 1874. 


JOHNSON’S CLUB, see Literary Chul 
JOINT STOCK COMPANIES (goe 


bad) have been very numerous during the p 
century (especially in 1825, 1846, 1866, and 
Many acts have been passed for their regul 
the most important in 1844, 1855, 1857. and 
An important act for the incorporation, regu 
and winding-up of trading companies and 
associations passed in 1862, was amended in 
see Companies, and Limited Liability. 154. 
companies were registered in the year 1881-2 


JONATHAN, BROTHER. This n: 
name for America is attributed to Washin 
reliance for advice and support on Jonathan ' 
bull, governor of Connecticut, whom he 1 
“the first of patriots.” (Trumbull died 9 
1785).—Brewer. 

JORDAN, a river of Palestine, cross 
the Israelites B.c. 1451, when they entered 
the conquest of the land of Canaan. Ap 
forming a canal from the Mediterranean to tl 
or Akabah was discussed at the British Asso: 
Sept. 1883. 

JOSHUA, successor of Moses, led the Isr 
into Canaan, B.c. 1451. (See Bible.) Hi 
14th oratorio ‘‘Joshua’”’ was finished 19 
1747; produced 9 March, 1748. It contained 
the Conquering Hero comes,” afterwards 
ferred to ‘‘ Judas Maccabzeus.” 


JOURNAL DES SAVANTS, see Re: 


JOURNALISTS, Natrona Ass 
TION OF, proposed at Birmingham, 1834. 


JOURNALS, see Newspapers. 
JOURNALS oF THE HovseE oF Com 


JOWAKIES. 


475 


JULIAN ERA. 


iced in 1547, first ordered to be printed in 
hen 5000/. were allowed to Mr. Hardinge 
execution of the work. The journals of the 
or PEERS (commencing 1509) were ordered 
inted in 1767. 


VAKIES, see India, 1877-8. 
N FERNANDEZ, an island in the 


named from its discoverer in 1567. Alexan- 
sirk, a native of Scotland, left on shore here 
saptain in Noy. 1704, and lived alone till he 
eovered by captain Rogers in1709. He died 
ant of H.M.S. Weymouth, 1723. A monu- 
yhis memory was erected on the island in 
hen colonised by Germans. From his nar- 
De Foe is said to have derived his Adventures 
nson Crusoe, first published in 1719. 


\N, SAN, a smallisland, near Vancouver’s 
‘The possession of this island, on account ofits 
nding the straits between British Columbiaand 
ited States territories, led to disputes between 
) countries, owing to the doubtful interpre- 
of the treaty of Washington respecting the 
ries, 12 June, 1846. See United States, 1859 
50. The matter (by the treaty of Washing- 


May, 1871) was referred for arbitration to | 
peror of Germany, who decided in favour 
The isle was | 


“United States, Oct. 1872. 
ted by the British 22 Nov. following. 


3ILEES. The Jews were commanded to 
te a aa every fifty years, I49I B.C. 
xxy. 3.) Among the Christians a jubilee 
entury was instituted by pope Boniface VIII. 
year 1300. It was ordered to be celebrated 
Al years by pope Clement VI.; and by 

. every thirty-third year; and by Six- 
every twenty-fifth year. 


ul jubilee in England on account of 
ze III. entering the soth year of his reign, 
25 Oct. 1809 
in celebration of the general peace, and of 
entenary of the accession of the Brunswick 
ly ; 4 ; : ; z . rt Aug. 
2are’s Jubilee, projected by David Garrick, 
celebrated at Shakspeare’s birth-place, 


1814 


ford-on-Avon , A - - 6,7,8 Sept. 1769 
‘speare festival at Stratford . . 23 April, 1836 
ispeare festival at Stratford 23 April, 1865 


sott centenary celebrated (he was born 15 
g Aug. 
S., (see 
17 June—4 July, 


71) J ‘ ; : ; 1871 
ge musical jubilee at Boston, U. 
m). ; 


DAH, see Jews. 


DAS MACCABARUS, Handel’s 12th ora- 
composed 9 July—11 Aug. 1746; produced I 
1747. See Maccabees. 


DENHETZE (hatred of the Jews), a term 
d to the movement against them in Germany 
}0, through jealousy of their prosperity and 
dobtrusiveness. See Jews. 


DGE ADVOCATE GENERAL, and 
martial of all the forces, an ancient office, 
oy patent from the crown. He is the legal 
or of the commander-in-chiefin military cases, 
iy his authority all general courts martial are 
| An adyocate-general accompanied the army 
mee in 1625, and the office was constituted 
‘after the restoration. Dr. Samuel Barrowe 


\ppointed 1666. 


R, Davison appointed Dec. 1870; died 15 Apr. 1871 
»bert Phillimore (admiralty judge) acted pro- 
nally ; . 1871-3 


1872 


> ° . . ° . 


ieurca23 ; : ‘ ‘ : : : : ; 
| Three additional judges appointed, one to each law 


Acton §. Ayrton 

Stephen Cave . A : 
Geo. A. F, Cavendish Bentinck, 2 
George Osborne Morgan 


21 Aug. 1873—Feb. 1874 

Feb. 1874—Nov. 1875 

Nov.1875—May, 1880 
J \ ay, 7 


JUDGES appointed by God, when the Israelites 
were in bondage, ruled from 1402 B.c. till the elec- 
tion of Saul as king, 1095; see Jews, Chancellors, 
Justices, Circuits, Lords Justices, Vice- Chancellors, 
and Privy Councils. 


Judges punished for bribery and Thomas de Wey- 


land banished. : ; E : : . 1289 
William de Thorp hanged for bribery q ‘ ae La5e 
John de Cavendish beheaded by the Suffolk rebels, 1381 


Tresylian, chief justice, executed for favouring 
despotism, and other judges condemned . ear 
The prince of Wales said to have been committed 
by judge Gascoigne for assaulting him on the 
bench . 
Sir Thos. More, 


1388 


- : . £ : : ; = 14t2 
late lord chancellor, beheaded, 
6 July, 
Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley 
taken off the bench and committed by the com- 
mons, on a charge of treason 13 Feb. 
Three judges impeached for favouring the levying 
ship-money ‘ ¥ : ‘ e : Been Sst: 
Judge Jefferies committed by the lord mayor to the 
Tower, where he died. ‘ 3 ; 3 . 1689 
The judge’s office made tenable for life (during good 
behaviour) instead of during the pleasure of the 
crown by 13 Will. III. c. 2 : : ; poe 
Their commissions made permanent, notwith- 
standing the demise of the crown (by 1 Geo, III. 


1535 


1641 


1702 


1761 


court, 1784; and again in . : 7 : Sis 
A new judge took his seat as vice-chancellor, 5 May, 
Two new vice-chancellors appointed 3 : , 
A third vice-chancellor and two new chancery 
judges (styled lords-justices) appointed . . ¥85x 


JUDICATUREH, see Law ; Supreme Court, 
JUDICIAL COMMITTEE oF THE PRIVY 


1830 
1813 
184r 


| CouNCIL, see Privy Council. 


JUDICIAL SEPARATION of married per- 


| sons may now be decreed by the Divorce Court, 
‘established by act of parliament in 1857. The 
_ persons separated may not marry again. 


JUGGERNAUT, correctly Jaganndth, or 
‘¢ Lord of the World,” one of the incarnations of 
Krishna, is an idol formed of an irregular pyramidal 
black stone, with two rich diamonds to represent 
eyes; the nose and mouth are painted vermilion. 
The number of pilgrims that visit the god is stated 
at 1,200,000 annually. Formerly some were crushed 
by the wheels of the car (so lately as Aug. 1864) ; a 
great many never returned, and, to the distance of 
fifty miles, the way was strewed with human bones. 
The temple of Juggernaut has existed about 800 
years. The state allowance to the temple was sus- 
pended by the Indian government in June, 1851. 
The festival was kept, June, 1872. Twelve persons 
were said to be killed by accident, Aug. 1873. The 
festival of 1878 reported a failure. 


JUGURTHINE WAR. Jugurtha murdered 
his cousin, Hiempsal, king of Numidia, and usurped 
his throne,*118 B.c. He gave Adherbala share in the 
government, but killed him in 112. He then pro- 
voked the Romans to war. Czecilius Metellus was 
first sent against him, and defeated him in two bat- 
tles; and Marius brought him in chains to Rome to 
adorn his triumph, 106 B.c., where he was put to 
death in 104. This war has been immortalised by 
the pen of Sallust. 


JULIAN ERA and YEAR, see Calendar. 
| Julian period (by Joseph Secaliger, about 1583), a 
term of years produced by the multiplication of 


‘ ‘ . at) 
‘ vA 
; 
‘ 


JULIERS. 4 


6 JUSTICES. 


the lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman 
indiction 15. It consists of 7980 years, and began 
4713 years before our era. It has been employedin 
computing time to avoid the ambiguity attendant 
on reckoning any period antecedent to our era, an 
advantage in common with the mundane eras used 
at different times. By subtracting 4713 from the 
Julian period, our era is found; if before Christ, 
subtract the Julian period from 4714. 


J ULIERS, a Prussian province; made a duchy 
in 1356; became the subject of contention on the 
extinction of the ruling family in 1609; was allotted 
to Neuburg in 1659; seized by the French in 1794; 
and ceded to Prussia in 1815. 


JULY, the seventh, originally fifth, Roman 
month, named by Mare Antony from Julius Cesar, 
the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. 


JUNE, the sixth month, owes its name to 
Junius, which some derive from Juno, and others 
from Juniores, this being the month for the young, 
as May was for aged persons. Ovid, in his Fasti, 
introduces Juno as claiming this month. “ Glorious 
Ist of June;”’ see Ushant. 

JUNG RIVER, west Africa. Natives chas- 
tised for outrage on Mr. Laborde, envoy, and others, 
by gen. Havelock, governor of Sierra Leone, May, 
1882. 


JUNIUS’S LETTERS began in the Public 


Advertiser, 21 Jan. 1769. 

They have been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William 
Gerard Hamilton, commonly called Single-speech Hamil- 
ton, John Wilkes, Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ash- 
dDurton), serjeant Adair, the rev. J. Rosenhagen, John 
Roberts, Charles Lloyd, Samuel Dyer, general Lee, the 
duke of Portland, Hugh Boyd, lord George Sackville, 
and sir Philip Francis. The last-named is generally 
considered to have been the author. Junius said, ‘I 
aim the depositary of my own secret, and it shall perish 
with me.” The work of Mr. Chabot and-hon. E. T. B. 
Twisleton was considered decisive of sir Philip Francis 
being Junius, May, 1871. 

JUNKER PARTY (Junker, German for 
young noble), a term applied to the aristocratic 
party in Prussia, which came into power under 
Otho von Bismarck-Schonhausen, appointed prime 
minister, 9 Oct. 1862. Their political organ is the 
Kreuz-Zeitung. 


J UNO, the planet discovered by M. Harding, of 
Lilienthal near Bremen, 1 Sept. 1804. Its distance 
from the sun is 254 millions of miles, and it ac- 
complishes its revolution in four years and 128 
days, at the rate of nearly 42,000 miles an hour. Its 
diameter is estimated by German astronomers at 
1424 English miles. 


JUNONTA, festivals in honour of Juno (the 
Greek Héra, or Héré) at Rome, and instituted 431 B.c. 


JUNTA. The Spanish provincial juntas or 
councils declared against the French in 1808, and 
incited the people to insurrection. 


JUNTO, a name given to the leaders of the 
whig party in the reigns of William III. and Anne 
(1689-1714) ;_ the chiefs were admiral Edward 
Russell, John Summers, Charles Montague, and 
Thomas Warton, 


JUPITER, known as a planet to the Chaldeans, 
it is said, 3000B.c. The discovery of the satellites, 
incorrectly attributed to Simon Mayr (Marius) in 
1609, was made by Galileo on 8 Jan. 1610; see 
Planets. JUPITER’s moons were all invisible on 
21 Aug. 1867; a very rare occurrence.—JUPITER 
AmMon’s temple in Libya was visited by Alexander, 


332 B.c. Cambyses’ army sent against it p 
miserably, 525 B.c. The Greek Zeus was the. 
Jupiter. 


JURIDICAL SOCIETY was establis 
Feb. 1855, and opened with an address by 
Bethell on 12 May following. 


JURIES. Trial by jury was introduce 
England during the Saxon heptarchy, » 
being made of six Welsh and six Anglo. 
freemen appointed to try causes between the I 
and Welsh men of property, and made respo 
with their whole estates real and personal, ft 
verdicts. Lambard. By most authorities 
institution is ascribed to Alfred about 8§ 
Magna Charta, juries are insisted on as th 
bulwark of the people’s liberty. When 
party is an alien born, the jury shall be or 
denizens, and the otber half aliens, stat. 2! 
III. 1353. By the common law a prisone 
indictment or appeal might challenge perem 
thirty-five, being under three juries; buta 
parliament, and a peer of the realm, whe i 
tried by his peers, cannot challenge any 
peers. An act for the trial by jury in civil c 
Scotland was passed in 1815. An act to cons 
and amend the laws relating to juries in | 
was passed 4 Will. IV. 1833. A new act reg) 
juries, regulating their payment, &c., was 
g Aug. 1870. The clause respecting their pi 
was rescinded by act passed 28 Feb. 1871. 
respecting juries in Ireland amended, 14 Aus 
New Juries bill brought in by the attorney-g 
sir John Coleridge, Feb. 1873. Juries are 
moned to assist the coroner in investigati 
causes of sudden or violent death.—GRanbD . 
(of not less than 12 or more than 23 persons), 
whether sufficient evidence is adduced to p 
accused on trial.—The constitution of 179 
blished the trial by jury in France.--An in 
decree abolished trial by jury throughout th: 
trian empire, 15 Jan. 1852.—Trial by ju 
in Russia, 8 Aug. 1866.—A true bill fo 
granted against alderman sir F. Truscott 
absence, who was honourably acquitted, 18 
1879. 

CorRCION OF JuRIES.—It is said that in 
times the suitors used to feed the jury empane 
their action, and hence arose the common law of ¢ 
sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the ey 
A jury may be detained during the pleasure of the 
if they cannot agree upon a verdict ; and may | 
fined without meat, drink, or fire, candle light ex 
till they are unanimous. -—Some jurors have bee 
for having fruit in their pockets, when they wer 
drawn to consider of their verdict, though they ¢ 
eat it. Leon Dyer, 137. A jury at Sudbury n0' 
able to agree, and having been some time under | 
forcibly broke from the court where they were loc! 
and went home, g Oct. 1791. Phillips. In 8c 
Guernsey, Jersey, and France, juries decide by 
jority ; in France, since 1831, a majority of two-tl 
required. ‘ 


“JUSTE MILIEU” (moderation and 
ciliation to parties), according to Louis-Phili 
1830), is the only principle of government 
can secure the welfare of France. 


JUSTICES oF THE PEACE are unpai 
magistrates, invested with extensive pow‘ 
minor cases, but subject to supersession and pt 
ment by the King’s Bench for an abuse of 
authority. They were first nominated by 
liam I. in 1076. Stow. Persons termed cou 
tors of the peace in each county were appoint 
1 Edw. III. c. 2, 1327; and their duties 
defined in 1360. The form of a commission | 


‘| 


eo 
ye 
- . 


_ JUSTICES, LORDS. 4 


~ 


( 


yj JUVENILE OFFENDERS. 


ttled by the judges, 23 Eliz. 1580. Haw- 
ee Lyre. 


TICES, LORDS, were appointed by 

‘sovereigns to govern during their absence ; 

ly by William III., George I. and George II. 

760). George III. never left England. In 

821, when George IV. went to Hanover, 

istices were appointed, the duke of York 

he first. No such appointment has been 

uring the present reign, it having been 

by the law authorities in 1843 to be un- 

y when the queen went to France. Ireland 

ys ruled by lords justices when the lord- 

mt is out of the country, or his office is 

—T wo lords justices of the court of appeal in 

y, having rank next after the chief baron 

xchequer, were appointed from 1 Oct. 1851, 

6000/. For recent changes see Court of 

wry, and Appeal. 

> James L. Knight-Bruce, resigned Oct., died 

7 Noy. 1866. 

bert lord Cranworth 

cellor). 

r George Jas. Turner, Jan., died, 9 July, 1867. 

r Hugh M. Cairns, 29 Oct., became lord-chan- 

cellor, 29 Feb. 1868. 

¢ John Rolt, July ; resigned Feb. 1868. 

r Charles Jasper Selwyn, 8 Feb., died rr Aug. 

18609. 

r William Page Wood, March ; lord-chancellor, 

2 Nov. 

r George M. Giffard, Dec., died 13 July, 1870. 

r George Mellish, July ; died 15 June, 1877. 
Present Lords Justices. 

r Richard Baggallay, Nov. 

r Henry Cotton. 

r Nathaniel Lindley. 

r Charles 8. C. Bowen. 

r Edward Fry, 9 April. 


TICIARS. In ancient times the kings of 
d used to hear and determine causes; but it 
wed by law that if the king cannot deter- 
very controversy, he, to ease himself, may 
the labour among persons, men of wisdom 
ring God, and out of such to appoint judges. 
ixon kings of England appointed a judge 
his manner, who was, in fact, the king’s 

After the Norman conquest, the person 


(afterwards lord chan- 


| called, collectivel 


invested with that power had the style of Capitalis 
Justicia, or Justiciarius Anglie. These judges 
continued until the erection of the courts of king’s 
bench and the common pleas. The first justiciars 
of England were Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and 
William Fitz-Osborne, in 1067; and the last was 
Philip Basset, in 1261, or Hugh le Despencer, 1263 
(Henry III). Authorities vary. 


JUSTICIARY, Court or, see Court of 


Justrciary. 


JUSTINIAN CODE compiled by a commis- 
sion appointed by the emperor Justinian I. Feb. 528, 
wherein was written what may be termed “the 
statute law (scattered through 2000 volumes re- 
duced to fifty). It was promulgated, April, 520. 
To this code Justinian added the Digest or Pan- 
dects, the Institutes, and Novels, promulgated 
16 Noy. 534. These compilations have since been 
y, the body of civil law (Corpus 
Juris Ciwilis). 


JUTH, the fibres of two plants, the chonch and 
isbund (Corchorus olitorius and Corchorus eap- 
sularis), since 1830 extensively cultivated in 
Bengal for making gunnycloth, &c. Jute has been 
much manufactured at Dundee as a substitute for 
flax, tow, &c., and in July, 1862, assertions were 
made that it could be employed as a substitute for 
cotton. In 1853, 275,578 cwt.; in 1861, 904,092, 
ewt.; in 1871, 3,454,120 ewt.; in 1874, 4,270,164 
ewt.; in 1875, 3,416,617 cwt.; in 1877, 3,649,877 
ewt.; in 1879, 4,759,363cwt.; in 1881, 4,928,805 cwt.; 
in 1883, 7,385,028 ewt. of undressed jute were im- 
ported into the United Kingdom. 


JUTLAND (Denmark), the home of the Jutes 
who settled in our southern counties. South Jut- 
land was taken by the allies in 1813, and restored 
in 1814. 


JUVENILE OFFENDERS. In 1838, an 


| act was passed for instituting a prison for instruct- 


ing and correcting juvenile offenders, and the mili- 
tary hospital at Parkhurst in the Isle of Wight, was 
appropriated for this purpose. An act for their 
committal to reformatories was passed in 1854. 


K. 


KAABA. 


KAABA, see Caaba. 
KABYLES, see Algiers. 
KADSEAH, see Parsees. 
KAFFRARIA, an extensive country in S. 


Africa, extending from the north of Cape Colony to 
the Orange river. Our war with the natives began 
in 17098. 


The Kaffirs, headed by Mokanna, a prophet, attack 
Grahamstown ; repulsed with much slaughter . 1819 
Again defeated, 1828, 1831 . : : F PR eELOOA: 
The Kaffirs rise ; sir Harry Smith, the governor, pro- 
claims martial law, and orders the inhabitants 
to rise en masse to defend the frontier 31 Dec. 
Disastrous operations against the Kaffirs in the 
Waterkloeff follow ; colonel Fordyce and several 
officers and men of the 74th regiment killed 6 Nov. 
Wreck of the Birkenhead with reinforcements from 
England (see Birkenhead) F 26 Feb. 
The hostilities of the Kaffirs having assumed all 
the features of regular warfare, the governor- 
general, Catheart, attacked and defeated them, 
20 Dec. ,, 
The conditions offered by Cathcart accepted, and 
peace restored . , : : “ 9 March, 
Death of Makomo, an eminent chief 11 Sept. 1873 
Alleged insurrection of Langalibalele, suppressed ; 
see Natal “ A : ; : : A 
Kreli, a Galeka chief in the Transkei territory at- 
tacks the Fingoes and their British protectors ; 
repulsed at Ibeka* . A 24 and 29 Sept. 
Sir Bartle Frere, the governor general, with officers 
and volunteers proceeds to the spot; Kreli de- 
feated by commandant Griffith, his kraal burnt, 
9 Oct. ; deposed and his lands annexed Oct. 
Galekas defeated and expelled from their territories 
2 Dec. 
Rise of the Gaikas .under Sandilli, an old chiet 
(who after education relapsed into barbarism), 
about . ‘ : ; : ; S08 eC ae. 
Cetywayo, king of the Zulus, troublesome ; sir B. 
Frere requests help ; goth regiment and a battery 
of artillery sent from England : . Jan. 1878 
British advance; rebels defeated, 24, 26 Jan.; at 
Quintana, 7 Feb., by gen. Thesiger (about 400 
Kaffirs killed; Sandilli escapes,) 18, 19 March; 
again (capt. Donovan, lieut. Ward, and capt. 
Shawe killed,) about 2x March ; continued fight- 
ing, sometimes severe . 5 . March—May, 
Sandilli and other chiefs reported dead ; his sons 
captured; Kaffir refuges in dreadful conditionJune, ,, 
Amnesty proclaimed to all surrendering rebels, 


1850 


1851 
1852 


>) 


about > : * - - 2d uly, es 
Thanksgiving day for restoration of peace . 1 Aug. ,, 
War still lingered on the borders during Allg iaees 


Tini Macomo and Gangubele condemned to death as 
traitors ; intercession for them in London; re- 
prieved : : : : : : Sept. ,, 

For the war, see also Basute Land, Transvaal, and 
Zululand, 


KAGOSIMA, sce Japan, 1863. 
KAINARDJI (Bulgaria). Here a treaty was 


signed, July, 1774, between the Turks and Russians, 
which opened the Black Sea, and gave the Crimea 
to the latter. 


KALAFAT, on tle Danube, opposite the 
fortress of Widden. This place was fortified by the 
Turks under Omar Pacha when they crossed the 
river, 28 Oct. 1853. In December, prince Gort- 
schakoff, with the Russian army, determined to 
storm their intrenchments. The conflict lasted from 


KARAITES, 


compelled to retire. Among these conflic 
occurred at Citate, 6 Jan.; see Citate. | 
was invested 28 Jan. and general Schilders a 
it vigorously on 19 April, without success, a 
blockade was raised 21 April. 


KALAKH, ancient capital of middle A 
where many discoveries have. been made by _ 
and others. See Assyria. 


KALEIDOSCOPE, an optical instr 
which, by an arrangement of mirrors, proc 
symmetrical reflection of various transpare1 
stances placed between, was invented by Dr. 
wards sir David) Brewster, of Edinburgh; 
suggested in 1814, and perfected in 181 
Debusscope. 

KALEVALA, epic poem, see Finland. 

KALI YUGH, see Cali Yugh. 


KALITSCH (Poland). Here the Russi 
feated the Swedes, 19 Nov. 1706, and hi 
Saxons, under the French general, Reynie 
beaten by the Russians under Winzin; 
13 Feb. 1813. 


KALMAR, see Calmar. 
KALMUCK, see Tartar. 


KALUNGA FORT (E. Indies), attack 
successfully by the British forces, and ; 
Gillespie killed, 31 Oct. 1814; and again uns 
fully, 25 Nov. lt was evacuated by the Nep 
30 Nov. same year. 


KAMPTULICON, a substance used fo: 
ing, patented by Elijah Galloway im 184 
manufactured since 1851, by Messrs. 
Harvey, and Co. It is composed of India- 
and cork, combined by masticating machines 


KAMTSCHATKA, a peninsula, E. c 
Asia, was discovered by Morosco, a Cossack 
1690; taken possession of by Russia in 169; 
proved to be a peninsula by Behring in 1728. 
months, commencing at our midsummer, 1 
considered as the spring, summer, and a 
here, the rest of the year being winter. 
amiable captain Clarke, a companion of ¢ 
Cook, died in sight of Kamtschatka, 22 Aug 
and was buried in the town of St. Peter and 
in the peninsula. ~ 


KANDAHAR, see Candahar. 


KANGAROOS, animals indigenous t 
tralia (first seen by captain Cook, 22 June, 
were bred at San Donato, the estate of 
Demidoff, in 1853, and since. 


KANSAS, a western state in N. An 
organised as a territory, 30 May, 1854; ad 
into the union, 29 Jan. 1861; and left 9) 
slavery, contrary to the Missouri Compromis 
Slavery in America. During greater part © 
this state was a scene of anarchy and blo 
through fruitless efforts to make it a slaye sta 


KARAITES (or Reapers), the protests 
Judaism, a remnant of the Sadducees, forme 
asect by Anan-ben-David, in the 8th century. 


| profess adherence to the Scriptures alone, ai 


31 Dec. to 9 Jan. 1854, when the Russians were | ject the Talmud and Rabbinical traditions. 


KARRACK. 


479 


ist in Turkey, Poland, the Crimea, and other 
of the East. Their name is of uncertain 


RRACK, see Carrach. 


RS, a town in Asiatic Turkey, captured by 
issians under Paskiewich, 15 July, 1828, 
three days’ conflict. Im 1855 it was de- 
by general Fenwick Williams, with 15,000 
nd with three months’ provisions and three 
ammunition, against the Russian general 
vieff, with an army of 40,000 infantry and 
cavalry. The siege lasted from 18 June to 
1855. The sufferings of the garrison were 
reat trom cholera and want of food. The 
ns made a grand assault on 29 Sept. but were 
ad with the loss of above 6000 men, and the 
m were overcome by famine alone. Sand- 
Kars was restored to Turkey, Aug. 1856. 

scepting general Williams’ proposal for surrender- 
neral Mouravieff said :—‘‘General Williams, you 
nade yourself a name in history; and posterity 
id amazed at the endurance, the courage, and 
cipline which this siege has called forth in the 
sof anarmy. Let us arrange a capitulation that 
tisfy the demands of war, without disgracing 
ity.” In 1856 the general was made a baronet, 
ie title of sir William Fenwick Williams of Kars, 
ted a pension ; he died 26 July, 1883. 

assians besieging Kars, compelled to retire 
ukhtar Pacha, . : . about 13 July, 
the grand duke Michael and Loris Melikoff, 
ted 2, 4 Oct. ; defeat the Turks at Aladja 
1 (which see) $ : , PenTA. 1S. OCt.2 55 
taken, after x2 hours’ fighting, by surprise 
said by treachery) ; P 17, 18 Nov. 
and wounded : Russian, about 2500; Turkish, 
; with loss of 10,000 prisoners, 100 guns, &c.] 
eded to Russia by the Berlin treaty 13 July, 1878 


SHGARIA, central Asia; subdued by 
; annexed by Keen Lung, 1760; insurrec- 
subdued, 1826 et seg. Mahomed Yakoob Beg, 
yan insurrection of the Tungani, made him- 
ler of Kashgaria, 1866, and sent envoys to 
n, &c., 1867. He was at length attacked by 
linese, totally defeated, and said to have been 
inated, 1 May, 1877. The capital, Kashgar, 
aken, and the country regained by China, 
_ and the war closed, Dec. 1877. 


SSASSIN (4 battles); see Eyypt, 28 Aug. 
Sept. 1882. 


THARINE’S HOSPITAL, ST., founded 
a by Matilda, queen of Stephen, and re- 
od by Eleanor, queen of Henry III., 1273. 
ospital was removed to Regent’s Park in 1827, 
te having been bought for 163,000/. by the 
tharine’sdocks company. The brethren are in 
,and not restricted from marriage; the sisters 
married or widows. Aschool, attached in 1829, 
ularged in 1849. 

of St. Katherine for nurses instituted by the 

n3 annual payment sol. for 3 years, badge 

fe; firstinvestiture . : : 4 June, 1879 


TSBACH (Prussia); near this river the 
an general Bliicher defeated the French 
MacDonald and Ney, 26 Aug. 1813. He 
ed the title of prince of Wahlstatt, the name 
eighbouring village. 


| . 
IATING’S ACT, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 67 (18 
3 to bills of exchange. Ane 7 (1855) 


IBLE COLLEGE (Oxford), founded in 
ry of the rey. John Keble, author of the 


1877 


‘istian Year,’’ born 25 April, 1792, died 


KENT. 


29 March, 1866. The first stone of the building 
was laid by the archbishop of Canterbury, 25 April, 
1868; the building was dedicated, 23 June, 1870 ; 


| the chapel, the gift of William Gibbs, was dedicated, 


and the library opened, 25 April, 1876. 


KEEPER oF THE Kina’s CONSCIENCE. 
The early chancellors were priests, and out of their 
supposed moral control of the king’s mind grew 
the idea of an equity court in contradistinction tc 
the law courts. A bill in chancery is a petition 
through the lord chancellor to the king’s conscience 
for remedy in matters for which the king’s common 
law courts afford no redress. The keeper of the 
king’s conscience is therefore now the officer who 
presides in the court of chancery; see Chancellor 
and Lord Keeper. 


KEEPER (LORD) oF THE GREAT SEAL 
OF ENGLAND differed only from the lord chan- 
cellor in that the latter had letters patent, whereas 
the lord keeper had none. Richard, a chaplain, 
was the first keeper under Ranulph, in 1116. The 
two offices were made one by 5 Eliz.1562. Cowell ; 
see Chancellor. ‘The office of lord keeper of the 
great seal of ScoTLAND was established in 1708 
after the union. , 


KENILWORTH CASTLE (Warwickshire), 
was built about 1120, by Geoftrey de Clinton, whose 
grandson sold it to Henry III. It was enlarged 
and fortified by Simon de Montfort, to whom Henry 
gave it as a marriage portion with his sister Eleanor, 
Queen Elizabeth conferred it on her favourite, 
Dudley, earl of Leicester. His entertainment of 
the queen commenced 19 July, 1575, and cost the 
earl daily 10000. 

After the battle of Evesham and defeat and death of 
Simon de Montfort, by Prince Edward (afterwards 
Edward I.) 1265, Montfort’s younger son, Simon, shut 
himself up in Kenilworth castle, which sustained a siege 
for six months against the royal forces of Henry IIL., to 
whom it at length surrendered. Upon this occasion was 
issued the ‘‘ Dictum de Kenilworth,” or ‘‘ ban of Kenil- 
worth,” enacting that all who had borne arms against 
the king should pay him the value of their lands for 
periods varying from 7 years to 6 months. 


KENNINGTON COMMON (Surrey). The 
Chartist demonstration, 10 April, 1848, took place 
on the common. It was directed to be laid out as a 


; public pleasure ground in 1852. 


KENSAL GREEN, see Cemeteries. 


KENSINGTON : the palace was purchased 
by William III., from lord chancellor Finch, who 
made the road through its park. The gardens were 
improved by queens Mary, Anne, and Caroline, who 
died here. Here died George, prince of Denmark, 
and George II.; and here queen Victoria was born 
24 May, 1819. 
By permission of the government, a military band 

played in Kensington gardens on Sundays, Aug. 1855 
Objected to ; discontinued 2 : < : - 185 
New parish church erected by sir Gilbert G. Scott 

_was consecrated . ; : - 14 May, 1872 
New town-hall by R. Walker opened by the duchess 
of Teck . é = - - 2 : 7 Aug. 1880 

See South Kensington. 

KENT, see Britain and Holy Maid. Odo, 
bishop of Bayeux, brother of William the Con- 
queror, was made earl of Kent, 1067; and Henry 
Grey was made duke of Kent in 1710; he died witii- 
out male heirsin1740. Edward, son of George III., 
was created duke of Kent in 1799, was father of 
queen Victoria, and died 23 Jan. 1820; see England. 


KENT, an East Indiaman, of 1350 tons burthen, 
left the Downs, 19 Feb. 1825, bound for Bombay, 
In the Bay of Biscay she encountered a dreadful 


KENTISH FIRE. 


storm, 28 Feb. On the next day she accidentally 
took fire, and all were in expectation of perish- 
ing, either by the tempest or the flames. The 
Cambria, captain Cook, bound to Vera Cruz, provi- 
dentially hove in sight, and nearly all on board 
were saved. The Kent blew up, 2 March. 


KENTISH FIRE, a term given to the con- 
tinuous cheering common at the protestant meetings 
held in Kent, 1828 and 1829, with the view of 
peeventing the passing of the Catholic Relief 
bill.—K EntisH PrTiTIon to the house of commons, 
censuring its proceedings, was signed at Maidstone, 
29 April, 1701. It gave much offence. 

KENTISH TOWN, N.W. London, an old 
manor, church property, originally formed part of 
the great forest of Middlesex. Since 1855 building 
has very greatly increased, and two railway stations 
have been erected. 


KENTUCKY, a western state of N. America, 
admitted into the union 1792. It declared for strict 
neutrality in the conflict between the North and 
South in April, 1861, but was invaded by the 
Southern troops in August. On their refusal to 
retire, after much correspondence, the legislature 


of Kentucky gave in its adhesion to the union, | 


27 Nov. 1861. In the campaign that ensued sharp 
skirmishes took place, and on 19 Jan. 1862, the 
confederates under Zollicoffer were defeated and 
himself killed at Mill Spring, and in March no con- 
federate soldiers remained in Kentucky ; see United 
States. 


KERBEKAN, BATTLE OF, see Soudan, 10 
Feb. 1885. 


KEROSELENEH, a new anesthetic, derived 
from the distillation of coal-tar by Mr. W. B. Merrill, 
of Boston, U.S., was tried and made known early in 
1861. 


KERTCH, formerly Panticapzeum, capital of 
the ancient kingdom of Bosporus, late a flourishing 
town on the straits of Yenikale, sea of Azof. It 
was entered by the allies (nglish and French) 
24 May, 1855; the Russians retired after destroying 
stores, &c. The place was dismantled by the 
allies, and most of the inhabitants removed. 


KET’S REBELLION: a revolt in July, 
1549, instigated by William Ket, a tanner, of 
Wymondham, Norfolk. He demanded the abolition 
of inclosures and the dismissal of evil counsellors. 
The insurgents amounted to 20,000 men, but were 
quickly defeated by the earl of Warwick. More 
than 2000 fell; Ket and others were tried 26 Noy., 
and hanged soon after. : 


KEW (Surrey). The palace was successively 
occupied by the Capel family and Mr. Molyneux ; 
by Frederick, prince of Wales, 1730, and George ITI. 
Queen Charlotte died here, 4 Nov. 1818. A new 
palace erected by George III., under the direction 
of Mr. Wyatt, was pulled down in 1827. The 
gardens contained a fine collection of plants, and 
were decorated with ornamental buildings, most of 
them erected by sir William Chambers, about 1760. 


BOTANIC GARDENS. 
Mr. Aiton retired from his office of director, after 
fifty years’ service . : . : j ; - 1841 
Succeeded by sir William Hooker, at whose recom- 
mendation the gardens were opened to the public 
daily. The royal kitchen and forcing gardens in- 
corporated with the botanic gardens : oH 
Collections in the museum of Economic Botany 
began with the private collection of sir William 
Hooker, given by himin . ; : : jeg 
Under his charge the gardens were greatly im- 
proved, and magnificent conservatories erected. 


1847 


480 


KHIVA. 


He died 12 Aug. 1865, and was succeeded by ] 
son, Dr. now sir Joseph D. Hooker . ; 
687,972 (great increase) visitors in i. 
The Meteorological Observatory presented to + 
British Association, 1842; purchased by J. 
Gassiot for 10,o00/., and presented to the Roy 
Society . : : : 4 ? Ns! 
Great damage done to conservatories and plar 
by storm (cost about 20001.) . ‘oa 
Miss Marianne North’s present of a collection of p 
tures of fruit and flowers of all nations, painted 
herself, and placed in a building ereéted at her: 
pense, opened to the public 4 - summ 
Gardens first opened at noon , ’ - rApi 


KEYS. See Locks. 


KHARTOUM, capital of Nubia, at th 
fluence of the Blue and White Nile, built } 
hamed Ali, 1820. Its prosperity was destro 
the rapacity of the governors. Population i 
only about 15,000. 

After successful administration col. Charles Geor 
Gordon compelled to leaye Khartoum, and 1 
turned to England. 4 : : ' 

In his defence of Khartoum against the Mahdi (fro 
Feb. 1884) he was greatly aided by colonel Jol 
Donald Stewart and Mr. Frank Power, correspo 
dent of the Times (who were both massaer 
during an expedition, Sept. 1884). He manifest 
much military skill, political sagacity, tend 
humanity, and marvellous power in inducing h 
followers to overcome serious difficulties a 
patiently endure great sufferings and privation: 

Khartoum was treacherously surrendered, and Ge 
don and his faithful followers killed, early « 
26 Jan. 1885. See under Soudan. 


_KHEDIVE, or Kedervi, king or lord, 
given to the viceroy of Egypt, instead of 
viceroy, 14 May, 1867. 

KHELAT, see Beloochistan. 

KHERSON, an ancient Dorian colony (de 


its name from Chersonesus, a peninsula), 
under the sway of the great Mithridates abo 
B.C.; and afterwards under that of Rome, A.D. 
continued important, and its possession wa’ 
disputed by the Russians and Greeks. Justini 
cruelly treated it. It was taken by Vladimir, ¢ 
duke of Russia in 988, when he and his armyre 
Christian baptism, and he married the emy 
sister Anne, who obtained Kherson as her 
The city was destroyed by the Lithuanians; ai 
Turks found it deserted when they took poss 
of the Crimea in 1475. What ancient remai 
Turks and Tartars had spared, the Russian: 
veyed away for the construction of Sebastopol 


KHERSON, a Russian city on the Da 
founded 1778. Potemkin, the favourite of Cath 
who died at Jassy in 1791, is buried here, and 
Howard, the English philanthropist, who died 
20 Jan. 1790, is buried about three miles fro 
town, where an obelisk has been erected 1 
memory, by the ezar Alexander I. 


KHIVA (formerly Carasmia), in Turk 
Asia, governed by akhan, Muhammed Rachim 
expedition sent against it by the emperor Ni 
of Russia in 1839 perished through the rigour’ 
climate in 1840. Russian influence is exten 
Population, Uzbeks (Turk Tartars), about 106 
Tadjiks, 100,000; Persians, 40,000; Nomads 
100,000. In 1875, colonel F. A. Burnaby re 
Khiva, after a perilous ride, when his progres 
stopped by Russian jealousy. 

To obtain redress for many outrages, a Russia 
expedition sentto Khiva . . . «. Fed 

After several defeats the town, Khiva, surrendered 
unconditionally 4 : : 5 ro June, 

The khan fled, but returned, and became a Vass 
oftheezar , f . es 


if 


KHOKAND. 


481 


KILMAINHAM HOSPITAL. 


surrection against the Russians repressed and 
ished. ‘ ; F . : Aug. 1873 
of Khiva annexed. : TS, OCU. «,; 

ountry disturbed by revolts 


TOKAND, a khanate in central Asia, sub- 
o China about 1760; rebelled and became 
tary only, 1812. A rebellion, which broke out 
pt. was suppressed Oct. 1874. 

vith Russia; gen. Kaufmann defeats about 
oomen, 4 Sept. ; entered Khokand without 


stance, and the khanate virtually subdued 
16 Sept. 1875 


feats 5000 more ‘ pain te evant Pap 
eople expel the new khan 20 OGb.. sy, 
if Khokand annexed by Russia. . Oct. _,, 


ople rise and massacre Russian garrison, 
ouneced . : : ; 3 Se 2) NOV. as, 
s totally defeated at Assake (chiefs submit) 

30 Jan. 1876 
and formally annexed as Ferghana . 29 Feb. ,, 


HUSCHK-I-NAKHUD, see Maiwand. 


TYBER PASS (the principal northern 
nee into Afghanistan from India). It is ten 
west of Peshawur, extending about thirty- 
miles towards Jellalabad ; lying between lofty 
cliffs, varying from 600 to 1000 feet in height ; 
by Afreedees and other warlike tribes, to whom 
ahomed formerly paid subsidies, which 
discontinued by his son Shere Ali, ameer of 
anistan. 
ass forced by col. Wade, 26 July, and gen. 
John Keane retired through it after his vic- 
ous Campaign . : : : 2 - a 
forced by general (aft. sir George) Pollock, 
1is way to chastise Cabul for the massacres in 
previous winter . : < 5-14 April, 
i Musjid, a fort in the pass, the further ad- 
ce of sir Neville Chamberlain on a mission 
n the viceroy to the ameer was forbidden, 
n threats of violence . 22 Sept. 
ass held by the British . till March, 
See Afghanistan. 


[DDERMINSTER (Worcestershire), re- 
ed for its carpet manufactures, established 
1735. It was made a parliamentary borough 
‘in 1832. The statue of Richard Baxter, the 
mformist, was unveiled by Mrs. Philpotts, 
of the bishop of Worcester, 28 July, 1875; an 
‘ss was delivered by dean Stanley. Fierce 
ig through carpet trade disputes quelled, 4-8 
; as Typhoid fever prevalent, Sept. to 
1884, 87 deaths. 


[DNAPPING ACTS (1872 and 1875), 
d to prevent and punish criminal outrages 
natives of the islands in the Pacific Ocean; 
lawery and Melanesia. 


‘EL, chief town of Holstein, a seaport, and a 
yer of the Hanseatic league in 1300. The 
wsity was founded in 1665. By a treaty 
en Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, 
d here 14 Jan. 1814, Norway was ceded to 
en; see Norway. An extraordinary assembly 
e revolted provinces, Schleswig and Holstein, 
here 9 Sept. 1850. By the convention of 
in between Austria and Prussia, 14 Aug. 1865, 
mer was to govern Holstein, but Kiel to be 
by Prussia as a German federal port. This 
nnulled in 1866 by the issue of the war. 


-LCULLEN (Kildare). Here a large body 
/e insurgent Irish defeated the British forces 
tanded by general Dundas, 23 May, 1798. The 
alin a subsequent engagement overthrew the 
3near Kilcullen-bridge, when 300 were slain. 


.LDARE (E. Ireland). The Curragh or 
sourse here was once a forest of oaks. Here 


1839 


1842 


1878 
1881 


1873-4 | 


_ was the nunnery of St. Bridget, founded by her in 
| the 5th century, and here was a building called the 


fire-house, where, it is supposed, the nuns kept the 
inextinguishable fire which existed till the re- 


| formation. The see was one of the earliest episco- 


pal foundations in Ireland; St. Conleth, who 
died 519, the first prelate. The first Protestant 
bishop was Thomas Lancaster, in 1550. ‘The see is 
valued, by an extent returned 39 Hen. VIIL., at 
692. 118. 4d. Irish per year. Kildare was united to 
Dublin in 1846; see Dudlin. The insurrection in 
Kildare, which swelled into the rebellion, com- 
menced, 23 May,1798. On that night, lieut. Gifford 
of Dublin and a number of other gentlemen were 
murdered by insurgents. This rebellion was quelled 
in 1799. The Curragh is now a military camp. 


KILFENORA (Clare), a bishopric, said to 
have been founded by St. Fachnan. Cardinal 
Paparo, in 1152, rendered it a suffragan see to 
Cashel; but in 1660 it was annexed to Tuam, and 
to Killaloe in 1752. 


KILKENNY (S. E. Ireland), an English 
settlement about 1170. The castle was built 1195, 
by Wm. Marshall, earl of Pembroke. At the par- 
liament held here by Lionel duke of Clarence 1367, 
the statute of Kilkenny was passed.* After a siege 
the town surrendered to Cromwell, 28 March, 1650, 
on honourable terms. 


KILLALA (Mayo) was invaded by a French 
force landing from three frigates, under general 
Humbert, 22 Aug. 1798. The invaders were joined 
by the Irish insurgents, and the battles of Castlebar 
and Colooney followed; and the French were de- 
feated at Ba encnt dee: 8 Sept. same year. 


KILLALA (Sligo), an early see. The author 
of the ‘Tripartite life of St. Patrick, says, ‘‘ that in 
434 he came to a pleasant place where the river 
Muadas (Moy) empties itself into the ocean; and 
on the south banks of the said river he built a noble 
church called Kil-Aladh, of which he made one of 
his disciples, Muredach, the first bishop.”” The see 
of Achonry was united to Killala in the 17th century; 
and both were united to Tuam in 1839; see 
Tuam and Bishops. 


KILLALOE (Clare), a see supposed to have 
been founded by St. Molua, whose. disciple, St. 
Flannan, son to king Theodoric, consecrated at 
Rome by John LY. in 639, was also bishop. At the 
close of the 12th century, Roscrea was annexed to 
Killaloe, and Kilfenora has been held with it. 
Clonfert and Kilmacduach were united to them in 
1836. 


KILLIECRANKIE (a defile in Perthshire). 
Here the forces of William III. commanded by 
general Mackay were defeated by the adherents of 
James IJ. under Graham of Claverhouse, viscount 
Dundee, who fell in the moment of victory, 17 


or 27 July, 1689. 
KILMACDUACH (Galway). This see was 


held with Clonfert, from 1602. St. Coleman was its 
first bishop, in the 7th century. It was valued, 29 
Eliz. 1586, at 13/7. 6s. 8d. per annum. It is united 
to Killaloe. 


KILMAINHAM HOSPITAL (Dublin), 


* It enacted among other things, ‘‘that the allianee 
of the English by marriage with any Ivish, the nurture of 
infantes, and gossipred with the Irish, be deemed high 
treason.” And again, ‘‘if anie man of English race use 
an Irish name, Irish apparell, or anie other guize or 
fashion of the Irish, his lands shall be seized, and his 
body imprisoned, till he shall conform to English modes 
and customs.” Said never to have been enforced. 


Trt 


KILMALLOCK. 


482 


KING’S 


BENCH. 


the noble asylum of. aged and disabled soldiers in 
Ireland, built by Wren, was founded by Arthur, 
earl of Granard, marshal-general of the army in 
Ireland, 1675; and the duke of Ormond perfected 
the plan, in 1679. 

The term Treaty of Kilmainham was applied to an 
alleged agreement between Mr. Gladstone’s government 
and Mr. Parnell and other land-leaguers imprisoned in 
the Kilmainham gaol on 13 Oct. 1881. The government 
is said to have entered into a negotiation with them while 
there, May, 1882. 


KILMALLOCK (Limerick). An abbey was 
founded here by St. Mochoallog or Molach about 
645, and an abbey of Dominicans was built in the 
13th century. JVare. A charter was granted to 
Kilmallock by Edward VI., and another by Eliza- 
beth in 1584. ‘The town was invested by the Irish 
forces in 1598, but the siege was raised by the earl 
of Ormond. There was much fighting here in 1641 
and 1642; see Fenians, March 1867. 


KILMORE (Armagh), an ancient town, whose 
bishops were sometimes called Brefinienses, from 
Brefney, and sometimes Triburnenses, from 
Triburna, a village; but in 1454, the bishop of 
Triburna, by assent of pope Nicholas V., erected 
the parish church of St. Fedlemid into a cathedral. 
Florence O’Connacty, the first bishop, died in 1231. 
Valued, 15 Jas. I. with Ardagh, at 1oo/. per annum. 
The joint see of Elphin and Ardagh was united to 
it in 1841. 


KILSYTH (central Scotland). Here Montrose 
defeated the Covenanters, 15 Aug. 1645, and 
threatened Glasgow. 


KIMBERLEY, see under Griqua-land West, 


Kimberley’s Act, see under Crime. 


KIMMERIDGE CLAY: Rev. H. Moule 
announced his successful use of this clay for fuel 
and gas-making, March, 18743; practicability 
doubted. 


KINBURN, a fort, at the confluence of the 
rivers Bug and Dnieper. Here Suwarrow defeated 
the Turks, 28 June, 1788. Kinburn was taken by 
the English and French, 17 Oct. 1855. Three 
tloating French batteries, said to be the invention 
of the emperor, on the principle of horizontal shell- 
firing, were very effective. On the 18th the 
Russians blew up Oczakoff,.a fort opposite. 


KINDER-GARTEN (children’s garden), a 
system of education devised by Freebel, but prac- 
tically carried out by Mr. and Mrs. Ronge, in 
Germany, in 1849, and in England in 1851. The 
system, founded mainly on self-tuition, and en- 
livened by toys, games, and singing, is set forth in 
Ronge’s ‘* Kinder-garten,”’ published in 1858; and 
has been partially adopted in English schools. The 
Frocbel Society established 1874. Annual meeting 
18 Jan. 1884. 


KINDRED, TABLE of, in the Book of Com- 
mon Prayer, was set forth in 1563, see Leviticus, 
chap. xvili., B.c. 1490. 


KINEMATICS (Greek xineo, I move), the 
science of motion. Reuleaux’s ** Kinematics of Ma- 
chinery,”’ translated by A. B. W. Kennedy; pub- 
lished, June, 1876. ‘‘ Kinematism”’ is a method of 
treating certain diseases by movement. Prof. 
Rankine’s “Machinery and Millwork ’’ first ap- 
peared, 1809; new ed. 1876; see Motion. 


KING: German Jong, equivalent in mean- 
ing to the Latin Rex, Scythian Reis, Spanish Rey, 
Italian Re, French Roy: Hebrew Rosch. Rex is 
thought to be connected with the Hindu rajah, de- 


‘in 1 Samuel viii., 1112 B.¢. 


rived from the Sanscrit ragan, the root of wh 


arg, argami, to possess. Rex therefore 3 
possessor. Nimrod was the first founder 
kingdom, 2245 B.c. Dufresnoy. Misraim 
cities in Egypt, and was the first who ass 
the title of king in that division of the « 
2188 B.c. The ‘‘manner of the king”? is set 
Saul was the 
king of Israel, 1095 B.c. Most of the Grecian 
were originally governed by kings; and kings 
the first rulers in Rome. . 

King of England.—The style was used by Egbert 
828; but the title Rex gentis Anglorum, king o 
the English nation, existed during the Heptarchy 
see Britain. 

The plural phraseology, we, us, owr, was first adopte 
among English kings by John ‘ ‘ 

Pope Leo X. conferred the title of ‘‘ Defender of thi 
Faith” on Henry VIII. ‘ ‘ xr Oct 

Henry VIII. changed lord of Ireland into king __ 

The style ‘‘ Great Britain” was adopted at the uniox 
of England and Scotland, 6 Anne H fey 

That of the ‘“‘ United Kingdom of Great Britain anc 
Ireland” at the union, when the royal style anc 
title was appointed to run thus :—‘‘ Georgin: 
Tertius, Dei Gratia, Britanniarum Rex, Fidei 
Defensor,” ‘‘George the Third, by the grace o! 
God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and 


Ireland, king, Defender of the Faith (France 
being omitted) ‘ é @ : - en. 
Hanover omitted in the queen’s style ar June, 


The queen was proclaimed in all the important 
places in India, as ‘‘ Victoria, by the Grace ot 
God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
and Ireland, and the colonies and dependencies 
thereof in Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and 
Australia, queen,” &c. (see Envpress). t Nov. 

The national assembly decreed that the title 0! 
Louis XVI. ‘‘ king of France,” should be changed 
to ‘‘king of the French”  . : . 16 Oct. 

The royal title in France abolished *, oan 

Louis XVIII. styled ‘‘by the grace of God king of 
France and Navarre” ‘ A ; . 

Louis-Philippe I. was invited to the monarchy under 
the style of the ‘‘king of the French”  . 9 Aug. 

The emperors of Germany, in order that their 
eldest sons might be chosen their successors 
in their own life-time, politically obtained them 
the title of ‘‘king of the Romans.” The first 
emperor so elected was Henry IV. . Se 

Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, was 
induced to go to Germany, where he disbursed vast 
sums under the promise of being elected next 
emperor ; he was elected ‘‘ king of the Romans” 
(but failed in succeeding to the imperial crown) 

The title of ‘“‘king of France” assumed, and the 
French arms quartered, by Edward IIL., in right 
of his mother, 1340; discontinued by Geo. III. 

The style “king of Rome” was revived by 
Napoleon I. for his son, born 20 March, 

The title ‘‘ king of Italy” conferred on Victor Emma- 
nuel II. of Sardinia by Italian parliament 17 March, 


KING-OF-ARMS: three for Englan 
Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy ; Lyonking-at- 
for Scotland, and Ulster for Ireland. ‘These o! 
are very ancient: Clarencieux is so named 1 
Lionel, third son of Edward III., the sovereign 
founded the order of the Garter; see (@ 
Lionel having by his wife the honour of Clare, 
made duke cf Clarence; which dukedom afterw 
escheating to Edward 1V., he revived the offic 
Clarence king-at-arms. The office of Bath kin 
arms, created in 1725, was changed to Gloucé 
king-of-arms, 14 June, 1726. Ulster was sul 
tuted, it is said, in lieu of Ireland king-of-arms 
Edward VI., 1553; but the monarch himself na 
it as a new institution. ' 


KING'S ADVOCATE, see Queen's. 


KING’S BENCH, or QUEEN'S BEN 
CouRT OF, obtained its name from the I 
sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and 


_ KING’S BENCH. PRISON. 


483 


es, to whom the judicature belongs in his 
nee, on alow bench at his feet. This court in 
ent times was called Curia Domini Regis. The 
t of queen’s bench sat for the last time, July, 
, see Supreme Court. Chief justice Cockburn 
ived the freedom of London, 9 March, 1876; 
to be the first case of the kind. The Queen’s 
ch Division of the high court of justice till 1881 
isted of the chief justice of England and! four 
es. The chief justice of the queen’s bench 
sion is now chief justice of England; the ex- 
a and common pleas division were abolished 


SI. 


SHIEF JUSTICES IN ENGLAND FROM HENRY VIII. 


John Fineux. aft. lord Jefferies 
John Fitz James. and lord chane. 

Sir Edward Montagu. Sir Edward Herbert. 
Sir Richard Lyster. Sir Robert Wright. 
Sir Roger Cholmely. Sir John Holt. 

Sir Thomas Bromley. Sir Thomas Parker 
Sir William Portman. aft. lord Parker, 
Sir Edward Saunders. 
Sir Robert Catlyn. 
Sir Christopher Wray. 
Sir John Popham. 
Sir Thomas Fleming. 
Sir Edward Coke. 

Sir Henry Montagu. 
Sir James Ley. 

Sir Ranulph Crewe. 
Sir Nicholas Hyde. 


1685. 
1687. 
1689. 
1709. 


and lord chane. 

Sir John Pratt. 

Sir Robert Raymond, 
aft. lord Raymond. 

Sir Philip Yorke, aft. 
ld. Hardwicke and 
lord chane. 

Sir William Lee. 

Sir Dudley Ryder. 


1718. 
1725. 


2733: 


1737- 
1754. 


Sir Thomas Richard- | 1756. Wm. Murray, lord, aft. 
son. earl of Mansfield. 
Sir John Bramp-| 1788. Lloyd, lord Kenyon, 

ston. 9 June. 
Sir Robert Heath. 1802. Sir Edward Law, 12 
Henry Rolle. April; aft. lord 
John Glyn. Ellenborough. 
Sir Rd. Newdigate. 1818. Sir Charles Abbott, 
Robert Nicholas. 4 Nov. ; aft. lord 
Sir Robert Foster. Tenterden. 


Sir Robert Hyde. 

Sir John Kelyng. 

Sir Matthew Hale. 

Sir Richard Rayns- 
ford. 

Sir William Scroggs. 


Sir Thomas Denman, 7 
Noy. ; aft: lord Den- 
man : resigned. 

John, lord Campbell, 
March; aft. lord 
chancellor. 


1832. 


1850. 


‘Sir Francis Pember- | 1859. Sir Alexander Cock- 
ton. burn, June ; (died 

Sir Edmund Saun- 20 Nov. 1880.) 
ders. 1880. John Duke, lord Cole- 


Sir George Jefferies, 


HIEF JUSTICES JN IRELAND (see Supreme Cqurt). 


Sir Richard Reynell, | 1798. Arthur Wolfe, 13 
6 Dee. June ; aft. lord Kil- 


ridge, 26 Nov. 


Sir Richard Pyne, warden (killed in 
7 June. Emmet’s insurrec- 
Allan Brodrick, 24 tion, 23 July, 1803). 
ec. 1803. Willian Downes, 12 
Sir Richard Cox, 5 Sept.; aft. lord 
July. Downes. 


Chas. Kendal Bushe, 
14 February. 

Edward Pennefather, 
to November. 

Francis Blackburne, 


W. Whitshed, r4 Oct. | 1822. 
John Rogerson, 3 Apr. 
hag Marlay, 29 | 1841. 


ee. 
St. George Caulfield, | 1846. 


27 Aug. 23 Jan. 
Warden Flood, 31 | 1852. Thos. Lefroy, March. 
July. 1866. James Whiteside, 
John Gore, 24 Aug. ; July ; died 25 Noy. 
-_ aft. earl Annaly. 1876. 
John Scott, 29 April ;| 1877. George Augustus Chi- 
aft. earl of Clon- chester May, 9 Feb. 


mel. 


INGS BENCH PRISON (Southwark), 
the site of one of the oldest prisons of London, 
used for the confinement of debtors. Here, it 
id, prince Henry (afterwards Henry V.) was 
utted by Justice Gascoigne. The prison was 
t down by the London rioters, 7 June, 1780; 
‘ordon’s No-Popery Riots. 1t was rebuilt in 
and contained about 230 rooms. Formerly, 


| 


earl of Macclesfield, | 


KINGSTON TRIAL. 


the debtors were allowed to purchase the liberties, 
to enable them to have houses or lodgings without 
the walls, or to purchase day-rules, to go out of 
the prison under certain regulations. ‘The rules 
included St. George’s Fields, &c. A consequence 
of the bankruptcy act, 1861, was the release of 
many insolvent debtors; and an act was passed 
in 1862 ‘‘for discontinuing the queen’s prison 
and removal of the prisoners to Whitecross-street 
prison.”” The buildings, used as a military prison, 
were pulled down and the site sold, 1879-80. 


KING’S BOOK, or “Valor Ecclesiasticus 
temp. Henrici VIII.” the return of the commis- 
sioners appointed in 1534 to value the first fruits 
and tenths granted to the king. An edition by 
John Bacon (‘*Liber Regis’?) was published in 
1780, and it was printed for the Record Commission, 
1810-25. 

KING’S BOUNTY, an annual grant of 
1ooo/. for the Maunday royal alms distributed by 
the lord high almoner, began early in the reign of 
George III. and continued till 10 George IV. 1829. 
See Maunday. 


KINGS COLLEGES, see Aberdeen and 
Cambridge. King’s College, London, incorporated 
I4 Aug. 1829, and opened 8 Oct. 1831. It was 
incorporated with the university of London in 1837. 
The hospital was founded in 1839. The dining- 
hall and kitchen fell in, through drainage, 8 a.m., 
6 Dec. 1869; no lives were lost. 


KING’S COUNSEL, the first under the 
degree of serjeant was sir Francis Bacon, made 
so, honoris causa, without patent or fee, in 1604, 
by James I. The first modern king’s counsel was 
sir Francis North, afterwards lord keeper, in 1663. 


KING’S COUNTY (Ireland), formed out of 
confiscated property, and so named from Philip, king 
of Spain, the husband of queen Mary of England, 
in 1556. 


KING’S CROSS MARKET, N. London, 
opened 7 Aug. 1868; did not succeed. 


KINGSDOWN’S ACT, 24 & 25 Vict. c. 114 
(1861) relates to wills. 


KING’S EVIL (scrofula), formerly supposed 
to be cured by the king’s touch; the first being 
Edward the Confessor, in 1058. In the reign of 
Charles IT. 92,107 persons were touched; and, ac- 
cording to Wiseman, the king’s physician, they 
were nearly all cured! Queen Anne officially an- 
nounced in the London Gazette, 12 March, 1712, her 
intention to touch publicly. The custom was 
dropped by George I., 1714. 


KING’S SPEECH. The first from the throne 
is said to have been by Henry I., 1107. 


KING’S THEATRE, see Opera-house. 
KINGSTON, see Hull.—Kineston, Ja- 


maica, was founded in 1693, after the great earth- 
quake in 1692 which destroyed Port Royal; it was 
constituted a city, 1802. An awful fire here 
ravaged a vast portion of the town, and consumed 
500,000/. of property, 8 Feb. 1782; another fire in 
1843; another great fire; town nearly destroyed ; 
estimated loss about 3,000,000/., 5 deaths an- 
nounced, 11 Dec. 1882. See Mansion House. The 
bishopric was established in 1856; see Jamaica. 


KINGSTON TRIAL. The duchess of 
Kingston was arraigned befcre the lords in West- 
minster-hall, on a charge of bigamy, having 
married first, captain Hervey, afterwards earl of 
Bristol, and next, during his lifetime, Evelyn 

112 


/ 


KINGSTOWN. 


gears duke of Kingston, 15-22 April, 177 
She was found guilty, but, on pleading the privilege 
of peerage, the punishment of burning in the hand 
was remitted, and she was dischar wed ¢ on paying the 
fees. 

KINGSTOWN Cae The harbour here 
was commenced in June, 1817. The name was 
changed from Dunleary in compliment to George 
Ves who here embarked for England at the close 
of his visit to Ireland, 3 Sept. 1821. The Kings- 
town railway from Dublin was opened 17 Dee. 


1834. 

KIRBEKAN, BATTLE OF, see Soudan, 10 
Teb. 1885. 

KISSING. the hands of great men wasa Grecian 
eustom. Kissing was a mode of salutation among 
the Jews, 1 Samuel x. 1, ~&e.,° The’ )** kiss:sof 
charity,” or ‘holy kiss,”’ commanded in the Scrip- 
tures (Romans xvl. 16, &c.), was observed by the 
early Christians, and is still recognised by the 
Greek church and some others. Kissing the pope’s 
foot (or the cross on his slipper) began with Adrian 
I. or Leo LIL. at the close of the Sth centur y- 


KIT-KAT CLUB, of above thirty noblemen 
and gentlemen, instituted in 1703, to promote the 
Protestant succession. The duke of Marlborough, 
sir R. Walpole, Addison, Steele, and Dr. Garth 
were members, It took its name from its dining at 
the house of Christopher Kat, a pastry-cook in 
King-street, Westminster. 


KITT’S, see Christopher’s, St. 


KLADDERADATSCH, the German 
“ Punch,” tirst published in Berlin, by Albert 
Hoffmann, the proprietor, originally a bookseller’s 
assistant. He amassed a fortune, and died 10 Aug. 
1880, aged 62. 


KNEELING. The knee was ordered to be 
bent at the name of Jesus (see Philippians ii. 10), 
about the year 1275, by the order of the pope. 
ceremony of a vassal kneeling to his lord is said to 
have begun in the 8th century. 


KNIGHTS. The word knight is derived from 
the Saxon Cniht, a servant (7.e., servant to the 
king, &c.). The institution of the Roman knights 
(Zquites or horsemen, from egzws, a horse), is 
ascribed to Romulus, about 750:8.c., when the 
curie elected 300. Knighthood was conferred in 
England by the priest at the altar, after confession 
and consecration of the sword, during the Saxon 
heptarchy. The first knight made by the sovereign 
with the sword of state was Athelstane, by Alfr ed, 
A.D. 900. Spelman. The custom of ecclesiastics 
conferring the honour of knighthood was sup- 
pressed in a synod held at Westminster in II00. 
Ashmoles Institutes. 
pounds yearly income were obliged to be knighted, 
or pay a fine, 38 Hen. III. 1254. Salmon. On the 
decline of the empire of Charlemagne, all Europe 
being reduced to a state of anarchy, the proprietor 
of every manor became a petty sovereign; his 
mansion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a 
guard, and called a castle. Excursions were made 
by one petty lord against another, and the women 
and treasure were carried off by the conqueror. At 
length the owners of rich fiefs associated to repress 
these marauders, to make property secure, and to 
protect the ladies ; binding themselves to these 
duties by a solemn vow, and the sanction of a 
religious ceremony. Cervantes’ ‘‘Don Quixote,” a 
satire on knight-errantry, was published in 1605 ; 
see Banneret, Chivalry, Tournaments, Holy Sepul- 
chre, John, and Michael. 


484 


The | 


All persons having ten | 


KNIGHTS. Rh 


PRINCIPAL MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND HONORAR 

ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD.* 

Albert the Bear, Anhalt ; 4 A ; ‘ 

Albert, Saxony . " r F 

Alcantara, instituted about . 

Alexander Nevskoi, St., Russia 

Amaranta, Sweden (female) . 

Andrew, St., Russia . 


Andrew, St., Scotland (see Thistle) 787, 1 540, 
Angelic Knights, Greece . - 337) 
Anne, Str Holstein, now Russia. ae 


Annonciada, Savoy, about 

Annunciada, Mantua : 

Authony, St., Hainault . 

Anthony, St., Bavaria . 

Avis, Portugal, about 

Bannerets. See Bannerets. 

Bath, England, 1399. Revived (see Bath) . 

Bear, Switzerland é : : 

Bee, France (female) 

Bento d’ Avis, St., Portugal 

Black Eagle, Prussia 

Blaise, St., Armenia, t2th century. 

Blood of Christ, Mantua i 

Bridget, St. , Sweden 

Broomflowers, France ; 

Brotherly (or Neighbourly) Love, Austria (female). 

Calatrava, Castile, instituted by Sancho III. 
Catherine, St., Palestine ; 

Catherine, Sty Russia (female) 

Charles, St., Wiirtemberg 

Charles III. "(or the Immaculate Conception), Spain 

Charles XIII., Sweden. 5 4 

Chase, Wiirtemberg ‘ s ’ ; F ’ 

Christ, Livonia ‘ 

Christ, Portugal and Rome 

Christian Charity, France 

Cincinnati, America (soon dissolv ed) 

Compostello (see St, James). 

Conception of the Virgin 

Concord, Prussia ‘ 

Constantine, St., Constantinople, about 313; by 
emperor Isaac, 1190 ; Parma, 1699; since removed 
to Naples. 

Crescent, Naples, 1268. Revived P ‘ y 

Crescent, Turkey . . . 5 : P 

Cross of Christ = : : - 

Cross of the South, Brazil : = 

Crown of Italy 


- 
ae 


Crown of India (female) > _ aa 31 Dec. 
Crown of Oak, Netherlands . P & r . 
Crown, Prussia 5 ‘ “ ; 


Crown Royal, France (Friesland) 

Crown, Wiirtemberg . 

Danebr 0g, Denmark, instituted by Waldemar IL, 
1219 ; revived by Christian V. 

Death’s Head (female), by the widow Louisa Eliza- 
beth of Saxe Masburg 


Denis, St., France . > P 
Dog and Cock, France . 
Dove of Castile . " * : 


Dragon, Hungary . : . 
Dragon ’Overthr own, German : 

Eagle (see Black, Mexican, Red, W, hite). 

Kar of Corn and Ermine, Brittany, about . 
Elephant, Denmark (about 1190), by Christian I. 
Elizabeth, St., Portugal and Brazil (femal 
Elizabeth Ther esa, Austria J fone 


Empire of India . A ’ 
Esprit, St., France - 4 2 " ‘ ‘ 
Ferdinand, St., Naples . 5‘ - . P 
Ferdinand, St., Spain . f 3 0 F y 
Fidelity, Baden : F 2 : : oe 
Fidelity, Denmark P * : . A - oe 
Fools, Cley GS Te : : 3 , a 
Francis I., Two Sicilies : ; - ri oe 


Francis J oseph, Austria . : r : ‘ ae 
Frederick, Wiirteinberg ; 
Friesland (or Crown Royal), France . . 


Garter (which see), England . ; - ae 
Generosity, Brandenburg : n : * s : 
Genet, France : ‘ $ : 


* Enlarged and corrected from Edmondson, Carli 
and the ‘‘ Almanach de Gotha;” the early dates 
doubtful. Many orders were instituted after the set 
ment of Europe in 1815. 7 


} 


at 


KNIGHTS. 485 KNIGHTS. 

re, St., and the Reunion, ld aay 1800 and 1819 | Merit, Hesse Cassel . 1769 
e, St., Angelic Knights ; LTO n Merit, Oldenburg : . 1838 
ey St., Austria 1470, 1494 Merit, Prussia. : : - 1740 
e, St., Defender of the Immaculate ‘Coney Merit, Saxony . ‘ ; A.LSES 
¥ Bavaria . ‘ . 1729 Merit, Wiirtemberg. ‘< . 1859 
e, St., England (see Gar ter) . 1349 | Merit, Military, Baden . 1807 
e, St.,Genoa . : . - 1472 Mexican Eagle . 1865 
e, St., Hanover . ‘ 3 - 1839 | Michael, St., Bavaria PF ; i . 1693 
e, St., Ionian Isles . : . 1818 | Michael, St., France. ‘ : ‘ . 1469 
e, St., Rome ‘ , Fi s 1492 Michaél, St., Germany 1618 
e, St., Russia . ‘ : A . 1769 | Michael and George, Sts., 1818 ; re- “organised, March, 1869 
e, St., Spain ; 4 fF ‘ . 1317 | Montjoie, Jerusalem, before . ; vag TESO 
e, St., Venice . : 5 ¢ - 1200 | Neighbourly Love, Austria ¢ female) . . 1708 
a, St., Germany . . 3 : = . 1190 | Nicholas, St. (Arg gonauts of), Naples . + 2382 
>, Sweden . é ‘ 5 ‘ . 1522 | Noble Passion, Saxony ‘ . . 1704 
, Turkey teeeetoaa | Oak or Navarre, Spain . . 722 
n “Angel Piatorwards St. George), about 312 | Olaf, St., Sweden - 1847 
n Fleece, instituted at Bruges by Philip the Osmanié, Turkey . . 1861 
d, Austria and Spain . - Io Jan. 1429 | Our Lady of Montesa . 1316 
n Lion, Hesse Cassel : . 1770 | Our Lady of the Conception of Villa Vigosa . 1818 
n Lion, Nassau, and Holland — . 1858 | Our Lady of the Lily, Navarre . : - 1043 
n Shield and Thistle, France . 1370 | Palatine Lion er On 

oSpur, by PiusIV. . - 1559 | Palm and Alligator, Africa, granted to Gov. Caimp- 
n Stole, Venice, before - 737 bell in ‘ : Z , 3s. 5837 
ry, St., Rome ; ‘ . . 1831 | Passion of Jesus Christ, France ; : . 1384 
hic, Hanover . : 4 . 1815 | Patrick, St. Ireland < , 2793 
, St., Saxony . 1736 | Paul, St., Rome : F ; : + 1540 
the Lion, Brunswick | . 1834 Pedro I., Brazil. i ; . 1826 
engilde, St., Spain . 1814 | Peter, Frederick Lewis, Oldenburg g » 1838 
1zollern, Prussia s . 1851 | Peter, St., Rome . ; + 1530 
Ghost, France ie sy (6, Philip, Hesse Darmstadt . - 1840 
Sepulchre (which see) 1099, 1496 | Pius, founded by Pius IY. - 1559 
Vial (St. Remi), France 499 | Pius IX., Rome. ‘ : : . 1847 
— (which see), 1099; of Rhodes, 1308 : of Polar Star, Sweden. Revived . - 1748 
1521 | Porcupine, France 4 1393 
ra 8t., Germany (by the duke of Juliers and | Reale, Naples, about : ‘ 2 £309 
res), Bavaria . 1444 | Red Eagle, Prussia, 1705, 1772, 1734. Revived . 1792 
z(Turkey) . “ F ‘ “Nov. 1879 Redeemer (or Saviour), Greece ; ; 2 ose 
ross, Prussia F . 1813 | Remi, St. (or Holy Meas about 499 
rown, Lombardy, 1805; revived - 1816 | Rosar Vy, Spain + 1212 
felmet, Hesse Cassel . 1814 | Rose, Brazil. 1829 
la, St., Spain, 1804; Portugal (Jemate) . 1801 | Round Table, England, by ‘Alfred (see Gar ter), 516 or 528 
la the ‘Catholic, Spain. . 1815 | Royal Red Cross rf female) 23 April, 1883 
jeee., Holland . : A ‘ . 1290 | Rue Crown, Saxony : “1807 
St., Portugal . 1310 | Rupert, St., Germany . I701 
Tet. of the Sword, Bantiago, 175; - Spain Saviour, Aragon d 2-118 
Portage! . - . 1177 | Saviour, or Redeemer, Greece . 5° 1833 
rius, St., Naples . ; . 1738 | Saviour ’of the World, Sweden 71S 6% 
tlem (see Malta) : - 1048 | Savoy, Italy : « 18E5 
Christ, Rome. instituted by John RXV. Scale, Castile, about — ; wIs16 
. Reformed as Jesus and pote py Paul Vo... 1615 Searf, Castile, 1330. Revived . ; + 1700 
im, St., Germany 3 + 2755 Sepulchre, Holy Palestine . * : : oe eLOOD 
of Acon, St., after . 1377 | Seraphim, Sweden F : 1260 OY 1265 
of Jerusalem, St. (see Hospitalter 8), ‘Rome | 1048 | Ship and Crescent, France : 3 = § 2.1260 
St., Prussia ‘ : . . 1812 | Slaves of Virtue, Germany emate) : : ; . 1662 
1 St., Tuscany . ; : P . . 1807 | Stanislas, St.. Poland . e765 
of Alcantara, St. . 1156 | Star, France » 1022 
rine, St., England (female nurses) . . 1879 | Star, Sicily . + 1351 
Naples ‘ ‘ ; : P . 1352 | Star of India, British : . 1861 
lza, Venice, about : f ‘ E - 737 | Star of the Cross (female), Austria . 1668 
of God, Sweden ; 1564 | Star of the North, Sweden - 1748 
is, St., France, before 11 54; united with that Stephen, St., Hungary : - 1764 
b. Maurice, Savoy : A . . 1572 | Stephen, St., Tuscany £ L565 
. of Honour, France : J : - . 1802 | Sun and Lion, Persia . 1808 
ld, Austria . F 3 3 0 : - . 1808 | Swan, Flanders, about ; Adattsic: 
ld, Belgium 3 : 3 F , . 1862 | Swan, Prussia (female) . 1440,.1843 
"Aragon : ‘ . : A . . 1410 | Sword (or Silence), Cyprus, ; crgiidels! 
* Navarre, about . é 2 - 1043 | Sword, Sweden, 1525. Revived . + 1748 
Holland ‘ 5 5 Z : i Ae apis Templars (see 7 ‘emplars) . 111g 
see Sun) . . ‘ 5 . - 1808 | Teste Morte (Death's Head), Wiirtemberg (female) . 1652 

f Zahringen, Baden ‘ : ; : . 1812 | Teutonic, Austria, about 1190; abolished, 1809; 
‘1S; oe tae about . A . ‘ - » 1399 1522; re-organised : i : 1840, 1865 
\Qummetyof . ll, : : F . . 1587 | Thistle of Bourbon : ‘ ; « 1370 
Bavaria i . 4 . : . 1827 | Thistle, Scotland, 809. Revived 1540, 1687 
Hesse Darmstadt P , ; ; . . 1807 | Thomas of Acon, St., after : - 1377 
St., France. A f F 2 - 1693 | Toison d’Or (golden fleece) ‘ ; . 1429 
, Prussia (female) ” : : . ‘ - . 1814 | Tower and Sword, Portugal, 1459. Revived . 1808 
(see Hospitallers). Tusin, or Hungarian knights, about - 1562 
de Merced, St., Spain. A A é . 1218 | Two Sicilies : ; : - 1808 
‘Louisa, Spain ( Jemale) : . ° + » 1792} Vasa, Sweden... - 1772 
PeAUSeIA . | Cw 8 Vigilance, or White Falcon, Saxe-Weimar «1732 
“St. , Venice, about 828. Renewed . - . 1562 | Virgin Mary, Italy . ; » 1239 
tw, Palestine. . ; s . - 1or4 | Virgin of Mount Carmel, France . #3607 
Ne, 8t., Savoy . ; : fs eer aaas Wends, Mecklenburg . 1864 
ilian Seeeph, Bavaria. . 5 : - 1806 | White Cross, Tuscany : sel te - 1814 
ié, Turkey . . 5 i ; > - . 1852 | White Eagle, Poland, about 1325. Revived » 1705 
Bavaria oa hine 2 ‘ - 1808, 1866 | White Falcon, Saxe-Weimar : : L732 
Belgium ; § : A ; - . 1867 ' Wilhelm, Holland iors 


KNIGHTS OF LABOUR. 486 KORAN. 
Wing of St. Michael. Portugal « 1572 KONIGGRATZ (Bohemia). Near here : 
Wladimir, St., Russia - 1782 | fought the decisive battle between the Austri 


FEMALE Knicuts. It is said that the first were 
women who preserved Tortosa from the Moors in 1149, 
by their stout resistance. Large immunities were 


granted to the women and their descendants. Several 
female orders appear in the previous list. Ladies 


have been admitted to several male orders. 

KNIGHTS OF GLYN AND KERRY IN JRELAND. The heads 
of two branches of the family of Fitzgerald, who still 
enjoy the distinctions bestowed on their ancestors by 
sovereigns in the 13th century. The zrgth knight of 
Kerry died 6th Aug. 1880. 

KNIGHTS OF THE SHIRE, OR OF PARLIAMENT; summoned 
by the king’s writ and chosen by the freeholders, first 
summoned by Simon de Montfort, in 1258, and in a 
more formal manner, 20 Jan. 1265. There are writs 
extant as far back as rr Edward J., 1283. The knights 
are still girded with a sword when elected, as the writ 
prescribes. 

v re Y 

KNIGHTS OF LABOUR, see United States, 
1879. 

KNIVES. In England, Hallamshire (the 
country round Sheffield) has been renowned for its 
cutlery for five centuries; Chaucer speaks of the 
‘‘ Sheffield thwytel.’’ Stow says that Richard 


the | 


Mathews on the Fleet-bridge was the first English- | 


man who made fine knives, &c.; and that he ob- 
tained a prohibition of foreign ones, 1563. 


ing originally from Flanders.—Knife-cleaning ma- 


Price, &c.; see Forks. 

KNOW-NOTHINGS, a society which arose 
in 1853, in the United States of N. America. Their 
principles were embodied in the following proposi- 
‘tions (at New York, 1855). ‘They possessed several 
newspapers and had much political influence :— 
xz. The Americans shall rule America. 


Clasp | 


or spring knives became common about 1650; com- | It joined the Hanseatic league in 1365. It: 


chines were patented by Mr. George Kent in 1844 | ceded to the elector of Prange. 


and 1852; others have been invented, by Masters, | Prussia in 1701 


| 1758-64, and by the French in 1807. Here k 


2. The Union of these States. 

3. No North, no South, no East, no West. 

4. The United States of America—as they are—one and. | 
inseparable. 

5. No sectarian interferences in our legislation or in the 
administration of American law. 

6. Hostility to the assumption of the pope, through the 
bishops, &c., in a republic sanctified by Protestant 
blood. 

7. Thorough reform in the naturalisation laws. 

8. Free and liberal educational institutions for all sects 


and classes, with the Bible, God’s holy word, as a 
universal text-book. 

A society was formed in 1855 in opposition to the above, 
called Know-Somethings. Both bodies were absorbed 
into the two parties, Democrats and Republicans, at 
the presidential election in Nov. 1856. 
KNUTSFORD, Cheshire. The foundation 

stone of St. Paul’s college for the northern counties 

here was laid, 24 Sept. 1873. 


KOH-1-NOOR, or ‘‘ Mountain of Light,” the 


East India diamond; see Diamonds. 


KOLIN or Kouutn (Bohemia). Here the 
Austrian general Daun gained a signal victory over 
Frederick the great of Prussia, 18 June, 1757. In 
commemoration, the military order of Maria Theresa 
was instituted by the empress-queen. 

KOLN, see Cologne. 

KOMORN or Comorn (Hungary), an ancient 
fortress town, often taken and retaken during the 
wars with Turkey. Near it the Hungarians de- 
feated the Austrians, 11 July, 1849, but surren- 
dered the town 1 Oct. 

KONIEH (formerly Iconium). Here the 
Turkish army was defeated by the pasha of Egypt, 
after a long sanguinary fight, 21 Dec. 1832. The 
grand vizier was taken prisoner. 


commanded by marshal Benedek, and the Prussi 
commanded by their king William I., 3 July, 1§ 
Prince Frederick Charles halted at Kammeniz 
Monday, 2 July, his troops commenced their ma 
at midnight, and the first shot was fired about 7 
a.m. 3July. The attack began at Sadowa (a 
which the battle is also named) about Io o’elc 
and a desperate struggle ensued, the result 
pearing uncertain, till the army of the crown pri 
of Prussia arrived about 12°30. When Chi 
which had been taken and lost seven times by 
Prussians, was taken for the eighth time, the : 
of the day was decided; and the retreat of the A 
trians, at first orderly, became a hasty disasti 
flight. About 400,000 men were engaged in | 
battle, one of the greatest in modern times. ' 
Austrians are said to have lost 174 guns, about 40, 
killed and wounded, and 20,000 prisoners. ‘ 
Prussians lost about 10,o0oomen. The victory g 
the supremacy in Germany to Prussia, unity 
North Germany, and Venetia to Italy; and le 
the legislative independence cf Hungary. 


KONIGSBERG, the capital of east Prus 
was founded by the Teutonic knights in 1255, | 
became the residence of the grand master in 14 


here Frederick III. was crowned the first king 
It was held by the Russi 


William I. and his queen were crowned, 18 0 
1861. 


KONIGSTEIN TUN (Nassau, Germat 


' most capacious, was built by Frederick Augus 
king of Poland, in 1725. It was made to | 


233,667 gallons of wine; and on the top, which 
railed in, was accommodation for twenty person 
regale themselves. The famous tun of St. Berna: 
was said to hold 800 tons; see Heidelberg Tun. 


KOOKAS, a warlike reforming sect in N. 
India, founded by Baluk Ram about 1545. and a 
his death, about 1855, headed by Ram Singh, 1 
preached the restoration of the old Sikh religi 
which venerated cattle and punished their slau 
terer. After several outrages against the Maho 
tans, an outbreak of the Kookas took place 1 
Loodiana, which was vigorously suppressed, 
Jan. 1872, by commissioner Cowan, who orde 
49 prisoners to be blown from cannon, 17 J 
Several others were tried and executed by 
missioner Forsyth soon after. For this seve 
Mr. Cowan was ordered to be dismissed, and 
Forsyth removed to another station, April, i 
The Kooka leaders claim 800,000 followers; 
the probable number is about one-tenth, 


KORAN cor ALcoRAN (AL KURAN); 
sacred book of the Mahometans, was written ab 
610, by Mahomet (who asserted that it had b 
revealed to him by the angel Gabriel in twen 
three years), and published by Abu-bekr about ( 
Its general aim was to unite the professors of idol: 
and the Jews and Christians in the worship of 
God (whose unity was the chief point ineuleate 
under certain laws and ceremonies, exacting 0 
dience to Mahomet as the prophet. The leading 
ticle of faith preached is compounded of an ete 
truth and a necessary fiction, namely, that ther 
only one God, and that Mahomet is the apostleofG 
Gibbon. The Koran was translated into Latin 
1143; into French, 1647; into English by 5 
1734; and into other European languages, I 


4 


aad 


KOREISH. 


487 


KYRLE SOCIETY. 


. It is a rhapsody of 6000 verses, divided 
14 sections; see Mahometanism, &e. 


YREISH, an Arab tribe which had the charge 
Caaba, or shrine of the sacred stone of Mecca, 
trenuously opposed the pretensions of Maho- 
It was defeated by him and his adherents, 
0. 

ISSOVA, see Cossova. 

ISZTA AFFATR. Martin Koszta, a Hunga- 
efugee, when in the United States in 1850, 
ed his intention of becoming an American 
n, and went through the preliminary forms. 
53 he visited Smyrna, and on 21 June was 
by a boat’s crew of the Austrian brig Huzzar. 
rection of the American minister at Constan- 
le, captain Ingraham of the American sloop S¢. 
, demanded his release ; but having heard that 
risoner was to be clandestinely transported 
ieste, he demanded his surrender by a certain 
and prepared to attack the Austrian vessel on 
y; Koszta was then given up. On I Aug., the 
jan government protested against these pro- 
ngs in a circular addressed to the European 
3, but eventually a compromise was effected, 
‘oszta returned to the United States. 


meee ik, the site of the ancient Nineveh 
h see). 

RAAT, a Dutch name for a South African 
re. See Zululand. 


RAKATOA, see Java, 1883. 


RAO. A hairy female Burmese child exhi- 
at the Westminster Aquarium, Jan. 1883; 
‘ht incorrectly by some to be a specimen of 
nissing link between man and the anthropoid 


RASNOI (central Russia). Here the French 
ted the Russians, 15 Aug. 1812; and here they 
themselves defeated after a series of conflicts, 
Noy. following. 


REASOTE, see Creasote. 
REMLIN, a palace at Moscow, built by De- 
, grand-duke of Russia, about 1376. It was 


; down in Sept. 1812, and rebuilt in 1816; 
y burnt about 23 July, 1879. 


RIEGSPIEL, see War Game. 
ROMSCHRODER GAS, a new hydro- 


n (air saturated with petroleum spirit), was 
in May, 1873, at Great Marlow, for street 
ing, and reported successful. The gas was 
to be cheap and quickly generated, the com- 
on giving a brilliant white smokeless light. 


ROUMIRS, see Tunis. 


| 27 Jan. 1881, 


KRUPP’S Cast Sree Factory, Essen, 
Rhenish Prussia, established, 1810. About 10,500 
men employed, exclusive of about 5000 miners and 
others (1876). 


KRYPTOGRAPH, see Cryptograph. 
KU KUX KLAN, the name of a secret society 


in the southern states of the Union, principally in 
Tennessee in North America, bitterly opposed to the 
ruling men. Early in 1868, this society issued lists 
of proscribed persons, who, if they did not quit the 
country after warning, became liable to assassination. 
General Grant endeavoured to suppress this society 
in April. Its repression by the militia in Arkansas 
was ordered, Nov. 1868, and it became the subject 
of legislation at Washington, June, 1871. 


KULDJA, 2 revolted province of China; was 
seized by Russia in 1871, and restored by treaty 
in 1879. 

KULTUR-KAMPEH, the conflict in Prussia 
respecting worship, see Prussia, 1873, ¢¢ seq. 

KUNNERSDORF, BATTLE OF, see_ Cun- 


nersdorf. 
KUNOBITZA, in the Balkan. Here John 


Hunniades, the Hungarian, defeated the Turks, 24 
Dec. 1443. 


KURDISTAN, Western Asia (the ancient 
Assyria), subject partly to Turkey and Persia. 
In Oct. 1880, the Kurds, savage tribes, nominai 
Mahometans, invaded and ravaged Persia, and 
were subdued after fierce conflicts with their chief, 
Obeid-ullah, a Turkish sheikh, Nov. Dec. 1880. 
In 1881 he went to Constantinople and was well re- 
ceived, but kept ina kind of honourable restraint, 
Sept. 1881. In Sept. 1882 he escaped to Kurdistan 
and incited the Kurds to revolt against Persia; « 
captured by the Turks; rescued by his son, Nov. 
1882; said to have died at Mecca in 1883. 


KURRACHEE, a flourishing port in N. W. 
India, was taken by the British, 3 Feb. 1839. 


KUSHK-I-NAKHUD, see Maiwand. 


~KUSTRIN or Custrin (Prussia), a fortified 
town, besieged and burnt by the Russians, 22 Aug. 
1758; taken by the French in 1806; given up, 1814. 


KYRLE SOCIETY (named after John Kyrle, 
who died 1724, extolled by Pope as the Man of 
Ross), started by Misses Miranda and Octavia Hill 
in 1875, and founded in 1877 by prince Leopold, 
princess Louise, the duke of Westminster, and 
others, with the object of “bringing beauty home 
to the people,’’ by means of decorative art, gar- 
dening, music, &c. First public meeting held 
Met 24 March, 1884. 


L. 


Tits. 


L. s. d. see Coin. 
LABARUM, see Standards. 
LABORATORY. The Royal Institution labo- 


ratory, the first of any importance in London, was 
established in 1800, and rebuilt, 1872. In it were 
made the discoveries of Davy, Faraday, Tyndall, 
and Frankland ; see Royal Institution. The Royal 
Laboratory, Woolwich Arsenal, was re-organised in 


1855. 
LABOURERS, STATUTE OF, regulating 


wages, enacted 1349, 1357. A conference of philan- 
thropists on the condition of agricultural labourers 
was held at Willis’s‘rooms, Westminster, 28 March, 
1868. LanourinG CuassEes Dwelling House acts, 
passed, 1855, and May, 1866; see Agriculture, 
Artisans, and Working-men. 


LABRADOR (North America), discovered by 
Sebastian Cabot, 1497; visited by Corte Real in 


Much distress through famine reported Sept. 1884. 


LABUAN, an Asiatic island, N. W. Borneo; 
eeded to the British in 1846, and given up to sir 
James Brooke in 1848. The bishopric was founded 
1855. Governor, John Pope Hennessy, 1867, sir H. 
E. Bulwer, 1871; Herbert Taylor Usher, 1875; 
Chas. Cameron Lees, 1879; P. Leys, 1884; see 
Borneo. 


LABURNUM, Cytisus Laburnum, called also 
the golden chain, was brought to these countries 
from Hungary, Austria, &c., about 1576. Ashe. 


LABYRINTHS. Four are mentioned: the 
first, said to have been built by Dedalus, in the 
island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 
B.c.; the second, of Arsinoe, in Egypt, in the isle 
of Mceris, by Psammeticus, king of that place, about 
683 B.c.; the third, at Lemnos, remarkable for its 
sumptuous pillars, which seems to have been a sta- 
lactite grotto; and the fourth, at Clusium, in Italy, 
erected by Porsenna, king of Ktruria, about 520 B.c. 
Piny. The labyrinth of Woodstock is connected 
with the story of Fair Rosamond; see Rosamond. 
The Maze at Hampton Court, was formed in the 16th 
century. 


LACE of very delicate texture was made in 
France and Flanders in 1320. Its importation into 
England was prohibited in 1483; but it was used 
in the court costume of Elizabeth’sreign. Dresden, 
Valenciennes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been 
famous for their fine lace. An ounce weight of 
Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four 
pounds in London; and its value, when manufac- 
tured, has been increased to forty pounds, ten times 
the price of standard gold. A framework knitter of 
Nottingham, named Hammond, is said to have in- 
vented a mode of applying his stocking-frame to the 
manufacture of lace from studying the lace on his 
wife’s cap, about 1768. Macculloch. So many 
improvements have been made.in this manufacture, 
particularly by Heathcote (1809, 1817, &c.), Morley 
and Leaver (1811, &c.), that a piece of lace which 
about 1809 cost 17/. may now be had for 7s. (1853). 
Ure. The process of ‘‘ gassing’? by which cotton 
lace is said to be made equal to fine linen lace, was 


LAGOS. 


invented by Samuel Hall of Basford, near Not’ 
ham. He died in Noy. 1862. Seguin’s ‘‘ La_ 
telle; Histoire,’ &c., published, 1874. Irish 
exhibition at the Mansion House, London, 25J 
7 July, 1883. Scheme for encouraging the 
lace manufacture supported by the governr 
June, 1884. 

LACEDAMON or Laconta (Tzakonia 
Sparta. 

LA CROSSE. A game of ball, with run 
among the Red Indians of Canada; adopted sv 
sively by the French and English settlers, 
transmitted to the United States and recentlyt 
United Kingdom. Its rules were systematise 
Dr. Beers in 1860. Many clubs have been for 


LACTEALS (absorbent vessels connected 
digestion), were discovered in a dog by J 
Asellius of Cremona, 1622, and their terminati 


\ 


? <N Lets: | the thoracic duct by Pecquet, 1651; see Lymph 
1500; made a Moravian missionary station in 1771. | Mati Nendo yp 


LADIES NATIONAL’ AID ASSOC 


| TION, formed to contribute to the relief o 
_ sick and wounded in the Soudan and Egypt. 


ginated by the duchesses of Buccleuch, St. Al 
and Marlborough, the marchioness of Salisbur 
others, Feb. 1885. See Ard. 


LADOCEA, in Arcadia. Here Cleomene 
king of Sparta, defeated the Achzan league, 22 


LADRONE ISLES (N. Pacific), belong 
Spain, discovered by Magellan, in 1520. H 
touched ‘at the island of Guam. The natives h 
stolen some of his goods, he named the islan 
Ladrones, or Thieves. In the 17th century 
obtained the name of Marianna islands fro 
queen of Spain. . 


LADY. ‘The masters and mistresses of m 
houses, in former times, served out bread to th 
weekly ; and were therefore called Lafords am 
days—signifying bread givers (from hlaf, a 
hence Lords and Ladies. Wedgewood conside1 
fanciful, and derives the words from the 4 
Saxon, laford, lord, and hlefdig, lady.—LaD 
(March 25), a festival instituted about 350, acct 
to some authorities, and not before the 7th ce 
according to others; see Annunciation. The 
which previously began on this day, was orde 
begin on Jan. I, in France in 1564; and in Sco 
by proclamation, on 17 Dec. 1599; but not in 
land till 3 Sept. 1752, when the style was alte 


LADY-BIRDS. About 18th August, 
great flights of these insects alighted on the 
coasts of England, and arrived as far as Lond 
similar event occurred in 1867. 


LAFFELDT, Holland. Here marshal 
defeated the English, Dutch, and Austrians, 2 
1747. 

LAGOS, in the Bight of Benin (Africa) 
assaulted and taken by the boats of a British 
dron, undercommodore Bruce, 26, 27 Dee. 1851 
affair arose out of breaches of a treaty for tb 
pression of the slave-trade. In 1861, the pla 
ceded to the British government, and created 
tlement: Henry Stanhope Freeman, first gov 
see Gold Coast Colony. 


LAGOS BAY. 


GOS BAY (Portugal). Here was fought a | 


between admiral Boscawen and the I'rench 
al De la Clue, who lost both his legs in the 
ement, and died next day, 17, 18 Aug. 1759. 


entaur and Modeste were taken, and the /é- | 


ible and Ocean run on shore and burnt: the 
‘ed remains of the French fleet got into Cadiz. 


HOGUE (correctly Hague) (N. W. France), 
.E OF, 19 May, 1692, when the English and 
fleets under admirals Russell and Rooke, de- 
the French fleet commanded by admiral Tour- 
The English burnt thirteen of the enemy’s 
and destroyed eight more, thus preventing a 
it upon England. 

HORE (N. W. India), was taken by Baber 
1520, and was long the capital of the Mongol 
», It fell into the power of the Sikhs in 1798. 
occupied by sir Hugh Gough, 22 Feb. 1846, 
‘n March concluded a treaty of peace. See 
wr. Visit of the prince of Wales, 15 Jan. 1876. 


ING’S NEK, see Zransvaail, 1881. 
KE DWELLINGS contain relics of the 


iron, and brass ages. Herodotus (about 450 
Jescribed the Peonians as living on platforms 
xe Prasias. In 1855, Dr. Keller discovered 
‘mains of lake habitations which had been sup- 
on piles in several Swiss lakes ages ago. His 
vas published in England in 1866. Similar 

discovered in lake Constance, March 1882; 
have also been discovered in Britain and 
‘sparts of Europe, Africa, and South America; 
‘ye now considered to be evidence of a stage in 
1 progress. The artificial fortified islands 
1 “Crannoges”’ discovered in some Irish lakes 
‘tributed to the 9th and toth centuries. ‘They 
een frequently used as places of refuge. 


KE PORTS, aterm applied to Wordsworth 
“1850), Coleridge (1772-1834), and Southey 
{-1843), from their residence in the neighbour- 
it the lakes of Westmoreland. 


‘KE REGILLUS (Italy), where, tradition 
the Romans defeated the Latin auxiliaries of 
pelled Tarquins, about 499 B.c. 


‘KES CHAMPLAIN, ERIE, anp ON- 
‘IO were the scenes of many actions between 
titish and Americans in the war of independ- 
(about 1776 and 1777), and in the war of 
14. 

-MAISM, the religion of Mongolia and Thibet 
g 1357), is a corrupt form of Buddhism 
h see). 


MBETH PALACE. A considerable por- 
ras built early in the 13th century, by Hubert 
_r, archbishop of Canterbury. The tower of 
-iurch was erected about 1375; and other parts 
| edifice in the 15th century. Simon of Sud- 
archbishop of Canterbury, was killed here by 
llowers of Wat Tyler, who attacked the palace, 
| the furniture and books, and destroyed the 
rs and public papers, 14 June, 1381. The 
| tie portion of the palace was greatly enlarged 
‘chbishop Howley (who died 1848), by Mr. 
} at an expense of 52,000/. The palace was 
| ied after restoration, Oct. 1873; see Canter- 
Articles, and Pan-Anglican Synods. Lam- 
oridge was freed from toll 24 May, 1879. 


‘MIAN WAR, 323 B.c., between Athens 
erallies (excited by Demosthenes, the orator), 
intipater, governor of Macedon, Antipater 
: Lamia, in Thessaly, and was there besieged. 
caped thence and defeated his adversaries at 
N, 322 B.C, 


489 


LANCET. 
LAMMAS-DAY, the 1st of August, one of our 


four cross quarter-days of the year. Whitsuntide 
was the first, Lammas the second, Martinmas the 
third, and Candlemas the last; and such partition 
of the year was once equally common with the pre- 
sent divisions of Ladyday, Midsummer, Michaelmas, 
and Christmas. Some rents are yet payable at each 
of these quarterly days in England, and very gene- 
rally in Scotland. Lammas probably comes from 
the Saxon hlammesse, loaf mass, because formerly 
upon that day our ancestors offered bread made of 
new wheat. Anciently, those tenants that held lands 
of the cathedral church of York were by tenure to 
bring a lamb alive into church at high mass. 


LAMPETER COLLEGE (Cardiganshire), 
was founded by bishop Burgess in 1822, and 
incorporated 1828. Henry James Prince, founder 
of the Agapemone (which see), was one of the 
revivalist Lampeter brotherhood, instituted among 
the students here about 1836. 


LAMPS. The earthen lamp of Epictetus the 
philosopher sold after his death for 3000 drachms. 
Lamps with horn sides said to be the invention of 
Alfred. London streets were first lighted with oil- 
lamps in 1681, and with gas-lamps in 1814. A 
lamp ‘constructed to produce neither smoke nor 
smell, and to give considerably more light than any 
lamp hitherto known,”’ was patented by M. Aimé 


» Argand in 1784, and was brought into general use 


in England early in the present century. On his 
principle are founded the lamps invented by Carcel 
about 1803, and since 1825, the moderator lamps of 
Levavasseur, Hadrot, and Neuburger. See Safety 
Lamp. Paraffin oil and naphtha spirit are now 
much used in lamps. 


LANARK (W. Scotland), was a Roman station, 
and made a royal burgh 1103. 


LANCASHIRE was created a county palatine 
by Edward III. for his son John of Gaunt, who had 
married the daughter of Henry first duke of Lan- 
caster, in 1359, and succeeded him in 1361. The 
court of the duchy chamber of Lancaster was 
instituted in 1376. On the accession of Henry IV. 
in 1399 the duchy merged into the crown. Net 
revenue to the queen in 1883, 44,150/.; total 
receipts, 96,0637. See Cotton. 

LANCASTER, supposed to have been the 
Ad Alaunam of the Romans. Lancaster was 
granted by William I. or II. to Roger de Poitou, 
who erected a castle upon its hill. It was taken 
by the Jacobites, Nov. 1715 and Noy. 1745. It was 
disfranchised for bribery by the Reform act of 
1867. The public park, value about 23,000/., was 
presented by Mr, Jas. Williamson, of Rylands, 21 
Noy. 1881. 


LANCASTERIAN SCHOOLS, based on a 
system of education by means of mutual instruction, 
devised by Joseph Lancaster about 1796, were not 
much patronised till about 1808. The system led 
to the formation of the British and Foreign School 
society, in 1805, whose schools are unsectarian, and 
use the Bible as the only means of religious instruc- 
tion. Lancaster was accidentally killed at New 
York in 1838. 


LANCASTRIANS, see Loses. 
LANCERS, see Regiments. 


LANCET, a weekly medical journal, established 
and edited by Thomas Wakley, surgeon (after- 
wards coroner for Middlesex and M.P. for Finsbury), 
first published 3 Oct. 1823. An injunction obtained 
by Mr. Abernethy against the publication of his 


LAND. 


490 


LANGOBARDI. 


lectures in the ‘‘ Zancet,’’ was dissolved by the lord 
chancellor in 1825. Mr. Wakley died 16 May, 
1862. The proprietors of the ‘‘ Lancet”? have at 
various times employed medical men as commis- 
sioners of enquiry. ‘The reports of the Analytical 
Sanitary Commission of the ‘* Lancet”’ in 1851-54, 
were published by Dr. A. H. Hassall, as ‘‘ Food and 
its Adulterations,” in 1855. ‘The ‘‘ Lancet’? com- 
missioners ({hree physicians) enquired into the 
state of workhouse infirmaries in London, 1865, and 
in the country, 1867. 


LAND is said to have been let generally in 
England for Is. per acre, 36 Hen. VIII. 1544. The 
whole rental of the kingdom was about 6,000,000/. 
in 1600 ; about 14,000,000/. in 1688. In 1798 Mr. 
Pitt proposed his income tax- of 10 per cent. on an 
estimate of 700 millions, taking the rent of land at 
50 millions, that of houses at 10 millions, and the 
profits of trade at 40 millions; but in his estimate 
were exempted much land, and the inferior class of 
houses. The rental of the United Kingdom was 
estimated at 59,500,000/. in 1851. Anact for ren- 
dering the transfer of land more easy was passed in 
1862; see Agriculture, Domesday, old and new. 


A species of Land-tax was exacted in England in the 
ioth century, which produced 82,000l. (see Dwie- 
gelt) in : : 2 : j - LOLS 
Land Banks were proposed by Yarrantonin . - 1648 
The Land-tax grew out of a subsidy scheme of 4s. in 
the pound (which produced 500,000l. in 1692), im- 
posed . : : ; : 3 ‘ d pt 
Ministers were left in a minority in the House of 
Commons on the land-taux bill in 1767; it being 
the first instance of the kind on a money bill 
since the Revolution. Its rate varied in different 
years from 1s. to 4s. in the pound 
Mr. Pitt made the tax perpetual at 4s. in the pound, 
but introduced his plan for its redemption, 
2 April, 
The tax in 1810 produced 1,418,337l. ; in 1820, 
1,338,420l. ; in 1830, 1,423,6181. ; in 1840, 1,298,622. ; 
in 1852, 1,151,613. ; ‘in year 1872-3, 1,108,225]. 
in 1875-6, 1,090,177/. From the Revolution to the 
year 1800, the land-tax had yielded 227,000,000l. 
Land-tax and house-duty (to 31 March), in 1875, 
2,440,000l. ; 1876, 2,496,o00l. ; 1877, 2,532,000l. ; 
1878, 2,670,000l. ; 1879, 1,075,511/. (land tax only). 
Land Allotments. Lord Braybrooke’s successful 
experiment in Essex, of allotting small portions 
of land to poor families, to assist them and relieve 
the parish poor-rates i : : 3 a oe 
{The little colony was first called Pauper Gardens, 
but afterwards New Village, and it is calculated 
that 200l. per annwm were saved to the parish. ] 
Landed Estates Court, established to “facilitate the 
sale and transfer of land in Ireland” (see Hnewm- 
bered Estates Act) : : ‘ : . Sed 
The Land Registry office for transfer of land opened 
in 1862; reported to be a failure by a commission, 


1699 


1798 


1819 


March, 1870 
‘LAND TENURE ReFoRM LEAGUE held its. first 
meeting, John Stuart Mill in the chair, 15 May, 1871 


Bill to facilitate sale and transfer of land by means 
of registration brought in by lord chancellor Sel- 
borne, 29 April, 1873; by lord chancellor Cairns, 

26 March, 

The transfer of land in Scotland facilitated by the 
conveyancing act passed = : De TAS, Aiats 3 

Agricultural holding act and land transfer act for 
England passed. : ! é PP eLIs Aue 

4 bills respecting land introduced by lord chancellor 

23 Feb. 1880 

Owners of Land in England and Wales (exclusive of 
the metropolis), of less than one acre, 703,289; 
one acre and more, 269,547. Estimated value, 
124,000,000l. ; tithes—estimated, 5,000, 000l. 

Settled Land Act passed . . : : = : 

{Tenants for life acquire power to sell or lease and 
use the proceeds. ] 

A new land commission unites in one body the En- 
closure, Copyhold, and Tithes commissions 

New Agricultural Holdings Act passed : rae 

Nationalization of the land advocated by the Trade 


1882 


” 


83 


Union Congress, 1882; negatived by the same at 
Nottingham (90-34) . ; 14 Sept. 


LAND CREDIT COMPANY (for Sile 
established by Frederick the Great; see On 
Fonciéres, 1763. 

LAND LAW ACT, see Zrish Land Law. 


LANDEN _or NEERWINDEN _ (Belgi 
Near here the French under marshal Luxemb: 
defeated the allies, commanded by William IU 
England, chiefly through the cowardice of 
Dutch, 19 July (N.S. 29), 1693. ‘The duke of 
wick, illegitimate son of James II., fighting on 
side of France, was taken prisoner. 


LANDGRAVE (from land and gra 
count), a German title, which commenced in 
with Louis III. of Thuringia, and became the 
of the house of Hesse about 1263. 


LAND LEAGUE, see under Leagues 
Ireland, 1879. 


LANDLORD, see Rent. 


LANDLORD AND. TENANT ACT 
land), passed 1 Aug. 1870. 


LAND NATIONALIZATION 
CIETY, formed at Westminster 16 Jan. 1882. 
object has been warmly advocated by Mr. H 
George in his ‘‘ Progress and Poverty,”’ publ 
Feb. 1881, and since. He condemns compensa 
He met about 2,000 men at the Royal Exch: 
London, 17 Jan. 1885. 


LANDSHUT (Silesia), where the Prus 
were defeated by the Austrians under ma. 
Laudohn, 23 June, 1760. 


LANDSLIPS. Landslips are due to dee 
the rocks or excessive saturation of the soi 
rain. : ; 
Rossberg mountain behind the Rigi slipped down, 

burying villages and hamlets with above 800 i- 

habitants é : F a, ; 
Lyme Regis, Dorset, a strip of chalk cliff three- 

fourths of a mile long, between roo and 150 feet 


high, undermined by rain, slid forward on the 
beach, carrying fields, houses, and trees 
24—27 Dee. 
Naini or Nynee Tal, a sanitary hill-station in the 
Himalayas, India, was destroyed by the descent 
of the mountain ; about 30 valuable British lives 
(including major Martin Morphy, col. Fred. Sher- 
wood Taylor, and capts. F. T Goodeve, H. 8. F. 
Haynes, and A. Balderston) and 200 natives 
perished. . : ‘ : ? 18 Sept. 
Near Northwich, Cheshire, salt works stopped 
6 Dec. et seq. 
Eln, Glarus Canton; fall of about 30 houses; above 
150 persons perished .. ; rr Sept. 
LANDWEHR (German, land-defence), 
militia of Germany, especially of Prussia, W 
was very effective in the war with Austria in | 
and in that with France in 1870. No ranks 11 
are exempt from this service, and many perso! 
foreign countries returned to serve in 1870. 


LANGDALE’S ACT, Lorp, 7 Will. I 
t Vict..c. 26 (1837), relates to copyholds, &e. 


LANGENSALZA (N. Germany). Her 
Hanoverian army on its way to join the Bava: 
was attacked by the Prussians, who were def 
with the loss of about a thousand killed 
wounded, and AG prisoners, 27 June, 1866. 

| victory was of little avail, for the Hanove: 
| were soon surrounded by Falckenstein, and | 
pelled to capitulate on honourable terms © 
June. 


| LANGOBARDI, see Lombards. 


i | 


LANGSIDE. 


NGSIDE (S. Scotland), where the forces 
regent of Scotland, the earl of Murray, de- 
the army of Mary queen of Scots, 13 May, 
Mary fled to England and crossed the Solway 
landing at Workington, in Cumberland, 16 
Soon afterwards she was imprisoned by 


eth. 


NGUAGE must either have been revealed 
lly from heaven, or the fruit of human 
ion. The latter opinion is embraced by 
», Lucretius, Cicero, and most of the Greek 
man writers; the former by the Jews and 
ians, and many modern philosophers. Some 
e Hebrew to have been the language spoken 
im; others say that the Hebrew, Chaldee, 
‘abic are only dialects of the original tonguc. 
the whole earth was of one language and of 
sech,” Genesis xi. 1.* George I. in 1724, and 
: II. in 1736, appointed regius professors of 
1 languages and of history to each of the 
sities of England. 


iginal European languages were thirteen, viz. : 
<, Latin, German, Sclavonian, spoken in the east ; 
h; Biscayan, spoken in Spain; Irish; Albanian, 
ae mountains of Epirus; Tartarian; the old 
an; the Jazygian, remaining yet in Liburnia ; the 
cin, in the north of Hungary ; and the Finnie, in 
Friesland. 

he Latin sprang the Italian, French, Spanish, and 
iguese. 

rkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. 

he Teutonic sprang the present German, Danish, 
ish, Norwegian, English, Scotch, &e¢. 

re 3424 known languages, or rather dialects, in 
vorld. Of these, 937 are Asiatic ; 587 European ; 
frican ; and 1624 American languages and dialects. 
ng. 

and 1862 professor Max Miiller lectured on the 
ence of Language” at the Royal Institution, 
on. He divides languages into three families :— 


2YAN (in Sanskrit, noble). 

m Division. India (Prakrit, and Pali ; Sanskrit ; 
ets of India ; Gipsy). 

‘Parsi ; Armenian, &c.). 

” Division. Celtic (Cymric: Cornish, Welsh, 
t, Gaelic, Breton, &c). 

Osean; Latin ; Umbrian ;—Italian, Spanish, Por- 
ase, French, &c.). 

(Albanian). 

¢ (Greek, and its dialects). 

| (Lettie: Old Prussian ; Slavonic dialects,— 
mian, Russian, Polish, Lithuanian, &c.). 

ic (High German : Modern German ; Low German : 
ie; Anglo-Saxon; Dutch; Frisian; English. 
linavian: Old Norse, Danish, Swedish, Nor- 
in, Icelandic). 

RMITIC : Southern. Arabie (including Ethiopic 
\mharic). Middle. Hebraic (Hebrew, Samaritan, 
jician inscriptions). Northerw. Aramaic (Chaldee, 
— inscriptions of Babylon and 
veh). 


Turani4n (from Tura, swiftness). 

‘n” Division. Tungusic (Chinese, &c.) ; Mongolic ; 
ie; Samoyedic, and Finnic. 

n Division. Taic (Siamese, &c.) ; (Himalayas) ; 
yie (Polynesia, &c.); Gangetic; Lonitic (Bur- 
_, &.); Munda; Tamulic. 


NGUE D'OC, see Zroubadours. 
NGUEDOC (a province, S. France), 


(part of the Roman Gallia Narbonensis; was 
othia, as having been held by the Visi- 


“nent Linguists—Anas Montanus, editor of the 
| 7 Polyglott Bible (1527-98); sir Wm. Jones 
4); Cardiual Giuseppe Mezzofanti (1774-1849) is 
» have known 114 languages or dialects, and 50 
ba: Niebuhr (1776-1831) knew 20 languages in 
nd more afterwards ; Hans Conon vonder Gabe- 
new many languages critically: he died 3 Sept. 
zed nearly 67. 


491 


LA ROTHIERE. 


goths 409, who were expelled by the Saracens, in 


turn driven out by Charles Martel in the 8th cen- 
tury. In the dark ages the country was named 
Septimania (probably from its containing seven 
important towns) : afterwards Languedoc (from its 
dialect, see Zrowbadowrs), about 1270, when an- 
nexed to the monarchy. It suffered during the 
persecutions of the Albigenses and Huguenots. 

LANSDOWN, near Bath (Somersetshire). 
The parliamentary army under sir Wim. Waller was 
here defeated, 5 July, 1643. 

LANTERNS of scraped horn were invented in 
England, it is said, by Alfred; and it is supposed 
that horn was used for window lights also, as glass 
was not generally known, 872-901. Stow. London 
was lighted by suspended lanterns with glass sides, 
I4I5s. 

LANTHANUM, a rare metal discovered in 


the oxide of cerium, by Mosander in 1839. 
LAOCOON, an exquisite work of Grecian art, 


in marble, modelled by Agesander, Athenodorus, 
and Polydorus, all of Rhodes, and other eminent 


statuaries (about A.D. 70); it represents the death 
of the Trojan hero, Laocodn, priest of Neptune, 
and his two sons, as described by Virgil. diners, 
ii. 200. It was discovered in 1506 in the Sette 
Salle near Rome, and purchased by pope Julius Il. 
It is now in the Vatican. 


LAODICEA, see Seven Churches. 


LAON (N. France). A succession of actions 
between the allies (chiefly the Prussians) and the 
French, was fought under the walls of the town, 
which ended in the defeat of the latter with great 
loss, 9-10 March, 1814. Laon surrendered to the 
Germans 9 Sept. 1870. As the last man of the 
garde mobile left the citadel, a French soldier, in 
contravention of the capitulation, blew up the 
powder magazine, causing great destruction to the 
town and fortress. The grand-duke William of 
Mecklenburg Schwerin was bruised, and 95 German 
riflemen and 300 French gardes mobiles were killed 
or wounded; general Theremin Du Hame, the com- 
mander, was wounded. The French attributed the 
explosion to accident. 


LA PEROUSE’S VOYAGE. In 1785 La 
Perouse sailed from France for the Pacific, with 
the Boussole and Astrolabe under his command, 
and was last heard of from Botany Bay, in March, 
1788. Several expeditions were subsequently de- 
spatched in search of Perouse; but no certain in- 
formation was obtained until captain Dillon, of the 
East India ship Research, ascertained that the 
French ships had been cast away on the New 
Hebrides, authenticated by articles which he 
brought to Calcutta, 9 April, 1828. 

LAPLAND or SAMELAND (N. Europe), 
nominally subject to Norway in the 13th century, 
and now to Sweden and Russia. Several Lap- 
landers were exhibited at the Westminster Aqua- 
rium, Nov. 1877. 

LA PLATA, see Argentine Republic, and 
Wrecks, 1874. 

LARCENY, French, darcen; Latin, Jatro- 
cinium ; see Theft. 

LARENTALIA, see Laurentalia. 


LARGS (Ayrshire, §. Scotland). Here the 
great expedition of Haco of Norway was finally 
defeated by Alexander III. after a succession of 
skirmishes, 3 Oct. 1263. 


LA ROTHIERE (France). Here the French, 


LARYNGOSCOPE. 


commanded by Napoleon, defeated the Prussian 
and Russian armies, with great loss, after a despe- 
rate engagement, I Feb. 1814. This was one of 
Napoleon’s last victories. 


LARYNGOSCOPE, an instrument consist- 
ing of a concave mirror, by which light is thrown 
upon a small plane mirror placed .in the pos- 
terior part of the cavity of the mouth. By its 
means the vocal chords of the interior of the 
larynx, &c., are exhibited, and have been photc- 
graphed. It was invented by Mr. Manuel Garcia, 
and reported to the Royal Society 24 May, 1855. 
One constructed by Dr. Tiirek was greatly modified, 
in 1857, by Dr. Czermak, who exhibited its suc- 
cessful action in London in 1862. A similar appa- 
ratus is said to have been constructed by Mr. John 
Avery, a surgeon in London, in 1846. 


LA SALETTEH, see Pilgrimages. 


LATERAN, a church at Rome, dedicated to 
St. John, ‘‘the mother of ald the churches,’”’ was 
originally a palace of the Laterani, a Roman family, 
and was given to the bishops of Rome by Constan- 
tine, and inhabited by them till their removal to 


the Vatican in 1377. Eleven councils have been 
held there. 


LATHE. The invention is ascribed to Talus, 
a grandson of Dedalus, about 1240 B.c. Pliny 
ascribes it to Theodore of Samos, abeut 600 B.c, 
Great improvements have been made in recent 
times. 


LATHOM-HOUSE (Lancashire), was 
heroically defended for three months against the 
parliamentarians, by Charlotte, countess of Derby. 

he was relieved by prince Rupert, 27 May, 1644. 
The house was, however, surrendered 4 Dec. 1645, 
and dismantled. 


LATIN KINGDOM, Emptre, &c., see La- 


tiwm, astern Empire 1204, and Jerusalem. 


LATIN LANGUAGE (founded on the Oscan, 
Etruscan, and Greek), one of the original languages 
of Europe, and from which sprang the Italian, 
French, and Spanish; see Latiwm. <A large por- 
tion of our language is derived from the Latin. 


It ceased to be spoken in Italy about 581; and was | 


first taught in England by Adelmus, brother of 
Ina, in the 7th century. 
deeds in England gave way to the common tongue 
about 1000; was revived in the reign of Henry II. ; 


The use of Latin in law | 


and again was replaced by English in the reign of | 
Henry III. It was finally discontinued in religious | 


worship in 1558, and in conveyancing and in courts 
of law in 1731 (by 4 Geo. II. c. 25). A corrupt 


92 LAUREL. 


| Defeated by Romans near Lake Regillus 


Latin is still spoken in Roumelia. The foreign pro- | 
_ conquered from the Wends by Henry the Li 


nunciation of Latin (@, ah; e, a; i, e, &c.) was 


adopted in English universities and many schools 


about 1875-6. 
PRINCIPAL LATIN WRITERS. 


Died | Died | 

Plautus . B.C. 184 Ovid Lars S 
Ennius ; - . 169 | Paterculus 31 
Terence . (flowrished) 166 | Persius 62 
Cato the Elder - 149! Lucan . 65 
Lucilius » 103 | Seneca! . : ganas 
Lucretius 52, Pliny the Elder . 4 
Julius Cesar 44 | Quintilian (jlowrished) 80 
Cicero 43 | Valerius Flaccus ,, 81 
Catullus 40 | Pliny the Younger ,, . 100 
Sallust 4 ; ?. 34 | Statius . (about) roo 
Vitruvius (flourished) 27) Tacitus . (flowrished) too 
Propertius . . 26|Silius Italicus . OL 
Virgil 19| Martial . (flowrished) 104 
Tibullus . 18 | Suetonius (about) 120 
Horace A 4 SR Oupetivenal vw < #128 
Celsus (flowrished) A.D. 17! Aulus Gellius 

Livy . Bi bh ate: (flourished) 169 


| 69°493 miles. 


Died | 
Apuleius +. 174.| Macrobius sis 
Ammianus Marcellinus 390 | Boethius . . 
Claudian . 408 


(See Fathers of the Church.) 
LATIN UNION (Monetary), that of F 


Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland, to maintai: 
use of the same coinage, from 1865 to 1880. 


LATITAT, an ancient writ, directin; 
sheriff to apprehend persons to be brought] 
the king’s bench court, had its name from its 
supposed that the person was lying hid, and 
not be found in the county to be taken by 
The writ was abolished by the Uniformity of 
cess act, 23 May, 1832. 

LATITUDE. First determined by Hi 
chus of Nice, about 162 B.c. It is the ext 
the earth or the heavens, reckoned from the 
tor to either pole. Maupertuis, in 1737, in la 
66:20 measured a degree of latitude, and m: 
Swanberg, in 1803, made it 6 
At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers mi 
68°732; and Lambton, in latitude 12, madeit6 
Mudge, in England, made it 69°148. Cassi 
France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69°12; and 
68:769; whilearecent measurement in Spain1 
it but 68°63—less than at the equator, and 
dicts all others, proving the earth to be a p 
spheroid (which was the opinion of Cassini, 
noulli, Euler, and others), instead of an ¢ 
spheroid ; see Longitude. 


LATITUDINARIANS, a name giy 
certain theologians who endeavoured to rec 
the church and nonconformists in the 17th 
tury, such as Hales, Chillingworth, Tillotsor 
Burnet. 


LATIUM, now CAMPANIA (Italy), the 
try of Latinus, king of Janiculum, 124¢ 
Laurentum was the capital of the countryi 
reign of Latinus, Lavinium in that of Anea: 
Alba in that of Ascanius; see Italy, and Rom 
The Latins ally with Rome . . (about) B. ¢ 
Join Porsenna to restore Tarquin IT. : 
. 4980 
League with the Romans, 463 ; desert them ii 

trouble, 388; union restored A : 
Defeated in war, 340, 339; subdued and incorpo 

rated with Rome : ; . - 
Obtain Roman citizenship . A : . 


LA TRAPPH, see Trappists. 
LATTER-DAY SAINTS, see dormor 
LAUDANUM, see Opiwm. 
LAUENBURG, a duchy, N. Germany 


Saxony, about 1152; ceded to Hanover, 1689 
corporated with the French empire, 1810; ce: 
Denmark, 1815; annexed by Prussia, 14 Aug. 
possession taken 15 Sept. following; see Ga 
Population in 1855, 50,147. 

LAUFACH, Bavaria (S. W. Germany) 
taken by the Prussians under Wrangel, on 13 
1866, after a sharp action, in which the He 
were defeated, the Prussian needle gun beims¢ 
efficacious. 


LAUNDRY, London and Provincial § 
Laundry, Battersea, erected by a company; ° 
in 1880; and others since. 


LAUREATH, see Poet Laureate. 


LAUREL was sacred to Apollo, god of p: 
and from the earliest times the poets, and ge 
of armies, when victors, were crowned with | 


LAURENTALISA. 


sh was crowned with laurel, 8 April, 1341.— | 
runus laurocerasus was brought to Britain 
he Levant, before 1629; the Portugal laurel, 
3 lusitanica, before 1648; the royal bay, 
; indica, from Madeira, 1665; the Alexan- 
aurel, Ruscus racemosus, from Spain, before 
the glaucous laurel, Laurus aggregata, from 
1806 or 1821. 


JRENTALIA were festivals celebrated at 
in honour of Acca Laurentia, or Larentia, 

have been either the nurse of Romulus and 
, or a rich dissolute woman, who bequeathed 
yperty to the Roman people. The festival 
need about 621 B.c., and was held on the 
y of April and the 23rd of December. 


JRIUM MINES, see Greece, 1872. 
JRUSTINUS, Viburnum Tinus, an ever- 


shrub, was brought to England from the 
f Europe, before 1596. 


JSANNE, capital of the canton of Vaud, 
rland. Here Gibbon completed his ‘* Decline 
all,’ 27 June, 1787. The International 
len’s congress assembled here Sept. 1867. 


VALETTA, see Malta. 
VALETTE’S ESCAPE. Count Lava- 


for joining the emperor Napoleon on his 
in 1815, was condemned to death, but escaped 
rison in the clothes of his wife, 20 Dec. 1815. 
yert Wilson, Mr. Michael Bruce, and captain 
Hutchinson, aiding the escape, were sen- 

to three months’ imprisonment in the 
capital, 24 April,1816. Lavalette was per- 
to return to France in 1820, and died in 
ent in 1830. 


VENDEE (W. France). The French 
ts of La Vendée took arms in March, 1793, 
ere successful in a number of hard-fought 

with the republicans, between 12 July, 
und I Jan. 1794, when they experienced a 
reverse. Their leader, Henri comte de La- 
quelin, was killed, 4 March, 1794. A short 
vas made at La Jaunay, 17 Feb. 1795. The 
is terminated by gen. Hoche in 1796, and a 
of peace was signed at Lugon, 17 Jan. 1800; 
uaNS. 


VENDER, Lavandula spica, brought from 
th of Europe, before 1568. 


W, see Canons, Codes, Common Law, Civil 
wieme, Digest, Supreme Court. The Jewish 
8 given by God, and promulgated by Moses, 
G 


‘'s of Phoroneus, in the kingdom of Argos 
B.C.), were the first Attic laws ; they were 
ed to a system by Draco, for the Athenians, 
0. ; whose code was superseded by that of 
» 594 B.C. 

utan laws of Lycurgus were made about 
©. ; they remained in full foree for about 
‘ars, and formed a race totally different from 
1ers living in civilised society. 

nan laws of Servius Tullius 566 B.c. were 
led by the Twelve Tables published in 449 
md remained in force till Justinian, nearly 
isand year's. 


BRITISH LAWS. 
tish laws of earliest date were translated 
jhe Saxon in . i : : ° A.D. 
ws of Ina published about . : Psek 
code of laws, the foundation of the common 
€ England, is said to have been arranged 
about 886 
IO50-1065 
aeIE30: 
1154 and 1175 


59° 
6go 


| the Confessor collected the laws . 
's charter of general liberties ° 
I.’s confirmation of it 


493 


LAW. 


The maritime laws of Richard I. (see Oleron) . - IIQ5 

Magna Charta, by king John, rer 5; confirmed by 
Henry ILI. 1216 et seg. (see Magna Charta, and 
Forests Charter). 

Lord Mansfield, lord chief justice of the king’s 
bench, declared, ‘‘That no fiction of law shall 
ever so far prevail against the real truth of the 
fact, as to prevent the execution of justice,” 

21 May, 

Many legal technicalities we got rid of by 14 & 15 
Vict. ¢. 100. The act for the improvement of the 
adininistration of criminal justice, passed 7 Aug. 


LAWYERS. 
Pleaders of the bar, or barristers, are said to have 
been first appointed by Edward I. ; hte 
*“No man of the law ” to sit in parliament, by stat. 
of 46 Edward III. and 6 Hen. IV. ‘ : é 
This prohibition was declared to be invalid by Coke 
and unconstitutional by Blackstone; attention was 
drawn to it in July, 1871; and the statutes were 
repealed . : : : 3 ; 2 nee 
Serjeants, the highest members of the bar, were alone 
permitted to plead in the court of common pleas. 
The first king’s counsel under the degree of ser- 
jeant was sir Francis Bacon, in c ‘ - 1604 
Law Association charity for widows founded in. 1817 
Incorporated Law Society formed in 1823 ; plan en- 
larged, 1825: a charter obtained, 1831 ; renewed, 
1845. The building in Chancery-lane, from the 
designs of Vulliamy, was commenced in , =) eA bebe. 
Juridical Society established in : é : + 1855 
Law Times, established F 8 April, 1843 
Law Journal . : ; : : : - dan. 1866 
The establishment of a legal university strongly 
advocated by the lord chancellor and others, Jan. 
The council of legal education put forth a scheme 


1871 


1871 


involving many changes : : 3 . Nov. 1872 
Legal Practitioners’ Society, established . Nov. 1873 
See Barrister, Counsel. 

LAW REFORM. 
Law AMENDMENT Society, founded in 1843. It holds 


meetings during the session of parliament, and pub- 
lishes a journal and reports. Its first chairman was 
lord Brougham, who introduced the subject of Law 
Reform by a most eloquent speech in the house of 
commons, on 7 Feb. 1828. Many acts for Law Reform 
have been passed since, and vigorous measures pro- 
posed. 

Royal commission to inquire into the operation and con- 
stitution of the English courts of law, &c. issued 18 
Sept. 1867. 

The Judicature Commission (appointed 1867) recom- 
mended the consolidation of all the superior courts 
into one supreme court divided into chambers, April, 
1869. It issued its fifth and last report, Sept. 1874. 

The High Court of Justice Bill introduced into the house 
of lords, 18 March, 1870, was dropped near the end of 
the session. 

Royal Commission on the administrative departments of 
Courts of Justice (Lord Lisgar and others) appointed, 
4 Oct., 1873. 

Supreme Court of Judicature Bill introduced by lord 
chancellor Selborne for establishing a High Court of 
Justice, and a High Court of Appeal 13 Feb., passed 
5 Aug. 1873. 

Its operation deferred from 2 Nov., 1874 to 1 Nov., 1875 

The abolition of the House of Lords as an Appeal 
Court rescinded : : ; , : 1875 

Cominission on Legal Procedure; report, recom- 
mending simplifying changes, published 8 Oct. 188r 

New rule issued : : ; 4 - . July, 1883 

International commission on judicial reform recom- 
mends the establishment of an international 
tribunal for dealing with foreigners, except in 
capital cases : : : May, 1884 
See Supreme Court for details. 

Law-Courts.—Commissioners appointed in 1859 reported 
in favour of the concentration of the law-courts in 
London, on a site near Carey-street, Chancery-lane, 
about 7 acres, on which stood about 400 houses. 
The estimated expense was about 1,500,000l., which it 
was recommended to take from the accumulated 
Chancery fund, termed ‘‘ Suitors’ fund.” Acts of par- 
liament to carry out the plan were passed in 1865 and 
1866. 

Competitive designs were invited, and after much dis- 


. . 


t 4 
5 
: 
. 


a 


LAW’S BUBBLE. 


494 


LEAGUES. 


eussion (public and professional), Mr. Street’s design 
was selected, 30 May, 1868; much attacked, but ap- 
proved by the commission, Aug. 1870; contracts signed 
17 Feb. 1874, and the works were begun immediately 


by Bull and Son, to be finished in 1881. 


There were to be 18 courts, varying in size; a central hall, 
231 feet long, 48 feet wide, 30 feet high; principal 


entrance in the Strand. ‘ 
Offices in Eastern Block occupied 21 April, 1879. 
Buildings completed, Oct. 1882. 
Opened by the queen, 4 Dec. 1882. 


All the buildings constitute by statute the Palace of 


Justice. 
The Courts occupied Hilary sittings, 11 Jan. 1883. 


Law Reports: A new and more economical plan of 
preparing and publishing law reports was_ finally 
adopted by a committee of barristers on 11 March, 1865 


(see Year-books). 


Law Terms, see Terms, abolished. by Supreme Court of 


Judicature Act, 5 Aug. 1873. 


International Law, see Neutral Powers and International 


Law. 


Expenditure for law and justice from the public purse ex- 


clusive of county rates, in the year 1865-6, 2,344,540l. 
Courts of Justice: salaries, &¢., one year (to 31 March, 

1877), 631,791. 

LAW’S BUBBLE. John Law, of Edinburgh 
(born 1681), was made comptroller-general of the 
tinances of France, upon the strength of a scheme 
for establishing a bank, and an East India and a 
Mississippi company, by the profits of which the 
national debt of France was to be paid off. See 
Mississippi. He first offered his plan to Victor 
Amadeus, king of Sardinia, who told him he was 
not powerful enough to ruin himself. The French 
ministry accepted it; and in 1716, he opened a 
bank in his own name, under the protection of the 
duke of Orleans, regent of France, and the de- 
luded rich subscribed for shares both in the bank 
and the companies. In 1718 Law’s was declared 
a royal bank, and the shares rose to upwards of 
twenty-fold the original value; so that, in 17109, 
they were worth more than eighty times the amount 
of all the current specie in France. In 1720 this 
fabric of false credit fell to the ground, spreading 
ruin throughout the country. Law died in poverty 
at Venice in 1729.—The South Sea Bubble in Eng- 
land occurred in 1720; see South Sea. 


LAWN TENNIS, see Zennis. 
LAYAMON’S BRUT, or Chronicle of Britain, 


a poetical semi-Saxon paraphrase of the Brut of 
Wace, made between 1100 and 1230, was published 
with a literal translation by sir Frederick Madden, 
in 1847. 

LAYBACH (near Trieste, in Illyria). A con- 
gress met here in Jan. 1821, and was attended by 
the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and 
Naples. It broke up in May, after having issued 
two circulars, stating it to be their resolution to 
occupy Naples with Austrian troops, and put down 
popular insurrections. 


LAYER’S CONSPIRACY. Christopher 
Layer, a barrister, conspired with other persous to 
seize George I., the prince of Wales, lord Cadogan, 
and the principal officers of state, to seize the tower, 
to plunder the bank, and bring in the Pretender. 
Layer was hanged, 17 May, 1723. He was hanged 
for enlisting soldiers for the Pretender. Bishop 
Atterbury was accused of complicity and attainted, 
but permitted to quit the country. ‘ 


LAY HELPERS, to hold a position between 
the clergy and laity, proposed by the archbishop of 
Canterbury, and others, Oct. 1881. The association 
of Lay Helpers for London began in 1865. 


LAZARISTS (the Priests of the Mi 
congregation devoted to education, founded 
Vincent de Paul, 1625, were so named fr 
first establishment in a house which once ] 
to the military order of St. Lazarus. They 
called Vincentines. 


LAZARO, ST. (N. Italy). Here the 
Sardinia and the Imperialists defeated the 
and Spaniards after a long and severe co: 
June, 1746. 


LAZISTAN, a Turkish province in the 
lik of Trebizond, on the Black sea. Bat 
seaport, was ceded to Russia by the treaty of 
13 July, 1878. The inhabitants at first resi 
change, but submitted on persuasion, ma 
grating. 


LAZZARITES, see Italy, 1878. 


LAZZARONI (from Jazzdro, Spanist 
pauper or leper), a term applied by the § 
viceroys to the degraded beings in Naple 
clothed and houseless. No man was born a] 
and he who turned to a trade ceased to be or 
viceroy permitted the lazzaroni to elect a chi 
whom he conferred respecting the imposts 
goods brought to the markets. In 1647, Mas 
held the office, and made an insurrectio 
Naples. In 1793, Ferdinand IV. enrolled 
thousands of lazzaroni as pikemen (sponto 
who generally favoured the court party; 
May, 1848, they were permitted, on the 
behalf, to commit fearful ravages on the il 
city.— Colletta. 


LEAD is found in various countries, 
abundant in various parts of Britain, and it 
places richly mixed with silver ore. The | 
Clydesdale mines were discovered in 1513. 1] 
son’s valuable method for extracting the silv: 
made known in 1829. The lead-mines of C1 
land end Derbyshire yield about 15,000 to 
annum. British mines produced 65,529 t 
lead in 1855; 69,266 tons in 1857; 67,181 t 
1865 ; 73,420 tons in 1870; 58,777 in 18755 
tons in 1876; 51,635 in 1879; 50,328 in 1882 
Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water we 

brought into use in : : : my y 
In 1859, 23,690 tons of pig and sheet lead wei 

imported, and 18,414 tons exported ; in 1866, 36,04 

tons imported ; 27,383 tons exported; in 187 

79,825 tons imported, 35,398 tons exported; 1 

1879, 102,089 tons imported, 36,776 tons exported 

in 1883, 101,715 tons imported, 39,315 tons « 

ported. 


LEAD, BLACK, see Graphite. 


LEADENHALL MARKET, Lo 
founded by sir Richard Whittington, in 140 
presented to the city. A granary was added by $ 
Kyre, 1419. The demolition of the old m 
began in Sept. 1880; first stone of new one |: 
June; opened by the lord mayor, 15 Dec. 
cost 47,500/. 


LEADVILLE. A high mining distri 
Colorado ;, highly successful results of exeavé 
for the precious metals, 1878 et seq. 


LEAGUES. Four kings combined to 
war against five, about 1913 B.c. (Gen. xiv.) 
kings of Canaan combined against the inv 
of the Israelites, 1451 3B.c. The more 
nent Greek leagues were the A‘tolian, pow 
about 320 B.c., which lasted till 189 B.¢., amt 
Achzan, revived 280 8.c., which was broken u 
the conquest of Greece by the Romans, 146 
The fall of these leagues was hastened by dissemi 


il 


7 nt i 


¥ 


b 


LEAP-YEAR. 


495 


LEEDS. 


itic league : : : : ; . . 1140 
rd leagues against the emperors (see Lom- 

7 a te “Sar 1176 and 1226 
league (which see) . » about 1400 et seq. 

of the Public Good was formed in Dec. 1464, 
1e dukes of Calabria, Brittany, and Bourbon, 
other princes against Louis XI. of France, 
r pretext of reforming abuses ; an indecisive 
e was fought at Monthléri, 16 July; anda 
y was signed 4 4 . 25 Oct. 
.of Cambray against Venice . : : : 
League (the pope, Venice, &c.), against 


1465 
1508 


s XII. . : 5 é I510 
-of Smaleald . ‘ < £ : ‘ a4T530 
. of the Beggars (Gueux) ; the protestants so 


d (though Roman Catholics joined the league) 
ppose the institution of the Inquisition in 
ders. : : 5 ; : s Acie 
ory Leacuer, to prevent the accession of 
ry IV. of France, who was then of the re- 
ed religion, was formed at Peronne and lasted 
lenry embraced Romanism . 
. of Wurtzburg, by Catholics ; 
estants : : t : - 1610 
-against the emperor. : 5 : . 1626 
1 League and Covenant in Scotland, against 
episcopal govefnment of the Church (see 
nant) . : : : : : : ee TORG 
. of Augsburg against France . ; : - 1686 
» of St. Sebastian instituted to promote the 
ration of his temporal dominions to the 
, about 1870; held oth annual meeting in 
ion . 5 é * A e . 20 Jan. 
»in aid of Christians in Turkey formed ; earl 
aftesbury, chairman, . : . 27 July, 
al Trish Land League ostensibly formed to 
up farms for the tenants ; supported by Mr. 
ell and others, 1879; its enforcement of 
gent rules against landlords and loyal tenants 
ted a reign of terror; led to legislation. See 
a f c : : : A - 1880-1 
‘d with complicity and outrages ; dissolved 
overnment : : ; ‘ - 20 Oct. 
rish National league formed (see Ireland, 
4 A A . ; 2 F 17 Oct. 
onal Land League of Great Britain” formed ; 
Justin McCarthy, president, 26 March ; met 
eweastle-on-Tyne : : : 29 Aug. 
alleague for the unification and consolidation 
e empire, met at Westminster ; strongly op- 
d to unfair free trade . 8 Sep. ef seq. ,, 


AP-YEAR or BISSEXTILE, originated 
he astronomers of Julius Cesar, 45 B.c. They 
the solar year at 365 days, 6 hours, compris- 
s they thought, the period from one vernal 
»x to another; the six hours were set aside, 
t the end of four years, forming a day, the 
year was made to consist of 366 days. The 
1us added was called intercalary, and was 
a day before the 24th of February, the sixth 

calends, which was reckoned twice, hence 
bissextile or twice sixth. This added day 
isis Feb. 29th; see Calendar. This arrange- 
nakes the year nearly three minutes longer 
ihe astronomical year: to obviate this, 1700 
100 were not, and 1900 will not be leap-years, 
00 will be one; see Calendar and Year. 


ARNING and THE Anrts_ flourished 
' the Greeks, especially under Pisistratus, 
'C., and under Pericles, 444 B.c.; and with 
mans at the commencement of the Christian 
ider Augustus. The Greek refugees caused 
evival in Italy, particularly after the taking of 
ntinople by the Turks in 1453, and the inven- 
printing shortly before,—the period of the Re- 
‘nee. Leo X.and his family (the Medici) greatly 
ved learning in Italy, in the 16th century ; 
literature revived in France, Germany, and 
ad; see Literatwre, and authors under Greek, 
_ English, and other languages. 


ASE (from the French /aisser, to let), a kind 


1566 


of Halle, by 


1879 
1876 


1881 
1882 


1881 


/ 


1576-93 


of conveyance invented by serjeant Moore, soon 
after the statute of uses, 27 Henry VIII. 1535. 
Acts relating to leases were passed in 1856 and 
1858. Forged Leases case, see Trials, Jan. 1878, 


LE ATHER was very early known in Egypt 
and Greece, and the thongs of manufactured hides 
were used for ropes, harness, &c., by all ancient 
nations. The Gordian knot was made of leather 
thongs, 330 B.c. A leather cannon was proved at. 


| Edinburgh, fired three times, and found to answer, 


23 Oct. 1778. Phillips. The duty on leather im- 
posed 1697, produced annually in England 

450,000/. and in Ireland about 50,0007. It was 
abolished, 29 May, 1830. Many bankruptcies were 
declared in the leather trade, in the autumn of 1860 
in England. In the case of Lawrence, Mortimore 

and Co., enormous fraudulent dealings in bills were 
disclosed. A plan for making artificial leather out 
of cuttings, &c., was made known in 1860,— 
Leather cloth (invented by Messrs. J. R. & C. P. 
Crockett, of Newark, U.S., and patented in 1849) is 
unbleached cotton coated with a mixture of boiled 
linseed oil and turpentine, and coloured. The Lea- 
ther-cloth company, London, successors to Messrs. 
Crockett, was established, 1859. An exhibition of 
leather manufactures at Northampton in the au- 


| tumn of 1873; at the Agricultural Hall, London, 


15-23 Sept. 1880; 26 Sept. 1881; and 1c § 
es 5 Sept. 


LEBANON (white mountain), the mountain 
range between Syria and North Palestine, assiened 
to Israel, but never conquered, and long attached 
to Syria. Ppralie ordinance for preservation of the 
ancient cedar forest, Sept. 1881. The governor 
general since 1861 has been appointed by Turkey 
subject to the assent of the great powers. Governors, 
1873, Rustem Pasha; 1883, Wassa Effendi: see 
Druses, Maronites, and Syria, : 


LECH, a river, 8. Germany, near which at a 
village named Rain the cruel imperialist eenera} 
Tilly was defeated by the Swedes, under Gustavus 
Adolphus, 5 April, 1632, and died of his wounds. 


LECTIONARY, the name given to the Anc- 
lican table of scripture lessons; see Common 
Prayer. 

LECTURES. Those on Physic were instituted 
by Dr. Thomas Linacre, of the College of Physicians. 
(founded by Henry VIII.) about 1502. Clinical 
lectures, at the bed-side of the patients in hospitals 
are said to have been given (by Dr. John Ruther- 
ford) in Edinburgh, about 1748; in Dublin, about 
1785; in London, by sir B. C. Brodie (1813-17). 
Mr. G. Macilwain, about 1824, gave surgical Aik 
nical lectures in connection with a dispensary. 
The political lectures of Thelwall, commenced in 
Jan. 1795, were interdicted by an act of parliament. 
In the autumn of 1857 and since, many distinguished 
noblemen and gentlemen lectured at mechanics’ 
institutes. An act passed in 1835 prohibited the 
publication of lectures without the consent of the 
lecturers. See Gresham Cojlege, Boyle’s Lectures 
Royal and London Institutions, &c. ; 


LEEDS (Yorkshire), the Saxon Loidis, once a 


Roman station, received a charter in 1627. See 
Population. 

Leeds bridge built . : , : . 1327 
Shenfield’s grammar school founded . ; 242 SESRD 
Coloured Cloth hall built 1758; White Cloth hall . 1775 
Literary and Philosophical society established - 1820 


Enfranchised by the Reform act (2 members) . 1842 
Magnificent new town-hall opened by the queen, E 
the mayor, Peter Fairbairn, knighted 7 Sept. 


} 858 
Musical festivals begun ° 7-10 Sept. ay 


7 


ey 
a an 
. R 
i~ 


LEEK, 


495 


LEIGHLIN. 


British Association met here. : : Sept. 1858 
Great Reform meeting ; Mr. Bright there 8 Oct. 
An additional M.P. given to Leeds by Boe 
15 Aug. 
Exhibition of art treasures, opened by the prince 
of Wales, 19 May, closed . : 5 . 31 Oct. 
Roundhay-park inaugurated as a public park by 
prince Arthur, and new exchange founded, 


19, 20 Sept. 1872 
Church congress met . Serr Och ass 
New bridge opened g July, 1873 
Musical festival : “ 2 14-17 Oct. 1874 
Yorkshire college of science opened 26 Oct. 5; 
Yorkshire exhibition of arts and manufactures 
opened by the duke of Edinburgh . . 13 May, 187 
‘Theatre Royal burnt . $ + 128, May, 4, 


New exchange opened : ; EST CALS yes 
Yorkshire college for science formally opened by 


the duke of Devonshire . ; : SteG OCG ams, 
Great amphitheatre burnt; loss, about 30,0001. 
2 March, 1876! 
Musical festival 19-22 Sept. 1877 


New municipal offices and public free library opened 
x17 April, 1834 
LEEK, the Welsh emblem, in consequence of a 
command from Dewi or David, afterwards arch- 
bishop of St. David’s, in 519. On the day that 
king Arthur won a great victory over the Saxons, 
Dewi is said to have ordered the soldiers to place a 
leek in their caps. 


LEESBURG HEIGHTS, see Ball’s Bluff. 


LEEWARD ISLES, West Indies: Antigua, 
Barbuda, Montserrat, St. Christopher’s, Nevis, 
Anguilla, Virgin Isles, and Dominica. An act 
for their federation passed 21 Aug. 1871. Governor- 
general of the British Isles, col. Stephen John Hill, 
1863; sir B. C.C. Pine, 1869; sir H. Turner Irving, 
1873; hon. Geo. Berkeley, 1874; sir J. H. Glover, 
Dec. 1881; sir Chas. Cameron Lees, 1883. 


LEGACIES. In 1780 receipts for legacies 
were subjected to a stamp duty, and in 1796 the 
legacy duty was imposed. The impost was increased 


several times subsequently, particularly in 1805, 


1808, and 1845. In 1853 the legacy duty was 
extended to landed or real property. Further 
changes were made in 1881; see Succession Duty 
Act, and Wills. John Camden Neild, an eccentric 
miser, died 30 Aug. 1852, bequeathing about 250,000/. 
to the queen. Received for legacy and succession 
duties in year 1870-1, 2,963,372/.; 1875-6, 
3,548,9661.; 1876-7, 3,675,802/. ; 1880-1, 2,827,3772.; 
1881-2, 2,814,145/. 


LEGAL PRACTITIONERS’ SOCIETY, 


for reforming abuses, &c., established Nov. 1873. 
LEGATES (legatus). Roman ambassadors ; 


and also governors of the provinces into which 
Augustus divided the empire, 27 B.c. Legates are 
also ambassadors from the pope. The legate’s 
court in England, erected in 1516 by cardinal 
Wolsey, to prove wills, and for the trial of offences 
against the spiritual laws, was soon discontinued. 


LEGATIONS were the twenty administrative 
divisions in the states of the church, governed by 
legates. ‘They rebelled in 1859-60, and are now 
included in the kingdom of Italy ; see Rome. 


LEGHORN, Livorno, Tuscany, a mere village 
in the 15th century, owes its prosperity to the 
Medici family. It suffered dreadfully by an 
earthquake in 1741; and was entered by the French 
army, 27 July, 1796, but the British property had 
been removed. It was held by the French: 1796-9 
and retaken, 1800. It was unsuccessfully attacked 
by the British and Italian forces in Dec. 1813. 
The Austrians took this city from the insurgents, 
12, 13 May, 1849, and quelled a slight insvrrection, 


mn 


July 6, 1857. In June, 1857, above 60 | 


were killed at the theatre, through analarm : 
see Tuscany. 


LEGION, JLegio, a corps of soldiers 
Roman armies, first formed by Romulus, y 
consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse, about 7 
When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 B.c., the 
consisted of 5200 soldiers; and under Mar 


| 88 B.C., it was 6200 soldiers besides 700 


There were ten, and sometimes as many as ei; 
legions kept at Rome. Augustus had a st 
army of 45 legions, together with 25,000 hoi 
37,000 light-armed troops, about 5 B.c.; ai 
peace establishment of Adrian was thirty o: 
formidable brigades. A legion was divided it 
cohorts, and every cohort into six centuries, 
vexillum, or standard, guarded by ten men 
peace of Britain was protected by three ] 
The French army has been divided into | 
since Francis I. See Theundering Legion. 


LEGION or HONOUR, a French 
embracing the army, civil officers, and othe 
viduals distinguished for services to the 
instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte, when first: 
19 May, 1802. The order was confirmed b 
XVIII. in 1815, and its constitution modi 
1816 and 1851. The honour was conferred on 
British subjects who distinguished themsel 
the Russian war, 1854-6, and in the Paris exhi 
of 1855 and 1867. ‘The palace and offices wer 
by the communalists, 23 May, 1871. 


LEGITIMISTS, a term (since re é 
to those who support the claims of the elder 
of the Bourbon family to the throne of I 
whose representative, Henry, ducde Bordeaux 


| comte de Chambord, born 29 Sept. 1820,died 2 
| 1883. 


They held a congress at Lucerne on 
June, 1862, and agreed to continue a pacific » 
The party was active in Feb. 1871-5. Their ef 
recover power have proved ineffectual; see J 


LEGNAGO, a fortress on the Adige, N. 
one of the Quadrilateral. It was captured 
French in 1796; but reverted to the Austri 
ay 5: It was surrendered to the Italians i 
1866. 


LEGNANO, Lombardy. Here the e 
Frederick Barbarossa was defeated by the M 
and their allies, 29 May, 1176, and the treaty 
stance ensued in 1183. 


LEICESTER (central England), a bis 
for a short time in the 8th century, return 
members to parliament in the reign of Edv 
Here Richard III. was buried, 25 Aug. 148: 
here cardinal Wolsey died, 29 Nov. 1530. 1 
the civil war, Leicester was taken by Charle 
May, and by Fairfax, 17 June, 1 The st 
manufacture was introduced in 1680. New 
hall opened, 8 Aug. 1876. New Abbey park « 
by the prince of Wales, 29 May, 1882. 


LEICESTER SQUARE, London. 
Globe. The square, after remaining some tit 
disreputable state, was renovated by Mr. . 
Grant, who bought up the enclosure, and pre 
i to the Metropolitan Board of Works, 2 
1874. 

LEIGHLIN (W. Carlow), a see found 
St. Laserian, about 628. Burchard, the Norw 
the son of Garmond, founded or endowed the 
of St. Stephen of Leighlin. Bishop Doran, app 
in 1523, was murdered by his archdeacon, 
Cavenagh, who was hanged on the spot whe 
crime was committed. Beatson. In 1600 Le 


f. ] 


LEININGEN. 


497 


LETTERS. 


nited to Ferns; the combined see united to 
in 1835; see Ferns and Bishops. 


ININGEN (or LryancGe), a principality 
in Bayaria, Baden, and Hesse, mediatised in 
The present prince Ernest, born 9 Noy. 1830, 

ain in the British navy, is the son of prince 

s, the half-brother of queen Victoria. Feodore, 

er princess of Hohenlohe Langenburg, the 

’s half-sister, died 23 Sept. 1872, aged nearly 

The first husband of the duchess of Kent, 

»Emich of Leiningen, died 4 July, 1814. 


INSTER, a kingdom in 1167, now one of 
ur provinces of Ireland. The abduction of 
silla, wife of O’Ruarc, a lord of Connaught, 
rmot king of Leinster in 1152, is asserted to 
led to the landing of the Knglish and the 
ent conquest. The province of Leinster gave 
tle of duke to Schomberg’s son in 1690. The 
yecame extinct in 1719, and was conferred on 
mily of Fitzgerald in 1766. 


IPSIC (Saxony), an ancient city, famous 
university (founded 1409) and its fair (1458). 
eitenfeld, near here, Gustavus Adolphus, king 
eden, defeated the Imperialists, under Tilly, 
t. 1631; and the Imperialists were again 
ed here by the Swedes, under Torstensen, 23 
642. Here took place, on 16, 18, 19 Oct. 1813, 
battle of the nations,’’ between the French 
and its allies, commanded by Napoleon 
00), and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian 
3 (240,000 strong). The French were beaten 
y owing to 17 Saxon battalions, their allies, 
1g upon them in the heat of the engagement. 
) men perished on the field, of whom more 
10,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of 
ry, and many standards. The victory was 
ca by the capture of Leipsic, of the rear 
of the French army, and of the king of Saxony 
is family. The soth anniversary was cele- 
| 18 Oct. 1863. The Leipsic book fair began 

The new Supreme Court for all Germany, 
d here 1 Sept. 1879. 


ITH, the port of Edinburgh, was burnt by 
rl of Hertford in 1544. It was fortified by the 
h partisans of queen Mary in 1560, and 
idered to the English. The ‘‘ Agreement of 
” between the superintendents and ministers 
nade, Jan. 1572. The docks were begun 


ITHA, a river dividing the Austrian terri- 
; see Austria. 


ITH HILL, near Dorking, Surrey; a lofty 
commanding a view over twelve or thirteen 
es (according to Evelyn), was erected here 
shard Hull, in 1766. 


LEGES, 2a Pelasgic tribe which inhabited 
ia about 1490 B.c., and after many contests 
d into the Hellenes. 


MANS, a French city, department of the 
». Here the retreating French general Chanzy 
rertaken and defeated by the Germans under 
» Frederick Charles and the grand-duke of 
enburg, after some conflicts: 10, 11 Jan. 1871. 
ims was entered 12 Jan. In six days’ fighting 
22,000 French made prisoners. 


MURES. ‘The ancients supposed that the 
after death, wandered over the world, and 
bed the peace of the living. The happy 
were called Lares familiares, and the 
‘py, Lemures. The Roman festival, Lemu- 
‘Kept on 9, 11, 13 May, is said to have been 


instituted by Romulus about 747 B.c., to propitiate 
the spirit of the slaughtered Remus. 


LENNIE MUTINY. See Mutinies, 1875. 


LENT (from the Saxon, dencten, spring). The forty 
days’ fast observed in the Greek and Roman eatholic 
and other churches from Ash-Wednesday to Easter- 
day, said to have been instituted by pope T'elesphorus, 
130. In early times Lent commenced on the Sunday, 
now called the first Sunday in Lent; and the four days 
beginning with Ash- Wednesday were added by pope 
Felix III., in 487, in order that the fasting days 
should amount to forty. Lent was first observed in 
England by command of Ercombert, king of Kent, 
in 640 or 641. Baker’s Chron. Flesh was prohibited 
during Lent; but Henry VIII. permitted the use of 
white meats by a proclamation in 1543, which con- 
tinued in force until, by proclamation of James I., 
in 1619 and 1625, and by Charles I., in 1627 and 
1631, flesh was again wholly forbidden; see Ash- 
Wednesday, Quadragesima. 


LEON, Kinaepom of, see under Spain. 


LEONARDS’ ACTS, Lorp Sr., 22 & 23 
Vict. ¢. 35; 23 & 24 Vict. c. 38 (1859-60), relate to 
legal proceedings. 

LEONINE CITY (Citta Leonina or Borgo), 
formerly a suburb, now included in the city of 
Rome, was founded by Leo 1V., pope 847-55, and 
named Leopolis. 1t comprehends the castle of St. 
Angelo, the hospital of San Spirito, the Vatican 
palace and gardens, and St. Peter’s. Its possession 
was allotted to pope Pius IX. when the Italian royal 
troops entered Rome, 20 Sept. 1870. About 1500 
inhabitants of the Leonine city voted for union with 
the kingdom of Italy, 2 Oct. 1870. 


LEONINES, hexameter and pentameter verses, 
rhyming at the middle and the end, are said to have 
been first made by Leoninus, a canon, about the 
middle of the 12th century, or by pope Leo II. 
about 682. 


LEOPOLD'S, PRINCH, ANNUITY 
ACT (passed 7 Aug. 1874), provided for him 
15,000/. a year, from 7 April, 1874, when he came 
of age. 

LEPANTO (near Corinth), Battle of, 7 Oct. 
1571: when the combined fleets of Spain, Venice, 
Genoa, Malta, and Pius V., commanded by don 
John of Austria, defeated the whole maritime force 
of the Turks, and completely checked their pro- 
gress. 


LEPROSY, askin disease described in Leviticus 
xiii. (B.C. 1490), which prevailed in ancient times 
throughout Asia. It has now almost disappeared 
from Kurope. It chiefly affected the lower classes, 
yet occasionally proved fatal to the very highest 
personages. Robert Bruce of Scotland died of leprosy 
in 1329. A hospital for lepers was founded at 
Granada, by queen Isabella of Castile, about 1504, 
and a large number of leper houses were founded in 
Britain. Dr. Edmondson met with u case in Edin~ 
burgh in 1809. 


LERIDA, the ancient Ilerda, E. Spain, founded 
by the Carthaginians. Near it Julius Cesar de- 
feated Pompey’s heutenants, 49 B.c. It was made 
the residence of the kings of Aragon, 1149. It was 
captured for Philip V. by the French under the duke 
Orleans, 13 Oct. 1707, and by Suchet, 13 May, 
IdoIO. 

LESSONS, see Common Prayer. 

LETTERS, see Alphabet, Anonymous, Belles 
Lettres, Copying Machine, Epistles, Literature, 
Marque, and Privateers. 

K K 


LETTRES DE CACHET. 


_ LETTRES DE CACHET, sealed letters 
issued by the kings of France since about 1670, by 
virtue of which those persons against whom they 
were directed were thrown into prison or exiled. 
The National Assembly decreed their abolition, 1 
Nov. 1789. 

LETTUCH, introduced into England from 
Flanders about 1520. It is said that when queen 
Catherine wished for a salad, she had to send to 
Holland or Flanders for lettuce. 


LEUCTRA, in Beotia, N. Greece, where the 
Thebans under Epaminondas defeated the superior 
force of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, 8 July, 371 B.c. 
4000 Spartans, with their king, were slain. The 
pelea gradually lost their preponderance in 

reece. 


LEUDES, from the German, Leute, people. 
Native feudal vassals. faithful to the German and 
French sovereigns in the 6th and 7th centuries. 


LEUTHEN (S. Prussia) ; see Lissa. 
LEVANT (the East), a term applied! to Greece, 


Turkey, Asia Minor, &c. Levant companies, in 
London, were established in 1581, 1593, and 1605. 


LEVELLERS, a fanatical party in Germany, 
headed by Muncer and Storck in the 16th century, 
who taught that all distinctions of rank were usurpa- 
tions on the rights of mankind. At the head of 
40,000 men, Muncer commanded the sovereign 
princes of Germany and the magistrates of cities to 
resign their authority ; and on his march his followers 
ravaged the country. The landgrave of Hesse at 
length defeated him at Frankenhausen, 15 May, 
1525; 7000 0f the enthusiasts fell in the battle, and 
the rest fled; their leader was taken and beheaded 
at Mulhausen. The English ‘ Levellers,’’ powerful 
in parliament in 1647, were put down by Gromivell 
in 1649, and their leader Lilburn imprisoned. At 
the period of the French revolution some Levellers 
appeared in England. A ‘‘ Loyal Association’”’ was 
formed against them by Mr. John Reeves, Noy. 
1792. 

LEVELS. The great Level of the Fens is a 
low-lying district of about 2000 square miles, in 
Lincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire, and 
Norfolk, said to have been overflown by the sea 
during an earthquake, 368. It was long afterwards 
an inland sea in winter, and a noxious swamp in 
summer, and was gradually drained—by the Romans, 
the Saxons, and especially by the monks during the 
reigns of the Plantagenet kings. One of the first 
works on a large scale was carried out by Morton, 
bishop of Ely,in the reign of Henry VII. A general 
drainage act was passed by the advice of lord Burgh- 
ley, in 1601, but little work was done till the reign 
of James I., who, in 1621, invited over the great 
Dutch engineer, Cornelius Vermuyden, to assist in 
the general drainage of the country. After complet- 
ing several great works, Vermuyden agreed (in 1629) 
to drain the ‘“‘Great Level.’”’ He was at first 
prevented from proceeding with his undertaking 
through a popular cutcry against foreigners; but 
eventually, aided by Francis, earl of Bedford, in 
spite of the great opposition of the people, for whose 
benefit he was labouring, he declared his great work 
complete in 1652. He also reclaimed much valuable 
land at Axholme, in Lincolnshire, 1626-30, and 
many Dutch and French protestants settled here 
about 1634; and a few of their descendants still 
remain.—There are the Middle, Bedford, South, 
and North Levels. 

The drainage of the Great Level employed the 
talents of Rennie (about 1807), and of Telford 

(1822), and of other eminent engineers. 


498 


LIBEL. 


The Middle Level commission cut through certain 
barrier banks, and replaced them by other works 
These were reported unsound in March, and the 
outfall sluice at St. Germains, near King’s Lynn, 
gave way . : ; ; : s - 4 May, 
High tides ensuing, about 6000 acres of fertile land 
were inundated, causing a loss of about 25,000l, 
After unwearied, and, for a while, unsuccessful 
efforts, a new coffer dam was constructed under 
the superintendence of Mr. Hawkshaw, which was 
reported sound . ‘ F ArT. a July, 
Another inundation, begun through the bursting 
of a marshland sluice, near Lynn, was checked 
Oct. 
New outfall sluice opened : oe Noy. 
LEVERIAN MUSEUM, formed by sir. 
ton Lever, exhibited to the public at Leice 
house, London; it was offered to the public 
1785, by the chance of a guinea lottery, and wo 
Mr. Parkinson, in 1785, who sold it by auction 
lots, May-July, 1806. 


LEVIATHAN, see Steam Navigation. 


LEWES (Sussex), where Henry IIL, kir 
England, was defeated by Montfort, earl of Leicx 
and the barons, 14 May, 1264. Blaauw. 
king, his brother Richard, king of the Romans 
his son Edward, afterwards Edward I., were t 
prisoners. One division of Montfort’s army, a 
of Londoners, gave way to the furious atta 
prince Edward, who, pursuing the fugitives to: 
caused the battle to be lost; see Lvesham. 


LEXICON, see Dictionaries. 
LEXINGTON (Massachusetts), Battle o 


the beginning of the war of independence. 

British obtained the advantage, and destroye 
stores of the revolted colonists, but lost in the t 
273 men, killed and wounded, 19 April, 1775. 

hostilities thus commenced continued to 17! 
LEXINGTON, a town in Missouri, U.S., fortifie 
the Federals, was attacked by the confederate ger 
Price, on 29 Aug., and after a gallant resistan: 
colonel Mulligan, surrendered on 21 Sept. 1861 


LEYDEN (Holland), Lugdunum Batavo 
important in the 13th century. Between 31 
1573, and 3 Oct. 1574, whenit wasrelieved, iten¢ 
two sieges by the armies of Spain, during which 
of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence 
commemoration the university was founded, | 
In 1699 two-thirds of the population perished 
fever, which, it was said, was aggravated b 
improper treatment by professor De la Boe. 
university was almost destroyed by a vessel | 
with 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder blowin 
and demolishing a large part of the town, and ki 
numbers of people, 12 Jan. 1807. The Leyde 
was invented about 1745, by Kleist, Muschenb: 
and others ; see Electricity. 
The third centenary of the foundation of the univer 

sity celebrated joyfully . i.) 2 


LIBEL. By the Roman laws of the T¥ 
Tables, libels which affected the reputation of an 
were made capital offences. In the British 
whatever renders a man ridiculous, or lowers 4 
in the opinion and esteem of the world, is deen 
libel. ‘‘The greater the truth the greater the lil 
the well known law maxim of a high authorit 
now disputed ; see Zrzals, 1788, 1790, 1792, | 
1808 et seg., 1863, 1882; and (note) Patents 
Times. 

Dispersing slanderous libels made felony ve 3 
Wm. Prynne, a puritan lawyer, fined soool., placed 
in the pillory, where his ears were cut off, and 
imprisoned, for writing ‘‘ Histriomastix,” a con- 
demnation of stage plays ; which was considered 
to be a libel on the queen, who favoured them, 


a] 


LIBERALS. 


499 


LIBRARIES. 


.; he was tried and further punished for his 
rical writings in . 3 3 3 : Eves 
libel bill, which enlarged the discretionary 
er of juries in cases of libel, thrown out by the 
sin 1791 ; passed in ; : : : 
jemous and seditious libels, on the second 
ice, made punishable with transportation . 1819 
tion for libel was brought in the court of 
s’s Bench by a bookseller named Stockdale, 
nst Messrs. Hansard, the printers to the house 
ommons ; this action related to an opinion 
essed in. a parliamentary report of a book 
lished by Stockdale, 7 Nov. 1836. Lord Den- 
, in giving judgment, said he was not aware 
the authority of the house of commons could 
ify the publication of a libel—an opinion 
ch led to some proceedings on the part of the 
se, and to other actions by Stockdale 1837-39 
‘ts were given in his favour, and in Nov. 1839, 
sheriffs took possession of Hansard’s premises. 
; caused much excitement in parliament, and 
‘ were ordered to appear at the bar of the 
se of commons, and were formally committed 
he custody of the serjeant-at-aris, 21 Jan., 
immediately discharged: the conflict was 
atained by the law officers and the commons 
. : ; . : : : . May, 
‘was passed giving summary protection to 
ons employed by parliament inthe publication 
S$ reports and papers : : BeraeA pI 5, 
verity of the law in respect to newspapers 
ced by lord Campbell’s act, 6 & 7 Vict. c. 96. 
relieving newspapers from actions for libel in 
rting speeches at lawful public meetings, read 
1 time in the commons, Aug. 1867, but 
yped ; read end time x April; and withdrawn, 
‘ 1 July, 
1 v. Walter (“‘ Times”) ; parliamentary reports 
fair comments, declared no libel 25 Nov. 4; 


BERALS, a name given to the more ad- 
d Whigs and reformers since 1828. The party 
yfice under Earl Grey, Viscount Melbourne, 
Russell, Viscount Palmerston, and Mr. W. E. 
tone. See Administrations. 


‘ity liberal club; earl Granville, president ; 
nised 2 : F : . May, 
beral club for'west end, founded . June, 
‘liberal cry proposed ‘‘ Free church, schools, 
land” (Mr. Chamberlain) . autumn, ,, 
adstone resigned the leadership of the party 
he commons, 13 Jan.; his successor, the 
yuis of Hartington . 4 Pr mera sa; 
ations composed of elected delegates to or- 
se liberal voters, have been formed in Bir- 
tham, Southwark, Bradford, and other bo- 
hs F - é F : : - 1876 et seq. 
, E. Forster refused to submit to the dicta- 
of the committee of the Bradford associa- 
‘in respect to his voting ; 5 gikiteg 
‘8 Caucus. 

al Liberal Federation; constituted at Bir- 
ham, 3: May, 1877; first annual meeting (at 
tae = < - : ; 22 Jan. 
iberal conference at Leeds. EEF OCT 
al liberal club, Westminster, founded Nov. 
‘5 inaugural banquet, 2 May, 1883 ; founda- 
of house at Whitehall laid by Mr. Gladstone, 
| 4 Noy. 1884 


BERATION OF RELIGION From 
‘E PATRONAGE AND CONTROL, Society 
as established by eminent political dissenters, 
, Ss 13th triennial conference opened, 
_, 1883. Very active in electioneering, 1884-5, 


3ERIA, the republic of freed and indigenous 
's on the coast of Upper Guinea, West Africa, 
unded in 1822 by the American Colonisation 
y, which was established by Henry Clay in 
capital, Monrovia. The independence of Li- 
was proclaimed, 24 Aug. 1847; recognised by 
ein 1848, by America, in 1861. _It is stated 
lourishing. The president visited the Inter- 


1637 


1792 


1868 


1874 


bP 


1875 


1878 


1879 
1883 


Daniel B. Warner, elected 1864; James Spriggs 
Payne installed 6 Jan. 1868; E. J. Roy, president, 
Jan. 1870, was deposed, Oct. 1871; escaped from 
prison; drowned, Feb. 1872. J. J. Roberts, the 
first president, re-elected Jan. 1872 and 1874; died 
25 Feb.; J. Spriggs Payne, elected 3 June, 1876; 
A. W. Gardner, 1878; A. J. Russell, 1883; H. R. 
W. Johnson, 7 Jan. 1884. Population, about 1,230,000 
in 1883. 
War with the aborigines at Cape Palmas; fighting, 17 Sept. 
Liberia successful . 3 ; - . Oct. 1875 
Peace concluded : é A ; . March, 1876 
Kingdom of Medina (which see) annexed; an- 
nounced . A Feb. 1880 


LIBERTINES (signifying freedmen and their 
sons), was a sect headed by Quintin and Corin, 
about 1525, who held monstrous opinions. 


LIBERTY AND PROPERTY DE- 
FENCE LEAGUE, formed by lords Elcho 
(since earl of Wemyss), Bramwell, and others, to 
obviate the effects of legislation since 1871. First 
meeting 5 July; first general meeting 29 Nov.1882. 


LIBRARIES.* Accadian or Chaldean libraries 
are said to have been formed 1700 B.c. The remains 
of those formed by Assyrian monarchs (744 e¢ seq.) 
at Nineveh, &c., consisting of tablets of baked clay, 
were discovered by Botta, Layard, and others, 1843 
et seg.; see Nineveh. Diodorus Siculus describes a 
library in the tomb of Osymandyas, king of Egypt. 
A public library was founded at Athens by Pisis- 
tratus, about 540 B.c. Another was founded by 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 8.c. It was partially de- 
stroyed when Julius Cesar set fire to Alexandria 47 
B.C. 400,000 valuable books in MS. are said to 
have been lost by this catastrophe. Blair. 


The first private library was Aristotle’s. Strabo. B.c. 334 
The first library at Rome brought from Macedonia 167 
According to Plutarch, the library at Pergamos con- 
tained 200,000 books. It came into the posses- 
sion of the Romans at the death of Attalus IIL., 
who bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman people 133 
The library of Appellicon, sent to Rome from 
Athens, by Sylla 86 


Library founded at Constaxtinople by Constantine, A.D. 
about 355 
An Alexandrian library, said to have been burnt by 


the caliph Omer I. . i : 4 ; F - 640 
Library at St. Mark’s, Venice, begun, by gifts from 
Petrarch, 1352 ; enlarged by cardinal Bessarion . 1468 


Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, collected a 
library of nearly 500,000 volumes at Buda; died . 1490 
The first public library in Italy founded at Florence 
by Niccolo Niccoli, one of the great restorers of 
learning. At his death he left his library to the 
public, 1436. Cosmo de’ Medici enriched it with 
the invaluable Greek and Hebrew MSS. about 
The Vatican Library at Rome, founded by pope 
Nicholas V. in 1447, and improved by Sixtus V., 
(contained about 150,000 volumes and 40,000 
MSS., 1868). 
Imperial Library of Vienna, founded by Frederick 
III. in 1440, and by Maximilian I. . ; ee 
Royal Library of Paris, founded by John 1350, en- 
larged by Charles V., 1364 ; said to contain 815,000 
volumes and 84,000 MSS. in 1860 ; 1,700,000 vols. 
in 1876. A new reading-room has been built. 
Royal Libraries founded at Copenhagen by Christian 
III. about 1533: at Stockholm, by Gustavus Vasa, 
about 1540; at Munich, by Albert IIT. about 
Escurial at Madrid, commenced with the foundation 
of the palace, by Philip II. ; : Aes 
Harvard University Library (see Harvard), Massa- 
chusetts, U.S., founded 1632, endowed ; . 1638 
Imperial Library at St. Petersburg (principally the 
spoils of Poland), founded : : = Eh ype 


1560 
1588 


I550 


1557 


* A Conference of British and foreign librarians met at 
the London Institution, 2 Oct. 1877. It founded the 


al Exhibition of London in 1862. Presidents: | Library Association of the United Kingdom. 


Kakeo 


LIBRARY ASSOCIATION. 


Astor Free Public Library, New York, founded by 
John Jacob Astor, by gift of 80,000]. . a : 


LIBRARIES IN GREAT BRITAIN. 
Richard de Bury, chancellor and high treasurer of 
England, purchased thirty or forty volumes of the 
abbot of St. Alban’s for tifty pounds’ weight of 


500 LICHFIELD HOUSE COMPA 
LIBRO D’ORO (Book of Gold). The t 
1839 | an ancient register of 24 ruling Venetian fa 


silver . : : : 4 4 : A Luar oar 
University Library, St. Andrews, founded RK Air 
Glasgow University Library, founded about ATS 
Lambeth palace founded by abp. Bancroft, about 1610 
Sion College Library, founded . ‘ é - 1630 
Royal Society Library, founded . “ EL OO7 
Harleian Library (which see) begun . « 1705 


University Library, Cambridge, founded 1475 ; Geo. 
TI. gave 6000 guineas to purchase Dr. Moore’s col- 
lection : . ‘ : : : : < 

Bodleian Library at Oxford, founded 1598; opened 
8 Nov. 1602. See Bodleian. 

Cottonian Library, founded by Sir Robert Cotton 
about 1588; appropriated to the public, 1701 ; 
partly destroyed by fire, 1731; removed to the 
British Museum (which see) . ; 3 y : 

Dr. Daniel Williams’s Public Library. He died, 
1716; bequeathed his library and money for a 
building, which was opened at 49, Redcross-street, 
City, in 1729; it was successively removed to 
Queen’s-square, Bloomsbury, 1864, and to Graf- 
ton-street East, and opened. : . Sept. 

Radcliffe Library at Oxford, founded by the will of 
Dr. Radcliffe, 1714; opened. , : mae 

The Libraries of the Royal Institution (founded 
1803), the London Institution (1805), and the 
Royal College of Surgeons (1786), have classified 
catalogues. 

Library of the University of Dublin (1601), and the 
Advocates’ Library in Edinburgh (1680), are ex- 
tensive and valuable. 

Library of East India Company, founded a i 

Royal Libraries in England: that of Edward IV., 
mentioned 1480, increased in the reigns of Edw. 
VI. and James IJ.; much enlarged by Richard 
Bentley, while librarian, 1694-1735 ; added to the 
British Museum by Geo. II., 1759 ; rich library of 
Geo. III., presented to the nation, 1823 ; deposited 
in the British Museum ’ F : oa 

In 1609 the Stationers’ Company agreed to give a 
copy of every book published, to the Bodleian 
Library, Oxford. By 14 Charles II. ¢. 33 (1662), 
three copies were required to be given to certain 
public libraries ; by 8 Anne, ¢. 19 (1709), the num- 
ber was increased to nine ; by 41 Geo. III. e. 107, 
to eleven ; which number was reduced to five by 
5 & 6 Will. IV. c. rr0 (1835): the British Museum, 
the Bodleian, Oxford, the Public Library, Cam- 
bridge, the Advocates’ Library, Edinburgh, and 
Trinity College, Dublin. 

¥REE LIBRARIES successfully established, since 1850, 
at Manchester, Liverpool, Salford, &c. Many 
others formed under acts passed in 1845, 1850 & 

On 5 Nov. 1855, a proposal to establish a Free Li- 
brary in the city of London was negatived, and 
in 1857 that in Marylebone was closed for want of 
support. 

The new city library, Guildhall (free) was opened 

Nov. 

Metropolitan Free Library Association formed, 

4 April, 

The great library collected by Charles Spencer, 3rd 
earl of Sunderland, the property of the duke of 
Marlborough, partly sold by auction (under the 
Blenheim Settled Estates Act of 1880) 1-12 Dec. 

Library of sir Francis Drake and family sold, Mar. 

United Hamilton and Beckford libraries sold for 
86,4441. 


including a Mazarin bible, early printed classics, 
&e., sold for about 28,o00l. c - 12-20 Dec. 
See Circulating Library. 


1715 


1753 


1873 
1749 


1800 


1829 


1856 


1872 


1879 


1881 
1883 


: A ; : ; 1883-4 
The Syston Park library (sir John Hayford Thorold) 


1884 


LIBRARY ASSOCIATION orf THE 
UNITED KINGDOM, founded at a conference of 
librarians at the London Institution, 2 Oct. 1877. 
It held a meeting at Oxford, 1-3 Oct. 1878; at 
Manchester, 23 Sept. 1879; Edinburgh, 5 Oct. 1880; 
London, 1881; Cambridge, 5 Sept. 1882; Liver- 


pool, 11 Sept. 1883; Dublin, 30 Sept. 1884. 


before 813; and also of another book, dated 
recording the genealogies of the noble house 
ruled Venice till the fall of the republic in 17 


LIBYA (Africa), was conquered by the Pe 
524 B.c., and by Ptolemy Soter, 320. 


LICENCES. This mode of levying mon 
introduced by Richard I. about 1190; but wa 
confined to such of the nobility as desired to 
the lists at tournaments. 


Games and gaming-houses licensed in London 
Licence system for excisable articles enforced i 
various reigns, from the r2th Charles II. 7 
Lottery office-keepers to take out licences, and pa 

sol. foreach. This reduced the number from 4c 

to 51. : ; 3 : $ “ . Ag 
General licensing act, 9 Geo. IV.c.61 . . 
Licences for public-houses granted in 1551, and fi 

refreshment-houses, with wine licences . 

The licensing system was applied to India as a kin 
of income-tax, 1859; ceasedin . . a 
Licences for the sale of tea, coffee, chocolte, an 

pepper were abolished and other licences modifie 
by acts passed in 5 : 3 : < oe 
Licensing Reform Agitation . 2 2 - aan 
Acts for licensing plays and playhouses by the 1o1 
chamberlain, were passed in 1736 (10 Geo. I 
c. 28); and in 1843 (6 & 7 Vict. c. 68); and fc 
music and dancing in public-houses, in 1752 ( 
Geo. II. c. 36). 
New licensing act, regulating the sale of intoxicatin 
liquors ; very much opposed ; passed and car 
into operation . : ; : 4 - Io Au 
Another licensing act passe 30 July 
Licences issued: 1877, 21,729; 1881, 29,085. 


See Press. 


LICHFIELD (Staffordshire). The : 
Mercia (at Lichfield) was founded about 65 
moved to Chester, 1075 ; to Coventry, 1102. f 
Robert Peche was consecrated bishop of Li 
and Coventry. By an order in council, Jan, 
the archdeaconry of Coventry was added to t) 
of Worcester, and Dr. Samuel Butler became! 
of Lichfield. This see has given three saints 
Romish church ; and to the British nation on 
chancellor and three lord treasurers. ‘It is 1 
in the king’s books at 559/. 18s. 2d. Presentin 
42001. 


Lichfield cathedral was first built about 656; tl 
sent structure was founded by Roger de Clinto 
37th bishop, in 1148. Walter de Langton (bis 
1296), built the chapel of St. Mary, now taken i1 
choir, and under bishop Heyworth (1420) the cat 
was perfected. The building was despoiled 
Reformation, and was scandalously injured in t] 
liamentary war (when its monuments, its fine 
tures, and beautifully painted windows, were 
lished). It was repaired at the restoration, 14 
1788 ; and by Gilbert G. Scott, 1860-63 and 1884. 

In Lichfield castle, king Richard II. kept his Chr 
festival, 1397, when 200 tuns of wine and 200 
were consumed. A charter was granted to Li¢ 
constituting it a city, by Edward VI., 1540. 


BISHOPS OF LICHFIELD AND COVENTRY. 
James, earl of Cornwallis, died 1824. 


1781. 
Hon. Henry Ryder, died 31 March, 1836. 


1824. 


BISHOPS OF LICHFIELD. 
Samuel Butler, died 4 Dec. 1839. 
James Bowstead, died rx Oct. 1843. 
John Lonslade, died 19 Oct. 1867. 
Geo. Aug. Selwyn, late bishop of New Ze 
died 11 April, 1878. 
1878. William Dalrymple Maclagan, consecrated 24 


LICHFIELD HOUSE COMPACT, 
to have been made between the Whig gover! 
and Daniel 0’Connell in 1835 at Lichfield-! 
13, St. James’s-square. ! 

fer 


18 36. 
1839. 


1843. 
x867. 


LICINIAN LAWS. a 1 LIGHT. 


CINIAN LAWS. In 375 z.c., C. Licinius 
and L. Sextius, tribunes of the people, pro- 
ited various rogationes or laws to weaken the 
‘of the patricians and benefit the plebs: one 
9 relieve the plebeians from their debts; 
er enacted that no person should possess more 
500 jugera of the public land, or more than 
ead of large cattle, or 500 of small, in the 
n states; and the third, that one of the con- 
nould be a plebeian. After much opposition 
were carried, and L. Sextius became the first 
an consul, 365. Another law, 56 B.c., of this 
imposed a severe penalty on party clubs, or 
ies assembled for election purposes; and 
er, about 103 B.c. (brought forward by P. 
us Crassus), limited the expenses of the 


EBENAU (Bohemia). Here was fought 
st action of the seven weeks’ war, 26 June, 

when the Austrians were compelled to 
t by the Prussians under general Von Horn. 


ECHTENSTEIN, a Pretty, S. Ger- 
. Population, in 1876, 8664. Constitutional 
r, 26 Sept. 1862. Prince John II., born 5 
Ao succeeded his father Alois-Joseph, 12 
[O50. 
EGE (Belgium), a bishopric, under the Ger- 
mpire, from the 8th century till 1795. Liege 
nmtly revolted against its prince-bishops. 
a severe contest, the citizens were beaten at 
1em, 28 Oct. 1467, and Liege taken by Charles 
ld, duke of Burgundy, who treated them with 
severity. In 1482 Liege fell into the power 
la Marck, the Boar of Ardennes, who killed 
ishop, Louis of Bourbon, and was himself 
edand killed. Liege was taken by the duke 
rlborough, 23 Oct. 1702; and by the French 
thers, at various times, up to 1796, when it 
anexed to France. It was incorporated with 
etherlands in 1814, and with Belgium in 1830. 
vorks were established at Liege in the 16th 
‘y, and have been greatly enlarged by the 
rills in the 19th, see Seraing. An inter- 
ial volunteer shooting contest held here, Sept. 
The Iron and Steel Institute met here 18 


(873. 
EGNITZ, see Pfafendorf. 


HEUTENANTS, Lorp, for counties, were 
ited in England, 3 Edw. VI., 1549, and in 
din 1831. Their military jurisdiction abo- 
by Army Regulation Act, 1871. For the lords 
iants of Ireland, see Jreland. 


tHE ASSURANCE COMPANIES ACT, 
.g Aug. 1870, requires the companies to 
e annual returns of receipts, expendi- 
6. 


TE-BOAT, &c., see Wrecks. 
granted to Mr. Lionel Lukin for a life-boat. 1785 
rd, offered by a committee in South Shields 

life-boat, 1788, obtained by Mr. Henry Great- 

, of that town (he received rzool. from parlia- 

), 1789; it first put to sea : . 30Jan. 1790 
Doats built, and 300 lives saved up to . - 1804 
ke of Northumberland offered a reward of 
for a life-boat fulfilling certain conditions, 
ie obtained by Mr. James Beeching, of Yar- 


bular life-boat of Mr. H. Richardson, the 
‘enger, patented in Jan. ; a cruise was made 
im from Liverpool to London in it A . 1852 
tional Life-boat Institution, founded in 1824 ; 
urnal first published, 1852. In 1856 its funds* 


i 


1851 


ld medal given to vice-admiral Ward, chief inspec- 
ife-boats for 32 years, Aug. 1883. 


were enlarged by a bequest of 10,000!. from 
Hamilton Fitzgerald, esq., and of 39,0o00l. from 
Mr. Wm. Birks Rhodes, ‘‘ the Hounslow miser,” 
in 1878. ‘ 
185 life-boats in the United Kingdom, 1865; 284 . 1884 
Lives saved by the Institution's life-boats, &c., 1824-84, 
inclusive, 31,355 :— 


XO2A el 24 T5750 se O22 r88xr . r12z 
“EP h BAY pay! 1876 . . 600 1882. . 884 
1844. » 193 sitet Ie tale ploy Xs) L603 tose 
1954. 3)” 9355 1878 - 616 1884. . 792 
1864. . 698 1879 . 855 
TO7A 5 743 1880 * | 697 


Hans Busk Life-ship Institute founded. Oct. 1869 

The American Life-raft, composed of cylinders 

. lashed together, sailed from New York, 4 June, 
1867, navigated by three men, capt John Mikes 
and Messrs. Miller and Mullane, and arrived at 
Southampton, 25 July following. 

LIFE-PRESERVER, the apparatus of capt. Manby 
(brought into use in Feb. 1808), effects a com- 
munication with the distressed vessel by a rope, 
thrown by a shot from a mortar, with a line 
attached to it. For the night, a night-ball is 
provided with a hollow case of thick pasteboard, 
and a fuse and quick match, and charged with 
fifty balls, and a sufficiency of powder to inflame 
them. The fuze is so graduated that the shell 

. shall explode at the height of 300 yards. The 
balls spread a brilliant light for nearly a minute, 
and give a clear view of every surrounding object. 

In 20 years, 58 vessels and 410 of their crews and 
passengers had been saved. Capt. Manby died 
18 Nov. 1854, aged 89. 

The Boat-LOWERING APPARATUS, in consequence 
of many being lost when boats were lowered from 
the Amazon in 1852, invented by Mr. Charles 
Clifford, of London, in 1856, has been much ap- 
proved of, and has been generally adopted in the 
royal navy. 

Capt. Kynaston’s hooks were approved by admiral 
sir Baldwin Walker in 1862, and by a committee 
on-the subject in 1872. 

Exhibition of life-boats, life-rafts, &c., at the 
London Tavern opened 15 April, 1873. 

Hicks’ Life-raft, reported good on trial in East India 
docks . ; 2 A : 4 A zt Oct. 1874 

Capt. Boyton’s Life preserving dress (of india-rubber) 
with means for signalling at sea, tried by him on 
the Thames successfully, 23 Jan. and 6 March, 
at Cowes, before the queen, while in the water 
he fired rockets, caught fish, &c., 5 April; nearly 
erossed the channel from Dover (paddled two 
miles an hour); stopped by the French pilot 

April, 1875 

Captain Boyton crossed the Channel from Grisnez 
to the South Foreland in 233hours . 28-29 May, ,, 

Christie’s Life-saving raft tried on the Thames, 
could not be sunk . - : ; 17: Mareh; » 5; 

Edmund Thompeon’s Life-raft, partially successful off 
Poplar . ; ; ; E - 2 22 ADIN ss 

Boyton race on the Thames by six young men, three 
prizes awarded by the duchess of Teck . 10 Aug. ,, 

Rev. E. L. Berthon’s Collapsible Lifc-boat taken out by 
the Essequibo, and proved to be successful Sept. 1882 


LIFE GUARDS, see Guards. 
LIFE INSURANCE, see Insurance. 
LIFE-PEERAGEHS. A bill for creating them 


was read a second time in the lords, 27 April, 1869, 
but afterwards rejected. Two peers for life created 
to act as appeal judges, 5 Oct. 1876. See Lords. 


LIFE, PRESERVATION OF. An inter- 
national exhibition of objects relating to public 
health and safety, was opened by the king of Bel- 
gium at Brussels, 26 June; a congress met, 27 Sept. 
1876. 

LIFE-SHIPS. To promote the construction 
and use of these the Hans Busk Life-Ship Institute 
was founded, Oct. 1869. The life-ship, Peronelle, 
was launched at Southampton, 25 Aug. 1873. 


LIGHT. The law of refraction discovered by 


LIGHTHOUSE. 


Snellius, about 1624. The motion and velocity of 
light discovered by Reaumur, and after him by 
Cassini, and calculated by Roemer (1676) and 
Bradley (1720). Its velocity ascertained to be about 
190,000,000 of miles in sixteen minutes, or nearly 
200,000 miles in a second, which is a million of 
times swifter than the velocity of a cannon ball, 
about 1667. The light of the sun takes eight 
minutes and eight seconds for its transmission 
through the space to the earth. See Emission 
Theory. The undulatory theory of light, its polar- 
isation, and its chemical action, have all been made 
known in the present century by Dr. Thos. Young, 
Fresnel, Matus, Arago, Biot, Brewster, W heatstone, 
Ritter, Niepce, Daguerre, Talbot, Tyndall, &c.; see 
Optics, Photography, Caloreseence, Fluorescence. 


Velocity of Light. Direct determination by the 
toothed-wheel method by Fizeau agreed with 

the astronomical result 3 : : - 1849 
Foucault, with the revolving mirror, gave 298,000 

kilometres in a second of mean time . 1865 
Comus improved tooth-wheel apparatus gave 

300,400 kilometres in a second of mean time . . 1874 

Mr. Wm. Crookes, F.R.S., considered that he had 
demonstrated the mechanical action of light by experi- 
ments with delicate balances in the highest procurable 
vacuum, and calculated the force of the sun’s rays upon 
the earth to be 2.3 tons to the square mile, 1873-6. 
His apparatus was termed Radiometer (which see). After 
much investigation, Mr. Crookes admitted that the ac- 
tion was not due to radiation, but to difference of heat- 
absorption and the reaction of residual air. 

Mr. Crookes at the Royal Society announces experi- 
ments respecting an ultra-gaseous state of matter, sup- 
porting the emission theory ; : =) 5) Decs2873 
Dr. C. Wm. Siemens reported to the Royal Society 

that the electric light acts* on vegetation like 

solar light 5 , 5 4 Dec. 1880 


LIGHTHOUSE, called Pharos (now phare, 
French ; favo, Italian), from one erected at Pharos, 
near Alexandria, Egypt, p50 feet high, said to have 
been visible forty-two miles, about 285 B.c. There 
was one at Messina, at Rhodes, &ce. The light was 
obtained by fires. A coal-fire light was exhibited 
at Tynemouth castle, Northumberland, about 1638. 
The first true lighthouse erected in England was 
the Eddystone lighthouse (which see) in 1758-60. 
Lights were exhibited in various places by the 
corporation of the Trinity-house early in the 16th 
century. 2814 lighthouses in the world (1867). 


BRITISH LIGHTHOUSES. 


The Commissioners on Lights, &c. (186r), report 171 
shorelights in England, 113 in Scotland, and 73 in 
Ireland (total, 357) ; and 47 floating-lights. 

6 lighthouses building, April, 1867. 

The French have 224 lighthouses on shore. 

The source of light in our lighthouses is principally 
oil; but in harbour lights gas has been successfully 
used. Glass reflectors were used in 1780, and copper 
ones in 1807. A common coal-fire light was discon- 
tinued at St. Bees so recently as 1822. Fresnel’s 
Dioptric system (which see), devised about 1819, was 
adopted for the first time in England by Messrs. Wilkins, 
at the direction of the corporation of the Trinity-house, 
1 July, 1836. 

The most brilliant artificial light ever produced—derived 
from magneto-electricity by a machine devised by 
professor Holmes—was first employed at the South 
Foreland lighthouse, near Dover, on 8 Dec. 1858; and 
at Dengeness (or Dungeness) in 1862. Mr. Holmes’ 
arrangement, and a similar one constructed by M. 
Serin, were shown at the International exhibition, 
London, in 1862. 

Mr. H. Wilde’s apparatus for producing a most powerful 
magneto-electric light, on trial in northern light- 
houses, Oct. 1866. 

Lime-light (which see) employed at the 8. Foreland light- 
house in 1861. 

Gas light tried successfully at Howth Bailey lighthouse, 
Dublin Bay, July, 1869. 

Mr. Wigham’s triform light: glass belt round the gas- | 


502 


4 


LIMA. 


light, prisms below the belt, and prisms forn 
cupola: tried near Dublin ; approved by Dr. Ty 
July, 1873. 

C. Wm. Siemens’ magneto-electric light used ; 
Lizards, 29 March, 1878. 

The cost of erecting the three great British light] 
—viz, the Skerry-Vore (west coast), 158 feet 
83,1261. ; the Bishop Rock, Scilly Isles, 145 feet 
36,559l. ; and the Bell Rock, Scotland, 117 feet 
61,3311. 

Retin to inquiries respecting officials, their ¢ 
salaries, &c. issued early in Dec. 1883. 

Important experiment at South Foreland on elect 
gas, and oil as illuminants, June, 1884. 


LIGHTING UP (Towns, &c.), see Lo 
1684, 1694; Gas and Electric Light. 


LIGHTNING-CONDUCTORS were 
set up for the protection of buildings by Fra 
shortly after 1752, when he brought down eleet 
from a thunder-cloud. Richmann, of St. P 
burg, was killed while repeating these experin 
Aug. 1752. The first conductor in England y¥ 
up at Payne’s Hill, by Dr. Watson. In 176 
was placed on the tower of St. Mark, at V 
which has since escaped injury, although freq 
injured by lightning previously. A powder 1 
zine at Glogau, in Silesia, was saved by a cont 
in 1782; and, from the want of one, a quant 
gunpowder was ignited at Brescia in 1767, and 
3000 persons perished. In 1762, Dr. W 
recommended conductors to be used in the 1 
and they were employed for a short time, but 
fell into disuse from want of skill and atte: 
Mr. (afterwards sir William) Snow Harris de 
his attention to the subject from 1820 to 18 
published a work, in 1843, detailing his experin 
In 1830, above thirty ships were fitted up wit 
conductors, and in 1842 his plans were adopte 
his conductors are now manufactured in the 
dockyards. In 1854 parliament granted 
5000/. 

LIGNY (near Fleurus, Belgium), where | 
leon defeated the Prussian army under Bh 
16 June, 1815; see Waterloo. 


LIGUORIANS, or REDEMPTORIS 
Roman catholic order, established in 1732 by A 
de Liguori, and approved by pope Benedict X] 
1749. 

LIGURIANS, a Celtic tribe, N. Italy, in 
the Roman territory, and were defeated 23! 
They were not subjugated till 172 B.c.—The | 
RIAN REPUBLIC, founded in May, 1797, upo 
ruins of the republic at Genoa, was incorpe 
with France in 1805, and then merged int 
kingdom of Italy. 


LILAC TREE, Syringa. The Persian 


from Persia was cultivated in England about 
the common lilac by Mr. John Gerard about 1! 


LILLE, see Lis/e. 


LILLI-BURLERO, part of the refrai 
popular song ridiculing the Irish i ists, 
The words are attributed to lord arton 
music to Henry Purcell. | 


LILY, a native of Persia, Syria, and Italy 
brought to England before 1460; the mar 
from Germany, 1596. 


LILYBZAUM, a strong maritime fortre 
Sicily, besieged by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 276 
and relieved by the Carthaginians 275 B.c. 1 
taken by the Romans, 241 B.c., after a sie 
nine years, which led to the end of the & 
Punic war. . 


LIMA (Peru). In 1534, Pizarro, matt 


LIMBURG. 


503 


LINCOLN’S-INN. 


gh Peru, was struck with the beauty of the 
y of Rimac, and there he founded this city, and 
it the name of Ciudad de los Reyes, or city of 
ings, 1535. Here he was assassinated, 26 June, 

Awful earthquakes occurred here, 1586, 1630, 

and 28 Oct. 1746. In 1854-5, thousands 
ned by yellow fever. Mr. Sullivan, the British 
1, was assassinated at Lima, 11 Aug. 1857; see 
1872, 1881-3. 


MBURG (Netherlands), a duchy in the roth 
ry; acquired by the dukes of Brabant about 
, added to Burgundy about 1429; passed to 
iouse of Austria in 1477; became one of the 
d Provinces, 1609; conquered and annexed to 
rench republic, 1795; restored to the Nether- 
, 1814; divided between Holland and Belgium, 
- completely separated from the German con- 
ation by treaty, 11 May, 1867. 


ME or LINDEN TREE, probably introduced 
ie 16th century. The iimes in St. James’s 
are said to have been planted at the suggestion 
elyn, who recommended multiplying odorifer- 
‘ees, in his ‘‘ Fumifugium’”’ (1661). <A lime- 
planted in Switzerland in 1410, existed in 

the trunk being thirty-six feet in circum- 
ce. 


ME-LIGHT, produced by the combustion 
ygen and hydrogen or carburetted hydrogen on 
face of lime. This light evolves little heat and 
not vitiate the air. Itisalsocalled Drummond 
t, after its inventor, lieut. Thomas Drummond, 
successfully produced it as a first-class light in 
and employed it on the ordnance survey. It 
d to have been seen at a distance of 112 miles. 
s tried at the South Foreland lighthouse in 

Lieut. Drummond was born, 1797, died 
pril, 1840. To him is attributed the maxim 
‘property has its duties as well as its rights.”’ 


MERICK, anciently Lumneach (S. W. Ire- 
. About 550, St. Munchin is said to have 
led a bishopric and built a church here, which 
‘was destroyed by the Danes in 853. Donald 
ien, king of Limerick, founded the cathedral 
f1200. Limerick obtained its charter in 1195, 
| John Stafford was made first provost; and its 
mayor was Adam Servant, in 1198. It was 
1 by Ireton after six months’ siege in 1650. In 

1690 it was invested by the English and 
h, and surrendered on most honourable terms, 
. 1691.* An awful explosion of 218 barrels of 
owder greatly shattered the town, killing 100 
ns, I Feb. 1694. Another explosion of gun- 
er here killed many persons, 2 Jan. 1837. 
il and destructive tempest, 6-7 Jan. 1839. A 
yraving-dock was opened by the lord-lieutenant, 
Spencer, 13 May, 1873. 


‘MITATIONS, STATUTE OF, 21 James I. 
, 1623. By it actions for trespass or debt, or 
le contract, must be commenced within six 
| after the cause of action, and actions for 
‘lt, menace, or imprisonment within four years. 
Real Actions Limitation act, 1874, came into 
ition 1 Jan. 1879. 


iy the treaty it was agreed that all arms, property 
states should be restored ; all attainders annulled, 
Ie outlawries reversed ; and that no oath but that 
2giance should be required of high or low; the free- 
of the Catholic religion was secured ; relief from 
‘Mary claims incurred by hostilities was guaranteed ; 
\ssion to leave the kingdom was extended to all who 
2d it ; and a general pardon proclaimed to all then 


ns. Burns. This treaty was annulled by the Irish 
tment, 1695. Limerick is still called ‘the city of 
‘roken treaty.” 


_ LIMITED LIABILITY. An act for limit- 
ing the liability of joint stock companies, 18 & 19 
Vict. c. 133 (passed 1855), was several times 
amended 1856-7-8. On 31 May, 1864, ‘‘ 3830 joint 
stock companies had been formed and registered on 
the limited liability principle, and 938 had ceased 
to exist.’”” Much calamity in 1866 was occasioned 
by the abuse of the system. The Companies act of 
1862 was amended in 1867. 1241 registered in 1874 ; 
about 12,500, 1856-76. The principle adopted by 
aioe joint stock banks in 1879-80. See under 
anks. 


LIMOGES AFFAIR, see France, Dec. 1877. 
LIMOURS MURDERS, N.-central France. 


Several barbarous murders, especially of aged 
people, took place here, Jan., Sept., Nov., 1873, 
and Jan. 1874; several persons denounced, proved 
innocence. In June, 1874, one Poirier confessed to 
similar murders at Nogent and other places, in 
Nov. 1873 and Jan. 1874. Executed at Chartres, 
29 Sept. 1874. 


LINCELLES (N. France), where the allied 
English and Dutch armies defeated the French, 
18 Aug. 1793. General Lake commanded three 
battalions of foot guards. 


LINCOLN, the Roman Lindwm Colonia, and 
at the period of the conquest rich and populous. It 
was taken several times by Saxons and Danes. The 
castle was built by William I. in 1086. Without 
Newport-gate upon Lincoln plain was fought the 
battle between the partisans of the empress Maud, 
commanded by the earl of Gloucester, and the army 
of Stephen, in which the king was defeated and 
taken prisoner, 2 Feb. 1141. Louis, dauphin of 
France, invited over by the discontented barons in 
the last year of king John’s reign, was acknowledged 
by them as king of England here; but the nobility, 
summoned by the earl of Pembroke to Gloucester 
to crown Henry III., marched against Louis and 
the barons, and defeated them in a most sanguinary 
fight (called the Fair of Lincoln), 20 May, 1217; 
and Louis withdrew. 


LINCOLN, BisHopric oF. Sidnacester or 
Lindisse and Dorchester, two distinct sees in Mercia, 
were united about 1078, and the see was removed 
to Lincoln by bishop Remigius de Feschamp, who 
built a cathedral (1086), afterwards destroyed by 
fire, but rebuilt by bishop Alexander (1127) and 
bishop Hugh of Burgundy. ‘The diocese is very 
large, although the dioceses of Ely (1109), Oxford, 
and Peterborough (1541) were formed from it, and 
were further enlarged in 1837. The see was valued 
at the dissolution of monasteries at 2065/. per 
annum; and after many of its manors had been 
seized upon, it was rated in the king’s books at 
8947. 10s. 1d. Present income, 45co/. It has given 
three saints to the church of Rome, and to the civil 
state of England six lord chancellors. The great 
bell of the cathedral, called Great Tom of Lincoln, 
weighs four tons eight pounds. 


RECENT BISHOPS. 


1787. George Pretyman (afterwards Tomline), translated 
to Winchester, 1820. 

1820. Hon. George Pelham, died 1 Feb. 1827. 

1827. John Kaye, died 19 Feb. 1852. 

1852. John Jackson, translated to London, 1869. 

1869. Christopher Wordsworth, consecrated 24 Feb. ; re- 
signs Dec. 1884; died 21 March, 1885. 

1885. Edward King, Feb. 


LINCOLN’S-INN (London), derives its name 
from Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, who erected a 


mansion on this spot in the reign of Edward L., 
which had been the bishop of Chichester’s palace. 


LINCOLN TOWER. 


It became an inn of court, 1310. The gardens of 
Lincoln’s-inn-fields were laid out by Inigo Jones, 
about 1620, and erroneously said to occupy the same 
space as the largest pyramid of Egypt, which is 
764 feet square ; Lincoln’s-inn square being 821 feet 
by 625 feet 6 inches. William lord Russell was 
beheaded in Lincoln’s-inn-fields, 21 July, 1683. 
- The square (formed in 1618) was enclosed with iron 
railings about 1737. The new hall and other build- 
ings were opened, 30 Oct. 1845, and the square 
planted. The theatre in Lincoln’s-inn-fields was 
built in 1695; rebuilt in 1 gigs made a barrack in 
1756, and pulled down in 1848. 


LINCOLN TOWER, Westminster Bridge 
Road, was erected by the united subscriptions of 
Britons and Americans, as a memorial of the aboli- 
tion of slavery, and of Abraham LincoJn, president. 
The foundation-stone was laid by general Schenk, 
then American minister here, 9 July, 1874; and the 
head stone was placed by the Rev. Newman Hall, 
minister of Surrey chapel, 28 Sept. 1875. The 
tower, which is 220 feet high, cost about 7o000/. 
The church, named Christ church (to replace 
Surrey chapel), and schools adjoining (cost about 
60,000/.), were dedicated, 4 July, e¢ seg. 1876. The 
rey, Rowland Hill’s body was removed from Surrey 
ehapel and placed here, 14 April, 1881. 


LINDISFARNE, or Horny IsLanp, on the 
coast of Northumberland, became a bishop’s see, 
635. It was ravaged by the Danes under Regnar 


Lodbrok in 793, and the monastery destroyed by: 


them in 875. ‘The see was then removed to Chester- 
le-street, and to Durham in 995 (or 990). 


LINEN. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in vestures 
of fine linen, 1716 B.c. (Gen. xli. 42.) 
First manufactured in England by Flemish weavers, 
under the protection of Henry IIT. : : i 
A company of linen weavers established in London 1368 
The art of staining linen known . about 1579 
A colony of Scots in the reign of James I., and other 
Presbyterians who fled from persecution in suc- 
eeeding reigns, planted themselves in the north- 
east part of Ireiand, and there established the 
linen manufacture, which was liberally en- 
couraged by the lord deputy Wentworth in 1634 ; 
by William III. : ; : ; ; , 
Hemp, flax, linen, thread, and yarn, from Ireland, 
permitted to be exported duty free . minTe 
Irish linen board established in 1711; the Linen- 
hall, Dublin, opened 1728 ; the board abolished . 
A board of trustees to superintend the Scotch linen 
manufacture established : . 1727 
Duty on linen taken off : . 5. 6a X00 
Dunfermline in Fifeshire, Dundee in Angusshire, 
and Barnsley in Yorkshire are chief seats of our 
linen manufacture. 


LINLITHGOW - BRIDGE (near Edin- 
burgh), near which the forces of the earl of Angus, 
who held James Y. in their power, defeated the 
forces of the earl of Lennox, who, after receiving 
promise of quarter, was killed by sir James Hamil- 
ton, 1526. Mary, queen of Scots, was born in the 
palace of Linlithgow, 8 Dec. 1542, James V., her 
father, dying of a broken heart, 14 Dec. 


LINNZZAN SYSTEM of botany, arranged 
by Linné or Linneus, a Swede, 1725-30. He 
classed the plants according to the number and 
situation of the sexual parts, and made the flower 
and fruit the test of his various genera. Linnzus 
lived from 1707 to 1778. His library and herbarium 
were purchased by sir James E. (then Dr.) Smith, 
and given to the Linnean Society in London, which 
was instituted in 1788, and incorporated 26 March, 
1802. 


LION AND UNICORN, the former English, 


1253 


1698 
1696 
1828 


504 


LISMORE. 


the latter Scottish, became the supporters of 

royal arms on the accession of James I. in | 

The lions in Trafalgar-square, designed by sir E 

Landseer, were uncovered, 31 Jan. 1867. 

Lion. True lions belong to the old world exclu- 
sively. They existed in Europe, Egypt, and 
Palestine, but have long disappeared from those 
countries ; their present country being Africa. A 
lion named Pompey died in the Tower of London 
in 1760, after 70 years’ confinement. 

Mr. Gordon Cumming,: the lion-slayer, published 
his ‘‘ Sporting Adventures in South Africa” in , 

Van Amburgh was very successful in taming lions ; 
but many have perished through rashness. The 
Lion-queen was killed at Chatham, 1850; and 
Massarti (John McCarthy) was killed by a lion, 

Jan. 

Lion Sermon preached annually on 16 Oct. at St. 
Katherine Cree church, London, in memory of 
the escape of sir John Gayer froma lion in Arabia 


; 16 Oct. 
LIPPAU, see Hussites. 


LIPPE, «a constitutional principality ( 
Germany). Population, 1880, 120,246. P 
Leopold, born 1 Sept. 1821; succeeded his fa 
Leopold, 1 Jan. 1851; died 8 Dec. 1875—his br 
Waldemar, born 18 April, 1824, succeeded. J 
became a member of the North German confe 
tion, 18 Aug. 1866. 


LIPPSTADT, see Liitzen. 
LIQUEFACTION. See Gases. 


LISBON (Olisippo, and Felicitas Julia, o: 
ancients) was taken by the Arabs about 716, 
became important under the Moorish kings, 
whom it was captured by Alfonso I. of Portug 
1147. It was made the capital of Portuga 
Emanuel, 1506. Lisbon has suffered mucl 
earthquakes, ard was almost destroyed by 
1 Nov. 1755; see Earthquakes. The court fi 
the Brazils, 10 Noy. 1807, and on 30 Noy. 
French, under Junot, entered Lisbon, and he 
until the battle of Vimeira, in which the 
defeated by the British, under sir Arthur Welle 
21 Aug. 1808. A military insurrection at Li 
21 Aug. 1831, was soon suppressed, and many 
diers were executed; see Portugal. 

A pleasure boat on the Tagus upset, about 69 
drowned . ; : : : ‘ . 26 May, 
Lisbon Steam Tramway Company, favoured by duke 
of Saldanha, ambassador in London ; company 
promoted by baron Albert Grant and others; 
tramway could not be made; see Trials . July, 
Great fire at the dockyard, estimated loss 100,000l., 
17-18 Dec. 

LISLE (now Wille), N. France, has a st 
citadel by Vauban. It was besieged by the | 
of Marlborough and the allies ; and, though det 
impregnable, was taken after a three months’ ; 
in 1708. It was restored by the treaty of Utr 
in 1713, in consideration of the demolition oi 
fortifications of Dunkirk. Lisle sustained a s 
bombardment from the Austrians, who were ob 
to raise the siege, 7 Oct. 1792. ; 

The French Association for the Advancements of 

Science met here 20 Aug. 


LISMORE (S. Ireland.) St. Carthage, 
bishop, 636, says: ‘ Lismore is a famous and 
city, of which nearly one-half is an asylum W 
no woman dare enter.’’ The eastle (built by 
John when earl cf Moreton, 1185,) burnt im |} 
was rebuilt with great magnificenee by the dul 
Devonshire. The cathedral, built 636, was 
paired by Cormac, son of Muretus, king of M 
ter, about 1130. The bishopric was united to 
of Waterford, about 1363; and both to Cash 


1839. 


{ 


An 


LISSA. 


SA (or Leuthen, Silesia). Here the king 
ssia vanquished Charles of Lorraine ; 6000 
ins were slain, 5 Dec. 1757. — Lissa, in 
, was laid in ruins by the Russian army in 
mpaign of 1707.—Lissa, an island in the 
iC. ear here the Italian fleet, commanded by 
o, was defeated with severe loss by the Aus- 
eet, commanded by Tegethoff, 20 July, 1866. 


lians had 23 vessels, 1x of which were iron- 
and the Austrians had 23 vessels, 7 only 
ironclads. 

), When in sight of the enemy, quitted his 
the Ré d'Italia, and hoisted his flag on the 
datore. His ironclads did not keep well 
her. 

the action, the ironclad Palestro took fire 
xploded, and all on board perished (except 
t of 200 men), exclaiming, Viva il Re! Viva 
1 The Re d'Italia was surrounded and sunk 
e Austrians. The Ré di Portobello disabled 
ustrian line-of-battle ship Kaiser, and com- 
{her to run ashore. Both parties soon after 
d from the conflict, which had lasted four 
5 
1 Persano was tried for misconduct and 
issed the service (see Italy) 15 April, 


‘ Battle off Lissa. 
Vm. Hoste in the Amphion, with two other 
tes ; the Active, Capt. J. A. Gordon; the 
rus, Capt. H. Whitby; and the Volage, 
nm ship, Capt. P. Hornby, defeated a Franco- 
tian squadron which attacked him; he 
red two vessels, the Corona and Bellona; 
as badly wounded 13 March, 1811 


"ANTIES (Greek ditaneta, supplication), were 
ed in processions, it is said, about 469 5 others 
out 400. Litanies to the Virgin Mary were 
ntroduced by pope Gregory I. about 595. 
rst English litany was commanded to be used 
Reformed churches by Henry VIII. in 1544. 


[(ERARY CLUB (at first called ‘‘ The 
and **Johnson’s Club’’), founded by Dr. 
m and sir Joshua Reynolds, in 1764. Haw- 
Topham Beauclerk, Goldsmith, Burke, and 
t Langton, were among. the first members. 
pinion formed of a new work by the club was 
ly known all over London, and had great in- 
», The club still exists. Hallam, Macaulay, 
arquis of Lansdowne, and bishop Blomfield 
nembers; Dr. Milman, dean of St. Paul’s, 
the chair at the centenary dinner,’ on 7 June, 


1867 


(ERARY CONGRESS, International, 
Paris (Victor Hugo, president), 17 June; 
unded ‘‘ International Literary Association,” 
ne, 1878; met in London, 9-14 June, 1879; 
don, 20 Sept. 1880; at Vienna, 20-29 Sept. 1881; 
ne, 10 Sept. 1883; at Brussls, 27 Sept. 18384. 


TERARY FUND, Royat, was founded 
10, to relieve literary men of all nations, by 
Williams,* the friend of Benjamin Franklin, 
corporated in 1818. The king of the Belgians 
od at the annual dinner, 8 May, 1872. 


‘oyer Sydenham, an eminent Greek scholar, of 
‘m college, Oxford, and translator of some of the 
of Plato, was arrested and thrown into prison for 
ag debt due for his frugal meals, and there, in 
ied of a broken heart in want and misery, when 
eighty years of age. The sympathy excited gave 

this institution, since well supported. Williams 
early life a dissenting minister, and wrote on 
‘ion. He was consulted by the early revolutionary 
‘n France as to the form of a constitution for that 
y; he, Dr. Priestley, sir James Mackintosh, and 
listinguished Englishmen, having heen previously 
«i French citizens. He died 29 June, 1816. 


505 


LITURGIES. 


LITERARY PROPERTY, SOCIETIES, 
&e., see Copyright, Societies, &e. 
“‘ Literary Production Committee” of authors; proposed 
formation, with the object of obtaining a good price 
for their works, July, 1878. 


LITERATURE, see I¢tters ; comprehends 
eloquence, poetry, history, language, and their ‘ 
subdivisions. 


LITHIUM, a metal, the lightest substance in 
nature except the gases (its specific gravity being 
0°59), is obtained from an alkaline substance termed 
cues ; discovered by M. Arfwedson, a Swede, in 
1817. 

LITHOFRACTEUR, or ‘‘STONE-BREAK- 
ER,’’ an explosive material, a modification of dyna- 
mite (composed of gun-cotton, nitro-glycerine, with 
the constituents of gunpowder, and other sub- 
stances), invented by professor Engels of Cologne, 
and made by Krebs, in 1869. It was occasionally 
used by the Germans in the war 1870-1, and was 
tried and well reported of for power and safety at 
Nant Mawy quarries, near Shrewsbury, 9, 10 May, 
1871, and again on 20 Feb. 1872, before the govern- 
ment explosive committee, with similar results. 


LITHOGRAPHY (drawing on stone). The 
invention is ascribed to Alois Sennefelder, about 
1796; and shortly afterwards the art was announced 
in Germany, and was known as polyautography. It 
became partially known in England in 1801, ¢é¢ seg., 
but its general introduction is referred to Mr. 
Ackermann, of London, about 1817. Sennefelder 
died in 1841. Improvements have been made by 
Engelmann and many others; see Printing im 
Colours. 


LITHOSCOPE. An instrument for distin- 
guishing precious stones, invented by sir David 
Brewster ; described by him Jan. 1864. 


LITHOTOMY. The surgical operation of 
cutting for the stone, it is said, was performed by 
Ammonius, about 240 8.c. The ‘‘small apparatus,’ 
so called from the few instruments used in the 
operation, was practised by Celsus, about A.D. 17. 
The “‘ high apparatus ’’ was practised (on a criminal 
at. Paris) by Colot, 1475; by Franco, on_a child, 
about 1566; and in England, by Dr. Douglass, 
about 1519. The ‘‘lateral operation,” invented by 
Franco, much performed in Paris by Frére Jacques, 
in 1697, has been greatly improved. The ‘great 
apparatus”’ was invented by John de Romanis, and 
described by his pupil Marianus Sanctus, 1524. 

LITHOTRITY (or bruising the stone). The 
apparatus produced by M. Leroy d’Etiolles in 1822 
has since been improved. 

Prizes of 6000 and 10,000 francs were awarded M. Jean 

Civiale for his method of operation, 1827 & 1829. 


LITHUANIA, formerly a grand-duchy, N. E. 
of Prussia. ‘The natives (belonging to the Slavonic 
race) long maintained their independence against 
the Russians and Poles. In 1386, their grand-duke 
Jagellon became king of Poland and was baptized : 
Lithuania was not incorporated with Poland till 
1501, when another duke Casimir, became king of 
that country. The countries were formally united 
in 1569. The larger part of Lithuania now belongs 
to Russia, the remainder to Prussia. 


LITURGIES (from the Greek /eitos, public, 
and ergon, work). The Greek and Roman liturgies 
are very ancient, having been committed to writing 
about the 4th and sth centuries. The Romish church 
recognises four: the Roman or Gregorian, the Am- 
brosian, the Gallican, and the Spanish or Mosarabic. 
The Greek church has two principal liturgies: St. 


LIVERIES OF THE CITY. 


Chrysostom’s and St. Basil’s, and several smaller 

ones. Parts of these liturgies are attributed to the 

Apostles, to St. Ignatius, 250, to St. Ambrose (died 

397), and to St. Jerome (died 420). 

The present English Liturgy was first composed, 
and was approved and confirmed by parliament, 
in 1547-8. The offices for morning and evening 
prayer were then put into nearly the same form 
in which we now have them, and published 1549 
and 1552 

At the solicitation of Calvin and others, the liturgy 
was reviewed and altered S : “ 

It was first read in Ireland, in the English lan 
guage, in 1550, and in Scotland, where it occa- 
sioned a tumult, in 1637, and was withdrawn . 1638 

The liturgy was revised by Whitehead, formerly 
chaplain to Anna Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, 
Grindall, Cox, and Pilkington, dean May, and 
secretary Smith. 

John Knox is said to have used a liturgy for several 
years. The rey. Robert Lee, of Edinburgh, intro- 
duced a form of prayer in public worship, but 

gave it up when ordered to discontinue it in May, 
78 59; he soon after resumed it, and the discussion 
on the subject ceased only at his death, 14 March, 1868 
See Common Prayer. 


LIVERIES OF THE CITY OF LON- 
DON. ‘he term is derived from the custom of the 
retainers of the lord mayor and sheriffs wearing 
clothes of the form and colour displayed by those 
functionaries. It was usual for the wardens of 
companies to deliver a purse containing 20s. to the 
lord mayor on I Dec. to obtain for individuals, so 
desiring, sufficient cloth to make a suit, and the 
privilege of wearing the livery. This added to the 
splendour of the lord mayor’s train when the civic 
court went forth. Ashe. Liveries were regulated by 
statute in 1392, and frequently since. The nobility 
gave liveries to their retainers. See Companies. 


LIVERPOOL (W. Lancashire), is supposed to 
be noticed in Domesday-book under the name Esme- 
dune, or Smedune.* Soon after the conquest, 
William granted that part of the country situated 
between the rivers Mersey and Ribble to Roger of 
Poitiers, who, according to Camden, built a castle 
here, about the year 1089. It afterwards was held 
by the earls of Chester and dukes of Lancaster. 
See under Population. 


I551 


Liverpool made a free borough by Henry ITI. - 1229 
Made an independent port ; - . £995 
Liverpool ‘‘ a paved town ”’ (Leland) S555 


“The people of her majesty’s decayed town of 
Liverpool” petition Elizabeth to be relieved from 
a subsidy : er a7 T 


Separated from the duchy ‘of Lancaster. 1628 
Town rated for ship-money in only 26/. by Charles I. 1634 
Besieged and taken by prince Rupert 26 June, 1644 
Made a separate parish . 1698 

The old dock constructed, 1699 . the first ship, the 
Marlborough, entered . 8 June, 1700 
Blue coat hospital founded 1709 
1745 


The town vigorously opposes the Young Pretender 
Town-hall commenced . - . 2 ieeen xt 740 
Infirmary established 3 : C 3 2 fee 


Seamen’s hospital founded , - 1752 
Salthouse dock opened 1753 
Liverpool library founded - 1757 
A most destructive fire. : - 1762 
House of industry founded . . : yee 70 
Theatre licensed, 1771 ; opened F 1772 


Liverpool equips, at the commencement of the war 
against France, 120 Peete. ome 1986 guns, 
and 8754 seamen F : 1778 


* In other ancient records its appellations are Li ther pul 
and Lyrpul, signifying probably in the ancient dialect, the 
lower pool; though some have deduced its etymology 
from a pool frequented by an: aquatic fowl, called the 
“Liver,” or from a sea-weed of that name ; and others, 
from its having belonged to a family of the name of 
Lever, whose antiquity is not sufficiently established to 
justify their conclusion. 


506 


LIVERPOOL. 


First musical festival : . 5 ‘ A 

King’s dock constructed . 

[The Queen’s dock was also constructed. about the 
same time. ] 

Memorable storm raged 

The exchange burnt . 

The town-hall destroyed by fire 


The Atheneum opened I Jan. 
Union news-room erected ; 

The Lyceum erected . : oe 
Awful fire ; loss exceeded 1,000,0088 14 Sept. 
Corn exchange opened. . 4 Aug. 
Royal Exchange completed . % | 
Statue of George III. commenced 25 Oct. 
Fall of St. Nicholas’ tower, 28 killed 11 Feb, 
Royal Institution founded 2 
Wellington-rooms built : - ae 
Royal Institution opened by Mr. Roscoe. 2 Novy. 
American seamen’s hospital . 28 
Prince’s dock opened 4 "19 July, 
St. John’s market-place - Feb, 
Royal Institution incorporated a | 


Marine Humane Society formed . 

New house of industry erected . ae | 
Liver theatre opened . r A : ; & 
Old dock closed ‘ 

Foundation of new custom-house laid . 12 Aug 
Blackrock lighthouse built, and light first shown 


x March 

Lunatic asylum founded, area ; new building 
erected i 

Clarence dock completed Sept 


Liverpool and Manchester “aueee opened* 15 Lo 4 
Zoological gardens opened 


Great ‘fire ; 300,000l1. property destroyed I Jan, 
Lock hospital and Waterloo dock opened ae | 
Victoria and Trafalgar docks opened 8 Sept 
British Association meet here, 1st time . Sept 
Mechanics’ institute opened : , E Z| 
New fish market opened 8 Feb 


Apothecaries’ company formed 
Liverpool and Birmingham (Grand Junction) rail 
way opened : 4 July 
Railway to London (now the N orth: Westen opene 
its entire length . . 17 Sept 
Statistical society and Polytechnic society founip' 
The Liverpool steamer, of Are Dey sails fo! 
New York . ; 28 Oct 
Awful storm raged 6 Jan 
Foundation of the collegiate institution laid by lore 
Stanley 3 
Liverpool Philharmonic society founded. 
Foundation of St. George’s hall and courts laid . 
Immense fire ; 


million sterling destroyed . 25 Sept 
Mr. Huskisson’s statue erected A . Oct 
Procession of Orangemen ; fatalriot . 14 July 
The queen visits Liverpool % - 9 Oct 
British Association meet here, 2nd time . Sept 
St. George’s hall opened 18 Sept 


Bread riots (150,000 persons out of employ throug] 
the frost) . -19 Feb 
Gigantic landing stage for large steamers completed 


opened « . : . 1 Sept 
Many commercial failures . Sept. to Nov 
Association for Social Science meets . Oc 
Sailors’ home (cest 30,0001.) burnt . 29 April 


Free library, &c., founded by Mr. (afterwardal sil 
W. Brown, M. P. for 8. Lancashire, 15 A 1857 
free library, &c. opened 18 Oct 


Free Museum opened . . 17 Oct 
Brownlow Hill church and workhouse school tard 
and 23 lives lost (20 children) . 8 Se 


Explosion of 113 tons of gunpowder in the Lotti 
Sleigh, in the Mersey, g great damage 16 Jan 
Death of sir Wm. Brown, : a great benefactor to Liver 
pool March 
Additional M.P. (now 3) by Reform act, 15 Aug 
rn ce 


* The first grand work of the kind, about 31 mile: 
The first shaft was commenced in Oct. 1826, and 1 
cavation of the tunnel, one mile and a quarter long 
1827 ; the tunnel was completed i in Sept. 1828, and ¢ 
30 July, 1829. At the opening of the railroad, th 
of Wellington and other illustrious persons were pr 
and Mr. Huskisson who alighted during ,a stopp 
the engines, was knocked down by one of them, 
went over his thigh and caused his death, 15 Sept. 


a a EC se eC E ne O 


JERPOOL ADMINISTRATION. 


yank of Liverpool stopped : . 21 Oct. 1867 
steamer (Bubulina) in the Mersey exploded ; 


txgliveslost . ? Z : 29 Nov. ,, 
y Johnson, the United States’ minister 

ily received : ; ; . 22 Oct. 1868 
3k church consecrated by the Greek arch- 

yp of Syra . : ‘ : . . 16 Jan. 1869 
through false alarm of fire at St. Joseph’s 


olic chapel, 15 lives lost 23 Jan. 
r park, roo acres (cost 42,0001.) opened 7 May, 
r hospital; foundation laid by the earl of 


y . ; : : i : Gunes 55 
Association meets here third time 14 Sept. ,, 
rian statue of the queen unveiled BUNGV. as 
1s Orphan Institution founded 1x Sept. 1871 
park opened by prince Arthur 20 May, 1872 


anding-stage burnt; loss abt. 150,o00l. 28 July, 
of Edinburgh lays foundation of the Art 
sry, 29 Sept.; and opens the Seamen’s 


lanage 5s A : 5 3 a0 DEP. 55 
325,000l. bequeathed to charities by R. L. 
s,atimber merchant . . Jan. 1875 


f M. Michel Chevalier, free-trader 21 April, 
of Wm. Rathbone, eminent merchant, un- 
sn 5 3 x Jan. 
la theatre burnt . ; A : 9 July, 
r Art Gallery (gift of the mayor, Andrew 
xer), cost above 30,000!., opened by the earl 
erby f : ‘ : : 6 Sept. 
ics Act, permitting the erection of a see at 
rpool, passed : s $ 16 Aug. 
through false alarm of fire at Colosseum 
tre ; 37 persons crushed to death rz Oct. 
of dock labourers and sailors; riots sup- 


sed, 7 Feb. ; strike ends about 25 Feb. 1879 
tious disappearance of Miss Edwards, 3 Sept. ; 

din London . ‘ 4 prs OCs. 55 
ric established . A : 24 March, 1880 
ool nominated a city ‘ : PAIL, 
‘ation of University college; about 88,o00l. 
ieribed . : A “ E : Abs MOLE ase 
‘ater works in the valley of the river Vyrnwy, 

liles from Oswestry, begun 14 July, 1881 


‘ery of infernal machines in steamers Malta 
Bavarian announced : - 24 July, 
) blow up the town-hall discovered ; bag of 
osives found at door; 2 Fenians apprehended 
tine ; convicted, sentenced to penal servitude, 
es McGrath for life; James McKnivett, 
2ars = e . . e ° 6 Aug. 
space in 1810, 26 acres for ships, 704,000 tons ; 
857, 209 acres, tonnage, 4,320,000. 
sangton dock opened by the prince and prin- 
of Wales, and named Alexandra. - 8 Oct. 
rsity College inaugurated by the earl of Derby, 
14 Jan, 
ourt-house founded ; A = 25 une, 
for ancient mariners opened by the duke of 
iburgh . 5 : : : : 16 Dec. 
a warehouse burnt (damage about 
y tunnel, opened (see under Tunnels) 13 Feb. 1885 


VERPOOL ADMINISTRATION. 
ly after the assassination of Mr. Perceval 
ay, 1812), the earl of Liverpool became first 
ter.* His administration terminated when he 
ttacked by apoplexy, 17 Feb. 1827, and Mr. 
“ng succeeded as prime minister, 10 April. 

f Liverpool, first lord of the treasury. 

f Eldon, lord chancellor. 
-f Harrowby, lord president of the cowncil. 

f Westmoreland, lord privy seal. 
“nsittart, chancellor of the exchequer (succeeded by 
'. Robinson, 1823). 
, Same home secretary (succeeded by Robert 
1 Cee a 
tnt Castlereagh, aft. marquis of Londonderry, 
/ gn secretary (succeeded by George Canning, 1822). 
jathurst, colonial secretary. 


‘ybert Jenkinson, born 7 Jan. 1770, entered the house 
mons under Mr. Pitt ; opposed the abolition of the 
‘trade in 1792; became lord Hawkesbury in 1796 ; 
¢ foreign minister under Mr. Addington, in 18ox ; 
be his father as earl of Liverpool in 1808 ; died 4 
(020. 


507 


2t April, 1883 | 


LOANS. 


Viscount Melville, first lord of admiralty. 

Earl of Buckinghamshire, board of control (succeeded by 
G. Canning, 1816 ; C. Bathurst, 1820; C. Wynne, 1822. 

Charles Bathurst (1813), chancellor of duchy of Lancaster 
(succeeded by N. Vansittart, lord Bexley, 1823). 

Wellesley Pole, afterwards lord Maryborough, 1815, 
master of the mint. 

F. J. Robinson, 1818 ; W. Huskissdn, 1823, board of trade. 

Earl of Mulgrave, ordnance (succeeded by duke of Wel- 
lington, 1810). 


LIVERPOOL BisHopric_ established by 
order of the privy council, 24 March, 1880; St. 
Peter’s church to be the cathedral; first bishop, 
John Charles Ryle, D.D. 


LIVINGSTONE, see under Africa. 


LIVONIA, a Russian province on the Baltic 
sea, first visited by some Bremen merchants about 
1158. It has belonged successively to Denmark, 
Sweden, Poland, and Russia. It was finally ceded 
to Peter the Great in 1721. 


LIVRET D’OUVRIER, « species of work- 


man’s passport, introduced into France by Turgot 
about 1781; abolished 23 March, 1869. 

LLANDAFF (S. Wales). The first known 
bishop was St. Dubritius, said to have died in 612. 
The see is valued in the king’s books at 154/. 148. 1d. 
per annum. Present income 4200/. 


RECENT BISHOPS. 


Richard Watson ; died 4 July, 1816. 

Herbert Marsh ; trans. to Peterborough, 1819. 

Win. Van Mildert ; translated to Durham, 1826. 

Charles Richard Sumner; translated to Win- 
chester, 1827. 

Edward Copleston ; died 14 Oct. 1849. 

1849. Alfred Ollivant, died 16 Dec. 1882. _ 

1883. Richard Lewis, consecrated 25 April, 1883. 


LLERENA, see Villa Franca. 


LLOYD’S (London), at the Royal Exchange 
about 1692. Acoffee-house, kept by Edwd. Lloyd, 
Abchurch-lane, became a place of meeting of mer- 
chants. After several removals it was established 
finally at the Royal Exchange in 1774, and re- 
mained there till the fire in 1838, when it was 
removed till the present building was completed in 
1844. Here resort eminent merchants and ship- 
owners, and here are effected insurances on ships and 
merchandise. A Register of ships began about 
1764; and the terms A. 1, &c. were used about 
1775. ‘Two societies (underwriters and merchants) 
were united, and one register issued, Oct. 1834. 
Jubilee celebrated, 31 Oct. 1884. Lloyd’s is sup- 
ported by subscribers who now pay annually 5/. 5s., 
formerly 4/. 4s. The books kept here contain an 
account of the arrival and sailing of vessels, and 
are remarkable for their early intelligence of 
maritime affairs. Many new signalling stations 
established, 1882-3. In_ 1803, the subscribers 
instituted the Patriotic Fund (which see). The 
Austrian Lloyd’s, an_ association for general, 
commercial, and industrial purposes, was founded at 
Trieste, by Baron Bruck, in 1833. It has established 
regular communication between Trieste and the 
Levant, by means of a fleet of steamers carrying the 
mails, and publishes a journal. 


LOADSTONE, see Magnetism. 
LOAN EXHIBITIONS, see National Por- 
traits, Scientific Apparatus, §e. 


LOANO, Piedmont (N. Italy). Here the Aus- 
trians and Sardinians were defeated by the French, 
under Massena, 23, 24 Nov. 1795. 


LOANS for the public service were raised b 
Wolsey in 1522 and 1525. In 1559 Elizabet 


1782. 
1816. 
18109. 
1826. 


1827. 


LOAN SOCIETIES. 


borrowed 200,000/. of the city of Antwerp, to en- 
able her to reform her own coin, and sir Thomas: 
Gresham and the city of London joined in the 
security. Rapin. The amount of some of the 
English and other loans, during memorable periods, 
viz. :— 

Seven years’ war . 
American war aNehe 
French revolutionary war . 
War against Bonaparte 

2 loans, 1813 


. £52,100,000 
75,500,000 


1755 to 1763 
1776 to 1784 
1793 t0 1802 . 168,500,000 
1803 to 1814 . 206,300,000 
21,000,000]. and 22,000,000 


War against Russia 1855 to 1856 16,000,000 
For deficiency in revenue 1856 10,000,000 


{Both taken by the Rothschilds alone. ] 

By East India Company 1858 . 8,000,000 

A subscription loan (18,000,000l.) to carry on the war, 
against France, filled up in London in 15 hours and 
zo minutes (see Loyalty Loais), 5 Dec. 1796. 

French loan on g July, 1855, ov account of the war with 
Russia. The French legislature passed a bill for raising 
by loan’ 750 million franes (30,000,000l. sterling). On 
the 30th the total subscribed in France amounted to 
3,652,591,985 francs (about 146,103,679l.), nearly five 
times the amount required ; 2,533,888,450 were from 
Paris ; from the departments, 1,118,703,535. The num- 
ber of subscribers was 316,864. No less than 231,920,155 
francs were made up by subscription of 50 franes and 
under. About 600 millions came from foreign countries. 
The English subscription of 150,000,o00 francs was 
returned, as double the amount required had been 
proffered. 

The French government raised a loan of 20,000,000l. for 
the Italian war from its own people without difficulty, 
May 1859. 

A Turkish loan, in 1854, at 74 per cent., recommended 
by lord Palmerston; a loan of 5,000,000l., at 4 per 
cent., on the security of England and France, was 
taken up by Rothschild in Aug. 1855, and was well 
received : the stock rose to a small premium. 

French loan for 17,600,000l. announced 29 Jan. 1868. 

French loan 2,000,000,000 francs for 80,000,000l. : nearly 
twice the amount subscribed in France alone, 28 June, 
1871; another loan, of (120,000,000l. at 6} per cent.) 
for speedy payment of the indemnity and evacuation 
of the provinces held by the Germans; announced 26 
July 1872; above twice the amount subscribed. See 
France. 

Foreign Loans Committee: appointed to inquire con- 
cerning certain loans to Honduras, Costa Rica, and 
Paraguay, in their report comment on the exaggerated 
statements respecting the revenues and resources of 
the states in the prospectuses, the efforts of the con- 
tractors to make fictitious markets ; the proceedings 
on the stock exchange to maintain their prestige ; the 
secrecy adopted in the proceedings ; ‘‘ the best secu- 
rity against the recurrence of such evils will be found, 
not so much in legislative enactments as in the en- 
lightenment of the public as to their real nature and 
origin, thus rendering it more difficult for unscrupulous 
persons to carry out schemes ... . which have ended 
in so much discredit and disaster,” July, 1875. 


LOAN SOCIETIES. The laws relating to 
them were amended by the act 3 & 4 Vict. c. 110; 
passed Aug. 1840. 


LOBSTERS and CRABS. The size at which 
they are to be sold is regulated by the Fisheries 
‘act, 1877. 

LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT, passed in 


1858, was amended in 1861. 


LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD (anew 
department of the government, comprising the 
supervision of the public health, and local govern- 
ment together with the powers and duties of the 
Poor Law board), was established in pursuance of 
an act passed I4 Aug. 1871. First president, Mr. 
James Stansfeld, appointed president of the poor 
law board, March, 1871. Mr. (now sir John) Lam- 
bert, C.B., first secretary, appointed Sept. 1871. See 
Gladstone and other Administrations, See London, 
15 March, 1883. 


LOCAL LOANS ACT, passed 13 Aug. 1875, | 


508 


LOCUSTS. 


“LOCAL OPTION,” see Permissive B 
LOCAL PARLIAMENTS. The fir 


these mimic parliaments was opened in Liye: 
about 1864; a conference of about 150 dele 
from 146 of these assemblies, with 20,000 mem 
in Great Britain, met at the Crystal Palace, : 
May, 1883. 


LOCAL RATES in England, come fro 
sources. 
Local self-government is a chaos of authorities, of 
and areas. G. J. Goschen. 
Including rates for the poor, highway, police, se 
improvements, &c. Amount received in the 
1871-2, 22,215,096l. 1873-4, 24,295,1331. (to 1 
parliament added by grant, 1,511,018l.); x 
26,466,2311. 5 1875-6, 27,312,874l. 5 1876-7, 28,333, 

England and Wales: 1878, 51,785,o92l.; 18 
53,007,322. ; 1881-2, 57,475,679. 


LOCHLEVEN CASTLE (Kinross), bu 
an isle in Loch Leven, it is said by the Picts 
the royal residence of Alexander III. and his q 
when taken from it to Stirling. It was bes 
by the English in 1301, and in 1334. Pa 
Graham, first archbishop of St. Andrews, 
prisoned for attempting to reform the church, 
here about 1478. The earl of Northumberlanc 
confined in it, 1569. It was the place of q 
Mary’s imprisonment in 1567, and of her eseaj 
Sunday, 2 May, 1568. 


LOCKE’S ACT, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 127 (1 


relates to legal proceedings. 


LOCKE KING’S ACTS; 17 & 
c. 113 (1854), and 30 & 31 Vict. c. 69 (1867), I 


to mortgages. 


LOCK HOSPITAL, established 1747; 
asylum, 1787. 


LOCK-OUTS, see Strikes. 


LOCKS, early used by the Kgyptians, Gr 
Romans, and the Chinese. Denon has engray« 
Egyptian lock of wood. Du Cange mentions | 
and padlocks as early as 1381. 

Barron’s locks (on the many-tumbler principle) 
patented in 1778; Bramah’s, in 1788; and Ch 
** detector” locks in 1818. 

Mr. E. Beckett Denison (now sir Edmund Becket 
vented a lock asserted to be secure against pickit 
1852. 

New locks have been produced by Messrs. Day 
Newell, Yale, Andrews, and others, especial 
America. 

Mr. Hobbs, an American, exhibited his own locl 
the Crystal palace, in 1851, and showed great sk 
picking others. 

LOCOMOTIVES, see Railways. Theu 
steam locomotives on ordinary roads is regulate 
acts passed in 1861, 1865, and 1878. 


LOCRI, a people of Northern Greece. ° 
resisted Philip of Macedon, were aided by 
Athenians and Thebans, and defeatea by hi 
Cheeronea, 7 Aug. 338 B.C. 


LOCUSTS, one of the plagues of Egypt, 
B.c. (Exod. x.) Owing to the putrefaction of 
swarms in Egypt and Libya, upwards of 
persons are said to have perished, 1283B.c. P 
tine was infested with such swarms that | 
darkened the air; and after devouring the frul 
the earth, they died, and their intolerable st 
caused a pestilential fever, A.D. 406. A sim 
catastrophe occurred in France in 873. _A swat 
locusts settled upon the ground about lane 
consumed the vegetables; great numbers fe 
the streets ; they resembled grasshoppers, but) 
three times the size, and their colours mote vé 


LODGERS. 


509 


LOMBARDY. 


4 Aug. 1748. They infested Germany in 
Poland in 1750, and Warsaw in June, 1816. 
wre said to have been seen in London in 1857. 
was infested by them in July, 1860; Algeria, 
ly, in 1866 and 1874; Sardinia in 1868; 
linnesota, U.S., 1873-74; locusts ravaging 
sia, June, 1884. 


DGERS paying Io/. a year for a whole year 
artments without furniture, acquired the 
re, by Reform act passed 15 Aug. 1867. Act 
ect their goods from distraint, passed 16 Aug. 

The lodger franchise much increased by 
arliamentary and Municipal Registration act 
assembled judges decide that with a non-resident 
‘d the lodger is a householder; with a resident 
*d he must qualify as a compound householder. 


DGING-HOUSES. An act placing com- 
odging-houses under the watch of the police 
assed in 1851. In that year a model lodging- 
erected by prince Albert appeared at the Great 
ition. Since then, blocks of lodging-houses 
» poor have been erected by Baroness Burdett 
3 and others. Mr. Peabody’s donation of 
rch, 1862, has been appropriated for a similar 
se; see Peabody. On 19 Nov. 1863, the city 
ndon voted 20,000/7. and a piece of land in 
ia-street (now Farringdon-road) for the pur- 
See London, 1845. 


DI (N. Italy). Napoleon Bonaparte, com- 
ing the French army, totally defeated the 
ians, under Beaulieu, after a bloody engage- 
at the bridge of Lodi, 10 May, 1796. ‘The 
lican flag floated in Milan a few days after. 
ment to Victor Emmanuel inaugurated, 16 


1883. 
GARITHMS, the indexes of the ratio of 


ers one to another, were invented by baron 
x of Merchiston, who published his work in 

The invention was completed by Mr. Henr 
3, at Oxford, who published tables, 1616-18. 
method of computing by means of marked 
; of ivory was discovered about the same time, 
ence called Napier’s bones. 


)GIC, ‘‘ the science of reasoning.’’ Eminent 
; on it are by Aristotle; Bacon, Novum 
ion; Locke on the Understanding; and the 
m treatises on Logic, by archbishop Whately, 
illiam Hamilton, and Mr. John Stuart Mill. 

ttanhope’s Demonstrator, or Logical Machine, in- 
ted in the latter part of the 18th century, was de- 
bed by rev. Robert Harley to the British Associa- 

, 19 Aug. 1878. 

** Principles of Science,’’ 1874, Mr. Wm. Stanley 

ms describes his ‘‘ Logical Abecedarium” and 
ogical Slate.” 
dle on ‘‘ Laws of Thought,” 1854. 
in’s “Symbolic Logic,” July, 188r. 
IGIERIAN SYSTEM of musical educa- 
commenced by J. B. Logier, in Jan. 1815, and 
luced into the chief towns of the United King- 
Prussia, &c. He died 1846. 
)G-LINE, used in navigation, about 1570; 
nentioned by Bourne in 1577. It is divided 
paces of 50 feet, and the way which the ship 
8 18 measured by a half-minute sand-glass, 
1 bears nearly the same proportion to an hour 
50 feet bear to a mile: the line used in the 
‘Navy is 48 feet. 

YGOGRAPH, apparatus invented by Mr. W. 
arlow, about 1874, to give graphic representa- 
of the vibratory motions of the air-waves of 
+h, somewhat resembling a telegraphic mes- 


LOGOGRAPHIC PRINTING, in which 
the commoner words were cast in one mass, was 
patented by Henry Johnson and Mr. Walter of the 
Times in 1783. Anderson’s ‘‘ History of Commerce,’’ 
vol. iv. was printed by these types in 1789. 


LOGRONO, see Najara. 
LOI DES: SUSPECTS, enacted by the 


French convention, 17 Sept. 1793, during the reign 
of terror, filled the prisons of Paris. The Public 
Safety bill, of a similar character, was passed, 
18 Feb. 1858, shortly after Orsini’s attempt on the 
life of the emperor, Napoleon ITI. 


LOLLARDS (by some derived from the Ger- 
man /ollen, to sing in a low tone), the name given 
to the first reformers of the Roman catholic religion 
in England, the followers of Wykliffe. The sect is 
also said to have been founded in 1315 by Walter 
Lollard, who was burnt for heresy at Cologne in 
1322. The Lollards are said to have devoted them- 
selves to acts of mercy. The first Lollard martyr 
in England was William Sawtree, parish priest of 
St. Osith, London, 12 Feb. 1401, when the Lollards 
were proscribed by parliament, and numbers of 
them were burnt alive. Sir John Cobham, lord 
Oldcastle, a follower of Wykliffe, was accused of 
treason and condemned, Sept. 1413. He escaped to 
Wales, where he was captured, and brought to 
London and burnt, 25 Dee 1418. Lollards’ tower, 
part of the bishop’s prison, was near St. Paul’s, not 
Lambeth palace. Dr. Maitland. 


LOMBARDISTS, disciples of Peter Lombard, 
the schoolman, bishop of Paris, author of the ‘* Book 
of Sentences,’”’ who died in 1164. 


LOMBARD MERCHANTS, in England, 
were understood to be composed of natives of some 
one of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence, 
or Venice. -Anderson. Lombard usurers were sent 
to England by pope Gregory IX. to lend money to 
convents, communities, and private persons who 
were not able to pay down the tenths which were 
collected throughout the kingdom with great rigour 
that year, 13 Hen. III. 1299. They had offices in 
the street named after them to this day. Their 
usurious transactions caused their expulsion from 
the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. 


LOMBARDY (N. Italy) derived its name 
from the Langobardi, a German tribe from Branden- 
burg, said (doubtfully) to have been invited into 
Italy by Justinian to serve against the Goths. 
Their chief, Alboin, established a kingdom which 
lasted from 568 to 774. The last king, Desiderius, 
was dethroned by Charlemagne. (For a list of 
the Lombard kings, see Italy.) About the end of 
the gth century the chief towns of Lombardy forti- 
fied themselves, and became republics, The first 
Lombard league, consisting of Milan, Venice, 
Pavia, Modena, &c., was formed to restrain the 
power of the German emperors, in 1167. On 29 
May, 1176, they defeated the emperor Frederick 
Barbarossa at Legnano, and eventually compelled 
him to sign the peace of Constance in 1183. In 
1226 another lJeaguwe was formed against Frede- 
rick II., which was also successful. After this, 
petty tyrants rose in most of the cities, and foreign 
influence quickly followed. ‘Che Guelf and Ghibel- 
line factions greatly distracted Lombardy; and 
from the 15th century to the present time, it has 
been contended for by the German and French 
sovereigns. The house of Austria obtained it in 
1748, and held it till 1797, when it was conquered 
by the French, who incorporated it with the Cisal- 
pine republic, and in 1805 with the kingdom of 
Italy. On the breaking up of the French empire 


LONATO. 


510 


LONDON. 


in 1815, the LomMBARDO-VENETIAN KINGDOM was 
established by the allied sovereigns and given to 
Austria, who had lost her Flemish possessions. 
Lombardy and Venice revolted, and joined the king 
of Sardiniain March, 1848; but they did not sup- 
port him well, and were again subjected to Austria 
after his defeat at Novara, 23 March, 1849. An 
amnesty for political offences was granted in 1856. 
Great jealousy of Sardinia was felt by Austria after 
1849. In 1857 diplomatic relations were suspended; 
and in April, 1859, war broke out; the Austrians 
crossing the Ticino and entering Piedmont. ‘The 
French emperor declared war against Austria, and 
immediately sent troops into Italy. The Austrians 
were defeated at Montebello, 20 May ; Palestro, 30, 
31 May; Magenta, 4 June; and Solferino, 24 June. 
By the peace of Villafranca.(11 July), the largest 
part of Lombardy was ceded to Louis Napoleon, who 
transferred it to the king of Sardinia. It now forms 
part of the new kingdom of Italy, to which Venetia 
was also surrendered by the treaty of Vienna, 
3 Oct. 1867. 

LONATO (Brescia, N. Italy). Here Napoleon 
Bonaparte defeated Wurmser and the Austrians, 3 
Aug. 1796. 

LONDON. Some assert that a city existed on 
the spot 1107 years before the birth of Christ, and 
354 years before the foundation of Rome,* that it 
was the capital of the Trinobantes, 54 B.c., and long 
previously the seat of their kings. In A.D. 61 it was 
known to the Romans as Lundinium, or Colonia 
Augusta, and the chief residence of the merchants. 
It is said, but not truly, to have derived its name 
from Lud, an old British king, who was buried near 
where Ludgate formerly stood; but its name is 
from Llyn-Din, the ‘‘town on the lake.’+ It 
became the capital of the Saxon kingdom of Essex, 
and was called Lwndenceaster. In 1860, London 
and the suburbs were estimated to cover I2I square 
miles (11 miles each way, being three times as large 
as in 1800); in 1880, 122 square miles. The popu- 
lation of the metropolitan districts in 1851, was 
2,362,236; in 1861, 2,808,862; in 1871, 3,264,530; 
in 1881 (3 April), 3,814,571. The population of 
‘‘the city’’ in 1801, 156,859; in I8II, 120,909; in 
1821, 125,434; in 1831, 125,574; in 1841, 125,008; 
in 1851, 122,440; in 1861, 112,063; in 1871, 74,897 ; in 
1881, 50,526. Day census, 25-30 April, 1881,261,061. 
Revenue of corporation, 1862, 43734105 1875, 
655,391.: expenditure, §92,244/.; in 1577, revenue, 
634,734/.: expenditure, 667,812/. Annual rateable 
value (metropolitan district) April, 1881, 27,405,488/.; 
the ‘city,’ 3,537,5612. ‘The ‘‘ port’? of London 
extends from London Bridge to the North Fore- 
land. London is to return 2 instead of 4 members 
to parliament by the Redistribution of Seats bill of 
1885. See Docks, Mayors, and Treaties. 

Lonpon (metropolitan district), contains 6612 miles 
- of streets ; 528,794 inhabited houses ; population, 

4,025,059. : = F ‘ . June, 1873 
Income of the city estates, 538,651. : F ee 

* The fables of Geoffrey of Monmvouth state that 
London was founded by Brute, a descendant of the 
Trojan /Eneas, and called New Troy, or Troy-novant, 
until the time of Lud, who surrounded it with walls, 
and gave it the name of Caer Lud, or Lud’s town, &c. 
ne oTne original walls of London, said to have been the 
work of Theodosius, Roman governor of Britain, 379 ; 
but they are supposed to have been built about 306. 
There were originally four principal gates, but the num- 
ber increased ; and among others were the Pretorian 
way, Newgate, Dowgate, Cripplegate, Aldgate, Alders- 
gate, Ludgate, Bridegate, Moorgate, Bishopsgate, and the 
Postern on Tower-hill. 
1760-1, and the last of the city boundaries, Temple-bar 
(rebuilt 1670-2), was removed early in Jan., 1878. 


Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, reduces London { 
ashes, and puts 70,000 Romans and strangers 1 
the sword . i . : E : ‘ : 

She is defeated by Suetonius, 80,000 Britons az 
massacred, and she takes poison . ; ; 

Bishopric said to have been founded by Theanus 

London rebuilt and walled in by the Romans . 

800 vessels said to be employed in the port of Lor 
don for the export of corn é ; A d 

St. Paul’s church founded by Ethelbert, about 

Bishopric revived by St. Mellitus : : 

A plague ravages London . “ é : 

Great fire which nearly consumed the city . : 
London pillaged by the Danes, 839; these expelled 
Alfred repairs and strengthens London . - 

Easterlings settle in London before . 3 

Another great fire . : 

Tower built by William I. : A : é 

First charter granted to the city by the same king 

Another great fire, St. Paul’s burnt. 3 : 

606 houses thrown down by a tempest 

Charter granted by Henry I. . 4 ¢ A 

St. Bartholomew’s priory founded by Rahere, abot 

London-bridge built, ror4 ; burnt 4 : 

Charter granted by Henry II. . 3 - Fi 

Old London-bridge begun E P : ; 

Henry Fitz-Alwyn, the first mayor (served twenty 
four years) P F F “ F 

Massacre of Jews . 5 < F ‘ 2 

First stone bridge finished 4 3 3 * 

Charter of king John ; mayor and common coune 
to be elected annuallyt . s f 

Foreign merchants invited, settle here 

Charter of Henry II, 

Aldermen appointed . : “ 4 

Watch in London, 38 Henry III. . : 4 

Privileges granted to the Hanse merchants (whic 


B94 


abou 


S02) gale: : é é $ é 4 . é 
Tax called murage, to keep the walls and ditchesi 

repairy). x 3 ‘ é 5 abou 
Water brought from Tyburn to West Cheap 
Expulsion of the Jews by Edward I. (16,511) . 
Livery companies incorporated . 6 ‘ 
Charter granted by Edward ITI. : : - 
Terrible pestilence, in which 50,000 (?) citizen 

Perish twee. 3 ‘ 5 4 f . 
London sends 4 members to parliament . 
William of Walworth lord mayor i F : 
Wat Tyler’s rebellion (see Tyler F 5 i 
Aldermen elected for life . ; f F ¢ 
Great plague, 30,000 (?) died. : 3 3 
City first lighted at night by lanterns . ) 
Guildhall commenced r4r1, finished c 


Whittington thrice lord mayor, viz., 1397, 140‘ 

Jack Cade’s rebellion ; see Cade 3 § 2 

First civic procession on the water ; sir John No. 
man lord mayor r 4 


* It is still preserved in the city archives. 
charter is written in beautiful Saxon characters 
slip of parchment six inches long, and one broad, 
in English as follows :—‘‘ William the king g1 
William the bishop, and Godfrey the portreve, 4 
the burgesses within London friendly. And I ac 
you, that I will that ye be all there law-worthy as y 
in king Edward’s days. And I will that every ch 
his father’s heir, after his father’s days. And I w 
suffer that any man do you any wrong. God pr 
you.” 

+ Stow incorrectly states this charter to havé 
given in 1209, but it bears date May roth in the 16t 
of king John’s reign, which began in 1199. This ¢ 
was acted on at that period in various instan¢ 
many of the mayors were afterwards continued in 
offices for several years together ; and the samerig. 
exerted in the case of Mr. Alderman Wood, who 
the office of lord mayor during two succeeding 
those of 1816 and 1817. Leigh. ; 

t This terrible pestilence broke out in India 
spreading itself westward through every country ‘ 
globe, reached England. Its ravages in London 
so great, that the common cemeteries were not suf 
for the interment of the dead; and various pie 
ground without the walls were assigned for burial 
Amongst these was the waste land now formu! 


Eight gates were removed in | precincts of the Charter-house, where upwards of 


bodies were then deposited. This disorder did no 
| side till 1357. Leigh. 


if 
= i 
{ a 
t 


9 


LONDON. 511 LONDON. 
abridge attempts the city ‘ a ‘ . 1472 Tower by the House of Commons for a breach of 
ng-press set up by Caxton . ; tis, privilege . . 27 March, 1771 
ingsicknessrages . . . . «  . 1485 | Lord George Gordon's No-popery mob (see Gordon's 
ditch navigable . SS ixso2 mob) . June, 1780 
ul’s school founded by dean Colet . r . 1509 | Lhanksgiving ‘of George III. at St. Paul’s Cathedral 
tal sweat, Sudor Anglicus . we cc BEty a di} 23 April, 1789 
[ay-day (which see) . e : . ee Building of Camden town, begun A outs E9OE 
s first paved (Viner’s Stat. ) . 6 1533 London docks opened : 20 Jan... 1799 
s of Mortality ” ordered to be kept. 1538 London Institution founded . 4 ww ingieee 
ution of religious houses 1539 | Lord Nelson’s funeral 9 Jan. 1806 
rtholomew’s monastery changed to an hospital \ Gas first exhibited in Pall Mall . 1807 
taverns and public houses allowed in the Riots on the committal of sir F. Burdett to the 
, and three in Westminster, act 7 Edw. VI. . 1553 Tower . Wild pias 6 April, 1810 
*s hospital founded by king Edw. VI. .  . 4, | Zhe Mint finished RE raion 3 «: 
aun trading company established . : . . y, | Regent-street begun . 
es Ee iroduced about E ¥ ; . 1563 Civi ic banquet to the allied Sov ereigns at “Guildhall, 
Exchange built (see Exchange) 1566 18 June, 1814 
buildings in London forbidden “where. no Custom-house burnt 12 Keb. ,, 
ner hath been known to have been,” to pre- The city generally lighted with gas : ; 5 oe 
tthe increasing size* 1580 | Waterloo-bridge opened 18 June, 1817 
es water conveyed into the city by leaden New Custom-house opened 
35 hairy s80- 94. Southwark-bridge opened : “24 March, 1819 
publishes his survey ; ; 1598 The great increase in building commences . . 1820 
y all London yet built oh wood _ {600 | Bank of England completed by sir John Soane + IG2k 
persons said to perish by the plague . 1603 Tumults at queen Caroline’s funeral TA AUP. pas 
as Sutton founds Charterhouse school, &. . r6rzr | Cabs introduced . - 1823 
‘iver water brought to London . 1613 | London Mechanics’ Institution founded . e 
ipal streets paved _ 1616 | Bubble companies’ panic : aa TOD5 
ney coaches first plied 1625 London University chartered . . ir Feb. 1826 
ing of the western cogs St. Giléa’s s ae 27 turnpikes removed by act of parliament . 1827 
4 Mew the. 6 40 New Post-office completed. ; . 1829 
ty held for the par amtenh 1642 Narringdon-market opened z : : P eee 
m fortified . 1643 Omnibuses introduced . : relies: 
allowed to return to London by Cromwell . 1650 | New metropolitan police began 29Sept. ,, 
mg begun by Francis Child about 1660 | Covent-garden market rebuilt 1830 
Society of London chartered 4560 Memorable political panic, if Nov. ; ‘and ‘no lord 
persons said to have perished by the great mayor's show . gNov. ,, 
rue (see Plagues) 3 1665 New London-bridge opened . . 1 Aug. 1831 
ord” afterwards “‘ London Gazette” published General Fast on account of the cholera in England, 
6 Feb. 1832 
7 2 : i 
fire of London (see Fires) . 2-6 Rent 1666 | Hungerford-market opened - 3July, 1833 
ra “new model of building” in the city Houses of parliament burnt. - 16 Oct. 1834 
ment erected by Wren (see Monument) . 1671-7 | City of London school founded phd) Xs 
ul’s founded 2 ji at June, 1675 The queen dines at Guildhall - 9g Nov. 1837 
idon directory published . 1679 | Royal Exchange burnt _. - rodan. 1838 
er granted by Charles II. Se 6RG Railway opened from London to ae Ee 
’ post established ; 3.21683 17 Sept. ; to Greenwich Dec. » 
mn partly lit at night by Edward Heming’ s Penny-postage begun , - « troJdan. 1840 
ont 2 » 1684-5 Railway to Southampton opened. ren May; % 
ment of French protestants | . . 1685 | Wood pavement tried; fails 2. 6 0. . 184 
er declared forfeited, 1682 ; but restored . 1689 | London library established . BA Rite Mates 
of England established : 1604 Railway to Bristol opened : #30 June; ‘5, 
ul's opened . : : , ae P Dect 1697 Blackwall railway opened HRANE) ey 
{gtorm . 6 Nov.-z Dec. . 1703 Railway to Brighton opened 21 Sept. ,, 
verel’s sermon and mob (see Riots) r709 | Lhames Tunnel opened . 25 March, 1843 
x the erection of fifty new churches 1711 | Royal Exchange opened by the queen 28 Oct. 1344 
Sea bubble commenced, 37%0 5 exploded (see Erection of baths and wash-houses begins . “ 
th Sea Company) 1720 Fleet prison taken down . ‘ : : ; Ay Bie 
2a water works forraed: . 1722 New building act begins operation " r Jan. 1845 
of England built. * Ns alia : $542- 4 | Penny steamboats begun . ay ‘ 
lampsin the street. . between 1694 & 1736 | Modellodging houses built. . . . » 
ditch covered, and Fleet market opened. +737 | Railway mania . ria to » 
it Frost,” 25 Tae: 1739 to 8 Feb. . 1740 Twopenny omnibuses begun 1846 
m Hospital instituted . : Oe Great Chartist demonstration in London (see 
fansion-house founded, 1739 ; completed . . 1753 | op Crartisis) Fiphionaa - 10 April, 1848 
bh Museum established . e Re-appearance of the ‘cholera Sept. 1849 
y of Arts established . Gs Coal Exchange opened 30 Oct. ,, 
ew road, 1755-6 ; city road projected about 1760 | Lord mayor's great banquet (of mayors) (see Lord 
gates removed . 1760-1 Mayors) 21 March, 1850 
signs removed k y : 3 as, Attack upon g general Haynau F ad aa 
unster paving-act passed F : ’ Great Exhibition opened, 1 May ; closed, II Oct. 1851 
-bridge opened. 19 Nov. 17 + 9 Duke of Wellington dies, 14 Sept. ; his funeral at 
ord Bisor (Brass Crosby) committed +0 the St. Paul's (see Well ington) . 18 Nov. 1852 
i Cab- strike. . 4 27-29 July, 1853 
Visit of king of Portugal é é .19 May, 1854 
is proclamation or decree was dated from None- | Attack of cholera Aug. & Sept. ,, 
7 July, 1580, and it was forbidden to erect new | Meeting for Patriotic fund . ma NOV sg 
igs where none had before existed in the memory | Visit of emperor and empress of the French to the 
4 The extension of the metropolis was deemed lord mayor 1g April, 1855 
to encourage the increase of the plague ; | The queen distributes Crimean medals ° . 3 May, Be 
' trouble in governing such multitudes ; a dearth | Failure of Paul, Strahan, & Co. (see Trials) 5 June, ,, 
‘tuals ; multiplying of beggars, and inability to | Metropolitan Local Management act passed 14 Aug. BS 
+them; an increase of artisans more than could | Visit of the king of Sardinia .30 Nov. ,, 
-ogether ; impoverishing other cities for lack of | Metropolitan Board of works, first meeting 22) Dec; . 3, 
tants. The decree stated that lack of air, lack of | Peace proclaimed, 29 April ; ‘uminations and fire- 
30 walk and shoot, &c., arose out of too crowded a works in the parks 29 May, 1856 


, (Ag ae estion to the same effect was also issued 


Royal British Bank stops pay nent (see Br -itish. Bank) 
4 Sept. 


9? 


LONDON. 


Meetings of unemployed operatives in Smithfield, 


512 


eb. 1857 


Many commercial failures ; Bank charter act sus- 
pended . 12 Nov. 
James Morison (originally a poor boy), who mainly 
introduced the system of quick returns and small 
profits, dies exceedingly rich 30 Oct. 
Metropolis divided into ro postal districts 1 Jan. 
Great Eastern launched (began 3 Nov.) 31 Jan. 
Complaints of the state of the Thames ; act for its 
purification passed . 2 Aug. 
Panic on stock exchange (40 or 50 failures) at re- 
ported French and Russian alliance against Aus- 
tria . a April, 
A strike among the building trades, and a lock-out 
by the masters, 8 Aug. ; the latter require the men 
to sign a document, declaring that they will not 
belong to any society which interferes with the 
treedom of the workman ; the strike was dying 
out in. Nov. 
Disgraceful riots at the church of St. George’ s in 
the East, through the indiscretion of the Trac- 
tarian clergyman, the rev. Bryan King, Sept. and 
Oct. The church (closed for a time) re-opened ; 
fresh disturbances on 6, 13, 20 Nov. ; the agita- 
tion continued till Mr. King retired ; a compromise 
was effected 29 July, 
Metropolitan railway (andergr ound) porhiieneen in 
spring of . 
Great distress thr ough the severe w inter; thousands 
relieved at the police offices . Dec. 1860, & Jan. 
Another strike in the building trades commences, 
22 March, 
A street railway in the metropolis opened near 
Bayswater (temporary) . 23 March, 
Great fire near Tooley-street (see Fires) 22 June, 
Sale of the East India house 23 June, 
Meeting to establish the ‘‘ City of London College,” 
bishop of London in the chair 2 Oct. 
Mr. George Peabody, the American merchant, gives 
150,000l. to ameliorate the condition of the poor 
and needy of London : 12 March, 
The International Exhibition opens Z| xr May, 
Thames embankment bill passed, after much dis- 
cussion. Aug. 
Fights in Hyde- park between the Garibaldians and 
Trish . 28 Sept. & 5 Oct. 
Public meetings there pr ohibited 9 Oct. 
Comtesse de Silly leaves 4000/. to poor of London 
The Metropolitan railway opened ro Jan. 
Pneumatic despatch company begins to convey 
post-office bags . : 2 . 21 Feb. 
Princess Alexandra of Denmark enters London, 
7 March, 
Prince and princess of Wales present at the city ball 
at Guildhall . 8 June, 
Appeal of the bishop of London on account of the 
spiritual destitution of the metropolis (see Church 
of England) June, 
The common council vote 20, cool. and a site in 
Victoria-street, E.C. (now Farringdon- Pat for 
a lodging- house for the poor : Novy. 
New street between Blackfriars and Liston: bridge 
opened : é x Jan. 
Charing Cross railway opened . +. Tr Jan. 
First block of Peabody’s dw ellings in Spitalfields 
opened 3 29 Feb. 
Garibaldi enters London, II Apr il ; receiv BA the 
freedom of the city é . 21 April, 
Many turnpikes in the N. suburbs abolished, zrJuly, 
Great excitement through the murder of Mr. Briggs 
in a carriage of the N. London railway . 9 July, 
The first railway train enters the city of London 


near Blackfriars-bridge 6 Oct. 
North London industrial exhibition, Islington, 
opened by earl Russell . 17 7 Oct. 


Excitement through the per: formance of the Daven- 
port brothers. . Oct.-Dec. 
Great bullion robbery in “Lombard-str eet, 3 or 4 Dec. 
Many burglaries in London; great robbery at 
Walker’s, the jewellers, Cornhill - 4,5 Feb. 
South London industrial exhibition opened by earl 
of Shaftesbury ‘ 4 1 March, 
The prince of Wales present at the opening of the 
main drainage works, at the southern outfall 
near Erith . 4 April, 
Prince of Wales opens the international rétorntory 
exhibition at Islington . c 19 May, 


>> 


»”» 
1858 
>” 


” 


3) 


LONDON. 


Cattle plague breaks out in cow houses ae Bai 
bury, about 7 JU 
Investigation into the state of the workhouse 
firmaries from several paupers dying thro 
neglect ; 
Many turnpikes i in the 8. suburbs abolished, 3x ( 
Mr. Peabody adds 100,000l. to his gift of 1! 
29 J 
City industrial exhibition opened by lord fan 
Mar 
Horrible murder of Sarah Millson in Cannon-sti 
(culprit undiscovered) . -. Tver 
Black-Friday ; commercial panic; failure of Overe 
Gurney, & Co., Discount Company, on 1o J 
(see Bank) Pb 
Agra and Masterman’s ‘bank stops; greatexciteme 
6 Ju 
Shocking revelations in London workhouse 


firmaries June, et: 
Cholera prevails in east London (see Cholera), 

July-Se 

Riots in Hyde-park 23, 24 Jl 

Cannon-street railway station opened 1 Se 


Lord mayor honourably entertained at Brussels 
the king of the Belgians . 

Working ‘classes industrial exhibition at Islin 
closed . 12 
Report of committee at common council Tha 

mending enlargement of constituency voting 

municipal questions (from about 6700 to 15,0 
I2 

Reform demonstration by trades unions ; presi 

of about 25,000 to Beaufort-house grounds, Bron 

3D 


Tite nine population of the “ City ” is di 
283,520; by night, about 100,000 D 
Severe frost: 40 lives lost by breaking i in of ice 
ornamental waters in Regent’s park . 15 Jd: 
“Tey night” ; many accidents through fall of ri 
and immediate frost . Z - 22 di 
London Street Reform Association organised, J: 
Great distress in east London ; large subsceriptior 
Mansion-house Metropolitan Relief Fund es 
plished . : “ 26 Ji 
Metropolitan poor act passed _ x 29 Mar 
London conference on Luxembourg ondeiiael 
fea) 3 M: 
First stone laid of Holborn viaduct, 3d; ned of n 
meat market. 5 Jw 
The lord mayor entertained the viceroy of ‘ay 


iz June; the Belgians, 12 July; the Sult: 

18 Ju 

The Sultan gives 25001. to the poor of Londc 

22 Ju 

| Electors for M.P.’s to have 3 votes only, by a 

act passed 5 Au 

| County Court for the city established by a of Pp 

liament Z . 20 Al 

wee op Donnell shot by supposed Fenian, 28 Sep 
ie 50 

Tailors’ strike, began : 22 April; over. 0 

Lord mayor's state coach not used . 9 No 


‘Common Council undertake: erection of anoth 


cattle market (for foreign cattle) 6 De 
Premeditated explosion outside Clerkenwell hou 
of detention to release Fenians (7 persons kill 
and about 50 wounded) . 13 De 
Much excitement through other attempted exp 
sions ; about 30,000 special constables sworn i 
17-24 De 
Mysterious disappearance of the rev. B. Speke | 
Westminster . 8da 
Great distress in the east of London through wal 
of employment ; meeting of employer and el 
ployed ; work Offered to the iron shipwrights | 
lower wages declined . 25 da 
52,974 Special constables in the metropolis os 
28 Ja 
Mr. Speke (partially insane) found in a ak 
24 
(East) London Museum Site act passed _. 28 Fe’ 
The queen lays foundation-stone of the new S$ 
Thomas's hospital . 13 Ma, 
Western approach street, Holborn Valley, opene 


25 J 
Part of the Albert (southern) one of “tl 

Thames opened... 30 July 
King’s Cross market opened .  . « 7 AU 


cf 


LONDON. 


613 


LONDON. 


nd Counties railway station opened 
meeting to relieve sufferers by South American 
hquake (11,000l.) collected . PT SROCL ass 
meat market, Smithfield, inaugurated by the 
[mayor, 24 Nov.; opened to the public,r Dee. ,, 
eabody gives another 100,000l. to the poor of 
don . > : ; : : : Re Decear,. 
m Association for prevention of poverty and 
ne founded : ‘ ; : - x7 Dec. 
idon industrial exhibition opened x March, 
ibia market, Bethnal-green, erected by Miss 
dett Coutts ; opened by her . 28 April, ,, 
2 of Mr. Peabody uncovered, prince of Wales 
ent Otis ; : : : A 23 July, ,, 
uration of the Holborn viaduct and the new 
ekfriars bridge by the queen . GNONG 5s 
uration of the Victoria (northern) Thames em- 
kment by the prince of Wales . . 13 July, 
ational workmen’s exhibition at Islington 
ned by the prince of Wales T6Julys) ., 
m ratepayers’ school-board association esta- 
hed 


r ; : : ; : Mee SOC 1. 

ity library and museum founded near Guild- ; 
: Z 4 : : : req OCtetns, 

n education board elected 29 Nov. ,, 


lation-stone laid of new general post-oftice, 

16 Dec. 
on-house Relief Fund established for the 
ich (24,000l. raised in 4 days) 18 Jan. 
sses of the corporation presented . 28 Feb. ,, 
Albert hall, Kensington, opened by the queen, 

29 March, ,, 
annual International Exhibition at South 
Sington opened by the prince of Wales (closed 
et.) , : : 4 ; f . r May, 
ljomas’s hospital opened by the queen, 

2rJune, ,, 
stead heath purchased by Metropolitan board 
orks for 45,0001. ; act passed 2gJune, ,, 
eedom of the city presented to prince Arthur, 


13 July, ” 

yn the Commercial roads, London, E., ceased, 
BoAere o, 

Victoria-street opened, 4 Nov. ; St. Andrew’s 
et, &c., opened. E i E 20 Nov. ,, 
ieutenancy appointed, 1 Nov. SECC Hy. : 


nal thanksgiving for the recovery of the prince 
Vales ; the queen and prince go to St. Paul’s, 
27 Feb. 
of building trades begun, 1 June (see Strikes) ; 
-out by the masters begun . igJune, ,, 
sondon Museum at Bethnal-green opened by 
prince and princess of Wales . . 24June, ,, 
r of Mrs. Squires and daughter in Hoxton 
liscovered) . ; ; 2 noonroJuly, ,, 
e of Gledstanes and Co. (East India firm) for 
ly 2,000,000l. ; announced S2,ANIC as, 
ts’ strike and lock-out ends by agreement, 
i a : ; Sas 27 Aug. ,, 
nic smallpox : : : . duly-Sept. 
‘ annual International Exhibition opened 
ty; closed 4 ‘ : sa FO-OCE, 
ity Library and Museum at Guildhall opened 
he lord chancellor . , ‘ ‘ BS INOV! 11-35 
murder of Harriet Buswell, a gay woman, 
reat Coram-street (undiscovered) 25 Dec. 
y on the Bank of England to amount of 


vol. detected f : ; - March, 1873 
et to mayors of corporate towns at the Man- 
house. 5 . 26 March, ,, 


a-park visited by the queen; she went 
igh Islington and returned through the city, 
! 2 April, 
ity temple (to replace the Poultry 


chapel) 
ded near Holborn Viaduct - 19 May, ,, 
lospital Sunday (which see) PES JUNG,” 5 


ah of Persiaat a banquetat Guildhall, 20J une, 
mmon council vote 10,cool. to buy Upton 
, West Ham. , ; ‘ a NOY: 
ate, 9 per cent., panic on stock exchange 
1 Nov. 

Wed fog, much sickness, and many accidents % 
. ; ‘s 8-13 Dec. 
al training school for music, South Ken- 
on; foundation laid by the duke of Edin- 
Wales . 18 Dec. 


me case closed (see Trials) " , | 28 Feb. 1874 


x Oct. 1868 | Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh enter London 


12 March, 
Fourth International Exhibition, opened 6 April, 


City liberal club, earl Granville, president, organ- 


ized : ; P P > May, 
Ihe ezar entertained at Guildhall 18 May, 
City Temple, Holborn Viaduct, opened pio} er 


Banquet to provincial mayors at Mansion-house 


3 June, 

Second Hospital Sunday : : . 14 June, 
The ezar presents 1oool., to the bishop and the lord 
mayor for the poor of London 2 July, 
First Hospital Saturday (which see) . 17 Oct. 
Freedom given to sir Garnet J. Wolseley . 22 Oct. 
International exhibition closed . : 31 Oct. 
Lord mayor Stone and the sheriffs at the opening 
of the new opera-house, Paris . 5 Jan. 


Congregational Memorial hall, Farringdon-street, 
opened . , : ; ‘ : - Ig Jan. 
Arrival of Moody and Sankey (see Revivals), first 
meeting . : + , , 5 g March, 
Lord Elcho’s bill for municipal government with- 
drawn . 3 ; : . May, 
Great Failures in the iron trade 
Arrival of the Sultan of Zanzibar eS 
Failure of Alex. Collie & Co. led to others (he ab- 
sconded 9 Aug.) : : June, July, 
British and foreign mayors, burgomasters, prefets, 
&c., entertained by the lord mayor . 29 July, 
Discussion on widening London Bridge Sept.-Oct. 
First pile of steam-ferry landing-place from Wap- 
ping to Rotherhithe struck by lord-mayor Stone 
zr Oct 
Prince Leopold takes up his freedom . 25 Ot: 
Grocers’ company wing, London hospital, opened 
by the queen . : : . 7 March, 
Freedom of the city given to chief-justice Cockburn 
(said to be first case of the kind) - g March, 
Banquet and ball to the prince of Wales on his 
return from India (zx May) . Fr - 19 May, 
Lord Elcho’s resolution for reforming the corpora- 
tion and establishing a metropolitan government 
withdrawn from the Commons - 13 June, 
Stock exchange very dull; new 3 per cent. con- 
sols, 97g. : : ‘ Z ‘ 24 July, 
Public meeting at Mansion-house respecting atro- 
cities in Bulgaria (see Turke : - 18 Sept. 
““Great Eastern-street”’ (from Shoreditch to Old- 
street), opened : : ; wars Och 
Visit of municipal officers of Paris, to inspect rail- 
ways, &c. ; : , 30 April—8 May, 
Sir John Bennett thrice elected alderman, rejected 
by court of aldermen, third time, 16 Oct. ; Edgar 
Breffitt elected by court of aldermen 23 Oct. 
Temple Bar removed : : : 2—t14 Jan. 
Revival of trade ; bank discount 4 per cent. 1 Aug. 
Banquet to the ministers after the treaty of Berlin; 
freedom of city given to the earl of Beaconsfield 
and the marquis of Salisbury . c A Aug. 
The Parochial Charities commission appointed (the 
duke of Northumberland, canon R. Gregory, pre- 
bendary Wm. Rogers, and others) 2 9g Aug. 
Bank discount raised to 5 per cent. 12 Aug. 
Great Eastern-street completed and opened Aug. 
Foundering of the Princess Alice (which see) through 
collision with the Bywell Castle in Thames (see 
Mansion House Fund). : 3 Sept. 
Waterloo-bridge opened toll-free ; 5 Oct. 
** City and Guilds of London Institute for the ad- 
vancement of Technical Education,” formally 
constituted - : : - 1 Noy. 
City Church and Churchyard Protection Society 
formed - 2 : i ‘ Hens 
New-formed street between Shoreditch and Bethnal- 
green opened (it completes direct road from 
Oxford-street to Old-ford) . : - 29 March, 
Holborn Town-hall opened by the lord mayor, 
18 Dec. 
The king of Greece receives freedom of the city, 
16 June, 
Municipality of London bill introduced by Mr. Firth 
and others . - : ; 2 25 June, 
Explosion of gas main near Tottenham-court-road ; 
2 deaths ; much property destroyed 5 July, 
City Livery Companies’ Commission appointed (earl 
of Derby, duke of Bedford, lord Sherbrooke, lord 
Coleridge, sir R. A. Cross, &c.) - duly, 
Topographical Society of London founded, 28 Oct. 
LL 


1874 


” 


LONDON, BISHOPRIC OF. 


514 


LONDON INSTITUTION. — 


Temple Bar Memorial uncovered (see Temple), 8 Nov. 
Mansion-house (which see); attempt to-blow it up 
detected . 4 : ¢ P : 16 March, 
Elcho shield placed in Guildhall, roth time 29 Oct. 
Mr. W. Ward bequeaths 20,000l., and other property 
to the Corporation, announced 17 Nov. 
City of London College near Moorgate-st. ; founda- 
tion laid : 4 : . 31 March, 
The lord Mayor takes freedom of the city to the 
King of the Netherlands at the Hague . 20 Sept. 
New city of London schools, Victoria Embankment, 
opened by the prince of Wales wre Dec; 
Freedom given to lord Alcester > LE ADPIM, 
City of London Parochial Charities act, 46 & 47 


Vict. c. 56, passed . : : 2 . 20 Aug. 
Much excitement about the dwellings of ‘‘ Out-cast 
London” through Mr. “‘How the 


G. R. Sims, 
poor live,” &c. : : ; . Autumn, 
Meeting at the Mansion House to raise 50,000l., to 
aid the Beaumont legacy, in establishing a great 
institution for the instruction and recreation of 
the people of the Eastend : , 14,Dec. 
See Dynamite, and Explosions, 1883-4. 
New street from King William street to the Tower 
opened A 4 5 4 : . 25 Jan. 
z,oool. offered by government, and t,oool. by 
railway companies, for discovery of dynamite 
conspirators about : ; : . 3 March, 
Freedom of the city given to the earl of Shaftesbury, 
a life-long social philanthropist - 5 March, 
Proposed settlement of Oxford and Cambridge 
university men in E. London to improve social 
life 2 ; , : ; . May, 
Remains of Roman architecture, &c. discovered 
during excavations in Bevis Marks, E.C. . Aug. 
The common council meet in their new chamber at 
Guildhall ‘ : - ‘ 2 . 2 Oct. 
The common council agree to the construction of a 
low-level bridge between the Tower and Horsely- 
down, with lifting sections for the passage of 
ships, cost about 750,000l. : . 24 Oct. 
Great meeting of unemployed social democratic 
federation on Thames embankment; proceed to 
local government board; dissatisfied and riotous 
16 Feb. 
{See England; and the occurrences not noticed 
here, under their respective heads. ] 


1881 


1885 


LONDON, BISHOPRIC OF, is said to have 


been founded in the reign of Lucius, about 179, 


Theanus the first archbishop. 


Augustin made 


Canterbury the metropolitan see of England. Mel- 


litus was bishop in 604. The see has given to 


the 


church of Rome five saints, and to the realm sixteen 
lord chancellors and lord treasurers; it was valued 
in the king’s books, at I19/. 8s. 4d. per annum. 


Present income, 10,0002. In 1845 Hertford 


and 


part of Essex were taken from the see of London 


and added to that of Rochester. ; 


RECENT BISHOPS. 


Beilby Porteus, died 14 May, 1809. 

John Randolph, died 28 July, 1813. 

W. Howley, trans. to Canterbury, Aug. 1828. 

Charles James Blomfield; resigned Oct. 
(died 5 Aug. 1857). 


1787. 
1809. 
1813. 
1828. 


1856. 
Dec. 1868. 
1869. 


1856 


Archibald Campbell Tait, translated to Canterbury, 


John Jackson, from Lincoln, elected 14 Jan. (had 


consecrated 84 new churches, 1869-79), died 6 


Jan. 1885. 
1885. Fred. Temple, translated from Exeter. 


LONDON BRIDGE. One is said to have 


existed, 978. A bridge built of wood, 1014, 


was 


partly burned in 1136. The late old bridge was 
commenced about 1176, by Peter of Colechurch, 
and completed in 1209, with houses on each side, 
connected together by large arches of timber which 


crossed the street. 


A fire at the Southwark end brought crowds on the 
bridge ; the houses at the north end caught fire 
likewise, and prevented their escape: and up- 
wards of 3000 persons lost their lives, being 
either killed, burned, or drowned . 


July, 1212 


1880 | The bridge restored in 1300, again destroyed by fi 


in 1471 ; 13 Feb. 1632, and 
All the houses pulled down... 2 
Waterworks begun, 1582; destroyed by fire 
The toll discontinued ; A . 27 Marcel 
In 1822 the corporation advertised for designs for 
new bridge: that by John Rennie was approve 
and the works were executed by his sons Joh 
and George. The first pile was driven 200 feet 1 
the west of the old bridge, 15 March, 1824; tl 
first stone was laid by the lord mayor, alde 
man Garratt 3 : A : . TS dir 
The bridge opened by William IV. and his queer 
r Au; 


Sep 


The cost was 506,o00l. 

Plans for widening the bridge rejected . H 

It was computed that on 17 March, 1859, thei 
passed over London-bridge 20,498 vehicles (« 
which 4483 were cabs and 4286 omnibuses), an 
167,910 persons (107,074 on foot, and 60,836 i 
vehicles). In April 1881 in one day (24 hour 
passed over 78,943 passengers in 10,733 vehicles 

Attempt to explode S.W. end, damage to property 
not life ; near 6 p.m. 13 Dec. 1884, sool. rewar 
offered. 

LONDON CONFERENCE, of repre 
tives of the chief European powers to reconcile 
tria, Prussia, and Denmark, met 25 April to2 
1864, without effect. A conference in Lond 
specting the treaty of Paris, 1856, led to a ' 
signed 13 March, 1871; see Black Sea. 
Conference respecting Egyptian affairs; earl Gran 

ville, foreign secretary, d&c., H. C. E. Childer; 
chancellor of the exchequer, met the followin; 
ambassadors : Count Karolyi (Austria), M. Wad 
dington (France), count Miinster (Germany) 
count Nigra (Italy), count De Staal (Russia), an 
Musurus Pasha (Turkey), 28 June, 1884; ad 
journed without result sine die . 2Aug 


LONDONDERRY or Derry (N. Ire 
mentioned 546. An abbey here was burned b 
Danes in 783. A charter was granted to the 
don companies in 1615. The town was surp 
and sir George Powlett, the governor, an¢ 
entire garrison were put to the sword by rebe 
1606. It was besieged by O’Neill in 1641. A 
was made of Derry, with 210,000 acres of Jai 
various companies in London, in 1619, when if 
its present name. The siege of Derry by Jame: 
army commenced 20 April, 1689. The ga 
and inhabitants were driven to the extremi 
famine; but under the rev. George Walker, 
defended it until the siege was raised b 
Kirke, on 30 July, James’s army, under the F 
general Rosen, retired with the loss of about 
men. Foyle College act passed, 1874. A § 
iron bridge over the Foyle, opened 1 Jan. 
Riots through orange opposition to the may 
Dublin’s visit, 31 Oct, 1883, 

LONDON DIALECTICAL SOOCIE 


see Dialectical. 
LONDON GATES, see note to article Lo 
LONDON GAZETTE, see Newspapers 
LONDON HOSPITAL, Whitechapel 


stituted Nov. 1740; for seamen, labourers, &¢. 

Foundation of present building laid by adm. sit 
Peter Warren, 15 Oct. 1752 ; had 130 beds . 

The queen opened the Grocers’ company’s wing 
(raising number of beds to 790) . 7 March, 


LONDON INSTITUTION, “for the 
vancement of literature and the diffusion of u 
knowledge,” in imitation of the Royal Institu 
was founded in 1805 by sir Francis Baring, b 
and others, at 8, Old Jewry, Cheapside, and i 
porated 30 April, 1815. Prof. Porson, the 
librarian, died 25 Sept. 1808. The present buil 
in Finsbury-circus was opened on 21 April, I 
the first lecture was delivered by Mr. W. T. Bra 


~ 


“LONDON LIBRARY. 


: 


515 


LONGEVITY. 


f = a ee ee 


; May following. Mr. W. R. Grove, Q.C. 
rwards justice) (the inventor of the Voltaic 
ry which bears his name), was the first pro- 
+ of experimental philosophy, 1840-6. ‘The 
‘ution possesses an excellent library, lecture- 
,and laboratory. Thomas Baring, M.P., long 
lent, died 18 Noy. 1873; succeeded by Dr. 
‘en de la Rue. 


JNDON LIBRARY (circulating), at first 
all-mall, now in St. James’s-square, was 
led by lord Eliot and others, 24 June, 1840, 
pened I May, 1841. The latest catalogue was 
2d in 1875-81. 


JNDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY, es- 
hed 1795. In 1878 there were 151 European, 
43 ordained native missionaries: receipts in 
| 114,85 32. 

)YNDON MUNICIPAL BILL, intro- 
by sic W. Harcourt, 8 April; withdrawn, 
‘ly, 1884. 

‘orporation of London was to be so extended as to 
‘prehend the whole Metropolitan area ; common 
il, (240 members) elected triennally by burgesses 
districts, to be sole governing body, and to com- 
_ functions of existing corporation, Metropolitan 
ud of Works, and other local authorities; and to 
‘) annually a Lord Mayor and Deputy Mayor; and 
“trol ail local affairs except Poor Law Administra- 
, Education, and Police. 


‘NDON MUNICIPAL REFORM, a 
2 was founded 10 March, 1881, to promote 
apresentative municipal government for the 
polis; meetings were held in Oct. 1881 ; 
nan of council, Mr. J. F. B. Firth, M.P. for 
2a. 


INDON PHILANTHROPIC So- 
[TY was founded 1841, to supply bread and 
) the poor. j 


INDON SACRED HARMONIC SO- 
TY, formed after the dismissal of Mr. Sur- 
conductor of the Sacred Harmonic Society, 
ch, 1848; gave last concert, 22 Dec. 1856. 


NDON SCHOOL BOARD, see Zdu- 
, 1870, et seq. 


NDON STEAMER, see Wrecks, &. 
|NDON STONE. A stone said to have 


| laced by the Romans in Cannon-street, then 

atre of the city, 15 B.c. London stone was 
|i before the time of William I. It was re- 
| from the opposite side of the way in 1742; 
| ain moved to its present position in the wall 
| Swithin’s church, 1798. It was against this 
eee Jack Cade struck his sword, exclaiming 
| is Mortimer lord of this city !”’ 1450. 


NDON, UNIVERSITY or. The “Lon- 

lversity”’ was founded by the exertions of lord 
| 1am, Thomas Campbell, sir Isaac L. Goldsmid, 
1ers; the deed of settlement dated 11 Feb. 1826. 
| ilding wascommenced 30 April, 1827 (when the 
one was laid by the duke of Sussex) ; and 
ened by an inaugural lecture from professor 
| Oct. 1828. On 28 Nov. 1836, two charters 
sranted : by one the “London university ”’ 
anged to ‘‘ University coilege,’’ and by_the 
che University of London was established, 
| chancellor and other officers. New charters 
ranted to the latter on 5 Dec. 1837 and 21 
1858. It has power. to grant degrees to 
's of the universities of the united kingdom, 
_ Many collegiate establishments; and to 
» by a supplemental charter, 1878. Its offices 
ng in Burlington-house, Piccadilly, London. 


The university. was enfranchised by the Reform 
act of 1867, and Robert Lowe was elected the first 
M.P. 17 Nov. 1868 ; succeeded by sir John Lubbock, 
June, 1880. The new buildings in Burlington- 
gardens, erected by Mr. Pennethorne, were inaugu- 
rated by the queen 11 May, 1870. University Hall, 
Gordon-square, was founded in 1847. University 
College, new buildings opened, Oct. 1880. A scheme 
for establishing a teaching university of London, 
with four faculties set forth at the Society of Arts, 
Paes Reay, and others, 15 Dec. 1884, and 5 Feb. 
1885. 


LONDON WATER SUPPLY. 

Metropolitan Board of Works undertook to supply 
water from the Chalk, and also from the Thames 
above Teddington, with two sets of pipes, for 
I2,000,o00l.  . ; ; . : : % 

Negotiations with the water companies by Mr. 
Smith, begun Oct. 1879 ; annuities proposed to 
be given to the companies, 29,734,2811., with ad- 
ditional payments making in all a capital payment 
of 33,018,836/., yearly interest to be paid by the 
consumers, 1,240,673. 

London Water Supply Commission (sir William 
Harcourt, chairman) appointed 3 June, reported 
recommending water supply to be placed under 
control of some responsible public body (or Water 
Trust) to be created; non-acceptance of Mr. 
Smith’s proposal ; that the undertakings of exist- 
ing companies be purchased upon fair and reason- 
able terms, if not, the endeavour to obtain an 
independent supply, signed - 3 Aug. 1880 

See Dobbs’ case, trials, 30 Noy. 1883 

Metropolitan waiter bill, checking the systems of 

the Companies rejected in the Commons (197-152) 
zz March, 1884 
LONE STAR, a secret society formed in 1848, 
in Alabama and other southern states of the North 

American Union, for the ‘ extension of the institu- 

tions, power, influence, and commerce of the 

United States over the whole of the western hemi- 

sphere, and the islands of the Atlantic and Pacific 

oceans.’’ The first acquisitions to be made by the 
order were Cuba and the Sandwich Islands. The 
knowledge of the existence of this society reached 

England in Aug. 1852. 


LONG ISLAND or FLarsusn (N. America), 
Battle of, 27 Aug. 1776, between the British troops 
under sir William Howe, and the revolted Ameri- 
cans, who suffered a severe defeat, after a well- 
fought action, losing 2000 men killed and wounded 
and 1000 prisoners. 


LONGEVITY. Methuselah died, aged 96g, 
2349 B.C. (Gen. v. 27). Golour M‘Crain of the Isle 
of Jura, one of the Hebrides, is mythically said to 
have kept 180 Christmases in his own house, and died 
in the reign of Charles I. ‘In rorg died Johannes 
de Temporibus, who lived 361 years (!)”’ Stow. 
Thomas Parr, a labouring man of Shropshire, was 
brought to London by the earl of Arundel, in 1635, 
and said to be in his 153rd year and in perfect 
health; he died 15 Nov. in the same year. Henry 
Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was buried 
in Bolton churchyard, 6 Dec. aged 169 years(?) The 
researches of sir G. Cornewall Lewis, professor 
Owen, Mr. Wm. J. Thoms (in his ‘“‘ Human Longe- 
vity,’”’ May, 1873) and others, have disproved many 
alleged cases of longevity; and few statements 
of lives extending much beyond a century can be 
relied on. There were no records of baptism till 
the 16th century. In last decade about 800 alleged 
centenarians registered; 204 men. Deaths of 25 
men and 66 women aged above 100 registered in 


1881. See Abstinence. 

Alleged instances (most of them evidently false). 
Died. Aged. 
1656. James Bowles, Killingworth 5 - I52 


1691. Lady Eccleston, Ireland - 143 


av 30, 


LONGITUDE. 516 LORDS. 
1759. James Sheil, Irish yeoman . 136 | LONGMAN’S MAGAZINE first p 
1766. Colonel Thomas Winslow, Ireland 146 (to replace ‘* Frazer’s’’), Nov. 1882. 
1772. Mrs. Clum, Lichfield 23238 4 
1774. William Beeby, Dungarvon (an ‘ensign who LONGOBARDI, see Lombardy. 
served at the battles of the Boyne and Augh- LONG PARLIAMENT met 3 No 
rim) . : ; a. siete 
1780. Robert Mac Bride, Herries . . 130 | was forcibly dissolved by Cromwell 20 ye 
i ah William Ellis, Liverpool Sy iets) LONGWOOD, PRE ent lena (S. 
1785. Cardinal de Solis . I10 
1797. Charles Macklin, actor, London . . 107 | Ocean), the residence of the emperor Napol 
1806. Mr. Creeke, of Thurlow . 125 | 10 Dec. 1815 till his death, 5 May, 1821. 
», Catherine Lopez, of Jamaica ey 
1813. Mrs. Meighan, Donoughmore = 130 LON AS ea tlt nats ne oe 
1834. Mary Innes, Isle of Skye. . 127 | Was taken by the allied army of Austr 
1816. Jane Lewson, Coldbath- fields, Clerkenwell. 116 | Prussians, 23 Aug. 1792, the beginning of t 
1840. Mrs. Martha Rorke, of Dromore, county of war. It was again taken 18 Sept. 1815. 
Kildare, 27 Aug. 133 | bombardment it surrendered to the Gerr 
1853. Mrs. Mary Power (aunt of Rd. Lalor Shiel), Jan. 1871 
Ursuline convent, Cork, 20 March . 116 7 ; 
1858. James Nolan, Knockardrane, Carlow . 116 LOOCHOO ISLES; N. Pacific; lon 
1874. Anthony Beresford eas eae 1772) died at nally subject to Japan; with a nearl "anda 
Alstonfield, 3 March, authentic IOI : 
1875. Count Jean Fred, Waldeck, painter ; born at king. . Disputes between see ave apan 
Prague, 16 March, 1766; died at Paris, #9 ing ‘them, 1879, reported settled Dec. 
April, 1875 wats - see Mirrors, 
>, Jacob Wm. crane, at Morden college 103 LOOKING GLASSES, 
1876. Madame Hulsenstein, said to have been maid LOOM: was used by the Egyptians. The: 
of honour to the empress Maria Theresa. . 119 otherwise calledthe Dutch loom, was brought 
», Elizabeth Abbott, Ipswich, ara (is han 105 | in London from Holland, about 1676. There 
1877. excaige widow of sir James ; mith, o- 1825, about 250,000 tants setae wn Chews 
anist, (b. 11 May, 1773; d. 3 Feb. 1877) 103 d i “looms, eaoh (being equal 
,. Eunice Bagster, w ife of Samuel, Bible book- and 75,000 power-looms, ea q 
seller, London, 22 Aug. roo | hand-looms, making twenty-two yards € 
1878. Thomas Budgen, Spitalfields, London 4 “Aug. 104 | day. The steam- loom was introduced in 18 
1879. Jane Hooper, St. Pancras, London . - 102 | Cotton, Electric-loom, Jacquard, Pneumatu 
», Rev. Canon Beadon, Stoneham 102 
,, Margaret Crook, Durham . 112 LOOSHAIS, a predatory nomadic 
1880. Sarah Way, Bristol 1042 | tribe, about 300 miles east of Calcutta. 
», Johannette Polack (born. Genth) ; “Wiesbaden re quently robbed the British tea plant: ation 
ror and 5 months 
1881. Martha Gardner, Liverpool, ro March 104 and 5 the planters and carrying off their childr 


months 
Fanny Bailey, Worthing, 6 April . - 1034 
Annie Webb, sister of Sir J oseph Maxwell, Aug. 


5s 102 

>, Jane Pinkerton, of Lower Crumpsall, Man- 
chester, (born ro June, 1774) died 5 Oct. . 107 
5, Archibald M’ Arthur, Dunoon, born 1777 + 104 

1882. James Smith, St. Mary Cray, born 1777 
died 27 Nov. aged nearly 105 

», Thomas Bramley, Ilkeston, Derby, born 
29 Dec. 1777, died Dee. I05 
1883. Betty Morgan, Garth in Wales, died 26 Feb. 107 
Stephen Lewes, Southampton, died May Sisters 
1884. Rhoda Dunn, Hunstanton, Norfolk kos 

EXAMPLES FURNISHED BY DR. J. WEBSTER, F.R.3. 

(unauthenticated) 

Died. Buried at Aged. 
1652. Dr. W. Meade, Ware, Herts . ‘ é 2 ie 
1711. Mrs. Scrimshaw, Rosemary-lane 127 
1739. Margaret Patten, Christchurch, Westminster . 136 
1741. John Rovin, Temeswar, Hungary E72 
1757. Alexander M: Culloch, Aberdeen Se bg 
1759. Donald Cameron, Rannach, Aberdeenshire. 130 
1763. Mrs. Taylor, Piccadilly age 
1766. John Mount, Langham, Dumfries ae 30 
» dohn Hill, Leadhills, near Edinburgh . - 130 
1771. Mr. Whalley, Rotherhithe 5/121 
1775- Widow Jones, Campbell : . 125 
1780. Mr. Evans, Spitalfields 52239 
1784. Mary Cameron, Braemar, Aberdeen . 29 
1791. Archhbd. Cameron, Keith, Aberdeenshire . - 122 
1851. Jean Golembeski, Hotel des Invalides, Paris . 126 


LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus, at 
Nice, who fixed the first degree in the Canaries, 
162 B.c. Harrison made a time- keeper, in A.D. 
1759, which in two voyages was found to correct 
the longitude within the limits required by the act 
of parliament 12 Anne, 1714; and obtained the 
reward; see Harrison’ s Timepiece. The chrono- 
meters of Arnold, Earnshaw, and Bréguet, are 
highly esteemed. Chronometers are now received 
on trial at Greenwich Observatory. The act relating 
to the discovery of the longitude at sea was repealed 
in 1828. The Bureau des Longitudes at Paris was 
established in 1795. 


expedition to chastise them was successful, D. 


LORD, see Lady. When printed in th 
glish Bible in small capitals Lorp stands fe 
vah, the self-existing God, the name first1 
to Moses, 1491 B.C. Hxod. vi. 3. When Lo 
ordinary type, it represesents Adonai, 
master. 


LORD ADVOCATE, CHAMBER. 
CHANCELLOR, &c., see Advocate, ¢ 


tain, Chaneellor, &e. 


LORD’S DAY ACT, 29 Chas. II. « 
Sabbath. 


LORD’S SUPPER, instituted by Jesu 
(Matt. xxvi. 17), 33, see "Sacrament and T 
stantiation. 


LORDS.* The nobility of England da 
creation from 1066, when illiam Fitz-Os 
said to have been made earl of Hereford | 
liam I.; and afterwards Walter d’Hvreux, 
Salisbury; Copsi, earl of Northumberland; 
de Ferrers, earl of Derby; and Gerodus (a Fi 
earl of Chester. Twenty-two other peers wer 
in this sovereign’s reign. ‘The first peer ere 
patent was lord Beauchamp of Holt Cast 
Richard II. in 1387. In Scotland, Gilehri 
created earl of Angus by Malcolm’ IIL. 10° 
Ireland, sir John de Courcy was created bi 
Kinsale, &c., in 1181; the first peer after t 
taining of that kingdom by Henry II. 


* Peers of England are free from all arrests of d 
being the king’s ; hereditary counsellors ; therefor 
cannot be outlawed in any civil action, and no 
ment lies against his person ; but execution may k 
upon his lands and goods. For the same reas0 
are free from all attendance at courts leet or § 
or, in case of a riot, from attending tl 
He can act asa justice of the peace 
See Baron, Earl, &e. 


turns ; 
comitatus. 
part of the kingdom. 


a ke 
te 


LORDS, HOUSE OF. 


517 


LOTTERIES. 


ARDS, House or. The peers of England 
summoned ad consulendum, to consult, in early 
, and by writ, 6 & 7 John, 1205; but the 
36 writ extant is 49 Hen. III. 1265. The 
ons did not form a part of the great council of 
ition until some ages after the conquest ; see 
went. The houseof lords includesthe spiritual 
ll as temporal peers of Great Britain. The 
s are supposed to hold certain ancient baronies 
the king, in right whereof they have seats in 
ouse. Some of the temporal lords sit by de- 
and some by creation: others by election, 
the union with Scotland in 1707, and with 
id, 1801.—Scotland elects 16 representative 
and Ireland, 28 temporal peers for life. The 
of lords in Jan. 1885, consisted of 5 princes of 
lood, 2 archbishops, 22 dukes, Ig marquises, 
rls, 33 viscounts, 283 barons, and 24 bishops ; 


524. 


of lords at death of Charles II. 1685 . 176 peers. 
3 Aa Will. III. 1702 Sop de 
9 ‘A Anne, 1714 . 209 
F & Geo: I. 1727 - . 216 
‘3 % Geo. II. 1760 . 229 
dp a Geo. III. 1820 S30 
+% a Geo. IV. 1830 - 396 
3 ee Will. IV. 1837 - 456 
8th Vict. 1855 ‘ . : : . 448 
24th Vict. 1860 . : - 462 
32nd Vict. 1868 A : - 464 
39th Vict. 1876 . 3 ; - 494 
41st Vict. 1878 . SOF 


ng, barons, and clergy enact the constitutions 


arendon in . 3 - 1164 
. Magna Charta in 2 I2r5 
he government 1264-5 


of lords abolished by the commons, 6 Feb. 1649 
As metagain, . é 25, AT as, 
with the commons in making William and 


7 king and queen : 2 : é ee LOGO 
the great reform bill, 7 Oct. 1831; pass it, 

June, 1832 
rliament house destroyed by fire 16 Oct. 1834 
ossession of their new house . x5 April, 1847 


» successfully the creation of life Up Seal 
eb. 
by proxy abolished by standing brdér, 

31 March, 1868 

igulations respecting committees 2 Aprilies 55 

¥ peers were gazetted ; 17 April, ,, 
ipt peers not to sit or vote, decided ro Feb. ; 
ed by act ; : : < Seer July. 
ers cannot vote for M.P.’s affirmed by court 
mmon pleas on appeal. : . 15 Nov. 
ers for life may be created by her majesty as 
| of appeal in ordinary, to aid the house of 
i; as a court of ultimate appeal (see Supreme 


1856 


1871 


1872 


t). 
Blackburn and Gordon created peers for life 

5 Oct. 1876 
id to sit and vote in parliament while appeal 
28; first sitting . : ; A ST NOV. |.,> 
\ayleigh (said to be) the first peer elected a 
ssor of physics (at Cambridge) 12 Dec. 1879 


RDS JUSTICES, see Justices. 
RDS LIEUTENANTS, see Lieutenants. 
RDS OF THE PALE, sce Pale. 
RENZO MARQUEZ, see Lourengo. 


RETTO, near Ancona, Italy. Here is the 
Janta, or Holy House, in which itis pretended 
-tgin Mary lived at Nazareth, and said to have 


‘rage for life only, with the title of lord Wensleydale 
sleydale, was granted to baron sir James Parke, 
_ 1856; the house of lords opposed his sitting and 
aS a peer for life, and on 25 July, 1856, he was 
» &@ peer in the usual way, with the title of lord 
-ydale of Walton. He died in 1868. <A bill for 
g life peerages was read a second time in the lords, 


| 1, 1869, but afterwards rejected. 


been carried by angels into Dalmatia from Galilee 
in 1291, and brought here a few years after. The 
lady of Loretto, gaudily dressed, stands upon an 
altar holding the infant Jesus in her arms, sur- 
rounded with gold lamps. Loretto was taken by the 
French in 1797; the holy image, which had been 
carried to France, was brought back with pomp, 5 
Jan. 1803. 


L’ORIENT (W. France). Lord Bridport off 
this port defeated the French fleet, 23 June, 1795. 
The loss of the French was severe: that of the 
British inconsiderable. — The French flag-ship, 
L’ ORIENT, blew up during the battle of the Nile, I 
Aug. 1798. Admiral Brueys and about g00 men 
perished. 


LORRAINE (Lotharingia), formerly a French 
now a German province, became a kingdom under 
Lothaire (son of the emperor Lothaire I.) about 
85 5 and was divided at his death, in 869, part of 
it being made a duchy. From the first hereditary 
duke, Gerard, nominated by the emperor Henry II1. 
in 1048, descended the house of Lorraine, repre- 
sented now by the emperor of Austria, whose ances- 
tor, the empress Maria Theresa, married in 1736 
Francis formerly duke of Lorraine, then of Tuscany. 
Lorraine, given to the dethroned king of Poland, 
Stanislaus I., for life, was, at his death in 1766, 
united to France; see Nancy. Lorraine was the seat 
of war in Aug. 1870, and about the fifth part, in- 
cluding Metz and Thionville, was annexed to 
Germany at the peace, 26 Feb. 1871. 


LOTS. Casting lots, as an appeal to God, was 
sacred among the Jews, Proverbs xvi. 33. It was 
employed in the division of the land of Canaan, 
about 1444 B.c., by Joshua (xiv.), and in the elec- 
tion of Matthias the apostle, a.D. 33, cts i.—Lots 
for life or death have been frequently cast. For an 
instance, see Wales, 1649, note. 


LOTTERIES are said to have originated in 
Florence about 1530, and to have been legalised in 
France in 1539, and soon became common. They 
were prohibited by pope Benedict XIII. (1724-30), 
and sanctioned by Clement XII. (1730-40). See 
Art Union under Arts. 

The first mentioned in English history took 
place, day and night, at the western door of 

St. Paul’s cathedral. It contained 40,000 ‘‘lots” : 

at ros. each lot, the profits were for repairing the 

harbours, and the prizes were pieces of plate, 

rr Jan.-6 May, 1569 
A lottery, granted by the king, in favour of the 
colony of Virginia (prizes, pieces of plate), drawn 

near St. Paul’s 3 - . 2gJune-20 July, 1612 
First lottery for sums of money took place in - 1630 
Lotteries established (for more than 130 years 

yielded a large annual revenue to the crown) . . 1693 
Lottery for the British Museum ; - 1753 
Cox’s museum, containing many rare specimens of 

art and articles of virtu, disposed of by lottery, 

by an act of parliament : ; A 4.508 Pap 
An act passed for the sale of the buildings of the 

Adelphi by lottery r6June, ,, 
Irish state lottery drawn . - 1780 
Lottery for the Leverian Museum - - 1784-5 
For the Pigott diamond, permitted, Jan. 2, 180x ; it 

was afterwards sold at Christie’s auction for 9500 

guineas . : : 2 : : to May, 1802 
For the collection of pictures of alderman Boydell, 


1773 


by act. 3 5 : Z : : - 1804-5 
Lotteries abolished by 6 Geo. IV. ¢. 60, Oct. ; the 
last drawn . 18 Oct. 1826 


Act passed declaring that the then pending Glasgow 


lottery should be the last : : ; BS tey! 
An act passed imposing a penalty of sol. for adver- 
tising lotteries in the newspapers . 1836 


Lotteries suppressed in France : ne. 793 and 1836 
Mr. Dethiers’ twelfth-cake lottery, Argyll-rooms, 
Hanover-square, suppressed . . 27 Dec. 1860 


LOUDON-HILL. 


Twelve million national lottery tickets of one franc 

each, sold at Paris to pay for prizes to exhibitors, 

and expenses of working men visitors, 1878; 1st 

prize worth 5,oool., 2nd, 4,oool., 3rd and 4th 

2,000l. ; total 230,000 rewards. Drawing began 
26 Jan. 1879 


TON or DRUMCLOG; see Drum- 
clog. 

LOUIS-D’OR, a French gold coin of 24 franes, 
first struck by Louis XIII. in 1640; it was not 
legal, 1795-1514; superseded by the Napoleon, 
1810. 


LOUISIANA (N. America), one of the United 
States; discovered by Ferdinand de Soto, 1541; 
traversed by M. de Salle, 1682; settled by Louis 
XIV. (from whom it derived its name), about 1698. 
It formed the basis of Law’s Mississippi scheme, 
1717. It was ceded to Spain when all east of the 
Mississippi was given to England, 1763. Capital, 
Baton Rouge; commercial capital, New Orleans. 
Restored to France : : : : aby Se atiiers 
Sold to the Americans, 1803; and madeastate . 1812 
Gen. Jackson defeated the British at New Orleans, 


8 Jan. 1815 

Seceded from the Union by ordinance . 25 Jan. 1861 
Adm. Farragut takes New Orleans for the Federals, 

28 April, 1862 

Louisiana restored to the Union 4 - 1865 
The state disturbed by factions and civil war: at 

Grant parish many negroes massacred 11 April, 1873 


See New Orleans. 


LOURDES, Hautes Pyrénées, 8. France, see 
France, 1872-1875. 


LOURENCO MARQUES, a” Portuguese 
settlement, E.°coast of Africa. In May, 1879, a 
treaty was agreed to permitting a railway to be 
made to the Transvaal territory. Its ratification 
was opposed in the chambers at Lisbon in 1881, and 
led to achange of ministry. See Portugal. 


LOUVRE, in Paris, is said to have been a royal 
residence in the reign of Dagobert, 628. It was a 
prison-tower constructed by Philippe Augustus in 
1204. It afterwards became a library, and Charles 
VI. made it his palace (about 1364). The new 
buildings, begun by Francis I. in 1528, were enlarged 
and adorned by successive kings, particularly Louis 
XIV.—Napoleon I. turned it into a museum, and 
deposited in it the finest collection of paintings, sta- 
tues, and treasures of art known in the world. The 
chief of those brought from Italy have since been 
restored to the rightful possessors. The magnificent 
buildings of the new Louvre, begun by Napoleon I. 
and completed by Napoleon III., were inaugurated 
by the latter in great state, 14 Aug. 1857. The 
library was destroyed and other buildings much in- 
jured by the communists, May, 1871. 


LOVE FEASTS, see Agape. 
LOW COUNTRIES, the Pays Bas, now Hol- 


land and Belgium (which see). 


LOWER EMPIRE. Some historians make 
it begin with the reign of Valerian, 253; others 
with that of Constantine, 323. 


LOWERING BOAT APPARATUS, see 
Life-boats. 


LOW SUNDAY, the first Sunday after Easter, 
said to derive its name from the inferiority of its 
solemnities to those of Easter Sunday; see Haster. 


LOYALISTS, a term applied to the Royalist 
party during the American war of 1775-83, and to 
the supporters of the Union in Ireland in 1883, 


518 


hs, *@> 
i” 


LUCIFER-MATCHES. 
LOYALTY LOANS were raised duriz 


revolutionary wars. The term was applied : 
opened in London 5 Dec. 1796; in fifteen hou 
twenty minutes the sum of eighteen millions st 
was subscribed ; see National Association. 


LUBBOCK’S ACT, Sir John, see Bani 
days’ Act. 


os \ 
LUBECK, a city in N. Germany, one 
four republics of the German confederation 
built in the 12th century, and was chief four 
the Hanseatic league about 1240, which last 
1630. Liibeck was declared a free imperi: 
about 1226; but was frequently attacked | 
Danes. The French took it by assault, € 
1806, and Napoleon incorporated it with his 
in 1810. On his fall in 1814 it became once: 
free imperial city. It joined the North G 
confederation 18 Aug. 1866. Population in 
52,158; in 1875, 56,912; in 1880, 63,571. 
LUCANIANS, a warlike people of §. 
defeated Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 33: 
were subdued by the Romans, 272; revolte 
the battle of Canne, 216; were reduced by | 
201; again revolted, 90; admitted as Roma 
zens, 838. 


LUCCA (central Italy), a Roman color 
B.c.; a Lombard duchy, A.D. 1327; a free city 
1370; took an active part in the civil wars 
Italian republics. It was united with Tuscar 
given as a principality to Eliza Bonaparte | 
brother Napoleon I., 1805. Lucca, as a duch 
given to Maria Louisa, widow of Louis, k 
Etruria, in 1814. It was exchanged by h 
Charles-Louis for Parma and Placentia in 
was annexed to Tuscany, and with it becan 
of the kingdom of Italy, in 1860. 


LUCERNE (Switzerland) became indep 
in 1332, and joined the confederation. ‘1! 
Lucerne is said to derive its name from « 
(ducerna) set up to guide travellers. It date: 
the 8th century, and was subject to the 
of Murbach, who surrendered it to the ho 
Hapsburg. It was taken by the French in | 
1798, and was for a short time capital of th 
vetic republic ; which, as the focus of insum 
against the French, was suppressed Oct. 180 
a catholic canton, Lucerne was very acti 
behalf of education by the Jesuits, 1844 ; see 
zerland. 


LUCIA, ST. (West Indies), first sett! 
the English, 1639; expelled by the natives; | 
by French in 1650; taken by the British : 
times in the subsequent wars. Insurrect 
the French negroes, April, 1795. St. Lue 
restored to France at the peace of 1802; b 
seized by England, 1803, and confirmed to. 
1814. Population in 1871, 31,811; 710 whit 
1876, 34,848; 910 whites; in 1880, 38,265. 


LUCIFER MATCHES came into use 
1834. Friction matches were invented by } 
of Stockton-on-Tees, 1829. In March, 184: 
Reuben Partridge patented machinery for 1 
facturing the splints. In _ 1845, Schrot 
Vienna produced his amorphous phosphor 
heating ordinary phosphorus in a gas wh 
cannot absorb), by the use of which Iucift 
rendered less dangerous, and the manufactw 
unhealthy. Phosphoros (Greek) and duecifer (L 
both signify light-bearer. 

Mr. Lowe’s proposed tax on lucifers (wit 
lucellum” on the box) was much opposed ane 
drawn, April, 1871. For their exertions, @ 


sda i 


LUCKNOW. 


antain at Bow was inaugurated as a memorial to 
yant and May, 5 Oct. 1872. The match manufacture 
's made a monopoly in France in Oct. 1872, for 


9,000l. 


UCKNOW, the capital of Oude, since 1675; 
‘Oude, and India, 1857. Visit of prince of 
les, Jan. 1876. 

UDDITES. Large parties of men under this 
gnation, derived from Ned Lud, an idiot, who 
broke some frames in a passion, commenced 
‘edations at Nottingham, breaking frames and 
hinery, Nov. 1811. Skirmish with the military 
e, 29 Jan. 1812. Serious riots occurred again 
814; and numerous bodies of unemployed arti- 
committed great excesses in 1816 et seg. Several 
jiese Luddites were tried and executed, 1813 and 
4; see Derby. 


| 
UGDUNUM, see Leyden and Lyons. 
UMINOUS PAINT, invented by Mr. W. 


‘Balmain, of University College, London ; 
‘nted by Ihlee and Horne, of London. 
osphorescent materials; lime and sulphur mixed 
oil or water; clock-faces, statues, &c., painted 
this mixture, éxposed to light, remain luminous 
iome time. Besides domestic uses, it is applied to 
“ary purposes. 


UNAR SOCIETY, Birmingham, about 1780. 
members, Joseph Priestley, James Watt, Eras- 
Darwin, Dr. Withering, and others, met near 
‘full of the moon, to discuss philosophy and 


J1Cs. 

‘UNATICS. Insanity (defined by sir Wm. 
‘ulton as “the paralysis of the regulating or 
lating faculties of the mind’’). 

‘e king shall have the custody of the lands of 


tural fools,” &c:, 17 Edw. II. ’ , Spa toed 
viages with lunatics declared void, 15 Geo. I. 
, 30 * Se reciis 3 ‘ ° 5 - Se niyae 
rs were madein . zt c 1774 and 1828 
‘regarding criminal lunatics passed Aug. 1840 
“ey act, 8 & g Vict. c. 100, passed ‘ . 11845 


‘numerous laws respecting lunatics were con- 
/idated and amended by 16 & 17 Vict. cc. 70, 96, 
ae ee : : : 4 y 5 tele) 
Ww lunacy act for Scotland passed SLOSS 

cet to amend the law relating to commissions of 
‘lacy passed (said to be in consequence of the 
“mdham case; see Trials, 1862) . : : 7 
tliamentary committee, reports favourably of 
} present system of custody of lunatics . 1878 
iey Regulation act amended . . 1882 


1862 


al of Lunatics act passed f cs 2s Aug. 1883 
singent Lunacy bill introduced by Lord Chan- 
jlor Selborne . - ° 26 March, 1885 


TREATMENT OF THE INSANE. 


_he end of the last century lunatics were treated 
h cruel severity ; see Conolly ‘‘ On the Treat- 
nt of the Insane,” 1856. 

‘nsane were exhibited at Bethlem as a show, 
1d. or 2d. till : : F ; : 
shtened principles of treatment were intro- 
zed by Wm. Tuke, at the Society of Friends’ 
retreat,” at York, and by Pinel, at the Bicétre, 
tis, with very great success . : 5 pg 
| irol succeeds Pinel, and strongly recommends 
— in the management of mental dis- 
sis a ; rc : 3 . - “ E 
“sure of enormous cruelties in the Bethlem 
Spieak sl : : : ¢ : ae 
led to gradual improvements, and at last to 
> total abolition of mechanical restraints at 
,tcoln, 1837; and at Hanwell Asylum (under 
.> Superintendence of Dr. John Conolly) and at 
ler places 


1770 


hological J ournal first published by Dr. Forbes 
pnslow . : : : ; : 2 Bok bey Rss 
| ‘nal of Mental Science, by Dr. J. C. Bucknill . 1852 


See Hospitals, 


519 


LUSTRUM. 


Lunatics in charge in England and Wales, x Jan. 1855. 


PRIVATE. PAUPER. 
Male. Female. Male. Female. Total. 
County Asylums . 132 123 6008 7316 13,579 
Hospitals - 895 723 QI 94 1,803 
Licensed houses . 1448 1350 1034 1279 5,111 
2475 2196 7133 8689 20,493 


Lunatics, Idiots, and Persons of Unsound Mind in 
England and Wales : 


1 Jan. Registered. | 1 Jan. Registered. 
1859 36,672 1872 58,640 
1860 38,058 1873 60,296 
1861 30,647 1874 62,027 
1862 41,129 1875 63,793 
1863 43,118 1876 64,916 
1864 445795 1877 66,636 
1865 45,950 1878 68,538 
1866 47,648 1879 69,885 
1867 49,086 1880 71,191 
1868 51,000 TOOYs ae : 73,113 
1869 530177 1882. s 74,842 
1870 545713 2689 °~et ie 5 70,705 
1871 56,755 1884 78,528 


1878. Male lunatics, 31,024 ; female, 37,514 ; ratio, 27.57 
per 10,000. 

Ratio per 1000 to the population: 1859, 1.86; 186s, 
2.18 ; 1870, 2.47 ; 1874, 2.62. 

In 1851, there were in Ireland nearly 15,000 lunatics of 
all classes ; in Scotland in 1851, 3362 in charge ; in 1855, 
7403; of which only 3328 were under the protection of 
the law. 


LUND-HILL, near Barnsley, in South York- 
shire. While the miners were dining in the pit, 19 
Feb. 1857, the inflammable gas took fire and 
exploded. About 189 miners perished. In April 
and May bodies were still being extricated. There 
had been great laxity of discipline in the pit. 
-oool, were subscribed for the bereaved. 


LUNEBURG, see Brunswick. 
LUNEVILLE (France), PEACE OF, con- 


cluded between the French republic and the emperor 
of Germany, confirmed the cessions made by the 
treaty of Campo Formio, stipulated that the Rhine, 
as far as the Dutch territories, should form the 
boundary of France, and recognised the Batavian, 
eee Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, 9 Feb. 
180l. 


LUPERCALIA, a yearly festival observed at 
Rome on 15 Feb. in honour of Pan, destroyer of 
wolves (Jupz), instituted by the Romans, in memory 
of Romulus and Remus, according to Plutarch; but 
according to Livy, brought by Evander into Italy. 
These feasts are said to have been abolished in 496, 
by pope Gelasius, on account of their great disorders. 


LUSATIA, a marquisate in N. Germany, 
given to John of Bohemia, 1319; obtained by 
Matthias of Hungary, 1478; ceded to Saxony in 
1635. 


LUSIAD, the great epic poem of the Portu- 
guese, written in honour of their discoveries in 
India, by Luis de Camoéns, and published by him 
at Lisbon, I 572. The English translations are by 
sir Richard Fanshawe, 1655; by Wm. Julius Mickle, 
1775; and others; the latest and best by J. J. 
Aubertin, 1884. 


LUSITANTA, see Portugal. 
LUSTRUM, an expiatory sacrifice made for 


the Roman peopie, at the end of every five years, 
after the census had been taken, 472 B.c. Every 
fifth year was called a duwstrwm ; and ten, fifteen, or 
twenty years, were commonly expressed by two, 
three, or four dustra. The number of Roman 
citizens was—in 293 B.C., 272,308; 179 B.C., 
273,294; 70 B.C.) 450,000; 28 B.C., 4,164,060; A.D. 
48, 5,984,072. ‘The last lustrum took place, 74. 


Be 


“a 


LUTE. 


520 


LYING-IN HOSPITALS. 


LUTE, an ancient instrument of oriental origin, 
(Arabic, al’ud); said to have been brought to 


Mecca, in the 6th century a.D., and thence to | . 


Europe. J.§S. Bach and others composed for the 
Western lute in the 18th century. 


LUTHERANISM,* the form of Christianity 
professed by the majority of the people of the north 
of Germany, Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden. The 
doctrines are mainly embodied in Luther’s cate- 
chisms, in the Augsburg Confession, and in the 
Formula Concordie of the Lutherans, published in 
1580. ‘Their first university was founded at Mar- 
burg, in 1527, by Philip, landgrave of Hesse. The 
Luther memorial at Worms was unveiled in presence 


of the king of Prussia and other sovereigns, 25 | 
Fourth centenary of Luther’s birth | 


June, 1868. 
celebrated at Halle, Eisleben (where he was born), 
Berlin, and throughout Germany; also at London, 
Edinburgh, Dublin, and other places in the united 
kingdom; at Paris, and other places on the con- 
tinent, 31 Oct.—17 Noy. 1883. 


LUTINE, see Wrecks, 1799. 


LUTZEN, or LuTzZENGEN (N. Germany). 
Here Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, defeated 
the imperialists under Wallenstein, 16 Nov. 1632, 
but was himself killed ; and here the French army, 
commanded by Napoleon, defeated the combined 
armies of Russia and Prussia, commanded by general 
Wittgenstein, 2 May, 1813. The battles of Bautzen 
and Wurschen immediately followed (19-21 May), 
both in favour of Napoleon. The allies were com- 
pelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was 
agreed to, afterwards prolonged; but, unfortunately 
for the French emperor, this did not produce 
peace. . 


LUXEMBURG, a grand duchy held by the 
king of Holland. Luxemburg, the capital, once 
considered the strongest fortified city in the world, 
has been many times besieged and taken: by the 
French in 984, 1443, 1479, 1542-3; by the Spaniards 
in 1544; by the French in 1684; restored to Spain 
in 1697;, taken by the French in I701; given to 
the Dutch as a barrier town, but ceded to the 
emperor at the peace in 1713. It withstood several 
sieges in the last century. It surrendered to the 
French after a siege, from Noy. 1794 to July, 1795; 
and was retaken by the allies in May, 1814. 
lation of the grand duchy, 1867, 199,958; 1875, 
205,158; 1880, 209,570. 

The grand duchy was annexed to the Netherlands, 

still remaining a member of the Germanic con- 

federation, the capital having a Prussian garrison 1815 
A portion given to the new kingdom of Belgium . 1830 
After the dissolution of the Germanic confedera- 

tion, the emperor Napoleon objected to the Prus- 

sian garrison, and offered to buy the grand duchy 
from the king of Holland : ; March, 
In consequence of the opposition of Prussia, a con- 
ference of representatives of the great powers met 
in London, 7-11 May, who agreed upon a treaty 
guaranteeing the neutrality of the province, the 
retirement of the Prussian garrison, and the dis- 


1867 


mantling the fortress of Luxemburg 7-11 May, ,, 
The Prussian soldiers retired ; rap NOV. (gers; 
The fortifications dismantled . . Aug 1870 


The people protest against absorption into Germany, 

21 Oct. 

They are accused of violating neutrality, and the 
abrogation of the treaty is mooted by Prussia, 

early in Dec. 


3? 


29 


* Martin Luther was born at Eisleben, 10 Nov. 1483; 
studied at Erfurt, 1501 ; was professor of philosophy at 
Wittenberg, 1508 ; resisted the sale of indulgences, 1517 ; 
defended himself at Augsburg, 1518; at Worms, 1520; 
was excommunicated, 16 June, 1520; began his German 


bible, 1521 ; married Katherine de Bora, 1525 ; published | 


his German bible complete, 1534; died 18 Feb. 1546. 


| 


opu- | 


The king of Holland, their sovereign, declared tha 
he would maintain the treaty, 15 Dec. ; and th 
government protested against the charge, 19 Dec 
ew treaty with Prussia ; indemnity to be paid fo 
breaches of neutrality ; fortresses to be garrisone 
by Germans : ; 2 ‘ : . Ke 
Fortifications transformed to civil purposes 


LUXOR, or Ex-Uxsour, Egypt, see Th 
LUXURY. Lucullus (died 49 B.c.), at ] 


was distinguished for inordinate luxury ; see & 
tuary Laws. 


LYCEUM (originally a temple of J 
Lyceus, or a portico, or gallery, built by L 
son of Apollo) was a spot near the Ilissus, in / 
where Aristotle taught philosophy; and 
generally taught as he walked, his pupils 
called peripatetics, walkers-about, and his ph 
phy that of the Lyceum, 342 B.c. Stanley 
Theatres. 


LYCIA (Asia Minor), subject successive 
Croesus (about 560 B.c.), to the Persians (546 
to Alexander the Great (333 B.c.), and to hi 
cessors the Seleucide. ‘The Romans gave L 
the Rhodians (188 B.c.). It became nomina 
under the Romans, and was annexed to the e 
by Claudius. The marbles brought from Ly 
sir Charles Fellows were deposited in the I 
Museum, 1840-46. 


LYCURGUS, see Laws. 


LYDIA, or Meonia, an ancient kingd 
Asia Minor, under a long dynasty of kings, tk 
being Creesus, ‘‘the richest of mankind.” 
coinage of gold and silver money, and other 
inventions, are ascribed to the Lydians. Asc 
Phrygian fabulist, Aleman, the first Greek 
Thales of Miletus, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, 
creon of Teos, Heraclitus of Ephesus, &c., flou 
in Lydia. The early history is mythical. 
Agron, a descendant of Hercules, reigns in Lydi 


Herod. A - : é -about B.< 
The kingdom, properly so called, begins unde 
Ardysl Blair : K " : Z 
Alyattes I. reigns . A 4 : . 
Myrsus commences his rule. : j ° . 


Reign of Candaules (or Myrsilus) . ; A 
Gyges, first of the race Mermnade, kills Candaule: 
marries his queen, usurps the throne, and make 
great conquests . ; : : : . abou 
Ardys II. reigns, 678; the Cimbri besiege Sardis 
the capital of Lydia 7 3 , : . 
The Milesian war, commenced under Gyges, is coi 
tinued by Sadyattes, whoreigns . : ; 
Reign of Alyattes II. 5 : 3 : “ 
Battle upon the river Halys, between the Lydiar 
and Medes, interrupted by an almost total eclips 


of thesun. This eclipse had been predicted man 
years before by Thales of Miletus. Blair. 
28 May, B.’ 


Creesus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to the thron 
and conquers Asia Minor : é : 
Croesus, dreading Cyrus, whose conquests ha 
reached to the borders of Lydia, crosses th 
Halys to attack the Medes, with 420,000 men an 
60,000 horse . A : ‘ ie 
He is defeated, pursued, and besieged in his eapit 
by Cyrus, who orders him to be burned alive 
the pile is already on fire, when Croesus call 
aloud Solon! and Cyrus hearing him, spares hi 
life. Lydia made a province of the Persia 
empire . : : : : : 5 < 
Sardis burnt by the Ionians - é ; 
Lydia conquered by Alexander - 
Becomes part of the kingdom of Pergamus 
Conquered by the Turks . : 2 A Al 


LYING-IN HOSPITALS. The first, 
blished in Dublin by Dr. Bartholomew Mo 
physician, amid strong opposition, was 0 


| March, 1745; see Hospitals. 


LYMPHATICS. 


TMPHATICS (absorbent vessels connected 
digestion), discovered about 1650 by Rudbek 
yeden, Bartbolin in Denmark, and Jolyffe in 
and. Asellius discovered the lacteals in 

In 1654, Glisson ascribed to these vessels the 
ion of absorption; and their properties were 
od by Wm. and John Hunter, Monro, Hew- 
ind other great anatomists. 


INCH LAW, punishment inflicted by pri- 
ndividuals, independently of the legal authori- 
said to derive its name from John Lynch, a 
x, who exercised it upon the fugitive slaves 
criminals dwelling in the ‘ dismal swamp,” 
1 Carolina, when they committed outrages 
persons and property which the law could 
romptly repress. This mode of adminis- 
x justice began about the end of the 17th 
ry, and still exists in the outlying districts of 
mited States. Four robbers were taken from 
1 and hanged by a vigilance committee at New 
ry, on the Ohio, 11 Dec. 1868. 


TNDHURST’S ACT (5 &6 Will. IV.c. 54), 
juced by lord Lyndhurst, rendered valid cer- 
marriages within the forbidden degrees (with 
sed wife’s sister) up to that time, but prohi- 
them for the future; passed 31 Aug. 1835. 
TONS (S. France), the Roman Lugdunum, 
led by M. Plancus, 43 B.c. The city was re- 
[to ashes in a single night by lightning, A.D. 
1d was rebuilt in the reign of Nero. It was 
city till its union with France in 1307. 

; near Lyons; Clodius Albinus defeated and 


n by Septimius Severus : : 19 Feb. 197 
yeneral councils held here (13th and x4th), 
1245, 1274 


621 


LYRE. 


Silk manufacture commenced . : “ : 5 
Lyons taken by the republicans after 70 days’ siege, 
9 Oct. ; awful pillage and slaughter follow; the 
Convention decreed the demolition of the city, 
12 Oct. 

Capitulated to the Austrians 4 * . March, 
Entry of Napoleon : : d . 8 March, 
An insurrection among the artisans, which led to 
great popular excesses; quelled by an army, 


ar Nov.-31 Dec. 1831 
Dreadful riots, put down by military . 15 April, 1834 
Railway to Paris opened 7 April, 1839 


A dreadful inundation at Lyons (see I nundations), 


Nov. 1840 

Another insurrection quelled, with much loss of life, 
15 June, 1849 
Grand banquet to Louis Napoleon 15 Aug. 1850 


A committee of public safety appointed here and the 
red flag raised soon afterthe revolutionin Paris. M. 
Saigne, calling himself president, gen. Cluseret (ex- 
pelled from Paris), and other extreme republicans, 
defeated in their endeavours to depose M. Challemel 
Lacour, the prefect of the Rhéne, who was well 
supported by the national guard; gen. Mazure, 
the military commander, accused of treacherous 


inaction, was arrested f NS b 28 Sept. 1870 
Arnaud, commandant of the national guard, mur- 
dered by the mob, after a mock trial, for resist- 
ing them . 2 ‘i A , 20 Dec. ,, 
Visited by marshal MacMahon Sept. 1876 
. Oct. 1882 


Rioting, see France . 5 : - : 
LYRE. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian 
Hermes (in Latin Mercury), who, according to 
Homer, gave it to Apollo, the first that played upon 
it with method, and accompanied it with poetry. 
The invention of the primitive lyre, with three 
strings, is ascribed to the first Egyptian Hermes. 
Terpander added several strings to the lyre, making 
the number seven, 673 B.c. Phrynis, a musician of 
Mitylene, added two more, making nine, 438 B.C. 


M. 


MACADAMISING. 


MACADAMISING, a system of road-making 
invented by Mr. John Macadam, and published by 
him in an essay, in 1819, having practised it in 
Ayrshire. He prescribed stones to be broken to six 
ounces weight, and the use of clean flints and granite 
clippings. Hereceived 10,000/. from parliament; was 
appointed surveyor-general of the metropolitan roads 
in 1827, and died in 1836; see Roads. 


MACAO (in Quang-tong, 8. China) was given 
to the Portuguese as a commercial station in 1586 
(in return for their assistance against pirates), sub- 
ject to an annualtribute, which was remitted in 1863. 
Here Camoens composed part of the ‘‘ Lusiad.”’ 


MACARONI. This name, given to a poem by 
Theophilus Folengo, 1509, continues to designate 
trifling performances, as buffoonery, puns, ana- 
grams, “ wit without wisdom, and humour without 
sense.”’ His poem was so called from a nutritious 
preparation of wheat-flour in tubes and threads. 
These poems, in Italy and France, gave rise to 
Macaroni academies, and in England to Macaroni 
clubs (about 1772), when everything ridiculous in 
dress and manners was called ‘* Macaroni.” 


MACCABEHS, a nameof the Asmonans, who 
commenced their career during the persecution of 
Antiochus Epiphanes, 167 B.c. Mattathias, a priest, 
resisted the tyranny; and his son, Judas Maccabzeus, 
defeated the Syrians in three battles, 166, 165 B.c.; 
but fell in an ambush, 161 B.c. His brother Jona- 
than made a league with the Romans and Lace- 
dzemonians, and after an able administration was 
treacherously killed at Ptolemais by Tryphon, 
143 B.c. His brother and successor, Simon, was 
also murdered, 135:B.c. John Hyrcanus, son of 
Simon, succeeded. His son Judas, called also Aris- 
tobulus, took the title of king, 107 B.c. The history 
of the Maccabees is contained in five books of that 
name, two of which are included in our Apocrypha. 
Four are accounted canonical bythe Roman Catholic 
church; none by Protestant communions. 

The magnificent Maccabees chapel, at Geneva, founded 
in 1415, by the cardinal Jean de Brognier president of 
the council of Constance and the place of his sepulchre. 
The building much injured and desecrated at the time 


of the Reformation was finely renovated in 1881 and 
fitted up as a museum. 


MACDONALD AFFATR, see Prussia, 1861. 


MACH, a weapon anciently used by the cavalry 
of most nations, was originally a spiked club, hung 
at the saddle-bow, and usually of metal. Maces 
were also early ensigns of authority borne before 
officers of state, the top being made in the form of 
an open crown, and commonly of silver gilt. The 
lord chancellor and speaker of the house of commons 
have maces borne before them. Edward III. granted 
to London the privilege of having gold or. silver 
maces carried before the lord mayor, sheriffs, alder- 
men, and corporation, 1354. It was with the mace 
usually carried before the lord mayor on state 
occasions, that Walworth, lord mayor of London, is 
said to have knocked the rebel Wat Tyler off his 
horse, for rudely approaching Richard II., a cour- 
tier afterwards despatching him with his dagger, 
15 June, 1381. Cromwell, entering the house of 
commons to disperse its members and dissolve the 


MACEDON. 


parliament, ordered one of his soldiers to 
away that bauble,” the mace, which was dor 
the doors of the house locked, 20 April, 1653 


MACEDON (N. Greece). The first ki 
was founded by Caranus, about 814 B.C. | 
successively under the protection of Athe 
Thebes, and Sparta, until the reign of Phil 
father of Alexander the Great, who by his p 
wisdom and warlike exploits made it a po 
kingdom, and paved the way for his son’s 
ness. 


Reigns of Caranus, 814 B.C., Or 796, or 748; Pe 
diccas I., 729; Argeus I., 684; Philip I., 640 + 
609. 

Kropus conquers the Ilyrians : F ee 

Reign of Amyntas, 540; of AlexanderI. . t 

Macedon conquered by the Persians, 513; deliver 
by the victory of Plata 4 “ A ts 

Reign of Perdiccas II. . F 2 é ‘ 

Potidea, revolting, 433; re-taken by the Athenia 

Archelaus, natural son of Perdiceas, murders tl 
legitimate heirs ; seizes the throne, and improy 
the country, 413; murdered by a favourite, 7 
whom he promised his daughter in marriage 

Pausanias reigns . : N : i 

Reign of Amyntas II., after killing Pausanias 

The Illyrians enter Macedonia, expel Amyntas, at 
make Argeus, brother of Pausanias, king . 

Amyntas again recovers his kingdom 

Reign of Alexander II., 369; assassinated . 

Reign of Perdiccas III., 364; killed in battle . 

Reign of Philip I1., and institution of the Mac 
donian phalanx . ; 5 : : 

He defeats the Athenians and Illyrians . R | 

He takes Amphipolis; see Archery . : 

He conquers Thrace, Illyria, and Thessaly 

Birth of Alexander III. the Great . 2 - 

Close of the first sacred war . 4 : : 

Illyricum overrun by the army of Philip . : 

Thrace made tributary to Macedon. s . 

Aristotle appointed tutor to Alexander 

War against the Athenians . ; F ca 

Philip besieged Byzantium unsuccessfully . 

Battle of Cheeronea; Philip victor : ; f 

Philip is assassinated by Pausanias at Aigze durin 
the celebration of games in honour of bi 
daughter’s nuptials; Alexander III., the Greai 
succeeds 2 ; : 5 : S : 

The Greeks appoint him general of their armi 
against the Persians : 4 S “ i 

The Thebans revolt; he levels Thebes to th 
ground ; the house of Pindar alone left 5 

He passes into Asia, and gains his first battle ove 
Darius at the Granicus i : 22 May 

Sardis surrenders, Halicarnassus taken, and citié 
in Asia Minor ; . : ; ‘ ; 

Memnon ravages the Cyclades ; Darius takes th 
field with 460,000 infantry, and 100,000 cavalry 

Darius defeated at Issus (which see). . Not 

Alexander on his way to Egypt, lays siege to Tyvé 
which is destroyed after seven months 

Damascus is taken ; Gaza surrenders . ; 

Alexander enters Jerusalem; Egypt conquered 
Alexandria founded é A ‘ E 

The Persians totally defeated at Arbela’ x Oct 

Alexander master of Asia ; enters Babylon 

Sits on the throne of Darius at Susa oe 

Parthia, Media, &c., overrun by him . : 

Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits him 

He puts his friend Parmenio to death, on a charg 
of conspiracy supposed to be false. : 

His expedition to India; Porus, king of India, 1 
defeated and taken ; and the country as far as th 
Ganges, is overrun . , “ - iE 

Callisthenes is put to the torture for refusing # 
render divine homage to Alexander. 7 i 

+ i 
ii 


MACEDONIANS. 


523 


MADAGASCAR. 


e of his admiral Nearchus from the Indus to ~ 


Euphrates : 4 4 - - B.C. 328-325 
ns to Babylon, 324 ; dies A ; A Ta 323 
) IIT. (Arideeus) king ‘ es 323 
ader’s conquests are divided among his 
srals, 323; his remains are transported to 
<andria, and buried by Ptolemy . 322 
reeks defeated by Antipater and the Mace- 
ians, near Cranon (which see) f : 4 oe 
nder reigns, 316 ; rebuilds Thebes 4 315 
2us recovers Babylon ‘ 312 
nder kills Roxana and her son (the last of 
<ander’s family), and usurps the throne . . 311 
: of Ipsus (which see); Antigonus killed . Aly loys 
livision of the empire : 5 f A oe 
of Cassander 298 
of Alexander V. and Antipater, his sons Be 
trius I. , Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, murders 
sander, and seizes the crown of Macedon 204 
an league formed against Macedon . 281-243 
mments of Pyrrhus, 287; Lysimachus, 286 ; 
lemy Ceraunus : ‘ a eo 
tion of the Gauls ; Ptolemy killed ae et 70 
anes governs. Se e7o 
of Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius 277 
us invades Macedon, defeats Antigonus, and 
roclaimed king . a “i See yf 
us slain ; Antigonus restored ‘ , - 272 
onus takes Athens A 5 “ Shoes Melee) 
‘auls again invade Macedon . ‘: i ahs 
t of the Parthians 5 : = : Eas Mee: 
of Demetrius II. . - 239 
), his son, 232; set aside by Antigonus Doson 229 
> V., 220; allies with Hannibal, 211; wars 
uecessfully against the Rhodians 202 
» defeated by the Romans at Cynoscephale 197 
of Perseus, his son, 178; war with Rome . 171 
as defeated at Pydna ; Macedon made a 
nan province 168 
as and his sons walk in chains before the 
riot of Amilius in his triumph for the con- 
st of Macedon 167 
tection of Andriscus, calling himself Philip, 
of Perseus, quelled 148 
lonia plundered by Theodoric the Ostro- 
1 “ ee PACD ASS 
tered by the Bulgarians 978 
‘ered by the emperor Basil . IOOI 
3d into the Latin kingdom of Thessalonica, by 
tiface, of Montferrat - 1204 
various changes, conquered by Amurath II., 
annexed to Turkey I430 


redonian Society formed to ur ge the execution 

he Treaty of Berlin (1878) was s active in 188 Ge 

ACKEDONIANS, asemi-Arian sect, followers 

[acedonius, made ’ bishop of Constantinople 
'341. His appointment was greatly opposed 
ed to much bloodshed. He was expelled by 
ecree of a council held 360. 


ACHIAVELLIAN PRINCIPLES, 
_ of Nicolo Machiavelli of Florence (born 
died 1 527)> 1 in his ‘‘ Practice of Politics’? and 
» Prince.” By some they are styled “the 
oo maxims of government, founded on 
est policy ;”’ by others as ‘‘sound doctrines, 
‘ithstanding the prejudice erroneously raised 
(st them.” The author said that if he taught 
es to be tyrants, he also taught the people to 
oy tyrants. ‘The Prince”’ appeared at Rome 
32, and was translated into English in 1761. 


ACIEJOVICE (near Warsaw, Poland). 

the Poles were totally defeated by the Russians, 

heir general, Kosciusko, taken prisoner, 10 
(794, after a murderous action. He str enuously 
voured to prevent the junction of the Russian 
‘\ustrian armies. The statement that he said 
‘is Poloniz !’’ is contradicted. 


ADAGASCAR (S. E. coast of Africa), a 
island (capital, Antananarivo), said to hae 
discovered by Lorenzo Almeida, 1506. The 
@ are called Hovas. Population,. about 
,000 (1884). 


Portuguese settlement, 1548; destroyed by the 
French one, 1642, on arrival of a French governor 1669 
The French attempted to settle at Antongel-bay in 1774 
Count Benyowski supreme in the island, Oct. 1775 ; 
killed in an encounter with the French 23 May, 
Their establishment at Fort Dauphin fell into the 
hands of the English with Bourbon and Mauritius 
in : 1810- + 
The settlements ceded to king Radama, on his 
giving up the slave trade ‘ . 1818 
Radama I. king 1810, who favoured Europeans and 
encouraged Christianity, died 
A reactionary policy under his ener cretic queen 
Ranavalono, 1828. The English missionaries who 
came in 1820 obliged to depart 
The application of the native laws to the European 
settlers occasioned an unsuccessful attack on the 
town of Tamatave, by a united expedition from 
the English at the Mauritius, and the French 
from the isle of Bourbon June, 
Allamicable intercourse ceases, the native Christians 
suffer persecution . - 1846 et seq. 
The French defeated in an attack on the fae cae 
g Oct. 
Conspiracy against the queen frustrated . 2% une, 
The rey. W. Ellis published accounts of his three 
visits to the island, on behalf of the London 
Missionary Society, in 1854-5-6. 
The queen dies ; succeeded by ber son Radama IL, 
a Christian yegibege: Aug. 
Treaty with Great Britain and France ‘signed, 
12 Sept. 
A revolution ; the king and his ministers assassinated ; 
the queen Rasohérina proclaimed sovereign, May, 
Embassy from Madagascar arrives at Southampton, 
Feb. 


1786 


1845 


1855 
1857 


1858 
1861 
1862 
1863 


1864 
Disputes with the French. Fi IN@V.7" sa 
Treaty with Great Britain ; Christians to be tole- 
rated, &c., 27 June, 1865 ; "ratified 5 July, 
Rey. Wm. Ellis’s “Madagascar Revisited,” pub- 
lished . t Feb. 
The queen died i in Mar ch; her cousin, Ranavalona Li; 
succeeded as queen, 1 ‘April, 1868 ; baptized, Feb. 1869 
Dr. Henry Rowley was consecrated bishop of 
Madagascar, Dec. 1872; Dr. R. Kestell-Cornish 1874 
African slavery prohibited, 1873; solemnly June, 1877 
Disputes with the French begin respecting land 
given to Laborde, a missionary, reclaimed by the 
Hovas ; aggressive insolent conduct of French 
consuls, Cassas, Meyer, and Baudais . . 1879 ef sey. 
The French claim protectorate of part of N.W. Ma- 
dagascar, by virtue of a treaty made with rebel 
chiefs, 1840-1 3} on appeal the British government 


1866 
1867 


correspond with the French ministry July, Aug. 1882 
Native embassy to France objecting to French 
protectorate, &c. , SeQCiIe.e 


The French gov ernment unyielding Nov. ; jethe 
envoys come to London; received by earl 
Granville, 2 Dec., by the queen wera" DeGaaneg 

Friendly modification of the treaty of 1868 with 
England i . Feb. 

Arrival of French war vessels in Madagascar 23 Feb. 

Treaty with the United States ratified about 

14 March, ,, 

H.M.S. Dryad at Tamatave . oe erd April, ie 

Admiral Pierre bombards and seizes the custom- 
house at Majunga 24 May ; Adm. Pierre bombards 
Tamatave,unresisting 11 June,capturesit,r3 June, ,, 

French ultimatum, offered and "rejected announced 

Tas UNC nee 

Tenoarivo destroyed; state of siege at Tamatave ; 
adm. Pierre orders the British consul, T. C. 
Pakenham (ill).to quit within 24 hours, who dies, 
22June. Mr. Shaw, missionary, arrested; capt. 
Johnson of the Dryad insulted; the British go- 
vernment demands explanations 12 July, satisfac- 
tion ordered to be given. Aug. 

Adm. Pierre reports repulse of two night- attacks 
on - . 22 June and s July, 


The queen Ranavalona II. dies about 13 July; 
succeeded by her niece Ranavalona IIT. July; &, 

Release of Mr. Shaw about . 7 AUS ane 

Adm. Pierre dies - Io Sept. Ay) 


The Hovas retake French posts, except oie 
announced - GNept. ,, 

Mr. Shaw at Exeter Hall, describes his arrest, false 
charges against him, cruel usage and abrupt 
release. ‘A A A sets 27 Sept. ,, 


a 


7 4 


MADDER. 


‘Great mortality among French troops Sept. 
zoool, awarded to Mr. Shaw, and apology made to 
the British government by the French, announced 
about 29 Oct. ,, 
-Much British property destroyed . . Nov. 
French demand raised, by M. Baudais . Jan. 
The French chambers vote to support French 
honour in Madagascar (450—32) . 27 March, ,, 
French attack on the Hova camp repulsed 27 June, _,, 
wo blue: books published by the Hova government 
giving the history of the disputes with the 
French, 1879-84 . ° SEAS. iess 
Desultory warfare and negotiations reported, 
French settlements in progress at Majunga, &e. ; 
the Hovas prepare for war : ANE tess 
‘The French bombard Mahanoro . - 22 Sep. hs 


1883 


1884 


Mr. T. Wilkinson, missionary and tr ader, expelled 
from Antananarivo for newspaper cor respondence 
INOV.9 ts, 
The Hovas severely defeated NZ UDee ie 


The French take forts after sharp conflict 6-11 Dec.) 3; 
Seven French ships of war at Bora we the Hovas 
retreating inland . . Jan. 1885 


MADDER, the root of the Rubia tinctoria, 
highly valued for dyeing properties. See Alizarine. 


MADEIRA, an island, N. W. coast of Africa, 
discovered, it is "said, in 1344, by Mr. Macham, an 
English gentleman, or mariner, who fled from 
France for an illicit amour. He was driven here 
by a storm, and his mistress, a French lady, dying, 
he made a canoe, and carried the news of his dis- 
covery to Pedro, king of Aragon, which occasioned 
the report that the island was discovered by a 
Portuguese, 1345. It {is asserted that the Portu- 
guese did not visit this island until 1419 or 1420, 
or colonise it until 1431. It was taken by the 
British in July, 1801; and again by admiral Hood 
and general Beresford, 24 Dec. 1807, and retained 
in trust for the royal family of Portugal, who had 
emigrated to the Brazils. It was restored to the 
Portuguese in 1814. Since 1852 the renowned 
vintages here have been almost totally ruined by the 
vine disease (oidium). Population, 1882, 133,955. 


MADIAI PERSECUTION, see Tuscany. 


MADRAS (S. E. Hindostan), called by the 
natives Chennapatam, colonised by the English, 


1640. Population in 1881, 31,170,631. 
Fort St. George built, 1641; made a presidency . 1653 
Bengal placed under Madras 1658 


Cale ‘atta, hitherto subordinate to Madras, made a 


presidency 4 F A e 1701 
Madras taken by the French 14% Sept. 1746 
Restored to the English . 1749 
Vainly besieged by the French under Lally, 12 Dec. 1758 
Hyder marches to Madras and obtains a favourable 

treaty . é : - April, 1769 
Sir John Lindsay arrives ; July, 1770 
He is succeeded by sir R. Hartland» Sept. 1771 
Lord Pigot, governor, imprisoned by his own coun- 

ceil, 24 Y Aug. 1776; dies in confinement, 17 April, 

1777 ; his enemies convicted and fined roool. each, 

11 Feb. 1780 
Sir Eyre Coote arrives ‘ , ig INOVanees 
He defeats Hyder . : x1 July, 1781 
Lord Macartney arrives as governor . 22 J UNC, 
The Madras government arrest gen. Stuart for dis- 

obedience, and send him to England. . June, 1783 
Lord Cornwallis arrives here 12 Dee. 1790 
Sir Charles Oakley succeeds gen. Medowsas governor, 

1 Aug. 1792 
Madras system of education introduced (see Moni- 

torial) . 1795 
Lord Momington (afterwar ds the marquis Wellesley) 

visits here. . - Dec. 1798 
General Harris with te angeds aii enters Mysore, 

5 March; and arrives at Seringapatam, 5 April, 

which is stormed by the British under major- 

general Baird, and Tippoo Sahib killed . 4 May, 1799 


Appointment of sir Thomas Strange, first judge of 
Madras under the charter . 26 Dec. 1800 


524 


MAESTRICHT. 


More than 1000 houses in Madras burnt . . Fe 
The Madras army under general Arthur Wellesl 
(afterwards duke of Wellington) marches for Po 
nah (see India) . Mare 
Mutiny among the native forces at Vellore : 6 
sepoys killed ; 200 executed . 10 J ul 
Mutiny of the sepoy troops at Madras. : 
Arrival of lord Minto at Madras, who publishes 
general amnesty g Sep 
Awful hurricane, Oh which the ships at anoles we 
driven into the town and seventy sail sunk, mar 
with their crews - . Me 
Madras attacked by the Pindarees 
Appointment of the rev. Dr. Corrie, first bishop | 
Madras : 14 Fe 
Sir Charles Trevelyan, governor, Jan. 18 59 ; recall 
for publishing a minute in opposition to Mr. Ja 
Wilson’s financial schemes . ro Ma 
[Appointed financial secretary and a member 
the Indian council at Calcutta, Oct. 1862.] 
His successor, sir H. Wood, dies at Madras, 2 Au 
Sir Wm. Dennison appointed einige Nov. 186 
arrives ‘ . 18 Fe’ 
Lord Napier appointed governor 3 . “3rae 
Arrival of the duke of Edinburgh . 22 Marc] 
Lord Hobart appointed governor, Feb. 1872; died 


27 Apri 
The duke of Buckingham appointed . May 
Visit of the prince of Wales 13 De 


The Rt. Hon. W. P. Adam appointed ‘'governo: 
Ang. 1880; died. 24 May 
The Right Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone We 
Duff appointed g governor . dun 
He reports ‘fa deep peace broods over the land, 
natives advancing in civilization . ; : Jal 


[For other events, see India. ] 


MADRID (New Castile), mentioned in h 
as Majerit, a Moorish castle. 


Sacked by the Moors. 4 

Fortified by Henry III. about — 

Humiliating treaty of Madrid between Charles \ 
and Francis I. , his prisoner . 4 Jal 

Made the seat of the Spanish court rt by Philip. iL 


The Escurial built : 4 1563 
Taken by lord Galway . * June 
The old palace burnt down . 

Madrid taken by the French ” Marel 


The citizens attempt to expel the French ; defeate 
with much slaughter . 2 May 
Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as s king of. Spa 


(but soon retires) . . 20 July 
Madrid retaken by the French . . 2DeE 
Retained till it is entered by Wellington 12 Aug 
Ferdinand VII. restored . 14 May 


Madrid pronounces for provisional governmen 
against Isabella II. . . 29 Sept 
English protestant church authorised 9 Nov 
Population, in 1857, 271,254; iN 1870, 332,024; 
391,829. f 
See Spain, 1840 et seq. 


MADRIGAL, an unaccompanied song for 
or more voices, of which fine examples are b 
lish composers. Madrigals, invented in the Ne 
lands, were adopted in Italy, where fine over 
were produced. Many were published a 
1594; Weelkes, 1597; Wilbye, 1598; 

1599. ‘The Madrigal Seciety in London beg 

1741. English Glee and adrigal Union fot 
in 1851. Rimbault’s “Bibliotheca Madrigali 
published 1847. The madrigal, “ Summer isi 
in”’ is attributed to the 13th or 14th century. 


MAESTRICHT (Holland), the ancient 
jectum ad Mosam, the capital of Limburg. 
volted from Spain, and was taken by the prin 
Parma in 1579, when a dreadful massacre 
place. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduce 
after a memorable siege, and it was confirm 
the Dutch in 1648; Louis XIV. took it in I 
William, prince of Orange, invested it in val 
1676; but in 1678 it was restored to the D 
In I 748 it was besieged by the French, #o 


| 


ig 

we 

ish 
iv 


\ 


MAFFIA. 


525 


MAGISTRATES. 


tted to take possession of the city on condi- 
f its being restored at the peace then nego- 
Sin Feb. 1793p Maestricht was unsuccess- 
attacked by the French, but they became 
rs of it, Nov. 1794. In 1814 it was made part 
» kingdom of the Netherlands, and now 
es to Holland. 
\FETA, asecret terrorist murderous society 
ily, comprising persons of all classes ; became 
nent in 1860. It is opposed to the Camorra. 
s for the suppression of both were made by the 
nment in 1874-5. 
\GA ZINE, at first a miscellaneous periodical 
‘ation. ‘There are now magazines devoted to 
, every department of knowledge. The fol- 
¢ are the dates of the first publication of the 
pal magazines, some of which are extinct. 
n. 1865, 544 magazines; in Jan. 1872, 639 
in course of publication in Great Britain and 
1d; see Reviews and Newspapers. 


man’s . 1731 | Fraser's. . 1830 
n. . 1732, Metropolitan . Aebise ps 
1739 | Penny. Apter 
1759 | Tait’s patie! 
. : . 1760 | Cornhill . 1859 
Lie. : . . 1768} Macmillan’s . ee 
; : ‘ . 1772 | Good Words . 1860 
ean. . 1782 | St. Paul’s A eee LOG 
dist . 1784 | Many new ones pub- 
elical . 1792} lished 1860-78 
1 a . 1796) Antiquary . . 1880 
ophical . . 1798 | Longman’s . 1882 
vood’s . 1817| Merry England . - 1883 
fonthly . 1814 | English Llustrated . ,, 


AGDALA, a very strong place in Abyssinia 
h see). On Good Friday, 10 April, 1868, the 
3 of the emperor Theodore attacked the first 
de of the British army under sir Robert 
r, and were repulsed with great slaughter. 
1e next day all the European prisoners were 
up, but Theodore himself refused to sur- 
r; and on Easter Monday, 13 April, Magdala 
stormed, and Theodore himself killed—it is 
by his own hand.—British loss, 2 killed; 20 
ded: Abyssinian loss, about soo killed and 
ded out of about sooo. Magdala was burnt to 
round by the British, 17 April, 1868. 


AGDALENS AND MAGDALENETTES, 
iunities of nuns, consisting chiefly of penitent 
asans. The order of penitents of St. Magdalen 
ounded 1272, at Marseilles. The convent of 
1g was endowed by queen Sancha, 1324. That 
etz was instituted in 1452. At Paris, 1492. 
Magdalen at Rome was endowed by pope 
(., in 1515, and favoured by Clement VIII. in 

The Magdalen hospital, London, was founded 
58, under the direction of Dr. Dodd. The 
in in Dublin was opened in June, 1766. 


AGDEBURG (Prussia). The archbishopric 
founded about 967. The city suffered much 
g the religious wars in Germany. It was 
red and taken by the elector Maurice, Nov. 
and Nov. 1551; blockaded for seven months 
2 imperialists, under Wallenstein, in 1629 ; 
iarbarously sacked by Tilly on 10 May, 1631. 
3 given to Brandenburg in 1648; was taken 
2 French, 8 Nov. 1806; annexed to the king- 
of Westphalia, 9 July, 1807; restored to 
‘ia, May, 1813. 

agdeburg Experiment is shown by means of a hollow 
‘wre, composed of two hemispheres, fitting air-tight. 
nthe air is exhausted by the air pump, the hemi- 
~res are held together by the pressure of the atmo- 
‘re, and require great force to separate them. The 
iratus was suggested by Otto von Guericke, the 
ntor of the air-pump. He died in 1686. Brande. 


MAGELLAN, Straits oF (connecting the 
Atlantic and Pacific oceans), was passed by Fer- 
nando de Magelhaéns (Magellan), a Portuguese, on 
27 Nov. 1520. He gave the latter ocean its name 
on account of its calmness. Magellan completed 
the first voyage round the world, with a fleet of 
discovery fitted out by the emperor Charles V., but 
was killed in 1521. The Spaniards had a fort here, 
called Cape Famine, because the garrison perished 
for want. 


MAGENTA, a small town in Lombardy, near 
which the French and Sardinians defeated the 
Austrians, 4 June, 1859. The emperor Louis 
Napoleon commanded, and he and the king of 
Sardinia were in the thickest of the fight. It is 
said that 55,000 French and Sardinians, and 75,000 
Austrians were engaged. The former are asserted 
to have lost 4ooo killed and wounded, and the 
Austrians 10,000, besides 7000 prisoners. The 
French generals Espinasse and Clere were killed. 
The arrival of general MacMahon during a deadly 
struggle between the Austrians and the French, 
greatly contributed to the victory. The contest 
near the bridge of Buffalora was very severe. The 
Austrians fought well, but were badly commanded. 
The emperor and king entered Milan on 8 June 
following ; MacMahon and Regnault d’ Angely were: 
created marshals of France. A monument erected 
here in memory of theslain was solemnly inaugu~ 
rated 4 June, 1872.—The red dye, rosaniline, ob- 
tained by chemists from gas-tar, 1s termed magenta 
see Aniline. 


MAGI or WoRSHIPPERS OF FIRE. The 
Persians adored the invisible and incomprehensible 
God as the principle of all good, and paid homage 
to fire, as the emblem of his power and purity. 
They built no altars nor temples; their sacred fires 
blazed in the open air, and their offerings were 
made upon the earth. The Magi, their priests, are 
said to have had skill in astronomy, &c.; hence 
the term Magi was applied to all learned men, till 
they were confounded with the magicians. Zoro- 
aster, king of Bactria, the reformer of the sect of 
the Magi, flourished about 550 8.c. This religion 
was superseded in Persia by Mahometanism, a.p. 
652, and the Parsees at Bombay are descendants of 
the Guebres or fire-worshippers. 


MAGIC, see Alchemy, Witcheraft, &. The 
invention of the Magic LANTERN is ascribed to 
Roger Bacon, about 1260, but more correctly to 
Athanasius Kircher, who died 1680. See Godwin’s: 
‘‘Lives of the Necromancers,’” 1834, and Enne- 
moser’s ‘*‘ History of Magic,’”’ translated by W. 
Howitt, 1854. 


MAGISTRATES, see Justices. Stipendiary 
borough magistrates may be appointed by 5 & 6 
Will. IV. c. 76, 1835; and by 26 & 27 Vict. c. 97, 
1863. The present arrangement of metropolitan 
magistrates (the chief sitting at Bow-street) was 
made by acts of parliament in 1792 and 18309- 
Eleven courts were appointed in 1840. Their salaries. 
raised from 25 March, 1875. Henry Fielding, the 
novelist, was acting magistrate for Westminster 
and at Bow-street. He was succeeded by his half- 
brother, sir John Fielding, in 1761; by 


Sir William Addington - 1780 
Sir Richard Ford . - 1800 
Mr. Read : ‘ - 1806 
Sir Nathaniel Conant . BBatshac, 
Sir Robert Baker - 1820 
Sir Richard Birnie . 1821 
Sir Frederick Roe . 18235 
My. T. J. Hall : 1839 


Sir Thomas Henry (died suddenly, 16 J une, 1876) ‘ 1864 


a 
| 


MAGNA CHARTA. 


Sir James Taylor Ingham . ; : July, 1876 
The new offices, Bow-street, opened . . 4 April 188z 


MAGNA CHARTA. Its fundamental parts 
were derived from Saxon charters, continued by 
Henry I. and his successors. On 20 Nov. 1214, the 
archbishop of Canterbury and the barons met at 
St. Edmondsbury. On 6 Jan. 1215, they presented 
their demands to king John, who deferred his 
answer. On 19 May they were censured by the 
pope. On 24 May they marched to London, and 
the king was compelled to yield. ‘The charter was 
sealed by John at Runnymede, near Windsor, 
15 June, 1215. It was many times confirmed, by 

enry III. and his successors. This last king’s 
grand charter was granted in 1224, and was assured 
by Edward I.; see Forests. The original MS. 
charter is lost. The finest MS. copy, which is at 
Lincoln, was reproduced by photographs in the 
«National MSS.” published by government, 1865. 


MAGNA GRASCIA, the independent states 
founded by Greek colonists in South Italy, Sicily, 
&c. Cum, in Campania, is said to have been 
founded in 1034 B.c., Pandosia and Metapontum 
in774B.c. These states were ruined through siding 
with Hannibal when he invaded Italy, 216 B.c. 


Syracuse founded about ; - BC. 734 
Leontinum and Catana . : , . 730 
Sybaris : . F : - 721 
Crotona . : : £ 2 : . 2 710 
Tarentum . . y é : ° ° ° 708 
Loeri Epizephyrii . 673 
Lipara : : 627 
Agrigentum . 582 
Thurium 432 


MAGNANO (N. Italy). Here Scherer and a 
French army were defeated by the Austrians under 
Kray, 5 April, 1799. 

MAGNESIA (Asia Minor). Here Antiochus 
the great, king of Syria, was defeated by the 
Scipios, 190 B.c.—Magnesia alba, the white akaline 
earth used in medicine, was in use in the beginning 
of the 18th century. Its properties were developed 
by Dr. Black in 1755. 

MAGNESIUM, a metal first obtained from 
magnesia by sir Humphry Davy in 1808, and since 
produced in larger quantities by Hussy) Deville, 
and especially by Mr. EK. Sonstadt, in 1862-4. Its 
light when burnt is very brilliant, and is so rich in 
chemical rays that it may be used in photography. 
Lamps made for burning magnesium wire, were 
employed by the excavators of the tunnel through 
Mount Cenis. By its light photographs of the in- 
terior of the Pyramids were taken in 1865. Larkin’s 
magnesium lamp (in which the metal is burnt in 
the form of a powder) was exhibited at the Royal 
Institution on I June, 1866, and before the British 
Association at Nottingham in Aug. 1866. 


MAGNETISM. Magnes, a shepherd, is said 
to have been detained on Mount Ida by the nails 
in his boots. The attractive power of the load- 
stone or magnet was early known, and is referred 
to by Homer, Aristotle, and Pliny; it was also 
known to the Chinese and Arabians. The Greeks 
are said to have obtained the loadstone from 
Magnesia in Asia, 1000 B.c. Roger Bacon is said 
to have been acquainted with its property of point- 
ing to the north (1294). The invention of the 
mariner’s compass is ascribed to Flavio Gioia, a 
Neapolitan, about 1310; but it was known in Nor- 
way previous to 1266; and is mentioned in a French 
poem, 1150. See under Electricity. 

Robert Norman, of London, discovered the dip of 

the needle : : : 7 : . about 1576 

Gilbert’s treatise ‘‘De Magnete,” published . 1600 


526 


MAHARAJPOOR. 


Halley’s theory of magnetic variations published 

Marcel observed that a suspended bar of iron bi 
comes temporarily magnetic by position . 

Artificial magnets made by Dr. Gowan Knight . 

The variation of the compass was observed by Bonc 
about 1668; the diurnal variation by Graham 
1722; on which latter Canton made 4000 observz 
tions previous to . : eo Rs. : P 

Coulomb constructed a torsion balance for dete 
mining the laws of attraction and repulsion, 1786 
also investigated by Michell, Euler, Lambert 
Robison, and others . c < : ee 

The deflection of the magnetic needle by the voltai 
current was discovered by Cirsted ‘ ; 

Mr. Abraham invents a magnetic guard for person 
engaged in grinding cutlery . : : : 

The magnetic effects of the violet rays of light ex 
hibited by Morichini, 1814 ; polarity of a sewin 
needle so magnetised shown by Mrs. Somerville 

Mr. Christie proves that heat diminishes magneti 
force : 2 ; A ; 2 abou 

Sir W. Snow Harris invents various forms of th 
compass. ; . : : : : ; 

Magnetic north pole discovered by commander (aft 
sir) James Clark Ross (during sir John Ross’ 
second voyage) . : > : : r June 

Electricity produced the rotation of a magnet b 
professor Faraday, 1831; his researches on th 
action of the magnet on light, on the magneti 
properties of flame, air, and gases (publishe 
1845), on dia-magnetism (1845), on magno-crys 
tallic action (1848), on atmospheric magnetisr 
(x850), on the magnetic force. ; ; ‘ 

Magnetic observations established in the Britis 
colonies under the superintendence of col. Edwar 
Sabine : ‘i ‘ ; , - 1840 

Prof. Tyndall proves the existence of dia-magneti 
polarity . : 5 < : ; : . 

Mr. Archibald Smith described the results of hi 
investigations respecting the deviation of th 
compass in iron ships at the Royal Institution 

Fet 

Wm. Robinson patented a method of making wid 
iron frum cast iron by the help of magnetism, 

announced, July 

Wilde’s magneto-electric machine exhibited (se 
under Electricity) : ‘ : é : 

In the present century our knowledge of the phe 
nomena of magnetism has also been greatly in 
creased by the labours of Arago, Ampere, Hans 
teen, Gauss, Weber, Poggendorff, Sabine, Lamont 
Du Moncel, Archibald Smith, &c. (see Anima 
Magnetism). 

In the Royal Institution, London, is a magnet by 
Logeman, of Haarlem, constructed on the princi 
ples of Dr. Elias, which weighs rooib, and cai 
sustain 430 Ib. Heecker, of Nuremberg, con 
structed a magnet weighing 36 grains, capable 0 
sustaining 146 times its own weight. This wa: 
exhibited in 1851, also at the Royal Institution. 

Sir E. Sabine, eminent for life long researches i: 
magnetism, died (aged 94), 26 June, 1883. 


MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY, the disc 
of professor Faraday ; see under Llectricity. 
neto-electricity has been recently applied to 
graphic and to lighthouse purposes. The § 
Foreland lighthouse, near Dover, was illumi: 
by the magneto-electric light in the wint 
1858-9 and 1859-60 (the light removed to Dung 
in +861), the Lizards, by Dr. C. William Siet 
magneto-electric light, 1878. See Maradisati 

MAGNOLIA. Magnolia glauca was br 
here from N. America, 1688. The laurel-lt 
Magnolia, Magnolia grandiflora, from N. Ams 
about 1734. The dwarf Magnolia, Magnolia pr 
from China, in 1789; and (also from China) 
brown stalked, 1789: the purple, 1790; and 
slender, 1804. 


MAGUIRE, see Molly. 
MAGYARS, see Hungary. 


MAHARAJPOOR (India). Here sir I 
Gough severely defeated the Mahratta arm 


FY 


MAHDI. 


527 ) 


MAIWAND. 


©, 29 Dec. 1843. Lord Ellenborough was 
t 


HDI (Guided by God), a name assumed by 
| Mahometan fanatics claiming to be divinely 
formers and liberators. An eminent example 
d in Ibn Tumert, the Almohade Mahdi in the 
mtury. See Babysm, and for the latest Mahdi 
udan, 1881. A Mahdi has risen in Bokhara, 
‘Mahomed Abdallah Ben Oman, May, 1884. 


HEDPORE, see Mehedpore. 


HOGANY is said to have been brought to 
nd by Raleigh, in 1595; but not to have come 
eral use till 1720. 


HOMETANISM embodied in the Koran, 
es—the unity of God, the immortality of the 
redestination, a last judgment, and a sensual 
se. Mahomet asserted that the Koran was 
ed to him by the angel Gabriel during a 
of twenty-three years. He enjoined on his 
es circumcision, prayer, alms, frequent ablu- 
and fasting, and permitted polygamy and 
yinage. 
ahometan year, 1302 began 21 October, 1884, 
ends g October, 1885. Months; Rebi el- 
er, (x8 Jan.); Djoum el-awwel (16 Feb.) ; 
m el-accher (18 Mar.); Redjeb, (26 April) ; 
ban, (x6 Mar.); Ramadan, (14 June); Schoual 
) Djowl cadeh, (r2 Aug.); Djou’'l hedjeh 
ept. 
*% Mohammed (the name is spelt many 
), born at Mecca é 569 or 
need himself as a prophet . . about 
om his enemies to Medina (his flight is called 
Tegira) . ; A 4 : . 15 July, 
mes his enemies (the Koreish, the Jews, &c.) 
tile . ‘ - : 5 3 . A . 623-5 
s the Christians at Muta . ; : , 629 
iowledged as a sovereign X : : - 630 
bis said, of slow poison, administered by a 
‘ss to test his divine character . 8 June, 
ahometans are divided into several sects, the 
chief being the Soniites, or the Orthodox 
/ recognised as caliph Abubeker, the father- 
w of Mahomet, in preference to Omar and 
and the Shiites (Sectaries), or Fatimites, the 
wers of Ali, who married Fatima, the pro- 
's daughter. 
mmer (also called Sunnites) recognise the 
ona” (traditions) sayings of Mahomet (sup- 
entary to the Koran) which the Shiites 
t. Husan and other sons of Ali were mur- 
1 A.D. 680, and a miracle play and a festival 
eir honour are still observed. 
toman empire is the chief seat of the Son- 
|, the sultan being considered the representa- 
of the caliphs; Persia has been for centuries 
itronghold of the Shiites. 
athometans conquered Arabia, North Africa, 
part of Asia, in the 7th century; in the 8th 
invadec Europe, conquering Spain, where 
founded the ecalifat of Cordova, which lasted 
756 to 1031, when it was broken up into 
ler governments, the last of which, the king- 
of Grenada, endured till its subjugation by 
imand in 1492 ; but the Mahometans were not 
lyexpelled from Spaintill. . . .. 
‘progress in France was stopped by their 
tat Tours by Charles Martel, in . : 4 
long contest, the Turks under Mahomet II. 
Constantinople ; he made it his capital and 
chief seat of his religion . : : exe 
a considered to be declining, Mahometanism 
leulated as including 100 millions amongst its 
ties, 
oodeen Tyabjee, 2 Mahometan, admitted to 
‘tise as an attorney in England, having taken 
vaths upon the Koran. beara: Nov. 1858 
ydeen Tyabjee, 2a Mahometan, called to the 
. 3 ’ “ i ; 30 April, 1867 
\HRATTAS, a people of Hindostan, who 
‘ally dwelt north-west of the Deccan, which 
‘overran about 1676, They endeavoured to 


57° 
611 


622 


632 


1609 


32 


1453 


overcome the Mogul, but were restrained by the 
Afghans. They entered into alliance with the East 
India company in 1767, made war against it in 
1774, again made peace in 1782, and were finally 
subdued in 1818. Their prince, Sindiah, is now 
a pensioner of the British government. 


MAID, see Holy Maid, Elizabeth Barton, and 
Joan of Arc, maid of Orleans. 


MAIDA (Calabria) where the French, com- 
manded by general Regnier, were signally defeated 
by the British under major-general sir John Stuart, 
4 July, 1806. 


MAIDEN, see Guillotine. 
MAIDS or HONOUR. Anne, daughter of 


Francis IL. duke of Brittany, and queen of Charles 
VIII. and Louis XII. of France (1483-98), had 
young and beautiful ladies about her person, called , 
maids of honour. The queen of Edward I. of 
England is said to have had four maids of honour 
(1272-1307) ; queen Victoria has eight. 


MAIL-COACHES, for the conveyance of 
letters, were first set up at Bristol by Mr. John 
Palmer, of Bath, 2 Aug. 1784. They were employed 
for other routes in 1785, and soon became general 
in England. The mails were first sent by va¢/ in 


1838. 
MAILLOTINS (small mallets), a name given 


to certain citizens of Paris, who, in March, 1382, 
violently opposed the collection of new taxes 
imposed by the duke of Anjou, the regent. They 
armed themselves with small iron mallets (taken 
from the arsenal), and killed the collectors ; for 
which they were severely punished in Jan. 1383. 


MAIMING AND WOUNDING, see Coventry 
ct. 


MAINTENANCEH, see Barratry. 
MAIN PLOT, a name given to a conspiracy 


to make Arabella Stuart sovereign of England in 
lace of James I. in 1603. Lord Cobham, sir 

alter Raleigh, and lord Grey, were condemned 
to death for implication in it, but reprieved ; others 
were executed. Raleigh was executed, 29 Oct. 
1618. 


MAINE, I. a province, N.W. of France, seized 
by William I. of England in 1069. It acknowledged 
rince Arthur, 1199; was taken from John of 
Frctant by Philip of France, 1204; was recovered 
by Edward III. in 1357; but given up, 1360. After 
various changes it was finally united to France by 
Louis XI. in 1481.—2. MAINE (N. America), was 
discovered by Cabot, 1497; and colonised by the 
English about 1638; it became a state of the union 
in 1820. The boundary line between the British 
and the United States territories in Maine was 
settled by the Ashburton treaty, concluded 9 Aug. 
1842. The Maine liquor law, prohibiting the 
manufacture, sale, and use of intoxicating drinks, 
with certain exceptions, was enacted in 1851. 
In 1872, it was officially reported to have greatly 
decreased drunkenness and rendered the trade dis- 
reputable. 


MAIWAND, Afghanistan, about 50 miles from 
Candahar. On27 July, 1880, gen. J. Burrows marched 
from Kushk-i-Nakhud, and attacked the army of 
Ayoob Khan, about 20,000 men, entrenched here on 
the river Helmund, and after four hours’ severe 
conflict was compelled to retreat. About 300 of the 
British with many officers fell (including lieut.-col. 
Galbraith, major G. F. Blackwood, captains Garratt, 
McMath, Cullen, Roberts, and others), especially 
officers of the 66th regiment ; with about 700 of the 


MAJESTY. . 


528 


MALTA. 


native troops killed or missing. The British com- 
manders were censured. Ayoob Khan did not 
improve his victory, and was totally defeated by 
gen. sir F. Roberts, 1 Sept. 1880. See Mazra. 


MAJESTY. Among the Romans, the emperor 
and imperial family were thus addressed, and also 
the popes and the emperors of Germany. The 
style was given to Louis XI. of France in 1461. 
Voltaire. Upon Charles V. being chosen emperor 
of Germany in 1519, the kings of Spain took the 
style. Francis I. of France, at the interview with 

enry VIII. of England, on the Field of the Cloth 
of Gold, addressed the latter as Your Majesty, 1520. 
James I. used the style ‘Sacred,’ and ‘‘ Most 
Excellent Majesty.” 


MAJOLICA WARE, see Pottery. 


MAJORCA, see Balearic Isles, and Minorca. 
Majorca opposed Philip VY. of Spain in 1714; but 
submitted, 14 July, 1715. Its first railway, from 
Palma, capital of the Balearic isles, to Inca, 18 
miles, opened, 24 Feb. 1875. 

MAJUBA HILL (see Transvaal). On Satur- 
day night, 26 Feb. 1881, above 600 men under sir 
George P. Colley marching from the camp at Mount 
Prospect, ascended Majuba hill overlooking Laing’s 
Nek, where the Boers were encamped, to surprise 
them. The attack of the Boers began 10.30 a.m. of 
the 27th. Fierce conflicts ensued ; eventually over- 
whelmed by numbers and deadly fire, the British 
were routed and fled. Sir George Colley fell with 
his face to theenemy. Boer loss about 150. About 
350 British engaged. Loss: killed, 3 officers and 
about 82 men; many wounded, 122 prisoners, and 
some missing. 


MALABAR (W. coast of Hindostan). The 
Portuguese established factories here in 1505; the 
English did the same in 1601. 


MALACCA, onthe Malay peninsula, E. Indies, 
was made a Portuguese settlement in 1511. The 
Dutch factories were established in 1640. The 
Dutck government exchanged it for Bencoolen in 
Sumatra in 1824, when it was placed under the 
Bengal presidency. Itis now part of the Straits 
Settlements (which see). 


MALAGA (S. Spain), a Pheenician town, taken 
by the Arabs, 714; retaken by the Spaniards, after 
a long siege, 1487; see Naval Battles, 1704. An 
insurrection against .the provisional government 
was put down with much slaughter, 31 Dec. 1868. 


MALAKHOFF, a hill near Sebastopol, on 
which was situated an old tower, strongly fortified 
by the Russians during the siege of 1854-55. The 
allied French and English attacked it on 17, 18 
June, 1855, and after a conflict of forty-eight hours 
were repulsed with severe loss; that of the English 
being 175 killed and 1126 wounded; that of the 
French 3338 killed and wounded. On 8 Sept. the 
French again attacked the Malakhoff; at eight 
o’ clock the first mine was sprung, and at noon the 
French flag floated over the conquered redoubt ; see 
Sebastopol. In the Malakhoff and Redan were found 
3000 pieces of cannon of every calibre, and 120,000 
Ibs. of gunpowder. 


MALAY ARCHIPELAGO, see Moluccas, 
Philippines, Straits, &e. 

MALDON (Essex), built 28 3.c., is supposed 
to have been the first Roman colony in Britain. 
It was burnt by queen Boadicea, and rebuilt by the 
Romans; burnt by the Danes, A.D. 991, and rebuilt 
by the Saxons. Maldon was incorporated by Philip 
and Mary. The singular custom of Borough- 


English is kept up here, by which the yo 
ison, and not the eldest, succeeds to the b 
tenure on his father’s death; see Bo 
English. 


MALEGNANO or MELEGNANO, 1 


names of Marignano (which see). 


MALICIOUS DAMAGES. The k 
specting them was consolidated and amen 
24 & 25 Vict. c. 97. This act protects works 
electric telegraphs, &e., 1861. 


MALINES, see Mechlin. 
MALINS’ ACT, 20 & 21 Vict. c. 57, 1 


to the powers of women in regard to propert 
passed in 1857. 


MALO, ST. (N.-W. France). This por 
great resort of privateers, sustained a trem 
bombardment by the English under admiral B 
in 1693, and under lord Berkeley in July, 16 
June, 1758, the British landed in considerabl 
in Cancalle bay, and went up to the ha 
where they burnt upwards of a hundred ship 
did great damage to the town, making an 
of prisoners. It is now defended by a very 
castle, and the harbour is very difficult of acec 


MALO-JAROSLAVITZ, near Moscow 
tral Russia: the site of severe encounters be 
the Russians and the retreating French 
24 Oct. 1812. The latter were victorious, bu 
great loss. 


MALPLAQUET (N. France). He: 
allies under the duke of Marlborough and 
Eugene defeated the French, commanded by 
shal Villars, 11 Sept. 1709. Each army con 
of nearly 120,000 choice soldiers. There was 
slaughter on both sides, the allies losing | 
mee, which loss was but ill repaid by the capt 

ons, 


MALT, barley prepared for brewing and | 
lation. A duty was laid upon malt in 166; 
pealed but reimposed 1697, e¢ seg. Importan 
for the regulation of malt duties were pass 
1830 and 1837. In March, 1858, there were 
licensed maltsters in the United Kingdom. 
duty on malt in 1863 amounted to 6,273 
In 1864 the duty was remitted on malt use 
cattle feeding; and in 1865, an act was 
allowing the excise duty to be charged accordi 
the weight of the grain used. A parliame 
committee to consider repeal of malt tax was a 
to, 14 May, 1867, without success; a moti 
repeal the tax was negatived (244-17), 23 4 
1874. Tax abolished, 1880 (when it was 2s. & 
bushel.) It ceased 1 Oct. 1880. 

Revenue from the malt duties: in the year endi 
March, 1850, 5,391,322l. ;—1854, 5,418,4181. ;— 
6,676,840l.;—1857 (tax reduced), 5,690,950l. ;— 
6,648,8811. ;— 1862, 6,208,8131.; 1867, 6,816,385). = 
6,978,371. ;—1872, 6,910,366l. ;—1873, 7,544,175! 3— 
8,040, 3781. ;—1878, 7,721,5481. ’ 

Malt made and retained in the United Kingdom 
1825, 36,205,451 bushels; in 1835, 42,892,012; 10 
35,307,815; in 1857, 44,545,649; im 1861, 46,650,1¢ 
1870, 56,775,614 ; IN 1875, 63,015,676. 
MALTA (formerly Melita), an island it 

Mediterranean, held successively by the Ph 

cians, Carthaginians, and Romans, which last 

quered it, 259 B.c. The apostle Paul was wre 
here, A.D. 62. (Acts xxvii., xxviii.) Malta 

taken by the Vandals, 534; by the Arabs, 870; 

by the Normans from Sicily, 1090. With die 

became successively part of the possessions 0 

liouses of Hohenstaufen, of Anjou (1266), au 


7 


MALTA. 


yon (1260). In 1530 Charles V. gave it to the 
thts Hospitallers, who defended it most cou- 
ously and successfully, in 1551 and 1565, against 
Turks, who were obliged to abandon the enter- 
» after the loss of 30,000 men. ‘The island was 
n by Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition 
igypt, 12 June, 1798. He found in it 1200 
98 Of eannon, 200,000 lbs. of powder, two ships 
e line, a frigate, four galleys, and 40,000 mus- 
, besides an immense treasure collected by 
rstition ; and 4500 Turkish prisoners, whom he 
it liberty. Malta surrendered to the British 
rt Pigot, 5 Sept. 1800. At the peace of Amiens 
is stipulated that it should be restored to the 
hts. The British, however, retained possession, 
the war recommenced between the two nations ; 
oy the treaty of Paris, in B14, the island was 
anteed to Great Britain. a Valetta, the 
ial, was founded in 1557 by the grand master 
Valetta, and completed and occupied by the 
hts, 18 Aug. 1571. The Protestant college 
founded.in 1846. A grand new naval dry dock 
opened, May, 1871. Governor of Malta and 
, sir Patrick Grant, March, 1867 ; sir C. T. Van 
ibenzee, 1872; sir Arthur Borton, 1878; gen. 
ohn Lintorn A. Simmons, 1884.—The visit of 
e of Wales, 6 April, 1876. Great immigration 
stitute Enropeans from Alexandria (see Eyypt) 
le June, 1882; about 2200, 6 July, 1882. 


ALTA, Knicnts or. A military religious 
, called also Hospitallers of St. John of Jeru- 
1, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. 
' merchants of Malfi, trading to the Levant, 
ned leave of the caliph of Egypt to build a 
> for those who came on pilgrimage to Jerusa- 
and whom they received with zeal and charity, 
They afterwards founded a hospital for the 
tion of pilgrims, from whence they were called 
itallers (Latin, hospes, a guest). The military 
was founded about 1099; confirmed by the 
It13. In 1119 the knights defeated the Turks 
ntioch. After the Christians had lost their 
»st in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the 
its retired to Acre, which they defended 
itly in 1290. John, king of Cyprus, gave 
Limisso in his dominions, where they stayed 
310, in which year they took Rhodes, under 
grand master De Vallaret, and the next year 
ded it under the duke of Savoy against an 
of Saracens. The story that his successors 
used F. KE. R. Tl. (Fortitudo eyus Rhodum 
, or his valour kept Rhodes) for their device 
chdoubted. From this they were also called 
ts of Rhodes; but Rhodes being taken by 
lan im 1522, they retired into Candia, thence 
Sicily. Pope Adrian VI. granted them the 
f Viterbo for their retreat; and in 1530 the 
‘or Charles V. gave them the isle of Malta. 
rder was suppressed in England in 1540; re- 
in 155) and again suppressed in 1559. _ St. 
3 Gate, Clerkenwell, a relic of their possessions, 
xists. The emperor Paul of Russia declared 
lf grand master of the order in June, 1799. 
the death of the grand master, Tommasi di 
ra, in 1805, the order was governed by a lieu- 
t and a college at Rome, till Pope Leo XIII. 
count Ceschi 4 Santa Cisce (lieutenant since 
'b. 1871) grand master, 28 March, 1879. The 
ts sent a hospital establishment into Bohemia 
3 the war in 1866, which afforded great relief 
wounded and sick. 


(MELON, a hill, one of the defences of 
topol, was captured by the French, 7 June, 


529 
~—lDREEncDUn nnn eemmmemneiemeeemeneeeer 


MAN. 


MAMELUKEHS, originally Turkish and Cir- 
cassian slaves, established by the sultan of Egypt as 
a body-guard, about 1240. ° They advanced one of 
their own corps to the throne of Egypt, May, 1250, 
and continued to do so until it became a Turkish 
province, in 1517, when the beys took them into pay, 
and filled up their ranks with renegades from 
various countries. On the conquest of Egypt by 
Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia ; but, 
assisted by the Arnauts, reconquered Egypt from 
the Turkish government. In 1804, N apoleon cm- 
bodied some of them in his guard. On 1 March, 
1811, they were decoyed into the power of the 
Turkish pacha, Mehemet Ali, and slain at Cairo. 


MAMERTINTI, sons of Mamers or Mars, were 
Campanian soldiers of Agathocles. They seized 
Messina in Sicily, in 281, B.c., and when closely 
besieged by the Carthaginians, and Hiero of Syra- 
cuse, in 264, they implored the help of the Romans, 
which led to the first Punic war. 


MAMMOTH, an extinct species of elephant. 
An entire mammoth, flesh and bones, was dis- 
covered in Siberia, in 1799. Remains of this 
animal have since been found at Harwich, in 1803, 
and at places in Europe, Asia, and America. 


MAN, ANTIQUITY OF. In 1836, M. Boucher 
de Perthes found some rude flint implements, 
which he believed to be of human manufacture, 
mingled with bones of extinct animals, in the old 
alluvium near Abbeville in Picardy, France, and also 
in 1847, near Amiens. Similar flints have since been 
found in Sicily by Dr. Falconer, at Brixham by 
Mr. Pengelly, and lately in various parts of the 
world. Hence many geologists infer that man ex- 
isted on the earth many ages earlier than has been 
hitherto believed. 


Some burnt bricks found in the Nile are considered 
to be 20,000 years old, and some bones found in 
lacustrine deposits in Florida, 30,000 years old. 

The ‘‘ Engis skull” found by Schmerling in the 
valley of the Meuse : ; . . about 1834 

Fossil human remains found in extinct voleanos of 
St. Denis, near Puy en Velay : : . 1844 

A human jaw said to have been found in the drift 
at Moulin Quignon, near Abbeville - March, 1863 

Sir Charles Lyell’s ‘‘ Antiquity of Man” was pub- 
lished in 1863 (4th edition, 1873), and sir John 
Lubbock’s “‘ Prehistoric Times,” 1865 (4th ed. 1878). 

The skeleton of a man supposed to have been a con- 
temporary of the mammoth and cave-bear was 
found with polished flint implements by M. 
Riviere in the Cavillin cavern, near Mentone, 
26 March, 1872. Mr. W. Pengelly went to exa- 
mine these remains, 

‘The Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons, and Or- 
naments of Great Britain,” by John Evans, F.R.S., 
published, July, 1872; and his ‘‘ Ancient Bronze 
Implements, Weapons, &c.” published . May, 

**In our day the quaternary man is a fact univer- 
sally accepted; but the tertiary man is a pro- 
blem under discussion.”—Virchow . 1877 


MAN, ISLE oF,* was subdued by Edwin, king 
of Northumberland, about 620; by Magnus of Nor- 
way, 1098; by the Scots, 1266; occupied by Edward 
at the wish of the inhabitants 1290; recovered by the 
Scots in 1313; but taken from them by Montacute, 
afterwards earl of Salisbury, to whom Edward III. 
gave the title of king of Man, in 1343. It was 
afterwards subjected to the earl of Northumber- 
land, on whose attainder Henry IV. granted it in 
fee to sir John Stanley, 1406. It was taken from 
this family by Elizabeth, but was restored in 1610 
to the earl of Derby, through whom it fell by in- 
heritance to the duke of Athol, 1735. He received 


188xr 


* 226% square miles; population, 1881, 53492; revenue 
| (1874), 44,166/. ; balance in hand, Jan. 1874, 18,170. 
M M 


MANASSAS JUNCTION. 


70,000. from parliament for all his rights in 
1765; and the nation was charged with the further 
sum of 132,944/. for the purchase of his remaining 
interest in the revenues of the island in Jan. 1829. 
The countess of Derby held the isle against the 
parliament forces for a time in 1651. “The new 
queen’s landing pier (cost 46,400/.) inaugurated 
by the lieut. governor, H. B. Loch, 1 J uly, 1872. 
Act relating to the harbours and coasts, passed June, 
2872: 1 he first railway (from Douglas to Peel) 
epened, I July, 1873.—Revenue to government, 187 3 
12,6257. 18s. 1d.— Population, 1871, 54,042 ; 
1881, 54,089. The BisHopric is said to have Yeah 
presided over by Amphibalus about 360. Some assert 
that St. Patrick was the founder of the see, and that 
Germanus was the first bishop, about 447. It was 
united to Sodor in 1113. The bishop has no seat in 
the house of lords; But lord Auckland (bishop, 
1847-54) sat by right of his barony. Present in- 
come, 2000/. 

RECENT BISHOPS OF SODOR AND MAN. 
Claudius Crigan: died in 1813. 
George Murray, trans. to Rochester, 1827. 
William Ward ; died in 1838. 
James Bowstead, trans. to Lichfield, Dec. 1839. 
Henry Pepys, trans. to Worcester, 1841. 
Thos. Vowler Short, trans. to St. Asaph, 1846. 
Walter Augustus Shirley; died in 1847. 
John Eden (lord Auckland), trans. to Bath, 1854. 
1854. Hon. Horatio Powys ; died 31 May, 1877. 
1877. Rowley Hill, consecrated 24 Aug. 


MANASSAS JUNCTION (Virginia, United 
States), an important military position, where the 
Alexandria and Manassas Gap railways meet, near 
a creek named Buti Run. I. It was held by the 
confederates in 1861, when they were attacked by 
the federal general Irwin McDowell. He began 
his march from Washington on 16 July, and gained 
some advantage on the 18th at Centreville. On 
the 21st was fought the first battle of Bull Run. 
The federals, who began the fight, had the advan- 
tage till about three o’clock p.m., when the con- 
federate general Johnston brought up reinforcements, 
which at first the federals took for their own troops. 
After a brief resistance, the latter were seized with 
sudden panic, and, in spite of the utmost efforts of 
their officers, fled, ’ abandoning a large quantity of 
arms, ammunition, and baggage. The confederate 
generals Johnston and Beauregard did not think it 
prudent to pursue the fugitives, who did not halt 
till they arrived at Washington. The federal arm 
is said to have had 481 ” killed, .IOII wounded, 
1216missing. The loss of the confederates was stated 
to be about 1500.—In March, 1862, when the army 
of the Potomac, under general McClellan, marched 
into Virginia, they found that the confederates had 
quietly retreated from the camp at Manassas. 2. On 
7° Aug. 1862, this place was the site of another great 

attle between the northern and southern armies. 
In August, general ‘‘Stonewall’’ Jackson, after 
compelling the federal general Pope to retreat, de- 
feated him at Cedar mountain on the 9th, turned 
his flank on the 22nd, and arriving at Manassas 
repulsed his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th 
general R. E. Lee (who had defeated general 
McClellan and the invading northern army before 
Richmond, 26 June to I July) joined Jackson with 
his army, "and Pope received reinforcements from 
Washington. A desperate conflict ensued, which 
ended in the confederates gaining a decisive victory, 
eompelling the federals to a hasty retreat to Centre- 
ville, where they were once morerouted,1 Sept. The 
remains of their army took refuge behind the lines 
of Washington on 2 Sept. Pope was at once super- 
seded, and McClellan resumed the command to 
march against the confederates, who had crossed 


1784. 
4813. 
1828. 
1838. 
1840. 
1841. 
1846. 
1847. 


530 


MANCHESTER. 


the Potomac and entered Maryland; 
States. 


MANCHESTER fe ancashire), in the ti 
the Druids, was one of their most principal sta 
and had the rivilege of sanctuary attached 1 
altar, in the British language Meyne, a stone 
was one of the seats of the Brigantes, who ] 
castle, or stronghold, called Dancenion, or the 
of tents, near the confluence of the rivers Me 
and Irwell. ‘The site of this, still calle 
““Castle Field,” was, about 79, selected by th 
mans as the station of the Cohors Prima Fri iste 
and called by them Mancunium ; hence its § 
name Manceastre, from which its “modern ap} 
tion is derived. Lewis. See under Populatic 


Mancenion taken from the Britons’. - i 

Captured by Edwin of Northumbria ; , 

The inhabitants become Christians - abou 

The town taken by the Danes, 870; retaken. 

The charter (Magna Charta of erie ef “a 

‘“Manchester cottons” introduced . 

The church made collegiate . a 

Free grammar-school founded . - a 

Privilege of sanctuary moved to Chester . about 

An aulnager (measurer) stationed here . 

Sir Thomas Fairfax takes the town . z F 

The walls and fortifications razed. 

Cheetham college, or Blue-coat hospital, foundec 

ewer ers by “‘ Syddall, the barber,” afterwande 

ange 

Prince Charles Edward, the Young Pretender 
makes it his quarters . A , 28 Nov. 

Queen’s theatre first built . 

The Infirmary instituted, 1752 ; built. 

The inhabitants discharged from their obligation ti 
grind their corn at Ink-mill - i 

Cotton goods first exported E 

Manchester navigation a by Bridgewate 
canal . z 

Lunatic asylum founded . Z = P 

Agricultural society instituted . 

Christian, king of Denmark, visits Manchester, and 


see U 


puts up at the Bull-inn . 2 7 é 
The Queen’s theatre rebuilt . 5 ‘ F “ 
Subscription concerts established 
Riots against machinery A 9 Oct. 


Manufacture of muslin attempted here . jibok' 
Philosophical society established ~ . . F 


New Bailey bridge completed . r 

Queen’s theatre burnt down, 73 June, 1789; re. 
erected x . . a” i 

New Bailey built 4 x P ; 

Assembly-rooms, Mosley-street, built . . ae | 


Philological Society instituted . a 
Fever hospital erected, ah Theatre-royal = 4 
The portico erected ‘ 

The weavers’ riot . 24 May, 

Exchange and Commercial puildings wee Jan. 

Manchester and Salford water-works established . 

Blanketeers’ meeting . : : A . 4 Nov. 

Lock-hospital established . 

Manchester reform meeting (called Peterloo) of from 
60,000 to 100,000 persons, men, women, and chil- 
dren. Mr. Hunt, who took the chair, had spoken 
a few words, when the meeting was suddenly as- 
sailed by a charge of cavalry, assisted by 4 
Cheshire regiment of yeomanry, the outlets being 
occupied by other military detachments. The 
unarmed multitude were driven upon each other ; 
many were ridden over by the horses, or cut down 
by their riders. The deaths were 11, men, 
women, and children, and the wounded about 600 


16 Aug. 
New Brunswick-bridge built z >: ae of 
Chamber of commerce established . : a 2 
Law library founded - 


Natural History society projected ° ; ° ‘ « 
New Quay company founded 5 . . 


Deaf and Dumb school instituted . . . + 
Royal Institution formed a a 
Floral and Horticultural society éatablished oa a 
Mechanics’ institution founded . . Jae 


Musical festival first held . 
At the launch of a vessel which keeled and upset, 


pL SESE 


MANCHESTER. 


ards of 200 persons precipitated into the 

‘; 5x perished . ‘ - : - 29 Feb. 1828 
mult, a factory burnt, and much machinery 
coyed 


é c : 5 < 3 May, 1829 
meert-room established . : é ie 
ees established ‘ 18 30 


ester and Liverpool railway opened—Mr. 
kisson killed (see Liverpool) 1S5.sept. _,, 
ester made a parliamentary borough (2 mem- 

iby Reformact . : ‘ 7 June, 
‘society established 


ical society formed (the 


1832 
: = Se etOS 3 
first in England), 

2Sept.  ,} 
-rate refused : : ‘ -  3Sept. 1834 
aster incorporated, by Municipal Reform act 1835 


ister and Leeds railway act passed . 1836 
cal Bociety instituted . F : - - 1838 
‘ofincorporation . mas OChin 49 
ster police act. . ‘ - 26 Aug. 1839 
disorders in the midland counties among 

ins: they extend to this town Aug. 1842 


Association meet here . a - 23 June, 
tee-trade meetings held here (see Corn Laws) 
{ Nov. 
(see 
eum) F . 5 3 ‘ ae stOct: 
ati-corn law meeting, at which 64,9841. were 
ribedin four hours . 4 : 23 Dec. 1845 
leen’s-park, Peel-park, and Philip’s-park, 

ae : . 4 . F . Aug. 1846 
stermadeabishopric . - ro Aug. 1847 
': of Owens collegiate institution, to which 
‘Owens bequeathed 100,000. . ro March, 18s5r 
en's visit to Manchester . : SAV RICLI Iss 
leeting in the Free-trade hall, to greet M. 
‘ith F : : ; ‘ . «1 Nov. 
ineers’ strike . - - _3Jan.-26 April, 
dd of Literature entertained at a banquet by 


aed 4 " 31 Aug. © 5, 
t of the Free library . 


14 1843 
wt meeting held at the Atheneum 
1844 


” 
1852 


See OD LCE <5 
.ree-trade banquet 2 5 I 2 NOV... °35 
‘ster declared to be a crry, and formally so 
ed. 7 ‘ ¥ . ‘ - 16 April, 1853 
rike of minders and piecers_ . - 7 Nov. 1855 


ON OF ART TREASURES determined on, 20 
1856; 1115 old paintings, 689 new paintings, 
ater-colours, 388 British portraits, &c. col- 
; Opened by prince Albert, 5 May ; visited 
2 Queen, 29, 30 June; visited by 1,335,915 

S$; expenses, g9,500l., receipts, 98,5001. ; 


P = : 3 : 17 Oct. 1857 
‘n Potter, a benefactor to the town, died 
25 Oct. 1858 
Association meet here (2nd time), 4 Sept. 1861 
unty meeting ; 130,000/. subscribed to the 
‘Shire Relief fund . A : 2 Dec. 1862 
of the Church Congress » 13-15 Oct. 1863 
eform meeting; Mr. Bright there, 24 Sept. 1866 


iter Education bill committee appointed 
lal M.P. granted by Reform act 15 Aug. 
of Manchester and Liverpool agricultural 
Hoe F : « P E me v27tAUP, 5.5 
Unions commission opened ; evidence ob- 
of gross outrages . s P 3-24 Sept. ,, 
t , Kelly and Deasy, forcibly taken from 
| Cevan, near Manchester, and Brett, a 
nan killed . § . ‘ ate SEDtu a, 9 
ms committed for trial; trial, 29 Oct.-12 
' five condemned to death for murder, 1 
others to imprisonment ; Allen, Gould, 
kin executed : ; f sea INOVE © ys 
ight elected M.P. (Lily Maxwell, a widow, 
ro. |. (6 Nov. 9 
™m of fire at Lang’s music-hall, 23 killed, 


‘n-hallfounded 2. , . 26 Oct. 
| ter Reciprocity Association founded, Sept. 
_ Education Union meet . 


} mts dt NOVA) 2) 
| ames Prince Lee died, 24 Dec. 1869 ; suc- 
by James Fraser . Jan 


a-park (provided by 


6 Oct 


é ; an. 
the corporation) 


2 ; P A : OA UP ali. 
| Se new buildings founded . 23Sept. ,, 
Po ae additional building opened by 


. : A 2 2 25 Oct. 
My. Disraeli ; enthusiastically received, 


1 2-5 April, 1872 
ry at the Athenaam burnt . 24 Sept. 1873 


1871 


531 


MANGANESE. 


Proposal to rebuild the cathedral by subscription, 
spring, 1874 
Athenzum lecture-rooms opened by lord chief just. 
Cockburn, the marquis of Salisbury, &c. 22 Jan. 
Humphry Nichols, who had given about 100,0001, 
to public charities, died 3 - 3x Oct. 
Statue of Cromwell (by M. N oble) gift of Mrs. 
Abel Heywood, uncovered, : - & Dec. 
Rev. Thos. Middleton bequeaths 14,0001. to Royal 
Infirmary . : A : : : . May, 1876 
Proposal to make Owens college a university, July, ,, 
Death of sir Elkanah Armitage, a great benefactor 
P 26 Nov. 
New town-hall opened, by Mr. Abel Heywood, the 
mayor > : : z - 4 13 Sept. 
Owens college made the nucleus of Victoria Univer- 
sity (which see) . : 3 A 3 . July, 
New school of art. opened by the earl of Derby, 
27 April, 
Visit of the dukes of Edinburgh and Albany x2 Dec. 
Formation of aship canal by junction of the Mersey 
and Irwell; Mr. William's plan approved about 
26 Sept. 
Fine art and industrial exhibition opened . 20 Oct. 
Fire at Messrs. Wilkinson and Hodgkinson’s, about 
100,0o00l, damage. : as t7 NOV. 55 


1875 


77 


New fine art gallery opened b rena te nus LOOF 
Edmund Potter, manufacturer and benefactor of 

the city, died aged 8x : : F Se20°OCiy 55 
Three great meetings to support the government 

and the franchise bill j - - . 26July, 1884 
Manchester ship canal rejected by the commons 

committee . is wT OULvs me ss 


Great conservative demonstration, present the 
marquis of Salisbury, sir R. Cross, lord Randolph 
Churchill, and others £ 


3 : erg AUS es 
Manchester Geographical Society established Jan. 1885 


MANCHESTER, BisHopric or. An order 
in council in Oct. 1838, declared that the sees of 
St. Asaph and Bangor should be united on the next 
vacancy in-either, and that the bishopric of Man- 
chester should be immediately created within the 
jurisdiction of the archiepiscopal see of York; the 
county of Lancaster for that purpose to be detached 
from Chester. By act 10 Vict. (1847) the sees of 
St. Asaph and Bangor were to exist undisturbed, 
and that of Manchester was to be created. 


BISHOPS. 
1847. James Prince Lee; died 24 Dec. 1869. 
1870. James Fraser, Jan. 1870. 


MANERU, near Puente de la Reyna Navarre. 
Here took place a conflict between the republicans, 
under Moriones, and the Carlists, under Otto; both 
claimed a victory; 6 Oct. 1873. The Carlists were 
considered to have the advantage. 


MANES, the name applied by the ancients to 
the soul when separated from the body. The Manes 
were reckoned among the infernal deities, and were 
generally supposed to preside over the burial-places 
and monuments of the dead. They were worship- 
ped by the Romans, and invoked by the augurs ; 
Virgil (22 B.c.) makes his hero sacrifice to the 
Manes. The Romans superscribed their epitaphs 
with D.M., Diis Manibus. 


MANGANESE. Black oxide of manganese, 
long used to decolorise glass, and called Magnesia 
nigra, was formerly included among the ores of iron. 
Its distinctive character was proved by the re- 
searches of Pott (1 70); Kaim and Winterl (1770), 
and Scheele and Bergmann (1774); it was first 
eliminated by Gahn. Manganese combined with 
potassium is called mineral chameleon, from its 
rapid change of colour under certain circumstances. 
Forchammer employed it as a test for the presence 
of organic matter in water; and Dr. Angus Smith, 
successfully applied this test to air in 1858. The 
oxide is the important ingredient in Condy’s “ dis- 
infecting fluid.’’ Manganese bronze, a sen metak 

MM 


ee 
qt aa 
, 


oe 


MANICHEANS. 


Ba by Mr. P. M. Parsons, inventor of white 
rass, 1876. 


MANICHEANS, 2 sect founded by Manes, 
in Persia, about 261. It spread into Egypt, Arabia, 
and Africa. A rich widow, whose servant Manes 
had been, left him much wealth, after which he as- 
sumed the title of Apostle, or envoy of Jesus 
Christ, and announced that he was the paraclete 
or comforter that Christ had promised to send. He 
maintained two principles, the one good he called 
light, the other bad he called darkness. He re- 
jected the Old Testament, and composed a system of 
doctrine from Christianity and the dogmas of the 
ancient fire-worshippers. Sapor, king of Persia, 
believed in him at one time; but afterwards 
banished him. He was burnt alive by Bahram or 
Varanes, king of Persia, in 277. His followers 
dispersed, and several sects sprang from them. 


MANILLA (built about 1573), capital of the 
Philippine isles, a great mart of Spanish commerce. 
Manilla was taken by the English, 6 Oct. 1762, 
when the archbishop engaged to ransom it for about 
a million sterling; never wholly paid. Manilla 
has suffered greatly by earthquakes. It is stated 
that nearly 3000 persons perished by one in 1645. 
In Sept. 1852, the city was nearly destroyed, and 
on 3 July, 1863, about a thousand lives were lost. 
The duke of Edinburgh was hospitably entertained 
here, 19 Noy. 1869. See Harthquakes 1852, 1863, 
1880. Destructive typhoon, 20, 21 Oct. 1882. 


MANITOBA, see Rupert’s Landand Hudson’ s 
Bay (N. America), a new colony. A Fenian attack 
on the colony was suppressed by American troops 
about 12 Oct. 1871. Forinsurrection in the neighbour- 
ing provinces in March, 1885,see ADDENDA(Canada). 


MANNHEIM (S. Germany), founded in 1606, 
became the court residence of the palatine of the 
Rhine in 1719; but his becoming elector of Bavaria 
in 1777 caused the removal of the court to Munich. 
Mannheim surrendered to the French, under com- 
mand of general Pichegru, 20 Sept. 1795. On 31 
Oct. the Austrians under general Wurmser defeated 
the French.near the city. - Several battles were 
fought with various success in the neighbourhood 
during the warsof Napoleon I. Kotzebue, the popu- 
lar dramatist, was assassinated at Mannheim, by 
Sand, a student of Wurtzburg, 2 April, 1819. 


MANOMETER (Greek, manos, thin), an in- 
strument for measuring the rarity of the atmo- 
sphere, gases, and vapours. One is said to have 
been made by Otto von Guericke about 1660, and 
the ‘‘statical barometer’? of Robert Boyle was 
a simple manometer. Various forms of the appara- 
tus were devised by Ramsden (about 1773), by Roy 
(1777), by Cazalet (1789), and by Bourdon and 
others. A manometer was constructed for the in- 
vestigation respecting the elasticity of steam con- 
ducted by Prony, Arago, Dulong, and Girard, 1830. 


MANORS are as ancient as the Saxon times, 
and imply a territorial district with its jurisdiction, 
rights, and perquisites. They were formerly called 
baronies, and still are lordships. Each lord was 
empowered to hold a court called the court-baron 
for redressing misdemeanors, and settling disputes 
between the tenants. Cabinet Lawyer. 


MANSION-HOUSE, Lonpon. The resi- 
dence of the lord mayor. It is situate at the east 
end of the Poultry on the site of the ancient Stocks- 
market. It was built of Portland stone by George 
Dance the elder, 1739-53 ; repaired and redecorated, 
1867-68 ; see Mayor. 

Attempt to blow up part of Mansion-House ; a box 


532 


MANSION-HOUSE. 


of gunpowder (40 Ibs.) discovered in a windo 

east side, about 11 p.m. 16 March, 1881; aga 
12 Me 

Mansion-House Funds :— 


_FrencH REvIEeF Funp for the sufferers by the sic 


of Paris, was established at a meeting 18 Ji 

In four days about 24,0001. had been received ; 
to 4 March, 113,599/. ; finally, 126,609l. Col. 
Stuart Wortley and Mr. George Moore went 
Paris on 3 Feb. with 68 tons of provisions, a 
personally superintended their distribution by 1 
clergy, foreign consuls, and others. An offic 
report issued by the lord mayor, dated 7 N 
1871, showed a balance of 4679l. in hand 

BENGAL RELIEF FuND, begun 24 Jan. 1874; pril 
of Wales became patron, 24 Feb. ; public meeti 
14 April; above 55,o00l. subscribed, 19 Mare 
125,000l., 27 July, when the fund was closed. 

EASTERN WAR SUFFERERS’ FUND ; g4ool. receiy 
up to 6 Oct. 1876; 18 Oct. 13,000l.; 27 O 
14,2001, 

INUNDATIONS RELIEF FunpD ; 1877, received, rz Ji 
3600l. ; 20 Jan. 8100l. ; closed, 14 Feb., 87921. 

INDIAN FAMINE RELIEF FUND, 1877-8; announce 
15 Aug. ; received up to 20 Aug. 12,000l. ; 11 Se. 
135,0001. ; 23 Oct. 415,000l.; 5 Nov. 446,100 
(fund declared closed by request of the duke 
Buckingham, governor-general of Madras); sin 
received, 22 Dec. 493,000l. ; 15 Jan. 1868, 503,00 
Wound up, 515,200l. received ;—506,0631. sent 
India . : ‘ ' ° A 20 

** EurRYDICcE” Funp (see Wrecks, 24 March, 187! 
received for families of the men, 5496l.; tra 
mitted 5 F i : A 25 Se) 

‘* PRINCESS ALICE” RELIEF Funp ; opened 5 Se 
1878 ; received, 21st Sept. 25;000l.; 1 Oct. 31,40 
See Princess Alice. 

ABERCARNE COLLIERY EXPLOSION FUND}; open 
14 Sept. 1878 ; received, 21 Sept. 11, 500l.; 21 O 
29,3001. : above 18,oool. received in the country 

Diyas CoLiuiery Expiosion Funp (for 180 wido 
and children); opened in . 3 é ak 

HUNGARIAN FLoops Funp; opened 14 March; | 
ceived 18 March, about 4,200l. ; May 1, 11,248! 

ZuLu War Funp; opened, 31 March ; : receiv 
2 April, 3,400l. ; 25 April, 10,3001. ae 

Rowand Hitt Memoria proposed g Sept. 187 
the lord mayor, Whetham, announced that 
about rool. only had been subscribed ; the mon 
would be returned ; another committee was th 
formed, and lord mayor Truscott assumed chat 
of the fund, rz Nov. ; 6,300l. received 12 De 
1879; about 16,o00l. 26 Feb. 1880; 17,2861. 5 Ja 

DucHEss oF MARLBOROUGH’s IRISH RELIEF FUN: 
opened on appeal by her grace, 22 Dec. 187 
about 2,300. received 29 Dec. ; total sent 
Dublin, 34,1641. 6s. 6d.; fund closed . 10 AU 

‘* ATALANTA” FunpD; to relieve sufferers by loss 
the Atalanta (which see); opened. 15 Ju 

TRURO CATHEDRAL Funp opened 14 July ; receive 
1,095). gee ; ; A : ‘i -. g No 

Risca CoLLIERY ExpLosion Funp, opened 16 Jul} 


received 7,3171. . 0 Je 
Naini Tat Lanpsiip Funp; opened . 22 Of 
AGRAM HARTHQUAKE FUND ; opened . 17 No 


PEN-Y-GRAIG COLLIERY EXPLOSION FUND ; opene 
I 
Cuios or Scio EARTHQUAKE Funp ; opened 7 Apr 
DEFENCE OF PROPERTY IN IRELAND Funp, (“tow 
hold the rights of property against organizt 
combination, to defend and to sustain freedom | 
contract and liberty of action,”’) begun, 13 Det 
above 10,sool., received . .  . De 
EGYPTIAN REFUGEES FUND: 2,100/., 30 June, 188: 
2,700l., 6 July ; 7,800l., 11 Aug. ; 8,000l., 10 Sept 
21,3081. ; : ; : ‘ . 10 Apri 
RELIEF OF PERSECUTED RUSSIAN JEWS FUND, beg 
1 Feb. 18823 46,0o00l., received, 13 Feb. ; 50,35 
20 Feb, ; about 72,000l., 19 May. Fund close 
108,759l., received .  .  . « «© 2500 
FuND FOR EMIGRATION OF THE UNEMPLOYED, © 
tablished 13 April; unsuccessful, closed 25 Apt 
IckELAND FaMINE Funp, formed 29 Aug. 1882 
1,500l. received 6 Sept. ; 2,800l. 14 Sept. 5 3,702 
ax Sept.; s,sosi., closed. «Se SSCA 
Cuay Cross COLLIERY EXxPLosION FUND, abou 
14 Nov.; 496l. 10s. 6d. remitted ; fund oe s 
2 


MANSOURAH. 


‘A Fire Revier Funp, established, 22 Jan. 
ved 4,400l. ; 21 Feb. 7,620/. ; closed, received 
l 


ry) : . : - - g April, 1883 
JoastT oF ScOTLAND FUND, 2,200l. received 

ril; 3,9642, 12 April; 4,861. 8 May; 5,159]. 
closed. 4 - : : Se esuly, - 5; 
FoR SUFFERERS By NortH Sra GALE, 
a) fo r2 April; 35 


EARTHQUAKE FunD, opened 14 Aug, 3 1,200l. 

ag. ; about 29,0001. 12 Oct. ; closed 31 Oct. ,, 
AN CHOLERA FuND, opened 31 Aug. about 

1. received ; closed , : PONOV G35 
ww Countirs EARTHQUAKE Funp, begun 26 
, 1884 ; 2,000l. received, 2 May ; 3,000l. 5 May; 
l. 15 May ; 9,900l. 10 June ; 10,413/. 31 July, 
1 Funp (see Nisero), established 17 July; 
received from earl of Derby and others ; 6ool. 
ved from Rotterdam, Aug.; 1,237/. received, 
closed. . M ‘ : Ee Deck :, 
UTAN CHOLERA FUND, 1,000l. sent off, Oct. 1 
remittance, 323I.. A 3 SUING VEO? 55 
¢ NATIONAL MEMORIAL Fonp, (see Gordon 
rial) begun 25 Feb. ; 13,5001. received up to 

il; king of Belgium gives rool. 8 April, 1885 


NSOURAH (Lower Egypt). Here Louis 
is defeated by the Saracens and taken pri- 
peer, 1250. He gave Damietta and 400,000 
or his ransom. Mansourah suffered much 
lera, summer, 1883. 


NTINEA (Arcadia, Greece), Here—(1) 
ans and Argives were defeated by Agis II. of 
, 418 B.c. (2) And here Epaminondas and 
ebans defeated the combined forces of Lace- 
, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia, 362 B.c. 
nondas was killed in the engagement, and 
lost its power among the Grecian states. The 
ir Adrian built a temple at Mantineain honour 
‘ayourite Alcinoiis. The town was also called 
nia. Other battles were fought near it. 


NTUA (N. Italy), an Etruscan city, near 
Virgil was born, 70 B.c. Mantua was ruled 
sonzagas, lords of Mantua, from 1328 to 1708, 
t was seized by the emperor Joseph I. It 
lered to the French, 2 Feb. 1797, after a 
f eight months ; retaken by the Austrians 
issians, 30 July, 1799, after a short siege. 
he battle of Marengo (14 June, 1800), the 
_again obtained possession of it. It was in- 
in the kingdom of Italy till 1814, when it 
tored to the Austrians, who surrendered it to 
lians, 11 Oct. 1866, after the peace. 


NU, see Menu. 
NUFACTURES, see Sith, Cotton, &c. 
ORIS, see New Zealand. 


PLE-TREE. The Acer rubrum, or scarlet 
‘was brought here from N. America, before 
The Acer Negundo, or ash-leaved maple, 
(1688. From the Acer saccharinum (intro- 
ere in 1735) the Americans make good sugar. 


‘28, see Charts, and Mercator. 
RANON, see Amazon. 


RATHON (in Attica). Here, on 28 or 29 
90 B.c., the Greeks, only 11,000 strong, de- 
he Persian army amounting to about 110,000. 
“mer were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, 
‘emistocles. Among the slain (about 6400) 
_?pias, the instigator of the war. The Persian 
as forced to retreat to Asia; see Greece. 


RBLE. Dipenus and Scyllis, statuaries of 
vere the first artists who sculptured marble, 
lished their works; all statues previously 

f wood, about 568 3.c. Pliny. The edifices 


533 


MARIGNANO. 


or monuments of Rome were constructed of, or orna- 
mented with, fine marble. The ruins of Palmyra 
are chiefly of white marble. The marble arch, 
London, erected at Buckingham palace, 1830, was 
removed to Hyde-park, March, 1851. 


MARBURG (W. Germany). The cathedral 
was founded, 1231; and the first Protestant univer- 
sity in 1527. It suffered much during the Seven 
years’ war, 1753-60. 


MARCH, the first month of the year, until 
Numa added January and February, 713 B.c. Ro- 
mulus, who divided the year into months, gave to 
this month the name of his supposed father, Mars; 
though Ovid observes, that the people of Italy had 
the month of March before the time of Romulus, 
but placed it differently in the calendar. The year 
formerly commenced on the 25th of this month ; see 

ear. 


MARCHES. The old boundaries between 
England and Wales, and England and Scotland. 
The Lords Marchers of the Welsh borders had vice- 
regal authority; the wardens of the Scotch marches 
were subordinate officers. These powers were abol- 
ished, 1536, and 1689. 


MARCHFELD (Austria). Here Ottocar II. 
of Bohemia was defeated and slain by his rival, the 
emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg, 26 Aug. 1278; see 
Bohemia. 


MARCIONITES, followersof Marcion, a here- 
tic, about 150, who preceded the Manichees, and 
taught similar doctrines. Cave. 


MARCOMANNI, a people of Southern Ger- 
many, expelled the Boii from Bohemia, and, united 
with other tribes, invaded Italy about 167, but were 
repelled by the emperors Antoninusand Verus. They 
were defeated by the legion called, from a fabled 
miracle, the Thundering Legion, 179; and finally 
driven beyond the Danube by Aurelian, 271. 


MARENGO (N. Italy). Here the French army, 
commanded by Bonaparte, after crossing the Alps 
into Piedmont, attacked the Austrians, 14 June, 
1800; his army was retreating, when the arrival of 
general Dessaix turned the fortunes ofthe day. The 
slaughter on both sides was dreadful. By a treaty 
between the Austrian general Melas and Bonaparte, 
signed 15 June, the latter obtained twelve strong 
fortresses, and became master of Italy. 


MARESCHALS or MARSHALS, in France, 
were the esquires of the king, and originally had 
the command of the vanguard to observe the enemy 
and to choose proper places for its encampment. 
Till the time of Francis I., in 1515, there were but 
two marshals, who had 500 livres per annum in 
war, but no stipend in time of peace. The number 
was afterwards greatly increased. Napoleon’s mar- 
shals were renowned for skill and courage; see 
Marshal. 


MARIAN PERSECUTION, see Protestants. 
MARIGNANO (now MALEGNANO),N. Italy, 


near Milan. Three battles have been fought near 
here—a. Francis I. of France defeated the duke of 
Milan and the Swiss, 13, 14 Sept. 1515 ; above 20,000 
men were slain. This conflict has been called the 
Battle of the Giants.—2. Near here was fought the 
battle of Pavia (which see), 24 February, 1525.—3. 
After the battle of Magenta, 4 June, 1859, the Aus- 
trians entrenched themselves at Malegnano. The 
emperor sent marshal Baraguay d’Hilliers with 
16,000 men to dislodge them, which he did with a 
loss of about 850 killed and wounded, on 8 June. 


MARINE ASSOCIATION. 


534 


MARRIAGE. 


The Austrians are said to have lost 1400 killed and 
wounded, and goo prisoners, out of 18,000 engaged. 


MARINE _ BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIA- 
TION. See Biology. 


MARINER’S COMPASS, see Compass, and 
Magnetism. 


MARINES were first established with the ob- 
ject of forming a nursery to man the fleet. An order 
in council, dated 16 Oct. 1664, authorised 1200 sol- 
diers to be raised and formed into one regiment. In 
1684, the third regiment of the line was called the 
Marine Regiment; but the system of having soldiers 
exclusively for sea service was not carried into effect 
until 1698, when two marine regiments were formed. 
More regiments were embodied in subsequent years; 
and in 1741 the corps consisted of ten regiments, 
each 1000 strong. In 1759 they numbered 18,000 
men. In the latter years of the French war, ending 
in 1815, they amounted to 31,400, but there were 
frequently more than 3000 supernumeraries. The 
Jollves, as they are called, frequently distinguished 
themselves. The ‘‘ Royal Marine Forces” (so 
named I May, 1802), now comprehend artillery and 
light infantry. The vote for 1857 was for 16,000 
marines, inclusive of 1500 artillery. P. H. Nicolas. 
Marine Engineers’ Institution, founded in 1872. 
Officers of the marines made equal in rank with 
those in the army and navy, Dec. 1882. 


MARINE SOCIETY (for the maintenance 
and instruction of boys for the navy), was founded 
by Jonas Hanway, 1756, and incorporated, 1772. It 
instituted the first training ship on the Thames, 
1786. H.M.S. Warspite was burnt, without loss 
of life, 3 Jan. 1876; and the boys were removed to 
the Conqueror. 


MARINO, SAN, a republic in central Italy. 
Its origin is ascribed to St. Marinus, a hermit, who 
resided here in the 5th century. Its independence 
lost for a short time, to Cesar Borgia, 1503, and to 
the pope, 1739; was confirmed by pope Pius VII. 
in 1817. A convention with Italy, 27 March, 1872. 
Population, in 1858, about 8000 ; in 1869, 7303; in 
1874, 7816. 


MARIOLATRY, worship of the virgin Mary, 
meee in the 4th century, greatly increased in the 
10th. 


MARIONETTES, puppet plays. The fan- 
tocctni, popular in Italy in the 15th century; in 
the 18th in England, and Germany. See Punch. 


MARITIME EXHIBITION at Havre 
wend by representatives of the government I June, 
1868 : a similar exhibition was opened at Naples by 
the prince of Piedmont, 17 April, 1871; at Paris, 
10 July, 1875. 


MARK, a silver coin of the northern nations, 
and the name mark-Jubs is still retained in Denmark. 
In England, the mark means the sum of 13s. 4d., 
and the name is retained in law courts. 


MARKET, see Smithfield, Metropolitan Cattle 
Market, London, 1868. New market constructed 
by Great Eastern Railway Co. at Bishopsgate 
street; opened, 1 July, 1882. Wholesale fish and 
poultry market opened, 19 Oct. 1882. 


_ MARKE’S, St. (Venice). The church was erected 

in 829; the piazza in 1592. 

The proposed restorations and changes in the facades 
and mosaic pavement created much excitement in 
England, and led to remonstrances which irritated 
the Italian people . Nov., Dec. 1879 


MARLBOROUGH, a town in Wiltshire; a 


royal manor mentioned in Domesday book. 
Henry III. passed the “ Statutes of Malbric 
the ancient castle in 1267. Marlborough 
turned two members to parliament since Ed 
The grammar school was founded by Edw 
—MarwporoveH HovseE, Pall Mall, ] 
was built by Wren for the duke of Marlb 
1709-10; was bought for the princess Chark 
prince Leopold in 1817 ; held by queen Adel 
1849, and became the residence of the p1 
Wales, 1863. See Gems. 


MAROCCO, see Morocco. 
MARONITES, Christians in the Ea 


lowers of one Maron in the 5th century; t 
said to have embraced the errors of the Ja 
Nestorians, and Monothelites. About 11f 
numbered 40,000, living in the neighbour 
mount Libanus, and were of service to the @. 
kings of Jerusalem. They were reconciled 
church of Rome soon after. For an accoun: 
massacres of the Maronites in 1860, see Dru 


MAROONS, a name given in Jamaica 
away negroes. When the island was 001 
from the Spaniards, a number of their negr 
to the hills and became very troublesome 
colonists. A war of eight years’ duration 
when the Maroons capitulated on being pe 
to retain their free settlements, about 17 
1795 they again took arms, but were spee 
down and many were transported. Brande 


MARPINGER, village, near Saarbrue 
Virgin and Satan said to have been seen by cl 
and miracles wrought, 3 July, 1876. € 
Neureuter, acquitted of the charge of im} 
April, 1879. 

MAR-PRELATE TRACTS, viruler 
tacking episcopacy, were mostly written 
believed, by Henry Penry, whowas cruellyex 
29 May, 1593, for writing seditious words aga 
queen (found about his person when seized 
tracts appeared about 1586. Some had very s 
titles: such as ‘* An Almand for a Parrat,” 
any Worke for Cooper?” &. They were ¢ 
and reprinted in 1843. 


MARQUE, LETTERS OF, see Privates 
MARQUESAS ISLANDS (Polynesi 


discovered in 1595 by Mendana, who name 
after the viceroy of Peru, Marquesa de M 
They were visited by Cook in 1774, and wer 
possession of by the French admiral Dupetit T 
I May, 1842. 


MARQUIS, a dignity, called by the 
markin-reve, by the Germans markgrave, | 
original from mark or March, a limit or bou 
Marches); the office being to guard or gov 
frontiers of a province. Marquis is next in 
toaduke. The first Englishman on whom t 
was conferred was the favourite of king Rich: 
Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, created mar 
Dublin, and placed in parliament between th 
and earls, I 385- James Stewart, second 
James III. of Scotland, was made marquis 
mond, in 1476, without territories, afterwar 
of Ross. 


MARRIAGE was instituted by God (G¢ 
and confirmed by Christ (Mark x.), who per 
a miracle at the celebration of one (John ii.). 
trimonial ceremonies among the Greeks are 4 
to Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 B.c. Se 


Affinity. 


MARRIAGE. 535 MARRIAGE. 
favouring marriage passed at Rome . - B.C. 18 |} 1820 F z - 96,88 856 
sts forbidden to marry after ordination A.D. 325 } 1825 . 4 ah ie 38, ee ice RF igo isons 
in Lent forbidden . 3 366 | 1830 A : - 102,437 | 1858 5 : . 156,070 


as forbidden to bishops in 692, and to priests in 

15; and these latter were obliged to take the 
wofcelibacy . s : i ; : - 1073 
ute prohibiting marriages between certain 
rsons within prohibited degrees 25 Hen. VIII. 1533-4 
celebration of marriage, as a sacrament, in 
urches ordained by pope Innocent III. about 

; and so affirmed by the council of Trent. . 1547 

Mais solemnised by justices of the peace under 
-actofthe commons . 3 : : : 22653 
x laid on marriages, viz. : marriage of a duke, 

1. ; of a common person, 2s. 6d. . 5 eee O95 
yular marriages prohibited (see Fleet Marriages) 1753 
riages again taxed . 3 . A 2 . 1784 
4 iage act, 1822 ; partially repealed 5 re 
} prohibiting marriages by Roman Catholic 
iests in Scotland, or other ministers not belong- 

g to the church of Scotland, repealed : . 1834 
present marriage act for England, authorising 
arriages without religious ceremony, by regis- 
a's certificate, or in a dissenting chapel, passed 
36 [amended in 1837 and 1856]. 

riage Registration act . ; : : ; . 1837 
mdment acts passedin . : . 1840 and 1856 
ll to suppress irregular marriages in Scotland 
se Gretna) passed in 3 ; : r ar ae 
gurt established for Divorce and Matrimonial 
uses, which has the power of giving sentence of 
dicial separation for adultery, cruelty, or deser- 
m. without cause for two years and upward (see 
ivorce) . : : : : : - ' . 1857 
to render the children of certain marriages 
thin forbidden degrees (with deceased wife's 
ter) legitimate ; such marriages in future pro- 
bited (Lyndhurst’s act, which see) ; (efforts made 
‘legalise marriage with deceased wife’s sister 
er since) . é 5 ‘ “ : i Poe 
Marriage Law Reform association instituted (to 
zalise a marriage with a deceased wife's sister), 
Jan. 1851x. A bill for this purpose passed the 
mmons, 2 July; was rejected by the lords, 23 
ly, 1858; again rejected, 1862; and again by 
e commons, 2 May, 1866; and 30 April, 1870, 
jected by the lords (77-73) 19 May, 1870; passed 
‘commons, 9 March, rejected by the lords (97- 
), 27 March, 1871 ; passed by commons in 1872, 
73; and rejected by the lords (49-74), 14 March, 
73; rejected by commons (171-142), 17 Feb. 
75; by the lords (101-81) ; (the prince of Wales 
d duke of Edinburgh voted for it), 6 May, 1879; 
2I-go), 25 June, 1880; (132-128), 12 June, 1882 ; 
ad second time by commons, (165-148) 11 June ; 
jected by lords (145-140) .« : . 28 dune, 1883 
lution for it adopted by the commons (238-127) 
’ 6 May, 1884 
ie marriages made legal by the legislature at 
‘plbourne, Nov. 1872; at Sydney, 1875; in 

sw Zealand, 1880; Canada ; 5 x - 1882 
‘Il for the recognition in Great Britain of such 
lonial marriages was read a 2nd time in the 
mmons (192-141), 28 Feb. 1877; (21 majority) 
27 Feb. 1878 
ie case of Brook v. Brook, it was decided that 
‘th a marriage celebrated in a foreign country 
s not valid : : F . 17 April, 1858 
decision confirmed on appeal to the house of 
$,on . ; . E - . . 18 March, 1861 
mmission appointed to inquire into the work- 
sof the marriage laws of Scotland, 22 March, 

35, reported strongly in favour of changes being 
ide to insure uniformity, simplicity, and cer- 
ymty . ‘ ; : : : ; . July, 1868 
ular Marriage Act, enabling acting British 
-nsuls abroad to solemnize marriages, passed 
1 16 July, 1868 
‘ied Women’s property act passed 29 met 1870 
‘iage Law of Ireland amended by an act passed 
_ Aug. 1870; amended . ; : ~ only, 1871 
imonial Causes Act (which see), passed . - 1878 
et to encourage regular marriages in Scotland ; 
at - : : - : 8 Aug. ,, 


|, EGISTERED MARRIAGES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 
. 2 + 40,300 | 1810 - 84,473 
Sat ss 6 73,228 3%815 . “ « + 91,946 


9? 


1835 


1840 . : =)» 22%,083.4 1959 « 3 - . tO 
1845 - - 143,743 | 1860 ‘ - . 170,156 
7848 . s . . 138,230 | 1861 (Cotton famine) 163,706 
F850" Go be a - 152,744 | 1862 & - - 164,030 
1863 . : - 173,510 
1864 ; = . 180,387 


1853. : 1. 164,520 


1854» ws 1590727 
1855 (Crimean War) 152,113 


MARRIAGES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 


England and Wales. Scotland. Ireland. 

1865 - + 185,474 235527 es 
1866 . - 187,776 23,629 30,15% 
1867 Sy BG pe! 22,521 29,796 
1868 . - 176,962 21,853 27,753 
1869 a 3) £70,070 22,083 27,277 
70 ee . 181,655 23,788 28,835 
1871 ats TOO;k Ia 23,966 28,960 
72ers . 201,267 25,580 27,114 
1873 eer 206,015 26,730 26,270 
19740 cc . 202,010 26,247 24,481 
1875 ee T2GL, 212 25,921 24,037 
xO7G) in. . 201,874 26,563 26,388 
1877 + + 194352 25,790 24,722 
1878 . ~ 190,054 245333 25,284 
1879 - « 182,082 23,462 23,254 
1880. + 191,965 24,489 20,303 
1881 + 197,290 25,948 21,820 
1882". - 204,405 26,574 22,029 
1883 + 205,814 26,855 21,490 
1884 204,205 


RoyaL MarriaGe Act, 12 Geo, III. ¢. 11, was passed in 
1772, in consequence of the marriage of the duke of 
Gloucester, the king’s brother, with the widow of the 
earl Waldegrave, and of the duke of Cumberland with 
the widow of colonel Horton and daughter of lord Irn- 
ham. [By this act, none of the descendants of George IL., 
unless of foreign birth, can marry under the age of 25, 
without the consent of the king; at and after that age, 
after twelve months’ notice given to the privy couneil, 
they may contract such marriage, which shall be 
good unless both houses of parliament disapprove. 
The marriage of the duke of Sussex with the lady 
Augusta Murray, solemnised in 1793, was pronounced 
illegal, 1794, and the claims of their son, sir Augustus 
d’Este, declared invalid, by the house of lords, 9 July, 
1844. He married lady Cecilia Underwood (afterwards 
duchess of Inverness), 1831. 

H. R. H. the princess Louise was married to the mar- 
quis of Lorne by the queen’s consent, 21 March, 1871. 

Hair Marriace. Semi-Matrimoniwm. Among the 
Romans concubinage was a legitimate union, not 
merely tolerated but authorised. The concubine had 
the name of semi-conjur. Men might have either a 
wife or a concubine, provided they had not both to- 
gether. Constantine the Great checked concubinage, 
but did not abolish it. This ancient custom of the 
Romans was preserved, not only among the Lombards, 
but by the French when they held dominion in that 
country. Cujas assures us that the Gascons and other 
people bordering on the Pyrenean mountains had not 
relinquished this custom in his time, 1590. The women 
bore the name of ‘‘ wives of the second order.” He- 
nault. See Morganatic Marriages. 

DovusLe Marriaces. There are some instances of a hus- 
band and two wives (but they are very rare) in countries 
where polygamy was interdicted by the state. The first 
Lacedemonian who had two wives was Anaxandrides, 
the son of Leon, about 510 B.c. Dionysius of Syracuse 
married two wives, viz. : Doris, the daughter of Xenetus, 
and Aristomache, sister of Dion, 398 B.c. It is said 
that the count Gleichen, a German nobleman, was per- 
mitted, under peculiar circumstances, by Gregory IX., 
in A.D. 1237, to marry and live with two wives. The 
Mormonites practise and encourage polygamy. 


* Of these marriages, it is stated in the registrar’s re- 
turns that 47,570 men and 70,601 women could not write, 
and that they signed the marriage register with their 
marks.—In France, the marriages were 208,893 in 1820; 
243,674 in 1825; and 259,177 in 1830. As respects Paris, 
7754 marriages were, bachelors and maids, 6456 ; bachelors 
and widows, 368; widowers and maids, 708 ; widowers 
and widows, 222. 

¢ Approximative, through doubtful returns. 


¥ 


MARRIED WOMEN. 


FORCED MARRIAGES. The stat. 3 Henry VII. (1487) made 
the principal and abettors in marriages with heiresses, 
&e., contrary to their will, equally guilty as felons. 
By 39 Eliz. (1596) such felons were denied the benefit 
of clergy. This offence was made punishable by trans- 
portation, 1 Geo. IV. (1820). The remarkable case of 
Miss Wharton, heiress of the house of Wharton, whom 
captain Campbell married by force, occurred in William 
IIT.’s reign. Sir John Johnston was hanged for seizing 
the young lady, and the marriage was annulled by 
parliament, 1690.—Edward Gibbon Wakefield was tried 
at Lancaster, and found guilty of the felonious abduc- 
tion of Miss Turner, 24 March, 1827 ; and his marriage 
with her was immediately dissolved by act of parlia- 
ment. 

MarRiaGes By Sate. Among the Babylonians, at a cer- 
tain time every year, the marriageable females were 
assembled, and disposed of to the best bidder. This 
custom is said to have originated with Atossa, daughter 
of Belochos, about 1433 B.C. 

FLEET MARRIAGES. See Fleet. 


MARRIED WOMEN, see Wives. 
MARRS MURDERS, see Ratcliffe Highway. 
MAR’S INSURRECTION. John, earl of 


Mar, proclaimed James III. at Braemar, Aberdeen- 
shire, 6 September, 1715. He was defeated at 
Sheriffmuir, 13 Nov., and escaped from Montrose 
with the Pretender, 4 Feb. 1716. 


MARS, a planet, next to the earth in order of 
distance from the sun; the spots on its surface were 
first observed by Fontana, in 1636. Two satellites 
were discovered by professor Asaph Hall, at Wash- 
ington, U.S., 11 Aug. 1877. 

““They have likewise discovered two lesser stars or sa- 
tellites which revolve about Mars.” — Swift, Gulli- 
ver’s Travels—Voyage to Laputa, about 1726, 
MARSAGLIA (Piedmont, N. Italy). Here 

the imperialists under prince Eugene and the duke 

of Savoy were defeated by the French under Catinat, 

4 Oct. 1693. 


MARSEILLAISE HYMN. The words and 
music are ascribed to Rouget de Lille, or I.’Isle, a 
French engineer officer, who, it is said, composed it 
by request, 1792, to cheer the conscripts at Strasburg. 
It derived its name from a body of troops from 
Marseilles marching into Paris in 1792 playing the 
tune. This account is doubted (1879). The author 
was pensioned by Louis Philippe, 1830. 


MARSEILLES. The ancient Massilia (S. 
France), a maritime city, founded by the Phoceans 
about 600 B.c.; an ally of Rome, 218 B.c. Cicero 
styled it the Athens of Gaul, on account of its excel- 
lent schools. 


Taken by Julius Cesar after a long siege . NB Olme ead 
By Euric the Visigoth . . A.D. 470 
Sacked by the Saracens 839 
“Marseilles a republic . s > rere 
Subjected to the counts of Provence -) 2251 
United to the crown of France 3402 
The plague rages 1649 


It carried off 50,000 of the inhabitants, The bishop 
Belsunce devotedly exerted himself to relieve the 
sufferers : ; ; ; ; Z ak 72075 

Revolutionary commotions here - 30 April, 1789 

Marseilles opposes the revolutionary government, 
and is reduced z : : : 23 Aug. 1793 

Dissensions and conflicts between the French and 
Italians ; much stabbing; several deaths ; about 
200 alTests, 19, 20 June ; city quiet 22 June 1881 

Pharo Chateau and Park presented to the city, 
by the ex-empress Eugénie, Dec. 1882; finally 
accepted. : : 2 - - July, 1883 

See Cholera. 
MARSHALS. Two were appointed in London 

to clear the streets of vagrants, and to send the 

sick, blind, and lame to asylums and hospitals for 
relief, 1567. Northouck. 


536 


MARSTON MOOR. 


MARSHALS, BririsH Freip-. This 
was first conferred upon John, duke of Argyll 
George, earl of Orkney, by George II. in 1736. 
duke of Cambridge was made field-marshal, 9 
1862; the prince of Wales, 29 May, 1875; 
Strathnairn, 2 June, 1877; lord Napier of 
dala, 1 Jan. 1883; and sir Patrick Grant, 24. 
1883; see Mareschal. 


MARSHALS oF FRANCE, appointe 
Napoleon I. during his wars, 1804-14. 


Arrighi, duke of Padua ; died 21 March, 1853. 
Augereau, duke of Castiglione; died 12 June, 1816. 
Bernadotte, prince of Ponte Corvo, king of Sy 
1818 ; died 8 March, 1844. © 
Berthier, prince of Neufchatel and Wagram, kil 
committed suicide at Bamberg, x June, 1815, 
Bessieres, duke of Istria; killed at Liitzen, x May, 
Brune, murdered at Avignon, 2 Aug. 1815. 
Davoust, prince of Eckmiihl and duke of Auer 
_ died x June, 1823. 
Gouvion Saint-Cyr, died 17 March, 1830, 
Grouchy, died 29 May, 1847. 
Jourdan, peer of France ; died 23 Nov. 1833. 
Junot, duke of Abrantes ; suicide, 29 July, r8r3. 
Kellermann, duke of Valmy; died 12 Sept. 1820. 
Lannes, duke of Montebello, wounded at Aspern 
31 May, 1809. j 
Lefebvre, duke of Dantzic ; died 14 Sept. 1820. 
Macdonald, duke of Tarento ; died 24 Sept. 1840. 
Marmont, duke of Ragusa ; died 2 March, 1852. 
Massena prince of Essling and duke of Rivoli; « 
April, 1817. 
Moncey, duke of Conegliano ; died 20 April, 1842. 
Mortier, duke of Treviso, killed by Fieschi, 28 July, 
Murat, king of Naples, executed 13 Oct. 1815. 
Ney, prince of Moskwa, duke of Elchingen, exe 
7 Dec. 1815. ‘ 
Oudinot, duke of Reggio ; died 13 Sept. 1847. 
Perignon, marquis de ; died 25 Dec. 1818. 
Poniatowski, prince Josef Anton, wounded at Le 
and drowned 19 Oct. 1813. 
Soult, duke of Dalmatia; died 26 Noy. 18s5r. 
Suchet, duke of Albufera; died 3 Jan. 1826. 
Victor, duke of Belluno ; died 1 March, 1841. 


MARSHALSEA COURT, having jur 
tion in the royal palace, was very ancient, of 
dignity, and coeval with the common law. | 
the decision of the case of the Marshalsea (se¢ 
Coke’s 10 Rep. 68) no business has been done iI 
court; but it was regularly opened and adjo 
at the same time with the Palace court, the j 
and other officers being the same. ‘These ¢ 
were removed from Southwark to Scotland-ys 
1801, were abolished by parliament, anddiscont: 
31 Dec. 1849; see Prisons. : 


MARSI, a brave people of Southern Italy, 
after several contests, yielded to the Romans, : 
301 B.c. During the civil wars they and 
allies rebelled, having demanded and been re 
the rights of Roman citizenship, 91 B.C. 
many successes and reverses, they sued for 
obtained peace and the rights they required, 8 
The Marsi being Socdi of the Romans, this was: 
the Social war. 


MARSTON-MOOR (near York). The 
and parliamentary army were besieging York, 
prince Rupert, joined by the marquis of Newe 
determined to raise the siege. Both sides dre 
on Marston-moor, on 2 July, 1644, and the ec 
was long undecided. Rupert, commandin 
right wing of the royalists, was opposed b 
Cromwell, at the head of troops disciplined by 
self. Cromwell was victorious; he drove hi 
ponents off the field, followed the vanqui 
returned to a second engagement and a secon 
tory. The prince’s artillery was taken, am 
royalists never recovered the blow. 


i 


MARTELLO TOWERS. 
RTELLO TOWERS or MoRTELLA 


RS, were circular buildings erected in the 
ing of the present century, on the southern 
f England, and other parts of the empire, as 
9g against invasion. 


RTIAL LAW, see Courts-Martial, and 
ry Law. 


RTINESTI, see Rimnik. 


RTINIQUE (French West Indies), dis- 
i in 1493 or 1502; settled by France, 1635. 
nd the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and 
cent, and the Grenadines, were taken by the 
from the French in Feb. 1762. They were 
d to France at the peace of the following 
They were again taken, 16 March, 1794; 
d at the peace of Amiens in 1802; again 
ed 23 Feb. 1809. A revolution in this island 
our of Napoleon was finally suppressed by 
itish, 1 June, 1815, and Martinique reverted 
‘rench masters. Severe earthquakes occurred 
. 1767 and 1839. 


RTINMAS, 11 Nov., the feast of St. 
i, bishop of ‘Tours, in the 4th century, is 
r day in parts of the north of England 
i Scotland. The high sheriffs of England and 
are nominated on the morrow of St. Martin, 
r. 


RTIN’S HALL, ST. (Long Acre, London), 
ened as a concert-room for Mr. John Hullah, 
Feb. 1850; burnt down 26 Aug. 1860; rebuilt, 
opened as the New Queen’s Theatre, by 
fred Wigan, 24 Oct. 1867. 


RTYRS. Stephen, the first Christian 
, was stoned, 37. The festivals of the 
rs, of very ancient date, took their rise about 
ae of Polyearp, who suffered martyrdom about 
St. Alban is the English protomartyr, 286; 
vseeutions, Protestants, and Diocletian Era. 
artyrs’ Memorial, Smithfield, erected by the 
tant Alliance, was inaugurated 11 March, 
The Martyrs’ memorial church, St, John’s- 
Clerkenwell, was consecrated 2 June, 1871. 


LRY-ANNE. Secret republican associa- 
especially in France. The name was given to 
public of 1792, to the guillotine, and to little 
ttes of Liberty. 


RYLAND, named after queen Henrietta 
_one of the first thirteen United States of 
_ America, was granted in 1632 to lord Balti- 
and settled by a company of English 
jists in 1634. It contains the district of 
bia, in which Washington is situate. It con- 
in the Union when the other slave states 
d in 1860 and 1861. The confederate army, 
general Lee, after their victory at Bull Run, 
‘g. 1862, crossed the Potomac and entered 
md. They were followed by the federal 
under McClellan. Severe conflicts ensued, 
‘uly on 17 Sept., at Antietam Creek, with 
‘oss on both sides, each claiming the victory. 
-nfederates retired into Virginia in good order, 
is said with much booty. 


.RY-LE-BONH, a large parish, N.-W. 
a. The name is corrupted from St. Mary at the 
2, or brook,—Tyebourne. It was chiefly pas- 
nd in 1760. ‘The manor was acquired by the 
of Portland in 1813. The hunting-grounds 
rm Regent’s park (which see). ‘The parishes 
rylebone, St. Pancras, and Paddington were 
|, parliamentary borough in 1832. 


537 MASSACHUSETTS. 


Mavry-le-bone gardens—attached to the ‘‘ Rose of Nor- 
mandy ”—a place of public entertainment, opened in 
the middle of the 17th century ; mentioned by Pepys ; 
closed 23 Sept. 1776 ; a music hall erected here, 1855. 


MASANIELLO, see Naples, 1647. Auber’s 
opera, “‘La Muette de Portici’’ (1828), was pro- 
duced in London as ‘‘ Masaniello,’’ 4 May, 1829. 


MASCAT, see Muscat. 

MASKS. Poppa, the wife of Nero, is said to 
have invented the mask to guard her complexion 
from the sun; but theatrical masks were in use 
among the Greeks and Romans. Horace attributes 
them to #schylus; yet Aristotle says the inventor 
and time of their introduction were unknown.— 
Modern masks, and muffs, fans, and false hair for 
the women, were devised in Italy, and brought to 
ae from France in 1572. Stow; see Jron 

ask. 


MASONIC INSTITUTIONS, see Freema- 


sonry. 


MASORAH (Hebrew, tradition), a collection 
of conjectural readings (Keris) of the Hebrew text 
of the Old Testament, with critical, grammatical, 
and exegetical remarks by various Jewish doctors, 
written between the 6th and roth centuries, who 
also furnished the Masoretic vowel points. 

The first Rabbinical Hebrew Bible, containing the 
Masorah, Targums, and comments, was printed by 
Bomberg at Venice, 1518. The ‘‘ Book of the Masorah, 
the Hedge of the Law,” was first printed at Florence, 
1750. 

MASQUERADES were in fashion in the 
court of Edward III., 1340; and in the reign of 
Charles II. 1660, masquerades were frequent among 
the citizens. The bishops preached against then, 
and made such representations as occasioned their 
suppression, 9 Geo. I. 1724. ‘They were revived 
and carried to a shameful excess in violation of the 
laws, and tickets of admission to a masquerade at 
Ranelagh were on some occasions subscribed for at 
twenty-five guineas each, 1776. Mortimer, At 
the close of a bal masqué, given by Anderson the 
Wizard, 5 March, 1856, Covent-garden theatre was 
destroyed by fire. 

MASQUES, precursors of the opera, introduced 
into England in the latter part of the 16th century ; 
many were written by Ben Jonson; one at the 
Middle Temple on the marriage of princess Eliza- 
beth, Feb. 1613. Milton’s “‘Comus’’ was represented 
at Ludlow castle in 1634. 


MASS, in the Roman church, is the office or 
prayers used at the celebration of the Eucharist, in 
memory of the passion of Christ, and to this every 
part of the service alludes. The general division 
consists in high and low; the first is that sung by 
choristers, and celebrated with the assistance of a 
deacon and sub-deacon; low masses are those in 
which the prayers are rehearsed without singing. 
Mass was first celebrated in Latin about 394; it was 
introduced into England in the 7th century. Pros- 
tration was enjoined at the elevation of the host in 
1201. Dr. Daniel Rock, in “*The Church of our 
Fathers” (1849), describes an ancient MS. of “ The 
Service of the Mass, called the Rite of Salisbury,”’ 
compiled for that cathedral, by St. Osmund and 
others, during the 12th century. The English 
communion service was adopted in 1549 ; see AMessal, 
and Ritwalism. 

MASSACHUSETTS, the mother state of 
New England, North America, founded by the 
English puritans at Plymouth-rock, 1620. It 
abolished slavery 1783, and adopted the constitution 
of the United States, 1788. 


MASSACRES. 


538 


MASTER. 


MASSACRES. The following are among the 
most remarkable, probably exaggerated :— 


BEFORE CHRIST. 


Of all the Carthaginians in Sicily, 397. 

zooo0 Tyrians crucified and 8000 put to the sword for not 
surrendering Tyre to Alexander, 331. 

Of 2000 Capuans, friends of Hannibal, by Gracchus, 211. 

A dreadful slaughter of the Teutones and Ambrones, near 
Aix, by Marius, the Roman general, 200,000 being left 
dead on the spot, roz2. 

The Romans throughout Asia, women and children not 
excepted, massacred in one day, by order of Mithri- 
dates, king of Pontus, 88. 

A great number of Roman senators massacred by Cinna, 
Marius, and Sertorius, 87. 

Again, under Sylla and Catiline, lis minister of ven- 
geance, 82. 

At Perusia, Octavianus Cesar ordered 300 Roman senators 
and other persons of distinction to be sacrificed to the 
manes of Julius Cesar, 40. 


AFTER CHRIST. 


At the destruction of Jerusalem, 1,100,c00 Jews are 
said to have been put to the sword, 7o. 

The Jews, headed by one Andre, put to death many 
Greeks and Romans, in and near Cyrene, 115. 

Cassius, a Roman general, under the emperor M. 
Aurelius, put to death 300,000 of the inhabitants of 
Seleucia, 165. 

At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens were mas- 
sacred by order of Antoninus, 215. 

The emperor Probus is said to have put to death 400,000 
of the barbarian invaders of Gaul, 277. 

Of the Gothic hostages by Valens, 378. 

Of Thessalonica, when 7zooo persons invited into the 
circus were put to the sword, by order of Theodosius, 


390. 

Of the circus factions at Constantinople, 532. 

Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople, by order of 
Andronicus, 1184. 

Of the Albigenses and Waldenses, commenced at Toulouse, 
1208. ‘Thousands perished by the sword and gibbet. 

Of the French in Sicily, 1282; see Sicilian Vespers. 

At Paris, of the Armagnacs, at the instance of John, 
duke of Burgundy, 1418. 

Of the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by order of Chris- 
tian II., 1520. 

Of Protestants at Vassy, 1 March, 1562. 

Of 7o,ooo Huguenots, or French Protestants, in France 
(see St. Bartholomew), 24 Aug. 1572. 

Of the Christians in Croatia by the Turks, when 65,000 
were slain, 1592. 

Of the pretender Demetrius, and his Polish adherents, 
at Moscow, 27 May, 1606. 

Of Protestants in the Valteline, N. ltaly, 19 July, 1620. 

Of Protestants at Thorn, put to death under a pretended 
legal sentence of the chancellor of Poland, for being 
concerned in a tumult occasioned by a Roman Catholic 
procession, 1724. All the Protestant powers in Europe 
interceded to have this unjust sentence revoked, but 
unavailingly. 

At Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred by the natives, 
Oct. 1740, under the pretext of an intended insurrec- 
tion. 

At the taking of Ismail by the Russians, 30,000 old and 
young were slain, Dec. 1790; see Ismail. 

Of French Royalists (see Septembrizers), 2 Sept. 1702. 

Of Poles, at Praga, 1794. 

In St. Domingo, where Dessalines made proclamation for 
the massacre of all the whites, 29 March, 1804, and 
many thousands perished. 

Insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of the French, 
2 May, 1808. 

Massacre of the Mamelukes, in the citadel of Cairo, 
t March, x8rx. 

Massacre of Protestants at Nismes, perpetrated by the 
Catholics, May, 1815. 

Massacre at Scio, 22 April, 1822 ; see Chios. 

Of the Janissaries at Constantinople, 14 June, 1826; at 
Cabul (see Afghanistan), 1841. 

600 Kabyles suffocated in a cave in Algeria, 18 June, 
1845; see Dahra. 

Massacre of Christians at Aleppo, 16 Oct. 1850. 

Of 136 emigrants at Mountain Meadows, Utah (said to 
be by Mormons whom they had offended); a few chil- 
dren spared ; 18 Sept. 1857. 


[Bishops Ph. K. Smith and Lee accused; Brigham 
exonerated, 1875. Bp. Lee sentenced to deat} 
1876 ; shot, 23 March, 1877.] 

Of Maronites, by Druses, in Lebanon, June, 1860; 
Christians, by Mahometans, at Damascus, 9-1: 
1860; see Druses and Damascus. ; 

Of 173 N.-W. Indians (including women and ch 
(as a chastisement for murders, outrages, an 
beries), by major Baker, of U.S. army, Jan. 184 

Of French missionaries and others, at Tien-tsin, 
sons (see China), 21 June, 1870. 

Of foreigners, by the native Gauchos in the Tand 
trict, Buenos Ayres, S. America, x Jan. 1872. 
Of about go French colonists and others in Ne) 
donia, by natives, during a revolt, June, 1878. 
Of about 6 negro militias-men, who had made a pi 
demonstration on 4 July, by whites, at Har 

South Carolina, 9 July, 1876. 

Of Mehemet Ali Pacha, and others, at Ipek, ne: 
tari, by Albanians, 6 Sept. 1878. 

At Cabul (see Afghanistan), 1879. 

Alexandiia (see Egypt), 11 June, 1882. 

See Minnesota, Modoc Indians, aud Turkey, x{ 


MASSACRES IN BRITISH HISTORY. 

Of 300 British nobles, on Salisbury Plain, by H 
about 450. 

Of the monks of Bangor, to the number of 1200, by 
frid, king of Bernicia, 607 or 612. 

Of the Danes in the southern counties of Eng] 
the night of 13 Nov. rooz, by order of Ethelred | 
London it was most bloody, the churches be 
sanctuary. Amongst the rest was Gunilda, si 
Swein, king of Denmark, left in hostage for f} 
formance of a treaty but newly concluded. Bal 

Of the Jews, in England. Some few pressing intc 
minster hall at Richard I.’s coronation, were 
death by the people ; and a false alarm being 
that the king had ordered a general massacre of 
the people in many parts of England slew all th 
In York 500, who had taken shelter in a castle, 
themselves, rather than fall into the hands 
multitude, 1189. 

Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen’s Wood, Irelar 
Cullen’s Wood), 1209. 

Of the English factory at Amboyna, in order to dis} 
its members of the Spice Islands, Feb. 1624. 

Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland, in O’Neill’s 
lion, which began 23 Oct.1641. Upwards of 30,000. 
were killed in the commencement of this rebellio 
William Petty. In the first three or four days 
forty or fifty thousand of the Protestants w 
stroyed. Lord Clarendon. Before the rebellic 
entirely suppressed, 154,000 Protestants were 
cred. Sir W. Temple. 

Of the Macdonalds of Glencoe (see Glencoe), 2 

Of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly te: 
burnt, shot, or pierced to death by pikes ; perp 
by the insurgent Irish, at the barn of Sculla 
Ireland, in 1798. Musgrave. 

Of Europeans at Meerut, Delhi, &c., by mutineers 
native Indian army (see India), May and June, 

Of Europeans at Kalangan, on the south coast of 1 
1 May, 1859. 

Of the Europeans at Morant bay, Jamaica, by ‘ 
furiated negroes, 11-12 Oct. 1865 ; see Jamaica. 
Of lieut. Holcombe and surveying party (about 

Assam on Naga hills ; about 24 Feb. 1875. 

Of Mr. Margary and servants (with col. Browne's « 
tion into Western China) at Manwyne, by C] 
21 Feb. 1875. ; 

Of commodore Goodenough, of the Pearl, and 2 8' 
by natives of Santa Cruz island, South Pacific : 
attacked 12 Aug., died 20 Aug. 1875. 


MASSAGET, an ancient Scythian | 
(probably the ancestors of the Goths), who in 
Asia about 635. In a conflict with them Cyr 
Great was killed, 529 B.c. 


MASSILIA, see Marseilles. 
MASSORAH, see Masorah. 


MASTER oF THE CEREMONIES, 8¢¢ 
monres. 


MASTER anp SERVANT AcT (am 


MASTER. 


statute respecting them) was passed 20 Aug. 
; see Servants. 


1 commission to examine into its working, 
orted 31 July ; published evidence Oct. 1874 


ASTER oF THE GREAT WARDROBE, an 
r of great antiquity and dignity. The esta- 
ment was abolished in 1782, and the duties 
ferred to the lord chamberlain. 


ASTER oF THE REVELS, an officer of the 
;, Solomon Dayrolle was the last appointed. 
of the duties were transferred to the licenser of 
y 1737+ 
ASTER or THE RoLLs, an equity judge, 
res his title from having the custody of all 
ers, patents, commissions, deeds, and recog- 
ices, entered upon rolls of parchment; his de- 
-are appealable to the court of chancery. The 
itory of public papers, called the Rolls, was in 
ieery-lane. The rolls were formerly kept in a 
el founded for the converted Jews; but after 
fews were expelled the kingdom in 1290 it was 
xed for ever afterwards to the office of the 
ership of the rolls. Here were kept all the 
ds since the beginning of the reign of king 
ard III., 1483; all prior to that period being 
in the Tower of London; see Records. The 
recorded master of the rolls was either John de 
ston, appointed 1286, or Adam de Osgodeby, 
inted 1 Oct. 1295; but it is clear that the office 
in existence long before. Hardy. The duties 
defined in 1833; the salary regulated in 1837. 
iges by the judicature act of 1881. By the 
eme court of judicature act, the master of the 
was made a judge of appeal only. 
RECENT MASTERS OF THE ROLIS. 


; 


'm. Grant appointed . 5 . 27 May, 1801 
homas Plumer. * 2 Jan, 1818 
rt, lord Gifford . 4 - A - 5 April, 1824 
8. Copley (aft. lord Lyndhurst) . 14 Sept. 1826 
ohn Leach . f ‘ P P - 3 May, 1827 
., Pepys (aft. lord Cottenham) 3 29 Sept. 1834 
y Bickersteth (aft. lord Langdale) . 19 Jan. 1836 
»yhn (baron 1865) Romilly . 28 March, 1851 


‘feorge Jessel (a Jew), 29 Aug. 1873; died, 
21 March, 1883 
fm, Baliol Brett . ‘ . 3 April, 1883 
ASTERS rn CHANCERY, chosen from the 
vy bar, were first appointed, it is said, to assist 
‘gnorance of sir Christopher Hatton, lord chan- 
-cof England, in 1587. ‘The office was abolished 
352. The offices of the masters in the queen’s 

common pleas, and exchequer divisions of 
‘high court of justice were amalgamated into 
central office in the high court of justice in 


ASTODON, see Mammoth. 


ATACAO, a small island near Sierra Leone ; 
ed to the British by treaty, 18 April, 1826. 
ts occupied by the French, Sich, 1879; and 
some discussion was left by them June fol- 


ig. 
ATCHES, see Lucifers. 
)ATERIALISM, the doctrine held by those 


) maintain that the soul of man is not aspiritual 
} ance distinct from matter, but is the result of a 
cular organisation of matter in the body. The 
| is rather loosely applied to the system of 
irus, about 310 B.c. ; Hobbes, about A.D. 1642 ; 
tley, about 1772; and many eminent men in 
joresent day. It is not necessarily identical 
| atheism. 
ATERNITY CHARITY, ROYAL, Fins- 
; founded 1757. 


539 


MAURITIUS. 
MATHEMATICS formerly signified all kinds 


of learning; but the term is now applied to the 
sciences relating to numbers and quantity; see 
Arithmetic. Among the most eminent mathe- 
maticians were Euclid, 300 3B.c.; Archimedes, 
287 B.c.; Descartes, died 1650 A.D. ; Barrow, died 
1677; Leibnitz, died 1716; sir Isaac Newton, died 
1727; Euler, died 1783; Lagrange, died 18133 
Laplace, died 1827; and Dr. Peacock, died 1853; 
sir G. B. Airy, Bartholomew Price, J. J. Sylvester, 
and I. Todhunter, died 1884, are eminent 
mathematicians. Mary Somerville, born 1790, au- 
thor of the ‘‘ Mechanism of the Heavens,’ died 1873. 
The London Mathematical Society was founded, 16 
Jan. 1865 ; professor Aug. De Morgan, president. 


MATHURINS, see under Trinity. 


MATINS. The service or prayers first per- 
formed in the morning or beginning of the day in 
the Roman Catholic church. The French Matins 
were the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 24 Aug. 
1572. The Matins of Moscow were the massacre of 
prince Demetrius, and the Poles his adherents, in 
the morning of 27 May, I 


MATRIMONIAL CAUSES ACT, passed 
1859. By the act passed 27 May, 1878, a magistrate 
may grant judicial separation with maintenance to 
a wife suffering from a husband’s violent usage. 
The act was amended in 1884. 


MATTER is held to exist in three states: 
gaseous, liquid, and solid. Mr. William Crookes 
considers that there is a fourth state, ‘‘ radiant 
matter,” subtler than any of these, 1879-80. See 
Light. 


MATTERHORN, 2 part of the main ridge of 
the Alps, about 14,836 feet high, S. Switzerland. 
After various fruitless attempts by professor Tyn- 
dall and other eminent climbers, in 1860, the sum- 
mit was reached on 14 July, 1865, by Mr. Edward 
Whymper and others. During their descent, four 
of the party were killed. Mr. Hadow fell; the 
connecting rope broke, and he himself, lord Francis 
Douglas, the rev. Mr. Hudson, and Michael Croz, 
a guide, slipped down, and fell from a precipice 
nearly 4000 feet high. Miss Walker, with her 
father, ascended the Matterhorn, 22 July, 1871. 
Three gentlemen ascended without a guide, 21 July, 
1876. Dr. W. 0. Moseley, an American, was killed 
here, 14 Aug. 1879. 

MAUNDY-THURSDAY (derived by Spel- 
man from mande, a hand-basket, in which the king 
was accustomed to give alms to the poor; by others 
from dies mandati, the day on which Christ gave 
his grand mandate, that we should love one an- 
other), the Thursday before Good Friday. Wheatly. 
On this day it was the custom of our sovereigns or 
their almoners to give alms, food, and clothing to as 
many poor persons as they were years old. It was 
begun by Edward III., when he was fifty years of 
age, 1363, and is still continued. 


MAUR, ST., see Benedictions. 
MAURITANIA (N. Africa), with Numidia, 


became a Roman province, 45 B.c., with Sallust for 
pro-consul, Augustus created (30 et a kingdom 
formed of Mauritania and part of Getulia, for Juba 
II., a descendant of the ancient African princes. 
Suetonius Paulinus suppressed a revolt here, A.D. 42, 
when it was made a province, divided into parts. 
The country was subjugated by the Vandals and 
Greeks, and fell into the hands of the Arabs, about 


667; see Morocco, and Moors. 


MAURITIUS, or IsLE oF FRANCE (in the 


- MAUSOLEUM. 


540 


MAYORS. 


Indian Ocean), was discovered by the Portuguese, | for its abolition almost every session. The co 


1505; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. 
They ealled it after prince Maurice, their stadt- 
holder, but on the acquisition of the Cape of Good 
Hope, they deserted it; and it continued unsettled 
until the French landed, and gave it the name of 
one of the finest provinces in France, 171 S This 
island was taken by the British, 2 Dec. 1810, and 
confirmed to them by the treaty of Paris in 1814. 
The bishopric was founded 1854. Sir Henry Barkly, 
governor, in 1863, succeeded by sir Arthur 

Gordon, 1870; sir Arthur Purves Phayre, 1874; 
sir George F. Bowen, 1878; sir J. Pope Hennessy, 
Dec. 1882. Population in 1861, 313,462; in 1875, 
344,602; in 1881, 359,988. In 1866 two railways 
were in progress; both now opened. By an awful 
hurricane, on 11 March, 1868, great damage was 
done to shipping and buildings, with much loss of life. 


MAUSOLEUM. Artemisia married her own 
brother, Mausolus, king of Caria, Asia Minor, 
377 B.c. At his death she drank in liquor his ashes 
after his body had been burned, and erected to his 
memory at Halicarnassus a monument, one of the 
seven wonders of the world (350 B.c.), termed 
Mausoleum. She invited all the literary men of 
her age, and proposed rewards to him who composed 
the best elegiac panegyric upon her husband. The 
prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 B.c. She 
died 352 B.c. The statue of Mausolus is among the 
antiquities brought from Halicarnassus by Mr. C. T. 
Newton in 1857, and placed in the British Museum. 
A mausoleum for the royal family of England was 
founded by the queen at Frogmore, 15 March, 1862. 


MAUVE (French for salva, mallow), a mae 
produced by Dr. Stenhouse from lichens in 1843; 
now produced from Aniline (which see). 


MAY, the fifth month of the year, received its 
name, some say, from Romulus, who gave it this 
appellation in respect to the senators and nobles of 
his city, who were denominated mayjores ; others 
supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of 
Mercury, to whom they offered sacrifices on the first 
day. Theancient Romans used to go in procession 
to the grotto of Egeria on May-day; see Lvil 
May-day. 

Mrs. Elizabeth Montague (who died in 1800) gave for 
many years, on May-day, an entertainment at her 
house in Portman-square, to the chimney-sweepers of 
London. They were regaled with roast beef and plum 
pudding, and a dance succeeded. Upon their depar- 
ture, each guest received a shilling from the mistress 
of the feast. It is said, though the statement is much 
doubted, that this entertainment was instituted to 
commemorate the circumstance of Mrs. Montague’s 
having once found a boy of her own, or that of a rela- 
tion, among the sooty tribe. In allusion to this inci- 
dent, perhaps, a story resembling the adventures of 
this lost child is pathetically related by Montgomery, 
in ‘* The Chimney-Sweeper’s Boy.”’ 

The annual festival of ‘“‘ Jack in the Green,” and his 
companion sweeps, has gradually ceased, 1876. 


MAYENCEH, see Mentz. 
MAY-FLOWER, see Pilgrim Fathers. 

' “MAY LAWS,” see Prussia, May, 1873. 
MAYNOOTH COLLEGE (lTeland), 


founded by parliament, 1795, and endowed by a 
yearly grant voted for the education of students 
designed for the Roman Catholic priesthood in 
Treland. An act for its government was passed in 
1800. It contains about 500 students. Permanent 
endowment of this college (30,000/. for the enlarge- 
ment of the buildings and 26,0007. annually) was 
granted by parliament, June, 1845. This occasioned 
much controversy in England, a motion being made 


was repaired and enlarged in 1860. By the 
Church act, passed 26 July, 1869, the annual pa 
mentary grant was to cease after I Jan. 1B; 
compensation being made. A synod held |] 
Sept. 1875, condemned mixed education. Theb 
ings were much injured by fire, 31 Oct. 1878; « 
age estimated at 10,000/. The pictures and t 
were saved, 


MAYO ASSASSINATION. RichardSo 
well Bourke, earl of Mayo, was born 21 Feb. 1 
As lord Naas he was chief secretary for Irelan 
the Derby and Disraeli administrations, 1852, 18 
1866-8. In Sept. 1868, he was appointed vic 
of India, and energetically fulfilled the duties. 
was assassinated at Port Blair in the Anda 
islands, on a visit of inspection, by Shere A 
convict, 8 Feb. 1872. The Indian govern 
granted an annual pension of 1000/. to the coun 
and 20,000/. for the children; and 1000/. a 
was added to lady Mayo’s pension by parlian 
voted unanimously, 22 July, 1872. 


MAYORS or THE PALACE, high office 
France, who had great influence during the | 
Merovingian kings, termed ‘‘ fainéants,” do 
things :-—Pepin the Old (or de Landen), 622 et. 
Pepin Héristal, 687-714; Charles Martel, desp 
14-741 5 Pepin le Bref, 741, who shut up ( 
deric III. in a monastery, and himself took 
kingdom, 752. 


MAYORS oF Corporations. At the 
of the Norman conquest, 1066, the chief office 
London was called port-grave, afterwards soft 
into port-reeve, from Saxon words signifying « 
governor of a harbour. He was afterwards ¢: 
provost; but in Henry II.’s reign the Norman 
of maire (soon after mayor) was brought into 
At first the mayor was chosen for life, but a 
wards for periods of irregular duration; now | 
chosen annually, but is eligible for re-election. 
must be an alderman, and haye been sheriff. 
duties commence on 9 Nov. The prefix LOR 
peculiar to the chief civic officer of London, Du 
Edinburgh, and York. 


The ‘‘ Lord Mayor’s court” is very ancient. 
The first mayor of London, Henry Fitz-Alwyn, 
held office for 24 years, appointed - 4 
First presented to the barons of the exchequer. . 
The pretix of lord granted by Edward III., with the 
style of right honourable . “ Z 
Sir Henry Pickard, who had been lord mayor of 
London in 1357, sumptuously entertained in one 
day four monarchs: Edward, king of England; 
John, king of France; the king of Cyprus ; and 
David, king of Scotland ; the Black Prince and 
many of the nobility being present. Stow. 
Sir John Norman, the first lord mayor who went by 
_ water. to be sworn at Westminster, and instituted 
lord mayor’s show . : 3 2 : : ; came 
The more costly pageants of the show laid aside 
The lord mayor entertained the prince regent of 
England, the emperor of Russia, king of Prussia, 
and numerous foreigners of high rank 18 June, 
The lord mayor, Farncombe, gave a banquet to 
prince Albert and the mayors of most of the 
boroughs of the United Kingdom, in further- 
ance of the project of the great International 
Industrial Exhibition, 1851 : 21 March, 
The lord mayor, sir F. Moon, entertained the em- 
peror and empress of the French 1g April, 
The lord mayor, B. S. Phillips, entertained the king 
and queen of the Belgians, July ; entertained by 
them at Brussels . F : : F . Oct. 
The lord mayor entertained the viceroy of Egypt, 
11 June; the sultan, 18 July, 1867; the shah of 
Persia, 20 June, 1873; the czar . 18 May, 
Lord Mayor Nottage died while in office (the first 
since William Beckford, who died 21 June, as , 
Ir Pp: > 


MAYORS. 


541 


MECCA. 


a 


LORD MAYORS OF LONDON. 


Sir William Staines, bart. 
Sir John Eamer, bart. 
Charles Price. 

John Perring. 

Peter Perchard. 

Sir James Shaw. 

Sir William Leighton, bart. 


, John Ainsley. 


j 
Ye 


50. 


:and 1831-2. 


eS Oe GG 
Celt A eae le SO 


| 


wee ee eee oe ones 
tA age i Aine hae EM tI SC 


° 


OO SAOVEPG SHAS SV SOMWEY PT HY eT ee TL 


ytonps 


Sir Charles Flower, bart. 
Thomas Smith. 


. Joshua Jonathan Smith. 


Sir Claudius 8. Hunter, bart. 


. George Scholey. 


Sir William Domville, bart. 
Samuel Birch. 

Matthew Wood. 

Matthew Wood again. 


. Christopher Smith. 
. John Atkins. 
. George Brydges. 


John T. Thorpe. 
Christopher Magnay. 
William Heygate. 

Robert Waithman! 

John Garratt. 

William Venables. 
Anthony Browne. 
Matthias Prime Lucas. 
William Thompson. 

John Crowder. 

Sir John Key, bart. 
Sir Peter Laurie. 

Charles Farebrother. 
Henry Winchester. 
William Taylor Copeland. 
Thomas Kelly. 

Sir John Cowan, bart. 
Samuel Wilson. 


. Sir Chapman Marshall, bart. 


Thomas Johnson. 

John Pirie. 

J. Humphrey. 

Sir W. Magnay, bart. 
Michael Gibbs. 

John Johnson. 

Sir George Carroll. 

John Kinnersley Hooper. 
Sir James Duke, bart., M.P. 


. Thomas Farncombe. 


Sir John Musgrove. 
William Hunter. 
Thomas Challis, M.P. 
Thomas Sidney. 

Sir Fras. G. Moon, bart. 
David Salomons. 
Thomas Quested Finnis. 


‘Sir Robert W. Carden, bart. 


David W. Wire. 


. James Carter. 
William Cubitt, M.P. 


William Cubitt, again. 
W. A. Rose. 

Wim. Lawrence. 
Warren 8S. Hale. 

Benj. Sam. Phillips. 
Thos. Gabriel. 

Wm. Ferneley Allen. 
James Lawrence. 


. Robert Besley. 


Thomas Dakin. 

Sills John Gibbons. 

Sir Sidney Hedley Waterlow. 
Andrew Lusk, M. P. 

David Henry Stone. 

Win. James Richmond Cotton. 
Sir Thomas White. 

Thomas Scambler Owden. 

Sir Charles Whetham. 


. Sir Francis Wyatt Truscott. 


Wm. McArthur. 

John Whittaker, Ellis; bart. May. 
Henry Edmond Knight. 

R. N. Fowler, M.P. 


George Swan Nottage; died 1x April, 1835. 


R. N. Fowler, M.P., re-elected 14 April. 


| 
| 


| The collar of SS. and a foot company granted by 


LORD MAYORS OF DUBLIN, 


_ John le Decer was appointed first provost in 1308 ; 


a gilded sword was granted to be borne before the 
provost by Henry IV. : : ; Z . « I407 
Thomas Cusack appointed first mayor 1409 


Charles II. to the mayors . : 1660 


Sir Daniel Bellingham, the first mayor honoured 
with the title of lord, by Charles II., who granted 
sool. per annum, in lieu of the company of foot . 

The new collar of SS. granted by William III. tothe 
mayor, value roool., the former having been lost 
in James II.’s time . ; ; . 1697 


MAZARIN BIBLE, see Printing, 1450-5. 


MAZRA (or Baba Wali), near Candahar, 
Afghanistan. Here gen. sir Frederick Sleigh 
Roberts totally defeated Sirdar Mahomed Ayoob 
Khan, and captured his camp and all his cannon, 
1 Sept. 1880. Amongst the killed were colonel F. 
Brownlow, capt. St. John F. Frome, and capt. I. 
Straton ; lieut. Hector Maclaine (made prisoner 27 
July) was found recently murdered. Ayoob Khan 
with some followers fled towards Herat, 


MAZURKA, a Polish dance of the 16th cen- 
tury, introduced into England about 1845 ; Chopin's 
music for the mazurka is much admired. 


MEAL TUB PLOT, against the duke of 
York, afterwards James II., contrived by one 
Dangerfield, who secreted a bundle of seditious 
letters in the lodgings of colonel Maunsell, and then 
gave information to the custom-house officers to 
search for smuggled goods, 23 Oct. 1679. After 
Dangerfield’s apprehension, on suspicion of forging 
these letters, papers were found concealed in a 
meal-tub at the house of a woman with whom he 
cohabited, which contained the scheme to be sworn 
to, accusing the most eminent personsin the Protes- 
tant interest, who were against the duke of York’s 
succession, of treason,—particularly the earls of 
Shaftesbury, Essex, and Halifax. On Dangerfield 
being whipped the last time, as part of his punish- 
ment, I June, 1685, one of his eyes was struck out 
by a barrister named Robert Francis. This caused 
his death, for which his assailant was hanged. 


MEASURES, see Weights, and Micrometer. 
‘‘Not men, but measures,’”’ a phrase used in par- 
liament by Brougham, 2 Noy. 1830. 


MEAT, see Provisions. 


MEAT-BISCUIT, said to have been invented 
by Cecil Borden, 1850. See Mik. 


MEATH (ireland). Many episcopal sees in 
Meath (as Clonard, Duleek, and others of less note) 
were fixed at Clonard, before 1151-2, when the 
division of the bishoprics in Ireland was made by 
John Paparo, then legate from Pope Eugene III. 
Eugene was the first styled bishop of Meath, about 
1174. Meath was valued, 30 Henry VIII., at 
373/. 128. per annum. 


MECCA (in Arabia), the birth-place of Ma- 
homet, about 571, whence he was compelled to flee, 
15 July, 622 (the Hégira). On one of the neigh- 
bouring hills is a cave, where it is asserted he 
retired to perform his devotions, and where the 
greatest part of the Koran was brought to him by 
the angel Gabriel, 604. Mecca, after being vainly 
besieged by Hosein for the caliph Yezid, 682, was 
taken by Abdelmelek, 692. In 1803 it fell into the 
hands of the Wahabees, a Mahometan sect. ‘They 
were expelled by the pacha of Egypt in 1818, 
who retired in 1841. It is said that 160,000 
pilgrims visited Mecca in 1858, and only 50,000 
in 1859. The grand shereef was assassinated by a 
fanatic, 21 March, 1880. 


1665 


MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, 


542 


MEDICAL COLLEGE. 


MECHANICAL ENGINEERS’ INSTI- 
TUTION. See under Engineers, 1847. 


MECHANICS. The simple mechanical 
powers have been ascribed to heathen deities; the 
axe, wedge, wimble, &c., to Daedalus; see Steam 
Engine, Motion. 

Aristotle writes on mechanics about 5 ¢ BBC. 

The properties of the lever, &c., demonstrated by 
Archimedes, who died : F Rot lt Res 

[He laid the foundations of nearly all those inven- 
tions, the further prosecution of which is the 
boast of our age. Wallis (1695.)] 

The hand-mill, or quern, was very early in use ; the 
Romans found one in Yorkshire. 

Cattle-mills, mole jumentarice, were also in use by 
the Romans. 

The water-mill was probably invented in Asia; the 
first that was described was- near one of the 
dwellings of Mithridates 4 ; 4 e 

A water-mill is said to have been erected on the 
river Tiber, at Rome. : E 

Pappus wrote on mechanics . 2 

Floating-mills on the Tiber . 2 he RN a Oe 

Tide-mills were, many of them, in use in Venice 

about 

Wind-mills were in very general use in the 12th 
century. 

Saw-mills are said to have been in use at Augsburg 

Theory of the inclined plane investigated by Cardan 

about 1540 

Work on Statics, by Stevinus . : F ‘ - 1586 

Galileo’s ‘‘ Scienza Mecanica” . ‘ c orth 5 OZR 

Theory of falling bodies, Galileo é : - 1638 

Laws of percussion, Huygens, Wallis, Wren, about 1660 

Theory of oscillation, Huygens 2 ° A - 1670 

Epicycloidal form of the teeth of wheels, Roemer . 1675 

Percussion and animal mechanics, Borelli; he died 1679 

Application of mechanics to astronomy, parallel- 
ism of forces, laws of motion, &c., Newton, 
Hooke, &c. - 7. ; 4 3 1666-1700 

Problem of the catenary with the analysis, Dr. 
Gregory . : : Pe Eee ewe . : - 1697 

Spirit level (and many other inventions) by Dr. Hooke 

from 1660 to 1702 

D’Alembert’s researches on dynamics about 1743 

Lagrange’s ‘‘ Mécanique Analytique” published . 1788 

Laplace’s ‘‘ Mécanique Céleste” published — 1799-1805 

Borgnis’ Dictionnaire de Mécanique appliquee aux 
Arts, ro vols. : ° : - ; : 1818-23 

Edward H. Knight’s excellent ‘‘ Practical Dic- 
tionary of Mechanics,” published ; 1877-84 

{Among the best modern writers on the science of 
mechanics are Poncelet, Whewell, Barlow, Mose- 
ley, Delaunay, Rankine, Bartholomew Price, Ball 


and Willis. } 

MECHANICS’ INSTITUTIONS. One 
was founded by Dr. Birkbeck in London, and 
another in Glasgow, in 1823; and soon after others 
arose in different parts of the empire. They have 
revived since 1857, many noblemen and gentlemen 


giving lectures in them. 


MECHANICS’ MAGAZINE, weekly; esta- 
blished 30 Aug. 1823; was incorporated with a new 
paper termed “Iron,” Jan. 1873. 


MECHLIN or MALINES (Belgium), re- 
nowned for its lace manufacture, was founded in 
the 6th century; destroyed by the Normans in 884; 
sacked by the Spaniards, 1572; taken by the prince 
of Orange, 1578, and by the English, 1580; and 
frequently captured in the 17th and 18th centuries, 
partaking in the evil fortunes of the country. A 
Roman Catholic congress was held here Sept. 1867. 


MECKLENBURG (N. Germany), formerly 
a principality in Lower Saxony, now independent 
as the two grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
(population in 1880, 577,055) and Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz (population in 1880, 100,269). The house 
of Mecklenburg claims to be descended from Gen- 
seric the Vandal, who ravaged the western empire 
in the 5th century, and died 477. During the 


320 


212 


7O 


590 
350 
536 


about Pe D. 
1078 


1332 


Thirty years’ war Mecklenburg was conquere 
Wallenstein, who became its duke, 1628; if 
restored to its own duke, 1630. After se 
changes the government was settled in 1701 
now exists in the two branches of Schwerir 
Strelitz. In 1815 the dukes were made ¢ 
dukes. The dukes joined the new North Ge 
confederation by treaty, 21 Aug. 1866. Dis 
between the two chambers respecting a new ec 
tution, Feb. 1875. 


GRAND-DUKES OF MECKLENBURG-SOHWERIN, 

Frederic-Francis I.; died 7 March, 1842. 

Frederic-Francis II.; born 28 Feb. 1823; di 
April, 1883. 

Frederic-Francis III. son, born 19 March, 18: 


1815. 
1842. 


1883. 


GRAND-DUKES OF MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ, 

Charles ; died 6 Nov. 1816. 

George, born 12 Aug. 1779; died 6 Sept. 1860. 

Frederic William, born 17 Oct. 1819; married 
cess Augusta of Cambridge, 28 June, 1843. 

Heir: his son, Adolphus-Frederic, born 22 


1815. 
1816. 
1860. 


1848. 

The’ royal family of England is intimately. 
with the house of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. 
George III. married Charlotte, a daughter ¢ 
duke, in 1761; their son, the duke of Cu 
land (afterwards king of Hanover) m: 
princess Frederica Caroline, a daughter ¢ 
duke, in 1815. 

MEDALS, see Numismatics. The an 
medals resembled medallions. Modern m 
began about 1453 in Germany. The house of: 
mons resolved to grant rewards and medals t 
fleet whose officers (Blake, Monk, Penn, and ] 
son) and men gained a glorious victory ovet 
Dutch fleet, off the Texel, in 1653. Blake’s n 
of 1653 was bought by his majesty, William I\ 
150 guineas. In 1692 an act was passed for a] 
ing the tenth part of the proceeds of prize: 
medals and other rewards for officers, seamen. 
marines. Subsequent to Lord Howe’s vic 
I June, 1794, it was thought expedient to inst 
a naval medal. Medals were struck for the vic 
of Waterloo; a general war medal (for the 
1793-1814) was ordered in 1847; and special m« 
were given after the Caffre and Chinese wars. M 
were presented by the queen to persons di 
guished in the war in the Crimea, 18 May, 1 
Medals were given to arctic voyagers of 1875- 
1877; after Egyptian war, 1882, distributed by 
queen at Windsor, 21 Noy. 1882. Col. Eaton 
pone 1000 medals in New Bond-street, | 
1650. 


MEDIA, 2 province of the Assyrian em 
revolted, 711 B.c. Its chronology is doubtful. 
Revolt of the Medes . : A : BC 
Deioces, founder of Ecbatana, reigns . : es 
Phraortes, or Arphaxad, reigns ; (he conquers Persia, 

Armenia, and other countries) :.. 
Warlike reign of Cyaxares . ; é ~ aoe 
War with the Lydians (see Halys) . ° . 
Astyages reigns . : ~ . : . a4 
Astyages deposed by Cyrus, 550; who established 

the empire of Persia (which see) . F as ies 


MEDICAL ACT, see Medical Council. 
MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, Bri 


founded in 1832 for the promotion of medical sei 
and the maintenance of the honour of the me¢ 
profession. It holds annual meetings at diffe 
places in the United Kingdom, and publishes 
‘¢ British Medical Journal’’ weekly. 


MEDICAL BENEVOLENT COLLE( 
Royal, (Epsom,) opened in 1855 by the pr 
consort. It provides an asylum for 20 pensio 
male and female; and 40 foundation scholars ( 
of medical men) are fed, clothed, and educated. 


MEDICAL CONGRESSES. 


5443 MELBOURNE ADMINISTRATIONS. 


ICAL CONGRESSES, International, | 


en held at Paris, 1867; Florence, 1869; 
1873; Brussels, 1875; Geneva, 1877 ; 
lam, 1879; the seventh was held in 
2-9 August, 1881; eighth, Amsterdam, 
1883; ninth, Copenhagen, 10 Aug. 1884. 


MCAL COUNCIL. The Medical Act, 
‘to regulate the qualifications of practi- 
in medicine and surgery ;’’ was amended 
and an important amendment act, with- 
5 July, 1884. It established ‘‘the General 
of Medical Education and Registration of the 
Kingdom.” ‘The first meeting of this council 
ce on 23 Nov. 1858, when sir B.C. Brodie was 
first president (who on 30 Nov. was elected 
it of the Royal Society). He was succeeded 
J. H. Green in June, 1860; by Dr. George 
s, Jan. 1864; by Dr. George Edward Paget 
; and by Dr. Henry Wentworth Acland in 
he first Medical Register was issued in July, 
In 1862 the council was incorporated by 
ent, and authorised to prepare and sell a 
larmacopeeia, which was published as the 
h Pharmacopeia,”’ in 1864. New editions 
peared since. 


JICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, 
1773. Royal Medical and Chirurgical 
founded 1805. 


YICI FAMILY, the restorers of litera- 
d the fine arts in Italy, were chiefs or 
of the republic of Florence from 1434, in 

ear Cosmo de’ Medici, who had been 

from the republic, was recalled and made 
f; he ruled for thirty years. Lorenzo de’ 
styled ‘‘the Magnificent,’’ and the ‘‘ Father 
ers,’ ruled Florence from 1469 to 1492. 
ui de’ Medici (pope Leo X.) was the son of 
, Roscoe. From 1569 to 1737 the Medici 
were hereditary grand dukes of Tuscany 
see). Cattarina de’ Medici became queen of 
in 1547, and regent in 1550. She plotted 
e duke of Alva to destroy the Protestants 


JICINE, see Physic, and Physicians. 


JINA (Arabia Deserta), famous for the 
' Mahomet, in a large mosque, lighted by 
nps. Medina was called the City of the 
, because here Mahomet was protected when 
from Mecca, 15 July, 622; see Hegira. 
was taken by the Watwnees in 1804; re- 
y the pacha of Egypt, 1818. 


JINA, Bopora country, Africa, a kingdom 
| to Liberia by consent, announced Feb. 
[t is rieh in forests and African products, 
‘Id, iron, and other minerals, 


JINA DE RIO SECO (Valladolid, 
mae Bessiéres defeated the Spaniards, 
, 1808. 


JIOLANUM, see Milan. 
JIUM, see Spiritualism. 


JUN, near Podgoritza, European Turkey. 
ayine here, the Turks, under Mahmud 
oo defeated by the Montenegrins, 


TANEE. The Beloochees, amounting to 
infantry, with 15 guns and + os cavalry, 
m a formidable position at Meeanee, were 
| with great loss on 17 Feb. 1843, by lieut.- 
.: Charles Napier, with 2600 men of all 


MEERUT (near Delhi). Here the Indian 
mutiny began, 10 May, 1857; see Jndta. 


MEGAIRA, see Wrecks, 1871. 


MEGAPHONE, a form of telephone (which 
see), invented by Mr. T. A. Edison, for the use of 
the deaf; announced 1878. 


MEGARA, a city of ancient Greece, was sub- 
dued by the Athenians in the 8th century B.c. 
Pericles suppressed a revolt, 445 B.c. The Mega- 
rians founded Byzantium 657 B.c. and sent a second 
colony, 6288.c. The Megarian (Eristic or disputa- 
tious) school of philosophy was founded by Euclid 
and Stilpo, natives of Megara. 


MEHADPORH or MAHEDPORE (W. India). 
Here sir Thomas Hislop and sir John Malcolm 
defeated the Mahrattas under Holkar, 21 Dec. 1817. 


MEININGEN COURT COMPANY. See 


under Zheatres : Drury-lane. 
MEISTERSINGERS, see Minnesingers. 
MELANESIA, South-west Pacific Isles. The 


rey. J. C. Patteson (son of sir John), born 1827, was 
consecrated missionary bishop of Melanesia. He 
and the rev. J. Atkin were murdered at the isle of 
Santa Cruz, one of the Queen Charlotte group, by the 
natives, Sept. 1871, it is supposed in revenge for 
the kidnapping natives for slaves for Queensland 
and the Fiji isles, a measure which the bishop 
himself strenuously opposed. 


MELAZZO (W. Sicily). Here Garibaldi, on 
20, 21 July, 1860, defeated the Neapolitans under 
general Bosco, who lost about 600 men; Garibaldi’s 
loss being 167. The latter entered Messina; and 
on 30 July a convention was signed, by which it 
was settled that the Neapolitan troops were to 
quit Sicily. They held the citadel of Messina till 
13 March, 1861. 


MELBOURNE (Australia) capital of Victoria 
(which see). It was founded by J. P. Fawkener, 
29 Aug. 1835; and laid out as a town by order of 
sir R. Bourke, in April, 1837. The first land sale 
took place in June, and speculation continued till 


it caused wide-spread insolvency, in 1841-2. See 
Victoria. 

Made a municipal corporation, 1842; a bishopric . 1847 
First legislative assembly of Victoria meets - 1852 


Gold found in great abundance about 80 miles from 
Melbourne in the autumn of 1851, and immense 
numbers of emigrants flocked there in conse- 
quence, causing an enormous rise in the prices of 
provisions and clothing Fs : d F 

Population 23,000 in 1851 ; about 100,000 end of 

The city greatly improved with public buildings, 
handsome shops, &. . 4 2 . ‘ é 

The Victoria bank, Ballarat, broken open, and 
14,3001. in money and 200 ounces in gold dust 
carried orf [one of the robbers was taken in Eng- 
land, sent back to Melbourne, and there tried 
and hanged] - r a A A Oct. 1854 

University founded . 5 : : A ; é 

Monster meeting held at Ballarat respecting the 
collection of the gold licences, followed by riots, 
during which the Southern Cross flag was raised ; 
intervention of the military; 26 rioters and three 
soldiers kifled, and many wounded Sa INOW. 5s 

The mayor comes to London to Congratulate the 
queen on the marriage of the princess royal - 1858 

Intercolonial exhibition opened . . 25 Oct. 1866 

Arrival of the duke of Edinburgh . - 23 Nov. 1867 

Great telescope set up at the Observatory early in 1869 

Theatre-royal burnt . ms ‘. ; 1g March, 1872 

International exhibition opened by the marquis of 
Normanby . ‘ = A 5 x Oct. 1880 

Direct railway to Sydney completed June, 1883 

See Victoria. 


MELBOURNE ADMINISTRATIONS. 


MELEGNANO. 


n the retirement of earl Grey, 9 July, 1834, 
viscount Melbourne * became first minister of the 

became 
ov. same 
year, lord Melbourne waited on the king to receive 
his majesty’s command as to the appointment of a 
new chancellor of the Exchequer, when his majesty 
said he considered the administration at an end. 
Sir Robert Peel succeeded, but was compelled to re- 
sign in 1835, and lord Melbourne returned to office. 
His administration finally terminated, 30 Aug. 
1841, sir Robert Peel again coming into power; see 


crown, 16 July. When viscount Althor 
earl Spencer, on his father’s decease, 


Administrations. 


FIRST ADMINISTRATION, July, 1834; resigned 
Nov. 1834. 
Viscount Melbourne, first lord of the treasury. 
Marquis of Lansdowne, lord president. 
Earl Mulgrave, privy seal. 
Viscount Althorp, chancellor of the exchequer. 


Viscount Duncannon, viscount Palmerston, and T. Spring 
Rice (afterwards lord Monteagle), home, foreign, and 


colonial secretaries. 
Lord Auckland, admiralty. 
Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards lord Glenelg), and Mr. C. 


P. Thomson (afterwards lord Sydenham), boards of 


control and trade. 
Lord John Russell, paymaster of the forces. 
Lord Brougham, lord chancellor. 


Sir John Hobhouse, Mr. Ellice, marquis of Conyngham, 


Mr. Littleton, &. 


SECOND ADMINISTRATION, April, 1835. 
Viscount Melbourne, first lord of the treasury. 
Marquis of Lansdowne, lord president. 


Viscount Duncannon, privy seal, and woods and forests 


(succeeded by earl of Clarendon, Jan. 1840). 


T. Spring Rice, chancellor of the exchequer (succeeded by 


Francis T. Baring, Aug. 1840). 


Lord John Russell, home secretary (succeeded by marquis 


of Normanby, Aug. 1839). 

Viscount Palmerston, foreign secretary. 

Lord Glenelg, colonial secretary (succeeded by marquis 
of Normanby, Feb. 1839; lord John Russell, Aug. 1839). 

Viscount Howick, secretary-at-war (succeeded by T. B. 
Macaulay, Sept. 1839). 

ford Auckland, admiralty (succeeded by earl of Minto, 
Sept. 1835). 

Sir John C. Hobhouse, board of control. 

C. Poulett Thomson, board of trade (succeeded by Henry 
Labouchere, Aug. 1839). 

Lord Holland, chancellor of duchy of Lancaster (succeeded 
by earl of Clarendon, Oct. 1840). 

The chancellorship in commission ; sir C. Pepys (after- 
wards lord Cottenham), became lord chancellor, Jan. 
1836. 


MELEGNANO, see Marignuno. 


MELFTI (Apulia, S. Italy) was nearly destroyed 
by an earthquake, 14 Aug. 1851: about 600 persons 
perished. 


MELODISTS’ CLUB, founded in 1825 by 


admirers of Dibdin; prizes were offered. 


MELODRAMA, in which dialogue is inter- 
spersed with music, began in Germany in the 18th 
century, and was introduced here by Thomas Hol- 
croft. 


MELORA or MELORIA, a small isle in the 
Mediterranean, near which the Pisan fleet defeated 
the Genoese, in 1241, capturing many bishops going 
with much treasure to a council. The total destruc- 
tion of the Pisan fleet on 6 Aug. 1284, by the 
Genoese near the same place, after a most sanguinary 
conflict, was considered to be the just punishment 
of their impiety. 

MELOS (now Milo), one of the Cyclades in the 
Mgean sea, colonised by the Spartans about 1116 


* Wm. Lamb, born in 1779; became M.P. for West- 
minster, 1812; secretary for Iveland, 1827; succeeded his 
father as viscount Melbourne, 1828; died, 24 Nov. 1848. 


544 


7 


© 


MENDICITY SOCIETY, 


B.c. During the Peloponnesian war the 
adhered to Sparta, till the island was ¢ 
after seven months’ siege, by the Athenia 
massacred all the men and sold the won 
children as slaves, 416 B.c. A statue of 
found here in 1820, was placed in the 
1834. 

MEMEL, an important commercial 
Prussia, built about 1279. It was taken 
Teutonic knights, about 1328. It has suffers 
by fire, and was almost totally destroyec 
1854. The loss was estimated at 1,100,000/ 


MEMNONEIUM or RAMEsEron ( 
Egypt), the tomb of Osymandyas, accor 
Diodorus, now considered to be that of Rame 
1618 B.C. 


MEMORIAL HALL, see under J, 


dents. 
MEMORY, see Mnemonics. 
MEMPHIS, an ancient city of Egy 


which the very ruins are stupendous”’), is 
have been built by Menes, 3890 B.c. ; or by J 
2188 B.c. It was restored by Septimius & 
A.D. 202. The invasion of Cambyses, 5: 
began the ruin of Memphis, and the foun 
Alexandria, 332, completed it. In the 7th ¢ 
under the dominion of the Saracens, it f 
decay.—Mermpuis, Tennessee, U. S., on the 
sippl, was taken from the confederates 

federals after a severe conflict, 6 June, 1862. 


MEN OF THE TIME, a Dictionary 
temporaries, first published 1852; 11th edi 
Mr. Thompson Cooper, 1884.—‘‘ Men of 1 
printed photographs, with biographical sl 
also by Mr. T. Cooper, first appeared Jan. 1: 


MENAGERIE, see Zoology, Tower. 


MENAI STRAIT (between the Wels! 
and the isle of Anglesey). Suetonius Pa 
when he invaded Anglesey, transported his 
across this strait in flat-bottomed boats, wl 
cavalry swam over on horseback, and attack 
Druids in their last retreat. Their horrid 7 
of sacrificing their captives, and their oppos! 
incensed the Roman general, that he ga 
Britons no quarter, throwing all that escape 
that battle into fires which they had prepa 
the destruction of himself and his army, ¢ 
crossing this strait, a ferry-boat was lost, at 
persons, chiefly Irish, 4 Dec. 1785. The roa 
London to Holyhead has long been regarded 
highway from the British metropolis to D 
Mr. Telford was applied to by the governm 
perfect this route by the London and Ho 
mail-coach road, which he did by erecting be 
suspension bridges over the river Conway 4 
Menai Strait, commenced in July, 1818, finis 
July, 1825, opened 30 Jan. 1826. The Bri 
tubular bridge over the Menai was construc 
Stephenson and Fairbairn in 1849-50; see 7 
Bridges. 

MENDICANT FRIARS. Several re! 
orders commenced alms-begging in the I 3th ce 
in the pontificate of Innocent III. They | 
over Europe, and formed many communite: 
at length by a general council, held by Greg! 
at Lyons, in 1272, were reduced to four oF 
Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and 4 
tines. The Capuchins and others branche 


see Franciscans, &c. 


MENDICITY SOCIETY (Red Lion-s 


London), was established in 1818 for the supp! 


MENDOZA. 

iblic begging, and other impositions. Tickets 
ved from the society are given by subscribers 
zgars, who obtain relief at the society’s house, 
serving. Up to 1872 the society had caused 
2 23,000 vagrants to be convicted as impostors. 
357, 54,074 meals; in 1860, 42,912; in 1865, 
7; in 1872, 26,330; in 1878, 55,180 were dis- 
ted. ~ In 1857, 3785; in 1865, 3809; in 1872, 
-and in 1878, 1700 begging letters were in- 
rated. See Poor. The society has been much 
by the action of the Charity Organization 
y; established in 1870. 


ENDOZA, in the Argentine republic, nearly 
pyed by an earthquake, one of the most awful 
Jed, 20 March, 1861: above 7000 persons 
hed. 


ENIPPEE, see Satire. 
ENNONITRHS, four sects of Dutch, Flemish 


rerman baptists; derive their name from Menno 
mis (1505-61), formerly a catholic priest, who 
ae a teacher and leader of the anabaptists, 
1537, and published his “True Christian 
f’” in 1556; subsequently divisions and changes 
d. The Mennonites, objecting to war, emi- 
1 from Prussia to Odessa, to escape military 
e, and went thence to America, 1878. 


ENSURATION. The properties of conic 
ns were discovered by Archimedes, to whom 
thief advancement in mensuration may be 
uted. He also determined the ratio of spheres, 
oids, &c., about 218 B.c.; see Arithmetic. 
Yensurator, a new machine for the solution 
iangles, was explained by Mr. W. Marsham 
is, at the British Association Meeting at 
iton, Aug. 1872. 


BNTANA, (near Monte Rotondo, in the old 
states). Here Garibaldi and his volunteers, 
haying intrenched his positions at Monte 
ido and Mentana on their march towards 
i, on Sunday, 3 Nov. 1867, were totally 
ied by the pontitical and French troops under 
als Kanzlar and Polhés, after a severe con- 
m which general Failly said ‘‘ the Chassepot 
did wonders.’’ There were about 5000 men 
th side, but the Garibaldians were very badly 
|. The loss of the papal and French troops 
bout 200 killed and wounded ; that of Garibaldi 
800. Garibaldi crossed the Italian frontier, 
“as arrested at Correse, and eventually sent to 
ra (about 25 Nov.). See Rome. A monu- 
to the Garibaldians who fell here was inau- 
id 25 Nov. 1877. 

SNTZ or MAYENCE (S.W. Germany), the 
n Moguntiacum, built about 13 B.c. The 
\shopric was founded by Boniface, 745. Many 
have been held here; and here John Faust 
ished a printing press, about 1440. A festival 
tour of John Guttenburg was celebrated here 
137. See Printing. Mentz was given up to 
‘ussians, 26 Aug. 1866. 


UINU, InstirutTes oF, the very ancient 
f{India. Sir Wm. Jones, who translated them 
onglish (1794); considers their date should be 
.. between Homer (about 962 B.c.) and the 
2 Twelve Tables (about 449 B.c.). 


IRCANTILE MARINE ACT was passed 
'g. 1850, and amended Aug. 1851. 


IRCATOR’S CHARTS, said to have been 
ucted by Gerard Mercator or Kauffmann and 
hed 1556, and applied to navigation by Edward 
| it about 1599. 


546 


MERRY-ANDREW. 
MERCHANDISE MARKS ACT, passed 


in 1862 to punish forgeries of trade-marks. 


MERCHANT ADVENTURERS’ COM- 
PANY, established by the duke of Brabant in 
1296, was extended to England in Edward III.’s 
reign, and was formed into a corporation in 1564.— 
The MERCHANT-TAYLORs, a rich company of the 
city of London, of which many kings have been 
members, were so called after the admission of 
Henry VII. into their company, 1501, but were in- 
corporated in 1466. Their school was founded in 
1561. Stow. 


MERCHANT SHIPPING ACT of 1854 
was amended by acts passed in 1862, 1867, 1871, 1872, 
and 1873. The Act suddenly passed 13 Aug. 1875, 
gave further power to the Board of Trade for 
stopping unseaworthy ships. Other Acts passed 
1876 and 1880, 1882 and 1883; see Cowrtsof Survey, 
and Seamen. 

Loss of life at sea having greatly increased, a new 

bill brought in by Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, pre- 

sident of the Board of Trade, to prevent over- 

loading, under-manning, and over-insurance, 19 


May ; withdrawn - : - 3 July, 1884 
Royal commission to inquire into merchant ship- 

ping (earl of Aberdeen, the duke of Edinburgh, 

Mr. J. Chamberlain, Mr. Burt, Mr. H. Green, Mr. 

T. C. Baring aud eight others), gazetted 28 Oct. ,, 


MERCHANTS were protected by Magna 
Charta, 1215, and by many statutes. See Acton 
Burnel, An attempt made by queen Anne’s ministry 
to exclude merchants from sitting in the house of 
commons in 1711, failed. 


MERCIA, see under Britain. 
MERCURY, the planet nearest the sun, and 


the smallest known to the ancients. The last 
transit of Mercury over the sun’s disk, of rare occur- 
rence and first observed by Gassendi, 1631, was well 
observed 5 Nov. 1868. See Calomel and Quick- 
silver, The Greek god Hermes was the Roman 
Mercury. 


MERCY, ORDER OF (in France), was estab- 
lished with the object of accomplishing the redemp- 
tion of Christian captives among the Saracens, by 
John de Matha in 1198. Hénault, Another order 
was formed by Pierre Nolasqne in Spain, 1223. 


MERIDA (Spain), a town in Estremadura 
(built by the Romans), was taken by the French, 
Jan. 1831. Near this town, at Arroy dos Molinos, 
the British army under general (afterwards lord) 
Hill defeated the French under general Girard, 
after a severe engagement, 28 Oct. 1811. The 
British took Merida from the French in 1812, 
general Hill leading the combined forces of English 
and Spanish troops. 


MERIDIAN, see under Geodesy. 
MERINO SHEEP, imported into England 


from Spain, 1788, are thought to be descendants of 
English sheep taken to Spain as part of the dowry 
of John of Gaunt’s daughter Katherine, 1390. 


MEROE, an ancient city and country of 
Africa, near the sources of the Nile, said to have 
flourished under sacerdotal government in the time 
of Herodotus, about 450 B.C. 


MEROVINGIANS, the first race of French 


kings, 418-752; see France and Mayors. 
MERRIMAC, see United States, 1862. 
MERRY-ANDREW. The name is said to 
have been first given to Andrew Borde, a physician, 
who lived in the reign of Henry VIII., and who, on 
some occasions, on account of his facetious manners, 
appeared at court, 1547. 
NN 


MERSEY TUNNEL. 


MERSEY TUNNEL, see Zunnel. 
MERTHYR-TYDVIL  (Glamorganshire). 


Riots commenced here, 3 June, 1831, and continued 
for several days; many persons were killed and 
wounded; see Coal (Accidents). 


MERTON (Surrey). At an abbey here, the 
barons under Henry III., 23 Jan. 1236, held a 
parliament which enacted the Provisions of Merton, 
the most ancient body of laws next after Magna 
Charta. They were repealed in 1863; see Bastards. 


MERY, or Meru (the ancient Antiochia Mar- 
giana), a town of independent Turkestan, Central 
Asia. In 1880-1, the Russian advance towards this 
place was much discussed. See Russia and Twr- 
kestan. 


MESMERISM. Frederick Anthony Mesmer, 
a German physician, of Merseburg, published his 
doctrines in 1766, contending, in a thesis on 
planetary influence, that the heavenly bodies dif- 
fused through the universe a subtle fluid which acts 
on the nervous system of animated beings. Quitting 
Vienna for Paris, in 1778, he gained numerous 
proselytes and much money. A committee of phy- 
sicians and philosophers investigated his pretensions, 
and Bailly, in a paper drawn up in 1784, exposed 
the futility of animal magnetism. Mesmerism 
excited attention again about 1848, when Miss 
Harriet Martineau and others announced their 
belief in it. In 1859, the Mesmeric Infirmary 
issued its tenth annual report, archbishop Whately 
being president, and the earl of Carlisle and Mr. 
Monckton Milnes (since lord Houghton) among the 
vice-presidents. 


MESSALIANS, 2 sect professing to adhere to 
the letter of the gospel, about 310, refused to work, 
quoting this passage, ‘‘ Labour not for the food 
that perisheth.” 


MESSENIA (now Maura-Matra), in the 
Peloponnesus, a kingdom founded by Polycaon, 
1499 B.c. Ithad long sanguinary wars with Sparta, 
and once contained a hundred cities. It was at 
first governed by kings; after its restoration to 
power in the Peloponnesus it formed an inferior 
republic, under the protection first of the Thebans, 
and afterwards of the Macedonians. 


The first Messenian war began 743 B.C. ; was occa- 
sioned by violence offered to some Spartan 
women in a temple of devotion common to both 
nations ; the king of Sparta being killed in his 
efforts to defend the females. Eventually, Ithome 
was taken, and the Messenians became slaves to 
the conquerors é ‘ ; : ~ | BOs 724 

The second war, to throw off the Spartan yoke, com- 
menced about 685, ending in the defeat of the 
Messenians, who fled to Sicily . 


t 


- 668 
. 466-455 
MESSIAH, synonymous with Christ ‘the 

anointed,”’ foretold by Daniel ix. 25, about 538 B.c. 
‘‘ We have found the Messias, which is, being in- 
terpreted, the Christ.”” John i. 41. ‘‘The Mes- 
siah,’’ Handel’s greatest oratorio, composed by 
him in twenty-three days (22 Aug.-14 Sept. 1741), 
was first performed at Dublin, 13 April, 1742, the 
receipts being given by him to the charities of that 
city. 


MESSINA (Sicily), so named by the Samians, 
who seized this city, then called Zancle, 671 B.c. 
It was seized by the Mamertini (which see), about 
281 B.c. It belonged for many ages to the Roman 
erapire ; was taken by the Saracens, about a.p. 829. 
Priestley. Roger the Norman took it from them by 
surprise, about 1072. 


The third war 


546 


METEOROLOGY. 


Revolts against Charles of Anjou, and is succoured 
by Peter of Aragon ; 4 F os 
Revolts in favour of Louis XIV. of France, 1676 ; 
the Spaniards punish it severely . 
Almost ruined by an earthquake and 
Ktna . : 3 ; : ¢ 
Nearly depopulated by a plague am 
Half destroyed by an earthquake ; . 1 
Head-quarters of the British forces in Sicily, prior to ; 


. . 1 
ruption of 
. ° 2 | 


An insurrection here subdued . : : 7 Feb. : 

Garibaldi enters Messina after his victory at Melazzo 
20-21 July, ; 

The citadel surrenders to Cialdini . - 13 March, 3 


METALS. ‘Tubal-Cain is mentioned as 
‘instructor of every artificer in brass and iro 
(Gen. iv.) Moses and Homer speak of the se 
metals, and Virgil of the melting of steel. ‘ 
Pheenicians had great skill in working met 
Bunsen and Kirchhoff’s method of chemical an: 
sis by means of the spectrum has added casi 
rubidium, thallium, indium, gallium, and oth 
to the known metals. See Hlements, Mines, Ji 
and the other metals. 


METAMORPHISTS in the 15th cent 
affirmed that Christ’s natural body, with which 
ascended into heaven, was wholly deified. 


METAPHYSICS, the science of abst 
reasoning, or that which contemplates the existe 
of things without relation to matter. The te 
literally denoting ‘‘after physics,” originated fi 
these words having been put at the head of cert 
essays of Aristotle, which follow his treatise 
Physics. Mackintosh. Modern metaphysics a 
in the 15th century—the period when an ext 
ordinary impulse was given to the study of 
human mind in Europe, commonly called the “ 
vival of learning.’’ Hobbes, Cudworth, 8. T. C¢ 
ridge, Dugald Stuart, and sir W. Hamilton, ¥ 
eminent British metaphysicians, and Desear 
Pascal, Kant, Schelling, and Fichte, foreign o1 
See Philosophy. 


METAURUS, ariver in central Italy, wh 
Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, was defea 
and slain, 207 B.c., when marching with abund 
reinforcements. The Romans were led by Lit 
and Claudius Nero, the consuls. The latter « 
manded the head of Hasdrubal to be thrown 1 
his brother’s camp. ‘The victory saved Rome. 


METEMPSYCHOSIS, a doctrine attribu 
to Pythagoras, about 528 B.c., asserts the tra 
migration of the soul from one body to anotl 
It is also ascribed to the Egyptians, who wo 
eat no animal food lest they should devour 
body into which the soul of a deceased friend] 
passed. They had also an idea that so long as 
body of the deceased was kept entire, the s 
would not transmigrate; and therefore embaln 
the dead. See Buddhism. 


METEOROGRAPH, an apparatus for 
invention of which father Secchi of Rome rece? 
a prize at the Paris International Exhibition, Ju 
1867. It is self-acting, and registers the vari 
changes of the atmosphere in the form of ad 
gram. 


METEOROLOGY (from the Greek meteor 
aérial), the science which treats of the phenome 
which have their origin in the air, ee as 1a 
lightning, meteors, fogs, &c. Bacon, Boyle, é 
Franklin wrote on the subject. 


Meteorological Society of the Palatinate, establis] 


1780. 
Meteorological Society of London, first met, 15 0 
1823; became Royal, Oct. 1883. ‘ 
| John Dalton’s essay on meteorology appeared mm 1793 


: 


? j 


at 


METEORS. 


» Howard’s work on the clouds appeared in 1802, 
‘Lhis ‘‘ Barometrographia” in 1848. See Clouds. 
-, Reed published his work on the ‘“‘ law of storms” 
838. The works of Daniell (1845), Keemtz (1845), 
‘ler (1847), and Buchan (1867) are esteemed. 
ames Glaisher, the secretary of the Meteorological 
iety (established in 1850 and chartered in 1866) is a 
st eminent meteorologist. By his exertions the ap- 
atus at Greenwich was erected ; and meteorology 
‘appeared in the ‘‘ Greenwich Observations” since 
“8. See Balloon—Scientific Ascents. 
‘yrological observatories have been erected in all 
‘ts of the globe. 
{eteorological department of the Board of Trade, es- 
lished in 1855, under admiral Fitzroy, commenced 
' publication of reports in 1857. The admiral pub- 
‘ed his ‘“‘ Weather-Book” in 1863. His exertions 
said to have overworked his brain; and on 30 
il, 1865, he died by his own hand. The Meteoro- 

| cal office was soon after placed under the direction 
}, dr. Robert H. Scott. It has issued apparatus and 
) xuction books to captains of ships and established 
| ervatories in many places in the empire. Placed 
} ler a committee of Royal Society, R. H. Scott, 
| etary, July, 1877. 


_\ew meteorological observatory given to the British 

-ociation in April, 1860: was purchased and pre- 

“ted to the Royal Society by Mr. J. P. Gassiot, 1871. 

e recommendation of M. Le Verrier and admiral 

roy, meteorological information, obtained by the 

‘graph from the principal places in the United King- 

1, has been transmitted daily to Paris, and thence 

| ther parts of Europe since x Sept. 1860. 

| -warnings first issued in Holland through M. 
7s Ballot, 1860. 

| -warnings first sent to the coast by the Board of 

| de, 6 Feb. ; and first published 3: July, 186z ; sus- 

ded, 7 Dec. 1866; restoration proposed, Nov. 1867; 

fared inadvisable. 

| international bulletin of the imperial observatory 

| Paris, under the direction of M. Le Verrier, first 

} lished, Nov. 1862 

ly weather charts” first issued by the Meteorological 

| ce, rx March, 1872; ‘‘ Weekly Weather Report”’ first 

| ilished, rz Feb. 1878. 

} tational Meteorological congress at Vienna, 2-16 

‘t. 1873 ; at Rome 14-22 April, 1879; and at Berne, 

|. 2 Aug. 1880. 

| ather Charts and Storm Warnings,” by R. H. Scott, 

| lished, 1876 et seq. 

veut in consequence, June 1876-7, 1805 5 

g-81, 89r. 

Jar issued relating to a new plan for obtaining in- 

-nation from ships at sea, &c., 14 April, 1882. 

tvatory erected on Ben Nevis; Mr. R. T. Ormond 

iinted director, 6 Sept.; opeued 17 Oct. 1883. New 

) rer erected, 1884. 

| meh academy of meteorology organised a successful 
loon ascent, 9 Aug. 1879. ; 

See Barometer, Thermometer, &c. 


}ETEORS, Luminous, include shooting 
, fire-balls, and falling stones or aerolites. 
‘were described by Halley, Wallis, and others 
/ inthe 17th century. The periodicity of the 
| showers about the 10th of August (termed in 
! middle ages St. Lawrence’s tears) was dis- 
)| ed separately by Quetelet, 1836, and by Her- 
in 1837. The following are remarkable epochs 
) leir annual return:—2 Jan.; 29 July; 3 and 
Ang 8-14 Nov.; 11 Dec. &. P. Greg. See 
UST, 
1agnificent continuous star-shower of 14 Nov. 1866, 
| been predicted by professor Newton some time 
‘viously. A fine display occurred on the night of 
| Noy. 1868, inthe United States. A similar phenome- 
t had been witnessed by Humboldt at Cumana 
_&.), 12 Nov. 1799; and by Dr. D. Olmsted, at New- 
}en(U.S.), 13 Nov. 1833. They were well observed in 
tain and Europe, 27 Nov. 1872. 
)LITES, falling-stones, accompanying meteors, are 
ndin ourmuseums. They contain iron, nickel, and 
er minerals, 


} ETHOD (Greek, a way of transit), that which 
|} to knowledge its character. §. T. Coleridge’s 


ee 


a 


547 


METRIC SYSTEM. 


treatise on the science of method is prefixed to the 

first volume of the ‘‘ Encyclopedia Metropolitana.”’ 

1845. 

The most recent work on this subject is Professor 
Stanley Jevons’ “‘ Principles of Science: a treatise on 
Logic and Scientific Method,” 1874. ‘‘The powers of 
mind concerned in creation of science are discrimina- 
tion, detection of identity, and retention,” 


METHODISTS, see Wesleyans. 
_ METHUEN TREATY, atreaty for regulat- 


ing the commerce between Great Britain and Portu- 
gal, made 27 Dec. 1703, concluded by Paul Methuen, 
our ambassador at Lisbon. It greatly favoured the 
importation of port wine into this country by 
lowering the duty, to the discouragement of French 
wines. It was abrogated in 1834. 


METHYL, a colourless inodorous gas, a com- 
pound of hydrogen and carbon, obtained in the 
free state first by Frankland and Kolbe separately, 
in 1849. 

METHYLATED SPIRITS. By an_act 
passed in 1855 a mixture of spirits of wine with Io 
per cent. of its bulk of wood-naphtha, or methylic 
alcohol, is allowed to be made duty free for use in 
the arts and manufactures, not less than 450 gal- 
lons being made at one time. In 1861 an act was 
passed permitting the methylated spirits to be re- 
tailed by licence. 


METONIC CYCLE, a period of 19 years, or 
6940 days, at the end of which the changes of the 
moon fall on the same days; see Calippie Period, 
Golden Number. 


METRIC SYSTEM. Before the revolution 
there was no uniformity in French weights and mea- 
sures. On 8 May, 1790, the constituent assembly 
charged the Academy of Sciences with the organisa- 
tion of a better system. The committee named for 
the purpose by the academy included the names of 
Berthollet, Borda, Delambre, Lagrange, Laplace, 
Mécbain, and Prony. Delambre and Méchain were 
charged with the measurement of an arc of the meri- 
dian between Dunkirk and Barcelona, and from their 
calculations the métse, which is equal to a ten-mil- 
lionth part of the distance between the poles and the 
equator (3'2808 English feet) was made the unit of 
length and the base of the system by law on 7 April, 
1795. ‘The system was completed in 1799, and made 
by law the only legal one on 2 Nov. 1801. A decree 
on 12 Feb. accommodated the old measures to the 
new system; but-on 4 July, 1837, it was decreed 
that after 1 Jan. 1840, the metric and decimal 
pig en in its primitive simplicity should be used in 
all business transactions. ‘The example of France 
has been followed by the greater part of Europe, 
and will probably in time be adopted in the British 
empire. 

Unit of SurRFAcE, centiare=a square métre=1'1960 
English yard (a square décamétre or are=1oo square 
metres). i 

Unit of VoLuME or Souipiry, stére=a cubit métre. 

Unit of Capacity, litre=a cubic décimétre (or roth of a 
métre)=1°76077 English pint. 

Unit of WEIGHT, gramme=weight of a cubic centimétre 
(the tooth part of a métre) of distilled water=o’56438 
English drachm. 

Unit of Money, the franc, a piece of silver weighing 5 
grammes. 

The multiples of these units are expressed by Greek 
numerals (deca-, 10 ; hekato-, 100; kilo-, 1000 ; myria-, 
xo,o00. The divisors are expressed by Latin numerals 
(deci-, 10 ; centi-, 100; milli-, 1000). 

Sir John Wrottesley brought the subject before 
parliament E ‘ a : . 25 Feb. 1824 

A commission of inquiry appointed at the instance 
of the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Spring 
Rice (since lord Monteagle) ; : May, 1838 


NN 2 


7 


METRONOME. 


548 


METROPOLITAN MAGISTRAT 


Another commission was appointed (both consisted 
of eminent scientific men, and reported strongly 
in favour of the change) : ; 20 June, 

A committee of the house of commons reported to 
the same effect . ; 2 : 4 Pec eA 

Mr. Gladstone, admitting the advantages of the 
system, thought its introduction premature. 

Decimal Association formed for the purpose of 
obtaining the adoption of the system June, 

Another commission for inquiry was appointed, 
consisting of lords Monteagle and Overstone, and 
Mr. J. G. Hubbard, who published a preliminary 
report (with evidence), but expressed no opinion, 

Nov. 1855 

An International Decimal Association formed in 

The decimal currency adopted in Canada r Jan. 

The new weights and measures bill (an approxima- 
tion to the decimal system) was passed : : 

An act passed ‘‘to render permissive the use of the 
metric system of weights and measures,” 29 July, 
(repealed by weights and measures act 1878). 

A bill for the compulsory adoption of the metric 
system rejected by the commons . 26 July, 

Meeting at the Mansion-house, London, advocating 


1843 
1853 


1854 


its adoption : : : ; : . 17 Jan. 1872 
International Congress to promote the universal 
adoption of the metric system 24Sept. ,, 


International convention for adopting metric sys- 
tem, signed at Paris, by representatives of 
Austria, Germany, Russia, Italy, Spain, Portugal, 
Turkey, Switzerland, Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, 
United States of America, Argentine Republic, 
Brazil, and Peru, 20 May, 1875, England 

The system (to come into force in 1889) adopted by 
Sweden ; : : é. 5 : . May, 

International congress on weights and measures 
met at Paris ‘ > : ; - 4 Sept. 

Adoption of decimal system proposed in house of 
commons by Mr. Ashton W. Dilke ; negatived 
(108-28) ; = A 29 March, 1881 


METRONOME, to regulate time in the per- 
formance of music. A metronome with double 
pendulum, invented by Winkel, was adopted suc- 
peorully by Maelzel, and patented by him in 
1816. 

METROPOLIS oF GREAT BRITAIN in- 
cludes the cities of London and Westminster, and 
the boroughs of Southwark, Finsbury, Maryle- 
bone, Tower-Hamlets, Hackney, Lambeth, and 
Chelsea. The Metropolis Management Act, 18 & 19 
Vict. c. 122, was passed in 1855; estimated popula- 
tion, June, 1884, 4,019,361 ; see London. 


METROPOLIS ROADS ACT (passed in 
1863) transferred the management of certain roads 
north of the Thames from the commissioners to the 
parishes, and abolished certain turnpikes and toll- 
bars. 


METROPOLIS WATER ACT, 18:2, 


amended, 1871. 


METROPOLITAN (from the Greek metro- 
polis), a title given at the council of Nice, 325, to 
certain bishops who had jurisdiction over others in 
a province. The dignity is said to have arisen 
in the 2nd century, through the dissentient bishops 
in a district referring to one bishop of superior 
intellect. 

METROPOLITAN ASSOCIATION ror 
IMPROVING THE DWELLINGS OF THE IN- 
DUSTRIOUS CLASSES. Founded 15 Sept. 1841; 
incorporated 16 Oct. 1845. 

Capital originally 100,000/.; increased to 200,000l. 
(1884). Dividend not to exceed 5 per cent. Secretary, 
and chief originator, Mr. Charles Gatliff; offices, 118, 
Finsbury-circus. The late rt. hon. lord ‘Claud Hamilton 
member 1845-84; chairman for 13 years. 


METROPOLITAN BOARD oF WORKS 
was established by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 120 (1855),* 


* “ For the management of public works in which the 
metropolis has a common interest,” 


1884 
1876 
1878 


amended in 1862. It held its first meeting 
elected Mr. (aftds. sir) John Thwaites as chair 
22 Dec. 1855. ‘The office is in Spring-gardens 
1858, its powers were extended in order to effec 
purification of the Thames by constructing a 
main drainage for the metropolis. The board 
authorised to raise a loan and levy 3d. in the p 
on the property in the metropolis. It was 
authorised to construct the Thames Embankn 
In 1861 the board received nearly a million pou 
and expended g00,000/. ; see Sewage, and T'he 
Sir John Thwaites, the chairman, died 8 Aug. | 
aged 55. Much discussion ensued respecting 
appointment of his successor ; Mr. Bruce, the ] 
secretary, having intimated the probability ot 
office being abolished by parliament, with « 
changes, 11 Aug. Col. (aftds. sir) James | 
naghten Hogg, a member of the board, was el 
chairman for one year, 18 Nov. 1870; anm 
since. The board was empowered to borrow m 
by acts passed 1869-84. Its powers extend 
II7 square miles, and 3,266,287 persons (1873) 
is composed of delegates from various local bo 
&e. 


METROPOLITAN BUILDING A 
see Building. ; 

METROPOLITAN CATTLE MARK 
inaugurated by the lord mayor and corporatio 
Wednesday, 13 July, 1855, in presence of the p 
consort. It is situated in Copenhagen-fields 
elevated site north of London, occupying an ar 
about fifteen acres, larger by nine acres than Sn 
field, and capable of containing 30,000 sheep, — 
bullocks, 1400 calves, and goo pigs. In the ee 
is a circular building, let to bankers and ot 
having business connected with graziers and ca 
agents. Within and around the market are ere 
several large taverns. A place is set apart 
slaughtering animals, with approved appliance 
purposes of health, by ventilation, sewerage, : 
there is also a place for haystands. Sales ¢ 
menced on Friday, 15. June, 1855.—An act 
establishing a meat and poultry market in Sm 
field (which see) was passed in 1860. 


METROPOLITAN COMMONS. Act 
specting them passed 1866, 1869, and 1878. 
Commons. 


METROPOLITAN CONVALESCE 
INSTITUTION, FirE BriGaAnpz, 

HovusELEss Poor. See Convalescent, 

Brigade, and Houseless Poor. 


METROPOLITAN DISTRICT Af 
LUM BOARD, instituted by parliament in1 
proceeded to erect hospitals at Haverstock- 
Caterham, &c., 1868, causing much disconten 
several parishes, The asylum for idiots at Lea 
den, near Watford, Herts, inaugurated 27 § 
1870. An act respecting the board passed in 18 


Promctegehs DRAINAGE, 
ewers. 
METROPOLITAN DRINKING FOU 


TAIN AnD CATTLE TROUGH ASSOCIATI( 
founded 1859. See Drinking Fountams. 


METROPOLITAN MEAT MARK 
Smithfield, erected in accordance with an act pa: 
in 1860, was inaugurated by the lord mayor, Ja 
mt 24 Nov. 1868, and opened for busin 
I Dec. 

METROPOLITAN MUNICIPAL ASS 
CIATION met 11 Dec. 1866. 


METROPOLITAN POLICE MAG: 
TRATES, see Magistrates and Police. 


BIROPOLITAN POOR ACT, “for the 
lishment in the metropolis of asylums for the 
insane, and other classes of the poor,’ passed 
farch, 1867 ; was amended in 1869; see Poor. 


JETROPOLITAN RAILWAY (Under- 
nd), at first between Paddington and Victoria- 
‘'t, near Holborn. The act for it passed in 1853 ; 
sonstruction began in the spring of 1860; and it 
‘opened for traftic, 10 Jan. 1863. Many serious 
ulties were overcome with great skill and 
‘zy by the engineer, John Fowler, and the con- 
ors, Jay, Smith, and Knight. In the first six 
‘ths of 1865 there were 7,462,823 passengers. 
is been continued to Moorgate-street, and sup- 
ented by the Metropolitan Districts Railway. 


-ETROPOLITAN SCHOOL BOARD, 
tuted by the Elementary Education act, 1870, 
‘elected 29 Noy. 1870 (for three years). It in- 
ed lord Lawrence, lord Sandon, professor Hux- 
Miss Garrett, M.D., and Miss Davies. At its 
meeting, 15 Dec., lord Lawrence was elected 
»man, and Mr. C. Reed, M.P., vice-chairman ; 
‘it was decided that the chairman should be 
id at present. On 27 Noy. 1873, 30 Nov. 1876, 
27 Nov. 1879, Mr. (afterwards sir) Charles 
' was elected chairman. He died 25 March, 
, succeeded by Mr. Edwd. North Buxton. See 
vation. 


-ETROPOLITAN STREETS ACT 
& 31 Vict. c. 134) ‘‘ for regulating the traffic in 
netropolis, and for making provision for the 
er security of persons passing through the 
ts,” passed 20 Aug. 1867. A short act, modi- 
'; the clauses relating to costermongers and cabs, 
passed 7 Dec, 1867. 


‘ETTRAY, see Reformatory Schools. 


ETZ, a fortified city in Lorraine, now in the 
)ctment of the Moselle, N.E. France. It was 
Roman Divodunum or Meti, capital of the 
| omatrici, a powerful Gaulish tribe, and after- 
| sof the kingdom of Austrasia, or Metz, in the 
entury. It was made a free imperial city, 985. 
| is besieged by Charles VII. of France for seven 
| hs in 1444, and was ransomed for 100,000 
} 8; Was captured by Henry II., ro April, 1552, 
| Depreafully defended by the duke of Guise 
ist the emperor Charles V. with an army of 
}00 men, 31 Oct. 1552 to 15 Jan. 1553. Metz 
hceded to France by the peace of Westphalia, 
| t. 1648, and was fortitied i Vauban and Belle- 
' On 28 July, 1870, the emperor Napoleon III. 
ed at Metz and assumed the chief command. 
‘the disastrous defeats at Woerth and Forbach, 
Aug. the whole French army (except the corps 
ucMahon, De Failly, and Douay) was concen- 
| Lhere, 10, 11 Aug., and by delay was hemmed 
the Germans. Marshal Bazaine assumed the 
command, 8 Aug. The emperor departed with 
anguard, which crossed the Moselle early on 
“1g. 
| 3attle of Pange or Courcelles, gained by the 
first army under Von Steinmetz, after several 
hours’ fighting, with great German loss, 
14 Aug. 1870 
azaine was censured for not advancing on 
sth a ihegs © errs 

3attle of Vionville or Mars-la-Tour, gained by 
| the 2nd army under prince Frederick Charles, 

after twelve hours’ fighting. By the unex- 
. pected unmasking of a mitrailleuse battery, 
. Henry, prince of Reuss, and many German 
nobles were killed in a few moments. The 
victory was at first claimed by the French. 
(This battle, the most sanguinary in the war 


METROPOLITAN POOR ACT. 549 MEXICO. 


hitherto, included a Balaclava charge of a 
German regiment of cavalry upon a French 
battery, by which it was decimated, but to 
which the victory was greatly due. Twice as 
many Germans were killed as at Kéniggratz, 
the killed and wounded being estimated at 
17,000. The French loss was said to have 
been equally great) ‘ : ; 16 Aug. 1870 
Bazaine masses his troops for a decisive conflict, 
L7 AUS ey 
3. Battle of Rézonville or Gravelotte, gained by 
the combined rst and 2nd armies, commanded 
by the king in person, after twelve hours’ 
fighting. ‘‘ The most desperate struggle took 
place on the slopes over Gravelotte, which 
the Germans gained by nightfall, after re- 
peated fatal charges ; the fortune of the day 
being long in suspense. But the right of the 
French had been outflanked, they fell back 
fighting to the last, and retired under cover 
of Metz. The French are said to have lost 
19,000; and the Germans, 25,000.” (The king, 
on the xzoth, had not undressed for thirty 
hours. 1e carnage is considered to have 
been unexampled ; a large number of French 
prisoners were made ; and enormous loss was 
experienced by the imperial guard. The Ger- 
man army included Saxons and Hessians), 
rs Aug: (4; 
Bazaine repulsed in a sortie at Courcelles, near Metz 
(he claimed a victory) : - : 26 Aug. ,, 
His whole army defeated by gen. Manteuffel of the 
army of prince Frederick Charles, in a battle 
lasting from the morning of 31 Aug. to noon, 
zSept. ,, 
Von Steinmetz sent to govern Posen; prince 
Frederick Charles sole commander before Metz, 
2x Sept. ,, 
Three vigorous but ineffective sallies, 
23, 24, 27 Sept. ,, 
About 100,000 soldiers estimated in Metz, 30 Sept. ,, 
Great sortie ; the Germans surprised ; about 40,000 
French engaged ; they are repulsed after a severe 
engagement from 3 p.m. till dark ; loss about 2000 


French and 600 Germans : : é FOC ass 
About 600 oxen and 500 sheep captured during a 

sortie . ; ‘ r ; : “ 5 8 Oct: 
General Boyer arrives at Versailles to treat for 

terms of capitulation . : : PAPI 4 OCG ges 


Metz surrenders with the army, including marshals 
Bazaine, Canrobert, and Le Boeuf; 66 generals ; 
about 6000 officers ; 173,000 men, including the 
imperial guard; 400 pieces of artillery; 100 
mitrailleuses ; and 53 eagles or standards, 27 Oct. ,, 

The capitulation was signed at Frescati by generals 
Jarras and Stiehle on behalf of the French and 
German coinmanders : ; : 1 27: OCs 55 

General order to the army issued by marshal Bazaine, 
saying that they were *‘conquered by famine,” 

27 Oct. ,, 

Order to the army issued by prince Frederick 
Charles, recognising their bravery, great obedi- 
ence, calmness, cheerfulness, and devotion, 

27, Oct. 45 

The Germans enter Metz : : : 29 Oct. ,, 

One cause of the fall of Metz was the great army it 
contained ; it might have been suceessfully de- 
fended by 20,000 men. 

Marshal Bazaine was tried’and condemned to death 

for surrendering Metz and the army, 6 Oct.- 
10 Dec.; punishment commuted to 20 years’ 
imprisonment, 12 Dee. ; he escaped from Isle St. 
Marguerite . q F g Aug. 1874 

See France. 


MEXICO, anciently Anahuac, N. America, is 
said to haye been conquered by the Aztecs, who 
founded the city of Mexico about 1325. It was dis- 
eovered in 1517, and conquered by Fernando Cortez, 
1519-21; explored by Alexander von Humboldt, 
1799-1804. It is stated that there have been above 
260 insurrections in Mexico since 1821. Popula- 
tion, 1874, about 9,276,079 ; 12,000,000 in 1882. 
Montezuma emperor . 5 ; : : - 1503 
Cortes lands, 1519; captures the city of Mexico. 1521 
Mexico constituted a kingdom Cortes, governor . 1522 


MEXICO. 


550 


MEXICO. 


Mendoza, first viceroy of New Spain, 1530; estab- 
lishes a mint . 
Unsuccessful insurrections of Miguel Hidalgo, "1810; - 
of Morelos, 1815; of Mina 
Mexico declared independent by the tr eaty, of 
Aquala.. - 23 Aug. 
Augustin Iturbide, pr esident of a pr ‘ovisional junto, 
Feb. Mexico formed into an empire; the crown 
declined by Spain; Iturbide made emperor, May, 
Compelled to abdicate . ; . 26 March, 
Mexican federal republic proclaimed 4 Oct. 
Iturbide went to England; returns and prideav ours 
to recover his dignity ; shot . 19 July, 
Federal constitution established . 4 oa - Oct. 
Treaty of commerce with Great Britain April, 
Expulsion of the Spaniards decreed March, 
Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered, 


26 Sept. 
Mexican revolution: the ea Guerrero de- 
posed . ‘ ; 23 Dec. 
Santa Anna pr esident . . 11 May, 


Independence of Mexico recognised by Brazil, 


June, 1830; by Spain . 28 Dec. 
Declaration of war against France . 30 Nov. 
This war terminated . , g March, 
War with the United States 4 June, 


The Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, and at Mata- 
moras : 8 May, 
Santa Fe captur ed, 22 2 Aug. ; and Monterey, 24 Sept. 
Battle of Bueno Vista ; the Mexicans defeated by 
general Taylor, with great loss, after two days’ 
fighting é . 22 Feb. 
The Americans, under general Scott, defeat the 


Mexicans at Cerro Gorda 18 April, 
The Mexicans beaten in several actions; Mexico 
taken by assault by general Scott 15 Sept. 
Treaty of peace ratified - 19 May, 
Political convulsions Sept. 


President Arista resigns, 6 J an. . and Santa ratte 


returns, Feb. ; dictator 16 Dec. 
He abdicates ; : Carera elected president Jan. 
Who also abdicates; succeeded first by Alvarez, 
and afterwards by general Comonfort Dec. 
Property of the clergy sequestrated 31 March, 
New constitution established 5 Feb. 


Beginning of a reformed Church by Aguilar and 
others 
Comonfort chosen president : J uly, 
Coup d’état; constitution annulled by the church 
party ; Comonfort compelled to retire, 11 Jan.; 
general Zuloaga takes the government, 21-26 Jan. 
Benito Juarez declared constitutional president at 
Vera Cruz : : & eID HED 
Civil war: several engagements Aug. to Nov. 
General Miguel Miramon nominated president at 
Mexico by the Junta . . 6Jan. 
Zuloaga abdicates é 2 Feb. 
In consequence of injury to British’ subjects, ships 
of war sent to Mexico Feb. 
Miramon forces the lines of the liberal generals, 
enters the capital, assumes his functions as 
governor, and governs without respect to the 
laws of life and property - 10 April, 
Juarez confiscates the church proper ty 13 July, 
Miramon and the clerical party defeat the liberals 


under Colima 21 Dee. 
He besieges Vera Cr wz, 5 March; bombards it; 
compelled to raise the siege 21 March, 


General Zuloaga deposes Miramon, and assumes 
the presidency . 1 May, 
Miramon arrests Zuloaga, 9 "May; the diplomatic 
bodies suspend official relations with the former, 


to May, 
Miramon defeated by Degollado Io Aug. 


He governs Mexico with great tyranny; seizes 
152,000l1. belonging to English bondholders, Sept. ; 
the foreign ministers quit the city Oct. 

He is defeated ; compelled to retire; Juarez enters 
Mexico, 11 Jan.; re-elected president, . 19 Jan. 

Juarez made dictator by the congress . 30 June, 

The Mexican congress decides to suspend payments 
to foreigners for two years 17 July, 

Which leads to the breaking off diplomatic reations 
with England and France c 27 July, 

In consequence of many gross outrages on foreign- 
ers, the British, French, and Spanish govern- 
ments, after much vain negotiation, claiming 
efficient protection of foreigners, and the payment 


3 


of arrears due to fundholders, sign a convention 
engaging to combined hostile operations against 
Mexico . 31, OG. 
The Mexican congress dissolves, after content 
full powers on the president Fea ts Dec. 
Spanish troops land at Vera Cruz, 8 Dec.; it sur- 
renders a 7 Dec. 
A British naval and French military expeditii 
arrives 7, 8 Jan. 
The Mexicans resist, and invest Vera Cruz; their 
taxes raised 25 per “cent. . Jan. 
Miramon arrives, but is sent back to Spain by 
the British admiral. Feb. 
Project of establishing a Mexican monarchy, for 
archduke Maximilian. of Austria, disapproved of 
by British and Spanish governments Feb. 
Negotiation ensues between the Spanish and Mexi. 
cans; convention between the commissaries of 
the allies and the Mexican general Doblado, at 
Soledad : mA 19 Feb. 


The Mexican general ‘Marquez takes up arms 
against Juarez; and general Almonte joins thé 
French general Lorencez ; Juarez demands a com: 
pulsory loan, and puts Mexico in a state of siege, 

March. 

Conference between plenipotentiaries of the allie: 
at Orizaba; the English and Spanish declare fo 
peace, which is not agreed to by the French. 
g April; who declare war against Juarez 

16 April 

The Spanish and British forces retire; the Frenel 

government sends reinforcements to Lorencez 
May 

The French, induced by Marquez, advance int 
the interior; severely repulsed by Zaragoza, ai 
Fort Guadaloupe, near Puebla : . § May 

Juarez quits the capital : 31 May 

The French defeat the Mexicans at Cerro de Borgo 
near Orizaba . - 13, 14 June 

The Mexican liberals said to be desirous of nego 
tiation . Aug 

Gen. Forey and 2 500 French soldiers land 28 Ate 

Letter from the emperor Napoleon to Lorence: 
disclaiming any intention of imposing a govern 


ment on Mexico; announced Sept 
Death of Zaragoza, a great loss to ‘the Mexigans 
8 Sept 


Gen. Forey deprives Almonte of the presidency ai 
Vera Cruz, and appropriates the civil and mili 
tary power to himself é . Cet 


Ortega takes command of the Mexicans 1g Oct 
The Mexican congress assembles, and prom 


against the French invasion . 27 Oct 
The French evacuate Tampico A 13 Jan. 
Forey marches towards Mexico . . 24 Feb 
Siege of Puebla; bravely defended, 29 March 
severe assault, 31 March to 3 April ; it is sur 


rendered at discretion by Ortega . . 18 May 


Juarez and the republican government remove t 
San Luis de Potosi - 31 May 

Mexico occupied by the French, “under Bazaie 
5 June; Forey and his army enter, io June; pro 
visional government 

Assembly of notables at Mexico decide on the es 
tablishment of a limited hereditary monarchy, 
with a Roman Catholic prince as emperor; anc 
offer the crown to the archduke Maximilian 0 
Austria: a regency established. . 6-10July 

The French re-oceupy Tampico A ir Aug 

Marshal Forey resigns his command to Bazaine, 
and returns to France 3 I 

The archduke Maximilian will accept ‘the crown ii 
it be the willofthe people . . . 390 


The Mexican general Comonfort surprised and shot 
by par tisans 12 Nov. 
Successful advance of the imperialists ; Juare? 
retires from San Luis de Potosi, 18 Dee. ; it is 
entered by the imperialists. ‘ . » 2aeDec, 
The French occupy various places — Jan. & Feb. 
The ex-president, general Santa Anna, lands a! 
Vera Cruz, professing adhesion to the empire 
27 Feb. ; dismissed by Bazaine 12 March, 
Juarez enters Monterey, which becomes ch seat ¢ 
the republican government . April 
The archduke Maximilian definitively acai the 
crown from the Mexican deputation at Miramar, 
10 _ 


i | 


MEXICO. 


/ emperor and empress land at Vera Cruz, 29 May; 
ter the city of Mexico 5 ; . i2Jdune, 
) emperor visits the interior; grants a free press, 
5 Aug. 
republicans defeat the imperialists at San Pedro, 
i! 27 Dec. 
‘ez, at Chihuahua, exhorts the Mexicans to 
-aintain their independence : x Jan. 
; emperor institutes the order of the Mexican 


le. H : ; ; ; : aes 
ender of Oaxaca to marshal Bazaine 9 Feb. 
‘mstitution promulgated . ; . to April, 
juga, at New York, enlists recruits for the repub- 
‘an army, May; discountenanced by the U. 5. 


| i vvernment : : ; A ‘ dunes 
‘iversary of Mexican independence ; descend- 
its of Iturbide made princesses, &c. 16 Sepiiers, 


‘ist generals taken prisoners ; 


ench occupation . ‘ : é 
\ideney of Juarez expires; he determines to 
| tinue to act,30 Nov.; he flies to Texas,20 Dec. 
Jad, on the Rio Grande, seized by American 
yiarists, 4, 5 Jan. ; occupied by the American 
neral Weitzel, 5 Jan. ; his conduct disavowed ; 
| id Bagdad re-occupied by imperialists, 20 Jan. 
| isterial changes : Q , March-April, 
heror Napoleon agrees to withdraw all his sol- 
| ers from Mexico between Nov. 1866 and Noy. 1867 
! April, 
| rilla warfare going on, numerous conflicts, with 
ying success : , : March-May, 
-amoras captured by the liberals, under Escobedo, 
23, 24 June, 
empress Charlotte departs for France, 13 July ; 
| mspiracy against the government suppressed, 
: 15-17 July, 
| vention between Maximilian and the French ; 
\ ansfer of the receipts of the customs to France, 
30 July, 
|.rezand his party take Tampico . ee ee 
| Americans disallow Maximilian’s blockade of 
atamoras . , : : : 17 Aug. 
| sension among the liberals ; three rival presi- 
mts, Juarez, Ortega, and Santa Anna, 
ie Sept. -Oct. 
| empress solicits help from France, in vain, 
| apt. ; she falls ill ; F : . . Oct. 
‘n speech of emperor Maximilian . . 19 Sept. 
-peror leaves Mexico for Orizaba ; giving autho- 
‘ty to Bazaine . s : A Oct. 
| French evacuate several places . Nov. 
| erial council at Orizaba determine to maintain 
| 1e empire : : : : . 24 Nov. 
th of Augustin Iturbide . ‘ é 11 Dec. 
‘cdmilian, at the head of the army, arrives at 
‘ueretaro : : - , : 19 Feb. 
| varture of the French, 13 Jan., 5 Feb., 14 March, 
‘test for supremacy between Juarez, Diaz, and 
irtega . 5 i - Z 2 3 . April, 
vretaro, after many conflicts, captured by 
treachery ; Mendez shot. : : . 15 May, 
peror Maximilian, Miramon, and Mejia, after 
Hrial, shot . : , . : . | 19 June, 
| sico city taken after 67 days’ siege ; republic re- 
| stablished , : F i . 21 June, 
| render of Vera Cruz . A 5 * 25 June, 
‘ita Anna captured ; detained a prisoner July, 
‘| rez enters Mexico ; convokes the assembly to 
lect a president 5 3 4 . 14, 15 July, 
‘rquez and others said to be organising resistance 
‘o Juarez ; : x : 3 F Aug. 
merous executions ; reign of terror Aug. et sey. 
tirio Diaz said to be nominated for the Spee 
ept. 
‘ita Anna sentenced to eight years’ eee 
18 Oct. 
‘ximilian’s body given up to the Austrian admiral 
‘legethoff . 2 Pa ea, ‘ 26 Noy. 
xican congress opened ; Juarez acting as provi- 
ional president; foreign consuls said to be leaving, 


— 


551 


8 Dec. ;,, 

} avez re-elected president. a IDECHE >> 

arez inaugurated as president . about 25 Dec. ,, 
‘\ximilian’s body buried at Vienna. 18 Jan, 1868 


MEXICO. 


Rebellion against Juarez in Yucatan and other pro- 


vinces : ; A 8 F . Jan,-Feb. 
Hasty blockade of Mazatlan by capt. Bridge of 
H.M.S. Chanticleer, for an outrage 20 June ; 
raised by admiral Hastings : : July, 
Treaty with United States adopted . Dec. 
Insurrection at Puebla suppressed Feb. 
General Almonte dies at Paris . i March, 
Encounter between Mexicans and United States 
troops who had pursued some Indian depreda- 
tors ; about 40 Americans killed ; reported, 
12 April, 
Election for president ; Diaz, 1982 votes ; Juarez, 
1963; Lerdo, 1366 ; Juarez retains the power, 
27 July, 
Insurrections arise 5 : - : sp 1 Ug 
Insurrection headed by Negrete, Riveras, and 
others, suppressed with much slaughter 12 Oct. 
Juarez re-elected president é ‘ . Oct. 
Insurgents under Porfirio Diaz twice defeated ; 
announced : : : 5 ; a Jan. 
Civil war going on with varying success, April-June, 
Rebels nearly subdued : : : . rJduly, 
Death of Benito Juarez (aged about 68) by apoplexy 
18 July, 
The country tranquil ; Diaz accepts the amnesty ; 
announced ; : : : 3 . 14 Aug. 
Lerdo de Tejado (of good character) elected presi- 
dent, Oct. ; Diaz submits ; ! SEN OV 
Railway from Mexico city to Vera Cruz completed ; 
TUNES jan. ; : : : : 23 Jan. 
Customs’ tariffs liberalised July, 
A senate voted by the Congress Aug. 
Religious orders suppressed. : Dec. 
Religious disturbances : Catholic outrages on Pro- 
testants : ; : : . ; Jan. 
Insurrection by Porfirio Diaz, March ; he takes Ma- 
tamoras : ss 3 x April, 


Progress of reformed church ; overtures for union 
with episcopal church of United States 
about April, 
Insurgents defeated at Oaxaca, 29 May ; at Quinre- 
taro . 2 : ; F : ; . June, 
Death of Santa Anna, ex-president . . 20 June, 
Diaz defeats the government troops at Tekoar, 
12 Nov. ; enters Mexico, assumes power as provi- 
sional president . - F ; : 20 Nov. 
President Lerdo de Tejado retires ; Iglesias takes 
arms as president : ; i : Dec. 
Diaz defeats Iglesias, who retreats; Diaz elected 


president, 18 Feb. ; proclaimed . 5 May, 
Brief rebellion ; about 80 hanged ; announced, 
28 Dec. 


Insurrection of Negrete; Diaz marches against 
him ; becomes president 16 June, 
Manuel Gonzalez elected, 11 July ; succeeds 1 Dec. 
‘About 200 lives lost through precipitation of train 
on San Morelos railway into the river near 
Cuartla, through fall of bridge night of 24 June, 
Increase of railways constructed by Americans 
British envoy re-appointed (sir Spencer St. John), 
June ; received . “ 3 17 July, 
Remains of an ancient city discovered in Sonora, 
near Magdalena, including a great pyramid, 
rooms cut in a stony mountain, implements, &c. 
and hieroglyphic inscriptions ; ; : . 
Diplomatic relations with Great Britain resumed, 
announced, Aug. 
Concession obtained from the Mexican government 
by Mr. James B. Eades for 99 years for the con- 
struction of a railway for the conveyance of ships 
across the isthmus ; estimated cost, 15,000,000l. ; 
model exhibited at Long Acre, London. Aug. 


| Riots in Mexico city on account of conversion of 


18 Nov. 


English debt; bloodshed . - ‘ 
x Dec. 


Porfirio Diaz inaugurated president . : 


EMPERORS. 


1822. Aug. Augustin Iturbide, Feb. ; 
March, 1823; shot for attempting 
authority, 19 July, 1824. 

£864. Maximilian (brother to 
born 6 July, 1832; 
April, 1864 ; 


9 
” 


abdicated 23 
to recover his 


the emperor of Austria), 
accepted the .crown, 10 
married 27 July, 1857, to princess 


Charlotte, daughter of Leopold I., king of the 


Belgians; adopted Augustin Iturbide a 
heir, Sept. 1865; shot (after a trial), 19 
1867. 


s his 
June 


MEZZOTINTO. 


MEZZOTINTO, see Engraving. 


MHOW COURT-MARTIAL, see Trials, 
Nov. 1863. 


MICHAEL, St., AnD GEORGE, St. 
This order of knighthood, founded for the Ionian 
Isles and Malta, 27 April, 1818, was reorganised in 
March, 1869, in order to admit servants of the 
crown connected with the colonies. Among the 
first of the new knights were the earl of Derby, earl 
Russell, and earl Grey. 


MICHAELMAS, 29 Sept., the feast of St. 
Michael, the reputed guardian of the Roman 
Catholic church, under the title of ‘‘St. Michael 
and All Angels.’ Instituted, according to Butler, 
487. 

The custom of eating goose at Michaelmas has been 
erroneously attributed to Queen Elizabeth’s eating of 
the bird at dinner on 29 Sept. 1588, at the house of sir 
Neville Umfreyville, at the time she heard of the 
destruction of the Spanish Armada. The custom is of 
much older date, and is observed on the continent. 
Clavis Calendaria. 


MICHAEL’S MOUNT, Sr. (Cornwall), is 
considered by some to be the Iktis of Diodorus 
Siculus, and an ancient resort of the tin merchants. 
St. Michael was said to have appeared on the 
mount, 495 or 710; and the place, thus reputed 
holy, became the seat of a body of monks, who 
received a charter from Edward the Confessor, 
1044, and many privileges from pope Gregory VIL., 
1079. 


MICHIGAN, 2 north-west state of N. America, 
settled by the French, 1670; admitted into the union, 
26 Jan. 1837. Capital, Lansing. 

About 500 persons perish and 10,000 nade homeless 
by destructive forest fires on 5 Sept. 1881 


MICROMETER, an astronomical instrument 
used to measure any small distances and the minuter 
objects in the heavens, such as the apparent dia- 
meters of the planets, &c., was invented by Wm. 
Gascoigne, who was killed at the battle of Marston- 
moor, 2 July, 1644. It was improved by Huyghens 
about 1652. Sir Joseph Whitworth made a ma- 
chine to measure the millionth of an inch, about 
1858; the measurement of the 30,o00th of an inch 
is now common. 


MICROPHONE (Greek, mikros, little; phone, 
sound), a name given by Wheatstone, in 1827, toan 
instrument for rendering weak sounds audible by 
means of solid rods. The name was also given to 
an arrangement invented (in Dec. 1877) by pro- 
fessor D. E. Hughes (an American, an inventor 
of the printing telegraph), and shown to the Royal 
Society, 9 May, 1878. 

An electric current is established between two mode- 
rately conducting bodies (such as pieces of charcoal, 
metallised by being plunged when heated into mer- 
cury) resting slightly upon each other, mounted on a 
piece of thin wood. If the contact is so made that 
one of the bodies may be easily displaced, minute 
sounds produced on the wood disturb the electric 
conductivity at the place of contact, and may be heard 
by the help of the telephone. The sonorous and 
electric waves are thus rendered synchronous, and 
become convertible. The tread of a fly sounds like 
that of a large quadruped. See Z'elephone. 


MICROSCOPES, said to have been invented 


by Jansen, in Holland, about 1590; by Fontana, in | 


Italy, and by Drebbel, in Holland, about 1621. 
Those with double glasses were made at the period 
when the law of refraction was discovered, about 
1624. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. 


MIDIAN. 


Hooke. In England great improvements were m:; 
in the microscope by Benjamin Martin (who 
vented and sold pocket microscopes about 1740), 
Henry Baker, F.R.S., about 1763, and still grea 
during the present century by Wollaston, Ix 
Jackson, Varley, Hugh Powell, and others. Dian 
mucroscopes were made by Andrew Pritchard 
1824; and the properties of ‘‘test objects”’ to pr 
the qualities of microscopes, discovered by him ; 
Goring in 1824-40. A binocular microscope (1.é., 
two eyes), was constructed by professor Riddell 
1851, and Wenham’s important improvements Ww 
made known in 1861. ‘Treatises on the micros¢ 
by J. Quekett (1848), by Dr. W. B. Carpenter (11 
et seq.), by Dr. Lionel Beale (1858 et seq.), : 
Griffith and Henfrey’s ‘‘ Micrographic Dictionat 
(1856, 1875, and 1883), are valuable. The Mic 
scopical Society of London was established 20 I 
1839, and the Quekett Microscopical Club, 1865. 
1865 Mr. H. Sorby exhibited his spectrum mieroset 
by which the millionth of a grain of blood ' 
detected. 


MICRO-TASIMETER, a new instrum 
invented by Mr. T. A, Edison, in which he has 
plied the principle of the carbon microphone to 
measurement of infinitesimal pressure; announ 
July, 1878. He proposes to apply the principle 
delicate barometers, thermometers, hygromet 
&e. 


MIDDLE AGES, see Dark Ages. 
Hallam’s ‘‘ Middle Ages”? appeared in 1818. 


MIDDLE-CLASS EXAMINATION A 
SCHOOLS, sce Education (1858, and 1865-8) 
Middle-Class Education Corporation, established 

1866, for education of children of clerks and other 

similar ranks of life. Building in Cowper-str 

London. 


MIDDLE-LEVELS, see Levels. 
MIDDLESBOROUGH, N. Riding of Y¥« 


shire, on the Tees, a coal port and a chief seat of 
iron manufacture, the first house erected by Ge 
Chapman, April, 1830; population, 1861, 18, 
1881, 71,634. New dock, and literary and scien 
institution opened, Oct. 1875. Mr. Henry W 
Bolckow and John Vaughan, heads of great it 
works (Mr. Bolckow, the first mayor and M 
died 18 June, 1878). The prosperity of the Cl 
land district, which had greatly declined since I 
began to revive in the autumn of 1879. At 
jubilee celebration, 6 Oct. 1881, a bust of 

Boleckow was unveiled; and one of Mr. Vaug 
was unveiled 2 June, 1884. See under Steel. 


MIDDLESEX, the metropolitan county 
England, was the seat of the T'rinobantes in 
Roman province, Flavia Ceesariensis, and the } 
del-Sexe, or Middle Saxons, in the kingdon 
East-Sexne, or Essex. Lionel Cranfield was | 
ated earl of Middlesex, 16 Sept. 1622; succeedec 
his sons, James, 1645-51; Lionel, 1651-74, W 
the title became extinct. Charles Sackville 
made earl in 1675; and his son became duk 
Dorset in 1720. 


MIDDLESEX HOSPITAL, Lon 
founded, 1745; incorporated, 1836; cancer % 
endowed, 1791. 


MIDIAN, now ARZ MADIAN, N.W. Aral 
anciently held by the descendants of Midian, a 
of Abraham. Having enticed the Israelites to 1 
atry, they were severely chastised, 1452 B.c. 1 
invaded Canaan about 1249 B.c., and were % 
roughly defeated by Gideon. 


He 


| Capt. Richard F. Burton explored the ruined citic 


MIDLAND INSTITUTE. 


a in 1877, and found the remains of ancient | 
, many relics, and gold. An expedition, equipped 
‘| khedive of Egypt, and placed under his com- 
| started from Suez, 10 Dec. 1877, and returned 
jal, 1878. He brought home 25 tons of geological 
ies, specimens of silver and copper ore, many 
‘and other antiquities, and photographs of the 
, 1s of ruined cities, &c. 


eed INSTITUTE, BIRMINGHAM, 
rated 1854. 


JLAND RAILWAY STATION, St. 
“|, N. London, possessing the largest known 
the world (245 feet 6 inches wide, and 698 
_g), was opened for traffic 1 Oct. 1868. The 
_rwas Mr. H. W. Barlow. The architect of 
' mificent Gothic hotel was sir G. Gilbert Scott. 


)WIFERY. Women were the only practi- 
vamong the Hebrews and Egyptians. Hippo- 
'in Greece, 460 B.c., is styled the father of 
“ry, as well as of ’ physic. * It advanced 
H ers, who flourished a.p. 37, and of Galen, 
ed 131. In England midwifery became a 
about the period of the institution of the 
of physicians, 10 Hen. VII. 1518. Dr. 
engaged in the practice of it, about 1603 ; 
iffirms that madame de la Valliére, mistress 
sXIV., in 1663, employed Julian Clement, 
10, with great secrecy. 


| AN, Mediolanum, capital of the ancient 
jy Row Lombardy, is reputed to have been 
‘the Gauls, about 408 B.c. The cathedral 


| duomo was built about 1385. 
| 


sed by the Roman consul Marcellus . B.C. 222 

}overnment of the western empire . A.D. 286 

of Milan Ps : : 346 
| rose, bishop of Milan 375 
| undered by Attila ; see 
| |in the Ostrogothic kingdom, 489: in the 

ird kingdom 569 


|} an independent republic a IOr 

eror Frederic I. takes Milan, and appoints 

sta, 1158 
¥ in taken by Frederic and its fortifications 


a 1LOz 

‘ana fortified. . 1169 
nese defeated by the emp. Frederic II. | 12 37 
“onti become paramount in Milan . eul277 
leazzo Visconti takes the title of duke 7 £305 
1:0 Sforza, son-in-law of the last of the Vis- 


subdues Milan and becomes duke . Rerd 50 

| nquered by Louis XII. of France a - 1499 

‘ich expelled by the Spaniards . ee LSes 

_nexed to the crown of Spain 1540 
ague alleviated by the ar chbishop Bor- 

> 1576 

i ded to Austria’ E eg 


| od by the French and Spaniar ds 


1743 
to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily being 


#toSpain. i : . 1748 
}7;the French . é 30 J une, 1796 
HY ee the Austrians 1799 
) | by the French 31 “May, » 1800 


}> capital of the kingdom of Italy, ahd Napo- 
maparte crowned with the iron crown here, 
26 May, 
nv decree of Napoleon against all continental 
urse with England 17 Ve; 
don against the Austrians ; flight of the 
= “18 March, 1848 
rs to the Austrians’ re Augen Ss 
f peace between Austria and Sardinia, 
6 Aug. 1849 


1805 


1807 


y dice, an Athenian virgin, disguised her sex to 
‘dicine. She was taught by Hierophilus, her 
1e art of midwifery, and, when employed, always 
od her sex to her patients. This brought her 
| uch practice, that the profession, now out of 
,ent, accused her, before the Areopagus, of 
in. She confessed her sex to the judges, and a 
nade to empower all free-born women to learn 
'y. The whole story is doubtful. 


6d3 


MILITIA. 


Another revolt promptly suppressed and rigorously 
punished : . 6Feb. ef seq. 
Milan visited by the emperor of Austria Nov. 
Amnesty for political offences granted Dec. 
After the defeat of the Austrians at Magenta, 4 June, 
Napoleon IIL. and the king of Sardinia enter Milan, 

8 June, 
Peace of Villafranca; a large part of Lombardy 
transferred to Sardinia 12 July, 
Victor-Emmanuel enters Milan as ‘king 8 Aug. 
Reactionary plots of Neapolitan soldiery suppressed, 
29, 30 April, 

The Victor-Emmanuel gallery opened by the king, 
15 Sept. 

The arts exhibition opened by the king 26 Aug. 
Visit of the emperor of Germany . 18-23 Oct. 1875 

The Mentana Memorial inaugurated by Garibaldi, 

4 Nov. 1880 

: May, 1881 


1853 
1856 


1857 


1859 
1860 
1861 


1867 
1872 


National exhibition, opened by the king 
See Italy. 


MILBANK PENITENTIARY, West- 
minster: The very unhealthy site was purchased 
of the Marquis of Salisbury in 1799 for 12,000/. 
The building, a modification of Jeremy Bentham’s 
Panopticon (which see), first received convicts 
27 June, 1816. 

In consequence of many deaths during a great 
epidemic the convicts were placed in Woolwich hulks, 
1822-3. On 16 June, 1843, a committee reported the 
penitentiary a failure. The system was abolished in 
parliament, and the building styled Milbank prison. 


MILETUS, « Greek city of Ionia, Asia Minor, 
founded about 104 B.C. The Milesians defended 
themselves successtully, 623-612 B.c. During the 
war with Persia it was taken, 494, but restored, 

Here Paul delivered his celebrated charge 
to the elders of the church of Ephesus, a.D. 60 
(Acts xx.). 


MILFORD HAVEN (Wales). Here the 
earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII. landed 
on his way to encounter Richard III. whom he 
defeated at Bosworth, 1485. The packets from this 
port to Ireland, sailing to Waterford, were esta- 
blished in 17 The dock-yard, established here 
in 1790, was a cae to Pembroke in 1814. 


MILITARY ASYLUM, Royat, at Chelsea, 
*¢ for the children of the soldiers of the regular 
army.’ The first stone was laid by the duke of 
York, 19 June, 1801. 


MILITARY EDUCATION, 
June, 1868. 


MILITARY KNIGHTS or WINDSOR, 
see Poor Knights of Windsor. 


MILITARY or MARTIAL LAW is built 
on no settled principle, but is entirely arbitrary, 
and, in truth, no law; but sometimes indulged, 
rather than allowed, as law. Str Matthew Hale. 
It has been several times proclaimed in parts of 
these kingdoms, and in 1798 was almost general in 
Ireland, where it was also proclaimed in 1803. 


MILITIA, the standing national force of these 
realms, is traved to king Alfred, who made all his 


see Army, 


subjects soldiers, 872-901. ‘See under Arm y 
Defence. 

Commission of array to raise a militia . I122 
Revived by Henry IL. s : « 1176 
Again revived mets 57) 
Said to amount to 160,60 ooo men 5 . 1623 
The militia statutes . 1661 to 1663 
Supplemental militia act passed . - 1796 


Irish militia offered its services in England, 
28 March, 


General militia act for England and Scotland, 1802; 
for Ireland . : : : : st LOOG 


1804 


MILITIA. 


Enactment authorising courts-imartial to inflict 


imprisonment instead of flogging passed . 1814 
Acts to consolidate the militia laws 1852°-54 


Militia embodied on account of the Russian war, 
1854; onaccount of the Indian mutiny, 1857; and 
on account of the warin the Soudan . 18 Feb. 1885 
Militia reserve act passed . : . : . 1867 
Militia in 1872, 139,018; 1875, 149,330; 1877, 134,5003 
in 1884, 82,525. 
Militia (volunteers) Enlistment Act, consolidating 
and amending the laws passed . ir Aug. 1875 
Another consolidation act passed ' j . 1882 


MILITIA OF JESUS, a society of Roman 
Catholic youth of France and Italy, formed to sup- 
port the papal cause by. moral agencies, became 
known in 1877. 


MILK. The type of food as containing all 
things needful for the development of the animal 
body. A process for its condensation was in- 
vented by Mr. Gail Borden, near New York, in 
1849, for which he was awarded a medal at the 
Great Exhibition in 1851, when he erected factories. 
He invented meat biscuit, 1850. The Anglo-Swiss 
condensed milk company was established in 1866; 
and since then the Aylesbury company. 

Typhoid fever (said to be caused by bad milk, pre- 
vailed)in London, Aug., Sept. 1873; about 20 died 

of fever through milk, at and near Hagley, Lan- 

cashire : March, 1876 


MILKY WAY (Galaxy) in the heavens. 
Juno is said by the Greek poets to have spilt her 
milk in the heavens after suckling Mercury or 
Hercules. Democritus (about 428 B.c.) taught that 
the wra lactea consisted of stars, which Galileo 
(1610-42) proved by the telescope. 


MILLENARIANS suppose that the world 
will end at the expiration of the seven thousandth 
year from the creation; and that during a thousand 
years (millennium) Christ and the saints will reign 
upon the earth; see Rev. xx. The doctrine was 
very generally inculcated in the 2nd and 3rd cen- 
turies, by Papias, Justin Martyr and others. 


MILLENARY PETITION, presented to 
king James on his accession, 1603, on behalf of 
nearly a thousand Puritan ministers against the 


‘*human rites and ceremonies ”’ of the church of: 


England. 


“MILLS. Moses forbade mill-stones to be taken 
in pawn, because it would be like taking a man’s 
life to pledge. Deut. xxiv.6. The hand-mill was 
in use among the Britons previously to the con- 
quest by the Romans. The Romans introduced the 
water-mill. Cotton mills moved by water were 
erected by sir Richard Arkwright, at Cromford, 
Derbyshire. He died in 1792. See Mechanies. 
Mill-work exhibition at the Agricultural Hall, 
London, N. 10-18 May, 1881. 


MILWAUKEE. A town’ in Wisconsin, 
North America. The New Hall hotel was burnt 
4 AM. 10 Jan. 1883, when about 109 persons 
perished. George Scheller, lessee of the bar-room, 
arrested for arson about 17 Jan. 1883. 


MINCIO, a river of Lombardy. Here the 
Austrians were repulsed by the French under 


* This militia act was consequent upon the then pre- 
vailing opinion of the necessity of strengthening our 
national defences against the possibility of French 
invasion. The act empowered her majesty to raise a 
force not exceeding 80,000 men, of which number 50,000 
were to be raised in 1852, and 30,000 in 1855; the quotas 
for each county or riding to be fixed by an order in 
council, 


554 


“a 
a 
a 
< 
i 
d 


Brune, 25-27 Dec. 1800; and by Eugen 
harnais, 8 Feb. 1814, near Valeggio. 


MINDEN (Prussia), BATTLE OF, 
1759, between the English, Hessians, anc 
verians’ (under prince Ferdinand of Bru 
and the French (under marshal De Contad 
were beaten and driven to the ramparts of - 
Lord George Sackville (afterwards lord 
Germain) who commanded the British an 
verian horse, for some disobedience of orc 
tried by a court-martial on his return to I 
found guilty, and dismissed, 22 April, 17 
was afterwards restored to favour, and 
secretary of state, 1776. 


MINERALOGY anp MINES. 
and Tacitus enumerate gold and silver a: 
the products of Britain. The earliest inst: 
claim to a mine royal being enforced o 
Hen. III. 1262. It related to mines co: 
gold, together with copper, in Devonst 
Edward I.’s reign, according to Mr. Rud 
mines in Ireland, which produced silver, ¥ 
posed to be so rich that the king directed a 
working them to Robert de Ufford, lord 
1276. ‘The lead mines of Cardiganshire, fro 
silver has ever since been extracted, were di 
by sir Hugh Middleton in the reign of Ji 
see Coal, and the various metals. 

The study of mineralogy was advanced by Bee 

Kircher, and Woodward in the 17th century. 
A British Mineralogical Society established in 
Haiiy’s ‘‘ Traité de Minéralogie” appeared in . 
Mining Journal established 5 5 - 29 
The government School of Mines, &c., Jem 

street, St. James’s, opened in ; i 
An act for the regulation of mines passed in 
A Miners’ Protection Association proposed by 

William Gurney and others in 5 . Ma 
Value of the total mineral produce of the Un 


MINIMIZERS. 


Kingdom estimated at 29,155,7o1/. in 
31,680,581l. in 1859}; 40,310,931. in i& 
40,345,945l. in 1866; 41,521,705. in a 
46,094,600l, in 18703 69,041,158/. im 418 


63,737,811. in 1879 ; 88,042,457/. im 188r. 
Miners’ conference, for amelioration of their : 
dition, held at Merthyr Tydvil; well conduct 
Mr. Halliday president , i , Ar 4 
Metalliferous Mines Regulation act passed 10 / 
The Amalgamated Association of Miners begw) 
Lancashire about 1869, held a conference at} 
port, 1872; at Bristol “ 2 : «Bh! 
Royal commission on mines (see under Coal) 
pointed, Feb. 1879. Reportissued . 2} 
Mineralogical society of Great Britain held 
meeting in London, 3 Feb. 1876, and others si 
Another society termed itself h, k, 1, Mil 
symbol for the face of a erystal ; 4 
A miners’ national conference on wages, &c. ; op 
at Birmingham, 20 April, 1881 ; at Manche: 
29 Aug. 1882, and since. 
James D, Dana’s ‘‘System of Mineralogy,” 
edition . A A : 


MINERVA, see Athens and Parthené 


MINIE RIFLE, invented at Vincenn 
1833, by M. Minié (born 1810). From a 
soldier he raised himself to the rank 
d’escadron. His rifle, considered to sur 
made previous to it, was adopted by the 
and, with modifications, by the British, 1 
Fire Arms. 

MINIMIZERS. A name given to 
writers who advocate the limitation of t! 
reign power of the state as much as possib! 
protection of life and property, which : 
by professor Huxley ‘‘administratiye 1 
They include W. von Humboldt, J. 8. Mil 
‘‘ Essay on Liberty’’), and Mr. Herbert 
(in his “ Political Institutions’’), 1882. 


MINIMS. 


555 


; 


VIMS (from minimi, the least), an order of , 


founded by S. Francisco di Paolo, in Cala- 
‘ceived their name, as professing themselves 
+ to the Minorites (from minor, less); see 
scans. St. Francis died in France in 1507; 
‘fhe had established houses of his order. 


VISTER OF WAR, see War Minister. 
VISTERS, see Administrations. 


YISTERS in Scotland: church patronage 
olished in 1874. 
YNESINGERS, lyric German poets, of 
hand 13th centuries, who sang of love and 
entertain knights and barons of the time. 
vistersingers, their successors, an incorporated 
ity in the 14th century, composed satirical 
_ for the amusement of the citizens and lower 
| Hans Sachs, a shoemaker (1494-1576), a 
the reformation, was for a time their dean. 
orks were published at Nuremberg, 1560. 
glass’’ and ‘‘Reynard the Fox,” are attri- 
i the Meistersingers. 


NNESOTA, a western state of N. America, 
ganised as a territory, 3 March, 1849, and 
dinto the union in1857. On 17 Aug. 1862, 
fux Indians commenced a series of outrages 
‘min Messler county, desolating the country 
‘assacring above 500 persons, of both sexes, 
all ages. General Sibley beat the Indians 
battles and rescued many captives. Thirty- 
‘ndians were executed as assassins. 


YORCA anp MAJORCA, the Balearic 
‘which see). Port Mahon in Minorca was 
xd by lieutenant-general Stanhope and sir 
‘leake in 1708, and was ceded to the British 
. treaty of Utrecht in 1713. It was retaken 
Spanish and French in July, 1756, and 
1 Byng fell a victim to public indignation 
;relieving it; see Byng. It was restored to 
itish at the peace in 1763; taken 5 Feb. 
again captured by the British under general 
without the loss ofa man, 15 Nov. 1798; 
ip at the peace of Amiens, 25 March, 1802. 


NORITIES. In the new reform bill, 
15 Aug. 1867, provision was made for the 
ntation of minorities in constituencies with 
aembers by limiting each elector to two votes. 
introduced as an amendment by lord Cairns 
lords, 30 July, and accepted by the commons, 
867. The principle was adopted in a new 
‘ution by the state of Illinois, U.S., July, 
See Proportional Representation. 


NSTER, or MoNASTERIUM, a place oc- 
| by monks; see /Vestminster and York. 


|NSTRELS, originally pipers appointed by 
| fmanors to divert their copyholders while at 
owed their origin to the glee men or harpers 
} Saxons, and continued till about 1560. John 
| nt erected a court of minstrels at ‘Tutbury in 
| So late as the reign of Henry VIII. they 
d without ceremony into all companies, even 
) houses of the nobility; but in Elizabeth’s 
| they were adjudged rogues and vagabonds 


iment of the mint about 928. There were 
‘. provincial mints under the control of that 
don. Henry I. is said to have instituted a 
t Winchester, 1125. Stow says the mint was 


| of coining, 7 Edw. I. 1278. The operators 


| 
| 


vy Italians, the Knglish being ignorant of | 


ormed into a corporation by the charter of | since. 


MISSIONS. 


king Edward III., in which condition it consisted 
of the warden, master, comptroller, assay-master, 
workers, coiners, and subordinates. The first entry 
of gold brought to the mint for coinage occurs in 
18 Edw. III. 1343. ‘Tin was coined by Charles II. 
1684; and gun-metal and pewter by his successor 
James after his abdication. Sir Isaac Newton was 
warden, 1699-1727, during which time the debased 
coin was called in, and new issued at the loss of 
the government. Between 1806 and I8Io, grants 
amounting to 262,000/. were made by parliament 
for the erection of the present mint, which was 
completed in 18103; it was injured by fire, 31 Oct. 
1815. The new constitution of the mint, founded 
on the report of the hon. Wellesley Pole, took 
effect in 1817. Professor Thomas Graham, the 
master of the mint, died 16 Sept. 1869. By the 
Coinage Act, passed 4 April, 1870, the office was 
combined with that of the chancellor of the ex- 
chequer, the duties being transferred to the deputy- 
master (Mr. C. W. Freemantle). After reorgani- 


zation, the work was resumed, 8 Dec. 1882. See 
Coinage. 

MASTERS OF THE MINT. 
1817. Wellesley Pole. 1841. William EH. Glad- 
1823. Thomas Wallace. stone. 
1827. George Tierney. 1845. Sir George Clerk. 
1828. J. C. Herries. 1846. Richard L. Sheil. 


Lord Auckland. 
James Abercrombie. 
1835. Alexander Baring. 
»» Henry Labouchere. 
MINUET, a French dance, said to have been 
first danced by Louis XIY. 1653. 


MINUS, see Plus. 
MIRACLE PLAYS, see under Drama. 


MIRIDITES, or MirpireEs, see Lurkey, 
1877. 

MIRRORS. In ancient times mirrors were 
made of metal; those of the Jewish women of 
brass. Mirrors of silver were introduced by Praxi- 
teles, 328 B.c. Mirrors or looking-glasses were 
made at Venice, a.p. 1300; and in England, at 
Lambeth, near London, in 1673. The improve- 
ments in manufacturing plate-glass, and that of 
very large size, have cheapened looking-glasses very 
much. Various methods of coating glass by a 
solution of silver, thus avoiding the use of mer- 
cury, so injurious to the health of the workmen, 
have been made known ; by M. Petitjean in 1851; 
by M. Cimeg in 1861, and by Liebig and others. 


MISCHNA, see Talmud. 
MISERERE (Psa/m li.) sung at Rome in the 


“ Tenebre,’ the service in Holy or Passion Week, 
in a peculiarly effective manner, to old music. One 
arrangement is by Costanzo Festa, dated 1517. 


MISSAL, or Mass Boox, the Romanist 
ritual compiled by pope Gelasius 1. 492-6; revised 
by Gregory I. 590-604. Various missals were in 
use till the Roman missal was adopted by the coun- 
cil of Trent, 1545-63. The missal was super- 
seded in England by the book of common prayer, 
1549. 

MISSIONARY 
Bishops. 

MISSIONS *, see Mark xvi. 15. Among the 


1850. Sir John F. Herschel, 
P.R.S. 

1855. Thomas Graham, 
F.R.S. 


1830. 
1834. 


see under 


BISHOPS, 


* Missions, ‘‘a series of sermons, generally by a 
‘missioner,’ or special preacher, often followed by con- 
fessions and communions” (a species of revivalism), 
were authorised in the metropolis by the bishops of 
London, Winchester, and Rochester, held 1869 and 


556 


MODELS. 


MISSISSIPPI. 


Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominic, St. | 
Francis, St. Augustin, &c., have missions to the 
Levant and to America. Marco Polo is said to have 
introduced missionaries into China, 1275. The 

Jesuits have missions to China (which see) and to 

most other parts of the world. Among the Protes- 

tants, an early undertaking of this kind was a 

Danish mission, planned by Frederick IV. in 1700. 

The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in 

foreign parts was established 1701, and the Mora- 

vian Brethren encouraged missions about 1732. 

The London Missionary Society held their first 

meeting, 4 Nov. 1794. Most Christian sects now 

support missions. British Contributions to Foreign 

Missions ; 1871, 855,742/.; 1877, 1,100,793/. (in 

1871-7, 6,977,586/.). 

Commander Allan Gardner, R.N., who left England in 
the Ocean Queen in Sept. 1850, on the Patagonian mis- 
sion, with Mr. Williams, surgeon, Mr. Maidment, 
catechist, and four others, died on Picton Island, at 
the mouth of the Beagle Channel, to the south of 
Tierra del Fuego, having been starved to death ; all 
his companions having previously perished, 6 Sept. 
1851. 

M. Schofiler, a missionary to Cochin-China, was publicly 
executed at Son-Tay, by order of the grand mandarin, 
for preaching Christianity, such preaching being pro- 
hibited by the law of that country, 4 May, 1851. 


MISSISSIPPI, a great river, N. America, 


explored by De Soto about 1541. Captain Glazier 
discovered its source, and asserted its length 


to be 3,184 miles, 1884. The Mississippi trade 
was begun in England, in Nov. 1716. Law’s 
Mississippi scheme in France, commenced about the 
same period, exploded in 1720; at which time the 
nominal capital is said to have amounted to 
100,000,000/.. The ruin of thousands soon followed. 
See Law’s Bubble.n—The North American state, 
MISSISSIPPI, was settled in 1716; admitted as a 
state of the union, 1817; seceded from it by ordi- 
nance, 8 Jan. 1861; submitted, 1865. Capital, 
Jackson. About 85,000 persons made homeless 
through floods in the lower Mississippi valley, 
early in March, 1882. 


MISSOLONGHI, a town in Greece, taken 
from the Turks, 1 Nov. 1821, and heroically and 
successfully defended against the Turks by Marco 
Botzaris, Oct. 1822—27 Jan. 1823. It was taken 22 
April, 1826, after along siege. Here Lord Byron 
died, 19 April, 1824. A statue of Byron was un- 
veiled here, 6 Noy. 1881. It was surrendered to the 
Greeks in 1829. 


MISSOURI, a south-western state in N. 
America, was settled in 1763, and admitted into the 
union, 10 Aug. 1821. It decided on neutrality in 
the conflict of 1861, but was invaded by both the 
confederate and federal forces in June of that year, 
and became one of the seats of war. Capital, 


Jefferson city ; see United States, 1861 et seq.— 
For the MIssOURI COMPROMISE, sce Slavery in 
America. 


MISTLETOKH, see iVrecks. 
MITHRIDATHEH, a medical preparation in the 


form of an electuary, supposed to be an antidote to 
poison and the oldest compound known, is said to 
have been invented by Mithridates, king of Pontus, 
about 70 B.C. 


MITHRIDATIC WAR, caused by the mas- 
sacre of $0,000 Komans, by Mithridates VI., king of 
Pontus, 88 B.c., and remarkable for its duration, 
its many sanguinary battles, and the cruelties of its 
commanders. Mithridates having taken the consul 
Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great 


part of Asia, crying out as he rode, ‘I am Aq 
consul of the Romans.’’ He is said to have 
him by causing melted gold to be poured doy 
throat, in derision of his avarice, 85 B.c. \ 
dates was defeated by Pompey, 66 B.c.; and 
mitted suicide, 63 B.C. 


MITRATILLEUSEH, or MITRAILLET 
machine-gun in which 37 or more large-bore¢ 
are combined with breech-action, by means of 
a shower of bullets may be rapidly projected | 
man. It was invented in Belgium, and adopt 
the French emperor soon after the Prusso-At 
war in 1866, and was much used in the F 
Prussian war in 1870. Its peculiar “ dry, shri 
terrible sound”’ was described in the bombar 
of Saarbriick, 2 Aug. 1870. Modifications 
mitrailleuse have been made by Montigny 
others. The Fosbery mitrailleuse was trie 
approved at Shoeburyness, 11 Aug. 1870.- 
mentioned in Grose’s Military Antiquities 
that in England, in 1625, a patent was gran 
William Drummond for a machine compose 
number of muskets joined together, by the h 
which two soldiers can oppose a hundred 
named, on account of its effect, ‘‘ thunder carr 
or more usually, ‘‘ fire carriage.’ An EH 
mitrailleuse, a modification of the American gé 
containing 50 cartridges, was tried at Woolwi 
Jan. 1872; fifty of them were ordered to be 
by Armstrong. 


MITRE. Thecleft cap or mitre was we 
the Jewish high-priest, 1g91 B.c. It had o 
golden plate inscribed ‘‘ HOLINESS TO THE L 
Exodus xxxix. 28. The most ancient mitr 
has the nearest resemblance to the present 
that upon the seal of the bishop of Laon, in th 
century. osbroke. Anciently the cardinal 
mitres, but at the council of Lyons, 1m 1245 
were directed to wear hats. 


MITY LENE, or LEszos, Hgean Sea. 
here the Greeks defeated and nearly destroys 
Turkish fleet, 7 Oct. 1824. 


MNEMONICS, artificial memory, was 
duced by Simonides the younger, 477 B.C. 4 
Marbles. ‘‘Mnemonica’”’ was published by 
Willis in 1618; and the *‘ Memoria Technic 
Dr. Grey first appeared in 1730. A syst 
mnemonics was announced in Germany in I& 
and others since. 


MOABITES, descendants of Lot, a | 
living to the south-east of Judea. They wer 
quently at war with the Israelites, and wer 
dued with divine help by Ehud about 13: 
David about 1040, and by Jehoshaphat, 895 
butoften harassed the Jews in the decay of 
monarchy. The discovery of a stone with im 
tion in Pheenician characters, said to rela 
Mesha, king of Moab, referred to in 2 King 
was announced in Jan. 1870, and impressions 
exhibited soon after, which caused much 
cussion among orientalists, and its authentici 
doubted. 


MOCKERN (Prussia). Here the French 
under Eugéne Beauharnais were defeated t 
Prussians under Yorck, 5 April, 1813; and 
Bliicher defeated the French, 16 Oct. 1813. 


MODELS. The first were figures of . 
persons, and Dibutades, the Corinthian, 1 
reputed inventor of those in clay. His dau 
being about to be separated from her lover, ' 
his profile by his shadow on the wall; her : 


MODENA. 


ip the outline with clay, which he afterwards 
and thus produced a figure of the object of 

ection, giving rise to an art till then unknown, 
985 B.C. 

tiful model of the new town of Edinburgh, before 

uilding began, was formed in wood. 

41 was mace of a bridge over the Neva, of uncom- 
strength as well as elegance ; and of the moun- 
of Switzerland, by general Pfiffer (1766-85). 

ffin’s model of Paris also was remarkable for its 


sion. 
iodels of Gibraltar, Quebec, and other fortified 
s, are deposited in the Rotunda at Woolwich. 


DENA (formerly Mutina), capital of the 
chy in Central Italy; was governed by the 
of Este, from 1288 till 1796, when the last 
fthat house, the reigning duke Hercules III., 
cpelled by the French. By the treaty of 

ormio, the Modenese possessions were 
rated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797, and 
he kingdom of Italy, 1805. The archduke 
sof Este, son of the archduke Ferdinand of 
1,and of Mary, the heiress of the last duke, 
ttored in 1814. Modena, in accordance with 
ting by universal suffrage, was annexed to 


iaon 18 March, 1860. Population, in 1857, 
LA 

GRAND DUKES. 
rancis IV. An invasion of his states by Murat 
was defeated, rz April, 1815. He was expelled 
by his subjects in 1831, but was restored by the 
Austrians. 
rancis V. (born x June, 1819) succeeded 21 Jan. 
His subjects rose against him soon after the 
Italian war broke out, in April, 1859. He fled 
to Verona, establishing a regency, 11 June; 
‘which was abolished, 13 June ; Farina was ap- 
pointed dictator, 27 July ; a constituent assembly 
was’ immediately elected, which offered the 
duchy to the king of Sardinia, 15 Sept., who 
incorporated it with his dominions, 18 March, 
1860. Francis died, 20 Nov. 1875. 


DERADOS. A political party in Spain, 
eaded by Ramon Maria Narvaez, duke of 
ia (who died 23 April, 1868), who opposed 
ogresistas headed by Espartero and Prim. 
ity was reinforced by the favourers of Don 
after his total defeat in 1876. 


DOC INDIANS (a few hundreds), 
gin lands south of Oregon, were removed to 
mds by the United States government. Not 
ag subsistence, they returned to their old 
ons, and their able leader captain Jack de- 
he troops sent to expel them, 17 Jan. 1873. 
negotiations for a peaceful settlement, they 
{the United States commissioners into an 
(11 April), and massacred general Canby 
ut 40 others. Fighting took place, 15, 16 
md the Indians retreated to almost impreg- 
ositions. The troops were fired on, and 
much loss, 27 April. The Indians were 
ly surrounded. Jack and about twenty war- 
ld out desperately. Some surrendered, and 
self was captured, 1 June; tried, J uly, and 
3 Oct. 1873. 

SIA (mow Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria), 
uw subdued by Augustus, 29 B.c. It was 
ully invaded by the Goths, a.p. 250, who 
lly settled here; see Goths. 


TULS, see Turtary. 


LACZ (Lower Hungary). Here Louisking 
sary, defeated by the Turks under Solyman 
- the loss of 22,000 men, was suffocated by 
of his horse in a muddy brook, 29 Aug. 1526. 


so prince Charles of Lorraine defeated the 
[2 Aug. 1687, 


557 


MONACHISM. 


MOHAMMEDAN, see Mahometanism. 
MOHAMMERAH, a Persian town near the 


Euphrates, captured, after two hours’ cannonading, 
by sir James Outram, during the Persian war, 26 
March, 1857. News of the peace arrived 4 April. 


MOHILEV, or Moniner (Russia). Here 
the Russian army, under prince Bagration, was 
signally defeated by the French under marshal 
Davoust, prince of Eckmiihl, 23 July, 1812. 


MOHOCKS, ruffians, who went about London 
at night, wounding and disfiguring the men, and 
indecently exposing the women. One hundred 
pounds were offered by royal proclamation in 1712; 
for apprehending any one ofthem. Northouch. 


MOHURRUM,a Mahometan festival in honour 
of the prophet’s nephews: at its celebration in Bom- 
bay, Feb. 1874, the Mahometans fiercely attacked 
the Parsees, and were quelled by the military. 


MOLDAVIA, see Danubian Principalities. 


MOLINISTS, a Roman Catholic sect, followers 
of Louis Molina, a Jesuit, born 1535. He maintained 
the reconcilability of the doctrines of predestination 
and free will, 1588. 


MOLLY MAGUIRE, the name of a secret 
society in Ireland in 1843, and of another society 
(originally Buckshot, about 1853) in mining dis- 
tricts, United States (which see), 1877. It ceased 
about March, 1879. 


MOLOKANT, a sect in West Russia, said to 
date from the 16th century, who maintain primi- 
tive Christian doctrines and practices; well de- 
scribed by Mr. D. Mackenzie Wallace in his 
‘* Russia,’ published 1877. 


MOLUCCAS, an archipelago in the Indian 
Ocean (the chief island, Amboyna), discovered by 
the Portuguese, about 1511, and held by them 
secretly until the arrival of the Spaniards, who 
claimed them, till 1529, when Charles V. yielded 
them to John II. for a large sum of money. The 
Dutch conquered them in 1607, and have held them 
ever since,—except from 1810 to 1814, when they 
were subject to the English. 


MOLWITZ (in Prussian Silesia). Here the 
Prussians, commanded by Frederick II., obtaineda 
great victory over the Imperialists, 10 April (0.8. 
30 March), 1741. 


MOLYBDENUM, a whitish, brittle, almost 
infusible metal. Scheele, in 1778, discovered mo- 
lybdic acid in a mineral hitherto confounded with 
graphite. Hjelm, 1782, prepared the metal from 
molybdic acid; and in 1825 Berzelius described 
most of its chemical characters. Gmelin. 


MONACHISM (from the Greek monos, 
alone). Catholic writers refer to the prophet Eli- 
jah, and the Nazarites mentioned in Numbers, ch. 
vi., as early examples. The first Christian ascetics 
appear to be derived from the Jewish sect of the 
Hssenes, whose life was very austere, practising 
celibacy, &c. About the time of Constantine 
(306-22) numbers of these ascetics withdrew into 
the deserts, and were called hermits, monks, and 
anchorets ;* of whom Paul, Anthony, and Pacho- 
mius were most celebrated. Simeon, the founder 
of the Stylite (or pillar saints), died 451. Heis 
said to have lived on a pillar thirty years. St. 
$e 
* The anchorites of the rath, 13th, and r4th centuries 
must not be confounded with the anachorets and ancho- 
rets, or hermits. The former were confined to solitary 
cells ; the latter permitted to go where they pleased. 


MONACO. 


Benedict, the great reformer of western monachism, 
published his rules and established his monastery at 
Monte Casino, about 529. The Carthusians, Cister- 
cians, &c., are varieties of Benedictines. In 964, 
by decree of king Edgar, all married priests were 
ineffectually ordered to be replaced by monks. 
Religious orders expelled from France, by decree, 
29 March, 1880. Kelieved of their vows by the 
Pope, 1881. See Adbdeys, and Benedictines. 


MONACO, a principality, N. Italy, held by 
the Genoese family Grimaldi since 968. By treaty 
on 2 Feb. 1861, the prince ceded the communes of 
Roquebrune and Mentone, the chief part of his 
dominions, to France, for 4,000,000 francs. The 
present prince, Charles III., born 8 Dec. 1818, suc- 
ceeded his father Florestan, 20 June 1856. Heir: 
Albert, born 13 Nov. 1848. A commercial conven- 


tion between the prince and France, signed 9g Nov. | 


1865, was much discussed as tending towards the. 
abolition of the French navigation laws. Popula- 
tion, 1883, 10,108. Petitions against Monte Carlo, 
the great gaming establishment, 1880-4. 


MONARCHY. Historians reckon various 
grand monarchies—the Chaldean, Assyrian, Baby- 
Jonian, Median, Persian, Grecian, Parthian, and 
Roman (which see). 


MONASTERIES, see Addeys. 
MONCONTOUR (near Poitiers, France). 


Here the admiral Coligny and the French Protes- 
tants were defeated with great loss by the duke of 
Anjou (afterwards Henry III.), 3 Oct. 1569. 


MONCRIEFF SYSTEM, see Cannon. 


MONDAY CONCERTS, see under Juste. 

MONDOVI (Piedmont). Here the Sardinian 
army, commanded by Colli, was defeated by Napo- 
leon Bonaparte, 22 April, 1796. 

MONETARY CONFERENCES, Interna- 
tional, opened at Paris, 16 Aug. 1878; and 19 April, 
1881 ; Cologne, 11-13 Oct. 1882. See Latin Union. 

MONEY is mentioned as a medium of com- 
merce in Genesis xxiii., 1860 B.c., when Abraham 
purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah. The 
coinage of money is ascribed to the Lydians. 
Moneta was the name given to their silver by the 
Romans, it having been coined in the temple of 
Juno-Moneta, 269 B.c. Money was made of dif- 
ferent metals, and even of leather and other articles, 
both in ancient and modern times. It was made 
of pasteboard by the Hollanders so late as 1574. 
“The czar Nicholas struck coins in platinum. See 
Coin; Gold; Copper; Mint; Banks, &c. For 
Money Orders, see Post Office. 


MONEYERS travelled with our early kings, 


and coined money as required; see Mint. 
MONGOLS, see Zartary. 
MONITEUR UNIVERSEL, aFrenchnews- 


paper, was established in Paris by C. J. Panc- 
koucke, 5 May, 1789; daily paper, 24 Nov. 1789; 
the organ of the government, 28 Dec. 1799. It was 
superseded by the Jomrnal Officiel, 1 Jan. 1869 ; 
resumed its oflicial position about 23 Sept. 1870; and 
was again superseded by the Journal Officiel, Feb. 
1871. It became the organ of MacMahon’s govern- 
ment in 1875. . 

MONITORIAL SYSTEM (in education), 
in which pupils are employed as teachers, was used 
by Dr. Bell in the Orphan Asylum at Madras in 
1795, and was also adopted by Joseph Lancaster, 
in London; see Lducation. 


MONITOR SHIPS, see United States. The 


| v 


MONTEBELLO. 


American monitor, Miantonomah, arrived at 
mouth in June, 1866, and excited much attenti 


MONK, see Monachism. 


MONMOUTH’S REBELLION: J. 
duke of Monmouth (born at Rotterdam, 9g / 
1649), a natural son of Charles IT. by Lucy W; 
was banished England for his connection wit 
Rye-house plot, in 1683. He invaded Engla 
Lyme, II June, 1685; was proclaimed kir 
Taunton, 20 June; was defeated at Sedgmoor, 
Bridgewater, 6 July; and beheaded on Tower 
15 July. 


MONOCHORD, a box of thin wood, y 
| bridge, over which is stretched a wire or chord 
_ to have been invented by Pythagoras, about 60 


| MONOLITH, Greek for single stone; 
Obelisk. 


MONOPHYSITES, see Eutychians. 
MONOPOLIES were formerly so num 


in Kngland that parliament petitioned a 
them, and many were abolished, about ; 
They were further suppressed by 21 Jas. L., 
Sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchell 
punished for their abuse of monopolies, 1621 
1630, Charles I. established monopolies of 
salt, leather, and other common things, to su 
revenue without the help of parliament. i 
decreed that none should be in future creat 
royal patent, 16 Chas. I. 1640. 


MONOTHELITES, heretics who afi 
that Jesus Christ had but one will, were fay 
by the emperor Heraclius, 630; they merge 
the Eutychians (which see). : 


MONROE DOCTRINE, a term app 
the determination expressed by James M 
president of the United States, in his messa 
the congress, 2 Dec. 1823, not to permit any 
pean power to interfere with the concerns © 
independent states of North or South Am 
This doctrine was referred to in 1859, with th 
of weakening the influence of Great Britai 
Spain on the American continent, and, in 18 
relation to the new Mexican empire. 


LOR ae TRIAL, see F 
1858. 

MONTANISTS, followers of Montan 
Ardaba, in Mysia, about 171, who was repul 
have the gift of prophecy, and proclaimed bi 
the Comforter promised by Christ. He conde 
second marriages as fornication, permitted th 
solution of marriage, forbade avoiding a | 
and ordered a severe fast of three lents; he h 
himself with Maximilla, one of his female sch 
before the close of the 2nd century. Cave. 
eloquent father, Tertullian, joined the sect, 2¢ 


MONT BLANG, in the Swiss Alps, 3 
highest mountain in Europe, being 15,78 
above the level of the sea. The summit wa 
reached by Saussure, aided by a guide named B 
on 2 Aug. 1787. The summit was attained 
Hamel (when three of his guides perished) in 
and by many other persons before and since. 
counts of the ascents of Mr. John Auldjo, C 
Fellows (1827), and of professor Tyndall (1% 
have been published; see Alps. 57 ascen 
ported in 1873; 64 in 1881, 


MONT CENIS, see dips. - 


MONTEBELLO, in Piedmont, where L 
defeated the Austrians, 9 June, 1800, and acq 
| his title of duke of Montebello; and where, 


“MONTE CARLO. 


4 of six hours, the French and Sardinians 
| the Austrians, who lost about 1000 
nd wounded, and 200 prisoners, 20 May, 
The French lost about 670 men, including 
Beuret. 


YTE CARLO, see Ionaco. 


YTE CASINO (Central Italy). Here 
+ formed his first monastery, 529. After 
¢ a refuge for many eminent persons, its 
¢ character was abolished by the Italian 
nent in 1866, care being taken for the pre- 
n of its historical and literary monuments. 


VTEM, see Eton. 


VTENEGRO, an independent principality 
pean Turkey, was conquered by Solyman II. 
. It rebelled early in the 18th’century, and 
hed a hereditary hierarchical government in 
ily of Petrovitsch Njegosch,—permitted, but 

ognised by the Porte. Its independence 

elared by the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 
Population, in 1884, 236,000. Capital, 

Gi 

hew and successor of the Vladika, Peter IT., 

ed to assume the ecclesiastical function, 

sclared himself a temporal prince, with the 

9 Daniel I., 1851; and began war with 


ae put in a state of blockade . 14 Dec. 
decisive encounters, tranquillity restored by 
viluence of the arms and negotiations of 
Pacha, the general of the Turkish army ; he 


le province 25 Feb. 1853 
eraised . ‘ : : : to April), >; 
ain broke out; the Turks defeated at Gra- 
June ; peace restored . 2 Nov. 1858 


: 


ntry much disturbed through the tyrannical 
ict of prince Daniel, who was assassinated 
35)\4 ‘ 5 : : : 13 Aug. 
ed by his nephew Nicolas, or Nikita, 
(i) a ‘ : : ? 8 Nov. 
irrection in the Herzegovina, favoured by 
ontenegrines ; the blockade of Montenegro, 
4 April, 
acha invaded the province with an army of 
)menin . : : A ‘ F Aug. 
onflicts with various success, but latterly in 
r of the Turks ; peace made, Turkish supre- 
recognised . ; : : 8-9 Sept. 
dus quarrels between Christians and Mussul- 
it Podgoritza ; 21 Montenegrins said to be 
Wbyaturks  . ‘ é ‘ - 20 Oct. 
ned war prevented by intervention of the 
powers ; each nation to punish oP ada 
an. 
oters executed : : t5 May, 
egro with difficulty restrained from inter- 
om in Herzegovina Autumn and Winter, 
‘mee declared war and joined the Servians 
2 July, 1876 
Key and Russo-Turkish war... 1876-7-8 
d independent of Turkey by treaty of San 
10, 3 Mareh ; (with new boundaries, and 
‘ari for a seaport) by the Berlin treaty 
13 July, 1878 
tza surrendered by Turkey . 7 Feb. 1879 
uch resistance by the Albanians, and nego- 
i with Turkey, Gussinge surrendered, April, 1880 
r disputes with Turkey settled, Nov. 1882; 
‘tnee well received at Constantinople, Sept. 1883 
-g to contain state library, museum, and 
re, at Ceéttinjé founded rz May, 1884 


itution promised A 5 May, ,, 


‘ PRINCES. 

firs born 25 May, 1826; assassinated, 13 Aug. 
I . 

icolas, or Nikita (nephew), bern 7 Oct. 18413 
married princess Milena, 8 Nov. 1860. 

letr, Danilo, born 30 June, 1871. 


} 
NTENOTTE, a village in Piedmont, 


559 


MONTI DI PIETA. 


gained over the Austrians by Napoleon Bonaparte, 
12 April, 1796. ; 


MONTEREAU (near Paris). On the bridge 
of Montereau, at his meeting with the dauphin, 
John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, was killed by 
Tanneguy de Chatel in 1419. This event led to 
our Henry V. subduing France, the young duke 
Philip joining the English. Here the allied armies 
were defeated by the French, commanded by Napo- 
leon, with great loss in killed and wounded; but 
it was one of his last triumphs, 18 Feb. 1814. 


MONTEREY (Mexico), was taken by general 
Taylor after a three days’ conflict with the Mexi- 
cans, 21-23 Sept. 1846. 


MONTE-VIDEO (S. America), was taken by 
storm by the British forces under sir Samuel Auch- 
muty, but with the loss of nearly one-third of our 
brave troops, 3 Feb. 1807. It was evacuated 7 July 
the same year, in consequence of the severe repulse 
the British met with at Buenos-Ayres ; see Buenos- 
Ayres. Monte-Video, a subject of dispute between 
Brazil and Buenos-Ayres, was given up to Uruguay, 
1828. For recent war, see Brazil and Uruguay. 


Fire at celebration service for Garibaldi, about 20 


killed, 11 June, 1882. 
MONTFERRAT (Lombardy), Houser oF, 


celebrated in the history of the Crusades, began 
with Alderan, who was made marquis of Mont- 
ferrat, by Otho, about 967. Conrad of Montferrat 
became lord of Tyre, and reigned from 1187 till 
I1gI, when he was assassinated. William IV. died 
in acage at Alexandria, having been thus impri- 
soned nineteen months, 1292. Violante, daughter 
of John II., married Andronicus Palologus, em- 
peror of the East. Their descendants ruled in 
Italy amid perpetual contests till 1533, when John 
George Paleologus died without issue. His estates 
passed after much contention to Frederic II. Gon- 
zaga, marquis of Mantua, in 1536, and next to the 
duke of Savoy. 


MONTGOMERY, capital of Alabama, United 
States, founded 1817. Here the state convention 
passed the ordinance of secession from the union 
on II Jan. 1861; here the confederate congress met 
on 4 Feb. and elected Jefferson Davis president, 
and Alexander Stephens vice-president, of the con- 
federate states of North America; and here they 
were inaugurated on 18 Feb. On 21 May the 
congress adjourned to meet on 20 July at Rich- 
mond, in Virginia, that state having joined the 
confederates and become the seat of war. 


MONTH (from mona, Anglo-Saxon moon), the 
twelfth part of the calendar year. See Year, 
Calendar, January and other months, French Revo- 
lutionary Calendar and Jewish Era. 

Lunar Month.—The period of one revolution of the 
moon (synodical) ; mean length, 29d. 12h., 44m. 2.875. 

Sidereal Month.—-Time of moon’s revolution from a star 
to the same again, 27d. 7h., 43m. 11.58. 

Solar Month.—The time the sun passes through one 
sign of the zodiac, 30d. roh., 29m. 4.15. 

Information respecting the months of the Egyptians, 
Jews, Greeks, Romans, Persians, and other nations will 
be found in sir H. Nicolas’s ‘‘ Chronology of History.” 


MONTI DI PIETA, charitable institutions 
for advancing money on pledges, were first estab- 
lished at Perugia, Florence, Mantua, and other 
Italian cities, 1462, e¢ seg. The Franciscans, in 
1493, began to receive interest, which was_per- 
mitted by the pope, in 1515. Monts de Pieéte, 
established in France 1777, were suppressed by the 
Revolution, but restored, 1804; regulated by law, 


able as being the site of the first victory | 1851-2; see Pawnbroking. 


ep 


MONTIEL. 


560 


a 
MOON. | 


MONTIEL (Spain), BATTLE OF, 14 March, 
1369, between Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, and 
his brother Henry of Trastamare, aided by the 
French warrior, Bertrand du Guesclin. Peter 
was totally defeated, and afterwards treacherously 
slain. 


MONTIGNY, see under Firearms. 
MONTLHERY (Seine-et-Oise, France), 


site of an indecisive battle between Louis XI. and a 
party of his nobles, termed ‘‘ The League of the 
Public Good,” 16 July, 1465. 

MONTMARTRE, HEIGurts of, near Paris, 
taken by Bliicher, 30 March, 1814. They were 


fortified during the communist insurrection, March, | 


1871; and retaken by the army of Versailles, 28 
May. 

MONTMIRAIL (Marne, France). 
Napoleon defeated the allies, 11 Feb. 1814. 


MONTPELLIER (8S. France), built in the 
8th century, prospered as the neighbouring city 
Maguelonne decreased. It was acquired by mar- 
riage by the king of Arragon, 1204; by the king of 
Majorca, 1276; was ceded to France, 1349; given 
to Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, in exchange 
for Mantes, &c., 1365; sequestered by France, 
1378. It was seized by the Huguenots early in the 
reign of Henry III., and held by them till Sept. 
1622, when it surrendered after a siege, followed 
by a treaty of peace, 20 Oct. 

MONTREAL, the second city in_ Lower 
Canada, built by the French, about 1642. Popula- 
tion, 1881, 140,747. 


Here 


Surrendered to the English 8 Sept. 1760 
Taken by the Americans 12 Nov. 1775 
Retaken by the British . 15 June, 1776 


The church, Jesuits’ college, prison, and many 


buildings burnt down 6 June, 1803 
Great military affray 2 29 Sept. 1833 
Bishopric founded a : “ Ef, ro30 
Riots against the government . 6 Noy. 1837 


The self-styled ‘“‘loyalists ” of Montreal assault the 
governor-general, lord Elgin; enter the parlia- 
ment-house, drive out the members, and set fire 


to the building . : _ 25 April, 1849 
A bishopric established , é aes 
A destructive fire . 3 : 23 Aug. 1850 


Another, destroying 1200 houses; the loss esti- 


mated at a million sterling 5 . 12 July, 1852 
At an anti-papal lecture here by Gavazzi, riots en- 

sued, and many lives were lost. roJune, 1853 
The cathedral destroyed by fire to Dec. 1856 


Victoria railway bridge (which see) formally opened 
by the prince’ of Wales . ; : - 25 Aug. 
Fierce riots at the attempt to bury Joseph Guibord, 
a Roman Catholic, while under censure, in the 
Roman Catholic cemetery . ey: bi Sept. 
[He belonged to the “‘ Institut Canadien,” censured 
for possessing forbidden books ; he died in 1869 ; 
after much litigation, the privy council judicial 
committee affirmed his right to burial against the 
clerical authorities. ] ' 
Riot at a memorial Romanist procession ; 1 man 
kalledi gars : ‘ ; : 26 Sept. ,, 
Guibord buried with military and police escort, 
16 Nov. ,, 
wo x9 Dee: 
12 July et seq. 
23 Jan. 


1860 


1875 


Violent bread riots . : ty 
Fierce orange riots, with loss of life 
Ice palace erected and carnival held 1883 


MONTSERRAT, 2 W. India island, dis- 
covered by Columbus in 1493, and settled by the 
British in 1632. It has several times been taken 
by the French, but was secured to the British in 
1783. 

MONUMENT or LONDON, built by sir 
Christopher Wren, 1671-7. The pedestal is forty 
feet high, and the edifice altogether 202 feet, that 


”? 
1877 


being the distance of its base from the spot 
the fire which it commemorates commenced. 
the loftiest isolated column in the world 
erection cost about 14,500/. The staircase 
black marble, consisting of 345 steps.* ( 
four original inscriptions, three were Latir 
the following in English,—cut in 1681, oblit 
by James II.; re-cut in the reign of Willian 
and finally erased by order of the common c¢ 
26 Jan. 1831. They produced Pope’s indi 
lines :— 

‘Where London’s column, pointing at the skie; 

Like a tall bully, lifts the head, and lies.” 


THIS PILLAR WAS SET VP IN PERPETVAL REMEME 
OF THAT MOST DREADFUL BURNING OF THIS PROT! 
CITY, BEGUN AND CARRYED ON BY Y¢ TREACHEF 
MALICE OF Y@ POPISH FACTION, IN Y® BEGINNi 
SEPTEM. IN Y¢ YEAR OF OUR LORD 1666, IN ORDE! 
CARRYING ON THEIR HORRID PLOT FOR EXTIRPA’ 
PROTESTANT RELIGION AND OLD ENGLISH LIBERT 
Y¢ INTRODUCING POPERY AND SLAVERY. 


MONUMENTS, see Ancient. An act: 
22 July, 1878, empowers the Metropolitan bo 
works to take care of Cleopatra’s needle, and 
monuments, 


MOODKEE (india). Here, on 18 
1845, the Sikhs attacked the advanced gu 
the British, commanded by general Gougt 
were repulsed three miles, losing many me} 
fifteen pieces of cannon. Sir Robert Sal 
mortally wounded. The battle preceded tl 
Ferozeshah (which see). 


MOOLTAN (N. W. India), an ancient 
was stormed by Runjeet Sing, 1818. Here h 
Moolraj Sing, ruler of the Sikhs, treache 
murdered Mr. Vans Agnew and lieutenant A 
son, 21 April, 1848. Several conflicts took 
between the British and the Sikhs, in whic 
latter were beaten, and Mooltan taken after 
tracted siege, 2-22 Jan. 1849. 


MOON. Opacity of the moon, and the 
causes of lunar eclipses, taught by: Thales, 64 
Hipparchus made observations on the mo 
Rhodes, 127 B.C. Posidonius accounted fe 
tides from the motion of the moon, and saic 
the moon borrows her light from the sun, 7 
Diog. Laert. 


Maps of the moon constructed by Hevelius, 1647 
Cassini . é : $ : : 4 : 
Beer and Madler’s map published : ; 
Professor John Phillips invited the British Associé 
tion to make arrangements to obtain a “‘systé 
matic representation of the physical aspect of th 
Moon ae : : F ‘ 4 5 < 
Photographs of the moon taken by Draper at Ne’ 
York, 1840; by Bond, 1850; by Mr. Warren de 1 
Rue, 1857; by Rutherford . . é F 
Hansen’s ‘‘ Tables of the Moon,” calculated at th 
expense of the British and Danish governments 
published at the cost of the latter J ; 
The British Association ‘lunar committee” publis 
two sections of amap of the moon, on a scale ¢ 
zoo inches to her diameter ~ ‘ . duly 
The earl of Rosse made experiments on the radiatio 
of heatfrom the moon . ‘ ‘ ‘ R 
Professor J. F. Julius Schmidt, of Athens, com 
pleted his map of the moon after 34 years’ work 
diameter 2 metres . A F ‘ : : 
Mr. James Nasmyth and Mr. J. Carpenter publishe: 


* William Green, a weaver, fell from this mont 
25 June,1750. A mannamed Thomas Craddock, a 
precipitated himself from its summit, 7 July, 178c 
Lyon Levy, a Jewish diamond merchant, of consic 
respectability, threw himself from it, 18 Jan, 18 
did more recently three other persons: in conse 
of which a fence was placed round the railing — 
gallery in 1839. : 

; 


i 
ry. 


MOORS. 561 MORMONITES. 
e result of many years’ observations, in ‘‘The ; MORDEN COLLEGE (Blackheath), alms- 
i . ; : r ; a 3 . 1874 5 = i . bse Re airs 
Se Weisor. published “The Moon and 74 | houses for decayed merchants, with pensions, estab 


e Conditions and Configurations of its Surface” 
July, 1876 
essor Schmidt’s map published at Berlin . 1878 


See Helipses. 


[OORS, formerly the natives of Mauritania 
ich see), but afterwards the name given to the 
nidians and others, and now applied to the 
yes of Morocco and the neighbourhood. They 
uently rebelled against the Roman emperors, 
assisted Genseric and the Vandals in their in- 
on of Africa, 429. They resisted for a time the 
ress of the Arab Mahometans, but were over- 
e in 707, and in 101g by them introduced into 
in, where their arms were long victorious. In 

they were defeated in Sicily by Roger Guis- 
‘ The Moorish kingdom of Grenada was set 
n 1237, and lasted till 1492, when it fell before 
Jinand V. of Castile, mainly owing to internal 
ord. The expulsion of the Moors from Spain 
decreed by Charles V., but not fully carried 
effect till 1609, when the bigotry of Philip 
inflicted this great injury to his country. About 
3 the Moors established the piratical states of 
iers and Tunis (which see). In the history of 
in, the Arabs and Moors must not be con- 
ided. 


IOPLAHS, industrious fanatical Mahometans 
falabar, E. Indies, gave trouble by their attacks 
Tindoos and the British, especially in 1845; an 
yreak was suppressed about 15 Sept. 1873. 


[ORAL PHILOSOPHY, the science of 
es, defined as the knowledge of our duty, and 
art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates 
mut 430 B.C.) is regarded as the father of 
lent, and Grotius (about 1623) the father of 
lem moral philosophy; see Philosophy. 


TORAT (Switzerland), where Charles the Bold 
lurgundy was completely defeated by the Swiss, 
June, 1476. A monument, constructed of the 
es of the vanquished, was destroyed by the 
neh in 1798, and a stone column erected. 4ooth 
iversary kept, 1876. 
[ORAVIA, an Austrian province, occupied by 
Slavonians about 548, and conquered by the 
rs and Bohemians, who submitted to Charle- 
me. About 1000 it was subdued by Boleslas of 
md, but recovered by Ulrich of Bohemia in 
), After various changes, Moravia and Bohemia 
eamalgamated into the Austrian dominions in 
). Moravia was invaded by the Prussians in 
}, and they established their head quarters at 
on, the capital, 13 July. ‘Ihe demand of the 
avians for home rule was resisted Oct, 1871. 


TORAVIANS, or UNITED BRETHREN, 
to have been part of the Hussites, who with- 
y into Moravia in the 15th century; but the 
hren assert that their sect was derived from the 
%k church in the gth century. In 1722 they 
aed a settlement (called Herrnhut, the watch 
‘he Lord) on the estate of count Zinzendorf. 
ir church consisted of 500 persons in 1727. 
y were introduced into England by count Zin- 
orf about 1738; he died at Chelsea in June, 
). In 1851 they had thirty-two chapels in Eng- 
|. They are zealous missionaries, and founded 
‘lements in foreign parts, about 1732. London 
relation founded, 1817. 


TORAY FLOODS, see Inwndations, 1829. 
[ORDAUNT, see Administrations, 1689. 


lished by sir John Morden, 1695; opened, 1702. 


MOREA, a name given to the Peloponnesus in 
the 13th century; see Greece. 


MORETON BAY (New S. Wales). The 
colony founded here in 1859 has since been named 
Queensland (which see). 


MORGANATIC* MARRIAGES, when the 
left hand is given instead of the right, between a 
man of superior and a woman of inferior rank, in 
which it is stipulated that the latter and her chil- 
dren shall not enjoy the rank or inherit the pos- 
sessions of the former. The children are legitimate. 
Such marriages are frequently contracted in Ger- 
many by royalty and the higher nobility. It has 
been asserted that our George I. was thus married 
to the duchess of Kendal; the late duke of Sussex 
to lady Cecilia Underwood; Frederic VI. of Den- 
mark to the countess of Danner, 7 Aug. 1850; and 
several Austrian princes, recently. 


MORGARTEN (Switzerland). 1300 Swiss en- 
gaged 20,000 Austrians, commanded by the duke 
Leopold, whom they completely defeated, 15 Nov. 
1315, upon the heights of Morgarten, overlooking 
the defile through which the enemy was to enter 
their territory from Zug. 


MORICE DANCE, an ancient dance pecu- 
liar to some of the country parts of England, and, it 
is said, also to Scotland: it was performed before 
James I. in Herefordshire. 


MORISONIANS, followers of the Rev. James 
Morison of Kilmarnock, suspended for heterodoxy, 


1841. 
MORMONITES (calling themselves the 


Church of Jesus Christ of LarrER-DAY SAINTS). 
This sect derives its origin from Joseph Smith, 
called the Prophet, who announced in 1823, at 
Palmyra, New York, that he had had a vision of 
the angel Moroni. In 1827 he said that be found 
the book of Mormon, written on gold plates in 
Egyptian characters. This book is said to have 
been written about 1812, by a clergyman named 
Solomon Spaulding (or by Martin Harris, who died 
Sept. 1875), as a religious romance in imitation of 
the scripture style. It was translated and published 
in America in 1830, in England in 1841. It fell 
into the hands of Rigdon and Smith, who deter- 
mined to palm it off as a new revelation. The Mor- 
monites command the payment of tithes, permit 
polygamy, encourage labour, and believe in their 
leaders working miracles. Missionaries are propa- 
gating these doctrines in Europe with more success 
than would be expected. 
The Mormonites organise a church at Kirkland, 

Ohio ‘ : : : : : : . 1830 
They found Zion, in Jackson county, Missouri 1831-2 
From 1833 to 1839 the sect endured much perse- 

cution, and, driven from place to place, was com- 

pelled to travel westwards ; till the city Nauvoo 

on the Mississippi was laid out and a temple 

was built : , ; ‘ 5 : . 1840-1 
Joseph and his brother Hyram, when in prison on a 

charge of treason, shot by an infuriated mob, and 


Brigham Young chosen seer June, 1844 
Much harassed by their neighbours ; departure from 
Nauvoo determined on ‘ : uh aL LOAS 
The Great Salt Lake chosen ‘“‘for an everlasting 
abode,” and taken possession of . . 24 July, 1847 
The valley surveyed by order of the United States : 
government : P : , : f 1849 


* Said to be derived from Morgengabe, the gift of 
a husband of a limited part of his property to sucha 
bride on the morning after the marriage. 

00 


MORNING POST. 


562 


The provisional government abolished and the Utah 
territory recognised by the United States; Brig- 
ham Young appointed the first governor ; and the 
university of Deserét was founded 1849-50 

The population, 11,354 2 ; ; ; ORBEA 

The crops at the Utah settlement said to be de- 
stroyed by locusts : é : ‘ Aug. 

The United States judge at Utah resigned from 
inability to discharge his functions, in conse- 
quence of the violent and treasonable conduct of 
the Mormons, and their leader, Brigham Young 

A conference of Mormon elders, &ec., was held in 
London ; offensive speeches made and songs sung 
advocating polygamy . : ; r Sept. ,, 

The United States government sent an army to 
Utah : a compromise was entered into, and peace 
was established by governor Cummings in June, 

A Mormonite meeting at Southampton 18 Feb. 

A French Mormonite priest preached at Paris in Oct. 

“‘ Latter-day Saints’” meetings held in London 

Utah settlement visited by Hepworth Dixon: he 
stated that it contained 200,000 persons, and an 
army of 20,000 rifles. (‘“‘ New America,” published 
in 1867) . : : : Z : : ; . 1866 

Reported schisms: through increasing opposition 


1855 


1857 


to polygamy : ms ; . ; . June, 1867 
Synod held in Store-street, London (London con- 
ference said to include 1172 members) 5 April, 1868 


650 new Mormonites sailed from Liverpool for Utah, 
6June, ,, 
Bill depriving polygamists of civic rights passed 
U. 8. house of representatives March, 
Brigham Young ordered to be tried for bigamy, 
flies ; Hawkins, a Mormonite elder, sentenced to 
three years’ imprisonment for adultery, end of Oct. 
Brigham Young surrenders for trial, 2 Jan.; pro- 
ceedings annulled by the supreme courtabout May, 
Brigham Young resigns temporal powers, 1o April, 
The Mormonite conferences at the Holborn Amphi- 
theatre ; : : : ; ECL eh ety oe 
Nineteen missionaries for Britain arrive at Liverpool 
ToUNOVe ss 
Brigham Young again indicted for polygamy, about 
r5 Oct. 
Adjudged to support one of his wives while she sues 
for divorce, March ; imprisoned in his own house, 
for non-compliance, Nov. ; discharged Dec. 
Bp. J. D. Lee shot for his share in Mountain Mea- 
dows massacre, (Brigham Young suspected,) (see 
Massacres) ; : ; : 23 March, 1877 
Death of Brigham Young, aged 76 29 Aug.’ ,, 
No successor appointed ; John Taylor, chief of 12 
apostles d ; : . : Septs. 5, 
Conference in London opened SN Sa OEDtT M5 
Orson Pratt, a leader and colleague of Joseph 


1874 


1875 


Smith, died 4 - : : - Noy. 31881 
Six meeting-houses in London, March, 1882; esti- 
mated 85,000 English converts 1837-82 


Polygamy in the United States abolished by Act 
passed. : A 2 23 March, 1882 
Great meeting at Salt Lake; 57 missionaries sent 
out ce - . 6 Oct. 1883 


MORNING POST, fashionable daily paper, 
favourable to the Whigs and High Church party, 
first appeared, 2 Nov. 1772. Conservative, 1874. 
Price reduced to Id., 27 June, 1881. 


MOROCCO, or MAR0000, an empire in North 
Africa, formerly Mauritania (which see). In 1051 
it was subdued for the Fatimite caliphs by the 
Almorayides, who eventually extended their do- 
minion into Spain. These were succeeded by the 
Almohades (1121), the Merinites (1270), and in 
1516 by the Scherifs, pretended descendants of 
Mahomet, the now reigning dynasty. The Moors 
have had frequent wars with the Spaniards and 
Portuguese, due to piracy. Population about 
6,000,000. Slavery prevalent. 

Invasion of Sebastian of Portugal, who perishes 

with his army at the battle of Alcazar 4 Aug. 1578 
Tangiers (which see) acquired by England, 1662; 

piven ye ee eee ls th) aos 
The Moors attack the French in Algeria at the 

instigation of Abd-el-Kader ; the prince de 

Joinville bombards Tangiers, 6 Aug. , and Mogador 

16 Aug. 1844 


1683 


MOSAIC WORK. 


Marshal Bugeaud defeats the Moors at the river 
Isly, and acquires the title of duke 14 Aug. 
Peace between France and Morocco to Sept. 
The Spaniards, who possess several places on the 
coast of Morocco (Ceuta, Penon de Velez, &e.), 
having suffered much annoyance by Moorish 
pirates, declare war ; : : . 22 0c 
Negotiations fruitless: the Spanish government 
increasing their demands as the sultan yielded ; 
the English government interfered in vain. For 
the war, see Spain 3 | 2 , . aS 
A Moorish ambassador (the first since the time of 
Charles II.) in London. (He gave 2ool. to the 
lord mayor for the London charities) June-Aug. 
The British government gave a guarantee for a loan 
of 426,oool. to the sultan to meet his engagements 
with Spain. : f : , - 24 OGt. 
Insurrection of a pretender, Elkadin ben Abder- 
ahman, suppressed - . : : Dec. 
Prince Sidi Shereef visits Britain . . Aug. 
The grand sherif of Wazan marries an English wife ; 
liberates his slaves, &c.; persecuted, becomes a 
French subject 5 : 3 r : Jan. 


SULTANS. 


1822. Muley Abderahman. 
1859. Sidi Muley Mohammed, Sept., died Sept. 187- 
1873. Muley Hassan (son), proclaimed 25 Sept. 


MORPHIA, an alkaloid, discovered in oj 
by Sertiirner, in 1803. 


MORRILLTARIFE, see United States, 1 
MORRIS DANCE, see Morice. 


MORTALITY TABLES have been 
quently compiled. The Northampton tables 
1735-80), by Dr. Price; the Carlisle tables 
1780-87), by Dr. Hailsham; see Bills of Morta 


MORTARA ABDUCTION, see Jews, 1 
MORTARS, 2 short gun with a large bore, 


close chamber, for throwing bombs; said to |] 
been used at Naples in 1435, and first mad 
England in 1543. The mortar left by Soul 
Cadiz in Spain was fixed in St. James’s-parl 
Aug. 1816. On 19 Oct. 1857, a colossal mot 
constructed by Mr. Robert Mallet, was trie 
Woolwich ; with a charge of 70 lbs. it thre 
shell weighing 2550 lbs. 1} mile horizontally, 
about 3 mile in height. 


MORTELLA TOWERS, see Martello. 
MORTIMER’S CROSS _ (Herefordsh: 


The earl of Pembroke and the Lancastrians 1 
here severely defeated by the young duke of Y 
afterwards Edward IV., 2 Feb. 1461. He assu 
the throne as Edward LV. in March following. 


MORTMAIN ACTS (mort main, dead ha 
When the survey of all the land in England | 
made by William I., 1085-6, the whole was fc 
to amount to 62,215 knights’ fees, of which 
church then possessed 28,015, to which addit) 
were afterwards made, till the 7th of Edwarc 
1279, when the statute of mortmain was pa 
from a fear that the estates of the church m 
grow too bulky. By this act it was made unlay 
to give any estates to the church without the ki 
leave; and this act, by a supplemental provis 
was made to reach all lay-fraternities, or corp: 
tions, in the 15th of Richard II., 1391. Mortr 
being such a state of possession as makes prop 
inalienable, it is said to be in a dead hand. Sey 
statutes have been passed on this subject; lege 
by mortmain were especially restricted by the 
Geo. II., c. 36 (1736). 


MOSAIC WORK (the Roman opus tess 
twin), is of Asiatic origin, and is probably refe 


MOSANDRIUM. 


563 


MOZAMBIQUE. 


n Esther, ch. i. 6, about 519 B.c. It had 
ined to great excellence in Greece, in the time 
\lexander and his successors, when Sosos of 
ramus, the most renowned Mosaic artist of 
quity, flourished. He acquired great fame by 
accurate representation of an ‘‘ unswept floor 
-a feast.’’ The Romans also excelled in Mosaic 
<, as evidenced by the innumerable specimens 
srved. Byzantine Mosaics date from the 4th 
ury after Christ. The art was revived in Italy 
lah, Gaddi, Cimabue, and Giotto, who designed 
uics, and introduced a higher style in the 13th 
. Inthe 16th century Titian and Veronese 
designed subjects for this art. The practice of 
ing paintings in Mosaics came into vogue in 
ae century ; and there is now a workshop in 
atican where chemical science is employed in 
yroduction of colours, and where 20,000 ditferent 
are kept. In 1861, Dr. Salviati of Venice had 
lished his manufacture of ‘‘ Enamel-mosaics,”’ 
in July, 1864, he fixed a large enamel Mosaic 
ire in one of the spandrils under the dome of 
Paul’s cathedral, London. He has since 
uted commissions for the queen and other 
ms. 


OSANDRIUM. See Philippium. 


OSCOW, the ancient capital of Russia, was 
ded, it is said, by Dolgorouki, about 1147. The 
pation of the south of Russia by the Mongols, 
135, led to Moscow becoming the capital, and 
ming with Jaroslav II., 1238, its princes 
me the reigning dynasty. It is regarded as a 
‘city by the Russians. 


sdral of the Assumption built, 1326; of the 
msfiguration : 4 J : r + 2328 
<reinlin founded A 2 « 1367 
ow plundered by Timour . . 1382 
leTartars . : “ ; 5 A Evie gy 
acre of Demetrius and his Polish adherents, 


“Matins of Moscow” : .__. 27 May, 1606 
ow ravaged by Ladislas of Poland in} perOr4r 
tniversity founded : 1705 


‘ed by Napoleon I. and the Fren ch, 14 Sept. ; 
governor, Rostopchin, is said, doubtfully, to 
e ordered it to be set on fire (11,840 houses 


nt, besides palaces and churches) . 15 Sept. 1812 
‘rench evacuate Moscow ; SE ROCES (cs, 

fay to St. Petersburg opened : 2 EB5r 
itrial exhibition : . 16 July, 1865 
great fire, about 50 houses burnt . 18 June, 1876 


ofsky’s weaving-works burnt; about 24 per- 
‘ 1880 


§ perish : F : 8 March, 
jition of Russian arts and manufactures, 
} summer, 


aviour’s cathedral (erected to commemorate 
retreat of the French in 1812), founded by 
-holas I., 27 July, 1838; consecrated 7 June, 


OSKIRGH (Baden). Here the Austrians 
defeated by Moreau and the French, 5 May, 
OSKWA or BORODINO, BATTLE OF; see 
Tino. . 


‘OSQUITO COAST (Central America). 
ndians inhabiting this coast were long under 
‘rotection of the British, who held Belize and a 
) of islands in the bay of Honduras. The 
sy of the United States long existed on this 
‘et. In April, 1850, the two governments 
anted not ‘to occupy, or fortify, or colonise, 
sume, or exercise any dominion over any part 
mtral America.’ In 1855 the United States 
ed the British government with an infraction 
€ treaty; on which the latter agreed to cede 
isputed territory to the republic of Honduras, 


1882 


1883 


with some reservation.* The matter was finally 
settled in 1859. 


MOSS-TROOPERS, desperate plunderers, 
and lawless soldiers, secreting themselves in the 
mosses on the borders of Scotland. Many severe 
laws were enacted against them, but they were not 
extirpated till the 18th century. 


MOTETTS, short pieces of church music, some 
of which are dated about the end of the 13th cen- 
tury. Good motetts were written between 1430 
and 1480; and very fine ones in the 16th and 17th 
centuries. The ‘‘ Motett Society,” for the publi- 
cation of these works, was founded in 1847, by 
Wm. Dyce. 


MOTION. On 13 Nov. 1873, professor Sylvester 
described to the London Mathematical Society a 
machine for converting spherical into rectilinear, 
and other motions, and for producing perfectly 
parallel motion, the discovery of M. Peaucellier, a 
French engineer officer, about 1867. See Kine- 
matics. 


MOTTOES, Royau. Dieu et mon Droit, 
first used by Richard I.,1198. Jch dien, ‘‘Iserve,”’ 
adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle 
of Cressy, 1346. Hont soit qui mal y pense, the 
motto of the Garter, 1349. Je maintiendrai, ‘1 
will maintain,” adopted by William III., to which 
he added, in 1688, ‘‘ the liberties of England and 
the Protestant religion.”? Semper eadem, was 
assumed by queen Elizabeth, 1558, and adopted by 
queen Anne, 1702. See them severally. 


MOUNTAIN MEADOWS§, see Massaeres. 
MOUNTAIN PARTY, see Clubs, French. 
MOUNT EVEREST, 29,002 feet high, the 


highest point in the Himalayas and as yet known 
in the world, was named after the late sir George 
Everest, superintendent of the trigonometrical sur- 
vey of India in Dec, 1843, by his successor, col. 
Andrew Waugh. 


MOUNTS, see Bernard, Calvary, Etna, Hecla, 
Olivet, and Vesuvius. 


MOURNING For THE DEAD. The Israel- 
ites neither washed nor anointed themselves during 
the time of mourning, which for a friend lasted 
seven days; upon extraordinary occasions a month. 
The Greeks and Romans fasted. White was used 
in mourning for the imperial family at Constanti- 
nople, 323. ‘The ordinary colour for mourning in 
Europe is black; in China, white; in Turkey, 
violet; in Ethiopia, brown; it was white in Spain 
until 1498. Anne of Brittany, the queen of two 
successive kings of France, mourned in black, 
instead of the then practice of wearing white, on 
the death of her first husband, Charles VIII., 7 
April, 1498. Heénault. 


MOUSQUETAIRES or MUSKETEERS, 
horse-soldiers under the old French régime, raised 
by Louis XIII., 1622. This corps was considered 
a military school for the French nobility. It was 
disbanded in 1646, but was restored in 1657. A 
second company was created in 1660, and formed 
cardinal Mazarin’s guard. Heénavult. 


MOZAMBIQUE, chief of the Portuguese 
territories, EK. Africa, on an isle, was visited by 


* St. Juan del Norte (Greytown) was held by the British 
on behalf of the Mosquitoes till the American adventurers, 
under col. Kinney, took possession of it in Sept. 1855. 
He joined Walker ; and on 1o Feb. 1856, their associate, 
Rivas, the president, claimed and annexed the Mosquito 
territory to Nicaragua, 

002 


MUCKER. 


564 


MURDER. 


Vasco da Gama, 1498 ; conquered by the Portuguese 
under Tristan da Cunha and Albuquerque, 1506; a 
settlement was established, 1508. 


MUCKER (hypocrites), a German sect; see 
Lbelians and Brazil, 1874. 


MUGGLETONIANS, s0 called from Ludo- 
wic Muggleton, a tailor, known about 1641, promi- 
nent about 1650; {convicted of blasphemy, Jan. 
1676; died, 1697. He and John Reeve aftirmed 
that God the Father, leaving the government of 
heaven to Elias, came down and suffered death in a 
human form. They asserted that they were the two 
last witnesses of God which should appear before 
the end of the world, Rev. xi. 3. This sect existed, 
1850. 


MUHLBERG, on the Elbe, Prussia. Here 
the German protestants were defeated by the em- 
peror Charles V., 24 April, 1547, and John Frede- 
rick, elector of Saxony, was taken prisoner. 


MUHLDORF (Bavaria). Near this place 
Frederick, duke of Austria, was defeated and taken 
prisoner by Louis of Bavaria, 28 Sept. 1322. 


MULBERRY-TREES. The alleged first 
planted in England are in the gardens of Sion- 
house. Shakspeare planted a mulberry-tree with 
his own hands at Stratford-upon-Avon; and Gar- 
rick, Macklin, and others were entertained under it 
in 1742. Shakspeare’s house was afterwards sold 
toa clergyman of the name of Gastrel, who cut 
down the mulberry-tree for fuel, 1765. <A silver- 
smith purchased the whole, and manufactured it 
into memorials. 


MULE, a spinning machine invented in 1779, 
by Samuel Crompton, born at Bolton, Lancashire, 
in 1753; named, from Crompton’s residence, Had/- 
in-the-wood-wheel ; and muslin-wheel, from its 
giving birth to the British muslin and cambric 
manufacture; and mule, from its combining the 
advantages of Hargreave’s spinning jenny, and 
Arkwright’s adaptation. It is stated that Crompton 
at the time knew nothing of the latter. He did not 
patent his invention, but gave it up in 1780. It 
produced yarn treble the fineness and very much 
softer than any ever before produced in England. 
Parliament voted him 5000/. in 1812, now considered 
a most inadequate compensation. Mr. Roberts in- 
vented the se/f-acting mule in 1825. 


MULHOUSE or MULHAUSEN (in N.E. 
France), an imperial city, under Rodolph of Haps- 
burg; joined the Swiss confederation in 1515; 
annexed to France in 1798; conquered and annexed 
to Germany, 1870-1. The calico manufacture was 
introduced in 1746. 


MUMMIES (from the Arabic mum, wax); see 
Embalming. ‘Vhe mummies in the British Museum, 
with other Egyptian antiquities, were placed there 
about 1803. Mr. Alex. Gordon, in 1737, published 
an essay on three Egyptian mummies, one of which 
was brought to England in 1722 by capt. Wm. 
Lethieullier;. two others came in 1734, one of 
which was retained by Dr. Mead, the other was 
given to the College of Physicians. In 1834, Mr. 
T. J. Pettigrew published a ‘‘ History of Egyptian 
Mummies.” ‘The discovery of about 39 mummies 
of kings, priests, and other eminent persons in sar- 
cophagi at Renneh, near Thebes, Upper Egypt, was 
announced in Aug. 1881. 

MUNCHENGRATZ (Bohemia) was taken by 


ihe Prussians under prince Frederick Charles, after 
a severe action, 28 June, 1866. ‘The Austrians lost 


about 300 killed and 1000 prisoners, and the p: 
gained about 12 miles of country. 


MUNDA (now Monda, 8S. Spain). Here (; 
Scipio defeated the Carthaginians, B.c. 216; 
here Julius Cesar defeated the sons of Pompey 
March, 45, after a severe conflict. ; 


MUNDANE ERAS. That of Alexa 
fixed the creation at 5502 B.c. This comput: 
continued till a.D. 284, Alex. era, 5786; bi 
A.D. 285 ten years were subtracted, and 578° 
came 5777. ‘This coincided with the Mundan 
of Antioch (which dated the creation 5492 1 
Nicholas. 


MUNICH, the capital of Bavaria, founde 
duke Henry of Saxony, 962. It was take 
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 1632; by 
Austrians, in 1704, 1741, and 1743; and bj 
French under Moreau, 2 July, 1800. It aboun 
schools, institutions, and manufactories. 
university was founded by king Louis in 1826 
Bavarian art-exhibition was opened here by p 
Adalbert, 20 July, 1869. A congress of ‘ 
Catholics’? (whieh see) met here, 23 Sept. 
International exhibition opened, 19 July, 
International art exhibition opened 1 July, 
Population, Dec. 1871, 169,693 ; 1880, 230,023 


MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS, &e 


Corporations. 


to have been founded by Charlemagne, 
secularised in 1802; seized by the French, 7 
part of the duchy of Berg, 1809; annexed to F 
1810; ceded to Prussia, 1815. The Anabar 
under John of Leyden, the king of Munster, 
the city in 1534-5. Here were signed the pre 
naries of the treaty of Westphalia (which 
or Munster, Jan. 1647; definitively signed 2 
1648.—MunstER, the southern province of Ire 
an ancient kingdom. In 1568 a commissior 
issued for its government by a president and 
cil, and new colonies were founded in 1588. 


MURADAL, see TZoloso. 


MURCIA, a province, formerly a kin; 
N. E. Spain, was subdued by the Moors, 71 
Ferdinand of Castile, 1240; and divided be 
Castile and Arragon, 1305. 

Murcia, the capital, was sacked by the French | 
Sebastiani, 23 April, 1810. It was inundated | 
Segura, after a violent storm, 15-17 Oct., 1879, 
about 1ooo persons perished. 


MURDER, the highest offence against tl} 
of God. (Genesis ix. 6, 2348 B.c.) A co 
Ephetz was established by Demophoén of A 
for the trial of murder, 1179 B.c. The Persia 
not punish the first offence. In England, df 
a period of the heptarchy, murder was pur 
by fines only. So late as Henry VIII.’s timf 
crime was compounded for in Wales. Mur. 
were allowed benefit of clergy in 1503. Aggral 
murder, or petit treason (a distinction now 
lished), happened in three ways: by a sei 
killing his master, a wife her husband, a1 
ecclesiastical person his superior, stat. 25 Edw] 
1350. The enactments relating to this crimp 
very numerous, and its wilful commission has)* 
rarely pardoned by our sovereigns. The act wk ‘ 
the murderer should be executed on the day?’ 
but one after his conviction, was repealed, 8 
see Assassinations, Executions, Trials; also p 
don, 1872, Bravo, Burton, Euston, tan 
Richmond, Harley Street, Whitechapel, Poiso yy 
Lailways, 1864 and 1881; Slough. 


MURET. 


565 


MUSIC. 


irders in England and Wales (from Coroners’ In- 


s)i— 

.. 205 | 1864°.. 246 | 1872 .. 257 | 1880 .. 157 
|. 184 | 1865... 226 | 1873 .. 223 | 1881 .. 193 
'.. 183 | 1866 .. 272 | 1874 .. 223 | (rox females) 
'meog | 1867 .. 255 1875 .. 200 | 1882 .. 176 
myemoe | x008 .. 26r | 1876 .. 207 | 1883 .. 177 
qmero| 1869 .. 265 | 1877 .. 199 

aeeet | TO70 w. 222 | 1878... 176 

Wagon! 107T... 226 | 1879 .. 153 


URET (S. France). Here the Albigenses, 
‘t the count of Thoulouse, were defeated by 
ym de Montfort, and their ally Peter of Arragon 
d, 12 Sept. 1213. 


URFREESBOROUGH (Tennessee, N. 
rica) was the site of fierce conflicts between 
‘ederals under Rosencrans and the confederates 
‘ry Bragg, from 31 Dec. 1862 to 3 Jan. 1863, when 

retired with great loss. ‘This struggle is 
dalso the battle of Stone River. 


URIATIC ACID, see Alkali. 


‘URRAY’S HANDBOOKS FOR TRA- 

\LERS. The parent of the series, a ‘*‘ Handbook 

‘‘ravellers on the Continent,’’ appeared in 1836. 
dbooksfor France, Switzerland, South Germany, 
soon followed ; one for Algeria appeared in Oct. 

'; one for Japan in 1884. 

‘USCAT, or MASGAT, an Arab state on the 
of Oman, was conquered by the Portuguese 

rg Albuquerque in 1507, but recovered by the 

sin 1648. 

ad bin Sa’id repelled a Persian invasion and 


_nded present dynasty . 2 A s eee G7 Ag 
_, his son, succeeded . x . = : * 1775 
bin Sultan, hisson . s : : 4 a6 ater 
“y with the British eee |. ergs 3890 
‘is death his territories divided; after a con- 
it, his son Sa’id Thuwainy obtained Oman ; and 
id, Zanzibar (which see) . ‘ 2 : . 1856 
_ Redin compelled to fly, and a chief, Azan bin 
eo, seized the government : . Oct. 1868 
imaum endeavoured to regain his authority, 
H Aug. 1870 
‘city was taken by Sa’id Toorkee, and the chief 
tomes | d : : , . about 30 Jan. 1871 
Abdool Aseer said to be deposed by his bro- 
x, Said Toorkee, end of : A . Dec. 1875 
) Ilion against the sultan : : . dune, 1882 


tity of Muscat besieged by the sultan’s brother, 

lose camp is shelled by the British ship Philo- 

1; siege raised, announced . 29-31 Oct. 1883 
| ils defeated and dispersed, announced 5 Nov. ,, 


‘USEUM, originally a quarter of the palace 
lexandria, like the Prytaneum of Athens, where 
1ent learned men were maintained by the pub- 
| The foundation is attributed to Ptolemy 
‘adelphus, who here placed his library about 280 
' Besides the British Museum, Soane’s Museum, 
| the Museum of Geology (which see), there are 
‘Many others in London. The opening of 
/ le museums and galleries on Sunday was long 
| cated in parliament: negatived by 271 to 68, 
\ fay, 1874. 

USIC.* “Jubal, the father of all such as 
\ lle the harp and the organ” (3875 B.c. Gen. 
/ 21). The flute, and harmony, or concord in 
|, le, are said to have been invented by Hyagnis, 
}) B.C. Arund. Marbles. Vocal choruses of 
| are first mentioned 556 B.c. Dufresnoy. See 
 %, and other musical instruments. Prior to 


! _Pythagoras (about 555 B.c.) maintained that the 
ons of the twelve spheres must produce delightful 
| ds, inaudible to mortal ears, which he called ‘the 
| iC of the spheres.” St. Cecilia, said to have enticed 
mgel from the celestial regions by her melody, is 

a the patroness of music. She died in the second 


1600, the chief music in England was masses, 
ballads, and madrigals, but dramatic music was 
much cultivated from that time. About the end of 
James I.’s reign, a music professorship was founded 
in the university of Oxford by Dr. Wm. Hychin; 
and the year 1710 was distinguished by the arrival 
in England of George Frederick Handel. Mozart 
came to England in 1763; Joseph Haydn in 1791 ; 
and Carl Maria von Weber in 1825. 


Dictionaries of Music, Rousseaw’s, published 1767 ; 
in ‘* Eneyclopédie Méthodique,” 1791; Feétis, 
“* Biographie Universelle des Musiciens,” 1835-44, 
and 1860-65. The publication of the excellent 
“ Dictionary of Music and Musicians,” edited by 
Mr. George Grove, began : i Jan. 1878 

Musica Nores, &c. See Gamut. The first six are said 
to have been invented by Guy Aretino, a Benedictine 
monk of Arezzo, about 1025. Blair. The notes at 
present used were perfected in 1338. Counterpoint 
was brought to perfection by Palestrina about 1555. 
Gafforio of Lodi read lectures on musical composition 
in the 15th century, and they effected great improve- 
ment in the science. The Italian style of composition 
was introduced into these countries about 1616. 

The Musicau Pircu was settled in France in 1859. The 
middle A to be 870 simple or 435 double vibrations in a 
second ; but through error of measurement the fork 
made gave (A) 439 double vibrations (C, 522). Ata 
meeting on the subject, held at the Society of Arts, on 
23 Nov. 1860, the concert pitch of C was recommended 
to be 528 vibrations in a second ; but the fork made by 
Mr. J. H. Griesbach gives 5393 vibrations. Mr. Hullah 
adopted 512 vibrations. 

A lower pitch was adopted at concerts in London in Jan. 
1869. 528 vibrations for C adopted for performances 
at the international exhibition of 1872, at a meeting, 
20 Jan. 1872. 

[Handel’s tuning-fork, 1740, was 495; the Philharmonic 
Society’s, 1813-43, Was 515. ] 

Mr. A. J. Ellis’s elaborate ‘‘ History of Musical Pitch ” 
is published in ‘‘ Journal of the Society of Arts,” 5 
March, 1880, and separately. 

Musicau FEsTivALs IN ENGLAND. Dr. Bysse, chancellor 
of Hereford, about 1724, proposed to the members of 
the choirs, a collection at the cathedral door after 
morning service, when forty guineas were collected 
and appropriated to charitable purposes. It was then 
agreed to hold festivals at Hereford, Gloucester, and 
Worcester, in rotation annually. Until the year 1753, 
the festival lasted only two days; it was then ex- 
tended at Hereford to three evenings ; and at Glouces- 
ter, in 1757, to three mornings, for the purpose of in- 
troducing Handel’s ‘‘ Messiah,” which was warmly 
received, and has been performed annually ever since. 
Musical festivals on a great scale are now annually held 
at various cathedrals in England; see Handel and 
Crystal Palace. 

‘* Sons of the Clergy” annual musical performances at St. 
Paul’s began 1709. 

MusicaL FrstivaLs. Several were held on the conti- 
nent in the 18th century; for Haydn at Vienna, 1808, 
1811; others at Erfurt 1811, Cologne 1821, and fre- 
quently since. b 

Study of music greatly increased by the efforts and. 
teaching of John Hullah since 1840 ef seq. 

The Tonic sol-fa system, in which the letters eT. , Js Ss 
l, t, (for do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, or si) are used instead of 
notes, was invented by Miss Glover, of N orwich, and 
improved by rev. John Curwen, about 1844; he died 


1880. 

The Tonic Sol-fa Association founded 1853 ; the colleye 
established 1862. 

Musicau Institutions. The Ancient Academy of Music 
was instituted in 1710. It originated with numerous 
eminent performers and gentlemen wishing to promote 
the study of vocal harmony. : 

Madrigal Society was established in 1741, and other musi- 
cal societies followed. 

« Ancient concerts” began, 1776 ; ceased, 1848. a 

Royal Society of Music arose from the principal nobility 
and gentry uniting to promote the performance of 
operas composed by Handel, 1785. 

Philharmonic Society’s concerts began in 1813. — 

Royal Academy of Music, established 1822 (which see). 

Melodists’ Club, 1825. 

New Philharmonic Society established 1852. 


MUSIC. 


Sacred Harmonie Society, Exeter hall, established 1831. 
sooth performance, 13 Dec. 1867 ; performances at St. 
James's Hall, 1880-1. It ceased to exist in 1882; 
final concert, 28 April (Handel’s ‘‘Solomon”). The 
new society gave its first concert, 23 Feb. 1883. 

British Orchestral Society, 1872. 

Catch Club formed, 1761; centenary kept, July, 186r. 

Glee Club formed, 1787. 

Musical Union, founded by John Hilla, 1845. 

Harmonic Union (for performances of ancient and 
modern music), 1852-4. 

Musical Society of London, established 1858. 

“‘Popular Monday Concerts” at St. James’s Hall, 
founded by 8. A. Chappell, commenced with a ‘‘ Men- 
delssohn night,” 14 Feb. 1859. 4 

London Academy of Music founded in 1860. 

Cecilian Society, London, founded by Z. W. Vincent and 
others in 1785 ; ceased in 186r. 

** Musical Education Committee ” of the Society of Arts, 
London, with the prince of Wales as chairman, held its 
first meeting 22 May, 1865. Its first report, dated 27 
June, 1866, recommended the reconstitution of the 
Royal Academy. . 

National Training School for Music; building near the 
Albert-hall, founded by the duke of Kdinburgh, 
18 Dec. 1873 ; opened by him 17 May, 1876 ; first public 
concert, 23 June, 1879. Premises given up to the 
prince of Wales as Chairman of the proposed National 
College of Music, 6 April, 1882. 

Royal College of Music, Kensington ; establishment pro- 
posed at a meeting at Marlborough-house, the prince 
of Wales in the chair, Aug. 1878, and 23 and 28 Feb. 
1882. Charter granted; prince of Wales, president ; 
sir George Grove, director ; 21 April, 1883 ; opened by 
the prince of Wales, 7 May; reported successful ; 
first annual meeting 28 May, 1884. 

“* Musical Association for the Investigation and Discus- 
sion of subjects connected with the Art and Science 
of Music,” founded 16 April, 1874, by Messrs. Spottis- 
woode, Wheatstone, Tyndall, G. A. Macfarren, J. 
Hullah, Sedley Taylor, Stone, Pole, Chappell, Barnby, 
and others. 

Henry Leslie’s musical choir formed about 1855; dis- 
solved 1880; re-organised, Mr. Randegger conductor, 
July, 1882. 

Church Choral Society, London, incorporated as Trinity 
College, 1875. 

National Opera-house, N. Thames embankment, first brick 
laid by Mule. Tietjens, 7 Sept. ; first stone by the duke 
of Edinburgh, 16 Dec. 1875. ; 

The Wagner Society in London gave concerts to intro- 
duce R. Wagner’s so-called ‘‘ Music of the Future” 
(the due combination of music and poetry), Feb. 1873. 

Wagner’s Lohengrin, performed at Covent-garden, 8 May, 
at Drury-lane, 13 June, 1875. Tannhauser performed at 
Covent-garden, 29 April, 1876. 

Three series of performances of Wagner’s ‘‘ Ring des 
Nibelungen,” in four parts (Rheingold, Walkiire, Sieg- 
JSried, and Gotterverdammerung), at Bayreuth, in 
presence of the emperors of Germany and Brazil, the 
king of Bavaria, and many other sovereigns and 
princes, 13 Aug., et seg., 1876; at Berlin, May, 1881. In 
London, 5 May, et sey. 1882, 

Wagner Festival, Royal Albert Hall, London (Wagner 
present), 7—19 May, 1877. 

Richard Wagner died at Venice, 13 Feb. 1883. 

Musica CHARITIES. Royal Society of Musicians, estab- 
lished 1738 ; incorporated 1790. 

Royal Society of Female Musicians, established 1839; 
these two combined, 1866. 

Choir Benevolent Fund, 1857. 

Sacred Harmonie Benevolent Fund, 1855. 


EMINENT MUSICAL COMPOSERS. 


Born Died 
Tallis * - » A c f ce A EASES 1585 
Palestrina. ‘ = A - : Peatoon 1594 
T. Morley. ; : e a eT ER RS 1604 
Orlando Gibbons . 3 4 : 3 - 1583 1624 
H. Lawes. i . ° . 4 «ts £OOO 1662 
Lully . F ; - « F . She dile ys) 1672 
Purcell); 3 - : ° 7 ns OSG 1695 
J. Seb. Bach* 4 : : A 1685 1750 
G. F. Handel . ° 5 A : 1684 1759 
EDs he, ATO a: A ; 2 “ : 1710 1778 


* He had eleven sons musicians ; four distinguishe d. 


566 


MUTINA. 

Born J 
C. Gluck . : : fe 2 ‘ - « 37t4n 
W. A. Mozart 4 E ‘ 6 5 - 17508 
Joseph Haydn . z : F A » . £7oem - 
C. Dibdin  . . : 3 > F - 17480) © 
S. Webbe. : : Z ; 7 Pa oy fc : 
J. W. Callcott) ee - f A : - 27668 i 
C. Weber . > i : zg ; > « 173868 & 
T. Schubert . ° : ° “ -.« 1707m 
L. Beethoven ; : A . “ « L770) Me 
M. Cherubini . ; : . ‘ + < Ge 
F. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy . ‘ - - 180g 
F. Chopin . : “ = Hs - 1810 Be 
H. Bishop: «| |.) See en (a 
R. Schumann 4 : A A > « 10568 
L. Spohr : ‘ ; . . . + 1783 
J. HE. Halevy . 3 A ‘ ‘ « 5790 
J. Meyerbeer 7 : ; 5 A - 1794 
J. Rossini = 2 : 5 4 + 1792 
L. H. Berlioz . 5 : F : » \S 08ae 
M. W. Balfe . 4 ‘ r : - 1808 
D.. Auber ae 4 F . - « 1784 
W. Sterndale Bennett . ; z “ - 1816 
R. Wagner . F 2 ; a” (0) ROM 
M. Costa : . . : > ‘ - 1810 
Julius Benedict . ° . . - «+ 1804 
G. A. Maefarren . . . . . + 181g 
C. F. Gounod . = " Fi ° « TBLB 
A. Sullivan . : ® “ 5 - 1844 


MUSICAL GLASSES, see under Harin 
and Copophone. | 


_ MUSIC HALLS. In 1878, 347 of thesey 
licensed in London: first class, 3; second clas 
third class, 13; fourth class, 53; &c. 


MUSKETS, see Firearms. 
MUSKETRY SCHOOLS at Hythe 


Fleetwood were established in 1854 under me 
general C. C. Hay. He resigned in 1867. 
school at Fleetwood was closed the same year. - 


MUSLIN, a fine cotton cloth, so called, 
said, from having a downy nap on its surface, 
sembling moss (French, mousse); according 
others, because it was first brought from Mou! 
in India. Muslins were first worn in Englan> 
1670. Anderson. By means of the Mule (w) 
see), British much superseded India muslins. 


MUTA (Syria). Here Mahomet and his 
lowers defeated the Christians in his first cor 
with them, 629. 


MUTE. A prisoner is said to stand mute, v) 
being arraigned for treason or felony, he eip 
makes no answer, or answers foreign to the | 
pose. Until 1741, persons refusing to plead 
subjected to torture by pressure. 


Walter Calverly, esq., of Calverly in Yorkshire, he? 
murdered two of his children, and stabbed his wit 
a fit of jealousy, being arraigned for his crime at 
assizes, stood mute, and was thereupon presse 
death in the castle, a large iron weight being placed P 
his breast, 5 Aug. 1605. Stow. i 

Major Strangeway suffered death in a similar mer 
at Newgate for the murder of his brother-in-law 


J 

Fussell, 1657. | 

Judgment was awarded against mutes, as if they 
convicted or had confessed, by 12 Geo. III. 1772. 

A man refusing to plead was condemned and execut 
the Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778, and an 
on a charge of burglary at Wells, 1792. 

An act passed by which the court is directed to en 
plea of “ not guilty” when the prisoner will not p/# 
1827. 

MUTINA (now Modena), N. Italy. 
Mark Antony, after defeating the consul Pansa. 
himself beaten with great loss by Hirtius the «/® 
consul, and fled to Gaul, 27 April, 43 B.C. 


| MUTINIES. 


UTINIES, Brrrisu. The mutiny throughs | 


‘the fleet at Portsmouth for an advance of wages, | 
1,1797. It subsided on a promise from the 
‘\iralty, which not being quickly fulfilled, occa- 
ed a second mutiny on board the London man- 
var; admiral Colpoys, and his captain, were put 
confinement for ordering the marines to fire, 
reby some lives were lost. The mutiny sub- 
110 May, 1797, when an act was passed to raise 
‘wages, and the king pardoned the mutineers. 


ny of the Bounty, 28 April, 1789 ; see Bounty. 
my at the Nore, which blocked up the trade of the 
ames, broke out on 27 May, 1797, and subsided 13 
)ne, 1797, when the principal mutineers were put in 
ms, and several executed (including the ringleader, 
‘io had assumed the name of rear-admiral Richard 
‘rker), 30 June, at Sheerness. 
(ny of the Danaé frigate ; the crew carried the ship 
_to Brest harbour, 27 March, 1800. 
‘ny on board admiral Mitchell’s fleet at Bantry Bay, 
¢, 1801, and January following (see Bantry Bay). 
iny at Malta, began 4 April, 1807, and ended on the 
th, when the mutineers (chiefly Greeks and Corsi- 
ns) blew themselves up by setting fire to a large 
igazine, consisting of between 400 and 500 barrels of 
npowder. 
iny on the Jefferson Borden, U.S. schooner; two 
ites murdered ; put down by the captain, 2c April ; 
)ssel arrived at Gravesend, May; 2 men condemned 
Boston, U. 8., 1 Oct., 1875. 
‘iny on’the Lennie, British ship, bound for America, 
-ptain and two mates murdered by foreign seamen, 
_ Oct. 1875. Van Hoydek, steward, managed to get 
e vessel to the Isle of Rhé; 11 men seized and con- 
yed to London, tried, 4 convicted, 4 May; executed, 
May, 1876. 
iny on the Caswell, Glasgow barque, capt. G. Best: 
Jan., on way home from Valparaiso ; captain and 
‘men killed; mutineers overcome by others, some 
jlled; vessel brought to Queenstown, 13 May; 
-aristos Baumbos sentenced to death, 31 July; exe- 
ited at Cork, 25 Aug. 1876. Giuseppe Pistoria exe- 
ited at Cork, 25 Aug. 1879. 
iny in rgth Hussars, Curragh camp, Dublin ; through 
scontent with officers on account of extra duty, 8 
| spt.; 75 arrested ; court martial ; sentenced to penal 
mvitude, 2 for 5 years, 2 for 6 years, 1 for 7 years, 1 
/ ir 8 years, 14 Nov. 1877. 
4 Indian Mutinies, see Madras, 1806, and India 1857. 


:MUTINY ACT (1 & 2 Will. and Mary, c. 5), 
| the discipline, regulation, and payment of the 
iy, &e., was passed 12 April, 1689, and has since 
‘re-enacted annually. 


jarliamentary commission reported in favour of con- 
dlidating and simplifying military law, by combining 
te mutiny act and articles of war in a new act to be 
assed annually, &c., July, 1878. 


\ 
VYCALE (lonia, Asia Minor), BATTLE OF, 
ght between the Greeks (under Leotychides, the 
ig of Sparta, and Xantippus the Athenian) and 
| Persians, 22 Sept. 479 B.c.; the day on which 
wdonius was defeated and slain at Platea by 
usanias. The Persians (about 100,000 men), 
0 had just returned from the unsuccessful expe- 
ion of Xerxes in Greece, were completely de- 
) ted, thousands of them slaughtered, and their 
up burnt. The Greeks sailed back to Samos 
an immense booty. ‘ 


MYCENAS, a division of the kingdom of 
gives, in the Peloponnesus. It stood about fifty 
dia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion 
the Heraclide. Early history mythical. 


rseus removes from Argos, and founds Mycenex, 


,. B.C. 1431, 1313, OF 1282 
-ignofEurystheus . é . 1289, 1274, OF 1258 
wards the close of his reign is placed the story of 

the labours surmounted by Hercules. ] 


isthus assassinates Atreus; Agamemnon suc- 


567 


MYSTICS. 


ceeds to the throne; becomes king of Sicyon, 
Corinth, and perhaps of Argos . ; : tp LZOR 
He is chosen generalissimo of the Grecian forces 
going to the Trojan war ‘ F about 1193 
Agisthus, in the absence of Agamemnon, lives in 
adultery with the queen Clytemnestra. On the 
return of the king they assassinate him; and 
/Egisthus mounts the throne : : : 
Orestes, son of Agamemnon, kills his mother and 
her paramour. - : : : J Re ews 
Orestes dies of the bite of a serpent. . 1106 
The Achaians are expelled . : ; : yd 
Invasion of the Heraclide, and the conquerors 
divide the dominions. é “ é 7 : 
Mycene destroyed by the Argives : : rece! 
Discoveries on the supposed site of Mycenz made 
by Dr. Schliemann ; reported March, 1874-Sept. 
Visited by the emperor of Brazil x5 Oct. 
Discovery of tombs of Agamemnon, and others, 
and many treasures ; announced by Dr. Schlie- 
mann : : : ¢ : . 28 Nov. 
Dr. Schliemann reports his discoveries to the So- 
ciety of Antiquaries, London, 22 March; pub- 
lishes his ‘‘ Mycenz”’ : G * Dec. 1877 


MYL, a bay of Sicily, where the Romans, 
under their consul Duilius, gained their first naval 
victory over the Carthaginians, and took fifty of 
their ships, 260 B.c. Here also Agrippa defeated 
the fleet of Sextus Pompeius, 36 B.C. 


MYOGRAPHION, an apparatus for deter- 
mining the velocity of the nervous current, invented 
by H. Helmholtz in 1850, and since imaproved by 
Du Bois Reymond and others. 


MYSORE (S. India), was made a flourishing 
kingdom by Hyder Ali, who dethroned the reign- - 
ing sovereign in 1761, and by his son, Tippoo 
Sahib, who considerably harassed the English. 
Tippoo was chastised by them in 1792, and on 
4 May, 1799, his capital, Seringapatam, was taken 
by assault, and himself slain. ‘The English esta- 
plished a prince of the old royal family as maharajah 
of part of Mysore in 1799; being without an heir 
he was permitted to adopt a child of four years of 
age, in Aug. 1867; who succeeded him at his 
death, 27 Mar. 1868, and assumed the government 
in May, 1881. Tippoo’s last surviving son, Gholam 
Mahomet, a British pensioner, died at Calcutta, II 
Aug. 1872. 


MYSTERIES, derived from the Greek muste- 
yion, a mystery or revealed secret. The Sacred 
mysteries is a term applied to the doctrines of 
Christianity, called the ‘‘ mystery of godliness,”’ 
1 Tim. iii. 16, as opposed to the ‘‘ mystery of 
iniquity,” 2 Thess. ii. 7. The Holy Eucharist is 
also termed the sacred mysteries. The Profane mys- 
teries were the secret ceremonies performed by a se- 
lect few in honour of some deity. From the Egyptian 
mysteries of Isis and Osiris sprang those of Bacchus 
and Ceres among the Greeks. The Eleusinian mys- 
teries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 
B.c.—Mystery Piays; see Drama. 


MYSTICS, a name given to those theologians 
who, in addition to the obvious meaning of the 
Holy Scriptures, assert that there are interpreta- 
tions to be discovered by means of an emanation of 
the Divine Wisdom, by which the soul is enlight- 
ened and purified; for which purpose they advocate 
seclusion for contemplation and asceticism. 


Mysticism taught at Alexandria by Clemens, Pantenus, 
Origen, and others, who mingled Christianity and 
Platonism, 2nd and 3rd centuries. : } 

Much promoted by the works of the pseudo-Dionysius 

“The Mystic Theology,” &c), 6th century. 

Introduced into the Western empire, gth century. 

Eminent Medieval mystics (opposed by the schoolmen 


1183 


” 


I103 
1468 


1876 


9 


\ 


MYTHOLOGY. 


568 


ce | 


4 


‘ 


MYTHOLOGY. 


Master Eckhart (1251-1329); John Tauler of Stras- 
burg, where he acted heroically during the plague, 
termed the ‘black death” (1290-1361); Henry Suso 
(1300-65). They aimed at a more spiritual religion 
than Romanism; but their followers were charged 
with immorality, pantheism, communism, and main- 
taining private inspiration. * 

Jacob Bohme or Behmen, the German mystic, published 
his ‘‘ Aurora” (an alleged divine revelation) 1612; 
died, 18 Nov. 1624. 

For modern mystics, see Quakers, Qwietists, Hutchin- 
sonians and Swedenborgians. 


MYTHOLOGY (Greek mythos, fable), the 
traditions respecting the gods of any people. Thoth 
(or Mercury Tr ismegistus) i is supposed to have in- 
troduced mythology among the Egyptians, 1521 B.c.; 
and Cadmus, the worship of the Egyptian and 


Phenician deities among the Greeks, j 
Ee 
Greek Gods. 


K Sat 7 

ay \ parents of Cybele j parent 
Zeus . Jupiter (Jovis-pai 
Ploutén (Aides, Hades) . P - Pluto. 
Poseid6n . - » Neptui 
Here or Héra ; a : . Juno, 
Démétér ; - . Cer 
Hestia . ‘ ; : Vesta. 

JUPITER'S CHILDREN. 

Apollon . Fi A ze ; Apollo, 
Ares ¢ 5 ns c i . . Migane. 
Hermes . ; P : Mere 
Hephaistos ; c . Vulean 
Athena or Athené : 5 “ . . Mineryi 
Aphrodite “ 4 ; C Venus, 
Artémis . é A A Diana. 


| 


| 


| N. 


| NAAS. 


\AS (E. Ireland). Here a desperate engage- 
took place between a body of royal forces and 
isurgent Irish, 24 May, 1798, during the re- 
'n. The latter were defeated with the loss of 
jlled and many wounded. 


(BONASSAR, ERA Of, received its name 
the prince of Babylon, under whose reign 
jomical studies were much advanced in 
ea. The years contain 365 days each, with- 
‘ntercalation. The first day of the era was 
iesday (said, in mistake, to be Thursday, in 
t de Vérifier les Dates), 26 Feb. 747 B.c.— 
Julian period. To find the Julian year on 
1 the year of Nabonassar begins, subtract the 
if before Christ, from 748; if after Christ, 


'yit 747. 


\CHOD (Bohemia). At this place the 


jians, under their crown prince, defeated 


ustrians, after a severe conflict, 27 June, 1866. 


Prussian Uhlans vanquished the Austrian 


ty. 
\COLEA (Phrygia). Near here the usurper 


\pius was defeated, and soon afterwards slain 
-e emperor Valens, 366. 

AFELS (Switzerland). 
' was defeated by a small body of Swiss, 1388. 


AGA HILLS MASSACRE, sce India, 


Here an Austrian 


\G@S HEAD STORY. Matthew Parker 
onsecrated archbishop of Canterbury at Lam- 
17 Dee. 1559, by bishops Barlow, Coverdale, 
,and Hodgkins. For forty-five years after, the 
sh writers asserted that Parker and others had 
ordained in an abnormal fashion by Scory at 
Yag’s Head Tavern, Cheapside. This fiction 
‘efuted by Burnet, and is rejected by Roman 
lic authorities, such as Lingard. 
\HUM, Festivat oF. Nahum, the seventh 
e twelve minor prophets, about 713 B.c.; the 
‘al is the 24th of December. 


AINI TAL, see Landslips, 18 Sept. 1880. 
AISSUS (Meesia). The Goths were defeated 


here with great slaughter by the emperor 
lius IT., 269. 


AJARA or NAVARRETE (N. Spain). At 


} oho, near these places, Kdward the Black 


e defeated Henry de Trastamara, and re- 
lished Peter the Cruel on the throne of 
le, 3 April, 1367. 

AMES. Adam and Eve named their sons. 
iy. 25, 26. A Roman citizen had generally 
'names; prenomen, denoting the individual ; 
n, the gens or clan; cognomen, the branch of 


lus Cornelius Scipio Africanus). ‘The popes 
ge their names on their exaltation to the 
ificate, ‘‘a custom introduced by pope Sergius, 
@ name till then was Swine-snout,” 687. 


| ina. Onuphrius (followed by most of the mo- 


} 

| 

‘clan: sometimes he had the agnomen (e. g., 
: 


authorities), refers it to John XII., 956; 
ug that it was done in imitation of SS. Pte 
Paul, who were first called Simon and Saul. 
Tance the name given at baptism was some- 


NAPLES. 


times changed. The two sons of Henry II. of 
France were christened Alexander and Hercules ; 
at their confirmation these names were changed to 
Henry and Francis. Monks and nuns, at their 
entrance into monasteries, assume new names. See 
Surnames. Miss Yonge’s “History of Christian 
Names,” published 1863 (new edition 1884). M. A. 
Lower’s “ Patronymica Britannica,” 1860. 


NAMUR, in Belgium, was made a county in 
932 5 taken by the French, 1 July, 1692; by Wil- 
iam of England, 4 Aug. ep: ceded to the house 
of Austria by the peace of Utrecht, and garrisoned 
by the Dutch as a barrier town of the United Pro- 
vinces in 1715. The city of Namur was ceded to 
Austria, 1713; taken by the French in 1746, but 
was restored in 1749. In 1782, the emperor Joseph 
expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792 it was again 
taken by the French, who were compelled to 
evacuate it in 1793; regained 1794; delivered up 
to the allies, 1814; assigned to Belgium, 1831. It 
was a site of a severe conflict in June, 1815, between 
the Prussians and the French under Grouchy, when 
retreating after the battle of Waterloo. . 


NANCY (N.E. France), an ancient city, capital 
of Lorraine, in the 13th century. After taking 
Nancy, 29 Nov. 1475, and losing it, 5 Oct. 1476, 
Charles the Bold of Burgundy was defeated beneath 
its walls, and slain by the duke of Lorraine and 
the Swiss, ; Jan. 1477; see Lorraine. Nancy was 
embellished by Stanislas, ex-king of Poland, who 
resided and died here Feb. 1766. It was captured 
by Bliicher, Jan. 1814, and on the retreat of Mac- 
Mahon’s army, and expecting the German army, 
surrendered to four Uhlans, 12 Aug. 1870. It was 
restored at the peace. 


NANKIN, said to have been made the central 
capital of China, 420. It was the court of the 
Ming dynasty from 1369 till Yung-lo removed it to 
Pekin in 1410. On4 Aug. 1842, the British ships 
arrived at Nankin, and peace was made. The rebel 
Tae-pings took it on 19, 20 March, 1853. It was 
recaptured by the Imperialists, 19 July, 1864, and 
found to be in a very desolate condition. 

NANTES (W. France), formerly capital of the 
Namnetes. The edict in favour of the Protestants 
issued here by Henry IV., 13 April, 1598, was re- 
voked by Louis XLV., 22 Oct. 1685. Awful cruelties 
were committed here by the republican Carrier, 
Oct.-Nov. 1793; see Drowning. 

NAPHTHA, a clear combustible rock oil, 
known to the Greeks, called ‘‘ oil of Media,’ and 
thought to have been an ingredient in the Greek 
fire (which see). 

NAPIER’S BONES, see Logarithms. 

NAPLES, formerly the continental division 
and seat of government of the kingdom of the Two 
Sicilies, began with a Greek colony named Parthe- 
nope (about 1000 B.c.), which was afterwards 
divided into Paleopolis (the o/d) and Neapolis (the 
new city); from the latter the present name is 
derived. The colony was conquered by the Romans 
in the Samnite war, 326B.c. Naples, after resisting 
the power of the Lombards, Franks, and Germans, 
was subjugated by the Normans under Roger Guis- 
card, king of Sicily, a.p. 1131. Few countries have 


NAPLES. 


had so many political changes, and cruel and des- 
potic rulers, or suffered so much by convulsions of 
nature, such as ear thquakes, volcanic eruptions, &c. 
In 1856, the population of the kingdom of Naples 
was 6, 886 030, of Sicily 2,231,020; total, 9,117,050. 
It now forms part of the revived kingdom of Italy. 


493 
536 
543 
552 


Naples conquered by Theodorie the Goth 

The city retaken by Belisarius . : 3 . 

Taken again by Totila : 

Retaken’ by Narses : 

Becomes a duchy nominally ‘sub ject to the Eastern 
empire 568 or 

Duchy of Naples greatly extended 

Robert Guiseard, the Norman, made duke of Apulia, 
founds the kingdom of Naples 2 

Naples conquer ed, and the kingdom of the Two 
Sicilies founded by Roger Guise ard IL. : 

The imperial house of Hohenstaufen (see Ger many) 
obtains the kingdom by marriage, and rules 1194-1266 

The pope appoints Charles of Anjou, king, who de- 
feats the regent Manfred (son of Frederick II. of 
Germany) at Benevento (Manfred slain) 26 Feb. 

Charles defeats Conradin (the last of the Hohen- 
staufens who had come to Naples by invitation of 
the Ghibellines), at Tagliacozzo, 23 Aug. : Con- 
radin beheaded . 29 Oct. 

The massacre called the Sicilian yespers (avhich see) 

o March, 
Andrew of Hungary, husband of Joanna I. mur dered 
18 Sep 
His brother Louis, king of Hungary, invades Naples 
Queen Joanna put to death 22 May, 


Alphonso V. of Arragon (called the Wise and Mag- 
nanimous), on the death of JoannalII. seizes Naples 
Naples conquered by Charles VIII. of France . ; 

And by Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand of 
Spain, who divide it . 

Expulsion of the French 

Naples and Sicily united to Spain 

Insurrection of Masaniello, occasioned by the extor- 
tions of the Spanish viceroys. An impost was 
claimed on a basket of figs, and refused by the 
owner, with whom the populace took part, headed 
by Masaniello (Thomas Aniello), a fisherman ; 
they obtained the command of Naples, many of 
the nobles were slain and their palaces burnt, and 
the viceroy was compelled to abolish the taxes 
and to restore the privileges granted by Charles 
V. to the city ; June, 

Masaniello, intoxicated by his success, was slain by 
his own followers 16 July, 

Another insurrection suppressed by don John of 
Austria F Ot: 

Henry II. duke of ‘Guise, lands, and is proclaimed 
king, but in a few days is taken prisoner by the 
Spaniar ds : April, 

Naples conquered by prince Eugene of Savoy, for 
the emperor : 

Discovery of Herculaneum (which see) 

The Spaniards by the victory at Bitonto (26 “May) 
having made themselves masters of both king- 
doms, ' Charles (of Bourbon), son of the king of 
Spain, ascends the throne, with the ancient title 
ot king of the Two Sicilies 22794 

Order of St. Januarius instituted . 1738 

Charles, becoming king of Spain, vacates the thr one 
in favour of his third son, Ferdinand, Pe to 
treaty : . : + 1759 

Expulsion of the Jesuits . é 2 at Noy. 1767 

Dreadful earthquake in Calabria . 5 Feb. 1783 

Enrolment of the Lazzaroni (which see) as Sika 
or spontoneers : 

The king flees on the approae hof the Fr ench repub- 
licans, who establish the Parthenopean republic, 

Jan. 

Nelson appears ; Naples retaken ; the restored king 
rules tyrannically . June, 

Prince Caracciolo tried and executed by order of 
Nelson - 29 June, 

The Neapolitans oc eupy Rome 30 Sept. 

Dreadful earthquake ; thousands perish 5 26 July, 

Treaty of neutrality between France and Naples 
ratified 9 Oct. 

Ferdinand, through perfidy, i is compelled to flee to 
Sicily, 23 Jan. > the French enter N aples, and Jo- 
seph Bonaparte made king . Feb. 1806 


572 
593 


1647 


> 


1793 


1799 
”» 
” 

1805 


»”» 


570 


NAPLES. 


The French defeated at Maida. : . 4Jduly 
Joseph Bonaparte, after beginning many reforms, 
abdicates for the crown of Spain . : June, 


Joachim Murat made king (rules well) 15d uly, 
His first quarrel with Napoleon : : ‘ ‘ 
His alliance with Austria . t : - san} 


Death of queen Caroline . : 7 Sept. 
Joachim declares war against Austria. 1 5 Manat 
Defeated at Tolentino 3 May, 


He retires to France, 22 May, and Corsica : he rt 
attempts the recovery of his throne by landing at 
Pizzo: seized, tried, and shot 13 Oct. 

Ferdinand, re- established, soon returns totynuan 
measures . June, 

A plague rages in Naples, Nov. 181 5 to June . ‘ 

Establishment of the society of the Carbonari . , 

Successful insurrection of the Carbonari under gen, 
Pépé; the king compelled to swear solemnly to a 
new constitution 13 July, 

The Austrians invade the kingdom, at “the “ik 4 
instigation ; general Pepé defeated 7 March, 

Fall of the constitutional government . 23 March, 

Death of Ferdinand (reigned 66 years) 4 Jan. 

[In 30 years, 100,000 Neapolitans perished by various 
kinds of death. ] 

Insurrection of the Carbonari suppressed Aug. 

Accession of Ferdinand II., Bomba (as faithless and 
tyrannical as his predecessors) 8 Noy. 

Dispute with England respecting the ‘apt trade, 
1838 ; settled ay, 

Attilio and Emilio Bandiero, with eighteen others, 
attempting an insurr' ection in Calabria, are shot 
17 Jan, 

[The statement that lord Aberdeen had given notice 
of this attempt was contradicted by his lordship, | 

Prospect of an insurrection in Naples; the kiig 
grants anew constitution with liberal ministry, 

29 Jan. 

Great fighting in Naples; the liberals and the na- 
tional guard almost annihilated by bie royal 
troops, aided by the lazzaroni Ma vy, 

A martial anarchy prevails ; the chiefs of ind iberal 
party arrested in . f Dee. 

Settembrini, Poerio, Carafa, “and others, after a 
mock tr ial, are condemned, and consigned to hor- 
rible dungeons for life June, 

After remonstrances with the king on his tyrannical 
government (May), the English and French am- 
bassadors are withdrawn : 28 Oct. 

Attempted assassination of the king by Milano 8 Dee. 

The Cagliari, a Sardinian mail steamboat plying 
between Genoa and Tunis, sailed from the former 
port on 25 June, 1857, with thirty-three passen- 
gers, who, after a few hours’ sail, took forcible 
possession of the vessel, and compelled the twe 
English engineers (Watt and Park) to steer tc 
Ponza . 4 4 25 June, 

[Here they landed, released. some prisoners there, 
took them on board, and sailed to Sapri, where 
they again landed, and restored the vessel to its 
commander and crew. The latter steered innne- 
diately for Naples ; but on the way the vessel was 
boarded by a Neapolitan cruiser, and all the crew 
were landed and consigned to dungeons, where 
they remained for nine “months waiting for trial, 
suffering great privations and insults. This causec 
great excitement in England: and after muel 
negotiation, the crew were released, the yesse 
given up to the British government, and 3000l. 
given as a compensation to the sufferers. ] 

Italian refugees, under count Pisaccane, land ir 
Calabria, are defeated, and their leader killed, 

27 June-2 July 

Dreadful earthquake in the Apennill a . 16 Dec. 

Amnesty granted to political offenders . 27 Dec. 

Poerio and sixty-six companions released and sant tc 
N. America, Jan. ; on their way, they seize the 
vessel, sail to Cork, 7 March; and proceed tc 
London : . 18 March 

Death of Ferdinand IL, after dreadful we 

lay 

Diplomatic relations resumed with England anc 
France 3 . dune) 

A subscription for Poerio and his companions ir 
England amounted to 10,000l. July, 

Insubordination among the Swiss troops at Naples: 
many shot, July 7; major Latour sent to Be 
by the Swiss confederation . . . x6duly 


me | 


NAPLES. 


571 


NAPLES. 


increased ; defences strengthened Oct. 1859 
political imprisonments ; the foreign ambas- 
ws collectively address a note to the king 
ing the necessity for reform in his states, 26 
eh; the count of Syracuse recommends re- 


The king of Sardinia enters the kingdom of Naples, 
and takes command of his army, which combines 
with Garibaldi’s . : ; - SET Oca 

Naples unsettled through intrigues Oct. 

Cialdini defeats the Neapolitans at Isernia, 17 Oct. ; 


, and alliance with England . April, 1860 at Venafro : . ; : é ee eas Years, 1) Ux 
ildi lands in Sicily, 11 May ; defeats the Nea- The plebiscite at Naples, &c. ; almost unanimous 
tan army at Calatafimi . ; Gens MLAs cs, vote for annexation to Piedmont (1,303,064 to 
utionary committee at Naples roo unes * 5, TO,3E2)), 0s : é : a 2r OC. 45 
is II. proclaims an amnesty ; promises a liberal Garibaldi meets Victor-Emmanuel, and salutes him 
istry ; adopts a tricolor flag, Wwe. 26 June, ,, as king of Italy ; : : 3 26 Oct. ,, 
Brenier, French ambassador, wounded in his The first English Protestant church built on ground 
iage by the mob $ i 7d Unley 5 given by Garibaldi; consecrated iz March, 1865 

ministry formed ; destruction of the com- Cholera raged at Naples d . autumn, 1866 
sariat of the police in 12 districts; state of Great eruption of Vesuvius began 12 Nov. 1867 
e proclaimed at Naples; the queen-mother Land-slip at Naples ; 20 persons engulfed 28 Jan. 1868 
sto Gaeta F : é “ nao J UNGl | 55 Victor-Emmanuel, prince of Naples (son of prince 
uldi defeats Neapolitans at Melazzo, 20 July ; Humbert), born at Naples 3 . 11 Nov. 1869 
rs Messina, 21 July ; the Neapolitans agree to Maritime exhibition opened at Naples 17 April, 1871 
mate Sicily . 4 - . 30 July, ,, Great marine biological laboratory organised by Dr. 
ing of Sardinia in vain negotiates with Francis Dohrn . - - : : 5 } 5 Rasy he 
foralliance . 5 : Z JUly;) 35 Manzo and his band of brigands, (said to be the last) 
is Il. proclaims the re-establishment of the destroyed by soldiers : : . 20 Aug. 1873 
stitution of 1848, 2 July; the army proclaim National exhibition of the fine arts opened at Naples 
at de Trani king : : A TO JULY. 35 by the king : ; : : Z 8 April, 1877 
ildi lands at Melito, 18 Aug. ; takes Reggio, Death of Sisto Riario Sforza, cardinal archbishop, 

: at Aug. ,, a proposed successor to the pope SiC. mess 
sion in army and navy ; Francis II. retires to Antonio Scialoia, statesman and financier, died, 
ta, 6 Sept. ; Garibaldi enters Naples without aged 61 : ; ‘ about 17 Oct. ,, 
ps ; : : : : ASOD Uw 55 Revival of brigandage, chiefly inthe south July, Aug. 1878 
udi assumes the dictatorship, 8 Sept. ; gives Asiatic cholera rages in Naples and Spezzia (see 
she Neapolitan fleet to the Sardinian admiral Cholera), 1884. ‘The king energetic in relieving 
sano, rr Sept. ; expels the Jesuits ; establishes the sufferers, 7-14 Sept.; disease dying out, 
_by jury ; releases political prisoners Sept. ,, 6 Oct. 1884 
pulses the Neapolitans at Cajazzo, 19 Sept. ; {General history under Italy. ] 
ats them atthe Volturno . 2 mere Guedes 
SOVEREIGNS OF NAPLES AND SICILY. 


1250. Conrad ; son. 

1254. Conradin, son; but his uncle, 

1258. Manfred, natural son of Frederick II., seizes the 
government ; killed at Benevento, in 1266. 

1266. Chas. of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of France 
{Conradin beheaded, 29 Oct. 1268. ] 

1232. Insurrection in Sicily. 

SICILY. 


Roger I. (of Sicily, 1130) Norman. 

William I. the Bad ; son. 

William II. the Good ; son. 

Tanered, natural son of Roger. 

William III. son, succeeded by Constance, married 
to Henry VI. of Germany. 

Frederick II. of Germany (Hohenstaufen). 


NAPLES. (Separation of the Kingdoms in 1282.) 


Charles I. of Anjou. 1282. Peter I. (III. of Arragon.) 
Charles IT. ; son. 1285. James I. (II. of Arragon.) 
Robert the Wise ; brother. 1295. Frederick II. 
Joanna (reigns with her husband, Andrew of Hun- | 1337. Peter I. 

gary), 1343-45; with Louis of Tarento, 1349-62; | 1342. Louis. 

Joanna put to death (22 May, 1382) by | 1355. Frederick ITI. 
Charles IIl., grandson of Charles IT. : he becomes | 1376. Maria and Martin (her husband). 


Martin I. 
Martin IT. 
Ferdinand I. 
Alphonso I. 


king of Hungary ; assassinated there, 1386. 
Louis I., titular, crowned. 
Louis II., son of Louis I. 
Ladislas of Hungary. 
Joanna II., sister, dies in 1435, and bequeaths her 
_ dominions to Regnier of Anjou. They are ac- 


1402. 
1409. 
1410. 
14106. 


quired by 1435. Alphonso I. thus king of Naples and Sicily. 
, , NAPLES. (Separation of Naples and Sicily in 1458.) SICILY. 
Ferdinand I. 1458. John of Arragon. 


_Alphonso II. abdicates. 1479. Ferdinand the Catholi of Spain. 
Ferdinand II. 
_ Frederic LU. expelled by the French, r5or. 
THE Crowns UNITED. 
1621. Philip III. (IV. of Spain). 
1665. Charles II. (of Spain). 
1700. Philip IV. (V. of Spain), Bourbons. 
1707. Charles III. of Austria. 


(Separation in 1713.) 


Ferdinand III. (king of Spain). 

Charles I. (V. of Germany). 
Philip I. (II. of Spain). 

Philip II. (III. of Spain). 


SICILY. 
1713. Victor Amadeus of Savoy (exchanged Sicily for 
Sardinia, 1720.) 
THE Two SICILIES. 
(Part of the empire of Germany, 1720-34.) aly 
| x759. Ferdinand IV. fled from Naples to Sicily, 1806. 


(Separation in 1806.) SICILY. 
1806-15. Ferdinand IV. 


i NAPLES. 
Charles IIT. of Austria. 


Charles IV, (III. of Spain). 

J NAPLES. 
J oseph Napoleon Bonaparte. 
i Joachim Murat, shot 13 Oct. 1815. 

; THE Two SICcILIEs. 
- Ferdinand I., formerly Ferdinand IV., of Naples | 1859. Francis IT., 22 May; born 16 Jan. 1836; last KiNG 
and Sicily. or Napues; deposed; fled 6 Sept. 1860. 

Francis IL 186x. Victor-Emmanuel II. of Sardinia, as Kine or Iray; 
Ferdinand II., Noy. 8 (termed king Bomba). | March ; (see Italy, end). 


NAPOLEON CODE. 


572 


NATIONAL INSTITUTION. 


NAPOLEON CODE, see Codes. 
NAPOLEON MEMORIAL: subscriptions 


from the Royal family and the three services fora 
statue of prince Louis Napoleon (kilied in Zulu- 
land, 1 June, 1879), were closed about 15 July, 
1879. The statue was placed in St. George’s 
chapel, Windsor, May, 1881; placing it in West- 
minster Abbey having been much opposed. 

NARBONNE (8S. E. France), the Roman 
Narbo Martius, founded 118 B.c., made capital of a 
Visigothic kingdom, 462 ; captured by the Saracens, 
720; re-taken by Pepin le Bref, 759. Gaston de 
Foix, the last vicomte (killed at Ravenna, 11 April, 
1512), resigned it to the king in exchange for the 
duchy of Nemours. Many councils held here, 589- 
1374- 

NARCEINE anp NARCOTINE, alkaloids 
obtained from Opium (which see). Narceine was 
discovered by Pelletier in 1832; and narcotine by 
Derosne in 1803. 


NARVA (Esthonia, Russia). Here Peter the 
Great of Russia was totally defeated by Charles XII. 
of Sweden, then in his nineteenth year, 30 Noy. 
1700. The army of Peter is said to have amounted 
to 60,000, some Swedes affirm 100,000 men, while 
the Swedes were about 20,000. Charles attacked 
the enemy in his intrenchments, and slew 18,000; 
30,000 surrendered. He had several horses shot 
under him. He said, ‘‘These people seem dis- 
posed to give me exercise.”’ Narva was taken by 
Peter in 1704. 

NASEBY (Northamptonshire), the site of a 
decisive victory over Charles I. by the parliament 
army under Fairfax and Cromwell. The main 
body of the royal army was commanded by lord 
Astley; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Mar- 
maduke Langdale the left, and the king himself 
headed the body of reserve. The king fled, losing 
his cannon, baggage, and nearly 5000 prisoners, 
14 June, 1645. 

NASHVILLE (Tennessee, N. America) was 
occupied by the confederates in 1861, and taken 
by the federals, 23 Feb. 1862. Near here the con- 
federates under Hood were defeated by the federals 
under Thomas, 14-16 Dec. 1864. 


NASSAU, a German duchy, made a county by 
the emperor Frederic I. about 1180, for Wolfram, a 
descendant of Conrad I. of Germany; from whom 
are descended the royal house of Orange now 
reigning in Holland (see Orange, and Holland), 
and the present duke of Nassau. Wiesbaden was 
made the capital in 1839. On 25 April, 1860, the 
Nassau chamber strongly opposed the conclusion of 
a concordat with the pope, and claimed liberty of 
faith and conscience. The duke adopted the Aus- 
trian motion at the German diet, 14 June, and after 
the warthe duchy was annexed to Prussia by decree, 
20 Sept., and possession taken, 8 Oct. 1866. Popu- 
lation of the duchy in 1865, 468,311. 

1788. Count Frederic William made DUKE in 1806. 
£814. William-George, 20 Aug. 
1839. Adolphus-William-Charles, born 24 July, 1817. 

NATAL (Cape of Good Hope). Vasco de Gama 
landed here on 25 Dec. 1497, and hence named it 
Terra Natalis. 

The Dutch attempted to colonise it about . : 
The Zulu power established about . : 4 
Lieut. Farewell, with some emigrants, settled 
Capt. Allen Gardiner’s treaty with the Zulus, 

6 May, 
Dutch republic, Natalia, set up; put down by the 

British - : : : : 4 12 May, 
Natal annexed to the British possessions. 8 Aug. 
Made a bishopric (Dr. John Wm. Colenso, bishop), 

1853; and an independent colony : 


. 1721 
- 1812 
euro2a 


1835 


1842 
1843 


1856 | 


Attempts to depose bishop Colenso for unsound 
doctrine having failed, the rev. W. R. Macrorie 
was sent out as bp. of Maritzburg, to act with 
the clergy opposed to their bishop Dec, 

See Church of England, 1863-8. 

A bishop of Zululand appointed : ° om 

Alleged insurrection of Caffres under Langalibalele, 
quickly suppressed 5 : Nov.-Dec, 

He and others were tried, it was said illegally, and 
punished with imprisonment ; he is sent to Rob- 
ben island 4 s ; ; zs 4 Aug. 

Bishop Colenso came to England to advocate his 
case : < ‘ : by ; ‘ P 

Sir Garnet Wolseley sent as temporary governor, 
Feb.; Langalibalele released, and placed under 
surveillance out of the colony; Sir Garnet re- 
tums . ’ : ; : ; F - Ang 

Succeeded by Mr. Walter J. Sendall, appointed, 

Nov. 


Great dissatisfaction in the colony at this appoint- 
ment 3 4 a ‘ : . Noy. 
Sir Henry E. G. Bulwer nominated governor, Dec.; 
arrived at Durban “ ° 4 March, 
Death of bishop Colenso . A . 20 June, 
Governors of Natal: Robt. Wm. Keate, 1867 ; An- 
thony Musgrave, 1873; sir Benj. C. C. Pine, 1874. 
Sir H. Ernest Bulwer, Sept. 1878; sir Garnet 
Wolseley, May, 1879; sir George Pomeroy Colley, 
May, 1880; killed at the battle of Majuba Hill, 
27 Feb. 
Population, 326,957 (20,490 whites), 1876 ; in 1879, 
325,512. For the war, see Zululand. 


NATIONAL ANTHEM, see God san 
King. 

NATIONAL ASSEMBLY, Fre 
Upon the proposition of the abbé Siéyés, the st 
general of France constituted themselves the 
tional Assembly, 17 June, 1789. On the 20t! 
hall of this new assembly was shut by order ¢ 
king; upon which the deputies of the Tiers 
repaired to the Jeu de Pawme, or Tennis-court 
swore not to dissolve until they had diges 
constitution for France. On the 22nd they m 
the church at St. Louis. This assembly abol 
the state religion, annulled monastic vows, di 
France into departments, sold the nationa 
mains, established a national bank, issue¢ 
signats, and dissolved itself 21 Sept. 1792 
National Convention. In 1848 the legislatur 
again termed the National Assembly. It 
4 May, and a new constitution was proclaime 
Nov. Anew constitution was once more procl: 
by Louis Napoleon in Jan. 1852, after dissc 
the National Assembly, 2 Dec. 1851. The pi 
French National Assembly was elected 8 Feb: 
met 12 Feb. 1871; new constitution adopte 
Feb. 1875; see France. 


NATIONAL ASSEMBLY, GERMAY 
Germany, 1848. 


NATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS. 0n 
formed in 1584, headed by the earl of Leices’ 
protect queen Elizabeth from assassination, 1 
sequence of the discovery of various plots. Ar 
was proposed in the house of commons, in 
1696, by sir Rowland Gwyn, for the defence : 
person and government of William III. soor 
the discovery of the assassination plot (ewhie, 
The members of both houses of parliament, ai 
majority of the male population, joined it 1 
diately ; all persons holding office under g¢ 
ment were required to be members; see Aid ¢ 
and Wounded, Artillery, Colonies, Emp 
Farmers, Social Science, and Volunteers for 
national associations. 


NATIONAL BENEVOLENT I 
TUTION, established 1812, incorporated: 
Pensions are granted to decayed gentry, 4 


4 
Be 
J 


NATIONAL CONVENTION. 


sional people, teachers, and others in reduced 
astances. 


TIONAL CONVENTION oF FRANCE, 
tuted in the hall of the Tuileries 17 Sept. and 
lly opened 21 Sept. 1792, when M. Grégoire, 
»head of the National Assembly, announced 
aat assembly had ceased its functions. It was 
decreed, ‘‘‘That the citizens named by the 
h people to form the National Convention, 
met to the number of 371, after having verified 
powers, declare that the National Convention 
istituted.’’ This convention continued until 
‘constitution was organised, and the Execu- 
Jirectory was installed at the Little Luxem- 
, 1 Nov. 1795; see Directory. The Chartists 
h see) in England formed a National Conven- 


n 1839. 
‘TIONAL DEBT. The first mention of 


mentary security for a debt of the nation 
3in the reign of Henry VI. The present 
ial debt may be said to have commenced in 
sign of William III., 1689. It amounted, in 
to about five millions sterling, and was then 
ht to be of alarming magnitude. The sole 
of the increase has been war. By an act 
131 May, 1867, the conversion of 24,000,000/. 
» debt into terminable annuities was pro- 
for. The law is consolidated by the national 
act, passed g Aug. 1870; amended by acts 
11875, 1882, and 1884. By the national debt 
assed Aug. 1883, 70,241,908/. were immediately 
rted, and 173,300,000/. would be cancelled in 


ars. See Sinking Fund. Debt. 
‘William III. . g - £664,263 
Anne. & : F P : 16,394,702 
George I. : “ . : 2 54145, 303 
George III. (end of Seven years’ war), 

‘ nearly . “ A 4 “ 5 3. 1385865,430 

After American war. A . 249,851,628 
Beginning of French war. A . 244,440, 306 
Close of French war. : . - 571,000,000 
English and Irish Exchequers consoli- 
dated =. A ‘ : “ ; . 948,282,477 
‘Total amount . 840,184,022 

Ditto . : : ‘ . 789,578,720 
‘Ditto . ° 7 4 2 . 787,029,162 

Ditto F “ : © ¢ 775:041,272 

March) 

Ditto + 793) 3759199 
Ditto , x . 807,981,788 
‘Funded debt . . 780,119,722 
‘Unfunded . . 27,989,000 
-Funded debt . + 779,225,495 
, Unfunded . . 25,911,500 

Funded debt . ; ; , . 786,801,154 
Unfunded . : : 4 A - . 18,277,400 
Funded debt . - s - 785,962,000 
| Unfunded . 16,228, 300 


- 785,119,609 


Unfunded . : z F . 16,689,000 
jMamgeddebt. . . . - 784,252,338 
Unfunded . A A A » 16,517,900 
Funded debt . - 783,306,739 


Unfunded 16,495,400 


‘Funded debt . n ; * © 777:429,224 
Unfunded . : i“ 3 - + 13,136,000 
Funded debt . i , ; » 775708, 295 
Unfunded . A , 10,742,500 
Funded debt + 7733135229 
Unfunded : : ‘ 8,187,700 
Funded debt . 2 4 P « + 769,541,004 
, Unfunded o ° . ° ° . 7,956, 800 
ieedebt . «lw Cl te: 741,190,328 
,Unfunded : A = 7,911,100 
Funded debt : A - + 740,418,032 
Unfunded . A a: . 8,896,100 
Funded debt & . e . - 741,514,081 
j Unfunded e ° 6, 761,500 
Funded debt + 732,043,270 
Unfunded 3 ae a - 6,091,000 


573 


NATIONAL GALLERY. 
1872. Funded debt J 
Unfunded =. : el rep: 
1873. Funded debt = 727,374,082 
Unfunded ° - 4,829,100 
1874. Funded debt A “ 723,514,005 
Unfunded : ¢ a : 44479,600 
1875. Funded debt . . ° ae 714,797,715 
Unfunded 5, 2 30, 000 
1876. Funded debt , 713,657,51 
Unfunded 3 git hl 
1877. Funded debt : 712,621,355 
Unfunded. Phare 3,943, 800 
1878. Funded debt : 710,843,00 
Unfunded é tes Got gee 
1879. Funded debt . » 709,430,593 
Unfunded . 25,870,100 
| 1880. Funded debt - 710, 4755359 
Unfunded z : 27,344,900 
188x. Funded debt . ° hs 709,078, 526 
Unfunded. ; - - 22,077,500 
1882. Funded debt . ‘ So or 709,498,547 
Unfunded. : : A pas ,007, 700 
1883. Funded debt . c 3 . 712 698,994 
Unfunded . < - ; 14,185,400 
1884. Funded debt 6 ac 640,631,095 
Unfunded "110, 


l : ay Day. : 14,110,600 
[Exclusive of terminable annuities, estimated, 1867, 
27,521,5131.; 1872, 55,749,070l. ; 1876, 51,911,2271. 

: 1878, 46,335,589l.] 

Sir Stafford Northcote’s act provides the annual charge 
of 28,000,000/. ; the surplus to be devoted to the re- 
duction of the debt—1876. 

The annual interest in 1850 Was 23,862,257/.; and the 
total interest, including annuities, amounted to 
27,699,740. On x Jan. 1851, the total unredeemed 
debt of Great Britain and Ireland was 769,272,562i. 
the charge on which for interest and management was 
27,620,4491. The total charge on the debt for interest 
and management, 1872, 26,839,601/. Mr. Childers’ plan 
for reducing national debt by terminable annuities 
commencing 1885, April, 1883; National Debt Conver- 
sion of Stock actread 2nd time (117-34), 6 June; passed. 
3 July, 1884; accepted, 17 Oct. 1884, 18,666,000l. for 2} 
per cent. 5 4,451,000l. for 2? per cent., by government, 
nearly 12,000,000l. 


STIMATED FOREIGN NATIONAL DEBTS, 1884. 


France £786,000,000 | Holland £90,000,000 
Italy . 406,500,000 | Portugal . + 106,000,000 
Russia - 578,000,000 | Belgium 85,000,000 
Austria - 346,000,000 | Greece 21,000,000 
Spain (x881) 512,000,000 | Roumania . 29,000 
Turkey (1881) 106,000,000 | Denmark . 11,000 


NATIONAL DRAMATIC ACADEMY 
yee proposed by professor H. Morley and others in 
1879. 

NATIONAL GALLERY, Lonnpon, began 
with the purchase, by the British government, of 
the Angerstein collection of 38 pictures, for 57,0000. 
in 1824. The first exhibition of them took place in 
Pall-mall, on 10 May, 1824. Sir G. Beaumont 
(1826), Mr. Holwell Carr (1831), and many other 
gentlemen, as well as the British Institution, con- 
tributed many fine pictures; and the collection has 
been since greatly augmented by gifts and -pur- 
chases. The present edifice in Trafalgar-square 
designed by Mr. Wilkins, was completed and 
opened 9 April, 1838. In July, 1857, a commission 
appointed to consider the propriety of removing the 
pictures reported in favour of their remaining in 
their present locality ; and in 1860, 15,0007. were 
voted to be expended in adapting the central part 
of the building to exbibition purposes. On II May, 
1861, the National Gallery was reopened after 
having been closed eight months, during which 
time great improvements were made in the internal 
arrangements. On I9 June, 1865, the house of 
commons voted 20,000/. to buy land to enlarge the 
building, and an act for this purpose was passed 
15 July, 1866. Visitors in 1866, 775,901; in 1871, 


* Including Suez Canal Bonds, 1876, 4,000,000l. ; 1877, 
3,990,0001. ; 1878, 3,929,200. 


NATIONAL GUARD. 


911,658; in 1883, 849,604; sum voted for year 
1867-8, 15,895/., for 1876, 20,0987. Legacy from 
Francis Wm. Clarke, about 24,000/., fell in 1880; 


1880, pictures 1040. 


Sir Charles Eastlake, director, 1850; sir Fred. W. Burton, 


1864. 


A parliamentary return gives a list of pictures presented 

to or purchased for the National Gallery—284 pre- 
The cost 
of the 313 purchases, which has been spread over 45 
Up to 1871, 337,195/. had 
The Peel collection (76 pictures), 
Two pictures of the 
Blenheim Collection were bought for 83,520l., ae 
“he 
“*Congress of Munster,” a master-piece of Terburg 
(valued at 7280l. in 1868), presented by sir Richard 


sented, 256 bequeathed, and 313 purchased. 
years, has been 254,527/. 
been expended. 
bought for 75,oool., spring, 1871. 


1885 (Raphael’s ‘‘ Ansidei Madonna” 7o,o000l.). 


Wallace, Oct. 1871. 


Mr. Wynn Ellis (a silk merchant, born July, 1780; died 

27 Noy. 1875) bequeathed about 800 pictures to the 
Re-opened ; 
new galleries erected by E. Barry: pictures re-arranged, 


National Gallery on certain conditions. 


Aug., 1876. 
About 1030 oi! paintings in the gallery 


approved by the king. 


under the consulate and empire. 


tumultuous review in 1827. 


control of the government. 


Versailles (488-154), 24 Aug. 1871. 


countries, during the present century. 


NATIONAL HEALTH 


sanitary knowledge, by lectures and otherwise. 


NATIONALISTS. 
Home Rule, and Separatists. 


NATIONALITY ; a word much used since 


1848. In Poland, Hungary, Italy, and Germany, 
the struggle for nationality has been long and severe. 
In 1866 agitation for this principle began in Bohemia, 
Slavonia, and other parts of the Austrian empire. 
‘The nationality of Ireland is the alleged basis of 
the Fenian agitation ; see Ireland, 1870, and Home 
Government. 


NATIONALIZATION. See under Land. 


NATIONAL OPERA HOUSE, N. Thames 
Embankment; Mr. Mapleson, proprietor; Mr. F. H, 
Fowler, architect; Mr. Wm. Webster, contractor. 
First brick laid by Mlle. Tietjens, 7 Sept.; first 
stone laid by the duke of Edinburgh, 16 Dec. 1875. 
Failure of the scheme reported, Nov. 1877. Scheme 
that the works to be resumed Nov. 1878; agreed to 
Jan. 1880. Materials sold, 24 June et seq.; esti- 
mated loss by the scheme about 100,000/. 


NATIONAL PORTRAIT EXHIBI- 
TIONS proposed by the earl of Derby, earl Gran- 


574 


. March, 1882 

NATIONAL GUARD oF FRANCE was 
instituted by the Committee of Safety at Paris on 
13 July, 1789 (the day before the destruction of the 
Bastile), to maintain order and defend the public 
liberty. Its first colours were blue and red, to 
which white was added, when its formation was 
Its action was soon para- 
lysed by the revolution, and it ceased altogether 
It was revived 
by Napoleon in 1814, and maintained by Louis 
XVIII., but was broken up by Charles X., after a 
It was revived in 1830, 
and helped to place Louis Philippe on the throne. 
In 1848 its reconstitution and its enlargement from 
$0,000 to 100,000 men led to the frightful conflict of 
June, 1848. Its constitution was entirely changed 
in Jan. 1852, when it was subjected entirely to the 
Formerly it had many 
privileges, such as choosing its own officers, &c. 
In consequence of the defection of part of the 
National Guard and the incompetency of the rest 
during the outbreak in Paris in 1871, its gradual 
abolition was decreed by the national assembly at 
The peaceful 
disarmament began in September. National Guards 
have been established in Spain, Naples, and other 


SOCIETY, 


founded in 1873 for the collection and diffusion of 


See ILreland (Young), 


tians till the 12th century. 


NATIVITY. . 


ville, and others, at a meeting in London, 13 
1865. ‘They were held in what had been { 
freshment room of the Exhibition of 1862, at 
Kensington. The-1st was opened 16 April; 
18 Aug. 1866: 2nd, opened 3 May; closed 3 
1867: 3rd, opened 13 April; closed 22 Aug. 1 
NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLER 
determined on in Feb. 1857, in pursuance of 
from both houses of parliament. The sum of 
was appropriated for the purchase of portr: 
persons eminent in British history. Donatio 
received under certain restrictions. The g3 
Gt. George-street, Westminster, was opened 1 
1859. The collection was removed to South 
siugton Dec. 1869, and re-opened 28 March, 
A valuable collection of National Portraits apy 
at the Manchester Exhibition in 1857. 
National Portrait Gallery for Scotland.—30,000l. ¢ 
eet gentleman to form a collection and erect a bu 
1883-4. 
NATIONAL REVIEW, 
appeared March, 1883. 
NATIONAL SCHOOLS, see Education 
Music, 1873. 


NATIONAL SOCIETY for promotin, 
Education of the Poor in the principles of the 
blished church of England, founded 18r I, ine 
rated 1817. In 1883 there were 2,385,374 chil 
and 28,000,000/. have been expended. 0: 
Sanctuary, Westminster. ‘Training colleges 
Mark’s, Chelsea, Whitelands, and Battersea. 


NATIONAL TESTIMONIALS (subse 
for) were presented to Rowland Hill (for his: 
tions in obtaining the penny postage), 17 ¢ 
1846; and to Miss Florence Nightingale (foi 
beneficent exertions for the sufferers duri 
Crimean war), 29 Nov. 1855. 


NATIONAL THRIFT SOCIETY, fo 
at Oxford in 1878. Meetings have been held a 
Mansion House, London, 1880, et seq. 


_ NATIONAL TRADE SOCIETY fo 
in June, 1871, to watch over and secure the ints 
of traders, and promote amendments in th 
affecting commercial interests. President, rt. 
W. H. Smith, M.P. Civil Service trading, th 
come tax, and international exhibitions have 
considered by the committee. 


NATIONAL TRAINING SCHOOD 
Music, South Kensington, founded by the du 
preyie 18 Dec. 1873; opened by him, 17 
1876. 

NATIONAL UNION was formed in 1 
combine a number of associations supportin 
Conservative party. Lecturers were employe 
pamphlets circulated. The party was termec 
tionalists in Aug. 1871. Lord Randolph Chu 
was chairman in 1884. Third conference at. 
deen, 16 Oct. 1884. 


NATIONAL UNI 
see United States, 1866. ON CONVENT 


NATIONAL WORKSHOPS, see -4 
Nationaux. : 
NATIVITY. There are three festivals i 
Roman and Greek churches, under this name. 
Nativity of Christ, also observed by the Protes 
on 25 Dec. (see Christmas); the Nativity 
Virgin Mary, not observed by the Protestants : 
Pope Sergius I., about 690, ‘established the 1 
but it was not generally received in Franc 
Germany till about 1000; nor by the eastern 
The festival 


Conservative, 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


575 


NAVAL BATTLES. 


y of St. John the Baptist, 24 June, Midsum- 
ay, is said to have been instituted in 488. 


TURAL HISTORY was studied by Solo- 
‘014 B.c. (1 Kings iv. 33) ;-Aristotle (384-322 
by Theophrastus (394-297 B.c.); and by Pliny 
‘A.D.); see Botany, Zoology, Kc. 


TURAL PHILOSOPHY, see Philo- 


TURAL SELECTION, see Species. 
TURALISATION is defined to be “the 


g a foreigner or alien a denizen or freeman of 
ngdom or city, and so becoming, as it were, 
“subject and a native of a king or country 
ynature he did not belong to.”” The first act 
iralisation passed in 1437 ; and various similar 
ents were made in most of the reigns from 
me; several of them special acts relating to 
luals. An act for naturalisation of the 
assed May, 1753, but was repealed in 1754, 
Petition of ithe cities Bedinglind Ae 
for the privileges since granted them. The 

the naturalisation of prince Albert passed 
, 7 Feb. 1840. A committee to inquire into 
mralisation laws, appointed May, 1868, earl 
‘endon chairman, met 25 Oct. 1868; reported 
‘Feb. 1869; and new acts for this purpose were 
12 May, 1870, and 25 July, 1872. In 1870 
vere about 9500 Americans in England, and 
1,500,000 British subjects in the United States 
‘rica. By the new act the latter were enabled 
unce their allegiance; and by the conven- 
ened 3 Feb. 1871, the nationality of British 
‘is was made dependent on choice and not on 


TUR ALISM, a realistic style in literature, 
“introduced by Balzac, 1829, et seq. 
dand Jules de Goncourt published ‘‘ Medical and 
lological Novels,” 1846, et seq. 
fola, in his ‘‘ Rougon-Macquart” series, 1871, et 
‘yortrayed deformed and diseased rather than true 
e. A dramatised form of his ‘‘ Assommoir,” en- 
. “Drink,” was much performed in London in 


TURE, a weekly illustrated journal of 
4, first appeared 4 Noy. 1869; editor, Mr. 
Norman Lockyer, F.R.S. 


‘TURE PRINTING. This process con- 
‘impressing objects, such as plants, mosses, 
's, &c., into plates of metal, causing these 
, as it were, to engrave themselves; and 
wds taking casts or copies fit for printing 
Kniphoff of Erfurt, between 1728 and 1757, 
-edhis Herbarium vivum by pressing the plauts 
lyes (previously inked) on paper; the im- 
ns being afterwards coloured by hand. In 
eter Kyhl, of Copenhagen, made use of steel 
and lead plates. In 1842 Mr. Taylor printed 
, In 1847 Mr. Twining printed ferns, grasses, 
mts; andin the same year Dr. Branson sug- 
the application of electrotyping to the im- 
‘os. 1849, professor Leydolt, of Vienna, 
| able assistance of Mr. Andrew Worring, ob- 
/ impressions of agates and fossils. The first 
al application of this process is in Von 
»”8 work on the Mosses of Arpasch, in Tran- 
| 4; the second (the first in this country) in 

Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland,’”’ edited 
) Lindley, the illustrations to which were pre- 
under the superintendence of Mr. Henry 
} Ty m 1855-56, who also in 1859-60 printed 
British Sea-weeds,”’ edited by W. G. John- 
nd Alex. Croall. The process was applied to 
les by Joseph Merrin of Gloucester, in 1864. 


NATURFORSCHER GESELL- 
SCHAF'T, see German Union. 


NAUVOO, Illinois, N. America, a city of the 
Mormonites (which see) ; founded 1849; left 1848. 


NAVAL ARCHITECTS’ INSTITUTE 


was established in Jan. 1860. 


NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. A scientific 
committee of fifteen appointed to consider the pre- 
sent state of naval architecture, and the require- 
ments of naval warfare ; 6 naval officers, 9 scientific 
men ; lord Dufferin chairman; about 1g Dec. 1870. 
A royal school of naval architecture, established at 
South Kensington in 1864, merged into the Royal 
Naval College, Greenwich. : 


M. Raoul Pictet, of Geneva, announced his discovery of 
a new kind of keel to glide over water, Aug. 1881. 


NAVAL ARTILLERY VOLUNTEER 
Nee ROYAL, established by act passed 5 Aug. 
1873. 


NAVAL ASYLUM, RovyaAt, begun at Pad- 
dington in 1801, was transferred to Greenwich in 
1807. The interior of the central portion of the 
building was commenced in 1613 by Anne, queen of 
James I., and completed in 1635 by queen Henrietta- 
Maria, whose arms still adorn the ceiling of the 
room in which her son Charles II. was born, 1630. 


NAVAL BATTLES. The Argonautic expedi- 
tion, undertaken by Jason, is the first upon record, 
1263 B.c. Dufresnoy. The first sea-fight on record 
is that between the Corinthians and Corcyreans, 
664 B.c. Blair. The following are among the 
most celebrated naval engagements: for the details 
of which see separate articles. 


BiG: 
Battle of Salamis (Greek victory) .20 Oct. 480 
Battle of Eurymedon (ditto) 5 4 é 115266 
Battle of Cyzicus ; the Lacedemonian fleet taken by 
Alcibiades, the Athenian . r ‘ ; 410 
Battle of Arginuse . : ‘ ‘ <i 3 406 
Battle of gospotamos (Spartans victors) . eat 40s 
The Persian fleet, under Conon, defeats the Spartan, 
at Cnidos; Pisander, the Athenian admiral, is 
killed; and the maritime power of the Lacede- 
monians destroyed . ‘ . : : 394 
Battle of Myle (Romans defeat Carthaginians) . 200 
The Roman fleet, off Trepanum, destroyed by the 
Carthaginians . : ‘ : ‘ . > » 249 
The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by the consul Lu- 
tatius . ; : ; é 24 


Battle of Actium ; ; : are es? 31 
The emperor Claudius II. defeats the Goths, and 


sinks 2000 of their ships . : A.D. 269 
Battle of Lepanto (Turks defeated) . 7 Oct. 1571 
Bay of Gibraltar ; Dutch and Spaniards (a bloody 

conflict and decisive victory, giving for a time the 

superiority to the Dutch) . : . 25 April, 1607 
The Austrians defeat the Italians at Lissa (see Lissa) 

20 July, 1866 
NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BRITISH HISTORY. 
[Hallam considers that the naval glory of England 

can first be traced “in a continuous track of 

light” from the period of the Commonwealth. ] 
Alfred with ro galleys, defeated 300 sail of Danish 

pirates on the Dorsetand Hampshire coast. Asser’s 

Life of Alfred . : ; : z ‘ ; a. 807 
Edward III. defeats the French near Sluys 24 June, 1340 
Off Winchelsea; Edward III. defeated the Spanish 

fleet of 40 large ships, and captured 26 29 Aug. 1350 
The English and Flemings ; the latter signally de- 

feated . : : : : : : 5 Ted wey 
Earl of Arundel defeats a Flemish fleet of roo sail, 

and captures 80. ; ; : 24 March, 1387 
Near Milford Haven; the English take 8, and de- 

stroy r5 French ships ‘ : ; ; Aine nitoy= 
Off Harfleur ; the duke of Bedford takes or destroys 

nearly soo French ships 4 ; - 15 Aug. 1416 
In the Downs ; a Spanish and Genoese fleet cap- 

tured by the earl of Warwick a iiAee Wate ESC 


NAVAL BATTLES. 


a 


x 


Bay of Biscay ; Enelish and French, indecisive, 
to Aug. 
Sir Edward Howard attacks the French under Prior 
John ; repulsed and killed Be 5 April, 
The Spanish Armada destroyed . g July, 
Dover straits; the Dutch admiral Van Tr op de- 
feated by admiral Blake 28 Sept. The Dutch 
surprise the English in the Downs, 80 sail engag- 
ing 40 English, several of which are taken or 
destroyed, 28 Noy. ; the Dutch admiral sails in 
triumph through the channel, witha broom at his 
mast-head, to denote that he had swe ptthe pe nee 
from the seas : oN Ov. 
The English gain a vietory over the Dutch feet off 
Portsmouth, taking and destroying 11 men-of-war 
and 30 merchantmen. Van Tromp was the Dutch, 
and Blake the English admiral 18-20 Feb. 
Again, off the Nor th Foreland. The Dutch and 
“English fleets consisted of near 100 men-of-war 
each. Van Tromp commanded the Dutch ; Blake, 
Monk, and Deane, the English. Six Duteh ships 
taken ; 3 II sunk, and the rest ran into Calais roads 
2 June, 
Again, on the coast of Holland ; the Dutch lose 30 
men-of-war, and admiral Tromp was killed (the 
seventh and last battle) 31 July, 
At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth 2,000,000 pieces 
of eight, were taken by Blake . Sept. 
Spanish fleet V anquished, and burnt in the har ate 
of Santa Cruz by Blake . : . 20 April, 
English and French : 130 of the Bordeaux fleet de- 
stroyed by the duke of York (afterwards J ara ) 
ec. 
The duke of York defeats the Dutch fleet oft Har- 
wich ; Opdam, the Dutch admiral, blown up, with 
all his crew ; ; 18 capital ships taken, 14 destroyed 
3 June, 
The earl of Sandwich took 12 men-of-war a 2 ue 
ships : ep 
A contest between the Dutch and English fleets tor 
four days. The English lose 9, and the Dutch 1 5 
ships 1-4 June, 
Decisive engagement at the mouth of the Thames, 
the English gain a glorious victory. The Dutch 
lose 24 men- “of-war, 4 admirals killed, and 4000 
seamen . 25, 26 July, 
The Dutch admiral de Ruyter sails up the Thames 


and destroys some ships . xridune, 
Twelve Algerine ships of war destr oyed by sir Ed- 
ward Spragg ¢ to May, 
Battle of Bouthwoll bay (see s ‘olebay) 28 May, 


Coast of Holland; by prince Rupert, 28 May, 4 
June, and x1 Aug., sir E. Spragg killed ; d’Etrees 


and Ruyter defeated . 
Off Beachy Head ; the English and Dutch defeated 


by the French under Tourv ille - 30 June, 
Who is defeated by them near Cape La Hogue, ast 
19 May, 


Off St. Vincent ; the English and Dutch squadrons, 
under admiral Rooke, “defeated by the French, 
16 June, 
Off Carthagena, between admiral Benbow and the 
French fleet, commanded by admiral Du Casse. 
Fought . Ig Aug. 
The other ships of the squadr on falling astern, lett 
Benbow alone to maintain the battle. A chain- 
shot shattered his leg, yet he would not be 
removed from the quarter-deck, but continued 
fighting till the morning, when the French 
sheered off. He died in Oct. following, of his 
wounds, at Jamaica, where, soon after his arriv al, 
he received a letter "from the French admiral, of 
which the following i is a translation :— 
Carthagena, 22 Aug. 1702. 
‘<Srr,—I had little hopes, on Monday. last, but 
to have ‘supped i in your cabin ; yet it pleased God 
to order it otherwise. Iam thankful for it. As 
for those cowardly captains who deserted you, 
hang them up, for by G—d they deserve it. 
“* Du CASSE.” 
Captains Kirby and Wade were shot on their arrival 
at Plymouth, having been previously tried by a 
court-martial. 
Sir George Rooke defeats the French fleet off Vigo 
(which see) . . 12 Oct. 
Off Malaga ; ploody engagement between the Fr ench, 
under ‘the count of “Thoulouse, and the English, 


under sir George Rooke 


576 NAVAL BATTLES. — 
At Gibraltar ; French lose 5 men-of-war . 5 N 
1512 | In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake took 60 fe 


1513 
1588 


1652 


1653 


3) 


” 


13 “Aug. 1704 


vessels, laden with provisions . 2 M: 
Spanish fleet of 29 sail totally defeated by sir Geo 
Byng, in the Faro of Messina rJu 
Bloody battle off Toulon ; Matthews and Lest 
against the fleets of France and Spain. H 
brave captain Cornewallfell with 42 men, ineludi 
officers ; and the victory was lost by a misund 
standing between the English admirals 11 Feb 
Off Cape Finister re ; the Fr ench fleet of 38 sail tak 
by admiral Anson . 3 
Off Finisterre ; when admiral Hawke took 7 te. 
war of the French 40 
Off Newfoundland ; when admiral Boscawen re 4 
men-of-war . - rod 
Off Cape Francoise ; 7 ships defeated by 3 ings 


Adiniral Pocock defeats the French fleet in the E 
Indies, in two actions, 1758, and again 
Admiral Boscawen defeats the French under De 
Clue, off Cape Lagos . 18 At 
Admiral Hawke defeats the French fleet, co 
manded by Conflans, in Quiberon Bay, and thi 
prevents a projected invasion of Ene (3 
Quiberon Bay) : . 20 No 
Keppel took 3 French frigates, and a fleet of mi 
chantmen 9 O1 
On Lake Champlain the “provincial force totally ¢ 
stroyed by admiral Howe - oD] 
Capt. Sam. Marshall, of ‘‘the saucy Arethusa,” 32gu 
(part of Keppel’s fleet), summoned La Belle Por 
to surrender off Ushant, and fired across her boy 
after two hours’ conflict, the French made sailai 
escaped 16 or 17 Ju 
Off Ushant ; a drawn battle between Kenia al 
d’Orvilliers . 7 dul 
In New England ; “the American fleet totaly d 
stroyed . 30 
Near Cape St. Vincent ; admiral Rotiney ‘defeated 
Spanish fleet under admiral don Langara (s 
Rodney) . - 160a 
At St. Jago; Mons. Suffrein defeated by commodo 
Johnstone . (16 Apr 
Dogger-bank, between admiral Parker and the Dut 
admiral Zoutman : 400 killed on each side, 5 Au 
Admiral Rodney defeated the French going to a 
tack Jamaica ; took 5 ships of the line, and sel 
the French admiral, Comte de Grasse, prison 
to England . 12 Apr 
The British totally defeated the fleets of France ar 
Spain in the Bay of Gibraltar 13 Sey 
East Indies: a series of actions between sir Edwa 
Hughes and Suffren, viz.: 17 Feb. 1782, t 
French had rr ships to 9; 12 2 April they, had 
ships to 11, yet were completely beaten. Agai 
6 July, off Trincomalee, they had 15 to 12, al 
were again beaten with loss of 1000 killed, 
Sept. 1782 ; again . . 20 Jun 
Lord Howe defeated the French off Ushant, took 
ships of war, and sunk one . .rJw 
Sir Edward Pellew took 1 5 sail ; ‘burnt 7, out of 
fleet of 35 sail of transports . 8 Marc 
French fleet defeated, and 2 ships of war taken — 
admiral Hotham. Fought f . 14 Mare 
Adiniral Cornwallis took 8 transports, convoyed — 
3 French men-of-war. Fought . 7 Jw 
layer Dutch East Indiamen taken by the Scept 
man-of-war, and some armed British Indiamen 
company . -19 Jul 
L’Orient ; the Fr ench fleet defeated “by lord Bri 
port, and 3 ships of the line taken ; see L aa 
* 23 u 
Dutch fleet, under admiral Lueas, in Saldanha Be 
surrenders to sir George Keith Elphinstone (¢ 
Saldanha Bay) . 17 AU 
Victory off Cape St. Vincent (which see) «x4 Be 
Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz; adi’ 
Nelson loses his right arm ? . 24 dU 
Victory of Camper down Baa see) : 11 O 
Of the Nile (which see). - ao BN 
Off the coast of Ireland ; a French fleet of 9 Sé 
full of troops, as succours to the Irish, engag 
by sir John Borlase Warren, and 5 taken, 12 O 
The Texel fleet of 12 ships and 13 Indiamen swt" 
ders to admiral Mitchell . 2 30 At 
Capture of the Cerbére (which see) 29 3 
Copenhagen bombarded (see Copenhagen), 2 Ap. 


i 


NAVAL COLLEGE. 


577 


NAVARINO. 


star bay; engagement between the French 


French frigates Pauline and Pomone captured by the 


d British fleets ; the Hannibal, of 74 guns, lost, British frigates Alceste, Active, and Unité 29 Nov. 1811 
6 July, 1801 | Rivoli, 84 guns, taken by Victorious, 74, at Feb. 1812 
Jadiz; sir James Saumarez obtains a victory L’Orient : 2 French frigates, SG; , destroyed by the 
er the French and heen fleets ; x ship cap- Northumberland, capt. Hotham 22 May, © ys 
red. Fought . : rJuly, ,, Guerriére, British frigate, 46 small guns, captured 
obert Calder, with 15 sail, takes 2 ships (both by the American ship Constitution, 54 guns (an 
anish) out of 20 sail of the French and Spanish unequal contest) POCA toe 
ats, off Ferrol (Calder censured) . 22duly, 1805 | British brig Frolic captured by the American sloop 
ry off Trafalgar (which see) : gi Olin 3 Wasp . 18 Ock\y, 
.. Strachan, with 4 sail of British, captures 4 British frigate Macedonian taken by the pee 
ench ships, off Cape Ortegal . 4 NOVs 5, ship United States, large class. 25 Octs 4.3 
.e West Indies ; the French defeated ‘by air British frigate Java taken by the American ship 
ickworth ; 3 sail of the line taken, 2 driven on Constitution, large class «207 eC amre 
re. 6 Feb. 1806 | British frigate Amelia loses 46 men killed ond 95 
ohn Borlase Warren captures 2 French ships, wounded, engaging a French frigate 7 Feb. 1813 
Mareh,? © ,, British sloop Peacock captured by the ES 
iral Duckworth effects the paasage of the ship Hornet; she was so disabled that she sunk 
rdanelles (see article pap) 19 Feb. 1807 with part of her crew 25 WOU. bas 
nhagen fleet captured . Z .8Sept. ,, American frigate Chesapeake taken by the Thatenck 
Russian fleet of several sail, ‘in the Tagns, sur- captain Broke (see Chesapeake) | T June: rs 
iders to the British . 3 Sept. 1808 | American ships Growler and Eagle taken by British 
or Basque Roads; 4 sail of the line, (be de- gun-boats : 3 June, 35 
oyed by lord Gambier . é II-12 April, 1809 American sloop Argus taken by the British sloop 
Russian flotillas of numerous vessels taken or Pelican. 4 AUS ity; 
stroyed by sir J. Saumarez 3 DULY. 35 French frigate La Trave, 44 guns, taken tis the 
eh ships of the line driven on shore by lord Andromache, of 38 guns Me, 23 OCI a a, 
ilingwood (two of them burnt by the French French frigate Ceres taken by the British. ship 
ct day) . : as'Oct.. ,, Tagus . 6Jan. 1814 
of Rosas, where lieut. Tailour, by dir Pe A of Pie frigates Alemene and I: phigenia taken by the 
ytain Hallowell, takes or destroys mz war and Venerable 3 WIIG SANs 5 
ier vessels (see "Rosas Bay) . ies TUN OWS 55 French frigate Ter psichore taken by the Majestic 
aterre ; La Loire and La Seine, French frigates, 3 Feb. 
troyed by sir A. Cochrane ‘ Dec. ,, | French ship Clorinde taken by the Dryad and 
Spartan frigate gallantly engages a large Fr ench Achates, after an action with the Hurotas, 25 Feb. ,, 
cein the bay of Naples . 3 May, 1810 | French frigate L’Htotle captured by the Hebrus, 
m between the Tribune, captain Revnolia, and | a7 Marcha rss 
Janish brigs. Fought . .12 May, ,, | American frigate Hssea captured by the Phebe and 
of Rhé; 17 vessels taken or destroyed by ae Cherub . 29March, ,, 
mide and Cadmus Jw) Srmdulye: ©, British sloop Avon sunk by the American sloop 
ain Barrett, in the mer chant vessel Cilen. Wasp F pS BODE AU ais 
id, with 26 men, defeats four privateers and Lake Chavenia the British squadron captured Le 
‘es 170 prisoners 16 Jan. 1811 the American, after a severe conflict, TE BEDE «55 
ity-two vessels from Otranto taken by the American ship President captured by the End ymion 
‘berus and Active . 22Feb. ,, 15 Jan. 1815 
ssa (which see) ; brilliant victory gained over Algiers bombarded by lord Exmouth ; see Algiers 
‘yranco-Venetian squadron by capt. Wm. Hoste. 27 Aug. 1816 
3 March, ,, | Navarino (which see) . 20 Oct. 1827 
von French frigate destroyed off Pet Sarteur Action between the British ships _ Volage and 
25 March, _,, Hyacinth and 29 Chinese ogg as which were 
ae Bay ; ; 2 French store-ships burnt by captain defeated 3 Nov. 1839 
rrie’s ships 1 May, ,, | Bombardment and fall of Acre. The Br itish 
British sloop Little Belt, ‘and Pesierican ship | squadron under admiral Stopford achieved this 
ident: their rencontre ‘ 16. May, ,, triumph with trifling loss, while the Egyptians 
Wadagascar ; 3 British frigates under captain lost 2000 killed and wounded, and 3000 prisoners 
lomberg, engage 3 French larger-sized, with | (see Syria) . 3 Nov. 1840 
ops on board, and capture 2 . 20May, ,, | Lagos attacked and taken ‘by commodore Bruce, 
anes and Cephalus capture 36 French vessels with a squadron consisting of the Penelope, Blood- 
SUly,! 45 hound, Sampson, and Teazer, war-steamers, and 
Vaiad frigate attacked in presence of Bonaparte the Philomel brig of war : 26-27 Dec. 185r 
7 armed praams ; they were gallantly repulsed [For naval actions which cannot be called peu 
21 Sept. _,, | battles, see China, Japan, and Kgypt, 1882.) 
SHIPS TAKEN OR DESTROYED BY THE NAVAL AND MARINE FORCES OF GREAT BRITAIN :— 
; In the French War, ending 1802. In the French War, ending 1814. 
| fon bahia ON Bee sg Poke: eal Aa eal 
| Force. S| a | 2 | S8 |rota| S| 21 8 | & | B {Totar 
2 a a A a 3) Qa m4 
‘the line 45 25 II 2 83 7O 27 23 4 ° I24 
fties 2 I fo) ° 3 7 ° I fe) I 9 
‘igates . 4 133 31 20 7 Igt 77 36 24 6 5 148 
oops, &e. 7 ; 161 32 55 16 | 264 188 64 16 7 13 | 288 
Total mews! | jar | 89 86 2s | 541 || 342 | 127 64 17 19. | 569 


—_———- 


AVAL COLLEGE, Royat, established | 
teenwich Hospital, and opened 1 Feb. 1873. 


AVAL KNIGHTS oF Wurnpsor, 
Knights. 


AVAL REVIEWS, SALUTE, 
LUNT TEERS, see under Navy. 7 


see 


Ps 


NAVARINO (S. W. Greece), settled by the 


Arabs 6th eee 
Venetians, 1686; by 
by Turks, 1825. Near here, on 20 Oct. 1827, 


taken by the Turks, 1500; by 
Turks, 1718; by Greeks, aie 


the 


combined fleets of England, France, and Russia, 

under command of admiral Codrington, nearly 

destroyed the Turkish and Egyptian fleet. More 
Ee 


NAVARRE. 


578 


NAVY. 


than thirty ships, many of them four-deckers, were 
blown up or burnt, chiefly by the Turks themsely es, 
to prevent their falling into the hands of their 
enemies. This destruction of the Turkish naval 
power was characterised by the duke of Wellington 
as an “ untoward event.” 


NAVARRE, now a province of Spain, formed 
a part of the Roman dominions, and was conquer ed 
from the Saracens by Charlemagne, 77 His 
descendants appointed governors, one of whom, 
Garcias Ximenes, took the title of king in 857. In 
1076, king Sancho IV. was poisoned, “and Sancho 
Ramorez of Aragon seized Navarre. In_ 1134, 
Navarre became again independent under Garcias 
Ramorez IV. In 1234, Thibault, count of Cham- 
pagne, nephew of Sancho VII. , became sovereign of 
Navarre; and in 1284, by the marriage of the 
heiress Jane with Philip LV. le Bel, Navarre was 
united to France. 


SOVEREIGNS OF NAVARRE. 


Jane J. and (1284) Philip-le-Bel of France. 

Louis X. Hutin of France. 

Philip V. the Long, of France. 

Charles I. the Fair, IV. of France. 

Jane II. (daughter of Jane I.), and her husband 
Philip d’Evreux. 

Charles II., the Bad. 

Charles III., the Noble. 

Blanche, his daughter, and her husband, John of 
Aragon. 

John II., alone, who became king of Aragon, in 
1458. He endeavoured to obtain the crown of 
Castile also. 

Eleanor de Foix, his daughter. 

Francis Phcebus de Foix, her son. 

Catherine (his sister) and her husband John 
d’Albret. Ferdinand of Aragon conquers and 
annexes all Navarre south of the Pyrenees, 1512 


Lower NAVARRE (in France). 
Henry d’Albret. 
Jane d’Albret and her husband, Anthony de 
Bourbon, who died 1562. 
Henry III. who became in 1589 king of France, to 
which Lower Navarre was formally united in 
1609. 


NAVIGATION began with the Egy ptians and 
Pheenicians. The first laws of navigation originated 
with the Rhodians, 916 B.c. The “first account we 
have of any considerable voyage is that of the 
Pheenicians sailing round Africa, 604 B.c. Blair. 
Plane charts and mariner’s compass used about . 1420 
Variation of the compass observed by Columbus. 1492 
That the oblique rhomb lines are spiral, discovered 

by Nonius e “ A LBS T, 
First treatise on nay igation : 


1274. 
1305. 
1316. 
1322. 
1328. 


1349. 
1387. 
1425. 


I44I. 


1479. 
1483. 


1516. 
1555- 


1572. 


: - 1545 
The log first mentioned by Bourne . + 2577 
Mer cator’ s chart 1599 


Davis’s quadrant, or backstaff, for measuring angles, 


about. 1600 
Logarithmic tables applied “to nay igation by 

Gunter My = 1-8 t020 
Middle latitude sailing introduced » 1623 
Mensuration of a degree, Norwood - 1631 
Hedley’s quadrant Sy eb 
Harrison’s time-keeper used - 1764 
Nautical Almanac first published - 1767 
Barlow’s theory of the deviation of the compass . 1820 


Quarterly Journal of Naval Science, edited by E. J. 
Reed, published . : : April, 1872-5 
See Compass, Latitude, Longitude, Steam, &e. 


NAVIGATION LAWS. A code of maritime 
laws is attributed to Richard I. of England, said to 
have been decreed at the isle of Oleron, eH (see 
Oleron), and further enactments were made by 
Richard II. in 1381.—In Oct. 1651, the parliament 
passed an act entitled “Goods from foreign parts, 
by whom to be imported,”’ the principles of which 
were affirmed by 12 Charles II. c. 18, “an act for 
the encouraging and increasing of shipping and 


a : . j 5 . 
Years. | Ships. Tons. Men. {Navy Estima 
58 12,455 8,546] no accour 
tl! 7,110 3,565 no accour 
sis 10,506 6,700 no accour 
44 17,055 8,346 no accoul 
ey 57,000 | 21,910 no accoul 
<3 101,892 42,000 no accoud 
alga 159,020 | 40,000 1,056,9 
A412 321,134 70,000 3,227 
498 | 433,226 | 45,000 5)52593 
767 | 668,744 | 135,000 12,422) 
869 | 892,800 | 143,800 174.9656 
90% | 966,000 | 146,000 18,736,5 
eS 


navigation” (1660). The latter act restricts 
importation and exportation of goods from o; 
Asia, Africa, or America, to English ships, of w] 
the masters and three-fourths of the mariners 
to be English. ‘his was followed by man 
of similar | tenor ; which were consolidated by 3 
Will TV. 3c 54, (1833). These acts were in. 
whole cr in part repealed by the act ‘‘to amend 
laws in force for the encouragement of Bri 
shipping and navigation”’ (passed 12 & 13 Vic 
29, 26 June, 1849, after much opposition), 
which came into operation I Jan. 1850. The i 

navigation act passed 14 & 15 Vict. ¢. 79, 

came into operation I Jan. 1852. The act ree 
the navigation of the river Thames was passe 
1786.— —In Feb. 1865 the emperor recommended 
modification of the French navigation laws; in | 
1872, new restrictions were laid upon foreign sl 
chiefly affecting British. 


NAVIGATORS (or Navvies). These hel 
in the construction of railways probably der 
their name (about 1830) from formerly making 
inland navigation in Lincolnshire, &e., and 
doubtfully said to be descendants of the orig 
Dutch canal labourers. Nayvy Mission Soc 
(new) met at Lambeth palace, 7 May, 1880. 
‘*steam navvy”’ suitable for working in s 
gravel, or heavy clay, made by Messrs. Rus 
Proctor, & Co., of Lincoln, 1878. 


NAVY oF ENGLAND, ‘‘ whereon, under 
good providence of God, the wealth, safety, 
strength of the kingdom chiefly de ends,” Act 
the government of the Navy y. See Naval Battle 


A fleet of galleys built by Alfred 

The number of galleys greatly increased under 
Edgar, who claimed to be lord of the ocean sur- 
rounding Britain : . about 

A formidable fleet equipped by the contribution of 
every town in England, in the reign of Ethelred II. 
when it rendezvoused at Sandwich, to be ready to 
oppese the Danes . 

A fleet collected by Edwar ‘d the Confessor to resist 
the Norwegians, 1042; and by Harold to resist 
the Normans. 

Richard I. collected a fleet and enacted naval laws 
about 

(The Cinque ports and maritime towns frequently 
furnished fleets commanded by the king or bis 
officers. ] 

Edward III.’s fleet defeat the French at the battle 
of Sluys, 24 June, 1340; and the Spanish off 
Winchelsea ‘ < 29 Aug. 

Henry V. made efforts to increase the navy . 1415) 

Henry VII. built the Royal Harry ; considered to be 
the beginning of the Royal Navy .. 

The Trinity house established and the Navy office 
appointed (see Admiralty and Trinity house) . 

[The navy then consisted of Great Harry, 1200 tons, 
two ships, of 800 tons, and six or seven smaller.] 

James I. and Charles I. improve the mit , 
Sovereign of the Seas launched . . . 

Frigates said to have been first built 

James II. hire sea- bee and improves the 


y 
d 
y ' 


@ 


NAVY. ° 


n of George III.; dimensions of ships in- 
ased ; copper sheathing adopted for ships of 
sry class ; establishments of naval stores pro- 
led at all dockyards and naval stations ; and 
rious improvements made in shipbuilding 1760-1820 
‘ Britain had gor ships; 177 of theline,in 1814; 621 
ps, some of 140 guns each, and down to survey- 
: vessels of two guns only; 148 sail employed 
foreign and home service . aka eh 
screw propeller introduced in the Royal Navy, 
otal number of ships of all sizes in commission, 


1830 
1840 


.. ; ; o - S 4 . r Jan. 1841 
Navy consisted of 339 sailing and 161 steam 

sels. : . : : : fe ; . 1850 
1 Coast Volunteers’ act passed . Aug. 1853 


5 Sailing vessels, 97 screw steamers, and 114 
Idle steamers . i , : . April, 
2w of the Baltic fleet at Spithead by the Queen, 
to March, 1854, and 23 April, 
1 Sailing vessels, carrying 9594 guns, and 258 
am vessels, carrying 6582 guns ; together 573 
sels, carrying 16,176 guns; also 155 gun- 
its, and 111 vessels on harbour service, July, 
amation for manning the navy . . 30 April, 
| Reserve Force authorised . 3 a INES 
ing not to be inflicted on first-class seamen 
ept after a trial . : , : 5 IDEGhEE., 
excitement respecting the French Govern- 
at building the plated frigate Gloire (see 
by of France) . : : : : : as 
Warrior, our first iron-plated steam frigate, 
largest vessel in the world except the Great 
tern (see Steam), length, 380 ft. breadth, 58 ft. ; 
plate, 44 inches thick; 6170 tons burthen; 
t about 400, 0001. ; launched [censured in 1864], 
29 Dec. 
ral commission recommends the abolition of 
board of admiralty, and the appointment of a 
\ister of the navy department March, 
Clarence Paget, secretary of admiralty, states 
£ England has 67 steam ships of the line 

le France has 37, Russia 9, Spain 3, and Italy r. 
To Aprilae,, 

tet for the government of the navy (the Naval 
cipline act) passes . ‘ : é AULT 5, 

iron-plated vessels (400 ft. long ; 593 ft. wide ; 
cost about 600,000/. each) building . Deca aa; 
aor Turret Ships. Capt. Cowper Coles’ mode 
onstructing iron-plated vessels, with a cupola 
urret for firing from, the other parts of the 
iel being nearly subinerged, made known in 
j, and recommended to the admiralty in 1861 ; 
pted by Ericson in the Monitor, 1862; pro- 
2d to be adopted by the British government, 
fferent kinds of plated vessels said to be con- 
(cting; E. J. Reed authorised to build the 
erprise as a specimen of an iron-plated sea- 
ig vessel . 3 A : : April, 
Oak, irvon-clad steamer, launched at Chatham, 
10 Sept. ,, 

draught 


1854 
1856 


1862 


or double screws for vessels of light 
oduced . : ; : : ‘ Te 
- J. Reed appointed chief constructor of the 
valNavy . : ‘ : , A . Jan. 
consists of 1014 vessels of all classes ; 85 line- 
attle ships ; 69 frigates ; 30 screw ae 
: ADA; 5 
ram Valiant launched r . se E4 Ot. 0,5 
aur iron-steamer launched . supe t2) DEC. ; 
School of Naval Architecture, South Kensing- 
J established : : : j : Se 
‘wret-ship Sovereign, constructed on Coles’ 
‘ciple, put out of commission, and placed 
ng reserved ships ; this blamed by some, Oct. 
_ models from the time of Henry VIII. col- 
+d early in the present century by sir Robert 
, Ings, removed to South Kensington Museum, 
Deekwear,, 
clad vessels building ‘“‘to be ready for sea 
year’. ‘ 7 ; j : . March, 
‘phon, iron-clad, by Mr. E. J. Reed ; and the 
_» Warden, iron-clad, launched . May,- ,, 
Ash fleet entertained at Cherbourg, Brest, &c., 
ug., &e. ; and a French fleet at Portsmouth, 
29-31 Aug. ” 
| Navy “‘consists of 735 vessels and steam- 
8 of all classes ” (30 iron-clads ready for sea), 
under Cannon) July, 


579 


ee Rit ae 
New Naval Discipline act, passed . 


NAVY. 


: . Aug. 1866 
Difficult launch of the Northumberland iron-clad, 
17 March, et seg. ; effected : . 17 April, 
Experimental cruise of the iron-clad fleet in stormy 
weather ; general performance satisfactory (Times) 
Sept.-Nov. _,, 
Acts for protection of naval stores passed, 1867 and 1869 
150 wooden ships of all classes sold. : - 1859-67 
{Of these were 7 line-of battle ships and 6 frigates, 
cost above 1,000,000l., sold for 87,5431. ] 
Hercules, 12, armour-plated ship, 1200 horse-power, 
floated at Chatham P : : . 10 Feb. 
The Monarch, our first armour-clad turret ship, 
launched at Chatham 2 : i) 25) Mayas 
47 armoured vessels afloat, with 598 guns; 66 
efficient unarmoured vessels ; and a large number 
of vessels of the old type, constitute the navy, 
April, 
Satisfactory trial trip of the Navy Reserve squadron, 
July, ,; 
Explosion of the boiler of the Thistle gun-boat, on 
trial trip ; ro killed . : ; ; NOV 
Devastation, iron tarret ship, first rivet of her keel 
clinched by Mr. Childers, the first lord, at Ports- 
mouth ; : ‘ : 3 F 12 Nov. |, 
Resignation of Mr. E. J. Reed, chief constructor, 


» 


1868 


1869 


July, 

Adm. sir T. M. C. Symonds reports-on the Monarch 
and Captain turret ships (the latter said to be over- 
masted and unfit to cruise under sailalone) Aug. 

H.M.S8. iron-clad frigate Triwmph launched at 
Jarrow . : : : k 27, DEDt.weess 

The Captain founders near Finisterre about 
T2.15A.M. d : , ; : Ay Msi Ne 

$72 lives were lost, including the captain, Hugh 
Burgoyne, Captain Cowper Coles, the designer of 
the ship, Mr. Childers (a son of the first lord), 
and other officers, the élite of the service ; 18 men 
of the crew were saved. ‘‘She capsized in a 
heavy squall sHortly after midnight, and went 
down in three minutes.”—Gunner’s report. Her 
destruction was attributed to too low free-board. 
heavy top-weight, masts, and hurricane deck. 
She cost 440,oo0ol. She was built by Messrs. 
Laird at Birkenhead. 

A court-martial for the nominal trial of James May, 
the gunner, and 17 other survivors, was held 27 
Sept. to 4 Oct.; Mr. EB. J. Reed and other emi- 
nent authorities were examined ; the verdict was, 
that the loss of the ship was due to instability 
from faulty construction: ‘‘a grave departure 
from her original design having been committed ” 

8 Octz aes; 

Report on the Monarch that her reserve of energy 
to prevent upsetting by a squall, is 16 to x of 
that of the Captain. —Times ; « TOLNOVe | 45 

Navy.—55 armoured vessels afloat ; 9 constructing ; 
effective force afloat, 354 vessels; and a large 
number of others F F ; ; : 

Megera troopship lost near Amsterdam island (see 
Wrecks) F : Petit of P , 16 June, ,, 

The Agincourt, capt. Hamilton Beamish, 6621 tons, 
struck on the Pearl Rock near Gibraltar, 11 A.M. 
11 July ; got off by great skill and management 
by the Hercules, capt. lord Guildford 4 July, 

[After trial, admirals Wellesley and Wilmot ordered 
to strike flags ; capts. Beamish and Well super- 
seded ; others censured; lord Guildford com- 
mended, Aug. 1871.] 

Turret vessels of the Monitor type designed by E. 
J. Reed, launched : the Glatton, 6 March ; Devas- 


tation, 12 July ; Cyclops . ; ; zo July, »54 
New rules respecting promotions, &c., published 
9 Feb. 1872 


The Thunderer, ocean-going turret ship, launched 
at Pembroke F : : 4 25 March, § 4, 
Lord Clyde, iron-clad, stranded off Pantellaria, 15 


March; capt. Bythesea and staff-commander 
May dismissed the service . : : 3 Mayon ss 
A trial-trip of the Devastation reported successful, 
15 April, 1873 
Navy.—23 great iron-clads ; 27 smaller Ale laos 


*“We now carry 35-ton guns on board ships in tur- 

rets protected by 14-inch plates” (Times) 28 Aug. 

Royal Naval Artillery Volunteer force established 

by act passed . : ‘ : ; aa Aus, 

H.M.S8. Alewandra launched at Chatham . 7 April, 

H.M.S. Vanguard, double-screw iron-clad (cost 
Bs Ree 


NAVY. 


580 NAVY. 


350,000l.), sunk by collision with the Iron Duke 
during a fog off the Wicklow coast ; crew (about 


400) Saved; 50m. past noon . : . 1 Sept. 1875 


Court-Martial on capt. Dawkins ; assigned as causes : 
1. That the squadron (under admiral Tarleton), of 
which the Vanguard was one, was going at too 
great a speed for a fog; 2. That captain Dawkins 
had left the deck before an ordered evolution was 
performed ; 3. That the speed of the Vanguard 
had been injudiciously reduced ; 4, 5, 6. The in- 
creased speed of the Iron Duke, her improper 
navigation, and want of signals ; captain Dawkins 
reprimanded and dismissed ; others reprimanded, 

29 Sept. 

The Admiralty Minute considered the speed of the 
squadron no cause of the accident ; censured part 
of adiniral Tarleton’s evidence on responsibility 
of officers ; and removed lieutenant Evans of the 


Iron Duke from his command . eer Oct 
Iron Duke nearly lost through a valve left open, 
28 Nov. 


The Monarch, iron-clad, injured by collision with 
Norwegian ship Halden in the Channel 28 Nov. 
The Inflexible, with 18-inch armour and four 81-ton 
guns, moveable by hydraulic power, launched by 


princess Louise at Portsmouth . . 27 April, 1876 
The Téméraire, smaller iron-clad, launched ‘at Chat- 
ham . g May, ,, 


The Thunderer (see 1872 above) : explowitnt of a 
boiler through sticking of safety valves ; 45 deaths 
ensued ; about 50 injured ; during a trial trip in 
Stoke’s Bay, near Portsmouth ; 14 July; inquest 
begun 27 July; (about 5,o00l. subscribed for the 
sufferers); verdict, accidental deaths . 30 Aug. 

Bacchante, unarmoured war-ship, launched, 19 Oct. 

Launched at Glasgow, Nelson, iron-clad . 4 Nov. 

Northampton ; #18: NOV. 

Euryalus, unarmoured corvette, launched at Chat- 


| 
ne 
Lx 


ham ; . 3t Jan. 1877 
Commission of ‘inquiry respecting ‘the Injlexible, 

appointed about : ‘ ¢ TAs SULyoeys 
4 new ironclads bought. é . March, 1878 


Dreadnought, iron- -clad ; ; 10,886 tons ; engines, 8000 
horse-power ; four 38-ton guns, &c. ; most power- 


ful fighting ship in the world ; constructed 


Eurydice, H.M.S. frigate ; training ship, foundered 
in a gale off Dunose, Isle of Wight ; about 300 
perished with capt. Hare, 24 March ; with mech 
skill and labour raised and taken to Portsmouth 
1 Sept., ordered to be brokenup . j Sept. 

The Thunderer (see 1876), a 38-ton gun explodes 


while practising, near Ismid, in the Sea 


Marmora, Turkey; 2 officers and 8 men killed, 


9? 


and between 30 and 40 wounded . , 2Jan. 1879 


On investigation the cause assigned was that the 
gun was charged and missed fire ; re-charged and 
both charges were fired, when it exploded Feb. 

Agamemnon, iron-clad turret ship ; 8492 tons ; en- 
gines, 6000 horse-power; four 38-ton guns ; 


launched at Chatham 17 ; Sept. 
Collision of the Achilles and Alevandra, off Larnaca, 
Mediterranean ; boats injured, &c. : 2 Oct. 
Sham naval attack on Portsmouth ; defended by 
torpedoes, &c. . sat 6;0Ct: 


Thunderer gun experiments at Woolwich (confirm 
decision of investigation committee of Feb. 1879), 


99 


9 


3 


+B) 


9 Dec. 1879—3 Feb. 1880 


Atalanta training ship lost in gale (see Atalanta), 


12—16 Feb. 

Great naval demonstration at Portsmouth ; attack 
on forts ; electric light used at night . 10 Aug. 
Doterel, 6 guns; capt. Richard Evans ; destroyed 
by explosion (attributed to formation of coal gas, 

3 Sept.) in Straits of Magellan; out of 150 about 


2) 


) 


143 persons perished . : 26 April, 1881 


Polyphemus, huge double-screw steam armour- 
plated ram and torpedo boat; launched at Chatham 
(designed by sir G. Sartorius) - x5 June, 

Launch of Canada corvette at Portsmouth, 26 Aug. ; 
of Conqueror, stecl-clad turret ship, at Chatham 

8 Sept. 

Triumph, explosion of «xerotine siccative (a patent 

drier for paint) near Coquimbo, coast of Chili, 


? 


2? 


23 Nov. ; 3 men killed, 7 wounded . . dan. 1882 


Ajax, new armowred turret-ship, moved from Chat- 
ham 4 - 20 Feb, 
Two very large armour-plated war-ships launched ; 


9? 


Lidinburgh, at Pembroke, 18 March ; Colossus, at 
Portsmouth : . 21 March, 
The Phenix lost off Prince Edward’s island, 12 Sept, 
commander Greenfell dismissed t Dee. 
The Collingwood, of ‘‘ British Admiral lag 
launched at Peinbroke 22 Noy. 
Naval Intelligence Committee formed. - Des. 
The duke of Edinburgh appointed to command the 
Channel fleet . . about 26 Noy. 
Collision of the Defence and Valiant in Bantry Bay, 
18 July; capt. Edwin Jolin Pollard, of the De. 
Jence, tried and dismissed from his ship fox 
inefficiency o July 
Wasp, gun boat (comm. Nicholls), wrecked off Tory 
island Cae to bad navigation) ; about 57 
perish . . 22 Sept, 
Rodney, great i iron- clad, launched by the duchess ot 
Edinburgh, at Chath: am . ° « 8 OGt! 
Navy Discipline actamended . ; - . 
Great Britain has 46 iron-clads . Dec. 
Large and ae additions to the navy autho- 
rised . «| Heb, 
Launch of M ersey, “protected corvette,” at Chatham, 
x March, 
ANNUAL EXPENDITURE OF THE BRITISH Nave 
6,942,397l. ;—1854, 6,640,596l. ; —1855 (to 31 M 
Russian war), 14,490,105. ;—1856, 19,654,585. ;-— 
9,215,487l. ;—1861, 13,331,6681. ;—1862, 12,598, 
-— 1863, 11,370,588. ; — 1864, 10,821,596l. ; — 
10,898,253/. ;—1866, 10,259,788l. ;—1867, 10,676,101 
1868, 11,168,949l. ;—1869, 11, 366, 5451. ;—1870, 9,757, 
~~-1871, 9,456,6411. ;— 1872, 9,900, 4861. ; == 1873; 99543) 
— 1874, 10,279,g00l. ; — 1875, 10,680,4041. $ 
10,285,194l. ;—1877, 11,288,872l. ;—1878, 11,053,099 
1879,  10,586,894l. ; — 1880, 10,492,9351. 3 
10,725,9191.; 1882, 10,483, gorl. 5 ; 1883, 10 800,560 A 
mated, 1884-5, 11,645,711l. ; 1885-6, 13,090,440l. 
Nava. SALUTE TO THE BritisH FLAG began in Alf 
reign, and though sometimes disputed, may be sa 
have been continued ever since. The Dutch agre 
strike to the English colours in the British see 
1673. The honour of the flag salute at sea was 
formally assented to by France in 1704, althou; 
had been long previously exacted by England; 
Flag and Salutes at Sea. 


Nava Unirorms. The first notice of the establish 


of a uniform in the British naval service, whic 
have met with, occurs in the Jacobite’s Journal 
March, 1748, under the head of ‘‘ Domestic New: 
these terms :—‘‘ An order is said to be issue 
quiring all his majesty’s sea-officers, from the ad 
down to the midshipman, to wear a uniforni 
clothing, for which purpose pattern coats for 
suits and frocks for each rank of officers are lodg 
the Navy-oflice, and at the several dockyards fo 
inspection.” This is corroborated by the Gazette 
July, 1757, when the first alteration in the un 
took place, and in which a reference is made 
order of 1748, alluded to in the journal above 
tioned, and which in fact is the year when a nava 
form was first established. James I. had i’ 
granted, by warrant of 6 April, 1609, to six 
principal masters of the navy, “‘liverie coats ¢ 
red cloth.” The warrant is stated to have been « 
verbatim from one signed by queen Elizabe 
which had not been acted upon by reason of her¢ 
This curious document is in the British Museum) 
king James’s limited red livery is supposed tc 
been soon discontinued. —Quarterly Review. 
Navy Pay OFFicg, organised in 1644, was abolisl) 
1836, when the army and navy pay departments 
consolidated in the Paymaster General’s office. | 
Navy List was first officially compiled by John | 
son, the celebrated actuary, and published aay 
1814: ; now quarterly. 
Nava Reviews. The queen reviewed the fleet aif 
head, near Portsmouth, rz Aug. 1853; again, Marel?, 
before it sailed to the Baltic, : at the commencen# 
the Russian war; and again, at Portsmouth, '/ 
conclusion of peace, in the presence of the pani i 
&e. The fleet extended in an unbroken line of 5 
and consisted of upwards of 300 men-of-wat, * 
tonnage of 150,000, carrying 3800 guns, and nfl 
by 40,000 seamen. ‘There were about roo,o00 spec 
23 April, 1856. 
A grand naval review (15 great wooden ships, rT 
plated, 16 gun-vessels and boats), was held at S}/ 


) 


(the queen, the sultan, and the viceroy of Pgy? 


wi": 
\ > 
ee, 


¥5 


NAVY. 


581 


NEPAUL. 


it), 17 July, 1867; another at Spithead before the 
uh of Persia, 23 June, 1873: another at Spithead, 
the queen, (10 broadside ships, 8 turret ships, &c.,) 
Aug. 1878. 

sL VOLUNTEERS (or Reserve). By 16 & 17 Vict. ec. 73 
53), the admiralty were empowered to raise a body 
sea-faring men to be called the ‘‘ Nayal Coast Volun- 
ts,” not to exceed 10,000, for the defence of the 
st, and for actual service if required. On 13 Aug. 
g, an act was passed to enable the admiralty to 
xe a number of men, not exceeding 30,000, as a re- 
ve force of seamen, to be called the ‘‘ Royal Naval 
unteers.” In November following, the admiralty 
ied a statement of the ‘‘ qualifications, advantages, 
| obligations” of this reserve. The enrolment com- 
aced on x Jan. 1860. The engagement is for five 
rs, and the volunteers are entitled to a pension 
an incapacitated after the expiration of the term. 
the prospect of war with the United States in Dec. 
I, a great number of seamen at Hartlepool, Dundee, 
idon, Aberdeen, &c., offered their services. 

enrolled body of Royal Naval Volunteers inspected, 
ut 18 Jan. 1873; see Naval College. 


AVY oF FRANCE. It is first mentioned in 
ry, 728, when, like that of England at an early 
d, it consisted of galleys; in this year the 
th defeated the Frisian fleet. ‘The French 
was almost annihilated by Edward III. at the 
» of Sluys, 24 June, 1340. It was considerably 
wed under Louis XIV. at the instance of his 
iter Colbert, about 1697. The French navy was 
splendour about 1781 ; becamegreatly reduced 
2 wars with England; see Naval Battles. It 
reatly increased by the emperor Napoleon IIL., 
a 1859 consisted of 51 ships of the line (14 
'g vessels and 37 steamers), and 398 other 
ls, in all 449; including vessels building, con- 
ig, or ordered to be built. The new French 
lad frigate Gloire, constructed by M. Dupuy 
ime, launched in 1860, was generally considered 
ecessful. The Solferino and Magenta were 
hed in June, 1861; other iron vessels since. 
Wagenta was destroyed by fire, 6 killed, 31 Aug. 
The Devastation, a great iron-clad, launched 
wient, 19 Aug. 1879. France has 46 iron- 
Dec. 1884. 


\ZARENE, a name given to Jesus Christ, 
is disciples; but afterwards to a sect who re- 
(the doctrine of Christ’s divinity in the first 
ry. A sect named Nazarenes, resembling the 
ty of Friends in Britain, became prominent in 
ary in the autumn of 1867. 


JAPOLIS, see Naples. 


TBRASKA, a N.W. territory of North 
tea (part of Louisiana), was organised 30 May, 
Capital, Omaha city. 


IBULAR HYPOTHESIS, put forth 
Wm. Herschel, 1811, supposes that the uni- 
was formed out of shapeless masses of nebulie 
‘Stersof small stars. It has not been generally 
ed. In Oct. 1860, Mr. Lassell strictly 
“nised the dumb-bell nebula, and stated that 
“ightest parts did not appear to be stars. In 
Mr. Wm. Huggins reported that he had 
/sed certain nebulew by their spectra, and be- 
them to be entirely gaseous. 


ICROMANCERS, see Magic. 


ICTARINE, the Amygdalus Persica, ori- 
)y came from Persia about 1562. Previously, 
its of nectarines were frequently sent to the 
_ of England from the Netherlands; and 
rine, queen of Henry VIII., distributed them 
3 her friends. 


JEDLES. “The making of Spanish needles 
tst taught in England by Elias Crowse, a 


- Derbyshire. 


German, about the eighth year of queen Elizabeth, 
and in queen Mary’s time there was a negro made 
fine Spanish needles in Cheapside, but would never 
teach his art to any.’’—Stow. The manufacture 
was greatly improved at Whitechapel, London; 
Redditch, in Gloucestershire, and Hathersage, in 
An exhibition of ancient needlework 
was formed at South Kensington Museum in 1873. 


_ NEEDLE-GUN (Ziindnadelgewehr), a musket 
invented by J. N. Dreyse of Scommerda, about 1827, 
and made a breech-loader in 1836, which was 
adopted by the Prussian general Manteuffel about 
1846. It was found to be a most effective weapon 
in the war with Denmark in 1864, and in that with 
Austria in 1866. The ignition of the charge is pro- 
duced by a fine steel rod or needle being pressed 
through the cartridge. The principle is claimed 
for James Whitley, of Dublin, 1823; Abraham 
Mosar, 1831; and John Hanson, of Huddersfield, 


1843. 
NEERWINDEN, see Landen. 
NEGRO TRADE, see Slavery. 


NEGUS (wine and water), said to be named 
after col. Francis Negus, about 1714. The sove- 
reign of Abyssinia is termed negus. 


NELSON’S VICTORIES, &c., see separate 
articles. 
Horatio Nelson, born at Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk 
29 Sept. 
Sailed with captain Phipps to the North Pole 
Distinguished himself in the West Indies 
Lost an eye at the reduction of Calvi, Corsica 5 leh 
Captured Elba. : , ” : . g Aug. 1796 
With Jervis, at the victory off St. Vincent, 14 Feb. ; 
knighted and made rear-admiral 20 Feb. 
Lost his right arm at the unsuccessful attack on 
Santa Cruz : 3 ; 5 25-26 July, 
Gained the battle of the Nile, 1 Aug; created baron 
Nelson of the Nile : ; : : 6 Noy. 
Attacks Copenhagen, 2 April; created viscount, 22 
May; attacks Boulogne flotilla, and destroys 
several ships : : i ; é 15 Aug. 
Appointed to chief command in the Mediterranean, 
20 May, 
Pursues the French and Spanish fleets, March to 
Aug. ; returns to England, Aug.; re-appears at 
Cadiz, and defeats the fleets in Trafalgar Bay, 
where he is killed : ‘ : 4 21 Oct, 
The Victory man-of-war arrived off Portsmouth with 
hisremains . 3 F ‘ ‘ Wa eG, 
The body lay in state in the Painted Hall, at Green- 
wich, 5 Jan. ; removed to the Admiralty, 8 Jan. ; 
funeral took place : : : - . 9 Jan. 
The prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), the 
duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.), and 
other royal dukes ; almost all the peers of England, 
and the lord mayor and corporation of London, 
with thousands of military and naval officers and 
distinguished men, followed the funeral car to St. 
Paul’s ; the military amounted to near 10,000, 
independent of volunteers. 
Nelson Column, 'Trafalgar-square, London, completed, 
and statue placed on it (see Statwes) 4 Nov. 1843 


NEMEAN GAMES, celebrated at Nemea, 
in Achaia, said to have been instituted by the Ar- 
gives, in honour of Archemorus, who died by the 
bite of a serpent; and revived by Hercules, 1226 
B.c. The conqueror was rewarded with a crown of 
olives, afterwards of green parsley. ‘hey were 
celebrated every third year, or, according to others, 
on the first and third year of every Olympiad, 
1226 B.c.—Herodotus. ‘They were revived by the 
emperor Julian, A.D. 362, but ceased in 396. 

NEO-PLATONISM or NEw PLATONISM, 
see Philosophy. 


NEPAUL (N. India) was conquered by the 
Ghoorkas, 1768, who made treaties with the British, 


1758 
- 1773 
- 1780 


1797 
” 


1798 


1801 


1803 


1805 


2? 


1806 


NEPHALIA. 


582 


NEVIS. 


1791 and 1801; but frequently made incursions ; | NEUFCHATEL, a canton in Switzerla 


and in consequence war with them commenced I Noy. 
1814; terminated 27 April, 1815. A treaty of peace 
was signed between the parties, 2 Dec. 1815. War 
was renewed through an infraction of the treaty by 
the Nepaulese, Jan. 1816; and after several con- 
tests, unfavourable to the Nepaulese, the former 
treaty was ratified, 15 March, 1816. An extra- 
ordinary embassy from the king of Nepaul to the 
queen of Great Britain arrived in England, landing 
at Southampton, 25 May, and remained till Aug. 
1850; it consisted of the Nepaulese prince, Jung 
Bahadoor, and his suite, to whom many honours 
were paid. He supported the English during the 
Indian mutiny in 1857. The prince of Wales was 
honourably received in Nepaul, 12 Feb. 1876. 
War with Thibet on account of robbed merchants 
May, 1884 
Thibet submits . June, |; 


NEPHALIA, sacrifices of sobriety among the 
Greeks, when they offered mead instead of wine to 
the sun and moon, to the nymphs, to Aurora, and 
to Venus; and burnt any wood but that of the vine, 
fig-tree, and mulberry-tree, esteemed symbols of 
drunkenness, 613 B.C. 


NEPHOSCOPE (nephos, Greek, a cloud). An 
apparatus for measuring the velocity of clouds, in- 
vented by Karl Braun, and reported to the Academy 
of Sciences, Paris, 27 July, 1868. 


NEPTUNE, a primary planet, first observed 
on 23 Sept. 1846, by Dr. Galle at Berlin, in conse- 
quence of a letter from M. Le Verrier, who had 
conjectured from the anomalous movements of 
Uranus that a distant planet might exist nearly in 
the position where Neptune is situated. Calcula- 
tions to the same effect had been previously made 
by Mr. J. Couch Adams, of Cambridge. A satel- 
lite of Neptune was discovered by Mr. Lassell on 
10 Oct. following. Neptune is said to have been 
seen by Lalande, and thought to be a fixed star. The 
Greek god Poseidin became the Roman Neptune. 


NEPTUNIUM, anew metal discovered in tan - 
nalite, from Connecticut, by R. Herrmann in 1877; 
not generally admitted by chemists. 


NERVILI, a warlike tribe in Belgic Gaul, were 
defeated ina severe battle by Julius Cesar 57, and 
subdued 53 B.c. 


NERWINDEN, see Landen. 
NESBIT, see Nisdet. 


NESTORIANS, the followers of Nestorius, 
bishop of Constantinople (428-431), who is repre- 
sented as a heretic. He was opposed by Eutyches ; 
see Hutychians. 


x. He rejected the error of those who said Christ was 
a mere man, as Ebion, Paul of Samosata Photinus. 
2. He maintained that the Word was united to the 
humanity in Christ Jesus, and that this union was 
most intimate and strict. 3. He held that these two 
natures made one Christ, one Son, one Person ; only 
made up of two natures. 4. And this one Person may 
have either divine or human properties attributed to 
Him. 

Nestorian Christians in the Levant administer the 
sacrament with leavened bread and in both kinds, 
permit their priests to marry, and use neither con- 
tirmation nor auricular confession.—Duw Pin. 

A Nestorian priest and deacon were in London in July, 
1862. 


NETHERLANDS, see Flanders, Holland, 
and Belgium. 


NETLEY HOSPITAL, near Southampton, 
for invalid soldiers. ‘The foundation stone was laid 
by the queen, 19 May, 1856. 


formerly a lordship, afterwards a principality. 1 
first known lord was Ulric de Fenis, about Io 
whose descendants ruled till 1373, after which 
marriages it frequently changed governors. On: 
death of the duchesse de Nemours, the last of : 

Longuevilles, in 1707, there were many claiman 

among them our William III. He and the al 

however gave it to Frederick I. of Prussia with: 
title of prince. In 1806 the principality was ce 
to France, and Napoleon bestowed it on his gene 

Berthier, who held it till 1814, when it fell to 

disposal of the allies. They restored the king 

Prussia with the title of prince with certain rig 

and privileges; but constituted it a part of 

Swiss confederation. 

After an unsuccessful attempt in 1831, the inhabit- 
ants repudiated their allegiance to Prussia, and 
proclaimed Neufchatel a free and independent 
member of the Swiss confederation : : -& 

The king of Prussia protested against this ; and a 
protocol was signed between England, France, and 
Austria, recognising his claims : 4 NE. 

Some of his adherents, headed by the count de Pour- 
talés, broke out into insurrection against the re- 
publican authorities, who, however, quickly sub- 
dued and imprisoned them, with the-intention of 
bringing them to trial 3 : : . Sens 

War threatened by the king of Prussia, and great 
energy and determination manifested by the Swiss. 
On the intervention of the English and French 
governments, a treaty was signed by which the 
king of Prussia virtually renounced his claims, on 
receiving a pecuniary compensation, which he 
eventually gave up. He retains the title of prince 
of Neufchatel, without any political rights 

rr June, 

The prisoners of Sept. 1856 were released withowaa® 

18 Jan. 

NEUSTRIA or WEsT FRANCE, a king 

allotted to Clotaire by his father Clovis, at 

death in 511. His descendant, Charlemagne, 

came sole king of France in 771. It wasconqu 

by the Northmen and hence named Normé 
(which see). 


NEUTRALITY LAWS. A commissior 
a report issued in May, 1868, recommended cha 
An act to make better provision for the preservé 
of neutrality was passed g Aug. 1870. Joh” 
McDiarmid apprehended, for breach of neutr 
laws, at Bow-street, 28 Oct. 1870. 


NEUTRAL POWERS. By the treat 
Paris, signed by the representatives of 
Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Tw 
and Sardinia, on 16 April, 1856, it was detern 
that privateering mAh be abolished; } 
neutrals might carry an enemy’s goods not 
traband of war; that neutral goods not contra: 
were free even under an enemy’s flag ; and 
blockades to be binding must be effective. Thef 
sident of the United States acceded to these p} 
sions in 1861. See lnternational Law. 


NEVADA, a western territory of the U! 
States of N. America, organised 2 March, If 
admitted a state, 31 Oct. 1864. Capital, C:) 
city. Virginia city was nearly destroyed by fiF 
Oct. 1875; several lives were lost; property @ 
2,000,000 dols.; 10,000 persons renderedshome- 


NEVILLE’S CROSS or DurHAM, BaA‘} 
OF, between the Scots under king David Brue# 
the English it is said (probably incorrectly) 1* 
Philippa, consort of Edward III., and lord P)} 
12 or 17 Oct. 1346. More than 15,000 of the / 
were slain, and their king taken prisoner. 


NEVIS (W. Indies), an island discoveré b 
Columbus, planted by the English in 1628; 'f 


] 


NEWARK. 


ig French, 14 Feb. 1782; restored to the Eng- 
in 1783. The capital is Charleston. 


EWARK (Nottinghamshire). The church 
erected by Henry IV. Here, in the midst of 
ples, died king John, 19 Oct. 1216; here the 
[army under prince Rupert repulsed the army 
e parliament, besieging the town, 21 March, 
; and here, 5 May, 1646, Charles I., after his 
it at Naseby, put himself into the hands of the 
th army, who afterwards gave him up to his 
ties. Newark was first incorporated by Ed- 
VI., and afterwards by Charles II. 


EW BRUNSWICK was taken from Nova 
a, and received its name as a separate colony 
85. It was united with Canada for legislative 
ses by an act passed 29 March, 1867. Popu- 
1 of New Brunswick in 1865, 272,780 ; in 1881, 
33. Lieut.-governor, Lemuel A. Wilmot, 1868 ; 
iel Leonard Tilley, 1874; hon. Robert Duncan 
tot, 1880. 

‘fire at St. John, 20-22 June, 1877 ; destruction of 
hurehes, 25 public buildings ; thousands houseless ; 
ut 20 killed, loss about 3,000,000l. Subscriptions 
sritain. 

QIWBURY (Berkshire). Near here were 
it two desperate battles—(I.) 20 Sept. 1643 ; 
xen the army of Charles I. and that of the 
ment under Essex ; it terminated somewhat 
‘rably for the king. Among the slain was 
amiable Lucius Cary, viscount Falkland, 
y regretted. (2.) Asecond battle of dubious 
was fought between the royalists and the 
mentarians under Waller, 27 Oct. 1644. 
‘morial to lord Falkland and his companions, at 
ry. ‘ae inaugurated by the earl of Carnarvon, 9 
\Uey 1070. 


IW CALEDONIA (Pacific Ocean), dis- 
‘ed by Cook on 4 Sept. 1774, was seized by the 
th, 20 Sept. 1853, and colonised. The French 
‘nment in Dec. 1864, redressed the outrages 
-itted upon the British missionaries at a station 
ished here in 1854. 

2 latter part of June, 1878, some of the native 
es revolted, burnt some of the towns and villages, 
« killed about 90 of the European colonists, men, 
1en, children, and servants, including col. Gally- 
3ebose, the military commandant of the island. 
insurrectionwas notsubdued till the end of the year. 
ised as a French penal settlement ; said to be very 
‘rderly, 1884. See Recidivists. 


IWCASTLE-vpon-TyNnE_ (Northumber- 
, the Koman Pons Aélia, the first coal port in 
orld,* and the commercial metropolis of the 
of England. The coal-mines were discovered 
bout 1234. ‘The first charter granted to the 
‘men for digging coal was by Henry III. in 
See Population. 

Wns built by Robert Courthose, son of Wil- 
by William IT. ; ; ae : 7 
tholas church built, about rogx ; burnt in 1216 ; 
ored by Edward I., to whom John, Baliol did 


I 


1080 
1095 


/ age here, 1292 ; rebuilt : ‘ : 1359 
| istle surrenders to the Scotch . : : . 1640 

‘here gave up Charles J. to the parliament 

A 30 Jan. 1647 
| ied by general Wade in é , 1745 
| 1arian Society established 2 : 1813 


ry and Philosophical Society founded 1793: 
| tally endowed by Robert Stephenson . 1858-9 


{'. 1306 the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in 
) in, by royal proclamation, chiefly because it injured 
| le of wood for fuel, great quantities of which were 
| wowing about the city; but this interdiction did 
| Mg continue, and we may consider coal as having 
| lug and exported from this place for more than 500 


583 


NEWCASTLE. 


T. Bewick, the wood-engraver, dies . : ; : 
The magnificent market erected by Richd. Grainger, 

who greatly improved the town ; eTass 
British Association met here ; ; : sp baie 
High level bridge erected by Robert Stephenson ; 

and grand central station built : ‘ - 1846-50 
1538 persons die of cholera 31 Aug. to 26 Oct. 1853 
Great fire through the explosion at Gateshead (which 

see) : ; 4 : : ; 5; 0 UCirnesa 
Great distress through failure of Northumberland 


1828 


Joint-Stock Bank . : : Nov. 1857 
Richard Grainger dies, aged 63 . : . 4duly, 1861 
Enthusiastic reception of Mr. W. E. Gladstone, 

7-9 Oct. 1862 

British Association met here, second time 26 Aug. 1863 
Great fire at Brown’s flour mills, &c., near the new 
level bridge, which is injured ; about 70,000. loss 

24 June, 1866 

The Central Exchange destroyed by fire rr Aug. 1867 
Mr. Mawson, the sheriff, and Mr. Bryson, the town 
surveyor, and others, killed, while attempting to 
bury some nitro-glycerine in the town-moor, to 

get rid of it é : ‘ : ; LO WECzsi ss 
Strike of about gooo engineers, for day’s work of 

nine hours; begun about 16 May, 1872 
College of Physical Science in connection with the 

Durham University, opened f Ottis 
Engineers’ strike closed: terms, nine hours a day, 

to begin on 1 Jan. 1872; men to work overtime 

when needed; wages to remain the same; ar- 

ranged by Mr. R. B..Philipson and Mr. Joseph 

Cowen : 2 3 : : G OCs 
Elswick estate purchased by a committee for a 

public park, announced . : Aug. 1873 


New R. C. church built by the Dominicans, opened 
to Sept. ,, 
New swing-bridge over the Tyne (281 feet long; 
weight, 1450 tons, lifted by a hydraulic crane) ; 
begun 1868 ; completed : ; A June, 1876 
Bishoprics act; permitting the erection of a see at 
Neweastle, passed. 2 ‘ : 16 Aug. 1878 
Technical college for north of England inaugurated 
24 Sept. 1880 
Centenary of birth of George Stephenson celebrated 
g June, 188r 
Newcastle constituted a city; charter received 
5 July 1882 
1880; the new 
E septs 35 


Publie library opened 13 Sept. 
building was opened 


Sanitary Institute of Great Britain and congress 
meet here ¢ > : : A 26 Sept. ,, 
Parks given by sir William Armstrong ; addition 
Feb. 1883 


Visit of prince and princess of Wales and family ; 
enthusiastic reception ; opening of Armstrong 
park, natural history museum, free library, 
Albert Edward dock, &e. . 20, 2t Aug. 1884 

Great distress through want ofemployment Oct. ,, 


NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE, BIsHopric 
OF, founded by Order in Council 17 May, 1882. 
BISHOP. 
1882. Ernest Roland Wilberforce consecrated at Durham, 
25 July, 1882. 


NEWCASTLE ADMINISTRATION, 
formed April, 1754; resigned Nov. 1756; when 
the duke of Devonshire became first lord of the 
treasury. 

Thomas Holles Pelham, duke of Newcastle, first lord of 
the treasury. 

Henry Bilson Legge, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl of Holdernesse and sir Thomas Robinson (after- 
wards lord Grantham), secretaries of state. The latter 
succeeded by Henry Fox (afterwards lord Holland). 

Lord Anson, first lord of the admiralty. 

Earl Grenville, lord president. 

Lord Gower (succeeded by the duke of Marlborough 
1755), lord privy seal. 

Earl of Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 

Duke of Grafton, earl of Halifax, George Grenville, &c. 


NEWCASTLE AND PITT ADMINIS- 
TRATION (see Chatham Adm inistration), formed 
June, 1757. After various changes it resigned May, 
1762; lord Bute coming into power. 


NEW CHURCH. 


584 


NEW GRENADA. 


Thomas Holles Pelham, duke of Newcastle, first lord of 
the treasury. 

William Pitt (afterwards lord Chatham), secretary of state 
Sor the northern department, and leader of the house of 
commons. 

Earl of Holdernesse, secretary of state for the southern 
department. 

#arl Granville, lord president. 

Earl Temple, privy seal. 

H. B. Legge, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Duke of Devonshire, lord chamberlain. 

Duke of Rutland, lord steward. 

Lord Anson, admiralty. 

Duke of Marlborough (succeeded by lord Ligonier), 
ordnance. 

Sir Robert Henley, lord keeper of the great seal. 

Henry Fox, George Grenville, viscount Barrington, lord 
Halifax, James Grenville, &e. 


NEW CHURCH, see Swedenborgians. 


NEW COLLEGE (St. John’s Wood, London), 
erected by the Independent dissenters for the edu- 
cation of their ministers, 1850-1, was formed by 
the union of Homerton, Highbury, and Coward 
colleges. See Oxford. 


NEW DEPARTURE DEMOCRATS, see 
United States, 1871. 


NEW ENGLAND (N. America). The first 
settlement made in 1607, was named New England 
by captain Smith, in 1614. A band of 102 Puri- 
tans, now termed the “‘ Pilgrim Fathers”’ (with 28 
women) arrived here in the May Flower, and 
founded the settlement on Plymouth Rock, 25 Dec. 
1620, which was named New Plymouth. This was 
the nucleus of Massachusetts, from whence were 
gradually developed New Hampshire, Vermont, 
Connecticut, and Rhode Island. In 1643 these 
settlements formed the first. American confederation, 
a defensive union, with a constitution based on the 
Mosaic law, governed by a religious aristocracy, 
which lasted till 1693. Maine was made an inde- 
pendent state in 1820. 


NEW FOREST (Hampshire), was made 
(‘‘ afforested ’’) by William the Conqueror, 1079-85. 
It is said that the whole country, for thirty miles 
in compass, was laid waste. William Rufus was 
killed in this forest by an arrow shot by Walter 
Tyrrel, that accidentally glanced against a tree, 
2 Aug. I100, the site of which is now pointed out 
by a triangular stone. The New Forest Deer 
Removal act was passed 14 & 15 Vict. c. 76, 7 Aug. 
1851. Agitation for the preservation of this forest, 
autumn, 1870. See Forests. 


NEWFOUNDLAND (NX. America), discov- 
ered by Sebastian Cabot, who called it Prima 
Vista, 24 June, 1497. It was formally taken pos- 
session of by sir Humphry Gilbert, 1583. In the 
reign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advan- 
tage of the English in the fishery. In 1577 there 
were 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from Portugal, 
150 from France, and only 15, but of larger size, 
from England.—Hakluyt. But the English fishery 
In some years afterwards (1625) had increased so 
much that the ports of Devonshire alone employed 
150 ships, which sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, 
and Italy. The sovereignty of England was recog- 
nised in 1713. Newfoundland obtained the pri- 
vilege of a colonial legislature in 1832; and the 
bishopric was established in 1839. Population, 1882, 
about 185,000. Appalling fire at St. John’s, a great 
portion of the town destroyed, the loss estimated at 
1,000,000/. sterling, g June, 1846. On 14 Jan. 
1857, a convention was concluded between the 
English and French governments, confirming cer- 
tain French privileges of fishery in exchange for 
others. The English colonists were dissatisfied 


with this convention. Newfoundland consente 

union with the dominion of Canada, March, i 

a railway from St. John’s to St. George’s | 

roposed by the colonial government Aug. if 
overnor, col. sir Stephen J. Hill, 1870; sir J 

H. Glover, Jan. 1876. Maxse died Sept. 1883; 

John Hawley Glover, Dec. 1883. See Can 

Nov. 1877. 

Fishery Dispute. At Fortune bay, U.S., fishers 
fixed nets on Sunday, 13 Jan. 1878; this being 
contrary to local regulations, they were forcibly 
removed ; controversy ensued ; Mr. Evarts on 
part of U.S government sent despatch, 24 Aug, ; 
correspondence, Sept. Oct. ; the marquis of Salis- 
bury refused compensation; but earl Granville 
granted it; 15,o0ool. were awarded by arbitration 

28 May, 

The French tri-colour flag set up at Cumberland 

Stage, near St. John’s, by a French captain, 
9 Sept. 

Conflicts between the Orangemen and Romanists 

at Harbour Grace ; several killed 26 Dec. 


NEW FRANCE, see Canada. 
NEWGATE, Lonpon. The prison derive 


name from the gate, to which was attached a sr 
prison, gradually enlarged. One was erected in 1 
by the bishop of London. It was used as a pri 
for persons of rank as early as 1218; but was reb 
about two centuries afterwards by the executor 
sir Richard Whittington, whose statue with a 
stood in the niche till the time of its demoli 
by the great fire of London, in 1666, It was t 
reconstructed; but becoming an accumulati 
misery and inconvenience, was pulled down 
rebuilt between 1778 and 1780. . During the 1 
in 1780, the interior was destroyed by fire, 
shortly afterwards restored. In 1857 the inte 
was pulled down to be re-erected on a plan aiaj 
to the reformatory system. Newgate was dist 
as an ordinary prison, 31 Dec. 1881. Major Art 
Griffiths’ ‘‘ Chronicles of Newgate,” published, 
1884. See Old Bailey. Newgate MARKET, 
tablished in 1681, was ordered to be abolisher 
an act passed in 1861, which took effect when 
meat and poultry market in Smithfield was ope 
I Dec. 1868. 


NEW GRENADA (S. America), discov 
by Ojeda in 1499, and settled by the Spaniard 
1536. It formed part of the new republic of 
gota, established in 1811; and,- combined 7 
Caracas, formed the republic of Colombia, 17. 
1819; see Colombia. 


President M. Ospina entered on office 1 April, 
After several reunions and dissolutions, the republic | 
of New Grenada merged into the Grenadine Con- 
federation, which includes Bolivar, Antioquia, 
Panama, and other small states 15 June, 
Struggles between the conservatives, partisans of | 
the old government, and the liberals . Jan, | 
General Mosquera (liberal) deposes Ospina; and 
seizes the government , ; 18 July, 
A congress of the states determine on union, under 
the name of the United States of Colombia, 
20 Sept. 
Arboleda, chief of the conservatives, assassinated 
(succeeded by Cassal) . : 1 Nov. 
New constitution established : . 8 May, 
Mosquera invites Venezuela and Equator to join 
the confederation mis 3 3 : Aug. 
Equator declines—war ensues . : 20 Nov. 
The troops of Equator defeated, 6 Dec.; peace en- 
sues, and Equator remains independent 30 Dee. 
Coup d'état of Mosquera, who declares himself dic- 
tator «pe ae le hae 11 March, 
Mosquera deposed by Santos Acosta, who becomes 
provisional president : , 23 May, 
Mosquera, the ex-president, exiled . 1 Nov. | 
General Santas Gutierrez Vergara, the president, 
deposed and imprisoned, and general Ponce made 
provisional president. Ponce compelled to ab-) 


| NEW GUINEA. 


e; succeeded by Correoso, 29 Aug., who 
ted his opponents M a : t2 Nov. 1868 
yublic now named Colombia (which see). 


W GUINEA or Parva, a large island, 
Ocean, discovered by the Portuguese after 
ettlement of the Moluccas between 1512 and 
‘It was visited by Saavedra, a Spaniard, in 
It is said to have been named New Guinea 
tiz de Retes, a Portuguese, 1549. Torres 
, which divide New Guinea and Australia, 
lisecovered by Torres, a Spaniard, in 1606. 
s frequently visited by the Dutch in the 
century. ‘They established a colony and 
1 a fortress, named Dubus, on the S.W. 
in 1828, which was unsuccessful; and re- 
in 1835. 
yet. the New Guinea Colonizing Association pro- 
1 to lord Carnarvon, the colonial secretary, to 
to New Guinea an expedition of 200 men with 50 
‘xs, in a ship of 1200 tons burden; he declined 
netion it, and referred to dangers, 30 Oct. 1875 ; 
of the island annexed by the Queensland govern- 
;, announced April, 1883, with the approval of all 
alia ; thisact declared by the British government 
»nullin point of Jaw, and not to be admitted in 
tof policy,” 2 July, 1883; signified by lord Derby’s 
atch, also recommending a confederation of 
walian states, rx July, 1883. 
wlvor’s proposed expedition to New Guinea pro- 
ed by lord Derby, Oct. 1833. 
\olonial conference at ‘Sydney recommend annexa- 
6 Dec. 1883. 
torate of the southern part and adjacent islands 
x a high commissioner determined on, Aug. 1884 5 
be supported by the Australian colonies ; 
w-Gen. Peter H. Scratchley appointed, Oct. 1884 ; 
ectorate proclaimed in New Guinea 6 Nov. 
n flag hoisted on northern part and adjacent 
ids; Australian colonies protest, Dec. 1884. 
ferman colony named Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land, 
th, 1885. 
TW HAMPSHIRE, one of the early united 
of N. America, was settled in 1623, placed 
Massachusetts, 1641; separated, 1679. Capital, 
rd. 


IW HARMONY, see Harmonists. 
t1W HEBRIDES (S. Pacific Ocean), dis- 


od by Quiros, who believing them to be a 
1entnamed them Tierra Australia del Espiritit 
in 1606. Bougainville in 1768 found them 
islands; and in 1774 Cook gave them their 
atname. On appeal, the British government 
ise protection to the natives against kid- 


ng, &c. 7 Feb. 1883. 
IW HOLLAND, see Australia, New South 


8, &e. 

aIW IRELAND), an island in the Pacific 

|, lat. 2° 3’ S. long. 152°, 200 miles long, 25 
average width. An attempt of the French 
uis de Rays to colonise this island was re- 

da disastrous failure in August, 1880, and 

1881. See also Jreland, New. 


aw JERSEY, one of the early United States 
America, was settled by the Dutch from New 
, 1620; and by Swedes in 1627. Capital, 
son. 


EW JERUSALEM CHURCH, 


enborgians. 


EW LANARK (W. Scotland). Here 
‘rt Owen endeavoured to establish socialism in 
', and here the first infant school was set up, 


see 


NEW LEARNING,” a term applied to the 
al of the study of the Bible and the Greek and 


t 


re 


585 


NEWPORT. 


and 16th centuries, which conduced greatly to the 
Reformation. See Hwmanism. 


NEWMARKET (Cambridgeshire), renowned 
for its horse-races. It is first mentioned in 1227; 
and probably derived its name from the market 
then recently established. James I. erected a hunt- 
ing seat here, called the. king’s house, to. which 
Charles I. was taken as a prisoner in 1647, when 
the parliament army was quartered in the neigh- 
bouring village of Kennet. Charles II., who was fond 
of racing, built a stand-house for the sake of the 
diversion, about 1667,* and from that period races 
have been annual to the present time; and many 
extraordinary races have been run; see Laces. 


NEW MEXICO (N. America), ceded to the 
United States in 1848, and organised as a territory, 
9 Sept. 1850. Capital, Santa Ie. 


NEW ORLEANS, capital of Louisiana, N. 
America (which see), founded in 1717, under the re- 
gency of theduke of Orleans. In 1785, seven-eighths 
of the city were destroyed by fire. The British attacked 
New Orleans in Dec. 1814, and were repulsed with 
ereat loss by the Americans under general Jackson, 
8 Jan. 1815. New Orleans was surrendered to the 
Federals in April, 1862. The strong feeling of the 
inhabitants in favour of the Confederates and 
against the Federals induced general B. Butler to 
rule them with military rigour, occasionally degene- 
rating into brutal tyranny, especially towards 
females, May to October, 1862. He was replaced by 
general Banks, 16 Dec. 1862. Sanguinary riots; 
due to agitators, begun 30 July, 1866, only sup- 
pressed by martial law; about 4o persons, white 
and coloured, were killed, and about 160 wounded, 
similar riots occurred, 24 Oct. 1868, and often since. 
New Orleans. —John McEnery elected governor of Louis- 

jana by the southern whites, 4 Nov. 1872 5 but W. P. 

Kellogg, elected by the coloured people and their 

white friends, was recognised by the Federal govern- 

ment. To defend themselves against tyranny, the 
southerns formed the ‘‘ white league,” and collected 
arms, which they refused to surrender on demand on 

15 Sept. 1874. They deposed Kellogg at New Orleans 

aiter some resistance, and established McEnery as 

governor, but submitted to the president’s proclama- 


classics, in their original tongues in the 15th | 


tion; and Kellogg was restored 18 Sept., much to the 
regret of the citizens. 
The government troops eject members from the 
legislative assembly as unduly elected 4Jan. 1875 
After much discussion, a peaceful compromise April ,, 
Much trouble, 2 governors at one time, Jan. ; dis- 
putes settled in favour of Democrats by president 


Hayes ; prospect of peace : . 25 April, 1877 
“ World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposi- 
tion 3 : : ! . 16 Dee. 1884 


NEW PHILOSOPHY, a term applied in 
the 17th century to that of Bacon (which see). 


NEW PLYMOUTH, see New England. 


NEWPORT (Monmouthshire). Chartered by 
Edward III. and James I. 


Cuartist Rrots.—About 310,000 chartists (which see), 
from the neighbouring mines, armed with guns, pikes, 
&c., arrived at Newport, 4 Nov. 1839. They divided 
themselves into two bodies—one, wnder the command 
of Mr. John Frost, an ex-magistrate, proceeded down 
the principal street ; whilst the other, headed by his 


* During the races, on 22 March, 1683, Newmarket was 
nearly destroyed by an accidental fire, which occasioned 
the hasty departure of the company then assembled, 
including the king, the queen, the duke of York, the 
royal attendants, and many of the nobility ; and to this 
disaster historians have ascribed the failure of the Rye 
house plot, the object of which was said to be the assas- 
sination of the king and his brother on the road from 
Newmarket to London, if the period of their journey had 
not been thus anticipated; see Rye House Plot. 


NEW RIVER. 


son, took the direction of Stow-hill’ They met in 
front of the Westgate hotel, where the magistrates 
were assembled with about 30 soldiers of the 45th 
regiment, and several special constables. The rioters 
broke the windows and fired on the inmates, by which 
the mayor, Mr. (afterwards sir Thomas) Phillips, and 
several other persons, were wounded. The soldiers 
returned the fire, and dispersed the mob, which fled, 
leaving about 20 dead, and others wounded. <A detach- 
ment of the roth royal hussars arrived from Bristol, 
and the town became tranquil. 

Frost was apprehended on the following day, together 
with his printer, and other influential persons 
among the chartists. He and others were tried 
and sentenced to death (afterwards commuted to 
transportation) ‘ : - ‘ . Jan. 

An amnesty was granted them, 3 May, and they 
returned to England : : Sept. 1856 

Frost died, aged 96 d 4 > 29 July, 1877 


NEW RIVER, for the supply of London with 
water, was begun 1609, and finished in 1613, when 


the projector, Hugh Myddelton, a London gold- 
smith, was knighted by James I.—Strype. This 
artificial river, which rises in Hertfordshire,* and 
which, with its windings, then forty-eight miles 
long, was brought to London, and opened 29 Sept. 
1613. So little was the benefit of it understood, that 
for above thirty years the seventy-two shares, into 
which it was divided, netted only 52. apiece. Each 
of these shares was sold originally for 1oo/. A part 
of a share sold at the rate of 94,050/. the share, 
1 Nov. 1876; part of a king’s share at rate of 90,000/. ; 
of an adventurer’s share at rate of 93,200/., 15 May, 
1878; king’s share, rate 88,200/.; adventurer’s, 
g1,000/., Oct. 1878; king’s share, rate 9I1,O1O/. ; 
adventurer’s, 94,500/., Nov. 1880. 


NEW ROAD, N. London (now Pentonville, 
Euston, and Marylebone roads) was cut through 
verdant meadows, 1756-7, after much opposition. 


NEW ROSS (Wexford), 8. E. Ireland. Here 
general Johnston totally defeated the rebels under 
Beauchamp D. Bagenal Harvey, 4 June, 1798. 


(NEW) RUGBY, Tennessee, United States, N. 
America, a colony of British farmers and others, 
founded on English principles by Mr. Thomas 
Hughes, formerly M.P., author of “Tom Brown’s 
Schooldays,’’ &c.; inaugurated 5 Oct. 1880. KRe- 
ported failure of crops and prevalence of fever, 
Aug. 1881. Said to be not quite a failure by ener- 
getic persons, 13 Oct. 1881; more favourable re- 
ports, Sept. 1883. 

NEWRY (N. Ireland). In the rebellion of 
1641, Newry was reduced to a ruinous condition ; it 
was surprised by sir Con. Magenis, but was retaken 
by lord Conway. After the Restoration the town 
was rebuilt. It was burnt by the duke of Berwick 
when fleeing from Schomberg and the English 
pay. and only the castle and a few houses escaped, 
1689. 


NEWS-LETTERS. _News-writers in the 
reign of Charles II. collected from the coffee-houses 
information, which was printed weekly and sent 
into the country. The London Gazette, then the 
only authorised newspaper, contained little more 
than proclamations and advertisements. 


NEW SOUTH WALKES, the principal 
colony of Australia on the eastern coast of New 
Holland, was explored and taken possession of and 
named by captain Cook in 1770. At his recom- 
mendation a convict colony was first formed here. 


1840 


* Myddelton turned the first sod at Chadwell, a spring 
rising at the foot of a hill near Ware, 19 April, 1609; the 
water issued out of a deep hole, and combined with 
another spring, Amwell; forming a river about 20 feet 
wide; he died pour, 10 Dec. 1631. 


586 


NEWSPAPERS. 


Captain A. mre the first governor, arrive 


Botany Bay with 800 convicts, 20 Jan. 1788; 
he subsequently preferred Sydney, about sg 
miles distant from the head of Port Jackson, | 
more eligible situation for the capital. A nev, 
stitution was granted in 1855 (18 & 19 Vict. ¢, 
The Intercolonial Exhibition was opened at Syd 
by the governor-general lord Belmore, 30 | 
1870. It consisted of two departments, agri 
tural and non-agricultural, A conference of d 
gates from the Australian colonies met at Syd 
in Jan. 1873, to deliberate on a customs’ un 
postal and railway arrangements, &c. The mini 
introduced a free trade budget near the end of 
year. Industrial exhibition opened by the gover 
11 April, 1874. Population, in 1856, 269,722 
1862, 367,495 ; in 1866, 411,388; in 1871, 519, 
in 1881, 750,000. ‘The imports amounted 
6,597,053/. in 1859, to 29,960,157/. in 1883; 
orp to 4,768,0497. in 1859, to 19,886,018/ 
1883. Governor, sir John Young, 1860; ear 
Belmore, 1867; sir Hercules Robinson, April, 1 
lord Loftus, 1879. See Australia and Sydney. 
Town of Jerilderie seized and robbed by the Victo- 
rian thieves, ‘‘ Kelly gang” . : 8-10 Feb, 
Lord Augustus Wm. F.8. Loftus appointed governor, 
May ; arrives at Sydney : : ‘ 4 Aug. 
International Exhibition opened by Lord A. Loftus, 
17 Sept. 

Building burnt down . . : 3 22 Sept, 
The Wolverene was presented as a gift from the 
British government to the government of New 
South Wales * é : 16 Jan, 
New parliament; resignation of ministry; Mr. 
Alex. Stuart forms a new cabinet. 3 Jan, 
The legislature rejects the federal scheme by 1 vote 
about 1 Nov. 

Military contingent ordered to be sent to the 
Soudan ; 30,000l. subscribed for the Patriotic 
Fund,at Sydney,23 Feb.; amount raised to 45,000, 


3 March ; contingent starts, 3 March; arrives at 
Suakim 29-30 March, 


NEWSPAPERS. The Roman Acta Din 
were issued, it is said, 691 B.c. In modern tim 
Gazetta, which derived its name from its price 
small coin, was published in Venice (about 15 
The Gazette de France, now existing, first appeé 
in April, 1631, edited by Renaudot, a physician 
was patronised by the king, Louis XILI., whow 
one article for it, and by Richelieu. The first: 
newspaper published in England* was establis 
by sir Roger L’ Estrange, in 1663; it was enti 
the Public Intelligencer, and continued ne: 
three years, when it ceased, on the appearane: 
the Gazette. In the reign of James L, Il 
appeared the London Weekly Cowrant ; and in 
year 1643 (the period of the civil war) ¥ 
printed a variety of publications, certainly in 
respect entitled to the name of newspapers. " 
following are the titles of some of them :— 
England’s Memorable Accidents. 

The Kingdom’s Intelligencer. 

The Diurnal of Certain Passages in Parliament. 
The Mercurius Aulicus. 

The Scotch Intelligencer. 

The Parliament's Scout. 


* Some copies of a publication are in existence Cé 
The English Mercury, professing to.come out under 
authority of queen Elizabeth, in 1588, the period of 
Spanish Armada. The researches of Mr. T. Watts 
the British Museum, proved these to be forge! 
executed about 1766. The full title of No. 50 is “ 
English Mercurie, published by authoritie, for the 
vention of false reports, imprinted by Christopher | 
ker, her highness’s printer, No. 50.” It describes 
Spanish Armada, giving ‘A journall of what passed © 
the 21st of this month, between her majestie’s fleet 
that of Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Highe Adm 
to the Lordes of council.” 


NEWSPAPERS. 


NEWSPAPERS. 


jament’s Scout’s Discovery, or certain Informa- 


surius Civicus, or London’s hitelligencer. 
ntry’s Complaint, Kc. 
kly Accounts. 
is Britannicus. 
called the London Gazette,* published 22 Aug. 
The London Gazette of the existing series, pub- 
first at Oxford, the Court being there on account 
plague, 7 Nov. 1665, and afterwards at London, 
1666. 
of newspapers and pamphlets prohibited, 3t 
I. 1680. Salmon’s Chron. 
Jar newspapers commenced on the abolition of 
nsorship of the press, in 1695. 
wrant said to have been first published in 1702. 
RY duty imposed . é : i : 1711 
ewspapers began with The British Gazette and 


REGISTERED NEWS- 


FOREIGN NEWSPAPERS. 


Gazette de Vénise, early in 17th century. 
Gazette de France (now publishing), 1631. 
Journal de Paris, alleged first French daily paper, 1 Jan. 


1777: 
Galignani’s Weekly Messenger, Paris, begun 1814. 
Chinese newspaper published in London 
Arabic newspaper oe: is 5 
The first newspaper set up in Germany, 1715. 
The first published in America, the Boston News-Letter, in 


. 1876 


” 


1704; the first at Philadelphia in 1719 ; and the first in 
Holland in 1732. 


“America, whose population is 23 millions and a half, 


supports 800 newspapers (50 of these publishing daily), 
and their annual circulation is stated at 64,000,000. 
In Paris there exists 169 journals, literary, scientific, 
religious and political.” —Westminster Review, 1830. 


sienna 1850. 1865. 1872. 1876. 1878. 1881 1885. 


London daily ps) 22 20 TQ Omen 17 20 


y Monitor, 26 March, 1780; followed by the Ob- 
1791 ; Bell’s Messenger, 1796; Weekly Dispatch, 


" London weekly . 58 166 20 238 — 318 
peateed a sheet, and a halfpenny London generally 3 ah nee ae 336 378 408 
ay 4 ae ? : 5 _ ae 724: } de prov... _ 222 750 903 956 1075 1087 1202 
erin cain 7s | ES [roo 332 134 138 14 354 361 
11794; to 33d. in 1797; 10 4d. in SHE LOLS reed Gee ziers4bvatad. (15S. x73 268 284 


British isles . . 14 TAg ry 19 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRINCIPAL LONDON NEWSPAPERS. 
(Mitchell) DAILY (1885). 

Lloyd’s List : ‘ ; 5 ¥ £726 


ito id., and 4d. fora supplementin . . 1836 oA eragas 
ed, the compulsory stamp being retained 
or postal purposes : : 1855 


30 Sept. 


0 ceased ; : : 3 1870 : eure © 

pers first sent with a }d. stamp affixed to Public Ledger (commercial) . ig hoe - 1759 
ver. F ; - c i . 1 Oct. Morning Chronicle (liberal), 1770 ; extinct . 1862 
ie Morning Herald (conservative), 1780, extinct 31 Dee. 1869 
RR OF STAMPS ISSUED TO BRITISH NEWSPAPERS. Morning Post (whig, latterly conservative) . eee Lae 
: s 7,413,757 | 1820 . A . 24,862,186 | Times (independent) . : A 3 1 Jan. 1788 
Bae 9)404,790| 1825 . . «+ 26,950,693 | Sun (liberal) extinct : ‘ e Ses L7Oe 
: . 12,300,000 | 1830 . . 30,158,741 | Morning Advertiser (liberal) . 8 Feb. 1794 
is . + 14,035,639 1835 . 32,874,652 | Globe (whig: 1866 conservative) evening. > ap LOOF 
‘ . 16,084,905 | 1840 . . 49,033,384 | Standard (conservative) even. (morn. 29 June, 1857) 1827 
: Mee20,1 72,037 | 1643,» - . . 56,433,977 | Shipping and Mercantile Gazette . 4Jan. 1836 
year ending 5 Jan. 1851, there were 159 London Daily News (liberal) . - +  - 28 Jan. 1846 
yapers, in which appeared 891,650 advertisements ; Daily Chronicle and Clerkenwell News (liberal). 1855 

nglish provincial newspapers, having 875,63: ad- Daily Telegraph * (liberal, latterly conserv.),29 June, 
ements. Morning Star (liberal), 1856 ; extinct - . Oct. 1869 
International (in French) 1863 


and, same year, there were r10 hewspapers, having 
ix advertisements. 

und, there were roz newspapers, having 236,128 
tisements. 

year the number of stamps issued was—in Eng- 


Pall Mall Gazette (independent), even. (morn. Jan.- 

April, 1870) . : - 5 
Sportsman . 4 : : 
Glowworm (liberal), extinct ; ; 7 
Echo 4d. (independent) . Z . 


5 . 1865 
Ses AU aes; 


; Dec. 1868 


65,741,271 at 1d., and 11,684,423 supplement ’ c : 

ps at 4d. ; in Scotland, 7,643,045 stamps at rd., and Lp fs ae A ee oe eee March, 1870 
64 at 4d. ; in Ireland, 6,302,728 stamps at rd., and Hour (conservative) 24 March, 1873; extinct x Aug. 1876 
8 at id. Daily Recorder of Commerce | : : 5 ae 
ion of newspaper duty from 4d. to xd. took effect | St. James's Gazette (anti-radical) . May, 1880 
: Sept. 1836. Evening News : ; : ° ‘ . duly, 1881 
‘tinctive die came into use x Jan. 1837. PRINCIPAL SUNDAY, WEEKLY, ETC. (1885). 

n advertisements abolished, 1853. __ Lond. Gazette 7 Nov. 1665 | Record (lib. conserv.) . 1828 
act passed 15 June, 1855 (18 & 19 Vict. c. 27), the | st. James’s Chronicle Court Journal (neut.) 1829 
pon newspapers, as such, was totally abolished, (conser.), united with Mark Lane Express . 1832 
to be employed henceforth only for postal pur- <¢ Press” . ; . 1763 | United Service Gaz. . 1833 
3. Many new papers were then started, which | County Chronicle . 1787 | Naval and Military 

but of short duration. Aglare ane 1) e7hd ee GELetent Se st aieas 

, 71 million newspapers passed through the post- | Observer (whig) . 1791 | Mining Journal . 1835 


. In Jan. 1860, 1060 newspapers ; in Jan. 1862, 
newspapers ; and in Jan. 1868, 1404 newspapers 
published in the United Kingdom. 

et. 1861, when the paper duty came off, the Times, 
y News, and Morning Post reduced their price to 
ach copy unstamped. 

ya Week Country Daily Newspaper,” single copy 
; No. 1. 25 June, 1873. 


IRISH NEWSPAPERS. 
st was the Dublin News-Letter, by Joseph Ray, 1685 ; 
1 Ocewrrences, 1700 or 1703. Faulkner's J ournal was 
jlished by George Faulkner, ‘‘a man celebrated for 
goodness of his heart and the weakness of his 
,' 1728. The oldest of the existing Dublin news- 
rsis the Freeman’s Jowrnal, founded as the Public 
ster, by the patriot Dr. Lucas, about 1763. The 
wick Chronicle, the oldest of the provincial prints, 


| PROVINCIAL NEWSPAPERS. 

th Postman, 1706. Worcester Postman, 1709. New- 

' 2-on-Tyne Cowrant, 1711. 

f 

_ 22 May, 1787, a London Gazette Extraordinary was 
with a view of affecting the funds. 


Bell’s Messenger (Lib. 


SERRE TO 
Weekly Dispatch (lib.) 1801 | Magnet (agricultural) 
Examiner (lib., eatinct) 


Literary Gazette (ex- 


Watchman (Wesleyan) _ ,, 
conservative) 6| Musical World . ‘ 
Railway Times . ee 
Era (theatrical) . A gery 
Publishers’ Circular . 
Ecclesiastical Gazette 


1808-81 


tinct) 1817-62 


John Bull (conserv.) . 1820 | Medical Press. Meats 
Bell’s Life in London Tablet (Rom. Catholic) 1840 
(sporting) ; . 1822 | Gardeners’ Chronicle . 1841 
Sunday Times(lib.con.) ,, | Nonconformist . acy 
Lancet (medical) . 1823 | Punch : ; aes 
Mechanic’s Magazine Jewish Chronicle at 
(merged into “ Iron,” Pharmaceutical Journ. ,, 
1873) : , es, Illustrated London 
Atlas (liberal) extinct . 1826 News (liberal) . 1842 
Medical Gazette . 1827 | Lloyd’s Weekly Lon- 
Medical Times . . 1828 don Newspaper (rad.) ,, 
(united) 1850 Buide c- : wees 
Atheneum (liter. and Inquirer (lib.). : 
scientific) - : English Churchman 
Spectator (liberal) .  ,, (High Church) . 1843 


* 144,000 copies sold on x6th Dec. 1861. The prince 
consort died on the r4th. 


NEW STYLE. 


News of the World Orchestra . : . 1863 

(liberal) - 1843 | Owl (satirical) stopt— 1864 
Law Times ‘ - »» | English Mechanic 1865 
Economist (liberal) . ,, | Engineering 1866 


Law Journal . : 
Land and Water (nat. 
hist.) - 
Bullionist . 2 
Rock (Protestant) 


Farmer (agricultural) 
Allen’s Indian Mail 5. 
Musical Times . 1844 
Agricultural Gazette. ,, 
Guardian (High Church) 1846 


td 


Educational Times . 1847 | Vanity Fair a 
Notes and Queries (Jit. Bazaar , +: 
and antiquarian) . 1849 | Academy (literary) 1869 
JournalofGaslighting ,, | Architect . : of 
Journal of Society of Nature (scientific) Tbs 
Arts : : . 1852 | Graphic (illustrated). ,, 
Press (conserv.), united Freemason . cP pare 
with ‘St. James’s Empire Z : . 1870 
Chronicle”  . - 1853 | Journal of Education ,, 
Field (cowntry gentle- Garden : . 1871 
men’s). . - 5, | British Mail Raphasiy: 
Civil Service Gazette. ,, | Metropolitan . : 
Commercial Gazette . ,, Jron (manufactures anc 
Building News . - 1854 science) . 1873 
Saturday Review (lit.) 1855 | Money : . 1872 
Overland Mail . ,, | illustrated Sporting 
Engineer 3 - 1856 and Dramatic News 1874 
Court Circular . . ,, | Englishman : aes 
City Press (neutral) . 1857 | Pictorial World . 40 
Solicitors’ Journal aN World : 4 . 


Bookseller . ; 
Photographic News . 
Chemical News . 
Christian World 


Accountant ; 
British Architect 
Sanitary Record 


Whitehall Review. 1876 


Army and Navy Gaz. 1860 | Truth. ty be 
National Reformer 45 Referee a Gs 
Catholic Times . a 55) MbatIst - 1878 
Fun (comic) . 1861 | Electrician ¥ 
Queen (ladies’) oe “Citizen : uss 
Church Review(vitwal.) ,, | Lady’s Pictorial . - 1880 
Reader (lit. and sc.) Knowledge. 4 . 1881 
stopt 1866 . 1863 | People 4 : ey 


NEW STYLE. Pope Gregory XIIL., in order 
to rectify the errors of the current calendar, pub- 
lished a new one, in which ten days were omitted— 
5 Oct. 1582, becoming 15 Oct. The new style was 
adopted in France, Italy, Spain, Denmark, Holland, 
Flanders, Portugal, in 1582, in Germany in 1584, 
in Switzerland in 1583 and 1584, in Hungary in 
eel ; and in Great Britain in 1751. In 1752 
eleven days were left out of the calendar—3 Sept. 
being reckoned as 14 Sept. The difference between 
the old and new style up to 1699 was Io days; after 
1700, If days; after 1800, 12 days. In Russia, 
Greece, and throughout the East, the old style is 
still retained. The czar, Alexander II., was born 
on the 17th April, 1818, old style, 29 April, new 
style; see Calendar. 


NEW TESTAMENT, see Bridle. 
NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY, the doc- 


trines respecting gravitation, &c., taught by sir 
Isaac Newton in his ‘ Principia,” published in 
1687; see Gravitation. He was born 25 Dec., 1642; 
became master of the mint, 1699; president of the 
Royal Society, 1703 ; and died 20 March, 1727. A 
statue of him in marble by Koubiliac was set up at 
Trinity College, Cambridge, 14 July, 1755, and one 
in bronze by Theed, at Grantham, 21 Sept. 1858, 
when lord Brougham delivered a discourse on the 
‘life and works of Newton. The latter statue cost 
1600/., a sum obtained by public subscription. 


NEWTOWNBARRY RIOT (S.E. Ireland). 
At aseizure of stock for tithes, a conflict ensued 
here between the yeomanry and the people, when 
thirty-five persons were killed or wounded, 18 June, 
1831. The jury at the inquest were unable to agree 
on a verdict. 


NEWTOWN-BUTLER (N. Ireland). On 
30 July, 1689, the Enniskilleners under Gustavus 
Hamilton thoroughly defeated the adherents of 


588 


NEW YORK. 


James II. commanded by general Maccarty, t 
him prisoner with his artillery, arms, and bag 


| NEW YEAR’S DAY, &c. The begir 

| of the Jewish year was changed and the pas 

instituted, 1491 B.c. A feast is said to have 

instituted by Numa, and dedicated to Janus 

presided over the new year), I Jan. 713 B.c. 

On this day the Romans sacrificed to Janus a ca 
new sifted meal, with salt, incense, and wine ; ai 
the mechanics began something of their art of t 
the men of letters did the same, as to books, » 
&e. ; and the consuls, though chosen before, too 
chair and entered upon their office this day. N 
Marcellus refers the origin of NEW-YEAR’s 
among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king o 
Sabines, who having considered as a good or 
present of some branches cut in a wood conse¢ 
to Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he re¢ 
‘on the first day of the new year, authorised the 
tom afterwards, and: gave these gifts the nap 
Stren, 747 B.C. 


NEW YORK, the ‘‘empire state’”’ of 
United States of N. America, is said to have 
discovered by Verrazano, a Florentine in the Fx 
service, about 1524, and rediscovered by Hu 
an Englishman in the Dutch service, in 1609, 
settled by the Dutch in 1614, the city being m 
Manhattan and New Amsterdam; but the En 
under colonel Nichols dispossessed them an¢ 
Swedes, 27 Aug. 1664, and changed its n 
Population in 1860, 805,651; 1870, 942,292 
1880, 1,206,577. 

The city confirmed to England by the peace of 


Breda . : 3 , A ; ‘ 24 Aug. 
Taken by the Dutch, and named New Orange, 1673; 
surrendered 


The city a principal point of the struggle for inde- 
pendence. It surrendered to the British forces 
under general Howe i : : . 35 Sept. 

The city was evacuated by the British ; ‘‘ Hyacua- 
tion day” made one of rejoicing ever since, 

25 Novy. 

Academy of the fine arts, and a botanical garden, 
established in : 


Fire here ; 674 buildings ‘destroyed, and property 


valued at nearly 20,000,000 dollars 16 Dee. 
Fire ; 302 houses burnt . : 4 1g July, 
The Park theatre destroyed by fire 16 Dee, 


Serious riot (several lives lost) at the theatre, 
originating in a dispute between Mr. Macready 
(English) and Mr. Forrest (American), <—s 

10 

New York Times first appeared . 18 Sept. 

The Crystal Palace, containing an exhibition of 
goods from all nations, was opened in the presence 
of the president of the United States and many 
other dignitaries . ; H : 14 July, 

New York suffered severely by large commercial 
failures, and ‘“‘ hunger demonstrations” took place 


during the panic . , . : Nov. 
The Crystal Palace destroyed by fire . 5 Oct. 
A magnificent cathedral erected F A . 
Great fire ; about 50 lives lost. . ee 


During the civil war of 1861 New York strongly 
supported the government of president Lincoln 
(republican, or abolitionist); but during 1862 4 
reaction gradually took place, and the opposition 
(democrat) candidates for congress were elected 
by large majorities k ae . Nov. 

Fierce riots against conscription ; many persons 
killed and much property destroyed 13-17 July, 

Barnum’s museum burnt; great loss, 13 July, 1805; 
again . ; ; : F ; ‘ 2 March, 

Great loss and panic through James Fisk and 
others (the Erie Ring) buying up gold, 22-26 Sept. 

Riot through an Orange procession ; about 30 ome 

12 , 

Disclosure of great corruption in the municipal 
government (termed ‘Tammany frauds,” from 
the council meeting in Tammany hall); public 
meeting to obtain prompt redress 4Bcps 

The Tammany party excluded from y the 
elections . - «..) $$. 9..0ipneee Nov. 


J hh 
/ 4 q 
AN | 
id 
. 8 


office 


NEW ZEALAND. 


trations of the International Society of 
men repressed =) Dec. 187 
‘isk, the railway and financial speculator, 
inated by Edw. Stokes, through ineea yee = 
an. 

> of the Erie railway ring, ruled by Fick and 
Jould ; new directors elected (including 
uls Dix and M‘Clellan) March, 
convenience by the horse ciisease Oct. 
woceedings against Gould suspended; he 
; to give up to the company 9,000,000 dollars, 
Dee 

new trial, 
. 30 Oct. 


1872 


convicted of murder ; 
anced to imprisonment . 
’s museum again burnt; menagerie de- 
sd ; reported : . Jan. 
al excitement through the ‘stoppage of Jay, 
2, & Co. about . 3 18 Sept. 
7, Wm. M. Tweed, of the Tammany Ring, 
ected of embezzlement (sentenced to 12 
‘ijmprisonment) . 19 Nov. 
permitted to visit his own house, naga 
ec, 
fW. B. Astor, very rich merchant 24 oi Ov. 
re, with loss of life, 30 buildings destroyed 
8 Feb. 
f Alex. T. Stewart, very rich merchant 
to April, 
arrested at Vigo 8 Sept. 
ks named ‘‘ Hell Gate, ” blown up to improve 
nce into the harbour 24 Sept. 
yn theatre burnt, about 300 perished 5 Dec. 
nodore” Vanderbilt, a ‘“‘railway king” and 
capitalist . died Jan. 
discloses the system of the “ Tammany 
s,” incriminating many persons Sept. 
ayley dies 3 Oct. 
ire at Greenfield’ Ss confectionery works &e., 
60 persons perished about 20 Dee. 
.d street-railways in progress . 4 - 1877-8 
dies in gaol . . z2 April, 1878 
tional exhibition here (in 1883) proposed . 1880 
O'Kelly, the ‘‘ boss” of New York; once 
influential . : F s + Dee; 
park theatre punt . o Oct. 
Yooper, philanthropist, founder of the Goose 
tute, died aged g2 2 eo ApEn 
from New York to Brooklyn, 5989 feet long 
structed by the skill of Mr. and Mrs. 
ington Reebling), begun 3 Jan. 1870; opened 
ay; 12 persons killed in a panic 30 May, 
. aoe opera-house opened 22 Oct. 
of ‘‘ Evacuation day” celebrated 26 Nov. 
Wedard theatre burnt wad Dec. 
panic in the stock- market, Wall- street, 
12-14 May, 
pt to kill capt. Phelan, 9 Jan. ; ts kill 
movan Rossa (see Fenians) wee Heb. 
See under United States. 


1W ZEALAND. (in the Pacific Ocean), 
ered by Tasman in 1642. The country re- 
d unknown, and was supposed to be part of a 
m continent, till 1769-70, when it was cir- 
wigated by captain Cook. In 1773, he 
od several spots of ground on this island with 
ean garden seeds; and in 1777, he found 
fine potatoes. European population in 1860, 
1; Dec. 1865, 190,607; 1874, 310, 895, natives, 
9; in 1881, 489;933- Value of imports, in 
1,551,0301.; 1874, 0,464,087/.; 1883, 7,974,0 38/. 
rts, 1859, P5T 4544. 5 ; mi 74, 5,610,371/. 5 in 


7,095,9990. 
ght of Great Britain to New Zealand recog- 


6 Jan. ; 


be] 


>? 


>” 


99 
1882 
1883 


99 
PP) 
9 
) 


1884 
1885 


d at the peace in. rod 
astitutional authority "placed over it until a 
lent subordinate to New South Wales 1833 


oo a company established ; Wellington 
ided 
Hobson, the first governor, landed, 29 Jan. ; 
ty of Waitangi signed, by which the chiefs 
2a large amount of land . ‘ 5 Feb. 
‘ealand an independent colony and a bishop’s 
. April, 
(aft. adm. )Fitzroy, governor, Dee. ea to Nov. 
sorge Grey, governor - 


. 1839 


1840 
1841 


1845 
. 1846 


aa 


589 


NEW ZEALAND. 


A charter, founded upon an act passed in 1846, 
creating powers municipal, legislative, and ad- 
ministrative 29 Dee. 

This charter was not acted on; :a legislative council 


opened by the governor . : - 20 Dec. 1848 
Foundation of Auckland, 1840; Nelson and Tara- 

naki (or New ip force 1841 ; Otago, 1848 ; Can- 

terbury : : 1850 
New Zealand company relinquish charter i eta ias 
New constitution granted 1852 
Col. Wynyard, governor "Jan. 38 4 ‘to Sept, 1855 
Governor Browne . Oetaar,. 
An earthquake ; not much damage done, 230 an. ap 
Constitution modified 1857 


New bishoprics established : Christ’ Church, 1856 
Nelson and Wellington, 1858 ; Waiapu I 
Insurrection of the natives (Maoris) under a chief 
named William King (Wirrimu Kingi), arising out 
of disputes respecting the sale of land; the bishop 
Selwyn and others consider the natives unjustly 
treated . ‘ March, 
Indecisive actions between the militia and volun. 
teers and the Maoris . 14-28 March, 
War breaks out at Taranaki ; the British repulsed 
with loss =) 30d une; 
Great excitement in Austr alia ; troops sent to New 
Zealand, under gen. Pratt, land - 3 Aug. 
Indecisive actions : - to, 19 Sept., 9, sf Oct. 
Gen. Pratt defeats the Maoris at Mahcetahi, and 
destroys their fortified places 6 "No OV. 
New Zealand colonists in England justify the con- 
duct of the governor . : 22 Nov. 
The Maoris defeated, 29 Dee. 18 860; 23 Jan., 24 Feb. 


16-18 March, 1861 
The war ends : surrender of natives 19 March, 93 
Sir George Grey re-appointed governor June, ,, 
Gold discovered at Otago, &e. June, rf 
A native sovereignty proclaimed ; "5000 ‘British sol- 
diers in the island . : July, -*y, 
Loyalty of the natives i increasing : . May, 1862 
The Maori chiefs sign a poetical address of condo- 
lence to the queen onthe death of the prince con- 
sort; received . Nov. ,, 
Natives attack a military escort and kill 8 persons, 
4 May, 1863 
Waikato tribe driven from a fort 17 July, ,, 
War spreads ; natives construct rifle pits . Aug. ,, 
Proposed confiscation of Waikato lands . . Sept. Hf 


Gen. Cameron severely defeats the Maoris at Ran- 


gariri . 20 Noy. 
Continued success of gen. Camer on; capitulation of 


the Maori king gq Dees ¥,; 
British attack on Galepa ‘(the gate pah) vepulecd 

with loss of officers and men 29 April, 1864 
Loan of 1,000,000l. to New Zealand ; guaranteed by 

parliament : : JULY 
Several tribes submit : 2 AD eyed 
Maori prisoners escape and ‘form the nucleus of a! 

new insurrection . Sepsis 
Sir George Grey issues pr oposals of peace, 25 Oct. ; 

the Aborigines Protection Society send religious, 

moral, and political advice to the Maoris (con- 

sidered injudicious) Nov.) =, 
Change of ministry and policy ; “seat of government 

to be removed from Auckland to Wellington on 

Cook’s Strait 24 Nov. ,, 
Maoris’ attack on Cameron. severely ‘defeated. 25 

Jan.; again. Neos Feb. 1865 
Outbreak of the Pai Mariri or Hau-hau heresy, a 

compound of Judaism and paganism, amongst 

the Maoris; the rev. C. §. Volkner murdered and 

many outrages committed, 2 March ; proclamation 

of governor sir George Grey against it ; itis checked. 

by the agency of a friendly native chief We-tako, 

A oril, 

William Thompson, an eminent chief, eanens 

on behalf of the Maori king 25) Mayewlys 

New Zealand still unsettled F ; July, ,,; 
The Hau-haus beaten in several conflicts, Aug. ; 

the governor proclaims peace, 2 Sept. ; British 

troops about to leave ES OCH LGMss 
The Maoris treacherously kill the eny oys of peice ; 

resignation of the Weld ministry ; one formed | by 

Mr. Stafford : OC amen 
Bishopric of Dunedin, Otago, founded ae 
General Chute subdues the Hau-haus . - dan. 1866 
Progress of peace measures April: 
Murderers of Mr. Volkner executed. r7 Mayers 


NEW ZEALAND. 


590 


NICARAGUA. 


Governor announces cessation of the war, 3 July, 
Death of Wm. Thompson, the Maori chief, 28 Dec. 
Sir George F. Bowen appointed to succeed sir 
George Grey ; gazetted : : 19 Noy. 
Act relating to the government of New Zealand 
passed in the British parliament . ; : 
Geo. Samuel Evans (an eminent colonist, 1838-9) dies 
23 Sept. 
Te Kooti, a chief, and about 150 Maori convicts, 
-escape from Chatham island to the mainland, 
4 July; they repulse troops sent against them, 
7 Sept. ; massacre the whites at Poverty Bay, 
to Nov. 
Te Kooti and the rebels defeated by col. Whitmore ; 
130 Maoris killed 3 : ; . 5 Jan. 
Massacre of settlers at Taranaki. 12 Feb. 
Change of ministry: hon. Mr. Fox’s proposal to 
pay for British troops declined by the home 
government : : : 3 : . Sept. 
Te Kooti, thrice defeated by the colonists and friendly 
natives, a fugitive “ ; : : Oct: 
Despatch from earl Granville, insisting on the 
withdrawal of the British troops (8th regiment) 
causes much dissatisfaction . : 17 Oct. 
Friendly interview between Mr. McLean and the 
Maori king’s minister - - ; . 8 Nov. 
Increased demand for the New Zealand fibrous 
plant, Phormium tenaz . E : 4 
Departure of the last British troops . 22 Jan. 
Te Kooti, refusing to surrender at discretion, 24 
Jan,, narrowly escapes . ; ; . 5 Feb. 
Te Kooti’s party attacked and dispersed ; his speedy 
capture anticipated . . = : 31 July, 
The duke of Edinburgh, in the Galatea, at Welling- 
ton : A . ° P : A 27 Aug. 
Increase of prosperity reported ; loan of 4,000,000l. 
proposed . ; - : . - Aug. 
Political union of the islands effected Aug. 
Murder of Mr. Todd, surveyor, by Maoris, 28 Dec. 
Te Kooti reported as living by plunder ; acting as a 
fanatical potentate ; : : : . Nov. 
Friendly meeting of Mr. McLean with Wirrimu 
Kingi and other chiefs, who subinit tothe British 
government : : : 5 . March, 
Mr. Stafford’s ministry resigns, succeeded by one 
under Mr. Waterhouse (the Fox party) about Oct. 
Sir James Fergusson appointed governor, March, 
The marquis of Normanby governor Nov. 
The Maori king submits to the British Se 
eb. 
The colony reported highly prosperous by sir 
Julius Vogel, ex-premier é 5 31 Oct. 
Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson, governor Dee. 
Disputes with the Maoris ; they expel British 
settlers near New Plymouth, Taranaki; and 
plough the land. : : : 25 May, 
The settlers recover their land by force 22 June, 
Great influence of Erueti, now Te Whiti, a fanati- 
cal Christian Maori, aged 45 ; hesupports Maori 
claims, but checks bloodshed 3 x ; 
Sir George Grey, too energetic liberal premier, com- 
pelled to resign ; succeeded by Hon. John pe 
ct. 
Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon appointed governor . 
Apprehended outbreak at Parihaka under the Maori 
chief, Te Whiti; volunteers coming forward 
31 Oct. 
announced 6 Nov. 
8 Noy. 
announced 17 Noy. 
announced 3 Dec. 
.about ro April 
31 March, 


Te Whiti arrested for sedition 
He counsels passive resistance 
124 arrests . : : ‘ 
Difficulty peaceably settled 
Resignation of the Hall ministry 
Publie debt, 31,400,0001. 
Sir William Jervoise, governor és . : 4 
Several Maori chiefs in London ; received by the 
prince of Wales, 17 Aug. ; sailfor home 7 Sept. 
Release of Te Whiti, John, and others 8 March 
Mahuki and 20 others sentenced to imprisonment 
for outrages. = : ‘ about 7 May, 
Communication between New Zealand and the 
Thames by steamers; time reduced to 40 days 
(14,000 carcases of sheep brought) . Dee. 
Tawhaio, the Maori king, arrives in London, 2 
June ; visits theatres,*&c., and receives visitors ; 
received by the earl of Derby ; appeals for redress, 
referring to the treaty of Waitangi (1840), 22 July ; 
sails from Gravesend : ; 20 Aug. 


3) 


1867 


. 1868 


be) 


>> 


1869 


>? 


1869-70 


1870 


1884 


1866 | Mr. H. A. Atkinson forms a ministry, 28 Aug, 


resigns 30 Aug. b 5 - 


NEY’S EXECUTION. Ney, duke o 
chingen, prince of the Moskwa, and one of the 
valiant of the marshals of France, was shot 
traitor, 7 Dec. 1815. On 7 Dec. 1853, hiss 
was erected on the spot where he fell. 


‘After the abdication of Napoleon I., 5 April, 18x, 
took the oath of allegiance to the king, Louis 3 
On Napoleon’s return to France from Elba, he ms 
against him ; but his troops deserting, he regard 
cause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the iny 
way to Paris, March, 1815. Ney led the attack | 
French at Waterloo, where he fought in the mi 
the slain, his clothes pierced with bullet-hole; 
horses having been shot under him ; night and | 
obliged him to flee. Though included in the dec 
24 July, 1815, which guaranteed the safety | 
Frenchmen, he was sought out, and on 5 Aug. 
at the castle of a friend at Urillac, and brought t 
before the Chamber of Peers, 4 Dec. The rath; 
of the capitulation of Paris, fixing a general am 
was quoted in his favour in vain. 


NEZIB, Syria. Here Ibrahim and 
Egyptians defeated the Turks, 24 June, 1839. 


NIAGARA (N. America). At the head o 
river, on the western shore, is Fort Erie, whie! 
taken by the English, 24 July, 1759. It 
abandoned in the war with the United Stat. 
May, 1813, but was retaken, 19 Dec. followin 
suspension bridge of a single span of 820 feet 
the Niagara, connecting the railways of (5 
and New York, was opened in March, 1855. 
elevated 18 feet on the Canadian, and 28 feet « 
American side. \ 


About eighteen miles below Fort Erie are the rema 
falls. The river is here 740 yards wide ; the hal 
immediately above the cataracts is a rapid, in 
the water falls 58 feet ; it is then thrown, with 
ishing grandeur, down a stupendous precipice | 
feet perpendicular, in three distinct and coll 
sheets ; and, in a rapid that extends to the dista 
nine miles below, falls nearly as much more. Th 
then flows in a deep channel till it enters lake 01 
at Fort Niagara. 

The falls visited by the prince of Wales, Sept. 1860 

Blondin crossed the falls on a tight rope, 17 Aug. 1 

Professor Tyndall visited the falls, Nov., 1872, ar 
tured on them at the Royal Institution, 4 April, 

Company formed to utilize its water power me 
cally, 1877. 

Capt. Matt Webb drowned while attempting to 
across the whirlpool rapids, 24 July, 1883. 


NIBELUNGE NOTorNiIpevtuncen-I 
a popular German epic of the 12th century, 
posed of various ancient mythical poems, te 
sagas; which according to the poet Wm. M 
should be to our race what Homer was t 
Greeks. 


The first critical edition, by K. Lachmann, appeare 
and 1846. The best translation in modern Gem 
Simrock, 1827; a useful edition, with translatio 
glossary, by L. Braunfels, 1846 ; in English, by’ 
Lettsom, 2nd ed. 1874. . 

Richard Wagner’s musical dramas, ‘‘The Ring ¢ 
Nibelungen,” are based on this poem : the pers¢ 
clude the great Northern gods and goddesses, thie g 
ee ri and the daughters of the Rhine (see 

wsic). 


NICABA, see Nice. 
NICARAGUA, a state in Central An 


(which see). The present constitution was ¢ 
lished 19 Aug. 1858. At the commencement of 
it was greatly disturbed by two political pa 
that of the president, Chamorro, who held Gre 
the capital, and that of the democratic | 
Castellon, who held Leon. The latter ir 
Walker, the filibuster, to his assistance, who 


- 
oP a , 


NICE. 


me became sole dictator of the state.* By 
ited efforts of the confederated states the 
rs were all expelled in May, 1857. On 
1858, Nicaragua and Costa Rica appealed to 
1, European powers for protection. Nicaragua 
, a transit route between the Pacific and 
8, proposed, and company formed Nov. 1866. 
nt T. Martinez elected, 1859 and_ 1863; 
do Guzman, elected 1 March, 1867; Vicente 
elected 1 Feb. 1871; Pedro Joaquin Cha- 
I Feb. 1875; Joaquin Zavala, 1 March, 
Dr. Adam Cardenas, Jan. 1883. Population 
, 275,815. 
Yapoleon, afterwards emperor, proposed the 
ga ship canal by the lake Nicaragua from the 
tie to the Pacific, between 1842-4; the govern- 
of Nicaragua proposed it in 1846 ; colonel Childs 
a survey in 1851; a company was chartered for 
rs, and conventions were signed, but the capi- 
declined their support. 
ame was revived in Feb. 1875. See Panama ; and 


by which the United States may construct a 
(Menscall’s plan) from San Juan (Grey Town) 
e Caribbean sea to Brito, on the Pacific, with 
powers ; contrary to the Bulwer Clayton treaty, 
see, about 16 Dec. 1884; rejected by the United 
i legislature, 30 Jan. 1885. 


E or Nicma, a town in Bithynia, Asia 
N.W. Antigonus gave it the name Anti- 
which Lysimachus changed to Nica, the 
f his wife. It became the residence of the 
f Bithynia about 208 B.c. At the battle of 
.D. 194, the emperor Severus defeated his 


liam Walker was born at Tennessee, in the 
States, where he became successively doctor, 
and journalist, and afterwards gold-seeker in 
ja, whence he was invited to Nicaragua by 
n, with the promise of 52,000 acres of land, on 
m of bringing with him a band of adventurers to 
the revolutionary cause. Walker accepted the 
md on 28 June landed at Realejo with 68 men. 
eased his forces at Leon, and soon after attacked 
m of Rivas, where he was repulsed with loss. 
a joined col. Kinney, who had occupied and 
d Grey Town, 6 Sept. On 13 Oct. Walker cap- 
renada by surprise when in a defenceless state, 
wyorga, one of the ministers, and established a 
terror. By intervention of the American consul 
> peace with the general of the state army, Corral, 
it him on 7 Nov., on finding him corresponding 
gitives at Costa Rica. Walker at first was only 
in-chief; but on Rivas, whom he had made 
at, deserting him, he became sole dictator. On 
, 1856, his envoy Vijil was recognised by the 
vt ofthe United States, whence also he obtained 
‘ements during his retention of power. Costa Rica 
1 war against him, 28 Feb. 1856; the other states 
ral America soon followed the example, and a 
ary struggle ensued, lasting till May, 1857. On 

1856, Walker totally burnt Grenada, being unable 
nd it, and removed the seat of government to 
This place he surrendered to gen. Mora on 1 May, 
the intervention of capt. Davis, of the St. Mary’s, 
Timself, his staff, and 260 men, were conveyed in 
jsel to New Orleans, where they were received with 
‘nthusiasm. On 25 Nov., 1857, he again invaded 
ma, landing at Punta Arenas with 4oo men; but 
¢. was compelled to surrender to capt. Paulding, 
‘nd was conveyed to New York. He escaped 
nent by nolle prosequi (2 June, 1858): but capt. 
ig was tried for exceeding orders, and blamed— 
used by president Buchanan. On 5 Aug. 1860, 
. landed near Truxillo, Honduras, and took the 
the 6th. On the 7th he proclaimed that he made 
the government, not on the people of Honduras. 
‘ag summoned to surrender his booty by capt. 
-, R.N., of the Icarus, he refused, and fled. He 
‘rsued, caught, given up to the Honduras govern- 
tried, and shot (z2 Sept.). His followers were 
ved. Grey Town was surrendered to Nicaragua in 


591 


NICOPOLIS. 


rival, Pescennius Niger, who was again defeated at 
Issus, and soon after taken prisoner and put to 
death. The first general council was held here 19 
June to 25 Aug. 325, which adopted the NicENE 
CREED and condemned the Arians. It was attended 
by 318 bishops from divers parts, who settled both 
the doctrine of the ‘Trinity and the time for observing 
Easter. An addition was made to the creed, 381 ; 
was rejected, 431. See Filiogue. When the Cru- 
saders took Constantinople, and established a Latin 
empire there in 1204, the Greek emperors removed 
to Nice and reigned there till 1261, when they re- 
turned to Constantinople; see astern Empire. 
Nice was taken by the Ottoman Turks in 1330. 


NICE (N. Italy) was the seat of a colony from 
Massilia, now Marseilles, and formed part of the 
Roman empire. In the middle ages it was subject 
to Genoa, and suffered from the frequent wars, 
being taken and re-taken by the imperialists and 
French. It was taken by the Austrians under 
Melas, 1800; seized and annexed to France 1792; 
restored to Sardinia in 1814. Nice was again 
annexed to France in virtue of the treaty of 24 
March, 1860; the people having voted nearly 
unanimously for this change by universal suffrage. 
The French troops entered 1 April, and definite 
possession was taken 14 June following. Garibaldi, 
a native, vehemently protested against this annexa- 
tion. 

Fire at the opera house, and panic, about 7o killed, 


23 March, 188r 
6 Jan. 1884 


NICIAS, PEAcE oF, between Athens and 
Sparta for 50 years, 421 B.C., negotiated by that 
unfortunate Athenian general, who with his col- 
league, Demosthenes, was put to death after the 
disastrous termination of the expedition against 
Syracuse, 413 B.C. 


NICKEL, a white, ductile, malleable, magnetic 
metal, employed in the manufacture of German 
silver. Cronstadt in 1751 discovered nickel in the 
mineral copper-nickel. Nickel ordered to be sub- 
stituted for bronze coinage in France, 1882. 


NICOBAR ISLES, Indian Ocean, 8. of Bay 
of Bengal, given up by Denmark and occupied by 
Great Britain to suppress piracy ; announced June, 


1869. 
i NICOLAITANES, a sect mentioned in Rev. 


ii. 6, 15, said to have sprung from Nicolas, one of 
the first seven deacons (4c¢s vi.), and to have 
advocated a community of wives, and to have denied 
the divinity of Christ. 


NICOMEDTA, the metropolis of Bithynia, Asia 
Minor, N. W., founded by king Nicomedes I., 264. 
B.c., on the remains of Astacus; destroyed by an 
earthquake, A.D. 115; and restored by the emperor 
Adrian, 124. The Roman emperors frequently 
resided here during their eastern wars. Here 
Diocletian resigned the purple, 305; and Constan- 
tine died at his villa in its neighbourhood, 337. It 
surrendered to the Seljukian Turks, 1078; and to 
Orchan and the Ottoman Turks in 1338. 


NICOPOLIS, on the Danube, Bulgaria, 
founded by Trajan. Here was fought a battle be- 
tween the allied Christian powers under Sigis- 
mund, king of Hungary, afterwards emperor, and 
the Turks under Bajazet; said to have been the 
first battle between the Turks and Christians; the 
latter were defeated, losing 20,000 slain, and as 
many wounded and prisoners, 28 Sept. 1396. Ni- 

_copolis was taken by the Russians after a severe 


International exhibition 


NIELLO-WORK. 


conflict (2 pashas, about 6000 men, 2 monitors, 
and 40 guns were captured), 15, 16 July, 1877. 


NIELLO-WORK, believed to have been pro- 
duced by rubbing a mixture of silver, lead, copper, 
sulphur, aud borax into engravings on silver, &c., 
an art known to the ancients, was practised in the 
middle ages, and said to have given to Maso 
Finiguerra the idea of engraving upon copper, about 
14.60. 


NIEMEN, or MEMEL1, ariver flowing into the 
Baltic, and separating Prussia from Russia. On araft 
on this river the emperor Napoleon met Alexander 
of Russia, 22 June 1807, and made peace with him 
and Prussia. He crossed the Niemen to invade 
Russia, 24 June, 1812, and re-crossed with the 
remains of his army, 28 Dec. Near it the Poles 
defeated the Russians 27 May, 1831. 


NIGER. A great river of N.W. Africa. British 
settlements at the mouth established since 1841. 
British protectorate with free trade affirmed by the 
West African Conference at Berlin, Dec. 1884. 
Niger expedition, see Africa, 1841. 


NIGHTINGALE FUND. 0n 21 Oct. 1854, 
Miss Florence Nightingale left England with a 
staff of thirty-seven nurses, and arrived at Scutari, 5 
Nov. She rendered invaluable services to the army ; 
and returned to London, 8 Sept. 1856. In honour 
of this, a meeting was held at Willis’s Rooms on 29 
Noy. 1855, to raise funds to establish an institution 
for the training of nurses and other hospital atten- 
dants. Madame Jenny Lind-Goldschmidt sang at 
Exeter Hall on 11 March 1856, and gave the pro- 
eeeds (1872/.) to the fund. The subscriptions 
closed, 24 April, 1857, amounting to 44,0397. The 
queen gave Miss Nightingale a valuable jewel. 


NIGRITIA, see Soudan. 


NIHILISM, a popular name for the school of 
philosophy which believes nothing without phy- 
sical evidence, renounces all forms of Divine reve- 
lation, and gives nothing in their place. 


NIHILISTS, ultra-reformers in Russia, said to 
peepee the destruction of all government, and to 
egin society afresh. They became known and 
spread in 1872; their alleged leader, Zychareff. 'The 
government began to suppress them, Sept. 1875. 
‘One of the leaders, Michael Bakounin, died at 
Lugano, I July. 1876. They evidently possess 
wealth. .For recent events, see Russia, 1877-84. 
‘The term Nihilist was invented by the Russian 
novelist Tourgénief, who died 3 Sept. 1883. 
**The Nihilists ask concessions, which are the common 
places of every free community.”—Times, 16 April, 
1881. 


NIKA CONTESTS, see Circus. 
NIKOLSBURG (Moravia). Here were signed, 


26 July 1866, the preliminaries of a peace between 
Austria and Prussia. 


NIKSICH, a strong Turkish fortress in Monte- 
negro, many times besieged ; having been left by 
the Turks with insufficient garrison, 1t was captured 
by Montenegrins, 7, 8 Sept. 1877, causing great re- 
joicings. 

NIL DARPAN, see India, June 1861. 


NILE (Egypt). This great river rises in the 
Mountains of the Moon, in about ten degrees of N. 
lat. The travels of Bruce were undertaken to 
discover the source of the Nile. He set out 
from England in June, 1768; on the 14th of No- 
vember, 1770, discovered the source of the Blue 


592 


NINEVEH. 


Nile, and returned home in 1773. This rive: 
flows regularly every year, from about the . 
June to the 17th of September, when, havin; 
ae to the land, it begins to decrease. | 
rise 16 cubits to ensure that fertility. TT 
Nilometer (a pillar) was set up by Solym: 
Caliph, 715. In 1829, the inundations of t} 
rose to 26 instead of 22, by which 30,000 
were drowned and immense property lost, 
Petherick set out early in 1861 to explo 
country at the source of the Nile. For 
discoveries, see Africa 1863. A bridge ov 
Nile (above 1300 feet) at Cairo, was comple 
a French company, Aug. 1872. 


NILE, BATTLE OF THE (or Aboukir), 
1798, near Rosetta, between the French fleet 
Brueys, and the British under sir Horatio } 
Nine of the French line-of-battle ships were 
two were burnt, and two escaped. The Frend 
LI? Orient, with Brueys and 1000 men on 
blew up, and only 70 or 80 escaped. Ni 
exclamation upon commencing the battle 
‘‘ Victory or Westminster Abbey !”’ 


NIMEGUEN (Holland). Here was > 
the treaty of peace between France and the | 
Provinces, 1678. The French were successful a 
the British under the duke of York, before | 
guen, 28 Oct. 1794; were defeated by them 3 
but gained the place 8 Nov. 


NINETEENTH CENTURY, a ma 
open to writers of totally different opinions 
appeared, March, 1877; editor, James Knowl 


NINEVEH, the capital of the Assyrian « 
(see Assyria), founded by Ashur about 224 
Ninus reigned in Assyria, and named thi 
Nineveh, 2069 B.c.— Abbé Lenglet. Jonah pr 
against Nineveh (about 862 B.c.), which was 
by Nebuchadnezzar, 606 B.c. The discove 
Layard and others since 1839, in the neighbot 
of Mosul, at Koyunjik, the site of the ancie 
neveh, and other places, have in a manner 
terred and re-peopled a city which for cer 
had ceased to figure on the page of history. 
commenced his explorations at Khorsabad in 
and published his great work ‘‘ Monuments 
nive,”’ 1849-50. In 1848 Mr. Layard publish 
‘‘ Nineveh and its Remains,”’ and in 1853 his’ 
coveries,’’ in his second visit in 1849-50. Mz 
musd Rassam, in 1854, discovered an ancier 
lace. Mr. George Smith described his excay 
and their results in 1873-4, in “ Assyrian - 
veries,’ 1875. He died at Aleppo, 19 Aug. 
See Assyria. Mr. Rassam, appointed his s 
sor, among other valuable discoveries at Ba 
nine miles N.E. of Nimroud, and at Koyunjil 
found a bronze monument with inscription 
cording the names, title, genealogy, and e? 
of king Assur-nazir-pal (B.c. 885-860), buil 
the palaces and temples of Kalakh, the capi 
the middle Assyrian empire. Mr. Rassam a 
in London with collections, Dec. 1882. : 
The forms, features, costume, religion, modes of W 

and ceremonial customs of its inhabitants stand 

us as distinct as those of a living people ; and 1 

of the sculptures and their cuneiform inseriptio 

researches of the learned have increased the knoe 

of Assyrian history. Among the sculptures t! 

rich the British Museum, may be mentione 

winged bull and lion, and numerous hunti 
battle pieces ; and the bas-relief of the eagle- 
human figure, presumed to be a representation 

Assyrian god Nisroch (from Nisr, an eagle or 

whom Sennacherib was in the act of worsl 

when he was assassinated by his two sons, abe 

B.C. 2 Kings xix. 37. 


NIOBIUM. » 


593 


NON-CONFORMISTS. 


IBIUM, a rare metal, discovered by Hat- 
n columbite, a black earth, and named 
ium, 1801. It was pronounced to be iden- 
ith tantalum by Wollaston ; but was redis- 
iby H. Rose in 1846, and named niobium. 


VANA, see Buddhism. 


BET or Nessit (Northumberland). Here 
le was fought between the English and 
armies, the latter greatly disproportioned in 
h to the former. Several thousands of the 
ere slain upon the field and in the pursuit, 
1402... 


ERO. See Acheen. 


I PRIUS (‘unless before’’), words in a 
mmoning a person to be tried at Westmin- 
wess the judges should come to hold their 
in the place where he is. Judges sit in 
sex by virtue of 18 Eliz. ec. 12 (1576). 


MES (Nimes), S. France, was the flourish- 
man colony, Nemausus. Its noble amphi- 
was injured by the English in 1417. The 
ants embraced Protestantism, and suffered 
ersecution in consequence, and Nismes has 
tly been the scene of religious and political 
s. The treaty termed the Pacification of 
(14 July, 1629) gave religious toleration for 
to the Huguenots. 


"RE, see Saltpetre. 


RIC ACID, a compound of nitrogen and 
, formerly called agua fortis, first obtained 
varate state by Raymond Lully, an alchemist, 
1287; but we are indebted to Cavendish, 
ey, and Lavoisier for our present knowledge 
roperties. H. Cavendish demonstrated the 
of this acid in 1785. Nitrous acid was dis- 
l by Scheele about 1774. Nitrous gas was 
itally discovered by Dr. Hales. Nitrous 
gas (laughing gas) was discovered by Dr. 
eyin 1776. The use of this gas as ananesthetic 
in America in 1864; at Paris, 1866; in Lon- 
[ March, 1868, ingenious apparatus having 
ivented for its application. 


"ROGEN or AZorTE (from the Greek a, no, 
6 or zo, I live), an irrespirable elementary 
id an important element in food, discovered 
therford about 1772. Before 1777, Scheele 
‘ed the oxygen of the air from the nitrogen, 
most simultaneously with Lavoisier dis- 
lthat the atmosphere is a mixture of these 
wes. Nitrogen combined with hydrogen 
the volatile alkali ammonia, so freely given 
lecomposing animal and vegetable bodies. 


‘RO-GLYCERINE (also called Nrrro- 
), an intensely explosive amber-like fluid, 
red by Sobrero in 1847, is produced by add- 
‘cerine (in successive small quantities) to a 
'e of one part of nitric acid, and two parts 
ohurie acid. Alfred Nobel, a Swede, first 
ited its application as an explosive agent, in 
It has caused several most disastrous acci- 
with great loss of life. In attempting to 
some nitro-glycerine in the town moor at 
Stle-on-Tyne, 17 Dee. 1867, an explosion 
lace, and seven persons lost their lives, in- 
3 Mr. Mawson, the sheriff, and Mr. Bryson, 
urveyor; see Dynamite. Mr. Alfred Nobel’s 
‘lycerine manufactory, near Stockholm, blown 
'5 persons killed, many injured, 10 June, 
An act prohibiting its importation for a time, 
julating its transmission, was passed in 1869, 
realed by the Explosives Act of 1875. Secret 
rcture discovered, see Birmingham, 1883. 


eye 


NIZAM, see Hyderabad. 


NOBILITY. The Goths, after they had seized 

a part of Europe, rewarded their heroes with titles 

of honour, to distinguish them from the common 

people. The right of peerage seems to have been 
at first territorial. Patents to persons having no 
estate were first granted by Philip the Fair of 

France, 1095. George Neville, duke of Bedford 

(son of John, marquis of Montague), ennobled in 

1470, was degraded from the peerage by parliament, 

on account of his utter want of property, 19 Edw. 

IV., 1478. Noblemen’s privileges were restrained 

in June, 1773; see Lords, and the various orders of 

the nobility. 

In 1845 a statistical writer said that there were 500,000 
nobles in Russia, 239,000 in Austria; in Spain (in 
1780), 470,000; in France (before 1790) 360,000 (of 
whom 4,120 were of the ancienne nobdlesse; in the 
United Kingdom, 1,631 with transmissible titles (dukes 
to baronets). 


NOBILITY oF FRANCE preceded that of 
England. On18June, 1790, the National Assembly 
decreed that hereditary nobility could not exist in 
a free state; that the titles of dukes, counts, 
marquises, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, 
and others, be abolished; that all citizens take 
their family names; liveries and armorial bearings 
also to be abolished. The records of the nobility, 
600 volumes, were burnt at the foot of the statue 
of Louis XIV., 25 June, 1792. A new nobility was 
created by the emperor Napoleon I., 1808. The 
hereditary peerage was abolished 27 Dec. 1831; re- 
instituted by Napoleon IIL., 1852. 


NOBLE, an English gold coin (value 6s. 8d.), 


- first struck in the reign of Edward III., 1343 or 


1344, said to have derived its name from the excel- 
lency of the metal of which it was composed. 


NOCTURNE, a name given by John Field 
(who died 1837) to anew and very pleasing musical 
composition. He was followed very successfully 
by Chopin, who died, 1849. The term was adopted 
by Mr. Whistler, the artist, for his night pieces, 
in which he began with line, form, and colour, 


1877-8. 


‘““NOLUMUS LEGES ANGLIZ MU- 
TARI,” see Bastards, and Merton. 


NOMINALISTS (or CoNCEPTUALISTS), 2 
scholastic sect, opposed to the Realists, maintain 
that general ideas have no existence outside our 
minds, and only exist by the names we give them. 
The founder of the sect, Jean Roscellin, a canon 
of Compiégne, was condemned by: a council at 
Soissons, 1092, but the controversy was revived in 
the 12th century. Among the Nominalists are 
reckoned Abelard, St. Thomas Aquinas (partially), 
Occam, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, and Dugald 
Stewart. The Realists assert that general ideas 
are real things with positive existence. 

NON-CONFORMISTS. The Protestants in 
England are divided into conformists and non- 
conformists, or, churchmen and dissenters. The 
first place of meeting of the latter, in England, 
was established at Wandsworth, near London, 
20 Nov. 1572. ‘The name of non-conformists was 
taken by the Puritans when the Act of Uniformity 
came into operation on 24 Aug. 1662 (termed 
‘« Black Bartholomew’s day’’), when 2000 ministers 
of the established religion resigned, not choosing to 
conform to the statute passed ‘‘ for the uniformity 
of public prayers and administration of the sacra- 
ments;” see Puritans, and Dissenters. The laws 
against them were relaxed by the Toleration act, 


QQ 


NONES. 


24 May, 1689.— The Nonconformist newspaper 
(edited by Mr. Edward Miall, since M.P.) first 
appeared 14 April, 1841. He died 29 April, 18381. 
The non-conformists presented to Mr. Miall 10,000 
guineas for his exertions on behalf of religious 
equality : ; ; : 18 July, 1873 
Meeting of bishops and dissenting ministers at 
Lambeth palace, to consider the alleged progress 
of irreligious thought b : 24 July 1876 


NONHS, in the Roman calendar, were the fifth 
day of each month, excepting March, May, July, 
and October, when the nones fell on the seventh 
day. 

NON-JURORS considered James II. to have 
been unjustly deposed, and refused to swear alle- 
giance to William III. in 1689. Among them were 
Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury; Ken, bishop 
of Bath and Wells, and the bishops of Ely, Glou- 
cester, Norwich, and Peterborough, and many of 
the clergy, who were deprived 1 Feb. 1691. Non- 
jurors were subjected to double taxation, and 
obliged to register their estates, May, 1723. They 
formed a separate communion, which existed till 
the beginning of the present century. 


NON NOBIS, DOMINE! (“Not unto us, 
O Lord!”’ &¢., Psalm cxy. 1), a musical canon, 
sung as a grace at public feasts, was composed by 
W. Birde in 1618. 


NON-RESISTANCE OATH (containing a 
declaration that it is unlawful to take arms against 
the king upon any pretence whatever), enforced by 
the Corporation act, 1661, was repealed in 1719. 


NOOTKA SOUND (Vancouver’s Island), 
discovered by captain Cook in 1778, and settled by 
the British in 1786, when a few British merchants 
in the East Indies formed a settlement to supply 
the Chinese market with furs; but the Spaniards 
in 1789 captured two English vessels and took pos- 
session of the settlement. The British ministry 
demanded reparation, and the affair was amicably 
terminated by a convention, and a free commerce 
was confirmed to England in 1790. 


‘“NO-POPERY RIOTS,” see Gordon. The 


cry was revived against the Catholic emancipation 


bill, 1829. 
NORDLINGEN (Bavaria). Here the Swedes 


under count Horn were defeated by the Austrians, 
27 Aug. 1634 and the Austrians and allies by 
Turenne in 1645. 


NORE MUTINY, see Mutinies. 
NORFOLK ISLAND (Pacific Ocean), dis- 


covered in 1774, by captain Cook, who found it 
uninhabited, except by birds. The settlement was 
made by a detachment from Port Jackson under 
governor Phillip, in 1788, in Sydney bay, on the 
south side of the island. This was at one time the 
severest penal colony of Great Britain. The island 
was abandoned in 1809, but re-occupied as a penal 
settlement in 1825. The descendants of the muti- 
neers of the Bounty were removed to it in June, 
1856, from Piteairn’s Island (which see). 


NORICUM, sce Austria. 
NORMAL SCHOOLS (from xorma, a rule). 


One for the instruction of teachers, established at 
Paris by a law, 30 Oct. 1794, opened 20 Jan. 1795, 
under the direction of La Place, La Harpe, Haiiy, 
and other eminent men, was soon closed. Another, 
established by Napoleon in 1808, was closed in 1822. 
The plan was revived in 1826, and has been de- 
veloped in England and other countries. 


594 


NORTHAMPTON. 
NORMANDY (N. France), part of Neus 


a kingdom founded by Clovis in 511 for his 
Clotaire, which, after various changes, was ur 
to France by Charles the Bald in 837. From 
beginning of the 9th century it was contim 
devastated by the Scandinavians, termed Ne 
men or Normans, to purchase repose from w 
irruptions Charles the Simple of France ceded 
duchy to their leader Rollo, 905. Rollo, the 
duke, held it as a fief of the crown of France 
several of his successors after him, until Wil 
the seventh duke, acquired England, in 1066, 
remained a province of England till the reig 
king John, 1204, when it was conquered 
Philip Augustus and reunited to France. 
was re-conquered by Henry V., 1418, and hel 
England partially till1q450. The English still 
sess the islands on the coast, of which Jersey 
Guernsey are the principal. 
DUKES. 

Rollo (or Raoul), baptized as Robert. 
William I. Longsword. 
Richard I. the Fearless. 
Richard II. the Good. 
Richard ITI. 
Robert I. the Devil. 
William II. (I. of England). 
Robert II., Courthose (his son), after a conte: 

spoiled by his brother. 
Henry I. (king of England). 
Stephen (king of England). 
Matilda and Geoffrey Plantagenet. 
1rsr. Henry II. (king of England in 1154). 
1189. Richard IV. (I. of England), 
1199-1204. Arthur and John of England. 


NORTH ADMINISTRATION, forme 
lord North, Jan. 1770, who resigned March, 1 
(Lord North entered into a league with the WI 
which led to the short-lived Coalition ministry, 1 
He succeeded to the earldom of Guildford in 1 
and died in 1792; see Coalition.) 

Frederick, lord North, jirst lord of the treasury, and ¢ 
cellor of the exchequer. 

Earl Gower, lord president. 

Earl of Halifax, privy seal. 

Earl of Rochford, lord Weymouth (succeeded by 

Sandwich) and earl of Hillsborough, secretaries of 
Sir Edward Hawke, admiralty. 

Marquis of Granby, ordnance. 
Sir Gilbert Elliot, lord Hertford, duke of Ancaster, 

Carteret, &c. 


NORTHALLERTON (Yorkshire). - 
here was fought the ‘‘battle of the Stauda 
where the English totally defeated the Sc 
armies, 22 Aug. 1138. The archbishop of 
brought forth a consecrated standard on a cari 
at the moment when they were hotly pressed b; 
invaders, headed by king David. 


NORTH AMERICA, see America, Ui 


States, Indians, Canada, &e. 


NORTH AMERICAN REVIEW b 
at Boston, U.S., in 1815, as a rival of the F 
burgh and Quarterly Reviews. It was publish: 
first every second month; in 1818, quarterly 
1879, monthly, at New York. 


NORTHAMPTON was burnt by the D 
in 1010. Here Henry III. proposed to fow 
university in 1260, and held a parliament in } 
On 10 July, 1460, a conflict took place betweer 
duke of York and Henry VI. of England, in ¥ 
the king was defeated, and made prisoner 
second time) after a sanguinary fight which 
place in the meadows below the town. Northe 
ton was ravaged by the plague in 1637. It 
seized and fortified by the parliamentary fore! 
1642. A fire nearly destroyed the town, 3 ' 


/ 


gI2. 
927. 
943: 
996. 
1027. 
1028. 
1035. 
1087. 


1106. 
TX35; 
1144. 


NORTH BRITON. _ 


595 


N.-E. AND W. PASSAGES. 


Riots here because Mr. C. Bradlaugh was 
ected M.P., 6 Oct. 1874, were suppressed by 
livary. 


RTH BRITON, a newspaper, first pub- 
29 May, 1762, supported by John Wilkes, 
or Aylesbury, and a London alderman, and 
itter against the earl of Bute’s administra- 
ceusing him of unduly favouring the Scotch. 
15 (termed ‘‘ Wilkes’s number”), the king was 
red with uttering falsehood in his speech ; 
shed : : A : 3 . 23 April, 1763 
‘al warrant” issued by lord Halifax against 
uthors, printers, and publishers 26 April, ,, 
and others arrested and committed to the 

r, and his house searched esOTADIIL a 5. 

t by writ of habeas corpus before chief-jus- 
Pratt, and discharged, his arrest being re- 

d as illegal , : ; : sOnvay, 1... 
mages granted to a printer for false impri- 

ent - : : 4 : ; UL ol sy 
‘declared to be ‘‘a scandalous and seditious 

‘by parliament, and ordered to be burnt by 
angman . : : . 5 TSUN OVe0 tess 
the burning in Cheapside . StF LIECs, . 55 
al warrants ” declared illegal by chief-justice 


; toool, damages awarded to Wilkes for 


‘e of his papers * . : exe OF GG. a. 
lamages obtained by Wilkes in an action 
stlord Halifax . 3 : : 1o Noy. 1769 
elected lord mayor, 8 Oct. ; elected fifth time 
for Middlesex . A A A A Oct. 1774 
| to take his seat . : eee Atle 77/5 
chamberlain of London, 1779; died, 
26 Nov. 1797 


RTHBROOK CLUB. Originated in 1879 
1ote comfort and social intercourse for young 
sof good families under education in Eng- 
New premises in Whitehall Gardens were 
rated by the prince of Wales, 21 May, 1883. 
fe trook was an active promoter of the 
iking. 


RTH CAROLINA, NORTH GER- 


, 8ee Carolina, German. 


R3TH-EAST anp WEST PASSAGES. 


tempt to discover a north-west passage was, 


bes Portuguese named Corte Real, about 
1585, a company was formed in London 
the ‘Fellowship for the discovery of the 
West Passage.’’ From 1743 to 1818 parlia- 
ffered 20,0007. for this discovery. In 1818 
vard was modified by proposing that 5000/. 
be paid when either 110°, 120°, or 130° W. 
10uld be passed ; one of which payments was 
o sir E. Parry. For their labours in the 
3 enumerated in the list below, Parry, 
tm, Ross, Back, and Richardson, were 


od 
Me 


n Cabot’s voyages to the arctic regions, 1498, 1517 

th Willoughby’s and Richard Chancellor’s 
ition to find a north-east passage to China, 
Edward Bonaventura, Bona Esperanza, and 
Jonfidentia, sailed from the Thames. 20 May, 
| Chancellor, in the Edward, reached Arch- 
and Moscow; the rest perished off the 
of Lapland, about 3 ; - : . 
in Frobisher’s attempt to find a N.W. pas- 
China. 4 ; : ; : Be af Lies 
‘.wis’s expeditions to find a N. W. passage, 
1585, 1586, 1587 


1553 


1554 


's Dutch expeditions (by N.E.) 


1594-5 
tth and Knight’s expedition - 1602 
8 voyages (see Hudson’s Bay) 1607-10 
)oas Button’s . : F - 1612 
3 . 1616 


See Baffin’s Bay) . 
xpedition . : 7 : A hy ee 09S 
ber of enterprises, undertaken by various 
‘les, followed. } 


Svoyages . es 1728, 1729, 1741 
n’s expedition > : gh. 1742 
and 8mith’s . 5 - x - 1746 


Hearne’s land expedition 


i : ; , spat h76 
Captain Phipps, afterwards lord Mulgrave, his ex- a 
pedition . : é i , : 3 : Rehr e) 
Capt. Cook, in the Resolution and Discovery July, 1776 
Mackenzie’s expedition é A ; Ba ary ao" 
Captain Duncan’s voyage . : é ; ; « 1790 
The Discovery, captain Vancouver, returned from a 
voyage of survey and discovery on the north-west 
coast of America : - 5 Sept. 1795 
Lieut. Kotzebue’s expedition . : ; . Oct. 1815 
Captain Ross and lieut. Parry in the Isabella and 
Alexander . : ; ; ; : - » 1818 
Captain Buchan’s and lieut. Franklin’s expedition 
in the Dorothea and Trent . ‘ Sans 
Franklin’s second expedition. - 1819-22 


Lieuts. Parry and Liddon, in the Hecla and Griper, 

4 May, 1819 

They return to Leith : ; oso) NOV T5620 

Capts. Parry and Lyon in Fury and Hecla, 8 May, 1821-2 6) 

Parry’s third expedition with the Hecla . 8 May, 1824 

Capts. Franklin* and Lyon, after having attempted 
a land expedition, again sail from Liverpool, 

16 Feb. 

Capt. Parry* again in the Hecla, sails from Dept- 
ford, and reaches a spot 435 miles from the North 
Pole, 22 June ; returns e i 6 Oct. 

Capt. Ross* arrived at Hull, on his return from his 
Arctic expedition, after an absence of four years, 
and when all hope of his return had been nearly 
abandoned t ; i . : 18 Oct. 

Capt. Back and his companions arrived at Liver- 
pool from their perilous Arctic land expedition 
(1833), after having visited the Great Fish River 
and examined its course to the Polar Seas 8 Sept. 

Capt. Back sailed from Chatham in command of his 
majesty’s ship Terror, on an exploring adventure 
to Wager River . - ‘ 3 21 June, 

[The Geographical Society awarded the king’s annual 
premium to capt. Back for his polar discoveries 
and enterprise, Dec. 1835.] 

Sir John Franklin, and capts. Crozier and Fitzjames, 
in the ships Erebus and Terror, leave England, 
(see Franklin) é ; : 24 May, 1845 

[The NORTH-WEST PASSAGE was discovered by sir 
John Franklin and his companions, who sailed 
down Peel and Victoria Straits, since named 
Franklin Straits. On the monument in Waterloo- 
place is inscribed—‘‘ To Franklin and his brave 
companions, who sacrificed their lives in completing 
the discovery of the north-west passage, A.D. 1847-8.” 
Lady Franklin received a medal from the Royal 
Geographical Society. ] 

Commanders Collinson and M‘Clure, in the Enter- 
prise and Investigator, sailed eastward in search of 
sir John Franklin{ . i: 7 20 Jan. 1850 


1825 


1827 


1833 


1835 


1836 


** Sir John Franklin died rx June, 1847 (see Franklin) ; 
sir E. Parry died 8 July, 1855, aged 65; and sir John 
Ross died 30 Aug. 1856, aged 80. 

t+ In 1830 he discovered Boothia Felix : on x June, 1831, 
his nephew, com. James Clark Ross, discovered the 
magnetic north pole, in 7o° 5/17” N, lat., and 96° 46’ 45/” 
W. long. 

{ Capt. M‘Clure sailed in the Investigator in company 
with com. Collinson in the Enterprise in search of sir 
John Franklin, 20 Jan. 1850. On 6 Sept. he discovered 
high land, which he named Baring’s land ; on the oth, 
other land, which he named after prince Albert ; on the 
3oth the ship was frozen in. Entertaining a strong con- 
viction that the waters in which the Investigator then lay 
communicated with Barrow’s straits, he set out on er 
Oct., with a few men in his sledge, to test his views. On 
26 Oct. he reached Point Russell (73° 31’ N. lat., 114° 14’ 
W. long.), where from an elevation of 600 feet he saw 
Parry or Melville Sound beneath them. The strait con- 
necting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans he named after 
the prince of Wales. The /nvestigator was the first ship 
which traversed the Polar sea from Behring’s straits to 
Behring island. Intelligence of this discovery was brought 
to England by com. Inglefield, and the Admiralty chart 
was published 14 Oct. 1853. Capt. M‘Clure returned to 
England, Sept. 1854. In 1855, soool. were paid to capt. 
afterwards sir Robert) M‘Clure, and soool. were distri- 
buted among the officers and crew. On 30 Jan. 1855, the 
Admiralty notified that the Arctic medal would be given 
to all persons engaged in the expeditions from 1818 to 1855. 


Qaa2 


N.-E. AND W. PASSAGES. 5) 


A north-west passage discovered by capt. M‘Clure, 

26 Oct. 1850 

A German arctic expedition (the Germania and the 
Hansa) sailed, 15 June; arrived at Pendulum bay, 
Greenland, 18 July, 1869 ; the vessels parted ; the 
rermania arrived at Bremen, rr Sept. 1870; the 
Hansa was frozen and sank, Oct. 1869 ; the crew 
escaped with provisions, and reached Copenhagen 

1 Sept. 1870 

A Norwegian arctic expedition sailed in the spring 1872 

A Swedish expedition under professor Nordensk- 
jold, sailed from Trémso, 21 July, 1872; unsuc- 
cessful; returned summer . 5 : ‘ F 

Capt. Hall sailed from New York in the U.S. ship 
Polaris, 29 June, 1871 ; frozen in, Sept. ; died, 
8 Nov. After much suffering, the crew reached 
Newfoundland : ; : : ; 9 May, ,, 

Mr. B. Leigh Smith sailed to lat. 81° 24’, and dis- 
covered land to the N.E. of Spitzbergen, 1871 ; in 
other voyages he discovered under-currents of 
warm water flowing into the polar basin ; he re- 
lieved the Swedish expedition : . 1872-73 

An Austro-Hungarian expedition in the Admiral 
Tegethoff, and the Isborjnen, under Weyprecht 
and Payer, sailed from Trémso, in Norway, 14 
July, 1872; the ships parted company, and the 
Tegethoff sailed northward and discovered: Franz- 
Joseph Land, 31 Aug. 1873; frozenin, abandoned 
ship, May, 1874; reached Vardoe, Norway, by 
sledges, 3 Sept. ; arrived at Vienna . 25 Sept. 1874 

Mr. Disraeli consents to a new British arctic expe- 

» dition, 17 Noy. 1874; 38,6201. voted for the ex- 
pedition . : : ‘ ; : 5 March, 1875 

Capt. G. 8. Nares, of the Challenger, appointed to 
command the Alert, and capt. H. F. Stephenson 
to command the Discovery. 

Telegram from the queen to capt. Nares before 
starting: ‘‘I earnestly wish youand your gallant 
companions every success, and I trust that you 
may safely accomplish the important duty you 
have so bravely undertaken.” 

In the reply, ‘‘Her majesty may depend on all 
doing their duty.” 

The ships sailed from Portsmouth 29 May, 1875; 
despatches received from Disco (all well) 15 July, ,, 

Alert (on return) arrived at Valentia, 27 Oct. ; the 
Discovery at Queenstown, 29 Oct,; at Ports- 
mouth : : / ; : 4 . 2 Nov. 1876 

Results. Sledges reached 83° 20’ 26”, r2 May, 1876; 
passage to the pole declared to be impracticable ; 
no signs of open polar sea; ships wintered, 82°87’ 
lat. ; sun absent 142 days; no Esquimaux be- 
yond 81° 52’. 

Out of r20 persons 4 deaths (1 frost bitten, 3 scurvy); 

greatest cold, 72°—zero; extremest N. point 

reached by Markham named Cape Colombia. 
Cost of the expedition, 120, 000l. 
The ‘‘ Voyage” published by Capt. Nares ; - 1878 
Expedition of capt. Allen Young in the Pandora 
(aided by lady Franklin), sailed 25 June; returned 
19 Oct. 1875; sailed again, 2 June; returned31 Oct. 1876 
Dutch expedition sailed from Holland . April, 1878 
Mr. James Gordon Bennett’s expedition ; lieut. de 
Lang sailed in yacht Jeannette : - 8July, 1879 
Dutch exploring expedition in Willem Barentz, 
sailed for Arctic Ocean,’6 May ; successful ; re- 
turned to Hammerfest, Norway . . 24 Sept. 
Another expedition in Vega, under prof. Nordensk- 
jold, started 4 July, 1878 ; at Port Dickson on the 
Yenisei, 6 Aug. ; at the mouth of Lena, 27 Aug. ; 
at Yakutsk, 22 Sept.; imprisoned in ice near 
Tschuctshe settlement, 28 Sept. 1878—18 July, 
1879 ; passed East Cape, Behring’s strait ; entered 
St. Lawrence Bay, in Pacific Ocean, 20 July; 
reached Yokohama . - : : . 2 Sept. 
The Norrn-East Passace from the Atlantic to the 

Pacific is thus accomplished ; chiefly at the ex- 

pense of Mr. Oscar Dickson, a merchant of Go- 

thenburg . : é uae ‘ : . 1878-9 

Mr. B. Leigh Smith’s successful expedition to North 
Pole, in his yacht Hira from and to Peterhead, 
22 June—z2 Oct. 1880 
Another expedition by him in the Hira, 14 June; 
Kira seen in Straits of Nova Zembla . 8 July, 1881 
[The Kira injured by ice; at Cape Flora sank in 
deep water, 21 Aug.; stores saved, tent and 
house erected ; the party live on seals, walrus, 


4 


99 


ie 


96 NORWAY. 


&c. during winter, 1881-2; return voyage beg 
(boats hauled, &c.), 21 June; fell in with a Dut 
vessel, Willem Barents, and soon after with t 
Hope, near Matotchkin Straits, Nova Zemb) 
3 Aug. ; sail for home, 6 Aug. ; arrive at Ab 
deen, 20 Aug.] 

Search for him proposed ; government to gi 
soool. Geographical Society roool.; other sw 


offered, i 2 ; 3 , 2 . Mare 
The Hope (Capt. Sir Allen Young) sails in sear 
of the Hira . - 22d0T 


Expedition in the Jeannett, which is crushed by ix 
23 June; two boats with crew received | 
Russians at mouth of the Lena ; one boat missin 
Dec. 1881 ; bodies of cap. de Long and othe 
found near the tnouth of the Lena, 23 March, 188 
conveyed to Philadelphia, and buried 23 Fe 

German arctic expedition, Germania sailed, sumnx 
returned . ;: : : : - - 23k 

British cireumpolar expedition started . xz Ma 

Arrived at Fort Rae, 30 Aug.; good news x De 

Austrian Polar expedition, Polar started 2 Apr 
1882 ; returned to Drontheim rr Aug. ; to Viem 

22 Au 

The British government presents the Alert to a 
the expedition, under commander Winfield 
Schley, in search for the party under lier 
Greeley, 25 persons (which started for the Pol 
seas in the summer of 1881), Feb. 1884; t 
search expedition starts, ro May, 18843; 500 
reward offered by U. 8. government for discove 
of lieut. Greeley and party F x . Ma 

Lieut. Greeley’s party reached Cape Sabine, Smit} 
Sound, 83 deg. N. lat.; 17 persons starved ' 
death ; x drowned, 6 survivors found by cor 
Schley with the Thetis, 22 June; arrive at 8 
John’s, Newfoundland, 17 July ; at Portsmout 
New Hampshire ‘ i : .. 2a 

[The Alert returned to the British governme: 
with thanks, Feb. 1885.] 

(Charts of the latest discoveries are publishe 
Petermann’s ‘‘ Mittheilungen der Geographie 


NORTHMEN or NorsEMEN, see § 


navia, and Normandy. 


NORTH SEA CANAL, connecting t 
with Amsterdam ; opened by the king of H 
I Nov. 1876. 


NORTHUMBERLAND AVENUE. 


‘new street opened 18 March, 1876. 


NORTHUMBERLAND HOlT 
STRAND, LONDON, built on the site of a he 
dedicated to the Virgin, by Henry Howard, 
Northampton, was finished 1605; named § 
House by his nephew, Thomas, earl of Suffoll 
received its present name from his des¢e 
Elizabeth, marrying Algernon, earl of Northt 
land, by whom it was partially rebuilt. 

The house was purchased by the Metropolits 


Board of Works ; 497,cool. being paid for ° 
June. The lion (set up 1749) taken dowa, 
July, to be put up at Sion-house; and the hou 
sold for building materials and pulled doy 


during the autumn hs ‘ 


NORTHUMBRIA, a Saxon kingdom, f 
by Ida, 547; see under Britain. 


NORTH WESTERN PROVINC 


India, lieut.-governor, Hon. sir Alfred ¢ 
Lyall in 1882. 


NORWAY, until the 7th century, was 
by petty rulers. About 630, Olaf ‘Tratela, 
race of Odin termed Ynglings or youths, e 
from Sweden, established a colony in Ver 
the nucleus of a monarchy, founded by 
scendant, Halfdan III. the Black, a great’ 
and legislator, whose memory was long 
Population, 1875, 1,806,900. 

Olaf Treetelia, 630 ; slain by his subjects . i 
Halfdan I., 640; Eystein L., 700; Halfdan IL, 7; 
Gudrod, 784 ; Olaf Geirstade and Halfdan UL. 


wl NORWAY. 


597 NORWICH. 

m recovers his inheritance from his brother, way a free, independent, indivisible, and inalien- 

m he subdues, together with the neighbour- able state, united to Sweden : : 4 Nov. 1814 
chiefs, 840 ; accidentally drowned 863 | Nobility abolished 1821 


iefs regain their power during the youth of 
on, Harold Harfager, or fair- haired, who vows 
rer to cut nor comb his hair till he recovers 


lominion . 865 
eats his enemies at Hafsfiord, 872; dies 934 
(the bloody axe), his son, a tyrant, expelled, 
succeeded by 
the Good), 940; he endeavours in vain to 
ish Christianity ; dies . i 21902 
[If., Graafeld, son of Eric, succeeds . ve 
in battle with Harold of Denmark - 977 
Jarl, made governor of several provinces ; be- 
9s king, 977; his licentiousness leads to his 
; deposed by Olaf I., Trygveson; and slain 
is slave 995 
i 995; establishes Christianity by force and 
8 
and slain, during an expedition against a 
erania, by the kings of Denmark and Sweden, 
divide Norway between them - I900 
., the Saint (his son), lands in Norway . . 1012 
s his enemies and becomes king 7 1OE5 
'y zealous in the diffusion of Christianity 1018-21 


sful invasion of Canute, who becomes king 1028-9 
cpelled ; returns and is killed in battle . - 1030 

, at the death of Canute, succeeds as king of 
ray, but is expelled in favour of Magnus. I 

son of Olaf I. ‘ 

s becomes king of Denmark, 1036; dies 
| Hardrada, king of Norway ; 
s England ; defeated and slain by Harold II. 
anford-bridge i . 25 Sept. 1066 
Land Magnus Il. (sons), kings, 25 Sept. 1066 ; 


= 1095 
- 1047 


alone (pacific) 1069- 1093 
I. founds Bergen . : 1070 
s IL. (Barefoot), son of Olaf . 1093 
$ the Orkneys and Scotland . . 1096 
intveland . TpEIOS 


L., Eystein I1., and Olaf IV. (sons) _ 
visits the Holy Land as a warrior pilgrim 1107- 10 


essole king, rr22; dies. SAT TRO 
s IV. (his son) and Harold IV. be 
s dethroned Dei cyl 


LIV. murdered ; succeeded by his sons, Sigurd 


ve. ; civil war rages : el £36 
s Breakspear (afterw ards pope Adrian’ LY); 
japal legate, arrives, reconciles the brothers, 
founds the archbishopric of Trondheim eIT5S 
‘ous competitors for the crown; civil war ; 
I, Hystein III., Hako IIL, Magnus V. . 1136-62 
s V. alone “162 


f Swerro, an able adventurer, who becomes 


; Magnus defeated ; drowned : A . 1186 
‘rules vigorously ; dies 1202 
his son, king, r202 ; Guthrum, 1204 ; “Inge II, 220 5 
[V., bastard son of Swerro . . 1207 
cessfully invades Scotland, where he dies. 1263 
8 VL, his son (the legislator), dies 1280 


“» the priest-hater, marries Margaret of "Scot- 

; their daughter, "the Maid of N orway, be- 
28 heiress to the crown of Scotland . 1286 
V., his brother, king . 5 4 


1299-1319 

e of Norwegian prosperity. 
8 VIL. (III. of Sweden), king . i 1319-43 
VI. ‘ . 1343-80 
of Norway (II. of Denmark ) - 1380-87 


y united with Denmark and Sweden under 
saret : - 1389 
assembly at Calmar the three states are 
ally united 
a and Norway separ ated from Denmark, 1448 : 
ited . ; 1450 
tk and Norway separ ated from Sweden re BIE 
ke og the modern capital, built by cage 


1397 


y given to Sweden by ‘the treaty of Kiel; 
erania and Rugen annexed to Denmark 14 


orwegians declare their independence, L7 ;May, 
‘vedish troops enter Norway . rwJduly, 
8 Frederic, duke of Holstein, elected king of 
| ray abdicates ’ . to Oct. 

s XII. of Sweden proclaimed king by the 
onal Diet (Storthing) assembled at Christiania; 
ecepted the constitution which declares Nor- 


| Election commission ; 


re ces Oe order of St. Olaf instituted by king 
scar 
Millennial festival of the establishment of the ‘king- 
dom, kept . : 3 138 J uly, 
The king Oscar II. crowned at Drontheim, 
July, 
Statue of Charles John XIV. unveiled at Christiane 
7 Sept. 
Christian Selmer succeeds Fk. Stang as reese 
minister . : 
Disputes between the Storthings and the crown 
respecting constitutional changes 
Elections ; liberal majority claiming Norwegian 
constitutional rights ; many republic ans Oct. 
Liberal leaders, Sor ens Jaaboek (violent), Mr. Sver- 
drup (moderate) . . Jan. 1883 
Opening of the Storthing, firm resistance of the 
crown ministers . A Feb. 
Who are threatened with impeachment, 9g March ; 
which is adopted . 23 Apr il, ‘3 
Exhibition of art and industry opened at Chris- 
tiania . 4 Sp bale 
Impeachment of the minister, Christian Selmer, 
and his ro colleagues, for advising the king to 
veto the bill for ministerial responsibility : eds 
Trial of Selmer began ; eek Otay Wy 
Selmer found euilty by the supreme council of 
Norway; sentericed to dismission from public 
service, and payment of expenses of ek aia ee 
Feb. 
M. Selmer resigns his post, the king ain, but 
maintains his power of veto 3 12 March, ne 
Trial and conviction of M. Kierulf and other 
ministers . : 20 March—1z April, ,, 
The crown prince of Sweden appointed ee of 
Norway 9 March, ,, 
New ministry formed (councillor rach tigaard and 
M. Carl Lovenskjold, and others) SUADEL suas, 
Resigns, 6 June; M. Johan Sverdrup forms a 
liberal ministry . 4 26 June, ,, 
See Denmark and Sweden. 


NORWICH (Norfolk), mentioned in history in 
the Saxon Chronicle at the period when Sweyn, 
king of Denmark, destroyed it by fire, 1004. ee 
Population. 


Artisans from the Low Countries establish here the 
manufacture of baizes, &c., about 
Cathedral first erected in 1088, by bishop "Herbert 
Losinga ; completed by bishop Middleton, about 
A great plague 
Church of the Blackfriars, now St. Andrew’s- hall, 
erected : : : 4 
Norwich nearly consumed by fire 
Public library instituted 
Norwich new canal and harbour were opened, 
3 June, 
Church congress met é 7 Oct. 
The musical festival was attended by the pinteg of 
Wales . r Oct. 
Norwich and Norfolk Industrial exhibition Boeded 
in St. Andrew’s-hall : Aug. 
British Association met here . 20-26 ‘Aug. 
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society founded 
Mutilated remains of a human body discovered near 
Norwich, 21-25 June, 185: : William Sherward, a 
publican of the place, confessed on x Jan. 1869, 
that they were the remains of his wife murdered by 
him ; he recanted, but was tried and condemned, 
and executed . - : . 20 April, 
Norwich crown ‘bank stopped ; much distress o0c- 
casioned ; sir Robert H. J. Harvey, the chief 
partner, commits suicide : died 19 July, 
much corruption disclosed 
Aug.-Sept. 1875 
Writ for election of M. P. suspended till denaintien 
of parliament, by act passed 15 Aug. 1876 
National fisheries exhibition (opened by the prince 
of Wales) : : : 18-30 April, 1881 


NORWICH, BisHopPric OF, originally East 
Anglia; the first bishop was Felix, a Burgundian, 


sent to convert the Kast Anglians about 630. The 
see was divided into two distinct bishoprics—Eln- 


1870 


NOTABLES. 598 


NOVI. 


ham, in Norfolk, and Dunwich, in Suffolk, about 

673. Both sees suffered extremely from the Danish 

invasions, insomuch that after the death of St. 

Humbert, they lay vacant for a hundred years. At 

last the see of Elmham was revived, and Dunwich 

was united to it; but Arfastus removed the seat to 

Thetford, where it continued till Herbert Losinga 

removed it to Norwich 1094. This see has given to 

the church of Rome two saints; and to the nation 
tive lord chancellors. It was valued in the king’s 
books at 899/. 18s. 73d. per annum. Presentincome, 

4500/.; see Bishopries. 

RECENT BISHOPS OF NORWICH. 

George Horne; died 17 Jan. 1702. 

Charles Manners Sutton ; translated to Canterbury, 
rt Feb. 1805. 

Henry Bathurst; died 5 April, 1837. He was a 
strenuous supporter of catholic emancipation, 
and for a long time the only liberal bishop in the 
house of peers. 

1837. Edward Stanley ; died 6 Sept. 1849. 

1849. Samuel Hinds ; resigned 1857. 

1857. Hon. John T. Pelham, May. 


NOTABLES, French assemblies of nobles, 
bishops, knights, and lawyers. An assembly of the 
notables was convened by the duke of Guise, 20 Aug. 
1560, and by other statesmen. Calonne, the minister 
of Louis XVI., summoned one which met on 22 
Feb. 1787, on account of the deranged state of the 
king’s finances, and again in 1788, when he opened 
his plan: but as any reform militated too much 
against private interest to be adopted, Calonne was 
dismissed, and soon after retired to England. Louis 
having lost his confidential minister, De Vergennes, 
by death, called De Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his 
councils. The notables were re-assembled on 6 
Nov. 1788. In the end, the states-general were 
convoked 5 Dec.; and from this assembly sprang 
the national assembly (which see). The notables 
were dismissed by the king, 12 Dec. 1788.—The 
Spanish notables assembled and met Napoleon 
(conformably with a decree issued by him command- 
ing their attendance), at Bayonne, 25 May, 1808. 


NOTARIES PUBLIC, said to have been 
appointed by the primitive fathers of the Christian 
church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives 
of the martyrs in the Ist century.—Du Fresnoy. 
This office was afterwards changed to a legal em- 
ployment, to attest deeds and writings, so as to estab- 
lish their authenticity in any other country. A 
statute to regulate public notaries was passed in 
1801, and statutes on the subject have been enacted 
since. 


““NOTES anp QUERIES,” a medium of 
intercommunication for literary men and general 
readers, founded and edited by W. J. Thoms; first 
published on 3 Nov. 1849; bought by sir C. W. 
Dilke, about Aug. 1872. 


NOTRE DAME, the cathedral at Paris, was 
founded in 1163. It narrowly escaped destruction 
by the communists, May, 1871. It has been beauti- 
fully and judiciously restored, at a cost of about 
250,000/., under the superintendence of Viollet-le- 
Due, 1866, et seq. 


NOTTINGHAM (Saxon, Snotingaham.) The 
castle here was defended by the Danes against 
king Alfred, and his brother Ethelred, who retook 
it, 868. It was rebuilt by William I. 1068; and 
ultimately became a strong fortress. See Popu- 
lation. 
att in ee a wars . ; 
Parliaments he TIO4;, 1337, 713 
Here Charles I. raised his senderd righ a ee fa 
The riots at Nottingham, in which the rioters broke 

frames, &c. 14 Noy. 1811 to Jan. 1812 


1790. 
1792. 


1805. 


II40, 1153, 1173 


Much similar mischief . ‘ : April, 
The Watch and Ward act was enforced - 2 Dec. 
Nottingham castle was burnt by rioters during the 

Reform excitement. : ‘ : to Oct. 
Fierce election riots with ‘‘lambs” and others took 


placein . ‘ ° F F . July, 
The British Association met : : 22 Aug. 
Suffragan bishop—Henry Mackenzie, D.D. . . 


The church congress met . ; : : Oct. 
A gentleman gives 10,000l. to educate the working 
classes . : ; 5 : < 2 Jan. 
University college buildings founded 27 Sept, 
Midland Counties Art museum opened by the 
prince of Wales G : 3 ; . 3 duly, 
University free public library and free natural 
history museum opened by prince Leopold, duke 
of Albany . s ‘ : . 30 June, 
NOVARA (N. W. [taly). Near this tow1 
Austrian marshal Radetzky totally defeated 
king Charles Albert and the Sardinian arm} 
March, 1849. The contest began at 10 A.M. 
lasted till late in the evening; the Austrian: 
396 killed, and had about 1850 wounded; the 
dinians lost between 3000 and 4000 men, 27 can 
and 3000 prisoners. The king soon after abdic 
in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel. 


NOVA SCOTIA (N. America), was disco} 
by Cabot, 1497; visited by Verrazzani, 1524, 
named Acadia ; settled in 1622, by the Scotch u 
sir William Alexander, in the reign of James 
England, from whom it received the name of ] 
Scotia. Since its first settlement it has more 
once changed proprietors, and was not confirm 
England till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. I 
taken in 1745 and 1758; but was again confi 
to England in 1763. Nova Scotia was dij 
into two provinces in 1784, and was erected ir 
bishopric in Aug. 1787. JXing’s College, Win 
was founded in 1788; see Baronets. Gold 
found in Nova Scotia in 1861. By an act p 
29 March, 1867, Nova Scotia and New Bruns 
were united with Canada for legislative purt 
On the agitation for secession Mr. John Bright 
sented a petition in the commons 15 May 
motion for a royal commission of inquiry nega 
16 June, 1868. The agitation soon subsided. i 
governor, sir Charles H. Doyle, 1867; Joseph ] 
died soon after his appointment, I June, 1] 
Adams George Archibald, 1873; Matthew 3 
Richey, 1883. 


NOVATIANS, a sect which denied restor 
to the church to those who had relapsed during 
secution, began with Novatian, a Roman presb 
in 250; see Cathart. | 

NOVELS (Novelle), a part of Justinian’ s' 
published 535. See Jtomances. 


NOVEMBER (novem, nine), anciently 
ninth month of the year. When Numa @ 
January and February, in 713 B.c., it becam 
cleventh as now. The Roman senators wish 
name this month in which Tiberius was bor 
his name, in imitation of Julius Cesar, and At 
tus; but the emperor refused, saying, ‘f Wha’ 
you do, conscript fathers, if you have ¢h 
Ceesars?”’ 


NOVEMBER METEORS, see Meteors 
NOVGOROD (central Russia), made the 


of his government by Ruric, a Varangian chi 
862, is held to be the foundation of the Ku 
empire. In memory of the event the czar ie 
rated a national monument at Novgorod, c 
Sept. 1862. Novgorod became a republic ‘ 
1150. Visited by the duke of Edinburgh, : 
Aug. 1875. 


NOVI (N. Italy). Here the French, 


= 


NOVI BAZAR. 


d by Joubert, were defeated by the Russians 
Suwarrow, with immense loss, 15 Aug. 1799. 

the French slain was their leader, Joubert, 
ee distinguished officers. 


VI BAZAR, see Herzegovina. 
VUM ORGANON, the great work of lord 


, containing his system of philosophy, was 
hed 1620. 


XIOUS VAPOURS, see Alkalies and 
cal Works. 


YADES, see Drowning. 


BIA, the ancient Aithiopia supra Mgyptum, 
have been theseat of the kingdom of the Meroé, 
ed its name from a tribe named Nubes or 
es. The Christian kingdom, with Dongola, 
pital, lasted till the 14th century, when it 
‘coken up into Mahometan principalities. It 
‘subject to the viceroy of Egypt, having been 
ered by Ibrahim Pacha in 1822. 


ICLEUS THEORY In CHEMISTRY, see 
und Radicles. 


TISANCES REMOVAL ACT; passed 


amended 1849; see Sanitary Legislation. 


ITS. A small fortified town, near Dijon, in 
indy, N.E. France, chartered in 1212; fre- 
ly captured and ravaged, specially in 1569, 
and 1636. It was taken by the Badenese 
Von Werder, 18 Dec. 1870, after five hours’ 
,in which above 1000 French are said to 
been killed and wounded, and 700 prisoners 

The German loss was also heavy. <A depot 
1s and ammunition was gained by the victors. 


IMANTINE WAR. The war between the 
ns and the Celtiberians (Celts who possessed 
guntry near the Iber, now the Ebro) began, 
.C., on account of the latter having given 
>to their allies the Sigidians, who had been 
ed by the Romans. Numantia, an unpro- 
| city, withstood a long siege, in which the 
of Scipio Africanus, 60,000 men, was opposed 
more than 4000 men able to bear arms. The 
intines fed upon horse-flesh, and their own 
and then drew lots to kill one another. At 
hthey set fire to their houses, and destroyed 
selves, so that not one remained to adorn the 
ph of the conqueror, 133 B.C. 


599 


i 


NYSTADT. 
NUMIDIA (N. Africa), the seat of the war of 


the Romans with Jugurtha, which began III B.c., 
and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. . 
The last king, Juba, joined Cato and was killed at 
the battle of Thapsus, 46 B.c., when Numidia be- 
came a Roman province; see Mauritania. 


NUMISMATICS, the science of coins and 


medals, an important adjunct to the study of history. 


| In this country Evelyn (1697), Addison (1726), and 


Pinkerton (1789), published works on medals. Pel- 
lerin’s ‘‘ Recueil des Médailles,”’ 9 vols. 4to, (1762). 
Ruding’s Annals is the great work on British 
coinage (new edition, 1840).—The Numismatic 
Society in London was founded by Dr. John Lee in 
1836. It publishes the Nwmismatie Chronicle.— 
Mr. Yonge Akerman’s Numismatic Manual (1840) 
is a useful introduction to the science. Foreign 
works are numerous. 


NUNCIO, an envoy from the pope of Rome to 
catholic states. The pope deputed a nuncio to the 
Irish rebels in 1645. ‘The arrival in London of a 
nuncio, and his admission to an audience by 
James II., July, 1687, is stated to have hastened 
the Revolution. 


NUNEHAM COLLEGE, see Girton. 


NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have 
been that to which the sister of St. Anthony retired 
at the close of the 3rd century. The first founded 
in France, near Poictiers, by St. Marcellina, sister 
to St. Martin, 360.—Du Fresnoy. The first in 
England was at Folkestone, in Kent, by Eadbald, 
or Edbald, king of Kent, 630.—Dugdale; see Abbeys 
and Monachism. The nuns were expelled from 
their convents in Germany, in July, 1785; in 
France, in Jan. 1790. In Feb. 1861, monastic 
establishments were abolished in Naples, com- 
pensation being made to the inmates. For me- 
morable instances of the fortitude of nuns, see 
Acre, and Coldingham. 


NUREMBERG, 2 free imperial German city 
in 1219. In’1522, the dict here demanded ecclesi- 
astical reforms and a general council, and in 1532 
secured religious liberty to the Protestants. It was 
annexed to Bavaria in 1805. Albert Diirer was 
born here in 1471. 


NYNEE TAL, see Landslips, 18 Sept. 1880. 


NYSTADT, S8.W. Finland. By a treaty, 
signed here 30 Aug. 1721, Sweden ceded Livonia, 
Esthonia, and other territories to Russia. 


0. 


OAK. 


OAK, styled the monarch of the woods, and an 
emblem of strength,- virtue, constancy, and long 
life. That produced in England is considered to be 
the best calculated for ship-building. In June, 403, 
the ‘‘ Synod of the oak,” was held at Chalcedon. 
The constellation Robur Caroli, the oak of Charles, 
was named by Dr. Halley in 1676, in memory of 
the oak in which Charles II. saved himself from 
his pursuers, after the battle of Worcester, 3 Sept. 
1651; see Boscobel, and Races. 


The evergreen oak, Quercus Ilex, brought from the 
south of Europe before. ; 
The scarlet oak, Quercus coccinea, 

North America before . : : ; : 5 
The chestnut-leaved oak, Quercus Prunus, from 
North America before : . : , SP at 
The Turkey Oak, Quercus Berris, from the south of 
Europe . ‘ : : 3 : t : 21735 
The agaric of the oak was known asa stypticin . 1750 
Herne’s oak, Windsor Park, mentioned in Shaks- 
peare’s ‘‘Merry Wives of Windsor,” finally de- 


; : a ESOL 
brought from 
1691 


1730 


stroyed by the wind . : ‘ : 31 Aug. 1863 
Existing Ouks, 1879. Cowthorpe, Yorkshire; girth 


at the ground, 55 feet 6 inches. Newland, Glou- 
cester (mentioned in Domesday Book), 46 feet. 


OATES’S PLOT. Titus Oates, at one time 
chaplain of a ship of war, was dismissed for im- 
moral conduct, and became a lecturer in London. 
In conjunction with Dr. Tongue, he invented a plot 
against the Roman Catholics, who he asserted had 
conspired to assassinate Charles II., and extirpate 
the Protestant religion. He made it known 12 Aug. 
1678, and in consequence about eighteen Roman 
Catholics were accused, and upon false testimony 
convicted and executed; among them the aged 
viscount Stafford, 29 Dec. 1680. Oates was after- 
wards tried for perjury (in the reign of James II.), 
and being found guilty, was fined, put in the 
pillory, publicly whipped from Newgate to Tyburn, 
and sentenced to imprisonment for life, May, 1685. 
On the accession of William and Mary he was 


pardoned, and a pension of 3/7. a week granted to 
hin, 1689. 


OATHS were taken by Abraham, B.c. 1892 
(Gen. xxi. 24), and authorised (B.c. 1491) Exod. 
xxli.1I. The administration of an oath in judicial 
proceedings was introduced by the Saxons into 
England, 600.—Rapin. That administered to a 
judge was settled 1344. 


Icelandic Oath. ‘‘NameI to witness that I take oath 
by the ring, law-oath, so help ne Freyand Niérdh, 
and almighty Thor, as I shall this suit follow or 
defend, or witness bear, or verdict or doom, as I 
wit rightest and soothe stand most lawfully,” &c. 

about 

OF Supremacy, first administered to British sub- 
jects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Hen. VIII. 
(Stow’s Chron.) . ; ‘ : : ‘ Rie 

Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as 528; 
and the words ‘‘So help me God and all saints,” 
concluded an oath until : : Ss : 

The ancient oath of allegiance, which ‘contained a 
promise ‘‘to be trueand faithful to the king and his 
heirs, and truth and faith to bear of life and limb 
and terrene honour ; and not to know or hear of any 
ill or damage intended him without defending 
him therefrom,” was modified by James L., a 
declaration against the pope’s authority being 
added . : . 3 : , : =), 2003 

It was again altered . 


925 


1535 


I550 


OBELISK. 


The affirmation of a Quaker was made equivalent to 
an oath, by statute, in 1696, et seq. 

Or ABJURATION, being an obligation to maintain 
the government of king, lords, and commons, 
the church of England, and toleration of Protes- 
tant dissenters, and abjuring all Roman Catholic 
pretenders to the crown, 13 Will. IIL. : a 

The Test and Corporation oaths modified by stat. 
9 Geo. IV. (see Tests) 5 : . om 

Act abolishing oaths in the customs and excise de- 
partments, and in certain other cases, and substi- 
tuting declarations in lieu thereof, 1 & 2 Will. IV, 

Affirmation, instead of oath, was permitted to 
Quakers and other dissenters by acts passed in 
1833, 1837, 1838, and 1863 (see Affirmation). 

In 1858 and 1860, Jews elected M.P. were relieved 
from part of the oath of allegiance (see Jews). 

By 24 & 25 Vict. ¢. 66, a solemn declaration may be 
substituted for an oath by persons conscientiously 
objecting to be sworn in criminal prosecutions 

A bill for modifying the oath taken by Roman 
Catholics (passed by the commons), was rejected 
by the lords . 4 ¢ : . 26 June, 

The oath to be taken by members of parliament 
was modified and made uniform by an act passed 

30 April, 

New oath of allegiance provided by the 31st and 
32nd Vict. c. 72 (1868), to be taken by the mem- 
bers of the new parliament :—‘‘I do swear that L 
will be faithful and bear true allegiance to her 
majesty queen Victoria, her heirs and successors, 
according to law, so help me God.” 

Bradlaugh Case, see Parliament, 1880. 

New parliamentary oaths bill brought in; dis- 
charged ; 3 7 é : : 

Affirmations ordered to be accepted for oaths iu 
France, 2 Feb. ; in Spain F . April, 


OBELISK. (Greek odelos, a spit, mono/it 
a single stone.) The Egyptian symbol of the 
preme God. The first mentioned in history 
that of Rameses, king of Egypt, about 1485 
The Arabians called them Pharaoh’s needles, 
the Egyptian priests the fingers of the sun. Sey 
were erected at Rome; one was erected by 
emperor Augustus in the Campus Martius, om 
pavement of which was a horizontal dial - 
marked the hour, about 14 B.c. Of the obel 
brought to Rome by the emperors, several | 
been restored and set up by various popes. One 
excavated and set up in the piazza of St. J 
Lateran, Rome, by Sixtus V. 1588. 


In London are three English obelisks: first in F 
street, at the top of Bridge-street, erected to < 
Wilkes, lord mayor of London in 1775 (see 
Briton); and immediately opposite to it at thes 
end of Farringdon-street, stands another of grant 
the memory of Robert Waithman, lord mayor 103 
erected 25 June, 1833; the third at the south er 
the Blackfriars-road marks the distance of one 
and a fraction from Fleet-street. 

Egyptian Obelisks.—42 are known, some broken: 1 
Rome; 1, from Luxor, set up in the Place de la | 
corde, Paris, Oct. 1836; 5 in England (2 British 
seum ; 1 Alnwick; 1 Soughton hall; z on Thames 
bankment). 

The obelisks improperly named Cleopatra’s Needles 
erected by Thothmes III. at On (Heliopolis), about 
B.c. One was removed to Alexandria by Augus 
about 23B.c. After being long imbedded in the sh 
it was acquired for Great Britain by sir Ralph A 
cromby, in 1801; but not removed. It was oifere 
the British government by Mehemet Ali, and agau 


the Khedive, 15 March, 1877. . 
: (knt. Nov. 1881) ha 


Mr. James Erasmus Wilson 


OBLIVION. 


601 


d to pay all expenses, Mr. John Dixon, the 
eer, undertook to convey it to England. The 
l, Cleopatra, containing it sailed with the Olga 
pt. During a violent gale, the vessels were 
ated, 14-15 Oct. ; six lives were lost in a fruit- 
ttempt to recover it. The Cleopatra, which was 
loned, was found by the Fitzmaurice (capt. 
r), and towed to Ferrol, whence it was towed by 
nglia, and arrived in London, 20 Jan. 1878. 

vage awarded was 2o000l., 6 April, 1878. 

much discussion, the Thames embankment (be- 
1 Charing cross and Waterloo bridges) was selected 
s site; where, by much engineering skill, it was 
d, 12 Sept. 1878. 

yelisk weighs 186 tons, 7 cwt., 2stones, 11 Ib. 
ht, from base to point, 68 feet 53 inches. 

placed under the care of the metropolitan board 
wks by act passed 22 July, 1878. 

drasmus Wilson died 8 Aug. 1884. 

wshington Obelisk, at Washington, U.S. 555 feet 
inaugurated, 21 Feb. 1885. 


LIVION. In 1660 was passed an act of | 


general pardon, indemnity, and oblivion for 
asons and state offences”? committed between 
1637, and 24 June, 1660. The regicides and 
:Irish popish priests were excepted. Asimilar 
$ passed 20 May, 1690. See Amnesty. 


SERVANCEH, FATHERS OF THE (or 
RVANTS), a name given to certain members 
Franciscan order, about 1363, who volun- 
undertook the observance of their rule in its 
rigour. This reformation was after a time 
ed by the pope. 

SERVATORIES. The first is said to 
een erected on the top of the temple of Belus 
ylon. On the tomb of Osymandyas, in Egypt, 
jother, and it contained a golden circle 200 
diameter; that at Benares was at least as 
4 as these. ‘The first in authentic history 
t Alexandria, about 300 B.c. erected by 
ny Soter. ‘‘ Observatory, a monthly review 
onomy,’’ first appeared in 1877. 


Jodern meridional instrument by Copernicus 1540 
bservatory at Cassel . . . aL OL 
Brahe’s, at Uranienburg < ‘ - 1576 
omical tower at Copenhagen . 1657 
(French) . ; ; ; i . : 1667 
observatory at Greenwich (which see) - 1675 
‘atory at Nuremberg z : . 1678 
echt. . - “ : : : : . 1690 
‘erected under Leibnitz’s direction Ly aes 
ogna . . . . : . me eZ Ta 
Petersburg . 1725 
iin, about . 3 : s «750 
, Dr. Radcliffe . a 4 . 1772 
Hill, Edinburgh - 1776 
, Dr. Andrews . 10783 
h, Primate Robinson . ; 1793 
idge, England . . 1824 
va, Russia . 1839 
idge, U.S. . 1840 
igton, U.S. . . 1842 
ool, England -- 1844 


[| I 
me Te. Sunday paper (liberal), estab- 
1791. 

(for hoc, yes); o77, now oui, ‘‘ yes. 
h Language. 

JANA (central Spain), near which the 


ards were defeated by the French, commanded 
wrtier and Soult, 19 Nov. 1809. 


CULT SCIENCES (from occultus, con- 
)3 see Astrology, Alchemy, Magic, &e. 


” See 


‘HANA, an imaginary republic, described in 
‘written by James Harrington, dedicated to 
’ Cromwell, and published in 1656. 


EAN MONARCH, an American emi- 


: 


RS 5 ; a 


ODONTOLOGY. 


grant ship, left Liverpool, bound for Boston, 

24 Aug. 1848, having nearly 4oo persons on board. 

When within six miles of Great Orme’s head, Car- 

narvonshire, N. Wales, she took fire, and in a few 

hours was burnt to the water’s edge, and 178 persons 
perished. 

The Brazilian steam-frigate, Alfonzo, happened to be out 
on a trial trip at the time, with the prince and princess 
de Joinville and the duke and duchess d’Aumale on 
board, who witnessed the catastrophe, and aided in 
rescuing and comforting the sufferers. The crews anc 
passengers of the Alfonzo and the yacht Queen of the 
Ocean saved 156 persons, and 62 others escaped by 
various means. 


OCTARCH, the chief of the kings of the hep- 
tarchy, was called Rex gentis Anglorum. Hengist 
was the first octarch, 455, and Egbert the last, 800; 
see Britain. Some authors insist that the English 
heptarchy should haye been called the octarchy. 


OCTOBER, the eighth month in the year of 
Romulus, as its name imports, and the tenth in the 
year of Numa, 713 B.c. October still retained its 
first name, although the senate ordered it to be 
called Faustinus, im honour of Faustina, wife of 
Antoninus the emperor; and Commodus called it 
Invictus, and Domitianus. October was sacred to 
Mars. 


Ocroser Cius. A party of country gentlemen in the 
House of Commons, about 1710, which professed high 
church principles, and favoured Bolingbroke and the 
Jacobite cause. 


OCTROIS (from the low Latin auctoriwm, 
authority), a term applied to concessions from 
sovereigns, and to the taxes levied at the gates of 
towns in France on articles of food before entering 
the city. These octrois, of ancient origin, were 
suppressed in 1791; re-established, 1797, and re- 
organised in 1816, 1842, and 1852. In 1859, the 
octrois of Paris produced above 54 million francs. 
The Belgian government became very popular in 
July, 1860, by abolishing the Octrovs. 

» ODD VOLUMES, SETTE OF. A literary 
society established in London; dined at Freemasons’ 
Tavern, London, Jan. 1884. 

ODES are very ancient; amongst the Greeks 
they were extempore compositions sung in honour 
of the gods. Anacreon’s odes were composed about 
532; Pindar’s, 498 to 446; and Horace’s from 24 
to 13, all B.c. Anciently odes were divided into 
strophe, antistrophe, and epode; see Poets Lau- 
reate. 

ODESSA, a port on the Black Sea, built by 
the empress Catharine of Russia, 1784-1792, after 
the peace of Jassy. In 1817 it was made a free 
port, since when its prosperity has rapidly in~ 
creased. It was partially bombarded by the British, 
21 April, 1854, im consequence of the Russian 
batteries having fired on a flag of truce, 6 April. 
On 12 May the English frigate Ziger stranded 
here, and was destroyed by Russian artillery. The 
captain, Giffard, and many of his crew were killed, 
and the rest made prisoners. 


ODOMETER (from the Greek hodos, way, and 


metron, measure), see Pedometer. 


ODONTOLOGY (from the Greek odontes, 
teeth), the science of the teeth, may be said to 
have really begun with the researches of protessor 
Richard Owen, who in 1839 made the first definite 
announcement of the organic connection between 
the vascular and vital soft parts of the frame and 
the hard substance of a tooth, His comprehensive 
work, “‘Odontography’”’ (illustrated with beautiful 
plates), was published 1840-45. The Odontological 
Society was established 1856. 


t~ 


ODRYS2. 


60 


< 


D ‘OLD CATHOLICS. 


ODRYSA, 2a people of Thrace. Their king 


Teres retained his independence of the Persians, 
508 B.c. Sitalces, his son, enlarged his dominions, 
and in 429, aided Amyntas against Perdiccas II., of 
Macedon, with an army of 150,000 men. Sitalces, 
killed in battle with the ‘lriballi, 424, was suc- 
ceeded by Seuthes, who reigned prosperously; 
Cotys, another king (382-353), disputed the pos- 
session of the Thracian Chersonesus with Athens. 
After 9 or 10 years’ warfare, Philip II. of Macedon 
reduced the Odrys to tributaries, and founded 
Philippopolis and other colonies, 343. ‘The Romans, 
after their conquest of Macedon, favoured the 
Odrys, and in 42 their king Sadales bequeathed 
his territories to the Romans. ‘the Odryse, tur- 
bulent subjects, and often chastised, were finally 
incorporated into the empire by Vespasian, about 
A.D. 70. 


ODYL, the name given in 1845 by baron yon 
Reichenbach to a so-called new ‘‘imponderable, or 
influence,” said to be developed by magnets, crys- 
tals, the human body, heat, electricity, chemical 
action, and the whole material universe. The 
odylic force is said to give rise to luminous pheno- 
mena, visible to certain sensitive persons only. 
The baron’s ‘‘ Researches on Magnetism, &c., inrela- 
tion to the Vital Force,” translated by Dr. Gregory, 
were published in 1850. Emanuel Swedenborg 
(died 1772) described similar phenomena. 


ECUMENICAL BISHOP (from the Greek 
otkoumené, the habitable, globe understood), ‘* uni- 
versal bishop ;’’ a title assumed by John, bishop of 
Constantinople, 587. 


CGENOPHYTA (Beeotia, N. Greece). Here 
Myronides and the Athenians severely defeated the 
Beotians, 456 B.c. 


OFEN, see Buda. 


OFFA’S DYKE, the intrenchment from the 
Wye to the Dee, made by Offa, king of Mercia, to 
defend his country from the incursions of the 
Welsh, 779. 


OGULNIAN LAW, carried by the tribunes Q. 
and Cn. Ogulnius, increased the number of the 
pontiffs and augurs, and made plebeians eligible to 
those offices, B.C. 300. 


OGYGES, DELUGE oF (which laid Attica 
waste for more than 200 years afterwards, and until 
the arrival of Cecrops), is stated to have occurred 
1764 B.0.; see Deluge. 


OHIO, a western state of North America, 
settled by the French in 1673, was ceded to the 
British with Canada, in 1763; extensively settled 
in 1788, and admitted into the Union, 29 Noy. 1802. 
Capital, Columbus. 


OHM’S LAW, for determining the quantity 
of the electro-motive force of the voltaic battery, 
was published in 1827. It is in conformity with 
the discovery that the earth may be employed as 
a conductor, thus saying the return wire in electric- 
telegraphy. 

OIL was used for burning in lamps as early as 
the epoch of Abraham, about Ig21 B.c. It was the 
custom of the Jews to anoint with oil persons ap- 
pointed to high offices, as the priests and kings, 
Psalm exxxiii. 2; 1 Sam. x. 13 xvi. 13. The fact 
that oil, if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will 
be resolved into a combustible gas, was long known 
to chemists; and after the process of lighting by 
coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor and 
Martineau contrived apparatus for producing oil- 


gas on a large scale, 1815.—O1L Springs ; 
Petroleum. O1L FRxEscos; see under Paintij 
To supply oil to calm the waves, pipes were laid 
down in the port of Aberdeen ; experiments with 
Mr. Shield’s apparatus, 26 Sept. ; successful ex- 
periments reported : : : : 4 Dee. 
Scotch fishing vessels provided with oil tanks, Noy. 
Mr. Shield’s plans successful at Folkestone harbour, 


an. 

Capt. Chetwind reports oil to be ineffectual in re- 

gard to breakers and surf ‘ : - oo, 
Mr. Gordon’s oil-shells shot out at Montrose said 

to calm the sea . _ 6 April, 

OIL PAINTING, see Painting. The f 
tute of Painters in Oil Colours established; 
President Mr. J. H. Linton; 94 members ele¢ 
Feb.; first exhibition opened 17 Dec. 1883. 


OLBERS, the asteroid, now termed Pallas, 
covered by M. Olbers, in 1802. 


OLD BAILEY SESSIONS COUR" 
held for the trial of criminals, and its jurisdic 
comprehends the county of Middlesex as wel 
the city of London. It is held eight times in 
year by the royal commission of oyer and tern 
The judges are, the lord mayor, those alder 
who have passed the chair, the recorder and 
common-serjeant, who are attended by both 
sheriffs, and one or more of the national jud 
The court-house was built in 1773, and enla 
in 1808; see Central Criminal Court. 
During some trials in the old court, the lord mayor, 

one alderman, two judges, the greater part of the 

jury, and numbers of spectators, caught the gaol 
distemper, and died f ‘ : May, 
This disease was fatal to severa ; - mi 
Twenty-eight persons killed at the execution of Mr. 

Steele’s murderers at the Old Bailey 23 Feb. 

OLD BELIEVERS, a Russian sect, sai 
number about 12,000,000, originated in a rf 
against the cruelties of the patriarch Ni 
whom they named Anti-Christ, 1654. They prt 
to adhere to the old reading of the Selavor 
sacred books, which have been superseded by 
present Russian church. The czar Alexander 
granted liberty of worship to the sect in 1879. 


OLD CATHOLICS, the name assume 
Germany by the members of the Roman Cath 
church opposed to the dogma of papal infallibi 
headed by professor Déllinger of Munich. A 
three days’ conference at Munich, Sept. 1871, | 
decided to set up independent worship, first m 
ing inachurch given them by the town coune 
Munich. ‘The abbé Michaud began a_ sit 
movement in Paris in Feb. 1872. Dr. Doll 
preached in favour of union with the churel 
England, March, 1872. Pére Hyacinthe (Chi 
Loyson), president of the party at Rome, issu 
programme, respecting the Vatican decrees, re 
nising ecclesiastical authorities, demanding vet 
yet opposing schism, about 5 May, 1872. ‘The bis 
of Lincoln (Wordsworth) and Ely (Browne) anc 
dean of Westminster (Dr. Stanley), by invita 
attended the conference at Cologne, and deliy 
addresses, 20-22 Sept. 1872. The Old Cath 
elected their first bishop, Dr. Joseph Reink 
I June, 1873, who was recognised by the emp 
and other powers. 

Congress of old Catholics held at Constance, 18 Sept. 
1873; at Freiburg . : : F . 6iBep 
First synod held in Germany at Bonn, Ca 4 

c 2 2) 

Dr. Déllinger received delegates from easton and 
western churches at Bonn, with a view for union 
with the old Catholics ; and after much discussion | 
certain preliminaries were agreed on; much 
result was notexpected . . 14 Sept. 
First old Catholic church in Berlin opened 30 Nov. 


Zi 


OLDENBURG. 


603 


OMNIMETER. 


ussia about 20,000 old Catholics (about 
,oco Romanists) . 3 : : : . 1875 
ss at Bonn: bishop of Winchester, canon 
on, and several oriental clergy present, r2 
; agreement respecting the jilioque clause 
16 Aug. 
r put forth by the old Catholics at Bonn ask- 
or a church for their worship ; (they declare 
sition to the Vatican decrees of 18 July, 18703 
do not secede from the Catholic church, 
desire Catholicism free from debasing doc- 
$; repudiate infallibility and supremacy of 
pope; sanction reading of the Bible, and 
ie worship in the vulgar tongue; and mar- 
of priests) . » : : ; SHECAe. 
ss at Bonn; strong opposition to celibacy of 
y ; question deferred, early in. June, 
sss at Mentz opens : ' : 28 Sept. 
ig at Berne: bishop Cotterill of Edinburgh 
M. Hyacinthe Loyson there, 17 Aug. 1879; 
eneva, 23 May, 1880; at Baden-Baden 
19-21 Sept. 1880 


DENBURG, a grand duchy in North Ger- 
, Was annexed to Denmark in 1448; in 1773, 
jan VII. ceded the country to Russia in ex- 
e for Holstein Gottorp, and soon after the 
it dignity was established. The duke joined 
forth German confederation, 18 Aug. 1866, 
btained a slight increase of territory from 
ein, 27 Sept. following. Population in 1864, 
[2; in 1871, 314,591; in 1880, 337,478. 
DUKES. 
frederick Augustus. 
Peter Frederick. The duchy was seized by Napo- 
leon, and annexed to his empire in 1811; but 
restored in 1814. 


| GRAND-DUKES. 

May 2x. Augustus. 

Feb. 27. Peter, son; born 8 July, 1827. 
‘; Augustus, son; born 16 Novy. 1852. 


ID MAN oF THE MOUNTAIN, 
SINS. 


ID STYLE, see New Style. 
INFIANT GAS, a combination of hydrogen 


‘arbon, which burns with much brilliancy. 
22, eset formed it artificially by means 
shol. 


JHRON, LAws of, relating to sea affairs, 
ud to have been enacted by Richard I. of 
md, when at the island of Oleron of France, 
_ which is now doubted. 


iLVES are named in the earliest accounts of 
tand Greece ; and at Athens their cultivation 
aught by Cecrops, 1556 8.c. They were first 
2d in Italy about 5628.c. The olive has been 
‘ated in England since 1648 a.D.; the Cape 
since 1730. 


WMUTZ, the ancient capital of Moravia. 
the emperor Ferdinand abdicated, on behalf 
s nephew, Francis Joseph, 2 Dec. 1848; and 
the latter promulgated a new constitution, 
‘eh, 1849. A conference was held here, 29 Nov. 
under the czar Nicholas, when the difficulties 
‘en Austria and Prussia respecting the affairs 
sse-Cassel were arranged. 


ITENITZA. A Turkish force having crossed 
lanube, under Omar Pacha, established them- 

‘at Oltenitza, in spite of the vigorous attacks 

» Russians, who were repulsed with loss, 2 and 

7. 1853. On the 4th a desperate attempt to 

- ge the Turks by general Danneberg with 9000 
was defeated with great loss. 


4iYMPIADS, the era of the Greeks, dating 
IJuly, 776 B.c., the year in which Coreebus 
suecessful at the Olympic games. This era 


1876 
1877 


see 


was reckoned by periods of four years, each period 
being called an Olympiad, and in marking a Gate 
the year and Olympiad were both mentioned. ‘The 
computation of Olympiads ceased with the 305th, 
A.D. 440. 


OLYMPIC GAMES, so famous among the 
Greeks, said to have been instituted in honour of 
Jupiter by the Idi Dactyli, 1453 B.c., or by 
Pelops, 1307 B.c., revived by Iphitus, 884 B.c., 
were held at the beginning of every fifth year, on 
the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, in the 
Peloponnesus, now the Morea, to exercise the youth 
in five kinds of combats; the conquerors being 
highly honoured. The prize contended for was a 
crown made of a kind of wild olive, appropriated to 
this use. The festival was abolished by Theodosius, 
A.D. 394. In 1858 M. Zappas, a wealthy Pelopon- 
nesian, gave funds to re-establish these games, 
under the auspices of the queen of Greece. —OLYMPIC 
THEATRE, London, opened 1806; see Theatres. 


OLYMPIEIUM (near Peloponnesus) the great 
temple of Jupiter, erected by Libon, of Elis, at the 
charge of the Eleans, after their conquest of the 
country, 572-472 B.c. For this temple Phidias 
made the colossal statue of the god,in gold and 
ivory, 437-433 B.C. 

The German explorations by Messrs. Hirschfeld and 
Botticher, planned by prof. Ernst Curtius, the his- 
torian, began in Oct. 1875. Torsos and other relics 
were found. Above go4 objects in marble, nany coins, 
bronzes, inscriptions, &c., found, 1875-8. Explora- 
tions closed, Nov. 1880. 


OLYNTHUS, a city, N. Greece, subdued in 
war by Sparta, in 382-379 B.c. It resisted Philip 
of Macedon, 350 B.c., by whom it was destroyed, 
347. Demosthenes delivered three orations on its 
behalf, 349. 


OMENS, see Augury. Amphictyon was the 
first who is recorded as having drawn prognosti- 
cations from omens, 1497 B.c. Alexander the Great 
and Mithridates the Great are said to have studied 
omens. At the birth of the latter, 131 B.c., there 
were seen for seventy days together, two splendid 
comets; and this omen, we are told, directed all 
the actions of Mithridates throughout his life. 
—Justin. 


OMMIADES, a dynasty of Mahometan 
caliphs, beginning with Moawiyah, of whom four- 
teen reigned in Arabia, 661-750; and eighteen at 
Cordova, in Spain, 755-1031. ‘Their favourite colour 
was green. 

OMNIBUS (from omnibus, Latin “ for all’’). 
The idea of such conveyances is ascribed to Pascal, 
about 1662, when similar carriages were started, 
but soon discontinued. They were revived in Paris 
about 11 April, 1828; and introduced into London 
by a coach proprietor named Shillibeer. The first 
omnibus started from Paddington to the Bank of 
England on Saturday, 4 July, 1829. Regulations 
were made respecting omnibuses by 16 & 17 Vict. 
c. 33 (1853). See Cabriolets and Hackney Coaches. 
The London Omnibus Company was established in 
Jan. 1856. The saloon omnibuses ran in 1857-60. 
In Sept. 1865, it was stated that there were then 
running about 620 omnibuses belonging to the 
General Omnibus Company, and 450 belonging to 
private proprietors; in 1867, about I050 omm1- 
buses, with 13,000 drivers and conductors.—Sir 
R. Mayne. In 1873 about 1400 omnibuses. Divi- 
dend, Aug. 1878, 12} per cent. Omnibus bill, one 
which deals with many topics. 


OMNIMETER, 2 new surveying apparatus 


(combining the theodolite and level, and com- 


ONE POUND NOTES. 


prising a telescope and microscope), invented by 
Eckhold, a German engineer, to supersede chain 
measuring ; announced Sept. 1869. 


ONE POUND NOTES issued by the Bank 
of England, 4 March, 1797, withdrawn for England, 
1823; re-issued for a short time, 16 Dec. 1825. 


ONEIDA, collision with the Bombay; see 
United States, 1870. 


ONTARIO, formerly Canada West, or Upper 
Canada; capital, ‘oronto. Population, 1861, 


1,396,091; 1881, 1,923,228. 


O. P. (old prices) RIOT began on the opening 
of the new Covent Garden Theatre, London, by 
J. P. Kemble, with increased prices of admission, 
18 Sept., and lasted till 16 Dec. 1809, when the old 
charges were restored. Of the play, Macbeth, not 
one word was heard, and great injury was done to 
the theatre. 


OPEN AIR MISSION, founded 1853. Races, 


fairs, &c., are visited by preachers. 


OPEN SPACES ACT (METROPOLITAN), 40 
& 41 Vict. c. 35 (1877), authorises the Metropolitan 
Board of Works and the corporation of London to 
acquire open spaces for the benefit of the public. 


OPERAS. Adam de la Hale, a Trouvére, sur- 
named ‘* le Bossu d’ Arras,” born in 1240, is, as far 
as has yet been ascertained, the composer of the 
first comic opera, Li Giews (Le Jeu) de Robin et de 
Marion. The Italian opera began with the IZ 
Satiro of Cavaliére, and the Dafne of Rinuccini, 
with music by Peri, about 1590. Their Ewrydice 
was represented at Florence, 1600, on the marriage 
of Marie de Medicis with Henry IV. of France. 
L Orfeo, Favola in Musica, composed by Monte- 
verde, was performed in 1607, and is supposed to 
have been the first opera that was ever published. 
About 1669, the abbot Perrin obtained a grant from 
Louis XIV. to set up an opera in Paris, where, in 
1672, was acted Pomona. 

Scarlatti produced 108 operas, 1680 et seq.; followed 

by Stradella, Lulli, and other composers. 

Purcell produced Dido and neas, 1677 ; aud many 
others. 
Handel’s Rinaldo was performed at the Haymarket ; 

he successfully broke through previous restric- 

tions.. ; : : 24 Feb. 1711 
Pepusch’s Beggar's Opera . ; : : ; . 1728 
C. W. Gluck introduced a new style with reforms 

in his Orfeo ed Euridice 5 - - 1762 
Arne’s Artaxerxes : E 3 2 & 
J. H. Hasse produced many operas chiefly at Dres- 

den i : ; : ; : : +) 2731-03 
N. Logroscino developed the opera buffa; died —. 1763 
Mozart's Le Nozze di Figaro, 1786 ; Die Zauber flote, 


1786 ; Il Giovanni, 1787 ; La Clemenza di Tito . 1791 
Cimarosa’s Il Matrimonio Segreto, &c. 3 ml 7O2 
Storace’s Waterman, &e. . ; A - 1788-96 
Cherubini’s Lodoiska, 1791; Anacreon . 1803 
Beethoven’s Fidelio . , . 1805 
Shield’s Rosina, &e. . ss 1782-1807 
Bishop’s Guy Mannering, &e.  . : : Be, Sp uate: 
Spohr’s romantic opera, Faust, 1818 ; Jessonda + 1823 
Weber's Der Freischiitz, 1821 ; Oberon . . 1826 
Auber’s Muette di Portici . 1828 


Rossini’s Il Tancredi, 1813; Barbiere di Siviglia and 
Otello, 1816 ; (ruzza Ladra, 1817; Semiramide, 


1823 ; Guillawme Tell 1829 
Donizetti's Lucrezia Borgia é 5 : 2 an L840 
Meyerbeer’s Robert le Diable, 1831; Huguenots, 1836; 

Prophete . : : : , . ‘ = . 1849 
Richard Wagner, reformer of the opera, and author 

of Tannhduser, 1845; Lohengrin, 1848; and the 

ting des Nibelungen : > . 1876 


Gounod’s Faust, 1859 ; Polyeucte / . 1878 


OPERAS In ENGLAND. Sir William Dave- 
nant introduced a species of opera in London in 


604 


OPORTO. 


1684. The first regularly performed opera wa: 
York buildings in 1692. ‘Lhe first at Drury L 
was in 1705. Handel’s opera, Radamistus, was | 
formed in 1720, and others by him were frequer 
performed a few years after. Gay’s Beggar's Om 
first performed in 1727 at the Lincoln’s Inn thea 
It ran for sixty-three successive nights, but 
offended the persons in power, that the | 
chamberlain refused a licence for the performa 
of a second part of it entitled ‘* Polly.”’ By G; 
friends’ subscription, bis profits on its publicat 
amounted to 1200/., whereas the Beggar's Op 
gained him only 400/. See Theatres. | 


. H 

OPERA COMIQUE, a new theatre, z 
Strand, opened 29 Oct. 1870, by Mdlle. Déjazet; 
a French company. The French opera com 
began 1715. : 
OPERA-HOUSH, THE ITALIAN 
QUEEN’S, or (since 1837) HER MAJEsTt 
THEATRE. The original building is generally s 
posed to have been constructed by sir John Vanbra 


| though Mr. Pennant attributes it to sir Christop 


Wren. It was built as ‘‘the queen’s (afterwa 
changed to king’s), theatre’? opened g April, 17 
and burnt down 17 June, 1789. The foundatior 
the new theatre was laid 3 April, 1790; and 
house was opened 22 Sept. 1791, on an impro 
plan; a new exterior was erected in If 
from designs by Mr. Nash. This theatre was tot 
destroyed by fire (cause unknown) on the night 
6-7 Dec. 1867. The loss of the lessee, Mr. May 
son, was about 12,000/., and that of Madlle. ‘lit 
(valuable jewels and dresses), was valued at 200 
rebuilt, but internal arrangements not comple 
Moody and Sankey’s revival meetings were h 
here, 12 April, 31 May,.1875. ‘The new house) 
opened for Italian opera by Mr. Mapleson, 28 Ap 
1877; see Theatres —The ENGiLisH OPERA 
Lyceum) was opened 15 June, 1816. It was 
tirely destroyed by fire 16 Feb. 1830. The 1 
English Opera-house, or Lyceum, was erected fi 
designs by Mr. S. Beazley, and opened in Ji 


| 1834; see Theatres and National Opera-house. 


OPHICLEIDE, the keyed bassoon, sail 
have been invented by Frichot, a Frenchman 
London, between 1791 and 1800. 


OE eee HOSPITALS, see Fi 
prtals. | 

OPHTHALMOSCOPEH, an apparatus 
inspecting the interior of the eye, invented 
professor H. Helmholtz, and described by | 
in 1851. 


OPIUM, the juice of the white poppy, ” 
known to the ancients, its cultivation being m 
tioned by Homer, and its medicinal use by lip 
erates. It is largely cultivated in British Ii 
and was introduced into China by our merchas 
which led eventually to the war of 1839, the | 
portation being forbidden by the Chinese gove 
ment. ‘The revenue derived from opium by 
Indian government in 1862 was about 7,850,00 
in 1874, 8,000,000/. Laudanum, a preparation 
opium, was employed early in the 17th cent 
A number of alkaloids have been discovered 
opium: narcotine by Derosne, and morphia 


| Sertiirner, in 1803. A society for suppressing 


opium trade held meeting in London, 17 Jan. 18 


OPORTO (W. Portugal), the ancient (i 
one of the most impregnable cities in Europe, | 
the mart of Portuguese wine known as * Po 
A chartered company for the regulation of the p' 
wine trade was established in 1756. The J’rer 


7 | 
4 
yg 
: 


: 
fs 


OPPORTUNISTS. 


605 


ORANGEMEN. 


marshal Soult, were surprised here by lord 
ngton, and defeated in an action fought 
ay, 1809. The Miguelites besieged Oporto, 
ere repulsed by the Pedroites, with consider- 
loss, 19 Sept. 1832. The Oporto wine com- 
was abolished in 1834, but re-established by 
al decree, 7 April, 1838. An international 
ition was opened here by the king, 18 Sept. 
- see Portugal. 
YPORTUNISTS, a name given to French 
cians (especially the ultra-liberals,) who sus- 
agitation for their peculiar opinions till a 
le opportunity comes; among them Gambetta 
rominent, 1876-82. See France. 

TICS, a science studied by the Greeks; and 
e Arabians about the 12thcentury. See Light. 


ng lenses known at Athens . : ier BG ded 
tise on optics doubtfully attributed to Euclid, 
about 300 
iagnifying power of convex glasses and con- 
3 mirrors, and the prismatic colours produced 
mgular glass, mentioned by Seneca, about a.D. 50 
se on optics by Ptolemy . ‘ s about 120 
of the leading principles known to the Pla- 
sts : : : : : Z ; 300 
ty improved by Alhazen, who died . 1038 
for spectacles and telescopes, given by Roger 
On. a P : : : : about 1280 
acles said to have been invented by Salvinus 
aatus, of Pisa : : : ‘ before 1300 
ta obscura said to have been invented by Bap- 
aPorta . ‘ , * : ‘ 3 . 1560 
sopes invented by Leonard Digges about 1571 
r publishes his ‘‘ Dioptrice ” : : oa tea EOLE 
tope made by Jansen (said also to have in- 
ted the microscope), about 1609, and inde- 
dently, by Galileo . . ; : about 1630 
seope, according to Huyghens, invented by 
bel . A : ‘ : ‘ about 1621 
yf refraction discovered by Snellius about 1624 
tion of light discovered, and the undulatory 
ory suggested by Grimaldi . about 1665 
sting telescope, Jas. Gregory, 1663 ; Newton . 1666 
m and velocity of light discovered by Roemer, 
_after him by Cassini . 5 : ‘ are, L007 
7elocity demonstrated to be 190 millions of 
es in sixteen minutes. ] 
le refraction explained by Bartholinus . 1669 
grainian reflector . A 4 , - 1672 
on’s discoveries in colours, &ce. ; : . 1674 
copes with a single lens by Tschirnhausen, 
about 1690 
isation of light and undulatory theory dis- 
ered by Huyghens . ‘ ; . about 1692 
ture of the eye explained by Petit about 1700 
ration of light discovered by Bradley . pry Oy 
ymatic telescope constructed by Mr. Hall (but 
‘made public)in . : . ‘ : pa ee) 
ructed by Dollond, most likely without any 
ywledge of Hall’s telescope 1757 


thel’s great refiecting telescope erected at 
ugh : : 5 : A f ; Fide pote’ 
. Young’s discoveries (undulatory theory, &c.) 1800-3 
ra lucida (Dr. Wollaston) . : cS 4 . 1807 
8 (polarisation of light by reflection) about 1808 
iel’s researches on double reflection, &c. 7 
val discoveries of Wheatstone . ; 1838 et seq. 
telescope constructed by lord Rosse 
-» (colours of polarised light, &c.). . 1811-53 
'. Brewster, optical researches (see Kaleidoscope, 
otography) : f , : : - 1814-57 
spectroscope constructed and used by Kirch- 
fand Bunsen . ; : 5 A ; . 1861 
‘yndall’s Lectures on Light first. illustrated by 
‘hoseq’s electric lamp, at the Royal Institution, 


— : ~ : , 4 S A fa O50 
“arches of Mr. Wm. Spottiswoode on polarised 
ht : 1871-8 


’ Telescope, Microscope, Stercoscope, Pseudoscope, 
ctrum, Photography, &e. 

‘PTIC NERVES are said to have been dis- 
vved by N. Varole, a surgeon and physician of 
gna, about 1538.—Nouwv. Dict. 


ra 


OPTIMISM (from optimus; the best), the 
doctrine that everything which happens is for the 
best, in opposition to Pessimism (from pessimus, 
the worst). The germ of optimism is to be found 
in Plato, and in St. Augustin, and other fathers; 
and has been especially propounded by Malebranche 
and Leibnitz, and adopted by Pope, Bolingbroke, 
Rousseau, and others. Optimism as expressed in 
the term, ‘‘ the best of all possible worlds,”’ is ridi- 
culed by Voltaire (1694-1778) in his ‘‘ Candide.”’ 
The term meliorism (from melior, better) has been 
lately introduced. See Pessimism. 


‘‘OPTION,” a term given at the time to the 
permission given to the inhabitants of Alsace and 
Lorraine by the German government to choose, 
before 30 Sept. 1872, whether they would quit 


their country or become German subjects. Great 


numbers emigrated into the French territories. The 
“option” of archbishops respecting their claims on 
a benefice becoming void on the creation or transla- 
tion of a bishop, was abolished in 1845. 


ORACLES, a.term applied to revelations made 
by God to man. They were given to the Jews at 
the Mercy-seat in the tabernacle; see Haod. xxv. 
18-22. The Holy Scriptures are the Christian 
‘‘ oracles,’ Rom. iii. 2; 1 Pet. iv. 11. King Aha- 
ziah sent to consult the oracle of Baalzebub at 
Ekron about 896 B.c. The Greeks consulted espe- 
cially the oracles of Jupiter and Apollo (see Dodona 
and Delphi); and the Italians those of Faunus, 


| Fortune, and Mars. 


ORAN, Algeria (N. Africa), a Moorish city 
several times captured by the Spaniards; defini- 
tively occupied by the French in 1831, who have 
since added docks, &e. 

ORANGE, a principality in S.E. France, 
formerly a lordship in the 9th or toth century. 
It has been ruled by four houses successively : that 
of Giraud Adhemar (to 1174); of Baux (1182 to 
1393); of Chalons (to 1530); and of Nassau (1530 
to 1713); see Nassau. Philibert the Great, prince 
of Orange, the last of the house of Chalons, having 
been wronged by Francis I. of France, entered the 
service of the emperor Charles V., to whom he 
rendered great services by his military talents. 
He was killed at the siege of Florence, 3 Aug. 1530. 
He was succeeded by his nephew-in-law, René of 
Nassau; see princes of Orange under Holland. 
The eldest son of the king of Holland is styled the 
prince of Orange, although the principality was 
ceded to France in 1713. See Arausio. 


ORANGEMEN. The “Battle of the Dia- 
mond,” 21 Sept. 1795 (see Diamond), and the 
treachery experienced by the Protestants on that 
occasion, convinced them they would become an 
easy prey to the Roman Catholics, from their small 
numbers, unless they associated for their defence, 
and the first Orange lodge was formed in Armagh ; 
but the name of Orangemen already existed. An 
Urange lodge was formed in Dublin; the members 
published a declaration of their principles (the 
maintenance of church and state) in Jan. 1798. 
After 1813 Orangeism declined; but revived again 
in 1827, when the duke of Cumberland became 
erand-master; and it is stated that in 1836 there 
were 145,000 Orangemen in England, and 125,000 
in Ireland. After a parliamentary inquiry Orange 
clubs were broken up in conformity with resolu- 
tions of the house of commons; but were revived 
in 1845. In Oct. 1857, the lord chancellor of Ire- 
land ordered that justices of the peace should not 
belong to Orange clubs. The Orangemen in Canada 
were greatly excited during the visit of the prince 


{ 


“ORANGE RIVER TERRITORY. 


606 


OREGON TERRITORY. 


of Wales in Sept. 1860. Mr. Wm. Johnston, a 
grand master, convicted of violating the Party 
Processions Act, was elected M.P. for Belfast, Nov. 
1869. See Belfast. 


ORANGE RIVER TERRITORY, a free 
state of Dutch Boers, in South Africa. ‘The British 
government proclaimed its authority over this ter- 
ritory, on 3 Feb. 1848, but transferred (by sir George 
Clerk) its powers to a provisional government, 
29 March, 1854. <A Volksraad (legislative council) 
and governor were appointed. Disputes arose re- 


specting the ownership of the diamond fields in 
1868. 


ORANGES. The sweet, or China orange, was 
first brought into Europe from China by the Portu- 
guese, in 1547; and it is asserted that the identical 
tree, whence all the European orange-trees of this 
sort were produced, is still preserved at Lisbon, in 
the gardens of one of its nobility. Orange-trees 
were first brought to England, and planted, with 
little success in 1595; they are said to have been 
planted at Beddington park, near Croydon, Surrey. 
The duty on imported oranges was repealed in 1860. 


ORATOR HENLEY. Aneccentric English 
gentleman of some talents, in 1726, opened his 
‘‘oratory,’’ a kind of chapel, in Newport-market, 
where he gave lectures on theological topics on 
Sundays, and on other subjects on Wednesdays, 
every week. Novelty procured him many hearers ; 
but he was too imprudent to gain any permanent 
advantage. He removed his oratory to Clare-market, 
ape eank into obscurity previously to his death, in 
1756. 

ORATORIANS (from the Latin orare, to 
pray), a regular order of priests established by St. 

hilip Neri, about 1564, and so called from the 
oratory of St. Jerome, at Rome, where they prayed. 
They had a foundation in France, commenced by 
Guillaume Gibieufand Pierre de Berulle (afterwards 
cardinal), 1612, approved by pope Paul V. 1613.— 
The rey. Frederick Faber and others, as ‘‘ Fathers 
of the Oratory,” established themselves first in 
King William-street, Strand, in 1848, and after- 
wards at Brompton. 


ORATORIO, a kind of musical sacred drama, 
the subject of itbeing generally taken from the 
Scriptures. The origin of our oratorios (so named 
from having been first performed in an oratory), is 
ascribed to St. Philip Neri, about 1550. The first 
true oratorio, Emilio del Cavaliere’s ‘‘ Rappresenta- 
zione,’ was performed at Rome in 1600. He was 
followed by Giovanni Carissimi, Alessandro Scar- 
latti, &c. The first oratorio in London was per- 
formed in Lincoln’s-inn theatre in Portugal-street, 
in 1732. Handel’s oratorio of ‘‘Israel in Egypt”’ 
was produced in 1738, and the ‘‘ Messiah”’ in 1741 ; 
Haydn’s ‘‘ Creation”’ in 1798; Beethoven’s “ Mount 
of Olives,” 1803; Spohr’s ‘* Last Judgment ”’ (pro- 
perly ‘‘ Things’’), 1825; Mendelssohn’s ‘‘St. Paul”’ 
in 1836, and ‘‘ Klijah”’ in 1846; Costa’s ‘ Eli,” 
1865; ‘‘ Naaman,’ 1864; S. Bennett’s ‘* Woman of 
Samaria,’ 1867; Benedict’s ‘‘St. Peter,’’ 1870; 
Macfarren’s ‘‘John the Baptist,’ 1873; ‘ Resur- 
rection,’ 1876 ; and ‘‘ Joseph,” 1877; Dr. P. Armes’ 
“ Hezekiah,’’ 1878; professor Macfarren’s ‘‘ King 
Davyid,’’ 1883. 

ORCHOMENUS, a small Greek state in 
Beeotia, was destroyed by the Thebans, 368 B.c. ; re- 
stored by Philip II. of Macedon, 354; and given up 
by him to Thebes, 346. 


ORDEAL was known among the Greeks and 
Jews (Num. v. 2). It was introduced into England 


by the Saxons. A prisoner who pleaded not gui 
might choose whether he would put himself 
trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, 
at this day, or upon God only. The trial by ord 
was abolished in 1218. 


ORDER OF THE CORPORATE R 
UNION, virtually a new episcopal church, 5 
to arise out of the Christian Unity Associat 
(which see). It proposed to form four statio 
(Canterbury, York, Caerleon, and St.Andrews,) w 
rectors and provincials; announced 11 Sept. 187 


ORDERS, see Anighthood. 


ORDERS 1n CouNcIL were issued by 1 
British government 7 Jan. and 11 Noy. 1807, p 
hibiting trade with the ports occupied by } 
French, being reprisals for Napoleon’s Berlin dee 
(which see). They greatly checked the progress 
manufactures in this country, and caused mt 
distress till their removal in 1814. 


ORDINANCES, see Ordonnances, Self-De 
ing Ordinances. - 

ORDINATION of ministers in the Christ 
church began with Christ and his apostles; | 
Mark iii. 14, and Acts vi. and xiv. 23. In Ei 
land in 1549 a new form of ordination of minist 
was ordered to be prepared by a committee of | 
prelates and six divines. 


ORDNANCE OFFICE. Before the iny 
tion of guns, this office was supplied by offie 
under the following names: the bowyer, the cro 
bowyer, the galeater, or purveyor of helmets, ' 
armourer, and the keeper of the tents. Henry VI 
placed it under the management of a master-genet 
a lieutenant, surveyor, &c. The master-gene 
was chosen from among the first generals in | 
service of the sovereign. ‘The appointment 
formerly for life; but since the restoration, ¥ 
held durante bene placito, and not unfrequently 
a cabinet minister.—Beatson. The letters pat 
for this office were revoked 25 May, 1855, and 
duties vested in the minister of war, lord Panmu 
The last master-general was lord Fitzroy-Somer: 
afterwards lord Raglan. 


ORDNANCE SURVEY. The trigonon 
trical survey of England was commenced by g 
Roy, in 1783, continued by col. Colby, and ¢o 
pleted by col. (aft. sir Henry) James in 1856. 1 
publication of the maps commenced in 1819, um 
the direction of col. Mudge, and was completed 
1862; a large part of these maps have b 
coloured geologically. The survey of Ireland } 
been completed and published; that of Scotla 
completed Nov. 1882. By the survey act, passed 
May, 1870, the ordnance survey was transferred 
the Board of Works. Directors, lieut.-gen. Jo 
Cameron, succeeded sir Henry James in 1875, d 
30 June, 1878; col. A. C. Cooke; col. R. H. St 
herd, 1885. 


ORDONNANCEHS, the laws enacted byt 
Capetian kings of France previous to 1789. i 
began with ‘‘in the name of the king,’’ and en¢ 
with ‘‘such is our good pleasure.” The first 
French is dated 1287 (Philip IV.) The publicati 
of these ‘‘ ordonnances,” ordered by Louis XI’ 
1706, is still in progress. The ‘‘ ordonnances ” 
Charles X., promulgated 26 July, 1830, led to ! 
revolution. 


OREGON TERRITORY (N. America). 
dispute respecting boundaries arose in 1845 I 
tween the British government and that of t 
United States, which was settled by treaty, 12 Ju1 
1846. Oregon was admitted as a state, Feb. 1359 


a 


4 


5 


ORGAN. 


607 


ORLEANS. 


GAN, a development of the pandean pipes; 
organ’? in Gen. iv. 21 should be trans- 
pipe. The invention is attributed to Ctesi- 
. barber of Alexandria, about 250 B.c.; and to 
medes, about 220 B.c. The organ was brought 
rope from the Greek empire, and was applied 
gious devotions in churches, about A.D. 657. 
larmine. Organs were used in the western 
hes by pope Vitalianus, in ,658.—Ammonius. 
ufirmed that the organ was known in France 
» time of Louis I., 815, when one was con- 
ed by an Italian priest. The organ at Haar- 
; one of the largest in Europe; it has 60 stops 
000 pipes. At Seville is one with IIo stops 
300 pipes. ‘The organ at Amsterdam has a 
pipes that imitate a chorus of human voices. 
» organs in ENGLAND that at St. George’s Hall, 
pool, by Mr. Willis, was the largest ; next in 
that at York minster, and that in the music- 
Birmingham. In London, the largest was, 
ps that of Spitalfields church; and that in 
; Church was nearly as extensive. The erection 
» famous Temple organ was competed for by 
idt and Harris; after long disputes, the 
on was referred to vote, and Mr. Jefferies, 
rards chief justice, gave the casting vote in 
c of Schmidt (called Father Smith), about 
A monster organ was erected in the Crystal 
e, Sydenham, in June, 1857. The organ, by 
3, at the Royal Albert Hall, is now said to be 
rgest in the world; 1871. A larger proposed 
cathedral in Long Island, North America, 
A noble organ (by Bryceson), with many 
nees, opened in the hall, Primrose-hill-road, 
im, N. Jan. 1876. 
organs are said to have been first made early in 


18th century. The finest was the Apollonicon 
ch see). 


GANIC SYNTHESIS, see Chemistry. 
JEL COLLEGE (Oxford), founded in 


by Adam de Brome, archdeacon of Stow, and 
er to king Edward II. This college derives 
me from a tenement ‘called 7’ Oriole, on the 
‘which the building stands. 


NENTALISTS. The first International 
ess of these scholars was held at Paris, 1 Sept. 
M. Léon de Rosny, the founder, president. 
econd Congress met at the Royal Institution, 
mdon, 14-19 Sept. 1874; Dr. S. Birch, 
ent. The third Congress met at St. Peters- 
I Sept. 1876; the fourth at Florence, Sept. 
The fifth met at Berlin, 12-17 Sept. 1881, 
ttman, president. The sixth at Leyden, 10 
1883. See Asiatic Societies. 


IFLAMME, see Auriflamma. 


IGENISTS pretended to draw their opinions 
the writings of Origen, who lived 185-253. 
maintained that Christ was the son of God 
her way than by adoption and grace; that 
were created before the bodies ; that the sun, 
_ Stars, and the waters that are under the 
nent, have souls; that the torments of the 
?d shall have an end, and that the fallen 
shall, after a time, be restored to their first 
jon. They were condemned by councils, and 
\ding of Origen’s work was forbidden.—Bure. 
_ doctrines were condemned by the council of 
“intinople in 553. 


-RIGIN OF SPECIES, py MEANS OF 
JRAL SELECTION,” by Charles Darwin, 
4 first published, 24 Nov. 1859. He was born 
0. 1809, died 19 April, 1882. See Species. 


ION Sream-Suir. On 18 June, 1850, 


| 


_ this splendid vessel, bound from Liverpool to Glas- 


gow, struck on a sunken rock, northward of Port- 
patrick, within a stone’s throw of land, and in- 
stantly filled. Of two hundred passengers more 
than fifty were drowned. 


ORISSA, a province of N. W. Bengal, India, 
with an area of 74,413 square miles, and a popu- 
lation of 20,000,000. It was conquered by Clive 
in 1755, and nearly all acquired by the company in 
1765. It suffered much by famine in 1770, and 
1792-3, and more especially from the end of 1865 
to Nov. 1866, when it is said about 750,000 per- 
sons perished. The government and officials were 
censured for neglect and want of forethought. It 
is also said that during a hurricane in Oct. 1836, 
22,500 persons were drowned. 


ORKNEY anpd SHETLAND ISLES 
(North of Scotland), were conquered by Magnus III. 
of Norway, 1099, and were ceded to James III. as 
the dowry of his wife Margaret, in 1469. The 
Orkneys were the ancient Orcades; united with 
Shetland, they now form one of the Scotch coun- 
ties. The bishopric of Orkney, founded by St. 
Servanus early in the 5th century, some affirm by 
St. Colm, ended with the abolition of episcopacy in 
Scotland, about 1689; see Bishops in Scotland. 


ORLEANS (a city in central France), formerly 
Aurelianum; gave title to a kingdom, 491, and 
afterwards to a duchy, usually held by one of the 
royal family. Attila the Hun, besieging it, was 
defeated by Aetius and his allies, 451. It was be- 
sieged by the English under earls of Salisbury and 
Suffolk, 12 Oct. 1428, bravely defended by Gaucour 
(as its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles 
VI. king of France), und relieved by the heroism 
of Joan of Arc, afterwards surnamed the Maid of 
Orleans, 29 April, 1429, and the siege was raised 
18 May; see Joanof Are. (The 439th anniversary 
was celebrated 10 May, 1868; the emperor and 
empress being present.) During the siege of Or- 
leans, Feb. 1563, the duke of Guise was assas- 
sinated. 


After nine hours’ severe fighting, Orleans captured 
by the Germans, under general Von der Tann. 
More than 4000 prisoners were taken. The loss 
on both sides was heavy. About 35,000 on each 
side were engaged. The city was made to pay a 
war contribution of 60,000l. rr Oct. 

Von der Tann and the Bavarians defeated by 
generals D’Aurelle de Paladines and Palliéres, 
and Orleans re-taken. The Germans acknow- 
ledged the loss of about 700 men and rooo pri- 
soners, chiefly wounded. The French asserted 
the numbers of both to be higher, and were much 
cheered with their victory. The French loss was 
heavy. The chief conflict took place between 
Coulmiers and Bacon or Baccon g, 10 Nov. 

Severe conflicts at Bazoche and Chevilly, near Or- 
leans, between a part of the army of the Loire 
and prince Frederick Charles and the grand-duke 
of Mecklenburg : : : : . 2-4 Dec. 

A battle, during which the suburbs were stormed, 
and about 1ro,ooo unwounded prisoners, 77 guns, 
and four gunboats taken. The French retired; 
Orleans re-taken by the Germans AUS.» ae 


DUKES. 

Louis contended for the regency with John the Fearless, 
duke of Burgundy, by whose instigation he was assas- 
sinated in 1407. 

Charles taken prisoner at Agincourt, 1415; released, 
1440; died, 1465. 

Louis, became Louis XII. of France in 1498, when the 
duchy merged in the crown. 

Bourbon Branch.—Philip, youngest son of Louis XIII., 
born, 1640; died, 1701. F 

Philip II., son, born, 1673; REGENT, 1715; died, 1723. 

Louis, son, born, 1703; died, 1752. 

Louis Philippe, son, born, 1725; died, 1785. 


ORLEANS, NEW. 


Louis Philippe Joseph, son, born, 1747; opposed the 
court in the French revolution; took the name 
Eqalité, 1x Sept. 1792; voted for the death of Louis 
XVL.; was guillotined, 6 Nov. 1793. 

Louis Philippe, son, born, 6 Nov. 1773; chosen king of 
the French, 9 Aug. 1830: abdicated, 24 Feb. 1848; 
died, 26 Aug. 1850. His queen, Marie Amélie, died, 
24 March, 1866 (see France). 

Ferdinand Philippe, son, duke of Orleans, born, 3 Sept. 
1810; died, through a fall, 13 July, 1842. 

Louis Philippe, son, count of Paris, born, 24 Aug. 1838, 
married Maria Isabella, daughter of the duke of 
Montpensier, 30 May, 1864. A daughter, Maria Amelia, 
born, 28 Sept. 1865. 

The demand of the Orleans princes to return to 
France, 19 June, refused by the legislative assem- 
bly after discussion é : , SL CRA vis 

Their request to serve in the army after the fall of 
the empire declined... : : Sept. 

{The duc de Chartres served incognito.) 

After discussion, the duc d’Aumale and the prince 
de Joinville permitted to take their seats as mem- 
bers of the national assembly 19 Dec. 

After much discussion, the comte de Paris at a per- 
sonal interview recognized the comte de Cham- 
bord as the legitimate head of the Bourbon family 
and king of France : : 5 Aug. 1873 

For consequent proceedings see France 1873, et seq. 

The bodies of king Louis Philippe and others of his 
family removed from England and buried in the 
mausoleum at Dreux g June, 1876 


ORLEANS, NEW, see New Orleans. 


ORMULUM, a metrical version of the Gospels 
and Acts, in early English, made by Orm, an ecclesi- 
astic, in the 12th century, printed at Oxford in 
1852, from a MS. in the Bodleian. 


ORNITHOLOGY, see Birds. 
ORNITHORHYNCHUS, the duck- billed 


platypus, or water-mole, a singular compound of 
the mammal and the bird, a native of Australia, 
was first described by Dr. Shaw, in 1819. 


OROQUIETA, Navarre, N. Spain. 


1870 


2? 


be) 


Here don 


Carlos, calling himself king Carlos VII., grandson | 


of don Carlos, brother of Ferdinand VII., com- 
manding about 4000 men, was suddenly attacked 
by general Moriones with about 2000, and defeated 
after a short conflict, 4 May, 1872. He fled, leay- 
ing 757 prisoners and 38 dead. 


ORPHAN-HOUSES. The emperor Trajan 
first formed establishments for this purpose. Pliny 
relates in his Panegyric that he had caused 5000 free- 
born children to be sought out and educated, about 
A.D. 105. Orphan houses properly so called are 
mentioned for the first time in the laws of the em- 
peror Justinian. At the court of Byzantium the 
office of inspector of orphans, orphanotrophos, was 
so honourable that it was held by the brother of the 
emperor Michael IV. in the 11th century; see 
Loundling Hospitals. 

The Orphanotropheon at Halle, established by Au- 

gust Francke . : : : : ; 5 1698-9 
‘The Orphan Working Asylum for 20 boys was estab- 

lished at Hoxton in 1758. It is now situated at 

Haverstock-hill, and contains 350 boys and girls. 
Asylum for Female Orphans, Lambeth; removed 

to Beddington, near Croydon; instituted - 1758 
London Orphan Asylum founded, 1813; removed to 

Clapton, 1823; new building at Watford, founded 

by the prince of Wales, 13 July, 1869; opened, 
20 July, 
British Orphan Asylum, Clapham-rise, established, 

1827; removed to Slough, Bucks ; re-opened, 

25 June, 

The Infant Orphan Asylum at Wanstead (1827); 

and the Asylum for Fatherless Children (in 1844; 

settled at Reedham, Surrey), established mainly 

through the exertions of a congregational minister, 
the rev. Andrew Reed, D.D. 

Orphan-houses, Ashley-down, Bristol, founded by 

George Miller, a Prussian, supported entirely 


1871 


1863 


608 


OSTEND. 


by voluntary contributions. (He began in 
house in Bristol, rx April, 1836.) 2050 orphai 
were maintained, 1873 ; reported prosperous 
Erdington Orphanage and Alms-houses, near Bi 
mingham, erected and endowed (with 250,000! 
by Josiah Mason, a manufacturer of Birminghar 


Royal Albert Orphan Asylum, at Bagshot, esta 
lished, 1864; additional buildings founded } 
the queen, 29 June, 1867. 

Alexandra Orphanage for Infants, Holloway, 186. 
foundation of building laid, 6 July, 1867. 

Stockwell Orphanage, Clapham-road, founded } 
ae C. Spurgeon, aided by legacy of Miss Hi) 
yard . : : ; : : : 3 

Orphans’ Homes :—Maida-hill, 1873; West-s 
Southwark ; and Gravesend 72 " 7 


ORPHEONISTS, see Crystal Palace, 15 
go REHEUS, STEAMER, see Wrecks, 7 
1863. 


ORRERY, a planetary machine to illu 
and explain the motions of the heavenly } 
appears to have been coeval with the cleps 
Ptolemy devised the circles and epicycles thi 
tinguish his system about 130. The plan 
clock of Finée was begun 1553. The planets 
of De Rheita was formed about 1650, ‘The pl 
arlum, now termed the Orrery, it is said, 
constructed by Rowley, after a pattern devise 
the clock-maker, George Graham, at the expa 
Charles Boyle, earl of Orrery, about 171 ie f 
‘‘ planetarium ”’ was constructed by the rev. 
Pearson, for the Royal Institution, London, ; 
1803. An excellent planetarium, construct. 
eae by signor N. Perini, was exhibited in 
1879. 


ORSINT’S PLOT against the emperor } 
leon III.; see France, Jan. 1858. 


ORTHES or Or THEz (S. France), once ¢ 
of the principality of Bearn. Near it the Bi 
and Spanish armies, commanded by Wellin; 
defeated the French, under Soult, 27 Feb. ; 
The battle of Toulouse soon followed. ; 


ORTHOPAIDIC HOSPITALS, for 
cure of club-foot, spinal curvatures, &e.: Nati 
Great Portland street, founded, 1836; Royal, | 
over-square, 1838; City, 1851. 


OSBORNE HOUSE (isle of Wight), 
ithe by the queen in 1845, and rebuilt by 
ubitt. 


_OSMIUM, one of the heaviest known me 
discovered in platinum ore by Tennant in 1303 


OSNABURG (N. Germany), made the se 
a bishopric, by Charlemagne, near the end of 
8tk century. After the treaty of Westphali 
1648, the bishop was a Roman Catholic and pro 
ant alternately, the latter being chosen from 
house of Brunswick. Frederick, duke of York. 
last bishop, resigned in 1803, when the lands’ 
annexed to Hanover. He died 5 Jan. 1827. 


OSSORY (S. E. Ireland), BrsHopric | 
was first planted at Saiger, about 402; transl 
to Aghadoe, in Upper Ossory, in 1052; am 
Kilkenny about the end of the reign of Henr 
It was united to Ferns and Leighlin in 1835. _ 


OSTEND (Belgium), sustained a siege by 
Spaniards, from July, 1601, to Sept. 1604, whe 
honourably capitulated. On the death of Chi 
JI. of Spain, the French seized Ostend; bu 
1706, after the battle of Re milies, it was retake 
the allies. It was again taken by the Frene 
1745, but restored in 1748. In 1756, the Fr 


i, | 


’ is 


ss 


OSTRACISM. 


ned this town for the empress-queen Maria 
a. In 1792, the French once more took 
, which they evacuated in 1793, but regained 
|. The English destroyed the works of the 
canal; but the wind shifting before they 
re-embark, they surrendered to the French, 
y, 1798. ‘The Ostend East India company, 
hed 1723, was dissolved 1731. See Cuba, note. 


‘RACISM (from the Greek ostrakon, a 
d or shell), a mode of proscription at Athens, 
to have been first introduced by the tyrant 
s; others ascribe it to Cleisthenes, about 510 
‘he people wrote the names of those whom 
ost suspected upon small shells; these they 
an urn or box and presented to the senate. 
a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest 
_ was sentenced by the council to be banished 
is altar and hearth. 6000 votes were re- 
Aristides, noted for his justice, and Mil- 
for his victories, were thus ostracized. The 
was abolished by ironically proscribing 
jolus, a mean person, about 338 B.c. 


RICH (the struthios of the ancients), a 
of Africa (see Job xxxix. 14). Ostriches 
tched and reared at San Donato, near Flo- 
1359-60; and at Tresco abbey, the seat of 
us Smith, in the Scilly isles, 1866. 


ROGOTHS, or Eastern Gorus, were 
lished from the Visigoths (Western Goths) 
30. Afterravaging eastern Europe, Thrace, 
eir great leader, Theodoric, established a 


n in Italy, which lasted from 493 to 553; | 


Y. 

ROLENKA (Poland). Near here the 
defeated the Prussians, 16 Feb. 1807. In 
battle here between the Poles and Russians 


ighter was immense, but the Poles remained 
of the field, 26 May, 1831. 


GO, see New Zealand, 1848, 1861, 1866. 


HEITE or TAnITI, an island in the S. 
Jeean, seen by Byron in 1765, and visited 
by captain Wallis, who calledit George the 
sland. Captain Cook came hither in 1768 
‘ve the transit of Venus; sailed round the 
sland in a boat, and stayed three months; 
dit twice afterwards. See Cook. Omui,a 
f this island, was brought to England by 
nd carried back in his last voyage. In 
ng Pomare ceded the district of Matavai to 
inglish missionaries. Queen Pomare was 
ad to put herself under the protection of 
9 Sept. 1343. She retracted, and Otaheite 
neighbouring islands were taken possession 
miral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of the 
king, Noy. 1843. The French imprisoned 
thard, the English consul, 5 March, 1844, 
act was censured in France. 
omare IV., born, 23 Feb. 1813; sueceeded her 
*, Pomare III., in Jan. 1827; dicd 17 Sept. 1877, 
reigned so years. By consent of her successor 
nd was formally annexed to France, 29 June, 
The queen arrived at Paris, 27 Feb. 1884. 


EOSCOPE (from dthed, I propel), ap- 
invented by Mr. W. Crookes, for studying 
motion, the effects of radiation; described 
April, 1877. 


AWA (formerly BytTown), on the river 
‘Was appointed to be the capital of Canada 
queen in August, 1858. The executive 
met here 22 Nov. 1865, and the Canadian 
nt was, for the first time, opened here by 
ernor-general, lord Monck, on 8 June, 


609 


OURIQUE. 


1866. Mr. Darcy McGee, M.P. for Montreal (once 
an Irish agitator, but afterwards exceedingly loyal), 
Was assassinated on his return from parliament, 
7 April, 1868. Fenians were suspected, and the 
town was put in a state of siege. Whelan, con- 
victed of the murder, 15 Sept. 1868, was executed 
Feb. 1869. A dominion exhibition was opened 
here 24 Sept. 1879. Population in 1861, 14,669 ; 
in 1871, 21,545; in 1881,'27,412. 


OTTERBURN (Northumberland). In 1 388 
the Scotch besieged Newcastle and were driven off 
by Henry Percy (Hotspur), son of the earl of North- 
umberland. Perey pursued them to Otterburn, 
where a battle was fought on 10 Aug., in which the 
earl of Douglas was killed and Percy taken pri- 
soner. On this battle the ballad of Chevy Chase is 
founded. 


OTTOMAN EMPIRE, see Turkey. 


QUDE or OupH (North India), formerly a 
vice-royalty held by the vizier of the great mogul. 
About 1760, it was seized by the vizier Sujah-ud- 
Dowlah, ancestor of the late king. 


Battle of Buxar, where Sujah and his ally, Meer 
Cossim, are totally defeated, and the British be- 
come virtually masters of Oude . 23 Oct. 1764 

Reign of Asoph-ud-Dowlah, who cedes Benares, &c., 
to the East India Company, who place troops in 
Oude (see Chunar) : ; : 3 1775-81 

[The annual subsidy to the company in 1787 was 
500,000. ; in 1794, 760,000l. ; in 180r, I, 352, 3471. ] 


More territories ceded to the company . i . I80r 
Ghazee-ud-deen becomes king, with the consent of 
the British ; ; : : : . 1819 
Dreadful misgovernment of Nusser-ud-deen 1827-37 
[At his death, the British resident, Colonel Lowe, 
promptly suppresses an insurrection. ] 
Mahomed Ali governs well . i 1837-42 
But his son Umjeed Ali Shah : : 1842-7 
and grandson, Waud Ali Shah, exceed all their pre- 
decessors in profligacy ; : » ; 1847-56 
In consequence (by virtue of the treaty of 1801) 
Oude is annexed to the British territories, by 
decree, proclaimed . : : : - 97 Feb. 1856 
The queen and prince of Oude, &c., arrive in Lon- 
don to appeal : ; : é 2Or Ae es 
Oude joins the Indian mutiny; ex-king of Oude 
imprisoned (on suspicion) . é - 14 June, 1857 
The queen dies at Paris, 24 Jan.; and the prince at 
London : z , ; 26 Feb. 1858 
[For the war, see India, 1857-8.] 
Triumphal entry of the governor-general inéo Luck- 
now ; the Talookdars (landowners) receive a free 
grant of their estates 22 Oct. 1859 


Grand durbar held at Lucknow by the viceroy, sir 
John Lawrence . : : : ; 12 Nov. 1867 
Oude is said to be prospering under British rule, 


OUDENARDKE (Belgium). Here the English 
and allies under the duke of Marlborough and prince 
Eugene thoroughly defeated the French besiegers, 
I1 July, 1708. 


OULART (S.E. Ireland). Here sooo Irish 
insurgents attacked the king’s troops, in small 
numbers, 27 May, 1798. ‘The North Cork militia, 
after great feats of bravery, were cut to pieces, five 
men only escaping.— Musgrave. 


OUNCE (from uncia), the sixteenth part of the 
pound avoirdupois, and twelfth of the pound troy. 
Its precise weight was fixed by Henry III., who 
decreed that an English ounce should be 640 dry 
grains of wheat; that twelve of these ounces should 
be a pound; and that eight pounds should be a 
gallon of wine, 1233. 


OURIQUE (Portugal), where Alfonso, count 
or duke of Portugal, is said to have encountered 
five Saracen kings and a great army of Moors, 25 
July, 1139, and signally defeated them; and then 


RR 


* 


OUTLAW. 


to have been hailed the first king. Lisbon, the 
capital, was taken, and he soon after was crowned. 


OUTLAW, one deprived of the benefit of the 
law, and out of the sovereign’s protection; a 
punishment for such as being called in law do con- 
temptuously refuse to appear. In the reign of 
Edward III. all the judges agreed that none but the 
sheriff only having lawful warrant therefor, should 
put to death any man outlawed.— Cowel. Outlawry 
in civil proceedings was abolished by 42 & 43 Vict. 
ce. 59, 15 Aug. 1879. 

OUZEL GALLEY SOCIETY. In 1700, 
the case of the Ouzel Galley, a ship in the port of 
Dublin, excited great legal perplexity, and was 
referred to an arbitration of merchants, whose 
prompt decision was highly. approved. ‘This led to 
the present society, founded in 1705. 


OVATION, an inferior triumph which the 
Romans allowed those generals of their army whose 
victories were not considerable. Publius Posthumius 
Tubertus was the first who was decreed an ovation, 
503 B.c. Asheep (ovis) was offered by the general 
instead of a bull. 


OVERLAND MAIL, see Waghorn. The 
overland mail travelled first through the Cenis 
tunnel to Brindisi, saving 24 hours, 5 Jan. 1872. 


OVERSEERS of the poor for parishes were 


appointed in 1601; see Poor Laws. 


OWENS COLLEGE, Manchester, founded 
by means of a bequest of 100,000/. by John Owens, 
merchant, who died in 1846. A new eonstitution 
was obtained in 1870, and the duke of Devonshire, 
president, laid the first stone of the new building, 
23 Sept. 1870; and opened it, 8 Oct. 1873. Mr. 
E. R. Langworthy bequeathed 10,000/. to develop 
the chair of experimental physics, 1874. The 
college proposed as a university, July 1876-8. See 
Victoria Unwersity. 

OWHYHEEH or HAwall, an island in the 
N. Pacific Ocean, discovered Dec. 1778, by capt. 
Cook. On 14 Feb. 1779, he here fell a victim to a 
sudden resentment of the natives. A boat having 
been stolen by one of the islanders, the captain 
went on shore to seize the king, and keep him as a 
hostage till the boat was restored. The people 
would not submit to this insult, and their resistance 
brought on hostilities, and captain Cook and some 
of his companions were killed. Great progress has 
been recently made in civilisation here; and an 
order of nobility and arepresentative assembly were 
instituted in 1860. The population then was about 
120,000; about 60,000 in 1878; a railway opened 
in 1878. See Sandwich Isles. 


OWNERS OF LAND, see Domesday. 
OXALIC ACID, which exists in several 


plants, especially in sorrel, is now abundantly 
obtained, for use in the arts, from sawdust acted 
upon by caustic potash or soda, according to Dr. 
Dale’s process, patented in 1862. 


OXFORD, an ancient city, restored by king 
Alfred, who resided here and established a mint, 
&c., about 879. See Population. 
Canute held a national council here . 
Stormed by William I. . ‘ : E A ee 
Charter by Henry II., the city granted to the bur- 

gesses by John . : : : : ; - I199 
Henry IIL. holds the ‘‘mad” parliament here . . 1258 
Bishops Ridley and Latimer burnt here, 16 Oct. 

1555; and archbishop Cranmer 21 March, 1556 
Fatal (or Black) Oxford Assizes,—when the high 

sheriff and 300 other persons died suddenly of an 

infection from the prisoners. . RASS a = SST 


- 1018 
067 


610 


OXFORD UNIVERSITY. . 


Charles I. took Oxford, 1642, and held a parliame 
here , : : ; 5 : “ . 
Taken by the parliament. A 24 Jun 
Charles IT. held parliaments here 1665 


Visit of the allied sovereigns : : 
British Association met here ° 1832, 184 
Oxford Military College, Cowley, opened . 20 Sep 
New high school opened A - 15 Sep 


OXFORD ADMINISTRATION, : 

29 May, I7I1I. 

Robert, earl of Oxford (previously right hon, 
Harley), lord treasurer. 

Sir Simon (afterwards lord) Harcourt, lord keeper, 

Jobn, duke of Normanby and Buckingham, lor 
dent. 

John, bishop of Bristol (aft. London), privy seal. 

Henry St. John (afterwards viscount Bolingbrok 
William, lord Dartmouth, secretaries of state. 

Robert Benson (afterwards lord Bingley), chanc 
the exchequer. 

The duke of Shrewsbury succeeded lord Oxford, 
ing the lord treasurer’s staff on 30 July, r714 
days before the death of queen Anne. From th 
of George I. the office of lord treasurer has bee 
cuted by commissioners. 


OXFORD BISHOPRIC, | establishe 
Henry VIII., formed out of Lincoln, first 
at Osney in 1542; removed to Oxford oa 
(formerly St. Frideswide, now Christ Chureh) 
Present income, 5000/. | 


RECENT BISHOPS. 


Charles Moss ; died, 16 Dec. 1811. 

William Jackson ; died, 2 Dec. 1815. 

Edward Legge ; died, 27 Jan. 1827. 

Charles Lloyd ; died, 3x May, 18209. 

Richard Bagot ; translated to Bath, Noy. 18 

1845. Samuel Wilberforce; translated to Wind 
Nov. 1869. 

1869. John Fielder Mackarness. 


OXFORD DECLARATION, see Chiu 
England, 1864. 


OXFORD MARBLES, see Arundelian 
OXFORD UNION SOCIETY, estab 


as a debating club, in 1823; amongst its 
members, are or were Mr. Gladstone, bp. Wilber 
lord Stanhope, abp. Manning, Sidney Herbert, 
Tait, &c. It held a jubilee festival, 22 Oct. 
the lord chancellor Selborne in the chair. 


OXFORD UNIVERSITY. An ata 
here is described as ancient by pope Marti 
in a deed, 802. Alfred founded *‘the seh 
about 879. 

Charter granted by Henry III. . : q 3 
Charter of Edward III. 1355; of Henry VIII. . 
The university incorporated by Elizabeth 
Receives the elective franchise (to send two mem 


bers to parliament) . 4 2 - ae 
Noy. 1602; buildin; 


Bodleian Library opened, 8 
completed : A 3 ; ‘ ; . 
The botanic garden, &c., established by the earl © 
Danby : , ‘ 3 si 4 
Radcliffe Library opened, 13 April, 
Radcliffe observatory completed . >is 
A commission appointed (31 Aug. 1850) to inquir 
into its ‘state, studies, discipline, and revenues; 


1807. 
1812. 
1815. 
1827. 
18209. 


1749; th 


reported §4).= 1.77 . 27 April 
Acts making alterations passed . E 1852, 
University Museum opened . July 


Examination statutes passed 1801, 1807, 185¢ 
Extension of the university proposed at a meetin’ 
held . 3. 0. Oe 
University tests abolished by act passed 16 Jun 
Royal commission to inquire respecting universit 
property, &c., appointed . : : . 6 dar 
Income in 1871, reported to be: university 
47,5891. os. 3d., colleges and halls, 366,253!. 168: 3t! 
total, 413,842l. 16s.6d. . . : »») Oe) 
Hebdomadal board reported that about 100,000 
was needed for education in science . Jum 


rt 


, as 
‘f 
Ag 
 } 
0 


Lr 


“hi 


\ 


OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF. 


chester’s bequest to promote the study of 


nian literature, especially Polish ; first lec- 
given. : : : - May, 1875 
mmission appointed (lords Selborne and Re- 
le, Montague Bernard, sir M. W. Ridley, 
Burgon, and Mr. Justice Grove) ; announced 
27 March, 1876 
University Bill withdrawn July, 1876; the 
rsities Act passed ; F - Io Aug. 1877 
unission publish a new scheme for profes- 
&e., very restrictive A 2 Nov. 1880 
passed admitting women to examination 
29 April, 1884 


lemorial house, containing Pusey’s library, 
pened by bishop of Oxford Ott: ,, 
COLLEGES. 

ity, said to have been founded by king 
, 872; founded by William, archdeacon of 
m, about : : ‘ ; A : 

founded by John Balliol, knt. (father to 
l, king of the Scots), and Deborah, his wife 
College, by Walter de Merton, bishop of 
Ser. : é { , ; : ; 
i College 1312 (dissolved in 180s, and a 
rd scholarship appointed) 1805; revived, 
fagdalen Hall incorporated with it rod 
by Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter Se eh 
lege, by king Edward II. ; Adam de Brome, 
acon of Stowe . ; : ; 4 Sess 
College, by Robert de Eglesfield, clerk, 
sor to queen Philippa, consort of Edward 


1232 
1263 
1264 


1326 


3 c - fs : : - : - 1340 
lege, by William of Wykeham, bishop of 
ester ; first called St. Mary of Winchester, 
dd 1379 ; Occupied 1386 ; (sooth anniversary 
ted 14 Oct. 1879). 

s’ College, by Henry Chichely, archbishop 
terbury i : ; ; : é - 1437 
1, by William of Waynflete, bishop of Win- 

r : 4 = = ; 5 : fb t456 
College, by Richard Fleming, 1427; finished 
sherham, bishop of Lincoln ; ; ‘ 
se, by William Smyth, bishop of Lincoln, 
‘Richard Sutton . j : : a 
Shristi, by Richard Fox, bishop of Win- 


1479 
1509 


Poi. E . z 5 5 : , « 1516 
yhurch, by cardinal Wolsey, 1525; and 

wds by Henry VIII. _ , , EN ys 
by sir Thomas Pope, on the basis of a pre- 
nstitution, called Durham College - 1554 
’s, by sir Thomas Whyte, lord mayor of 


1532 


Hale, by Dr. Hugh Price and queen Eliza- fo 
, by Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy, his >” 
e by Thomas Teesdale and Richard Wight- ess 
nia sir Thomas Coke, of Bentley, in Wor- 
hire; it was originally called Gloucester 


1624 


: A - ‘ : , : ee E7T4 
lege (see Keble College) ; first stone laid by 
hop of Canterbury 25 April, 1868; conse- 


‘ ; ‘ : ; : - 23 June, 1870 
stitute, founded 1878 or 1879. 
HALLS (not incorporated). 
nd’s - 1269 
vo + 1333 
Hall 


. . j 4 : : - 1 1302 
Magdalen (incorporated with Hertford 

1874) . ; P : : : : - 1487 
's (united with Merton College, 1882) . 1547 
| [Oxford University Calendar. } 
essorships — Divinity (Margaret), 1502; 
7, Law, Medicine, Hebrew, Greek, 1540, 


| 

{ RECENT CHANCELLORS. 
‘iam, baron Granville. 
our, duke of Wellington. 
yard, earl of Derby ; d. 23 Nov. 1869. 

ert, marquis of Salisbury, elected 12 Nov. 


. 
ORD, Provisions OF, for several poli- 
mms; enacted by “the mad parliament,” 


611 


OYSTER. 


June 1258; several times annulled and confirmed 
during the “ barons’ war.’’ 


OXFORD’S ACT, 


Churches. 


OXFORD'S ASSAULT on THE QuEEN. 
Edward Oxford, a youth who had been a servant 
in a public-house, discharged two pistols at queen 
Victoria and prince Albert, as they were proceeding 
up Constitution-hill in an open phaeton from 
Buckingham palace, 10 June, 1840. He stood 
within a few yards of the carriage, but neither her 
majesty nor the prince was injured. Oxford was 
tried at the Old Bailey (10 July), and was adjudged 
to be insane, and sent first to Bethlehem hospital, 
next to Broadmoor ; and set at liberty in 1868, on 
condition of going abroad. 


OXUS (the Persian and Turkish Djihour, 
local name, Amou Dary4), ariver of Central Asia ; 
supposed to have changed its course before 1000 
A.D., and to have resumed its ancient bed in 1878. 


OXYGEN, a gas (named from the Greek OxUS , 
sharp, as being generally found in acids), is the 
most abundant of all substances, constituting about 
one-third of the solid earth, and forming about 
nine-tenths of water and one-fifth of the atmo- 
sphere. It was first separated from red oxide of 
mercury by Priestley, 1 Aug. 1774, and by Scheele, 
who was ignorant of Priestley’s discovery, in 1775° 
It is a supporter of animal life (in respiration), and 
of combustion. An oxygen gas company was 
announced in Dec. 1864; its object being the cheap 
manufacture of oxygen for its application to the 
production of perfect combustion in lamps, stoves, 
furnaces, &c. Oxygen was liquefied by Raoul 
Pictet at Geneva; (pressure, 320 atmospheres, 


BISHOP OF, see District 


temp. 140 below zero cent.) 22 Dec. 1877. Sec 
Ozone. 
Professor Dewar obtained 2 cubic centimetres (F5 of a 


fluid oz.) Of liquid oxygen by means of liquid ethylene 
(the illuminating part of coal gas), temp. 140° below 
zero Cent. (by Wroblewski and Olzewski’s method) 
at the Royal Institution, London, in the presence of 
the prince and princess of Wales, 26 June, 1884. 

A statue of Priestley, by F. J. Williamson, at Birming- 
ham, was unveiled by professor T. H. Huxley, 1 Aug. 
1874, the centenary of the discovery of oxygen. This 
was also celebrated at Northumberland, Pennsylvania, 
where he was buried, Feb. 1804. The following tele- 
gram was sent 31 July: ‘‘The brethren at the grave 
to the brethren at the home of Priestley send greet- 
ing on this centennial anniversary of the birth of 
chemistry.” 

A method of obtaining oxygen from air, devised and 
patented by M. Margis, of Paris. The principle is that 
of dialysis, or diffusion under pressure, Sept. 1882. 
See Gas (liquefaction). 


OYER AND TERMINER, 2 commission directed 
to the judges of the courts, by virtue whereof they 
have power to hear and determine treasons, felonies, 


&c., 1285. 


OQ YES! A corruption of the French oyez, hear 
ye! The ancient term still used by a public crier 
and by the usher of courts of justice to enjoin 
silence and attention. 


OYSTER (the Latin Ostrea edulis). 
oysters are celebrated by the Rom 
(Sat. iv. 140) about 100. The robbery of oyster- 
beds is prohibited by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c: 29 (1827). 
About 15,000 bushels of oysters were said to be pro- 
duced from the Essex beds alone. In 1858 M. Coste 
commenced rearing oystersin great numbers on the 
met of Brittany, and his plan has been found suc- 
cessful. 


British 
an satirist Juvenal 


RRQ 


oe | 


OZOKERIT. 612 OZONE. 
An act for promoting the cultivation of oysters in OZONE (from the Greek ozein, to iel¢ 
the United Kingdom, passed : Aug. 1866 | odour), was discovered by Schonbein, of Base 
One for the preservation of oyster fisheries 3 3 May, 1867 1840, whem experimenting with the then ne 
Certain restrictions of the Oyster Fisheries act, invented battery of sir Wm. Grove, and was r 
1862, removed by the Fisheries act 1868 d by hi ] t 
The fisheries (oyster, crab, and lobster) act forbids nised by him successive yee minute consti 
the sale of deep-sea oysters between 1 5 Juneand 4 of the oxygen gas resulting from the man’ 
August; and the sale of others, between 4 May water effected by a current of high tension; 
and 4 August; passed o Aug. 1877 | or oxygen through which electric discharges 
Professor Huxley at the Royal Institution Hae taken place; and of air in which moist phospl 
the uselessness of restrictions and a close time for has been undergoing slow oxidation. 
oysters, and the present uncertainty of culture 
11 May, 1883 | Marignac determined the action of ozone on various 
Artificial breeding greatly promoted by professor substances to be due to their oxidation ; 
Brooks of Baltimore, (who discovered non-her- Ozonometers constructed 
maphrodite) lieutenant Winslow, U.S., and M. M. Schonbein announced his discovery of another 
Bouchen-Brandely, announced . June, 1884 modification of oxygen, which he termed antozone, 


Act for the cultivation of oysters in Ir eland. passed 

Oysters, about 1830 the comnionest of food, are now be- 
coming scarcer and scarcer, although their reproduction 
is about a million-fold. A committee recommend 
a close time for dredging, viz., 1 May to x Sept., deep- 
sea fishing to be restricted, as at present, from 15 June 
to 15 Aug.; no oyster to be sold under 23 inches in dia- 
meter. The Whitstable beds in 1875 are said to have 
produced about 79,564,000 oysters; value about 
55,1401. 

American and Portuguese oysters are now largely im- 
ported. 


OZOKERIT, a mineral hydro-carbon found in 
Moldavia and Wallachia. From it is distilled a 
substance suitable for making candles, introduced 
in the autumn of 1871. 


hitherto found only in the compound state (in 
peroxides of sodium, potassium, &c.) 

The French Academy of Sciences appointed a com. 
mittee of eminent philosophers to inquire inte 
the nature and relations of ozone 4 Dee, 

Andrews and Tait demonstrated ozone to ped a con. 
densed form of oxygen. 1860, 

This further established by Soret and Brodie, by 
quantitative reactions. (Odling suggested and 
Brodie proved ozone to be 3 parts of oxygen com- 
pressed into the space of 2) 

Ozone, generated by a current produced by Wilde’ 
magneto- electric machine, employed to bleach 


sugar, by Edward Beane’s patent . i Aug. 
Liquefied by Hautefeuille and Chappuis . O¢ 
Other properties since discovered : es 


1b. 


PACIFICATION. 


IFICATION, Epicts or, the name 


given to the edicts of toleration granted by 
ach kings to the protestants; see “Ghent. 


ct, by Charles IX., permitting the exercise 
reformed religion near all the cities and 
in the realm Jan. 
rmed worship permitted in the houses of 
usticiaries, and certain other persons, March, 
licts revoked, and all Protestant ministers 
d to quit France in fifteen days . 1568 
lowing lords and others to have service in 
louses, and granting public service in cer- 
) Wns 
m5 72; the same monarch ‘authorised the 
cre of St. Bartholomew (see Bartholomew). ] 
f Pacification by Henry III., April; re- 
, Dec. 1576; renewed for six years Oct. 
‘edicts were published against the protes- 
ufter the six years expir ed. ] 
Henry IV., renewing that of Oct. 1577 
Nantes (which see), by Henry IY., 13 April, 
ion of Nismes (which see) . 


1562 
1563 


1570 


1577 


- I591 
14 July, 1629 


coated 


1598 | 


FIC ISLANDERS. See Kidnapping | 


IFIC OCEAN, see Magellan; Steam, | 


Wrecks, 1856; Kidnapping Acts ; Panama. 


IFIC RAILWAY, North America, from | 


city, Missouri, to Sacramento, California, 
les, opened 12 May, 1869. By a collision 
um Francisco, about I5 persons were killed, 
. 1869. For new Pacific railway see C ‘anada, 


JLOCKS are said to have been invented 
cher at Nuremberg, 1540, but are mentioned 
arlier. 
JU A, the Roman Patavium, in Venetia, N. 
aid to have been founded by Antenor, soon 
e fall of Troy, 1183 B.c. It flourished under 
nans. Patayian Latin was considered very 
, and is traced in Livy, a native of Padua. 
sing an independent republic, and a member 
Lombard league, Padua was ruled by the 
family from 1318 with a short interruption 
5, When it was seized by the Venetians. 
diversity was founded about 1220. It was 
hrough disturbances, 1848-50. 


tANS, the heathen, worshippers of idols, 
eing in any set form or points of belief. See 
/onstantine’s nephew, Julian, attempted their 
ion, 361; but Paganism was renounced by 
nan senate in 388, and finally overthrown 
eign of Theodosius the younger, about 391. 


MARIRE, a name given to the dogmas 
[au-hau sect; see New Zealand, 1865. 


NS anpD PENALTIES, see Queen Caro- 
Ps 


NTING. Osymandyas (in Egypt) caused his 
_toberepresented in painting, 21008B.c. Usher. 


tus, said to be the first portrait and historic 
ys lived about , B.C. 450 
f ‘Heraclea and Parrhasius of Ephesus, about 400 
about 332 

‘of Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, 

hod of burning the colours into wood or 
: e about 360-330 


°. . . 


_ Guido da Siena . 


PAINTIN G. 


Antiphilus, an Egyptian, is said to have been the 
inventor of the grotesque. Pliny. ob Bac 

The art was introduced at Rome from Etruria, by 
Quintus Fabius, styled Pictor. Livy. 

Excellent pictures broughtfrom Corinth by M ummius 

After the death of Augustus, not a single painter of 
eminence appeared for several ages ; “Ludius, who 
was very celebrated, is supposed to have been the 
last about A.D. 

Painting on canvas seems to have been known. at 
Rome in 66. Bede, the Saxon historian, knew 
something of the art, died 

It revived about the end of the r3th centur y, and 

to Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, is awarded the 

honour of its restoration : died 


are regarded as the founders of the Flemish school 
of painting i in oil 


Uccello first studied perspective ; died 


. I 
Henry VII. patronised Holbein, and invited Titian 


to his court : about 

In Aug. 1860, the sale of lord Northwick’s pictures 
occupied eighteen days. It produced 95,7251. A 
Carlo Dolei fetched zorol. , and a Murillo rool. 

The Bicknell collection, sold in April, 1863, pro- 
duced 25,6001. 

Mr. Wm. Noy Wilkins invented a process of using 
oil with mineral colours for frescoes in 1853 ; pub: 
lished his ‘‘ Durability in Art”. 

Gainsborough’s picture of Georgiana, duchess of 
Devonshire, bought by Messrs. Agnew for 10, r00l., 
stolen from their house in Bond-street, London, 

24-25 May, 

Baron Albert Grant’s collection said to dee sold 
for 106,2621. . 28 April, 

Mr. Munro’s Novar collection, sold for 64,9751. 
close of sale 3 June, 

Leigh Court collection (sir P. W. Miles) Bola for 
44,2061. - 4 20 June, 


EMINENT PAINTERS, 
Born or 


332 


291 
146 


14 


735 


+ 1300 
_ John Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother, “Hubert, 


rats 


2 


1523 


1876 
1877 
1878 
1884 


School. Flowrished. Died. 


. I220 

Marghitone d’Arezzo  , . Florentine . 1212 
Cimabue . Ditto - 1240 
Giotto . . Ditto . a r270) 
Simone Martino (Memmi) . Italian . . 1283 
Andrea Orcagna see Ditton 1320 
Hubert Van Eyck = a Mlemish ear. r306 
J. Van Kyck . Ditto . - 1366 
Fra Angelico da Fiesole. . Italian - 1387 
Felippo Lippi Se DIGtOe. » 1412 
Domenico Ghirlandajo . . Ditto - 1449 
Andrea Mantegna aye WIbLOg. - 1431 
Giorgione : . Venetian . 1477 
Sandro Botticelli a - italian . . 1437 
Giovanni Bellini - Ditto . 1426 
Leonardi da Vinci . Florentine . 1452 
Raphael d@’Urbino . . Roman . 1483 
Pietro Paolo Perugino . Italian - 1446 
Albert Durer . . German . 1470 
Quentin Matsys Flemish . 1460 
Florentine . 1488 


Andrea Vannuchi (del Santo). 


Correggio . Lombardian 1494 
Parmegiano . Ditto = 503 
Hans Holbein . y aermnan 9.91495 
Giulio Romano ~ . Roman . 1492 
Sebastian del Piombo . . Venetian . 1485 
Lucas Cranach : . German . 1472 


Giovanni Razzi. . Siennese 


- 1479 


Michael Angelo Buonarotti . Florentine . 1474 
Titian é = >. . Venetian 17 1477 
Paul Veronese . Ditto « 2532 
Tintoretto . ; . Ditto . . 1512 
Annibal Caracei : . Lombardian 1568 
Breughel . 2 : - - Flemish . 1565 
P. P. Rubens 53 . Ditto . - 1577 


1289 
1300 
1336 
1344 
1389 
1426 
I44r 
1455 
146g 
1498 
1506 
I51I 
I51s 
1516 
1520 
1520 
1524 
1528 
1529 
1530 
1534 
1540 
1543 
1546 
1547 
1553 
1554 
1564 
1576 
1588 
1594 
1609 
1625 
1640 


PAINTING. 


Born or 


School. Flowrished. Died. 


Domenichino . : . . Bolognese . 1581 
Vandyck ‘ ; 5 . Flemish . . 1599 
Guido 3 ‘ é . . Lombardian 1575 
Wm. Dobson. is . . English - 1610 
Both . : ‘5 , eee, teh: - 1600 
P. Potter : ; . : Ditto . . 1625 
Le Seur . : . eR EONCD Lh. LOL7 
Spagnoletto . : . . Spanish . 1589 
Snyders . : , ME Lesh Wo eut 570 
Velasquez e 4 A . Spanish - 1599 
Zarbaran . ‘ . - » Ditto . 1598 
NS Poussin 4. . - . French . 1594 
Guercino . - : . . Bolognese . 1590 
Hobbima : : E . Flemish . 1611 
AS Cuyp) ; . ee AO UbCH". . 1606 
Samuel Cooper . ‘ . English . 1609 
A. Vander Velde . Ae Dire - 1638 
Salvator Rosa A : . Neapolitan. 1615 
Rembrandt ‘ : - a ULeL . 1606 
Gerard Douw . ; A  DItLO. su IOK3 
Sir Peter Lely . ; eum FOLIA) sees LOL, 
Mieris . : : A . Dutch. 7 2035 
Ruysdael . ; . Seay LB aS) - 1636 
Claude Lorraine . : . French . 1600 
Ostade : ‘ ‘ -?. Dutch . 1610 
Murillo . : 3 : . Spanish . 1618 
Berghem . 4 . Ro ee OS I) - 1624 
Carlo Dolei . : ‘ . Florentine . 1616 
Wouvermans . é pe MO ULEII. . 1620 
Le Brun . : : - . French - 1619 
Teniers, junr. . 4 . «'Hlemish . 16x0 
W. Vander Velde . ? . Dutch. - 1633 
Watteau. ? 3 . . French . 1684 
Sir Godfrey Kneller 3 . German - 1648 
Sir J. Thornhill «| . English ? 27 5.52676: 
Huysum : . ; Ar BUG Rolie? - 1682 
Hogarth . 5 : . . English - 1697 
Canaletti 4 - . Venetian . 1697 
J. Mortimer - 4 . . English - 1739 
R. Wilson : : 4 . Ditto 2A: 
Gainsborough . ‘ £7, eDitto's. - 19727 
C. J. Vernet. : 5 . French 2 L714 
Sir J. Reynolds . ‘ . . English Re irie} 
Romney . ; é 5 sHDIthO I.) eae: 
George Morland R es IULO Me - 1763 
Barry; ey. é > ‘ . Ditto vipat 
George Stubbs . . Sar oht Ne ere: oy 
Opie 5 : : ; <>)! Ditto ¥, - 1761 
Paul Sandby . ; : . Ditto > 1725 
Bourgeois . 5 . 2 OLEEO NS. - 1756 
Copley . 4 ; «Ditto 5. aad 
West . 5 : . A ag DTH HOP . 1738 
H. Raeburn . ; . Ditto . 1786 
Fuseli : f sa). DIthOme Md Phy 
David . : ‘ ; . Wrench?) . 12748 
Lawrence . ; ‘ . . English iat 700) 
Northcote : x : . Ditto - 1746 
Thos. Stothard . . ol. SDIbbOns - 755 
A. GCG. AVermet: x . . French - 1758 
Beechey . : . . . English o 1788 
Wm. Hilton . £ . . Ditto . > ."2786 
Wilkie . f . Se eOIECOR. . 1785 
Haydon , ‘ 4 2 Dibbol reo 
Collins . < . aes DILCO! ss . 1788 
Etty . ; : : OLDLOME ara r or, 
Turner : . . ee DITLO Ys ~ 19775 
Martin . d : . . Ditto - 1789 
C.R. Leslis . ‘ - SD ILtO . 1794 
Aug. Egg . : : Po OuLEO Ms - 1816 
Wm. Mulready . ~ . Ditto . . 1786 
J. HE. H. Vernet. : s+. Erench: . 1789 
FE. V. HE. Dela Croix . + Dittoc 4- Ar age 
Wm. Hunt :. : . . English - 1790 
D. Roberts . : . . Ditto - 1796 
W. F. Witherington . Sy & Wtnrey - 1786 
Clarkson Stanfield. . . Ditto - 1798 
P. Von Cornelius 3 ve GOLAN ease o7 
J.D. A. Ingres” |. . . Hrench 9 578% 
Thos. Creswick . . . . English Ae sb an 
F. Overbeck . . . . German. . 1789 
D. Maclise . : . . . English A WEOEE 
Sir George Hayter . > . Ditto - 1792 
Sir E. Landseer. . ee DILLON. . 1802 
W. Kaulbach . pera, WoerMman » 7 rs6s 
E. M. Ward : : . . English . 1816 

- I8to 


E. W. Cooke . , < . Ditto. 


1641 
1641 
1642 
1646 
1650 
1654 
1655 
1656 
1657 
1660 
1662 
1665 
1666 
1670 
1672 
1672 
1672 
1673 
1674 
1680 
1680 
1681 
1681 
1682 
1685 
1685 
1685 
1686 
1688 
1690 
1694 
1707 
T721 
1723 
1732 
1749 
1764 
1768 
1779 
1782 
1788 
1789 
1792 
1802 
1804 
1806 
1806 
1807 
1809 
1811 
1815 
1820 
1823 
1825 
1825 
1830 
1831 
1834 
1836 
1839 
1839 
1841 
1846 
1847 
1849 
1851 
1854 
1859 
1863 
1863 
1863 
1863 
1864 
1864 
1865 
1867 
1867 
1867 


' paleontological research.” Haley. See ll 


Born or 

School. Flowrished, 
Gustave Doré . . . French —. 1832 
Johannes Makart - . . German . ag @ 
Thos. Webster : ; . English . 1800 © 
Richd. Redgrave . 2. DIttOX. - 1804 
C. W.' Cope ye ' 5 . ‘Ditto . . . iim 
W. P. Frith , «| ow Ditto. aa De 
John Fad = . « «. Ditto 2 fae Ge 
Fredk. Goodall. . . . Ditto. . xBa9 a 
Thomas Faed .) a # Ditto a 
H.§. Marks . . «& . Ditto’ (iis 
J. E. Millais . : . . Ditto . . 1829 | 
F. Leighton i 4 pt ee DELO)? « - 1836 J 
Vicat Cole. . : . Ditto . . reag 
G. D.. Leslie 4); : . . Ditto. . 1835 & 
EK. J. Poynter ; . Ditto . . 1836 | 
L. Alma Tadema f - . Dutch - 1836 


PALACE COURT, see Marshalsea, 
Green Cloth. ' 


PALACE OF JUSTICE, or Rt 
CouRTS OF JUSTICE. The names given to th 
Law Courts, London. See Law Courts under 


PALACHS, see Buckingham, St. James’ s, . 
Viament, 1834-52, 1885, Lsewrial, Tuileries, 
Cloud, Versailles, &e. 


PALAOGRAPHY, ancient writing; 
Diplomatics, Writing. 


PALAOLOGI, a family which reign 
emperors of the east from 1260 to 1453. ¢ 
Paleologus raised Alexius Comnenus to the 
in 1081, and thereby founded his own family. 
drew, the last Paleologus, son of Thomas, rt 
the Morea, after the overthrow of his fathe 
came a Mahometan at Constantinople abou 
A person who called himself John Anthony . 
logus Lascaris, died at Turin, Sept. 1874. 
claims were doubted. . 


PALMONTOLOGY (from the Greek pa 
ancient, and onta, beings), treats of the evidel 
organic beings in the earth’s strata. It cor 
biology and geology (which see). Cuvier, Mi 
Agassiz, Owen, Edward Forbes, and Blainyill 
the present century, may be reckoned as fatl 
thisscience. The Paleontographical society, ° 
publishes elaborate monographs of British 01 
remains, was founded in 1847. The } 
‘* Palgeontographica’’ (German) began 166 
fessor Owen’s ‘‘ Paleontology’? was pub ish 
1860. ‘Nearly 40,000 species of anim 
plants have been added to the Systema a ih 


ah 


PALZAOPOLIS, see Naples. 


PALAIS ROYAL, Paris, originally I 
Cardinal, built for cardinal Richelieu by Lt 
cier, 1620-36, received its present name when: 
pied by Louis XIII., to whom the corde a 
shortly before his death in 1642. Louis 
1692, gave it to his nephew Philippe, duke o 
leans, and it became the residence of his sucee 
It was confiscated’by the republic in 1795, aft 
execution of Philippe Egalité. Louis aut 
sided in it, 1814-31. It suffered much inju 
the revolution in 1848. Under the second et 
it became the residence of prince Jerome an 
son Napoleon. ‘the buildings were much 1, 
by fire by the communists, 24 May, 1871. 


PALATINATE oF THE RHINE, one © 
seven ancient electorates of Germany. It was 
united to Bavaria, but was separated im 12! 
Frederic V., the elector palatine in 1610, ma 
in 1613 Elizabeth, the daughter of James 1. of 
land, and thus was an ancestor of queen Viet 


1880 | see Hanover. In 1619 he was elected king 0 


“ 


PALATINE. 


615 


PALMERSTON. 


— 


but lost all by his defeat by the Austrians 

eue in 1620. The Palatinate was horribly 
i by Tilly in 1622, and by the French in 
Several thousands of the ruined peasantry 
ent to America by the British government 
ople. The elector palatine, Charles Theo- 
pherited Bavaria in 1778; since when the 
ctorates have been united; see Bavaria. 


LATINE. William the conqueror made 
phew, Hugh D’Abrincis, count palatine of 
r with the title of earl, about 1070. Edward 
eated the palatine of Lancaster, 1539; sec 
ter, duchy of. The bishoprics of Ely 
and Durham were also made counties 


e. There is also mention made of the. 


palatine of Hexham, in 33 Henry VIII. | and psao, I efface), parchments written on after 


which then belonged to the arch- 
of York, but by the 14th of Elizabeth 
; dissolved, and made part of the county 
rthumberland. The palatinate jurisdic- 
f Durham was separated from the dio- 


nd vested in the crown, 6 Will. IV c. 19, 21 


(836. 
LE, the name given to the part of Ireland 


ed by the English—viz., parts of the coun- | 


Louth, Dublin, Meath, and Kildare. Anglo- 
rulers were termed lords of the pale. ‘Their 
ry exactions led to a royal commission of 
yin 1537. The defection of the lords of the 
| 1641 was followed by a general insurrection, 
ie royal cause was ruined in 1647. In 1652 
1 was committed to the rule of four com- 
ners. 
LERMO (N. W. Sicily), the ancient Pan- 
_ It has been held by the Carthaginians, 415 
taken by the Romans, 254 B.c.; by the Sara- 
A.D. 832 ; and by the Normans, 1072. Here 
Il. was crowned king of Sicily, 1130. 
ao was the scene of the Sicilian Vespers 
i see), 30 March, 1282. It suffered from 
uake in 1726and 1740. The king Ferdinand 
lat Palermo from 1806 to 1815, while Naples 
led by Joseph Bonaparte and Joachim Murat. 
olted against the tyranny of Ferdinand IL. 
1.1848. It was attacked by general Filan- 
29 March, 1849, and surrendered on 14 May. 
taken by Garibaldi, 6 June, 1860. An in- 
tion against the abolition of the monastic 
shments broke out in Palermo on 13 Sept. 
ind was suppressed by the royal troops with 
bloodshed ; order was restored by 22 Sept. 


LESTINE, see Jews. After being several 
‘conquered by the Saracens, and retaken from 
h to the roth century, and after being the 
of the wars of the Crusades (which sec), and 
sonflicts, Palestine was united to the Ottoman 
> by Selim I. in 1516. See Bible (note), Holy 
, and Syria. 

‘ne visited by the prince of Wales, 

: March and April, 1862 
Palestine exploration fund” was founded by 

y eminent persons as asociety “‘ for the inves- 

ion of the archeology, topography, geology, 
-nanners and customs of the Holy Land ;” <at 

‘irst meeting the archbishop of York was in } 
vhair 3 : A : : 22 June, 1865 
“means captain Wilson and a party left Eng- 

_ for Palestine in Nov. 1865; they arrived at 
_aseus, Dec. 20; and in the following spring 

yred Jezreel, Nazareth, and many other parts 

-¢@ Holy Land. 

-\tions in Jerusalem carried on by capt. War- 


‘abite stone Sagierad)  . te 
stematic trigonometrical survey of Palestine 


ed on by capt. Stewart, R.E., lieuts. Conder 
Kitchener, R.E. . : : A 1872-7 


A similar fund established at New York . . 3 
The ordnance survey of Sinai by capts. Wilson and 
Palner, published. : : . : Se 
The surveying party attacked by Natives, rescued 
by soldiers, after much suffering . to July, 
Survey of Western Palestine completed ; announced 
Oct. 1877 

Publication of map (x inch to the mile) in 26 sheets 
May, 1880 

Map and Memoirs of the Survey of Western Pales- 
tine published - : : 4 : ; ). 188orz 

Survey of Hastern Palestine begun by lieuts. Conder 
and Kitchener é : : . 1881 


PALESTRO (N. Italy). Here the Sardinians 
defeated the Austrians, 30, 31 May, 1859. 


PALIMPSEST (from the Greek, palin, again; 


1871 
1872 


1875 


the previous writing had been partially effaced. 
Cardinal Mai, by removing the second writing in 
some MSS., recovered the original. This was the 
ease with Cicero’s ‘‘De Republica,’’ published by 
Mai in 1821. It had been covered by a treatise of 
Lactantius. 


PALL, PALLIUM, in the,Roman Church an 


ensign of dignity conferred by the pope upon arch- 


bishops. By a decretal of pope Gregory XI. (about 
1370), no archbishop could call a council, bless the 
chrism, consecrate churches, ordain a clerk, or con- 
secrate a bishop, till he had received his pall from 
the see of Rome. The pall was first worn by an 
Irish archbishop in 1152, when Gelasius was recog- 
nised as primate of all Ireland. 


PALLADIUM, thestatue of Pallas, said to have 
fallen from heaven near the tent of Ilus, as he was 
building Ilium, which the oracle of Apollo de- 
clared should never be taken so long as the Palla- 
dium was found within its walls. The Greeks are 
said to have obtained it by craft during the Trojan 
war, 1184 B.c.; but some writers assert, another 
statue was taken, and that the real Palladium was 
conveyed from Troy to Italy by Aneas, 1183 B.C., 
and preserved by the Romans with the greatest 
secrecy in the temple of Vesta.—PALLADIUM is a 
rare metal, discovered in platinum ore by Dr. Wol- 
laston, in 1803. 


PALLAS, the planet, was discovered by Olbers, 
at Bremen, 28 March, 1802. 


PALLISER’S CHILLED SHOT, 
Cannon. 


PALL MALL, 2 street near St. James’s 
palace, London, is named from a French game at 
ball (paille-maille, being a wooden mallet), re- 
sembling the modern croquet, having been played 
there about 1621. Among eminent inhabitants 
were Nell Gwyn and Dr. Thomas Sydenham. ‘The 
Patt MALu GAZETTE, a daily independent political 
and literary journal, first appeared 7 Feb. 1865, and 
was edited by Mr. Frederick Greenwood till 1 May, 
1880, when it became a liberal paper, edited by Mr. 
John Morley, who retired 25 Aug. 1883. Price 2d. 
reduced to Id. 2 Jan. 1882. 


PALMERSTON ADMINISTRATION.* 


* Heury John Temple was born 20 Oct. 1784; was 
educated at Harrow, Edinburgh, and Cambridge ; suc- 
eeeded his father, viscount Palmerston, 1802 ; became 
M.P., and a junior lord of the admiralty, 1807 ; was secre- 
tary-at-war, 1809-28, and a secretary for foreign affairs, 
Nov. 1830-34, April, 1835 to Sept. 1841, and July, 1846 
to Dec. r851, and home secretary, Dec. 1852 to March, 
1855, when he became first lord of the treasury. Hewas 
created lord warden of the cinque ports, 31 March, 1861 ; 
and master of the corporation of the Trinity house, 
16 June, 1862. He sat for Tiverton, 1835-65. He died 
18 Oct., and was buried in Westminster abbey, 27 Oct. 
1865. His statue at Romsey, by M. Noble, was un- 


see 


PALMERSTON-RUSSELL. 


The resignation of the Aberdeen administration was 
announced I Feb. 1855, but nearly all its members 
returned to office soon after under lord Palmerston, 
lord Derby and lord John Russell having each ip 
vain endeavoured to form an administration. On 
22 Feb. Mr. Gladstone, sir James Graham, and Mr. 
Sidney Herbert resigned on account of the Sebas- 
topol inquiry. Lord John Russell resigned 13 July. 
Lord Canning was appointed governor-general of 
India, 4 July, 1855. ‘This cabinet resigned 20 Feb. 
1858, in consequence of a vote of censure upon it 
for introducing the Foreign Conspiracy bill, and was 


succeeded by the Derby administration (which see). | sopher, her friend. Palmyra is now inhabited 


First lord of the treasury, Henry viscount Palmerston. 

Lord chancellor, lord Crauworth. 

President of the council, earl Granville. 

Lord privy seal, duke of Argyll; next, earl of Harrowby ; 
afterwards the marquis of Clanricarde. 

Secretaries—home, sir George Grey; foreign, earl of 
Clarendon ; colonial, Sidney Herbert (resigned Feb. 22) ; 
afterwards lord J. Russell (resigned July 13); sir 


Willi Molesworth (died 22 Oct. 1855); next Henry | igo) ; 
Ee Op ORE US a SS aae) 4 rendered to the British, 31 Oct. in that year. 


Labouchere ; war, lord Panmure. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, W. EK. Gladstone (resigned 
22 Feb.); next, sir G. Cornewall Lewis. 

First lord of the admiralty, sir James Graham (resigned 
22 Feb.) ; next, sir Charles Wood. 

Board of control, sir Charles Wood; next, R. Vernon 
Smith. 


Public works, sir Wm. Molesworth; next, sir B. Hall | 


(appointed 22 July, 1855). 
Postmaster-general, viscount Canning (appointed governor- 
general of India, 4 July); next, duke of Argyll. 
President of the board of trade, lord Stanley of Alderley. 
Marquis of Lansdowne, without office. 
Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, earl of Harrowby ; 
next, M. T. Baines (appointed 24 Noy. 1855). 


PALMERSTON-RUSSELL ADMINIS- 
TRATION. The second Derby administration 
(which see) resigned 11 June, 1859. Earl Granville 
was requested by the queen to form an administra- 
tion, and obtained the support of lord Palmerston, 
but not of lord John Russell: the two last then 
agreed to form a cabinet, which came into office 
18 June, 1859. On the decease of lord Palmerston, 
18 Oct. 1865, earl Russell became premier; see Russel, 
First lord of the treasury, Henry viscount Palmerston. 
Lord high chancellor, John lord Campbell (died 23 June, 

1861); succeeded by six Richard Bethell, made Lord 

Westbury, who resigned 4 July, 1865; succeeded by 

lord Cranworth. 

Lord president of the cowncil, earl Granville. 

Lord privy seal, duke of Argyll. 

Secretaries—foreign affairs, lord John (afterwards earl) 
Russell ; colonies, duke of Newcastle ; succeeded by 
Edward Cardwell, 8 April, 1864; home, sir G. Cornewall 
Lewis ; succeeded by sir George Grey; war, Sidney 
(afterwards lord) Herbert; succeeded by sir G. C. 
Lewis (died 13 April, 1863), and by earl de Grey 
(x May); Jndia, sir Charles Wood. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Wm. Ewart Gladstone. 

first lord of the admiralty, duke of Somerset. 

President of the board of trade, Thos. Milner Gibson. 
{This office was offered to Mr. R. Cobden, and declined 

by him. ] 

Seeretary of state for Irelund, Edward Cardwell; succeeded 
by sir R. Peel (not in the cabinet). 

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, sir George Grey, 
bart. ; succeeded by Edward Cardwell; and by earl 
Clarendon, 8 April, 1864. 

Postmaster-general, earl of Elgin (proceeded to China in 
April, 1860); succeeded by lord Stanley of Alderley, 
appointed Sept. 1860. 

Poor-law board, 'T. Milner Gibson ; succeeded by Charles 
P. Villiers (9g July, 1860). 

PaumERstTON’S Act for abatement of smoke nuisance (16 
& 17 Vict. c. 128), 20 Aug. 1853. 


PALM-SUNDAY. When Christ made his 


entry into Jerusalem, multitudes of the people who 


covered by earl Russell, 21 July, 1868. Lady Palmer- 
ston died x1 Sept. 1869, aged 82. 


616 


PANAMA. | 


were come to the feast of the Passover, took bran 
of the palm-tree, and went forth to meet him 
It is usual, in some countries, to carry pa on 
Sunday before Easter, hence called Palm-Sund 


PALMYRA (Syria) was supposed to have | 
the ''admor in the wilderness built by Sol 
but was manifestly Grecian. The brilliant pai 
the history of Palmyra was under Odenatus 
queen Zenobia. At the death of Odenatus, Ze 


| assumed the title of queen of the Kast, in 


Aurelian defeated her at Emesa, in 272, and x 
her captive, 273, and killed Longinus, the pl 


few Arab families. ‘The ruins were visited in 
by Mr. Wood, who published an account of 
in 1753. 

PAMPELUNA (W. E. Spain, taken by 
French on their invasion of Spain), was invest 
the British, between whom and the French obs 
conflicts took place, 27 and 29 July, 1813. My 


PAMPHLETS. ‘heir first appevr 
amongst us is generally thought to have beé 
opposition to the church of Rome. ‘Those who 
first convinced of the reasonableness of the 
learning,’’ as it was then called, propagated — 
opinions in small pieces, cheaply printed, and 
was then of great importance) easily conc 
Political pamphlets began in Edward VL’s 
and were very numerous in the 17th and 18th 
turies (by De Foe, Swift, Steele, and others). 
Paul Louis Courier wrote ‘Simple Discours” andi 

pamphlets against the priests and nobles aftei 

restoration of the Bourbons, 1815. His ‘‘ Pa 
des Pamphlets,” defending the pamphleteer (pub 

1824), probably led to his murder, 10 April, 1825 
Large collections are in the libraries of the 

Museum and the Royal and London Institutions. 
Certain enactments respecting pamphiets removed] 

act passed July, 1869. 


E- t 
PANAMA, the isthmus which joins the 
Americas; see Darien. Across this a ship ¢ 
was proposed by the Bulwer-Clayton tr 
19 April, 1850. <A treaty .for the conae 
ship canal through the isthmus by the 
States was signed by representatives of that g 
ment and that.of Colombia 26 Jan. 1870. Arail 
was opened in 1855. In that year a newstate,. 
Granada, was divided into eight federal states, 
of which is named PanamA. A reyolution 
place in Panama, on 9 March, 1865; the gov 
ment was deposed, and don Jil Colunje beeame 
sident ; succeeded by Vincent Olarte, 1 Oct. 1 
Panama is now subject to Colombia (which 
The government overthrown by Colombian & 
without bloodshed, about 12 Oct. 1875. Civil 
between Dr. Damaso Cervera and gen. B. R 
sharp fights; the Morro beats the A/lajuela 
Oct. 1884. General Santo Domingo Vila inst 
as president, 8 Jan. 1884. Rebellion; governi 
steamer Leuwadouwan captures the rebel ship Dua 
much slaughter announced, 24 Dec. 1884. In 
rection in Panama; conflict with Columbian tro 
about 20 people killed. Insurgents destroy As 
wall railway terminus, &c.; the Unite 
government intervenes with troops, &e. to pr 
colonists and restore buildings ; rebels said 
totally defeated, 16 March-April. Railway 
opened with protected trains, 13 April, 1885. 
Gen. Tiirr and a committee propose a canal Och. 
Lieut. L. A.B. Wyse’s survey (1875) published autumn 
Congress respecting a new canal meet at Paris; F. 
De Lesseps president . . .  . = May 
Seven schemes proposed ; canal from Gulf of Limon 
to Bay of Panama recommended (by 74-8)29 May, 
Scheme suspended for want offunds . . = 


ai 


fd 


PAN-ANGLICAN SYNOD. 


617 


PANTOMIMES. 


hrough Nicaragua proposed by Americans ; 
wed by gen. Grant . = . . Sept. 1879 
s’ scheme opposed by the United States 
rmment . 2 : ; ; ; March, 
s at Liverpool describes his plan; canal to 
miles long : : : . 31 May, 
ers leave Paris to proceed to the work, 3 
satwork . : 5 : 2 24 Feb. 
aine, the American secretary, issued a circu- 
o the European powers protesting against 
international guarantees of the neutrality of 
canal, asserting that the guarantee of the 
ed States of 24 July, 1846, is sufficient 25 Oct. 
y and works partly destroyed by earthquakes 
, 9, 10 Sept. 
Lesseps reports probable completion of the 
Lin 1888 > : - - - 23duly, 1884 


N-ANGLICAN SYNOD, the popular 
of a conference of 75 bishops, British, colonial, 
merican, who met at Lambeth-palace, 24-27 
1867. They issued an address, published 
resolutions, of a very general character, and 
lly closed their conference on 10 Dec. 
er synod of about 100 bishops met . 2 July, 1878 
closing service at St. Paul’s 27 July, 
syclical letter issued proposing an episcopal 
d of reference for ecclesiastical questions, &c. 


1880 


1882 


33 


bad 


NDEAN PIPES (said to be the Greek 
¢,and the wgad or organ of the Bible, Gen. iv. 
1 Psalm cl.), usually seven tubes, popular in 
n early in the I9th century. 
-” for Davies’ ‘“new invented syrrynx”’ was 
hed in 1807. 


NDECTS, a digest of the civil law, made by 
of Justinian, 533. Itis stated that a copy of 
Pandects was discovered in the ruins of Amalfi, 

removed from Pisa in 1415, and preserved in 
brary of the Medici at Florence, as the Pan- 
Florentine. 


NDOSIA (Bruttium, 8S. Italy). Here 
nder, king of Epirus, was defeated and slain 
e Bruttians, 326 B.c. Lzevinus, the Roman 
1, was defeated at Pandosia, in Lucania, by 
tus, king of Epirus, 280 B.c. 


LNEAS or PAntus (Syria). Here Antiochus 
reat defeated Scopas, the Egyptian general, 
is Greek allies, 198 B.c. 


.NICS, CoMMERCIAL, generally the result 
-speculation; see Bubbles, South Sea, Law’s. 
gh French war: government issued 5,000, 0001. 
1equer bills : j : " ; P > 1793 
gh Irish rebellion, &c. (3 per cents. at 448) . 1797 
gh bubble companies, 770 banks stopped 
winter, 1825-6 


gh railway mania. 3 - ~ Oct. 1847 
gh American failures Nov. 1857 
gh fear of European war. ; . April, 1859 
gh oyer-speculation in limited liability com- 

ies ; : 2 : . May, 1866 
gh Franco-Prussian war. to July, 1870 


gh Russian attack on Afghans at Penjdeh 
aporary) i : . 9 April, 1885 
\NNONTIA, part of Illyria, now Hungary. 
finally subdued by Tiberius, A.D. 8. 


\NOPTICON oF SCIENCE AND ART, in 
ster-square, erected in 1852-3 for a chartered 
any, by Mr. T. H. Lewis, the architect; was 
din 1854 for lectures, musical performances, 
It hada very large electrical machine, battery, 
The speculation did not succeed; the building 
_old in 1857, and in March, 1858 was opened for 
Py . horsemanship, and called the Alhambra 
*h see). 


ay Bentham’s book ‘‘ Panopticon, or the Inspection | 
“ise,” an establishment in which persons may be . 


t under inspection, published 1791 ; see Milbank. 


A “Pre- | 


| its 


PANORAMAS, invented by Robert Burker, 
are bird’s eye views painted round the wali of a 
circular building. In 1788 he exhibited at Edin- 
burgh a view of that city, the first picture of the 
kind. Hetben commenced similar exhibitions in 
London in 1789, having adopted the name ‘‘ Pano- 
rama,’ and was ultimately enabled to build com- 
modious premises in Leicester-square for that 
purpose. (He died in April, 1806.) J. P. Louther- 
bourg, a painter, termed the panoramist, invented 
the ‘* Eidophusikon,’? natural phenomena repre- 
sented by moving pictures, exhibited at Lisle-street, 
Leicester-square, 3 April, 1781. ‘‘This was cer- 
tainly nota panorama.” Dr. Rimbauilt. 


PANORMUS, see Palermo. 
PANTAGRAPH (from the Greek panta, all 


things, and graphein, to write, and incorrectly 
termed Pentagraph), an instrument for copying, 
reducing, or enlarging plans, &c., invented by 
Christopher Scheiner, about 1603 ; improved by pro- 
fessor Wallace, and called ‘‘ Eidograph,”’ about 1821. 


PANTALEON, a musical instrument (a drum 
with tuned strings), invented by Pantaleon Heben- 
streit, about 1735. 


PANTECHNICON, arange of buildings, Mot- 


' combe-street, Knightsbridge, London, W., erected 


by Seth Smith, as a receptacle for paintings, 
jewellery, furniture, carriages, &c., 1530; was 
destroyed by fire 13—14 Feb. 1874, when much 
property was lost: re-built, 1874. 


PANTHAYS, Mahometans in the Chinese 
province, Yunan, became independent under a 
sultan, during the Tae-ping revolt, 1851-64. After 
suppression, the Panthays, after a severe 
struggle, were also subdued. Their capital, Talifoo, 
was captured, and its inhabitants cruelly massacred 
in Feb. 1873. The Panthays sent an embassy to | 
England in 1872, without effect. Sultan Suleiman 
committed suicide. 


PANTHEISM, the formula of which is 
“everything is God, and God is one,’’ was espe- 
cially taught by Xenophanes, who died 500 B.c. 
The doctrine is attributed to Spinoza, Kant, Fichte, 
andothermodern philosophers. Amalric of Chartres, 
censured for holding the doctrine, recanted 13th 
century. He is said to have asserted that ‘‘all is 
God, and God is all.” 


PANTHEON, at Rome, a circular temple 
built by Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus, 
27 B.C. It had niches in the wall, where the image 
or representation of a particular god was set up; the 
gates brass, the beams covered with gilt brass, and 
the roof covered with silver. Pope Boniface III. 
dedicated it to the Virgin Mary and all the saints, 
by the name of S. Maria della Rotunda, or ‘ad 
Martyres,”’ A.D. 608.*—The PANTHEON IN LonDON 
was erected by subscription, and opened 27 Jan. 
1772; formed into an opera house; burned down 
14 Jan. 1792; rebuilt for masquerades in 1795; 
opened as theatre, 1812; made a bazaar in 1834. 
The bazaar was closed in 1867, and the premises 
taken by Gilbey and Co., wine merchants, who lent 
the south part for a temporary church. 


PANTOGEN, sce Atomic Theory. 
PANTOMIMES were representations by ges- 


tures and attitudes among the Greeks, and were 
introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades and 
Bathyllus, 228.c. Comic masques were introduced 


* Victor Emmanuel, first king of united Italy, was 


_ buried here, 17 Jan. 1878. 


PAPAL AGGRESSION. 


here from Italy about 1700. The first regular 
English pantomime is said to have been ‘‘ Harle- 
quin executed,”’ produced by John Rich at the Lin- 
coln’s-inn-fields theatre, 26 Dec. 1717. Joseph 
Grimaldi (1779- 1837) was a most eminent clown. 


“ PAPAL AGGRESSION.” Ina consistory 
holden in Rome, 30 Sept. 1850, the pope (Pius IX.) 
named fourteen new cardinals, of whom four only 
were Italians. Among them was Dr. Nicholas Wise- 
man, vicar-apostolic of the London district, who 
was at the same time nominated lord archbishop of 
Westminster. 

Dr. Ullathorne enthroned as Roman Catholic bishop 
of Birmingham in St. Chad’s cathedral 27 Oct. 
A pastoral letter from Dr. Wiseman read in all the 

Roman catholic chapels of his see (all England 

parcelled out into Romish dioceses). a7 OCU ae. 
The answer of the bishop of London(Dr. Blomfield) 

to a memorial from the protestant clergy of West- 

minster, against a Romish hierarchy in_ this 

country, was followed by the ‘‘ Durham” letter 
from lord John Russell, then chief minister of the 
crown, to the bishop of Durham, in which he 
severely censured, not only the papal aggression, 
but also the proceedings of the tractarian clergy 

of the Church of England : ; ASINO Volilies'y 
Immediately from every quarter of England ad- 

dresses poured in to her majesty the queen, calling 

upon her and the government to resist the usurpa- 
tion ; 6700 addresses, it is said, had been voted 
from nearly as many influential meetings up to 
3rDec; -",, 
Dr. Briggs, created Roman catholic bishop of Bever- 
ley, was enthroned in St. George’s chapelat York, 
13 Feb. 
Dr. Browne, created bishop of Clifton, and Dr. 

Burgess, bishop of Shrewsbury : both consecrated 

in St. George’s cathedral, Southwark 27 July, ,, 
The Ecclesiastical Titles act, 14 & 15 Vict. ¢. 60, 

prohibited the constitution of bishops of pre- 
tended provinces under a penalty of rool. Aug. ,, 
It was not acted upon, and was repealed 24 July, 1871 


PAPAL INFALLIBILITY. Thisdogma, 
maintained by one party in the Roman church, 
tolerated by another, and utterly rejected by a 
third, was adopted and promulgated at the general 
council at Rome 18 July, 1870, a great many bishops 
having withdrawn. ‘The dogma was inculcated by 
the false decretals of Isidore and others, but not 
adopted by the councilof Trent; see Councils XX TI. 
Professor Déllinger, the historian, was excommuni- 
cated at Munich for rejecting this dogma, 18 April, 
1871: he was made a D.C.L. at Oxford about 

_ 16 June following; see Old Catholics. The doc- 
trine was strenuously attacked by Mr. W. E. Glad- 
stone, in his pamphlet, ‘‘ The Vatican Decrees,’ 
Nov. 1874. 


PAPAL STATES, see Rome, and Popes. 


PAPER, see Papyrus. Paper was probably 
made in Egypt, and centuries before the Christian 
era. It was made of cotton about 600 A.D.; and of 
rags about 1300.* White coarse paper was made 
by sir John Speilman, a German, at Dartford, in 
England, 33 Eliz. 1580; and here paper mills 
were erected. Stow. Paper for writing and print- 
ing manufactured in England, and an act passed 


1850 


1851 


* Mr. Joseph Hunter (in the Archwologia, xxxvii.) 


states that the earliest paper which he had seen was a 
MS. account-book, dated 1302, probably of Bordeaux 
manufacture. He gives engravings of manufacturers’ 
marks, French and English, the dates of which range 
from 1330 to 1431. He also gives an extract from a work 
by Bartholus, a writer of the middle of the r4th century, 
in which mention is made of a paper manufactory in the 
Marches of Ancona. At the end of Wynkin de Worde’s 
edition of Bartholomeus De Proprietatibus Rerum, 
1494, its thin paper, made by John Tate in England, is 
commended, 


PAPYRUS. 


to encourage it, 2 Will. III. 1690; before ¢ 
time we paid for these articles to France ; 
Holland 100,000/. annually. ‘The French refug 
taught our people; we had made coarse bro 
paper almost exclusively, until they came amg 
us; we made white paper first in 1690. Anders 
Paper-making by a machine was suggested 
Louis Robert, who sold his model to Didot, 
great printer, who brought it to England, and, ¢ 
jointly with Fourdrinier, perfected the machine 
The latter obtained a patent for paper-making r 
chinery in 1801; and for manufacturing paper 
an indefinite length in 1807. The machinery 
improved by Bryan Donkin. A sheet of pay 
13,800 feet long, and 4 feet wide, was made 
Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830; and 
21,000 feet long, and 6 feet 3 inches wide, 
made at Colyton in Devon in 1860. Espart 
Spanish grass, first imported in 1857, has 
largely employed in the paper manufacture § 
1864. In 1866 wood was largely manufactured j 
paper at Philadelphia; and at the Paris exhibit 
1867, fine specimens of wood-paper were shown ; 
Parchment (note). The paper duty, imposed 
1694 (producing, latterly, about I,400,000/. an 
ally), after having been the subject of agitation 
several years, was repealed in 1861. Hop-ste 
said to be used for paper-making in France, 187; 


Paper-mills in Great Britain, 1877, about 385 Cin 
300 ; Scotland, 65 ; Ireland, 20) ; annual produce 
great increase 8 


360,000 tons; value, 16,090,000l ; 
that time. , 
Paper-exhibition at Berlin, Aug. 1878: contained 
only great varieties of paper, but a paper house, t 
chairs, carpets, barrels, boats, &c. ‘ 
PAPER-HANGINGS, &c. Stamped 
for this purpose was first made in Spain and 
land about 1555. Made of velvet and floss, 
hanging apartments, about 1620. The manuf: 
of this kind of paper rapidly improved in © 
country during the present century. —P 
Bricks have been made in America; and pi 
tubing for water and gas, made by M. Jaloureat 
Paris, was shown in 1860. \ 


PAPER-MONEY, see Banks. : 


PAPIER MACHE. This manufacture 
paper-pulp combined with gum and sometimes) 
china clay) has existed for above a century. Mar 
a German snuff-box maker, is said to have le 
the art from one Lefevre about 1740. In 174 
was taken up by Baskerville, the printer at : 
mingham, and soon spread over that dist 
Papier maché is now largely employed in © 
menting the interior of fuildiae &e. 
dome at Brussels ordered to be made of it, J 
1881. 


PAPIN’S DIGESTER (sce Steam), inver 
about 1681. Denis Papin, a French philosop) 
assisted Boyle in his experiments about 1678. 


PAPISTS, see Roman Catholics. 

PAPUA, see New Guinea. 

PAPYRUS, the reed from which was 1 
the paper of Egypt and India, used for writ 
until the discovery of parchment, about 190 
Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of it f 
Egypt, lest Eumenes of Pergamus should mak 
library equal to that of Alexandria, 263 B.C. 
papyri were discovered at Herculaneum in 17 
and many were collected by the French im Eg 
1798. A manuscript of the Antiquities o yom 
on papyrus, among the treasures seized by 
parte in Italy, and sent to the National Librar 


Paris, was restored in I8I5. 
Z, 
My P 


PARABLE. 


619 


PARIS. 


miles of the largest known papyrus, found in 1855, 
nd Modinet Habu on the Nile, and now in the 
ish Museum, were published with translations by 
trustees in 1876. 


RABLE, see Fudle. 
RACHUTE, see Balloons, 1785, 1802, 1837, 


RACLETE (Greek for comforter), a name 
by Abelard to the conveat which he founded 
lampagne in I122, of which Heloise became 
‘st abbess. 


RADISE LOST, the great English epic 
bn Milton, appeared first in ten books in 1667; 


elve books in 1674. 
RADOX (Greek, para, beyond; and dora, 


mn), something contrary to common opinion. 
ssor De Morgan’s ‘‘ Budget of Paradoxes”’ (of 
inds) was published in 1872. John Paget’s 
adoxes and Puzzles, Historical, Judicial, and 
ary,” published 1874. 

RAFFIN (from parwin affinis, fromits having 
affinity with anything), also called photogen, 
d substance, somewhat like spermaceti, pro- 
| by distillation of coal, and first obtained by 
enbach in 1830, and by Dr. Christison about 
une time. It was procured from mineral oil by 
ames Young about 1848 at Alfreton in Derby- 
, Soon after it was largely obtained from Bog- 
coal. It is also obtained from Jrish peat. It 
s excellent candles. Much litigation ensued 
gh interference with Mr. Young’s patent- 


\RAGRAPH BIBLES, sce under Bibles. 


KRAGUAY, a republic in §. America, dis- 
ed by Sebastian Cabot in 1526; conquered by 
‘ez Nunez in 1535, and civilized by the Jesuits, 
in 1608 commenced their missions there and 
it till their expulsion in 1768. Paraguay rose 
ist the Spanish yoke in 1811. In 1814, Dr. 
G. R. Francia was elected dictator; he ruled 
ously but tyrannically; he was succeeded on 
eath in 1840 by Vibal. From 1814 to 1844 the 
ry was rigidly closed against foreigners. ‘The 
lent, C. A. Lopez, elected in 1844, was suc- 
d by his son, Francis 8. Lopez, Sept. 1862 
elow). Paraguay was recognised as an inde- 
mt state by the Argentine Confederation, 
ly, 1852, and by Great Britain in 1853. Popu- 
Lim 1857, 1,337,431; im i873, 221,079; in 
293,844 ; in 1879, 346,048. 
lities hetween Paraguay and Brazil began when 
tazilian steamer was captured as an intruder 
the Paraguay . : : rx Nov. 
‘invaded in December . y : : Ree 
‘invaded the territories of the Argentine re- 
lic, which immediately made alliance with 
Zi. F : : ; 14 April, 
rmy of Lopez defeated . , : Sept. 
ilies captured Uruguyana and an army of Para- 
yans . f 5 5 : ‘ . 18 Sept. 
{For details of the war, see Brazil, 1865-9. ] 
visional government installed ; Lopez totally 
vated, proclaimed an outlaw 17 Aug. 
| killed near the Aquidaban . 1 March, 
signed with Brazil and the Argentine republic, 
20 June, 


1864 


9? 


1865 


lent Salvador Jovellanos elected for three 

bis) < : 3 : 12 Dec. 1871 
‘lent Juan Bautista Gill 25 Nov. 1874 
resident and his brother assassinated; an- 
need April; Higinio Uriarte, president 

‘ 12 April, 1877 
‘ent Candido Bareiro (for 4 years) . 25 Nov. 1878 
lent gen. B. Caballero . 25 Nov. 1882 


\RALLEL MOTION, see Motion. 


PARASOLS were used by the ancient Egyp- 
tians. A new form (said to have been devised by the 
duchess of Rutland) came into general useabout 1820. 


PARC AUX CERES, a deer-park at Ver- 
sailles, near Paris, made by Louis XII., and kept 
as such till 1694, when Louis XIV. took the land 
for building. Vhe name was given to a house 
erected on it by madame Pompadour, popularly said 
to form aseraglio for Louis XV.in 1755. lt was 
closed by madame Du Barry in 1771. 


PARCEL POST (advised by Rowland Hill in 
1842). Proposed in Parhament by Mr. H. Fawcett 
27 March; act passed, 18 Aug. 1882; came into 
operation 1 Aug. 1883. Rates, from Ilb. 3d. to 
7b. 18. . 

/ 


PARCHMENT. Invented for writing books 
by Eumenes (some say by Attalus), of Pergamus, the 
founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, 
formed on the model of the Alexandrian, about 
190 B.c. Parchment-books from this time became 
those most used, and the most valuable as well as 
oldest in the world are written on the skins of 
goats. It should be mentioned that the Persians 
and others are said to have written all their records 
on skins long before Eumenes’ time. 

Parchment paper (or vegetable parchment) was invented 
and patented in 1857, by Mr. W. E. Gaine, C.E., who 
discovered, that when paper is exposed to a mixture of 
two parts of concentrated sulphuric acid and one part 
of water for no longer time than is required to draw it 
through the fluid, it is immediately converted into a 
strong tough skin-like material. It must be instantly 
washed with water. Its great strength points out 
many applications of this material, e.g., maps, school 
and account-books, and drawing-paper. In 1859 it ap- 
peared that a similar invention had been made in Paris 
by Figuier and Powmarede in 1846. 


PARDONS. General pardons were proclaimed 


_ at coronations : first by Edward III. in 1327. The 


king’s power of pardoning is said to be derived a 
lege sue dignitatis ; and no other person has power 
to remit treason or felonies, stat. 27 Hen. VIII. 
1535. Blackstone. A pardon cannot follow an 
impeachment of the house of commons: stat. 
Will. III. 1700. 


PARGA, acity in European Turkey: retained 
its civic independence under the protection of 
Venice till 1797, when that state was conquered by 
the French. It resisted various attempts to cap- 
ture it; and in 1806 was garrisoned by Russians. 
It was given up to the French in 1807; taken by 
the English, 22 March, 1814; surrendered to the 
Turks, 1817 ; and abandoned by above 3000 of its in- 
habitants, who retired to the Ionian Isles, May, 1819. 


PARIAN MARBLES, 
Marbles. 


PARIS (formerly Lutetia Parisiorum), the 
capital of France, situated on the river Seine, which 
cuts it into two unequal parts, the strongest being 
towards the north, and in which are three isles, 
la ville (the city), the tle St. Louis, and the éle 
Louviers. In the time of Julius Cesar, Lutetia 
comprised the city only. It was greatly improved 
by the emperor Julian, who made it his residence 
while he governed Gaul, 355 to 361. It became 
successively the capital of the kingdoms of Paris, 
Soissons, and Neustria, and eventually of all the 
kingdom. Many ecclesiastical councils were held 
at Paris, 360-1528. The representative of the house 
of Orleans is styled count of Paris. Population of 
Paris in 1856, 1,178,262; in 1872, estimated popula- 
tion, 1,851,792; in 1876, 1,988,806; in I88I, 
2,269,023; see Lrance. 


see Arundelian 


PARIS. 


620 


PARIS. 


Clovis makes Paris his residence 
St. Denis founded. 5 
Hotel Dieu hospital founded by bishop. Landry 
about 656 

Paris ravaged by the Normans (or Danes), 845, 855, 
845 


about 508 
613 


861 ; suffer ed from famine 45-940 
Gallantly defended against the Danes by the count 
Eudes and the bishop Goslin . : : Se eROoS: 
University founded, about + 1200 
Rebuilt . etch 
Church of Notre Dame built . 1160-1270 
The parliament established . imsO2 
Suffers by the factions of the Armagnacs and Bur- 
gundians. ‘ i 1418 
Taken by the English 1420 
Retaken by the French . 1436 
Pont Notre Dame built - 1499 
The Louvre commenced (see Louvre) 7 1522 
Hotel de Ville founded . 4 a eric’ 
The Boulevards commenced er a0 
Fountain of the Innocents erected Sp machen 
The Tuileries begun (see Twileries) 1564 
Massacre of St. Bartholomew’s oh "Aug. 1572 
The Pont Neuf begun 1578 
Vainly besieged by cabin TV. . 1589- go 
Entered by him . A "March, 1594 
Hospital of Invalids : - 1595 
Place Royale begun . ; . : 4 5 - 1604 
The Hotel-Dieu founded - 1606 
Jardin des Plantes formed : aed opie) 
The Luxembourg, by Mary de Medicis pe tOLS 
The Palais-Roy al built : - + £029 
The Val-de-Grace . i - : 1645 
Conflicts of the Fronde ‘ 1648- -53 
Royal palace at Versailles built ; the court removed 
there . . 1661-72 
The Academy of Sciences founded z 1666 
The Observatory established : . 1667 
Champs Elysées planted . ; - 1670 
Arch of St. Denis erected . - 1672 
Palais @Elysée Bourbon built . Seep ts) 
The Palace of the Deputies . sc 722 
The Military School . At 5x 
The Pantheon, St. Genevieve, founded P 1764 
The French revolution breaks “out; the Bastile taken, 
14 July, 1789 
Pont de Louis XIV. finished ; - 1790 
Cemetery of Pere la Chaise consecrated - 1804 
Pont des Invalides, &c., erected : ; . 1806 
Paris surrenders to the allies 30 March, 1814 
Paris lit with gas 3 5 : : . 1819 
* Revolution (see France) 3 < . duly, 1830 
Column of July founded . : 28 July, 1831 
Fortifications of Paris (for w hich 140,000,000 of 
francs were voted, 1833) commenced 15 Dee. 1840; 
completed . : ; . March, 1846 
Revolution (see Fy nce) . 22 Feb. 1848 
Paris much improved by Louis Napoleon (probable 
cost 12,800,000l. ) . 1853-62 
Industrial Exhibition Seonek by the emperor and 
empress, 15 May ; visited by queen Victoria and 
prince Albert (the first visit of an English sovereign 
to Paris since 1422), 24 Aug. ; exhibition closes, 
15 Nov. 1855 
Conference at Paris respecting the Danubian Prin- 
cipalities (which see) ; closes . Aug. 1858 
Bois de Boulogne opened as a garden of acclimatisa- 
tion 6 Oct. 1860 
Remains of Napoleon L deposited i in the ravanden 
31 March, 1861 
A building was erected for a permanent industrial 
exhibition by a company . Oct. 1862 
The scheme failed . : Feb. 1864 


Boulevard-prince-Eugéne opened by the emperor, 
7 Dec. 1862 

Decree for an international exhibition of the pro- 

ducts of agriculture, industry, and the fine arts, 

at Paris, in 1867; commissioners appointed, 


23 Feh. 1864 
Cab strike, 4 days ; : : : 1865 
Fine arts exhibition opened : 1 May, 1866 


The cathedral of Notre Dame and other rutin 
restored . 


. . ”> 


INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION on the Champ de Mars 
(with a new park, comprising more than roo 
acres) ; the oblong building designed by Leplay 
(enclosing 35 acres), 1245 feet wide, 1500 feet long, 


consisting of circles within circles ; the mr | 
corridor was a belt of iron, 85 feet high and irs __ 
feet wide ; opened by the emperor and empress, — 
I April, - 
It was visited by the prince of Wales, the kings of 
Greece, Belgium, Prussia, and Sweden, the ezar 
of Russia, ‘the vicer oy of Egypt, the ‘sultan ot 
Turkey, the emperor of Austria, and other inferior 
potentates . May-Noy. } 
Attempted assassination of the ezar by Berezowski, — 


aPole . ; 6 June, 
The czar and the king of Prussia entertained by 
M. Haussmann, prefect of Paris (cost 36,o00l.), 
June, 
Departure of the ezar, 11 June; of the king t 
Prussia 14 June, 


Distribution of prizes to exhibitors by the emperor 
in the presence of the prince of Wales, the sultan, 


&e. tJ uly, 
Berezowski condemned to transportation for life, 
15 July, 

Visit of the emperor of Austria 23 Oct.-2 Nov. 


Grand banquet to commissioners of international 
exhibition . . 26 Oct. 
Exhibition finally closed (instead of on 31 Oct.), 
Sunday, 3 Nov., gross receipts, 9,830,369 francs. 
Abbé Migne’s great ; printing-office burnt, loss about 
360, 0001. : 12 Feb. 
M. Haussmann, the prefect of the Seine, reported. 
the budget of the city to exceed 9,200,000l. He 
resigned + oe Jan. 
For the sieges and other recent events, see France 

and Fr anco-German War 
Versailles becomes the seat of government, “Mareh, 
Grand Opera-house burnt 28-29 Oct! 
Great explosion with loss of life at Poirier’s chem 9 


cal works, near Paris . } 19 Nov. 
Grand new opera-house ; decreed 1860 ; designed 

by Garnier ; opened in ‘state . 5 Pr Jan. 
Municipal officers visit London, to inspect rail 4 

ways, &c. . 4 30 April, 
New Hotel Dieu finished . Auge 


INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION : site, two unequal 
parts divided by the Seine. The main building pr 
the Champ de Mars covers 263,593 square yards : 
(765 by 360 yards;) the Trocadero (which sec) 
palace is “a stone structure, with a rotunda sup- 
ported by columns, crowned by a dome, flanked) 
by two lofty towers, the exterior gallery orna-_ 
mented with statues. 

The exhibition was opened by the president, mar- 
shal MacMahon (‘in the name of the republic”) 
in presence of the prince of Wales, the due 
ad’ Aosta, and other distinguished persons, 1 May, 

111,955 persons visited exhibition (a ra day) 


5 Aug. 

Grand distribution of medals by marshal Mac- 
Mahon, with speech ‘ i . - 21 OCt. 
Closed Sunday . 6 Io 0 NON 


Total admissions, 16 032, 7253 . daily average, 82,000; 
gross receipts, 12,653,746 francs. 
International exhibition of applied science ep 
Ys 
The senate and assembly meet again at Paris, 27 Nov. 
Klectrical exhibition and congress (see under Ble 


tricity) . Aug.-Oct. 
Statue of Alexandre Dumas, sen. by G Doré wn 
voyered. 4 Noy. 


International exhibition of manufactures and pro- 
cesses to be 23 July—23 Noy. 188s, settled Noy. 

International exhibition to be opened in the Chamys 
de Mars, 5 May, 1889. 


IMPORTANT TREATIES OF PARIS. 

Between England, France, Spain, and Portugal; 
cession of Canada to Great Britain by France, 
and Florida by Spain . Tomer 

Between France and Sardinia ; the latter ee 
Savoy, &e. : 

Between France and Sweden, whereby eich 
Pomerania and the island of Rugen were given up 
to the Swedes, who agreed to adopt the French 
prohibitory sy ‘stem against Great Britain 6 Jan. 

Capitulation of Paris: Napoleon renga the 
sovereignty of France . os ai i 

Convention of Paris, between France and ite 
powers ; the boundaries of France to be the same 
as on the 1st of January, 1792 . 23 April, 


ai 


PARISHES. 


f Paris ratified by France and all the allies, 

14 May, 1814 
tion of St. Cloud, between marshal Davoust, 
Vellington, and Blucher, for the surrender of 


é : - : : : LLY 
[The allies entered it on the 6th.] 


of Paris, between Great Britain, Austria, 
ia, and Prussia, styling Napoleon the prisoner 
ose powers, and confiding his safeguard to 
md” : : ‘ TVs EAU. wr 5s 
shing the boundaries of France, and stipu- 
s for the occupation of certain fortresses by 
m. troops for three years ZO UN OV Ae 55 
of Paris, confirming the treaties of Chaumont 
Vienna, same day . : : MiZOyNOVay > 
of Paris, to fulfil the articles of the Congress 
enna : A ¢ p a ro June, 
of Paris between Russia and Turkey, Eng- 
France, and Sardinia (revised 13 March, 
; see Russia) : : 30 March, 
ition of Paris, signed by European powers, 
yy United States, March, 1856: 1. Privateer- 
abolished. 2. Neutral flags to exempt an 
y’s goods from capture, except contraband 
ar. 3. Neutral goods under an enemy’s flag 
0 beseized. 4. Blockade to be binding must 
ffective. This declaration was censured in 
ament in 1871. 
of Paris between England and Persia, 
4 March, 
of Paris between the European powers, 
sia, and Switzerland, respecting Neufchatel, 
26 May, 
ant commercial treaty between France and 
and. : : : : : wen2qwan. 
ition between France and Italy for with- 
ral of French troops from Rome . 15 Sept. 1864 


RISHES. Their boundaries in England 
irst fixed by Honorius, archbishop of Canter- 
636. They were enlarged, and the number 
ishes was consequently reduced in the 15th 
ry, when there were 10,000. Parish regis- 
yere commenced in 1538. Acts were passed 
44 and 1856 by which new parishes may 
med out of too extensive ones; acts amended 
9. The appointment of parish constables was 
unnecessary by an act passed Aug. 1872. See 
‘ers, and Benefices. 


RISIENNE, LA, popular song by Casimir 
igne, celebrating the defeat of the troops of 
es X. by the Parisians, 1 Aug. 1830; the 
(an old air) was arranged by Auber. 


RKES MUSEUM, see Sanitary. 


RKESINE. A new substance, composed 
m-cotton, obtained from various vegetable 
3, and oil. It can be formed with the pro- 
s of ivory, tortoiseshell, wood, india-rubber, 
-percha, &c. It is the invention of Mr. Alex- 
Parkes, of Birmingham, and was shown by 
itt the Exhibiticn in 1862. In Dec. 1865, at 
»eiety of Arts, parkesine was proved to be an 
ent electric insulator, and therefore likely to 
table for telegraphic purposes. 


RK LANE MURDER, see Trials, 1872. 


RKS. The Romans attached parks to their 

Fulvius Lupinus, Pompey, and Hortensius, 
g others, had large parks. In England, the 
reat park of which particular mention is made 
hat of Woodstock, formed by Henry I., 1125. 
1 Caroline, consort of George II., inquired, it 
d, of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards earl of 
aam), how much it would cost to shut up the 
_ as private grounds. He replied, ‘‘ Three 
18, ee majesty.’ The design was never 
vards entertained. See Finsbury, Southwark, 
1, Hyde, James's, St., Regent's, Victoria, 
mdra, Battersea, and People’s Parks, and 
wstone Park, U.S. 


1815 


1857 


> 


1860 


621 


PARLIAMENT. 


The Parks Preservation Society, established by Mr. 
F. G. Heath and others r F : - 1871 
The Parks’ Regulation act, passed 27 June, 1872 
By new regulations, Hyde, Battersea, Regent’s, and 
Victoria parks are the only metropolitan parks in 
which public addresses may be given, under 


certain restrictions . : : F - 4 Oct» 1872 
These regulations (much objected to; broken, and 

offenders fined) were modified by the home secre- 

tary . ‘ : : , , ; : Feb. 1873 
Acts for the establishment of public parks in Eng- 

land and Ireland were passed, 12 July, 1869; for 

Scotland . 18 March, 1878 


Parks railway pill (Hyde Park, &e.) rejected by 
commons committee F : : - 20 May, 1884 


PAREK’S TRAVELS. Mungo Park set sail 
on his first voyage to Africa, under the patronage of 
the African society, to trace the source of the river 
Niger, 22 May, 1795; and returned 22 Dec. 1797, 
after having fruitlessly encountered great danger. 
He again sailed from Portsmouth on his second 
voyage, 30 Jan. 1804, appointed to a new expedition 
by government; but never returned. His murder 
at Broussa on the Niger was well authenticated. 


PARLIAMENT (from the French parlement, 
discourse) derives its origin from the Saxon general 
assemblies, called Wittenagemot. The name was 
applied to the assemblies of the state under Louis VII. 
of France, about the middle of the 12th century, 
but it is said not to have appeared in our law till its 
mention in the statute of Westminster I., 3 Edw. I., 
(272: and yet Coke declared in his Institutes, and 
spoke to the same effect, when speaker (1592), that 
this name was used even in the time of Edward the 
Confessor, 1041. ‘The first clear account we have of 
the representatives of the people forming a house of 
commons, was in the 43rd Hen. III. 1258, when it 
was settled by the statutes of Oxford, that twelve 
persons should be chosen to represent the commons 
in the three parliaments, which, by the sixth statute, 
were to be held yearly. Burton's Annals. The 
general representation by knights, citizens, and 
burgesses, took place 49 Hen. III. 1265. Dugdale’s 
Summons to Parliament, edit. 1685; see Commons 
and Lords. The power and jurisdiction of parlia- 
ment are so transcendent and absolute, that it can- 
not be confined, either for causes or persons, within 
any bounds. It hath sovereign and uncontrollable 
authority in making and repealing laws. It can 
regulate or new-model the succession to the crown 
(as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII. and 
William III.). Itcan alter and establish the re- 
ligion of the country, as was done in the reigns of 
Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. 
Sir Edward Coke.* The ninth edition of May’s 
‘¢ Practical Treatise on Parliament ’”’ was published 
in 1883; see Ziriennial and Septennial. Return of 
the names of members of parliament from the 
earliest period to the present time, ordered by the 
house of commons, 4 May 1876, and 9 March, 1877. 
Part I. (1213-1702), published 1879. See Reforiu 
and Local Parliaments. 

First summons of barons by writ directed to the 

bishop of Salisbury, by John - 1205 
Parliament of Merton . : : : : eye 290 
An assembly of knights and burgesses (the mad 

parliament) ; s : : rr June, 1258 


* When the royal assent is given to a public bill, the 
clerk says ‘‘Le roi [or la reine] le veut.” If the bill be 
a private bill, he says ‘‘ Soit fait comme il est desiré.” If 
the bill have subsidies for its object, he says, Le roi [or 
la reine] remercie ses loyaux sujets, accepte leur béenévolence, 
et aussile veut.” If the king do not think proper to assent 
to the bill, the clerk says, ‘‘ Le roi [or la reine] s'avisera,”’ 
which is a mild way of giving a refusal. It is singular 
that the French language should still be used, 


_ PARLIAMENT. 


PARLIAMENT. 9 


First heeds of the commons as a confirmed repre- 
sentation. Dugdale . . 20 Jan. 
First regular parliament (according to many his- 

torians), 22 Hdw. I. 

First a deliberative assembly ; ‘it becomes a legisla- 
tive power, whose assent is essential to constitute 
alaw . 

The commons elect their first speaker, Peter De la 
Mare : 

Parliament of only one day (Richar d IL. deposed) 

29 Sept. 

“* Parliamentum Indoctum” at Coventry (lawyers ex- 
cluded) 6 Oct 

Members obliged to reside at the places they repre- 
sented . : 

Forty-shilling freeholders only to elect knights y 

“< Parliamentum diabolicum” at Coventr ys attainted 
the Yorkists . . ; : : : 

Journals of the lords commenced . : 

Acts of Parliament printed in 1501, and consecutively 
from 

Members pr otected from arrest (see Ferrar 8) 

Journals of the commons. begun 

Francis Russell, son of the earl of Bedford, was the 
first peer’s eldest son who sat in the ‘house of 
commons 

The Addled Pa rliament; - remonstrated with James I. 
respecting benev olences ; dissolved by him in anger 

April, 

The parliament in which were first formed the Court 

and Cowntry parties, 1614, disputes with James I. 
June, 

Charles I. dissolves parliament, which does not meet 
for eleven years 

The Long Parliament (which voted the house of lor ds 
as useless) first assembled . 3 Nov. 

The bishops excluded from voting on Lenten mat- 
ters. 

The Rump Par liament ; it voted the trial of Charles I. 

Jan. 

House of peers abolished é 6 Feb. 

A peer sat as a member of the commons . 

Cromwell roughly dissolves the Long J wrliament 

20 AD 

A convention parliament (see Convention) . 

Roman catholics excluded from parliament 

The commons committed a secretary of state to the 
Tower Noy. 

The speaker of the commons refused by the king 

A convention parliament (see Con vention) : 

James II. convenes the Irish parliament at Dublin, 
which attaints 3000 protestants 

Act for triennial parliament (see Trienni al) ‘ 

First parliament of Great Britain met 23 Oct. 

Members of the house of commons accepting any 
office of pr Hes ordered to be re-elected by statute 
6 Anne, cap. 

The Triennial es: repealed, and Septennial act voted 
(see Septennial Parliament) . 7 May, 

The journals ordered to be printed 

Privilege as to freedom from arrest of the servants 
of members relinquished by the commons 

The lord mayor of London (Oliver) and alderman 
Crosby committed to the Tower by the commons 
in Wilkes’s affair . : 2 : : 

Reporting the debates per mitted 2 - about 

Assembly of the first parliament of the United King- 
dom of Great Britain and Ireland 2 Feb. 

Clergymen prohibited from becoming M.P.s . : 

Sir F. Burdett committed to the Tower 6 April, 

Murder of Spencer Perceval, by Bellingham, at: the 
house of commons 4 t May, 

Return for Clare county, ir eland, of Mr. 0” Sorat 
the first Roman catholic commoner elected since 
the Revolution ‘ 5 July, 

The duke of Norfolk took his seat in the Toes, the 
first Roman catholic peer under the Relief pill (see 
Roman Catholics) 28 April, 

The Reformed Parliament meet 7 Aug. 

Joseph Pease, the first Quaker admitted M.P. th his 


affirmation . : 15 Feb. 
Houses of Par liament destroy ed by ‘fire 16 Oct. 
New houses of gy Sey commenced * : 


1829 
1832 


1833 


1834 
one 


2 Prermed the “* Palace of estiiinaten, ” The first con- 
tract for the embankment of the river was taken in 1837, 
by Messrs. Lee; this embankment, faced with granite, is 


The members of the commons’ and lords’ houses re-— 
linquish the privilege of franking letters (see 
Franking) . ro Jan. 3 

Committal of Smith O’Brien’ by the commons for 
contempt (see Ireland). 30 April, 3 

The peers took possession of their house, that por- 
tion of the palace being ready rs April, 2 

Reporters excluded by motion of John O’Connell for 
two hours : 18 May 

The commons assemble in their new house 4N ov. 

The chairman of committees of the whole house ap- 
pointed to act as a deputy-speaker of the mi of 
commons Aug. 3 

The two houses began to communicate by letter . ; 

Baron L. Rothschild, the first Jew admitted ; 

July, - 

Court of referees to examine private bills establishel | 

Henry Fawcett (blind), elected M.P. ; July, 

The parliamentary oaths modified and made en 


Arthur M. Kavanagh (without arms and Tesh Re} et 
Novy. 
Her Majesty authorised to proclaim prorogation of 
parliament during the recess, by act passed 
12 Aug. 3 
New Reform bill received royal assent 15 Aug. 
Great dissatisfaction in the commons at the er 
ness of their building ; a committee’s report (pro- 
posing changes or a new house) printed Oct. — 
Changes in mode of dealing with private bills in- 
court of referees Z March, ; 
Vote by proxy in the house of Jords abolished by ) 
standing order. 31 March, - 
Reform acts for Scotland and Ireland, ‘and Parlia. 


mentary Boundaries act passed . 13 July, 
Parliamentary Elections act passed . gr cule 
Parliament dissolved . : ; 2 . 11 Noy. 
New parliament met to Dee. 


Reporters excluded from the commons during de- 
bates on the Contagious Diseases act, 
24 May and 20 July, 1 
The commons sat frorts 2 P.M. 15 July, to 5.30 A.M, 
16 July, 
Meeting of parliament, in six days after proclama- 
tion, legalised by act passed . 9 Aug. 
Death of the earl of Onslow, father of the howe of 
lords, aged 93 . . 24 Ott. 
Mr. Fawcett alone in the lobby (350-1, on grant of 
30,0001. to princess Louise on her marriage), — 
16 Feb. 
Bankrupt peers disqualified from sitting a voting © 
in parliament by act passed 3 July, © 
Mr. Bonham Carter succeeds Mr. J. C. Dodseal as 
deputy speaker and chairman of committees, 
8 April, f 
Mr. Biggar and others caused reporters and others 
to be excluded from the debates in the commons ; 
much discussion ensued; Mr. Disraeli’s resolu- 
tion that strangers are not to withdraw without 
a vote of the house or order of the speaker, 
unanimously adopted 1 May, 
Only 89,9387. paid to members (commons) for sala-— 
ries and pensions, civil, naval, and military July, 
The ballot act passed . duly 
Mr. Plimsoll, greatly excited, ‘makes unparliamen- 
tary charges at the proposed withdrawal of the 
Merchant Shipping Bill, 22 July; apolee | i 
motion for reprimand withdrawn g July, 3 
The commons through Irish members (principally 
Messrs. Parnell, Biggar, O'Donnell, Power, Gray, 
Kirk, and Nolan) sat from 3.45 P.M. 2 July, to 
7-15 A.M. 3 July; from about 4 P.M, 31 July, to 
6.10 P.M... . 1A e 
Temporary resolution to check obstructiveness (by 


— 


886 feet in length, and projected into the river in a 
with the inner side of the third pier of old Westmins 
bridge. Sir Charles Barry (born 1795, died 1860) was 
architect of the sumptuous pile of buildings raised 8! 
1840. The whole stands on a bed of concrete twelve 
thick ; to the east it has a front of about zooo feet, 
covers an area of nine statute acres. It contains : 
apartments, 100 staircases, and two miles of passage! 
corridors. The great Victoria tower at the south 
extremity is 346 feet in height, and towers of less ma 
tude crown other portions of the building. 


a 
fea 
7 
a 


a 
‘ 


PARLIAMENT. 


.of the power of moving the adjournment of 
ouse) passed (282-32) é : 27 July, 1877 
yGorman, M.P.for Waterford, “‘ named” by 
yeaker for refusing to submit to his authority, 
x; apologises. me Pee Aug. 1878) | 
bstruction by home-rule party, June, July ; | 

Parnell’s virtual vote of censure of the 
cer (for directing notes to be taken, &c.) lost 
ae . : - 3 - m1, 12 July, 1879 
of privilege ; Mr. C. E. Grissell having stated 
he could influence the committee on the 
ver high level bridge,” is examined by a 
nittee ; he and Mr. John Sandilands Ward 
ieted, 16 July; Mr. Grissell went abroad; 

‘for his apprehension issued ; Mr. Ward ap- 
d before the house ; taken into custody, 23 

; released, 30 July ; Mr. Grissell surrenders ; 
to Newgate, 14 Aug.; released . 15 Aug. ,, 
for quinquennial parliaments negatived, 

4 : E 3 s : 5 . 24 Feb. 1880 
ford Northcote’s resolutions against obstruc- 

26 Feb.; adopted in the standing orders 
20). : A ; : 3 ~ 28 Feb, 4; 
issell arrested, and committed to Newgate, 
March; discharged : . 24March, ,, 
arles Bradlaugh, M.P. for Northampton (not 
ving in God) objects to take oath of alle- 

e; his affirmation refused, 3 May ; his offer 


| 


623 


ke oath not permitted . . Saray. ), 
mittee appointed ; recommends that he be 
red to affirm, 16 June; much discussion en- 
; resolution of Mr. Labouchere, M.P. for 
hampton, that Mr. Bradlaugh be permitted 
firm, negatived (275-230) A - 22June, ,, 
adlaugh’s claim to take the oath, or affirm, 
ad by the house ; he refuses to withdraw, and 
ken into custody, and imprisoned in the clock 
r (vote 326-38), 23 June; released by vote, 
24June, , 
tion moved by Mr. Gladstone that affirma- 
be accepted instead of an oath in certain 
3; opposed by sir Stafford Northcote as re- 
ling vote of 22 June; resolution accepted 
249) 1, 2July; Mr. Bradlaugh affirms, is ad- 
x and votes . ; - . 2July, ;, 
See Trials, 1881. 


mmons sat continuously 21 hours (devoted 
‘ish affairs) . d : : Ru2G, 2 AUe. ', 
2 on Irish amendments to the address : 
r. Parnell’s lost (57-435) 6-14 Jan. 
r. Justin McCarthy’s (37-201) . 17-19 Jan. ,, 
r. Dawson (36-274) . : : 34.20 JAD... 55 
r. O'Kelly (34-178) . ; 2 . 20 Jan, 

of Commons on Irish protection bill, sat 
14 p.m. 25 Jan. to 2 p.m. 26 Jan. ,, 
ladstone’s motion for urgency carried (251- 


7 


“ 


it reading of Mr. Forster’s coercion bill; de- 
summarily closed by Mr. H. Brand, the 
ker (termed coup d’¢tut) 4 p.m. 31 Jan. to 9.30 

4 - : : : : 3 AL QOD E*5j 
-six Irish members, Mr. Parnell, Mr. Justin 
‘arthy, and others, suspended for the sitting 
disorderly conduct ; Mr. Gladstone’s resolu- 

; Speaker invested with all the powers of the 
je to regulate business when voted urgent by 
fourths of the members (at least 200) (234- 

: 3 - , E : - - EDin 35 
ingent rules to be enforced when business is 
ared urgent by a minister of the crown; laid 
able by the speaker . : . Se) A ateh a 9 
mental rules, 17 Feb. modified; acted on 
eb. ; new rules announced zr, a2 March 5, 
adstone’s resolution for ‘‘ urgency,” with the 
dlies lost (212-296) : s sera March \”,; 
‘adlaugh re-elected for Northampton, 9 April, ,, 
‘er to take the oath opposed (208-175); he is 
bly removed, 26 April ; again ejected, 10 May, 
arliamentary oaths bill discharged — 5 July, ,, 
radlaugh’s attempt to enter the House of 
mons, forcibly resisted by the police. Mr. 
ouchere’s motion to rescind the resolution of 
lay, 1881, negatived (191-7) , 2 3 sA0g; 
‘mees between the houses on the land bill 
ed by mutual concessions PR TeHUS PAC 
tadlaugh not permitted to sit; government 
lon negatived (286-228) : . 7 Feb. 1882 


PARLIAMENT. 


_ New rules of procedure including the cloture (the 


power of closing a debate) and delegation of 
business, proposed by Mr. Gladstone. 13 Feb. 
Proposal for writ for Northampton negatived 
(307-18); Mr. Bradlaugh repeats oath and takes 

a seat; withdraws when directed; 21 Feb. ex- 
pelled (291-83) ; new writ to be issued . 22 Feb. 
Michael Davitt, convict, elected M.P. for co, Meath 
22 Feb. 

Mr. Bradlaugh re-elected for Northampton 2 Mar. 
Resolution of 7 Feb. re-affirmed (286-228) . 6 Mar. 
Mr. Marriott’s amendment on Mr. Gladstone’s new 
rule negatived (318-279) : - . 30-31 Mar. 
Discussion on the cléture deferred viialay: 
Commons ; sat 2 p.m.-8 p.m. 30 hours, committee 
on prevention of crime bill; 25 Irish members 
suspended for wilful obstruction 30 June and 

I July, 

Mr. O’Donnell suspended for 14 days (181-33) 3 July, 
Difference between the two houses; compromise 
(see Ireland) . ; r : : . Aug. 
Mr, Bradlaugh publishes a determined manifesto, 
Times : J - : 2 3 . 23 Sept. 
Parliament meets 24 Oct. ; discussion on procedure 
resumed. 5 : : ; : « 25 Oct. 
Mr. Gibbons’ amendment (the cloture to be carried 
by two-thirds instead of bare majority) negatived 
322-238 . : : ‘ . 5 . 1-2 Noy. 
The cloture adopted (304-260). . ro-rz Nov. 
The new rules made standing orders 27 Nov.-1 Dec. 
Affirmation bill introduced in the commons (184-53) 
19-20 Keb. 

Mr. O’Kelly suspended for a week for giving Mr. 


Forster the lie . 5 : . 22 Feb. 
Grand committee’s first meeting, Mr. Goschen 
chairman . - 9 April, 


Affirmation bill rejected by the commons (292-289) 
3-4 May, 

Mr. Bradlaugh not permitted to take the oath 4 May, 
His exclusion voted (232-65) . gJuly, 
Arrested by Mr. Gossett, the sergeant-at-arins, tor 
attempting to enter the house, 3 Aug. ; brings an 
action against the sergeant, 7 Dee. ; verdict for 
defendant : : : < ; - 9 Feb. 
Mr. Bradlaugh administers the oath to himself, sits, 
and votes ; excluded by vote (228-120) rz Feb. ; 
re-elected for Northampton (4,032-3664) 19 Feb. ; 
vote for his re-exclusion (226-173) . 2r Feb. 
New Reform Dill introduced by Mr, Gladstone 
28 Feb. 

Commons: irregular debate on Egyptian policy ; 
supplies ; sat from12.20 p.m. 15 March, to5.45 a.m. 
(Sunday) : : : 3 ; - 16 March, 
Queen v. Bradlaugh for voting without taking the 
oath, Queen’s Bench 2 - 13 June, 
Verdict for the crown A 2 30 June, 
Conflict between the lords and commons, respecting 
the Franchise bill, (see Reform) : . ° 
Explosion (dynamite) on the stair above the crypt 
in the house of commons ; much damage done ; 
two police constables, Wm. Cole and Thos. 
Cox, and Mr. Green seriously hurt. [Cole 
picked up a blazing parcel, to carry it out and 
saved the building ; he and Cox commended by 
the queen, and rewarded for steady courage. Cole 
received the Albert medal, in Westminster Hall 
26 March.]* Westminster Hall much injured by 
another explosion a few minutes past 2 p.m. 
24 Jan. 

Mr. Bradlaugh’s appeal disallowed by the lords 
justices . ‘ * F : A . 28 Jan. 
The new rules and the cloture first applied ; Mr. 
O’Brien expelled : : é - 24 Feb. 


« . 


1882 


1884 


1885 


” 


* The chief Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, 
sir KE. Y. W. Henderson, issued an order stating that the 
Prime Minister directed the payment of sol., each to Cole 
and Cox from the Royal Bounty Fund, and further, that 
the Home Secretary has approved of the payment of 
rzol. to Cole and 7ol. to Cox, while sir Jamey Ingham 
granted them the sum of 30/., each from the Bow-street 
Reward Fund. Cole and Cox, were each presented with 
a money testimonial from the members of both Houses, 
and it is expected that the total subscriptions will reach 


over sool. 
March, 1885. 


They both left the hospital at the end of 


PARLIAMENT. 624 


NUMBER AND DURATION OF PARLIAMENTS, FROM | Reign. Day of Meeting.* | When Dissol 
27 EDW. I. 1299) TO 37, VICcT. 1874. hati pean tee ts a 

Edward. 3. 9 *. 8 parl. in 8 yrs’. reign | Grorae III. . | 31 Oct. . 1780 | 25 March. 
Edward Il. . . : see S) is 20 >» 18 May . 1784 | 21 June , 
Edward ITI. 5 : : - 37 » 5° » 26 Nov. . 1790 | 20 May | 
Richard II. . 3 : 5 Bk 56 22 ” 27 Sept. . 1796 | 29June . 
Henry IV. . - . . LO ares, 14 ” 16 Noy. .. 1802 | 24 Oct 
Henry V. F . . Coen L eres, 9 ” 15 Dec. . 1806 | 29 April®, 
Henry VI. . : ; ’ eeoo is, 39 » 22June . 1807 | 24 Sept. . 
Edward IV. . . . oF a 5 c5 22 > 24 Nov. . 1812 | 10June ._ 
Richard III. . : : 4 AT) 2» 2 »” GEORGE IV. 14 Jan. . 1819 | 29 Feb ae 
Henry VIL. . : ° a eee 24 ” 23 April . 1820 2June , 
P 14 Nov. . 1826 | 24 July . 
Reign. Day of Meeting.* | When Dissolved. WiniraM IV. 26 Oct. . 1830 | 22 April , 


14June . 1831 3 Deca 
29 June . 1833 | 30 Decime 
19 Feb. . 1835 | x17 July 
15 Nov. . 1837 | 23 June 
1g Aug. . 1841 | 23 July 
18 Nov. . 1847 z July 

4 Nov. . 1852 | 21 March. 

zr April . 1857 | 23 April . 
31 May . 1859 | 6 July 


Henry VIII. . Brae 520) 1.23, PeUm waersie 
AqEeD: e. -TS5IT 4 March. 1513 
Behe Dye Lei4) | 2oueC me eran s 
TSN pIilier 523, isa Ue oa 
3 Nov. *x5=20 4 April . 1536 
seihebnteys Quidsevo oepakilive ss 2° le 
28 April . 1539 | 24July . 1540 
r6Jdan. . 1541 | 28 March. 1544 


VICTORIA . ‘ 


ae em 
eT ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ey 


30 ion, mutees Uneertay is He . ee ie Nou a 
2 NOV Ess grJan. . 1547 ae oe 
Epwarp VI. . ZONOVs he 154 7 Seu 552 5 ess th : 23 March. I 
rt March. 1553 | 3r March. 1553 2q April . 1880 
MARY s 5 Oct. aA SaOC Mee alae 
> April = Sasa fis Mays acne PARLIAMENT oF IRELAND, it is & 


a re SE B Yi began with conferences of the English settler 
3 Oct. : see cS Dec. se the hill of Tara, in 1173. Writs for knights of 


2oJan. . 1558 | 17 Nov. . 1558 | shire were issued in 1295. The Irish parlian 
ELIZABETH . . | 23 Jan. . 1559 | 8 May . 1559 | met last on 2 Aug. 1800; the bill for the w 
rr Jan, . 1563 | 2Jan. . 1567 | having passed. 


2 April . 1571 | 29 May. 1571 

8 May . 1572 | 19 April . 1583 PARLIAMENT oF SCOTLAND consiste 

23 Nov. . 1584 | x4 Sept. . 1585 | barons, prelates, and abbots, and occasionally 

29 Oct. . 1586 | 23 “peo 1587 burgesses. A great national council was hel 

12 Nov. « 1588 | 29 March 1589 | Scone by John Balliol, g Feb. 1292; and b Rp 

19 Feb. . 1593 | ro April . 1593 Br 

24 Oct. . 1597 | 9 Feb. . 1598 ruce at Cambuskenneth, in 1326. A 

27 Oct. +. 1601 | 19 Dec. . r60r | Commons was never formed in Scotland. The: 
James I... | 19 March. 1604 | 9 Feb. . 1611 | hiament of Scotland sanctioned the act of unior 

5 April . 1614 | 7 June . 1614 | 16 Jan. 1707, and met for the last time on 22 A 


16, 23, 30 
Jan. ‘ 1621 8 Feb. . 1622 SaNIe Care 


12 Feb. . 1624 | 27 March. 1625 | PARTI AMENT OF PARIS was made 
‘artes 6 rep he a pay * dog | chief court of justice in France by Philip IV, 
Bee fers a ata | his suggestion it revoked a bull of pope Boni 

17 March. 1628 | 10 March. 1629 
13 April . 1640 | 5 May . r64o | VIIL., 1302. It was suppressed by Louis XV., Ij 
Long Parliament a NOV! Ya. 20 April . 1653 restored by Louis XVI., 1774; demanded a mee 
COMMONWEALTH | 3 Sept. . 1654 | 22Jan. . 1655 | of thestates-general in 1787 ; ‘and was suspendet 


17 Sept. . 1656 | 4Feb. . 1658 | the national assembly, 3 Nov. 1789; see Comm 
27 Jan. . 1659 | 22 April . 1659 


7May - » |16 March. 1660 PARLIAMENTARY AND MUNI 

Cuantes Il. - |25 April . 1660 | 29 Dee. - 2 | PAL REGISTRATION ACTS Gamma 
Fey ee” |e March. 1679 |22Jhly .., | & 20); pessedeee 

Seven Proroga- PARMA (N. Italy), founded by the ane 

tion 15). Atay Ott.) i x070 a) OS Biee Fea Etrurians. It took part with the Lombard les 


2 farch . 28 March. 1681 
tare ‘ - Aa? ; oe 2July . 1687 | in the wars with the German emperors. It 
Witum Ui. . |22Jan. . 1689 | 6 Feb. . 1690 | made a duchy (with Placentia), 1545. 
20 March. 1690 | 11 Oct. ~. 1695 | United to Spain by Philip V.’s marriage with Hliza- 
22 Nov. . 1695 | 7July . 1698 beth Farnese . : : ‘ : : _ £§ 
24Aug. . 1698 | 19 Dec. . 1700 | Battle near Parma; the confederates, England, 
ANNE). fa: West 6 Pep (a agor 31 Neyveae zac France, and Spain, against the emperor; both 
30 Dec. . ,, 2July . 1702 armies claimed the victory : 29 June, 
20 Aug. . 1702 5 April . 1705 | Battle near the Trebbia ; the French under Macdon- 
25 Oct. . 1705 | 11 April - 1708 ald, defeated by Suwarrow, with the loss of 10,000 
18 Nov. . 1708 | 28 Sept. . 1710 men and four generals . . Ig June, 
25 Nov. . 1710 | 8 Aug. . 1713 | The duke of Parma made king of Etruria. Feb. 
GrorcE I. . ~. | rr Nov. . 1713 | 15 Jan. ~. 1715 | Parma united to France: with Placentia and G@uas- 
2x March. 1715 | 10 March. 1722 talla conferred on Maria Louisa, ex-empress, Wy 
Georce II. - | g Oct. . 1722 | 7 Aug. . 1727 treaty of Fontainebleau. 5 April, 
28 Jan. . 1728 | 18 April . 1734 | Parma occupied by the Austrians and Sardinians in 
m4 Jan. . 1735 | 28 April . 1741 the war of . : 
4 Dec. . 1741 | 18 June . 1747 | The Sardinians retire after the battle of N ovara, 
ro Nov. . 1747 | 8 April . 1754. 23 March, 
Grorce TIL. . | 14 Nov. . 1754 | 21 March. 1761 | The duke Charles II. abdicates in favour,of his son, 
3 Nov. . 1761 | 12 March. 1768 Charles III. (died x7 April, 1883) _. _14 Mareh, 
ro May . 1768 | 30 Sept. . 1774 | Charles III. stabbed by an assassin, 26 March, dies, 
29 Nov. . 1774 zr Sept. . 1780 } 27 March, 
“ * Corrected by the blue-book, ‘Parliaments of Eng- * Corrected by the blue-book, “ Parliaments of 1 
land,” printed 1879. land,” printed 1879. 


i i 


a 


PARNELLITES. 


[., 2 minor(borng July, 1848) ; whose mother 
nes regent. 

Italy ; the Parmesans establish a provisional 
nment ; the duchess-regent retires to Switzer- 


s . ; 1 May, 1859 
became dictator 18 Aug. ,, 
tion to Sardinia voted + x2 Sept. 5, 


titi, a former obnoxious police minister, 
ig rashly returned, cruelly murdered by the 

‘ : “ ‘ : : : 15 Oct. 
is now part of the province of Hmilia te the 
om of Italy, to which it was annexed? by de- 
fter a plebiscite 18 March, 1860 
s-regent died . 4 & - 1 Feb. 1864 


RNELLITES, see Home Rule, Leagues, 
eland, 1879 et seq. 


ROCHIAL CHARITIES COMMIS- 


, see London, 1878, 1883. 


RRICIDEH. There was no law against it 
ons or Rome, such a crime not being supposed 
e. About 172 8.c., L. Ostius having killed 
her, the Romans scourged the parricide; 
him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, 
live dog, a cock, a viper, ‘and an ape, and thus 
minto the sea. Miss Blandy was executed 
wd for the murder of her father, April, 1752. 


RSEES or GuEBRES, the followers of 
bt, dwelt in Persia till 638, when, at the 
of Kadseah, their army was decimated by 
abs, and the monarchy annihilated at the 
of Naharand in 641. Many submitted to 
querors, but others fled to India, and their de- 
its still reside at Bombay (where they are 
Parsees), and where they numbered 114,698 
. Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, the 3rd baronet, 
cted president of the community there, July, 
Mr. Dadabhai Naoroji, a Parsee merchant, 
several years professor of Gujerati at Uni- 
college, London. ‘‘ History of the Parsis,’’ 
abhai Framji Karaka, published in 1884. 
mbay. 

\RTANT POUR LA SYRIE,”’ popu- 
ench song; words by comte Alexandre de 
e; music by Hortense Beauharnois, wife of 
Bonaparte, king of Holland, about aa The 
became very popular after her son became 
r, in 1852, as Napoleon III. 


RTHENON (from Greek parthenos, virgin), 
le at Athens dedicated to Minerva, erected 
142 B.C. Init Phidias placed his renowned 
of that goddess, 438 B.c. The roof was de- 
[by the Venetians in 1687. “The Parthenon’”’ 
ied by Mr. James Fergusson in 1883. See 
Marbles. 


RTHENOPEAN REPUBLIC was esta- 
| by the French at Naples (anciently called 
nope), 23 Jan. 1799, and overthrown in June 
ear 


>? 


RTHTA (Asia). The Parthians were origi- 
iu tribe of Scythians, who; being exiled, as 
ame implies, from their own country, settled 
yreania. Arsaces laid the foundation of an 
which ultimately extended over a large part 
»,250 B.c. ; the Parthians were never wholly 
d bythe Romans. The last king, Artabanus 
s killed, a.p. 226; and his territories were 
d to the new kingdom of Persia founded by 
rxes, who had revolted against Parthia. 


2TICULARISTS. The name given to 
rermans who desire the maintenance of the 
adence of the German states, and oppose 
bsorption into the empire. M. Gasser, one 
1, failed in an attempt to form a ministry in 
a, Sept. 1872. 


625 PASSION-WEEK. 


PARTITION ACT, relative to the division of 
property sold by direction of the court of chancery, 
passed 25 June, 1688. 


PARTITION TREATIES. The first treaty 
between England and Holland for regulating the 
Spanish succession (declaring the elector of Bavaria 
next heir, and ceding provinces to France) was 
signed I9 Aug. 1698; and the second (between 
France, England, and Holland, declaring the arch- 
duke Charles presumptive heir of the Spanish mo- 
narchy, Joseph Ferdinand having died in 1699), 13 
March, 1700. ‘Treaty for the partition of Poland; 
the first wasa secret convention between Russia and 
Prussia, 17 Feb. 1772; the second between the 
same powers and Austria, 5 Aug. same year; the 
third was between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, 24 
Oct. 1795. 

PARTNERSHIP. The laws respecting it 


were amended in 1863; see Limited Liability. 
PARTY, see Processions. 
PASIGRAPHY (from Greek, pas?, for all): 


a system which professes to teach people to com- 
municate with each other by means of numbers 
which convey the same ideas in all languages. A 
society for this purpose was established at Munich ; 
and the president, Anton Bachmaier, published a 
dictionary and grammar for German, French, and 
English, 1868—71; 4334 mental conceptions may 
be thus communicated. 


PASQUINADES. Small satirical poems ob- 

tained this name about 1533. 

At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Rome, idle 
persons used to assemble to listen to his sallies, to re- 
late anecdotes, and rail at the passers-by. After the 
cobbler’s death, his name was given toastatue to which 
lampoons were affixed. 


PASSAROWITZ TREATY, concluded 21 
July, 1718, between Germany and Venice, and the 
Turks, by which the house of Austria ceded certain 
commercial rights, and obtained from Turkey the 
Temeswar, Belgrade, and part of Bosnia, Servia, 
and Wallachia. The Turks gained the Morea. 


PASSAU (Germany), TREATY OF, whereby 
religious freedom was established, was ratified be- 
tween the emperor Charles V. and the protestant 
princes of Germany, 31 July, 1552. In 1662 the 
cathedral and great part of Passau were consumed 
by fire. 

PASSENGERS —by public vehicles, are pro- 
tected by 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 22 (1831), 1 & 2 Vict. 
ce. 79 (1838), and 16 & 17 Vict. c. 33 (1853). Mr. 
Cleghorn, under whom the front seat on the near 
side of one of the general omnibus company’s car- 
riages had given way, recovered 400/. damages 
against the company, in a verdict by consent, in the 
Queen’s Bench, 10 Dec. 1856. The Ships’ Passen- 
ger act, 18 & Ig Vict. c. I19, passed in 1855, was 
amended in 1863; see Campbeli’s Act, and under 
Railways. 

PASSIONISTS, a congregation of clerks of 
the holy cross, founded by St. Paul of the Cross, 
who died 1775, and was canonized by the pope 
1867. A home was set up in England in 1841, and 
others since. The monastery, Highgate, London, 
N., solemnly blessed by cardinal Manning, and 
opened, 16 July, 1876. 


PASSION PLAY, see Drama. 
PASSION-WEEK, the name given since the 


Reformation to the week preceding Easter, was 

formerly applied to the fortnight. Archbishop 

Laud says the two weeks were so called ‘‘for a 

thousand years together,’ and refers to an epistle, 
8 8 


nA 


<? 


PASSOVER. 


626 


by Ignatius, in the Ist century, in which the prac- 

tice is said to have been ‘‘ observed by all.’”’ The 

week preceding Easter is now by some termed 

“Holy Week,’ the previous week ‘* Passion 

Week.” 

Passion-Music: Gregory Nazianzen (A.D. 330-390) is said 
to have first set forth the history of the Passion in a 
dramatic form. 

Guidetti, in 1586, published music for this subject, 
which has been treated since by many composers. 

J.S. Bach’s great ‘Passion Musik,” first performed on 
Good Friday, 1729, has been revived with great suc- 
cess in this country, beginning with that ‘‘according 
to St. Matthew,” 6 April, 1854. 

PASSOVER, the most solemn festival of the 
Jews, instituted 1491 B.c. (Hxodus xii.) in comme- 
moration of their coming out of Egypt; because 
the night before their departure, the destroying 
angel, who put to death the firstborn of the Egyp- 
tians, passed over the houses of the Hebrews with- 
out entering them; the door posts being marked 
with the blood of the Paschal Lamb killed the 
evening before. The passover was celebrated in 
the new temple, 18 April, 515 B.c. Usher. 


PASSPORT SYSTEM forbids subjects to quit 
one country or enter another without the consent of 
the sovereign thereof. In 1858 the system was 
somewhat changed in this country, and the stamp 
duty on passports was reduced from 5s. to 6d. 
Passports were abolished in Norway in 1859; in 
Sweden in 1860; and (with regard to British sub- 
jects) in France, 16 Dec. 1860; in Italy, 26 June, 
1862; in Portugal, 23 Jan. 1863 ; and are falling 
into disuse in other countries. The passport system 
was established in the United States on I9 Aug. 
1861. The passport system, revived in France on 
account of the war, 1 Aug. 1870, was abolished by 
M. Thiers, 10 April, 1872, in compliance with the 
wish of the British government. 


PASTON LETTERS, the correspondence of a 
Norfolk family, 1422-83, giving a picture of 
social life in England, were edited by sir John 
Fenn, and published in five volumes, quarto, 1787- 
1823. Their authenticity was questioned Sept. 
1865, but was satisfactorily vindicated by a com- 
mittee of the Society of Antiquaries in May, 1866. 
Part of the MS. was soon after purchased by the 
trustees of the British Museum. The publication 
of a new edition, by James Gairdner, with addi- 
tional letters, 1872—5. The MS. of the second 
series with other letters was found in 1875, by Mr. 
Frere, of Roydon Hall, near Diss, Norfolk. 


PATAY (France), where Joan of Arc, the maid 
of Orleans, was present, when the earl of Riche- 
monte signally defeated the English, 18 June, 1429. 
Talbot was taken prisoner, and the valiant Fastolfe 
was forced to flee. In consequence, Charles VII. 
of France entered Rheims in triumph, and was 
crowned 17 July, following year, Joan of Arc as- 
sisting in the ceremony in full armour, and holding 
the sword of state, see Joan of Are. 


PATENTS (from pateo, [lie open), licences and 
authorities granted by the king. Patents granted for 
titles of nobility were first made 1344, by Edward III. 
They were first granted for the exclusive privilege 
of printing books, in 1591. The property and 
right of inventors in arts and manufactures were 
secured by letters patent by an act passed in 1623. 
The later laws regulating patents are very nume- 
rous; among them are 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 83 (1835), 
and 15 & 16 Vict. c. 83 (1852). By the latter Com- 
MISSIONERS OF PATENTS were appointed, viz., the 
lord chancellor, the master of the rolls, the attor- 
ney-general for England and Ireland, the lord 


PATRIOTIC ASSOCIATION, 


advocate, and the solicitors-general for Eng 


Scotland, and Ireland. In 1853, a journal was 
lished under their authority, and indexes of pat 
from March, 1617 to the present time. Spee 
tions of patents may be consulted by the pub! 
the Free Library and Reading-Room, in South: 
ton-buildings, opened 5 March, 1854. A mu: 
containing models, portraits, &c., was establi 
in 1859 at South Kensington, mainly by the exer 
of Mr. Bennet Woodcroft. 


An international congress for the protection of pa 
met at Vienna, Aug. 1873; at Paris, 6 March, 183 

New patent bills introduced into parliament withd: 
1875, 1876, 1879; Mr. Anderson’s bill read, 15 , 
1881. 

Patent Design and Trade Marks Act, 46 & 47 Vict. | 
passed 25 Aug. 1883, began 1 Jan. 1884; it gr 
relieved patentees by lessening fees, &c. 

In 1864, the alleged defalcations of Mr. Edmunds, a 
in the patent office and an official of the house of] 
led to his retirement. He obtained a pension of | 
which was taken from him by a vote of the hou 
lords on 9 May, 1865. Much litigation ensued. | 
action against Mr. Gladstone, the prime minister 
others, for a libel, Mr. Edmunds was non-suited, 
June, 1872; and he failed in actions against se 
newspapers for printing a treasury minute. His aj 
to the house of lords failed 16 June, 1873. ; 


PATENT MEDICINES: received for sta 
year 1883-4, 159,238/. 


PATNA (N. India). Near here the Eng 
under major Carnac, defeated the emperor { 
Alum on 15 Jan. 1761. The town was acquire 
the British by their defeat of the sanguinary ] 
Cassim, 23 Oct. 1764. ? 


PATRIARCHS (a name given to Abrak 
Isaac, Jacob, and his sons). ‘The ecclesias 
historian Socrates gives this title to the chiel 
Christian dioceses, about 440. It was first | 
ferred on the five grand sees of Rome, Constant 
ple, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. — 
Latin church had no patriarchs till the 6th cent 
The first founders or heads of religious orders 
called patriarchs. 
Nectarius, bishop of Constantinople, as ex-officio chi 

the Eastern bishops, was nominated patriarch of | 

stantinople at the second general council of Const 
nople, 9 July, 381. This led the way to the s¢l 
between the Eastern and Western churches. 


PATRICIANS, the senators of Rome; t 
authority began with the city itself; see Rome. 


PATRICK’S CATHEDRAL, ST. (Dubl 
was founded in 1190 by archbishop Comyn, on 
site of an old church. The cathedral was d 
crated in 1546, and used as a law court; rest 
1553. After renovation by the munificence of 
late sir Benjamin Lee Guinness, it was re-openet 
Feb. 1865. Several persons killed by the fallin; 
a flying buttress, 14 Sept. 1882. See Dublin. 


PATRICK, ST., Knicuts or, an order 
stituted by king George III., 5 Feb., the stats 
were signed 28 Feb. 1783. The number, origini 
fifteen, was increased in 1821, 1831, and 1833, 
is now twenty-two. The prince of Wales ” 
installed as knight, 18 April, 1868.—St. Patri 
Benevolent Society, London, instituted 1784. _ 


PATRIOTIC ASSOCIATION, formed 
aid in upholding the honour and interest 0 
British Empire. A meeting was held atSt. Jam: 
Hall, London, 27 March, 1880. ‘‘ England,” 
weekly paper, was published same day, The d 
of Abercorn, earl Stanhope, and others, were 
porters. 


i 
. 
‘ee 


- 


- 


PATRIOTIC BROTHERHOOD. 


TRIOTIC FUNDS, established to en- 


e the army and navy in times of war. 


nded by the subscribers to Lloyd’s, “to animate 
» efforts of our defenders by sea and land” by 
viding a fund for the relief of themselves when 
unded, and of their widows and orphans, and for 
nting pecuniary rewards and badges of distinction 
valour and merit, 20 July, 1803: 24 Aug, 1809, 


»832l. had been received, and 33r,6r1/. expended. 


n 1803 to 1826 the total sum received was 


8231. 145. 1d. 


mmission (headed by prince Albert) was appointed 
raise and distribute a fund bearing this name, for 
Telief of the families of those who might fall in 
Russo-Turkish war, June ; a great meeting held 


V. 1854. 
e€sums were collected from this country and the 
mies, amounting to 1,171,270l. in July, 1855; to 
96,2821. on 16 Noy. 1855; finally to 1,460,861/. In 
. 1874, 1,303,386/. expended. 
ool. appropriated to founding an asylum for 300 
han girls (the Royal Victoria Patriotic Asylum) 
Wandsworth common, the first stone of which 
laid by the queen, rx July, 1857. 
royal family and many of the aristocracy con- 
uted drawings, sold for high prices, in May, 18 55: 
ge fund contributed for the relief of the sufferers 
the Indian mutiny, Aug. 1857, 434,729l. collected 
to Nov. 1858. An act for its administration was 
sed, 12 Aug. 1867; see India, 1857. 
ort of commissioners of the Patriotic Fund; re- 
| to 3r Dec. 1876, 1,460,861/.; expenditure, 
1591. ; (capital, 400,000/, ; annual income, 33,935/.) 
gel mal-administration of the Patriotic fund was 
ht before the house of commons by baron de 
Sg Aug. 1880, and in Jan. 1881. 
subscriptions to the fund from Australia, 
ount of the Soudan war ; about 45,0001. at 
C : ° : : - 2March, 1885 
"RONAGE or Livyrnecs by Laymen in 
d is very ancient ; in Scotland was opposed 
books of discipline 1560 and 1578, abolished 
estored 1660. The system led to the dis- 
ofthe established church, and the foundation 
ree church, 18 May, 1843. The abolition of 
ronage was earnestly advocated by the 
ties of the established church in March, 
ad the duke of Argyll volunteered to resign 
onagein May. Of 1109 livings 319 belonged 
town, and about 600 to private persons. An 
& 38 Vict. c. 82) for abolishing patronage 
and, brought in by the duke of Kichmond, 
, passed, 7 Aug. 1874. 


ILIANISTS or PavLinrans, followers 
bishop of Samosata, afterwards patriarch of 
, 260, who are said to have denied Christ’s 
‘and the trinity; he was excommunicated 
tcouncil at Antioch, ' ; 


‘LICIANS, a sect of Christian reformers, 
out 652. Although they were severely 
ed, they spread over Asia Minor, in the 9th 
» and finally settled at Montford, in Italy, 
hey were attacked by the bishop of Milan 

Severe decrees against them were made 
}, and they gradually dispersed; very 
‘ sowing the seeds of the great reformation 
oth century. 


LJONES, a Scotchman, born 1742; died 
§, 1792. He commanded an American 
¢ during the American war, and made 
lepredations on British commerce. He 
' the house of lord Selkirk, near Kirkcud- 
nd at Whitehaven burnt shipping in the 
- April 1778. The Dutch permitted Paul 
enter their ports with two British ships of 
ch he had taken, and which the stadtholder 
srily refused to deliver up, 1779. 


627 
metic BROTHERHOOD, see Jre- 
1883. 


PAUL'S CROSS, ST. 
PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, ST. (London). 


For details of its history, see Dugdale’s ‘** History 
of St. Paul’s,”’ oe and 1716; Dean Milman’s 
“* Annals of St. Paul’s,’”’ 1868; and Mr. Wm. Long- 
man’s ‘‘ History of the Three Cathedrals, dedicated 
to St. Paul,” 1873. 


The first church, built on the site of a temple to 
Diana, supposed to have been destroyed during 
the Diocletian persecution (302), rebuilt in the 
reign of Constantine : é ; ; | 223-337 

Demolished by the pagan Saxons, and restored by 
Ethelbert and Sebert . ’ about 597-610 

Injure | by fire . : : ; : 2 : : ig 

Destroyed by the great conflagration, 1086, after 
which Mauritius, then bishop of London, com- 
menced a magnificent edifice with the highest 
spire in the world about 1087; completed , . 1240 

Nearly destroyed by fire. ; : - 1444 

The spire burnt 7 : : : ‘ : L505 

A commission granted to Laud, then bishop of 


London, to restore the cathedral 2 April, 1631 
It was totally destroyed by the fire of Sept. 1666 
Clearing of the ground began ; . May, 1674 
First stone of the present edifice laid . 21 June, 1675 
The choir opened for divine worship 2 Dec. 1697 
The whole edifice completed under sir Christopher 

Wren (except some decorations, finished 1724) 93 L710 
[The total cost (including 200 tons’ weight of iron 

railing) was 1,511,202. } 
Nelson buried é “ : é - 9dJan. 1806 
Ball and cross restored by Mr. Cockerell : - 1822 
Money having been subscribed to adapt St. Paul’s 

for the purpose, evening services began, under 

the dome, when above 4000 persons were present, 

Sunday, 28 Nov. 1858 

Wellington buried ; : ; . 18 Nov. 1852 
A national guinea subscription for completing the 

interior ornamentation, began : : Feb. 1864 
87th meeting of the charity school children 3 June, 1869 
Great meeting held at the Mansion-house to complete 

the interior of the cathedral according to Wren’s 

design, 13 July; 34,7081. collected by 4 Noy. 1870 
Dr. Church, the new dean, gave roool. Noy. 1871 
National Thanksgiving for the recovery of the 

prince of Wales, see Thanksgiving 27 Feb. 1872 
** Thanksgiving fund ” established Count 
The queen gave roool., the prince sool. a ODay 
After an interval, annual meeting of the children 

resumed—[not held 1878]. : : 9 Oct. 1873 
The iron railings (set up in 1710) sold, and soon 

after removed (the dean and chapter bought the 

enclosed space from the corporation) 8 Jan. ; for- 

mally opened . ; , : ; 26 Jan. 1874 
Discussion respecting the ornamentation: Mr. 

Burges’ plans censured, June; the engagement 

with him rescinded ; : F : NOVaiese 
Meeting to endeavour to obtain a peal of bells, the 

lord mayor, the dean, &c., present, 2 Nov. 1875 ; 

arrangements being made . : Sept. 1876 
Grand concluding service of Lambeth episcopal 

synod ; about roo bishops present . 27 July, 1878 
Peal of 12 bells (by Taylor, of Loughborough) given 

by the corporation and some of the companies, 

dedicated , : ‘ : : Ake NOV ary 
The corporation authorised to deal with the church- 

yard as an open space, 1878; opened as a garden 

by the lord mayor : : A . 22S8ept. 1879 
Great Paul (see under Bells) dedicated 3 June, 1882 
Professor Palmer, capt. Gill, and lieut. Charrington 

buried in the crypt A 6 April, 1883 

DIMENSIONS. 

Length of St. Paul’s from the grand portico to east feet. 

end ; i : - 3 : : 51a 
Breadth, north to south portico 282 
Exterior diameter of the dome : 145 
Height from ground to top of cross. : hs ley Kor 
[Stated by surveyor to be 365 feet from the pavement. ] 
Campaniles, or bell towers, at each corner, height . 208 
Breadth of western entrance : : 189 
Circumference of dome 420 


Entire circumference of the building ; en 22s 
Diameter of ball ? 6 


PAUL’S CROSS, ST. (London), which stood 
at the north side of the cathedral, was a pulpit 
formed of wood, mounted upon steps of stone, and 


S92 


PAUL’S SCHOOL, ST. 


covered with lead, from which the most eminent 
divines were appointed to preach every Sunday in 
the forenoon. ‘To this place the court, the mayor, 
the aldermen, and principal citizens used to resort. 
It was in use as early as 1259, and was appropriated 
not only to preaching, but to political and ecclesias- 
tical discourses, &c. The cross was demolished in 
1643, by order of the parliament. 


PAUL’S SCHOOL, ST., was endowed in 
1512 by John Colet, dean of St. Paul’s, for 153 boys 
** of every nation, country, and class,” in memory 
of the number of fishes taken by Peter. (John xxi. 
11). . The first schoolhouse was burnt in 1666; the 
second, by Wren, was taken down in 1824, and the 
present building erected by George Smith. William 
Lilly was the first master, and his grammar is still 
used by the school. Zimbs. The claim of the Mercers’ 
company to be owners instead of trustees of Colet’s 
estate was set aside by the vice chancellor, I1 
Feb. 1870. .The school ordered to be removed to 
West Kensington; site bought, June, 1878. New 
building designed by Mr. Waterhouse opened by 
lord Selborne, 23 April, 1854. The number of scho- 
jars has been increased. 

St. Paul’s Industrial School, Mile End, ordered to 
be closed by the home secretary in consequence of 
serious charges against the managers ; brought 
forward by Mrs. Surr, member of the metropolitan 
School Board, Nov. ; she is warmly commended 
in the home secretary’s letter, 15 Nov. 3; who re- 
mitted the case to the public prosecutor. Nov. 

Mr. T. Scrutton, manager, sued Miss Helen Taylor, 
and obtained roool. for damages; the charges were 
withdrawn 2 30 June, 1882 


PAUPERS, see Poor. 


PAVAN, Pavane, or Pavin, was a slow dance 
of the 16th and 17th centuries, sometimes accom- 
panied by singing. 


PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to 
have been the first who paved their towns with 
stones. The Romans, in the time of Augustus, had 
pavement in many of their streets; the Appian 
way, a paved road, was constructed 312 B.c. In 
England there were few paved streets before Henry 
VIL.’s reign. London was first paved about 1533. 
It was paved with flagstones between 1815 and 
1825. Wood and asphalte paving were tried in 
1839, and have been disused since 1847; see Wood 
Pavement, Asphalte has been much used since 
1869. Wood reported to be the best for London, 
May, 1876. 


PAVIA (N. Italy), the ancient Zicinum or 
Papia. Its university, founded by Charlemagne, 
is said to be the oldest in Europe. Pavia was built 
by the Gauls, who were driven out by the Romans, 
and these in their turn were expelled by the Goths. 
in 568 it was taken by the Lombards, and became 
the capital of their kingdom. In the 12th century 
it was erected into a republic, but soon after was 
subjected to Milan and followed its fortunes. On 
24 Feb. 1525, a battle was fought near here between 
the French and the Imperialists, when the former 
were defeated, and their king, Francis I., after 
fighting with heroic valour, and killing seven men 
with his own hand, was at last obliged to surren- 
der himself a prisoner. It was long asserted that 
Francis wrote to his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent 
of the kingdom during his absence, saying, Zovt 
est perdu, madame, fors Vhonneur (All is lost, 
madam, except honour). The words are now said 
to have been, L’ honneur et la vie qui est saulvé. 


PAWNBROKING. The Roman emperors 


lent money upon land. The origin of borrowing 


1881 


628 


PEACE. 


$s 


money by means of pledges deposited with le 
is referred to Perugia, in Italy, about 1462. 
institutions were termed monti di pieta (which 
Soon afterwards, it is said that the bishc 
Winchester established a system of lendin 
pledges, but without interest. The busine 
pawnbrokers was regulated in 1756, and lic 
issued in 1783. The rate of interest on pledge 
fixed in 1800. In London there were, in 185) 
pawnbrokers; and in England, exclusive] 
London, 1127; the number is increasing more 
in proportion to the population. In 1860 a 
was passed enabling pawnbrokers to charge a 
penny for every ticket describing things pl 
for a sum under 5s. The acts relating to 
brokers were amended in 1856, 1859, 1860. 
brokers in Great Britain; 1851, 1873; in 
2578; in 1871, 3540. The law was consolidat 
the pawnbrokers’ act passed 10 Aug. 1872. 


PAX, a small tablet, generally silver, ter 
tabula pacis or osculatorium, kissed by the Ri 
Catholic priests and laity; substituted for 
primeval kiss of peace in the early church. 
Pax is said to have been introduced about the 
century. 


PAYMASTER GENERAL. In 1836 
army and navy pay departments were consolit 
into the paymaster-general’s-office, sometimes 
by a cabinet minister. 


PEABODY FUND. Mr. George Peal 
an American merchant (born 18 Feb. 1795, d 
Nov. 1869), who had made his fortune in Lot 
gave on I2 March, 1862, 150,000/., on 21 
1866, 100,000/., on 5 Dec. 1868, 100,000/., an 
his will directed his trustees to pay 150,000/.—1 
500,000/.—to ameliorate the condition of the Lo 
poor. 

An autograph letter, promising her portrait in 
miniature, was sent him by the queen, 28 March, 

{Inscription on the miniature sent:—‘‘V.R.  pre- 
sented by the Queen to G. Peabody, Esq., the 
benefactor of the poor of London.’’] 

The first block of buildings for working classes, te 
‘Peabody dwellings,” in Commercial street, § 
fields, was opened 29 Feb. 1864; and others sine 
Spitalfields, Islington, Shadwell, Westminster, | 
sea, Bermondsey, &c.; they have been iound 7 
self-supporting, 1878. In 1879, net gain, 24,7861. 

Mr. Peabody’s statue, at the east end of the 
Royal Exchange, was inaugurated by the priuce 
of Wales : : : , 23 July, 

Funeral service at Westminster abbey 12 Nov. 

Funeral at Portland, U. 8., prince Arthur preset 

8 Fe 


He also gave large sums, for educational purpose 
the United States. ' 


PEACE. A temple was dedicated to peac 
Vespasian, 75; see Lire-works, Treaties, Jusi 
&c.—*Prack oF ReELIcion”’ (between cath 
and protestants) was signed at Augsburg, 5 


1555: 

A Peace Society, founded 1816, for the promotion 
of universal peace ; holds annual meetings ; pro- 
posed amalgamation with the International Arbi- 
tration and Peace Association, Dec. 1884. A con- 
gress of the friends of peace, from all parts of 
world, commenced its sittings at Paris, 22 4 
1849. It met in London at Exeter hall, 30 
following ; and at Frankfort, in St. Paul’s chureh, 
22 Aug. 1850; at Birmingham, 28 Nov. 1850; and 
at Exeter hall, 22 July, 1851. A meeting was held 
at Manchester, 27 Jan, 1853; and at Hdinbar gt 

12 

Mr. Bright and Mr. Cobden were among the mos 
conspicuous members of the society. A deputa- 
tion from the Peace Society, consisting of Messrs. 
J. Sturge, Pease, and another Quaker friend 


; 
Fi 


ae) 
Lan) 
5] 


sae 


‘ 
. 


. 7 


. 
” 
. 


HACE PRESERVATION ACTS. 


ad their views to the emperor of Russia at St. 
rsburg, at an interview granted them in Feb. 1854 
2 stormy international arbitration and peace 
ress al Geneva, Garibaldi was present, 

g-12 Sept. 1867 
e congress met at Berne 24 Sept. 1868 
peace congress held at Lausanne, the violence 
he Communists at Paris in May, was warmly 
obated , : ; : é . 25 Sept. 1871 
ess held at Lugano, 23 Sept. 1872; at the 
ue, 25 Sept. 1873; at Paris, 6 Sept. 1875; at 
eva, Oct. 1877; at Paris, 25 Sept. 1878; at 
ssels, 17 Oct. 1882; at Berne . 4-9 Aug. 1884 


ACK PRESERVATION ACTS (IRe- 
)) : one passed 4. April, 1870, was continued in 
to 31 June 1880. A newact to last till 1 June, 
passed 21 March, 1881. See Arms Bills. 


‘ACHES are said to have been introduced 
his country from Persia about 1562. 


IARLS, mentioned Jod xxviii. 18. M. 
mur, in 1717, alleged that pearls are formed 
ther stones in animals. An ancient pearl was 
d by Pliny at 80,000/. sterling. One which 
grought in 1574, to Philip I1., of the size of a 
n’s egg, was valued at 14,400 ducats, A pearl 
d the Jncomparable, spoken of by De Boote, 
1ed thirty carats, equal to five pennyweights, 
yas about the size of a muscadine pear. The 
mentioned by Tavernier, as being in possession 
2 emperor of Persia, was purchased of an Arab 
33, and is valued at a sum equal to I10,400/. 
2 of pearls imported into Great Britain, 1856, 
2i. Artificial mother of pearl is said to have 
made at Berne by Mr. K. Gehmia. 


ZASANTS’ WAR, see Jacquerie. 


HAT, see Bogs. A peat coal and charcoal 
any, established in 1873, when coal was 
a ton. 


2ECULIAR PEOPLE, asmall sect founded 
ndon by Wm. Bridges and Jas. Banyard in 1838; 
seat Essex. Twomembers, Thomasand Maryanne 
staffe, were tried and acquitted of manslaughter, 
in. 1868. They had neglected getting medical 
tance for their sick child, and depended on the 
wey of their elders’ prayers and anointing it with 
James v.14). Many eases of healing by these 
is are asserted. On 8 May, 1872, a father was 
icted for neglecting to get medical advice for 
shild who died of small pox; and the sect 
ed to modify their practice. Establishments 
ealing diseases by prayer exist in Germany. 
iother trial, Thomas Hines was acquitted, in accord- 
se with the opinion of the court ; Baron Pigott held 
it the case did not amount to criminal neglect be- 
ise the prisoner had not called in a doctor to his 
k child, 19 Aug. 1874; similar cases since ; 1875-6. 
Robert Downes (for neglect respecting scarlet fever) 
ttenced to 3 months’ imprisonment 21 Sept. 1876 


EDESTRIANISM. Euchidas, a citizen of 
ea, went from thence to Delphi to bring the 
dfire, This he obtained, and returned with it 
same day before sunset, having travelled 125 
ish miles. No sooner had he saluted his fellow- 
ens, and delivered the fire, than he fell dead at 
‘feet. After the battle of Marathon, a soldier 
sent from the field to announce the victory at 
us. Exhausted with fatigue, and bleeding 
his wounds, he cried out, ‘‘ Rejoice, we are 
uerors!’’ and immediately expired. 

rt Powel, the English pedestrian, performed many 
onishing journeys on foot. His ‘expedition from 
adon to York and back again, in 1788, is said to 
re been completed in 140 hours. 

un Barclay, for a wager (on which many thousands 
‘pounds depended), walked 1000 miles in 1000 suc- 
‘sive hours, each mile in each hour, in forty-two 


(8 
DN 


629 


PEDOMETER. 


days and nights (less 8 hours). His task was accom- 
plished on ro July, 1809. 

Thomas Standen, aged 60, of Salehurst, walked 1100 
miles in rroo hours (xt mile in x hou), finished, 
July, 181r. 

Richard Manks, a native of Warwickshire, undertook (in 
imitation of captain Barclay) to walk 1000 miles in 
1ooo hours: the place chosen was the Barrack-tavern 
cricket ground, in Sheffield ; he commenced on Monday, 
17 June, 1850, and completed the 1ooo miles, 29 July 
following, winning a considerable sum. 

On 7 Oct. 1861, a 12 miles foot-race was held, when 
Levett, the champion of Englahd, ran 7 miles in 37 
minutes 27 seconds ; Deerfoot, a Seneca Indian, ran 12 
miles in 65 minutes 5 seconds; and Mills ran ro miles 
in 54 minutes ro seconds ; other races followed. 

On 11 May, 1863, Deerfoot was beaten by White, who 
ran ro miles in 52 minutes 14 seconds. 

Miss Richards walked 1000 miles in 1000 hours 

18 May-29 June, 1874 

Edward Payson Weston (American), at Newark, 

U.S., walked soo miles in 5 days 23 hours 34 min, 
21-26 Dec. 1874 

Wm. Perkins, at Lillie Bridge, London, 8.W., 
walked 8 miles in less than one hour 20 Sept. 1875 

Match between Weston and Perkins at Agricul- 
tural Hall, London, N., began 9.25 p.m. 8 Feb. 

1876 ; Perkins walked 50 miles in g h. 37 m. 418., 
rested 26 m., went on for 65 m., and stopped ; 
Weston walked 50 miles ing h. 55 m. 528., went 
on for 16h., stopped for 1h., went on to 24 h. 
(walked 109 miles 758 yards), 8-9 Feb. 1876 

Weston began to walk 500 miles in 6 days at Agri- 
cultural Hall, 12.5 a.m. 6 March, had walked 450 
miles 11 March; he walked rrr miles in 24 con- 
secutive hours at Manchester > Apmis 

Bella St. Clair walked 1ooo miles in g50 hours 

25 July, ef seg. ,, 

Weston engaged to walk 505 miles in 6 days at 
Agricultural hall, London, walked 460 18-23 Dec. ,, 

Match between Weston and O’Leary, for 1000 gui- 
neas; won by O’Leary, who walked 520 miles, 
Weston 510 miles : = 5 . 2-7 April, 1877 

Wm. Gale, aged 45, walked 1500 miles in 1000 con- 
secutive hours, at Lillie bridge, London, S.W. 

26 Aug.-6 Oct. ; 4000} miles in 4000 consecutive 
ro minutes, at Agricultural hall, London; com- 
pleted , . : - A 5 17 Nov. ,, 

Match of 17 pedestrians at Agricultural hall; 

O’ Leary won, walked 520 miles 18-23 March, 1878 

Grand match (of 18 competitors) for championship 
and sool., Agricultural hall; 6 days and 6 nights ; 
won by W. Corkey, who walked 521 miles 

28 Oct.-2 Nov. ,, 

E. P. Weston starts to walk over England 2000 miles 
in rooo consecutive hours (except on Sundays), 18 
Jan. ; fails by 224 hours . : : . 28 Feb. 1879 

Weston walked 550 miles at the Agricultural hall, 
and won sir John Astley’s belt 16-27 June, 7); 

Blower Brown walked 553 miles in 6 days (won long 
distance championship of England, Astley’s belt, 
&¢.). . P ‘ c Shiai ie 16-21 Feb. 1880 

Belt, &c. won by Rowell. “ : 1-6 Nov. ,, 

Wm. Gale attempts to walk 2500 miles in 1000 hours ; 
walks 24054 miles. 20 Nov. 1880, to 1 Jan. 1881 

Weston walks 5000 miles in roo days (on teetotal 
principles) : : . 2t Nov. 1883-15 March, 1884 

Littlewood wins sir John Astley’s belt at Westmin- 
ster Aquarinm ; 405 miles in six days 24-25 Nov. ,, 


PEDLARS, see Hawkers. The Pedlars’ act 
passed, Aug. 1871. 


PEDOMETER anv ODOMETER, appa- 
ratus for measuring the distance traversed by a 
walker or carriage. 


Odometers, or road-measurers, are said to have 
been known in the 15th century ; and improve- 
ments in them were made in Englaud by Butter- 
field, about 1678; and by Meynier, in France 

about 1724 

Wm. Grayson’s odometer, or road-measurer, to be 
attached to carriages, was patented rt Dec. 185r 

Ralph Gouts’ pedometer for indicating the steps 
taken by a walker, was patented 4 Nov. 1799 

Wm. Payne’s pedometer for the waistcoat pocket, 
patented Wai atria OV one «We TS MOD, rose 


s 
a 


PEEL ACTS. 


PEEL ACTS. Among the most important 
were the Bank Acts of 1819 and 1844; the acts 
amending the criminal laws, 1827; dividing 
parishes into districts, 1843, and the act repealing 
the coin laws in 1846. 


PEEL ADMINISTRATIONS.* The rirsr 
succeeded the Melbourne administration, which 
was broken up on the retirement of lord Althorp, 
the chancellor of the exchequer, in Noy. 1834. 
Sir R. Peel, then in Italy, was summoned home, 
the duke of Wellington holding the seais of office in 
the interim. They both resigned in April, 1835. 
In May, 1841, sir RK. Peel carried a vote of want of 
confidence in the Melbourne cabinet, but did not 
take office; and in Sept. of that year, he became 
again premier, He lost the support of the conserva- 
tive party by obtaining the repeal of the corn laws, 
and resigned 29 June, 1846. 


FIRST ADMINISTRATION (Dec. 1834). 

Sir Robert Peel, jirst lord of the treaswry and chancellor 
of the exchequer. 

Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 

Earl of Rosslyn, lord president. 

Lord Wharncliffe, privy seal. 

Henry Goulburn, duke of Wellington, and earl of 
Aberdeen, home, foreign, and colonial secreturies of state. 

Earl De Grey, first lord of the admiralty. 

Lord Ellenborough, and Alexander Baring, board of 
control and trade. 

Sir Edward Knatchbull, paymaster of the forces. 

J. C. Herries, secretary-of-war. 

Sir George Murray, master-general of the ordnance, &e. 


SECOND ADMINISTRATION (Sept. 1841). 
Sir Robert Peel, first minister. 
Duke of Wellington in the cabinet without office, aft. 
commander-in-chief. 
Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 
Lord Wharnclifte, lord president. 

Duke of Buckingham, lord privy-seal (succeeded by duke 
of Buccleuch). ’ 
Sir James Graham, earl of Aberdeen, and lord Stanley, 

home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 

Henry Goulburn, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl of Haddington, first lord of the admiralty. 

Earl of ae board of trade (succeeded by W. E. Glad- 
stone). 

Lord Ellenborough, India board (succeeded by lord Fitz- 
gerald ; succeeded by earl of Ripon). 

Sir Henry Hardinge, sir Edward Knatchbull, sir George 

Murray, &c. 

[Terminated 29 June, 1846, by sir Robert’s resigna- 
tion. ] 

PEELITES, aname given to gentlemen, whigs 
and tories, who adhered to sir Robert Peel, after 
his defeat by the conservative party, on account of 
his free-trade measures carried in 1846. The 
principal were Henry Goulburn, W. E. Gladstone, 
Sidney (afterwards lord) Herbert, sir James Gra- 
ham, Edward Cardwell, sir George Clerk, lord Lin- 
coln (afterwards duke of Newcastle), and lords 
Canning and Elgin, and others. Several of them 
became members of the Palmerston and Aberdeen 
administrations (which see). 


PEEL PICTURES. The family collection 


* Sir Robert Peel was born 5 Feb. 1788; entered par- 
liament in 1809 ; became under-secretary of the colonies 
in 1811, chief secretary for Ireland in 1812; M.P. for 
Oxford in 1818 (when he resigned his office); secretary 
for home department in 1822; resigned office and re- 
appointed in 1827; resigned again in 1830; became 
premier in 1834 and 1841 (see above). He was thrown 
from his horse 29 June, and died 2 July, 1850. He greatly 
relaxed the severity of our criminal code in 1827, et seq. ; 
established the new police, and carried the catholic 
emancipation bill in 1829, and the repeal of the corn laws 
in 1846. Statues have been erected to him—at Salford, 
in 1852; at Tamworth, Leeds, Bury, and Manchester, in 
1853; and in London and Birmingham in 1855. 


630 


1 


PELASGI. 


(70) were purchased for the National Gallery 
75,000/. 1871. 


PEEP-O’-DAY-BOYS§, insurgentsin Irela 
who visited the houses of their antagonists 
break of day, in search of arms. They first appea 
4 July, 1784, and were long the terror of: 
country ; see Defenders. : 


PEERESSES of the United Kingdom 
their own right): six in 1885, Countess of ( 
martie (duchess of Sutherland), baronesses Berne 
Burdett-Coutts, Le Despencer, Willoughby D’ Eres 
and Bolsover. 


PEERS, see Lords. 


PEGU, a province of the Burmese empire, ( 
covered by the Portuguese in 1520. Pegu, 7 
capital, was taken by major Cotton, with 300 m 
in June, 1852, without loss; and _ afterwa 
abandoned. It was again occupied by the Burm 
and strongly fortified, with a garrison of 4000 m 
It was recaptured by general Godwin with I 
men and two guns, in two hours, with the loss 
six killed and thirty-two wounded. The provi 
was annexed to our Indian possessions, by prot 
mation, 20 Dec. 1852, and has since prospered. 
Feb. 1862, it was united with Arracan and Ten 
serim as British Burmah. 


PEIHO, see China, 1859, 1860. 
PEISHWA, the prime minister of the M 


rattas, seized the sovereign power and settled 
Poonah, 1749. The title was abolished in 1818, 


PEIWAR PASS (Kotul), in the Khoor 
valley, Afghanistan. Here general Roberts, ¥ 
the 72nd highlanders and the Gheorkas, defeated 
Afghans, 2 Dec. 1878. Major Anderson and ¢ 
Kelso were killed, and about 80 men were killed: 
wounded. ‘The enemy’s loss was very great. 


PEKIN, the capital of China, was built 
Kachilai-Khan, grandson of Genghis-Khan, ab 
1267. Here was held the court of the Mongol 
Yuen dynasty, 1280 to 1368. In 1369, Hung= 
of the Ming dynasty, removed to Nankin, wh 
was the capital till Yung-lo removed his cour 
Pekin in 1410; and by him and his successors 
city was enlarged, fortified, and beautified. It 
visited by lord Macartney, Sept. 1793; surrende 
to the allied English and French armies, 12 ¢ 
1860; and evacuated by them 5 Nov., after pe 
had been signed 24 Oct. It was described as bein; 
a very desolate state, and the inhabitants sea tte 
and indigent. English and French representai 
were settled at Pekin, March, 1861. Prelimin 
Peace with France concluded here, 5 April, 138: 


PELAGIANS, followers of Pelagius, a Brit 
appeared at Kome about 400. Their doctrines 
condemned by councils at Jerusalem, Carthage, 
other places, 415, 530. They maintained :— 
1. That Adam was by nature mortal, and whether he 

sinned or not would certainly have died. 2, That 

consequences of Adam’s sin were confined to his ¢ 

person. 3. That new-born infants are in the s 

condition with Adam before the fall. 4. That the 

qualified men for the kingdom of heayen, and” 
founded upon equal promises with the Gospel. 

That the general resurrection of the dead does not 

low in virtue of Christ’s resurrection. 


PELASGI, the primitive inhabitants of Gre 
and Italy, appear to have belonged to the In 
Germanic race. They were in Greece about I 
B.C., and in Italy about 1600 B.c. They have bi 
termed Tyrrheni, Sicani or Siculi, Apuli, | 
From the Pelasgi came the Dorians, Aolians, ‘ 
Ionians; all three being Hellenes or Greeks. 


rT 


PELEW ISLANDS 


LEW ISLANDS (N. Pacific Ocean), dis- 
d by the Spaniards in the 17th century. The 
India Company’s packet Antelope, captain 
n, was wrecked here in 1783. The king, 
hulle, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince 
90, his son, to England, where he arrived 
4, and died of the small-pox soon after. The 
India Company erected a monument over his 
in Rotherhithe churchyard. 


LHAM ADMINISTRATION. Mr. H. 
m replaced the earl of Wilmington as premier, 
ig. 1743; see Wilmington. In Nov. 17443 
lowing ‘ministry was formed (termed ‘‘ the 
bottom administration,’ because it compre- 
dagrand coalition of the parties). It was 
ved by the death of Mr. Pelham, 6 March, 


‘Pelham, first lord of the treaswry and chancellor of 
achequer. 
fardwicke, lord chancellor. 
of Dorset, president of the cowncil. 
‘ower, lord privy seal. 
of Newcastle and the earl of Harrington, secretaries 
ate. 
of Montagu, master-general of the ordnance. 
of Bedford, first lord of the admiralty. 
of Grafton, lord chamberlain. 
of Richmond, master of the horse. 
of Argyll, keeper of the great seal of Scotland. 
is of Tweeddale, secretary of state for Scotland. 
All of the cabinet. 
uke of Devonshire and duke of Bolton were not of 
e cabinet. 


‘LLS (from pellis, skin), receipts on_parch- 
rolls deposited in the court of exchequer. 
1 act passed in 1834, the office of clerk of the 
was abolished, and a comptroller-general 
nted. ‘Pell Records,’ or ‘‘Issues of the 
equer,’”’ or payments made out of his revenue 
mes I., were published by the government in 


‘LOPIUM, see Niobium. 
JLOPONNESUS (the island of Pelops), S. 


se, termed Morea in the 13th century, said to 
been settled by Pelops about 1283 B.c. PELO- 
‘ESIAN WAR continued for twenty-seven years 
een the Athenians and the people of the Pelo- 
esus, with their respective allies, and is the most 
us of the wars of Greece. It began by an at- 
t of the Beotians to surprise Platza, 431 B.c., 
May, and ended 404 by the taking of Athens 
ie Lacedeemonians. 


ELUSIUM (now Zineh), formerly Sin, the 
of Egypt. Here, in 525 B.c., Psammeticus III. 
lefeated by Cambyses, the Persian, who thereby 
ned possession of the kingdom. Pelusium 
mdered to Alexander, 333; was taken by the 
ians, 309; by Antiochus, 173; by Augustus, 
c.; and after a protracted resistance by Am- 
the Saracen, a.D. 638. 


EMBINA, a territory of the United States of 
rica; limits marked out, 11 Feb. 1881. 


BEMBROKE (S. Wales). A county palatine 
1536. The royal dockyard at Milford was 
xd to Pembroke in 1814. PEMBROKE COLLEGE 
HALL, see under Oxford and Cambridge. 


ENAL LAWS, see Criminal Laws and 
an Catholics. Penal servitude was substituted 
rausportation by acts passed in 1853 and 1857, 
amended in 1864. A penal servitude commis- 
appointed, 22 Jan. 1878. 


ENANCE, asacramentin the Roman church, 


> out of the practice of auricular confession 


631 


PENNY. 


(which see). The council of Trent, in“its 14th ses- 
sion (1551), decreed that every one is accursed who 
shall affirm that this sacrament was not instituted 
by Christ. 


PENANG, or PRINCE OF WALES'S ISLAND, 


was given up to the East India Company in 1786, 
by captain F’. Light, who received it as a marriage 
portion with the daughter of the king of Keddah. 
After several changes it became one of the Straits 
Settlements (which see). 


PENDULUMS. The 


isochronous property 


of the pendulum is said to have been applied to 
clocks by Galileo about 1639,‘and by Richard Harris 
about 1641. Christian Huyghens claimed this dis- 
covery, 1658. See Clocks. George Graham in- 
vented the compensating pendulum, 1715. Experi- 
ments were made to determine the density of the 
earth by pendulums by Mr. G. B. Airy (aftds. as- 
tronomer royal), and others, in a mine in Corn- 
wall, in 1826 and 1828; and at Horton colliery in 


1854. In 1851, M. Foucault. demonstrated the 


rotation of the earth by the motion of a pendulum. 


PENGE MYSTERY, Surrey, see Trials, 


Sept. 1877.3 


PENINSULAR WAR, see under Spain, 
1808-14. 

PENITENTIARIES. The London Female 
Penitentiary, Pentonville-road, was established in 
1807; and the British Penitent Female Refuge at 
Cambridge Heath, Hackney, in 1829. The Church 
saree oN Association, founded 1851. See Mil- 

ank. 


PENITENTS, see Magdalens. The Penitents 
of the name of Jesus in Spain, were a congregation 
of persons who had led a licentious life, formed 
about 1550. ‘The penitents of Orvieto were formed 


into an order of nuns about 1662. 


PENNSYLVANIA (N. America), the first 


state inthe Union in regard to mineral wealth. Sir 


Walter Raleigh was the first adventurer who planteda 


colony on these shores, in the reign of Elizabeth. 
Pennsylvania was granted by Charles II. to the 
duke of York, 1664; and it was sold to the Penn 
family, 1681. Pennsylvania was afterwards pur- 
chased from the Indians by the celebrated William 
Penn (son of admiral Penn), who went out from 
England with a number of colonists ; from which 
period thé settlement gradually increased. Mr. 
Penn granted a charter in May, 1701, but the emi- 
grants from the Low Countries refused it, and 
separated themselves from the province of roan 
vania. They afterwards had their own assembly, 
in which the governor of Pennsylvania presided. 
This state adopted an independent constitution in 
1776, and established the present in 1790. It was 
strongly unionist during the civil war, 1861-5; see 
United States of America, and Petroleum. For strikes 
see United States, 1877, 1882. Population in 1860, 
2,906,370; in 1870, 3,521,791; in 1880, 4,282,891. 
PENNY. The ancient silver penny was the 
first silver coin struck in England, and the only one 
current among the Anglo-Saxons. The penny until 
the reign of Edward I. was struck with a cross, so 
deeply indented that it might be easily parted into 
two for halfpence, and into four for farthings, and 
hence these names. Copper penny and two-penny 
ieces were coined by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, 
irmingham, in 1797, and were accounted the 
finest of our copper currency; see Couns, &e.— 
Prenny-Post ; see Post-Ofice. —Tur PENNY 
MAGAZINE began in 1832; the PENNY CYCLOPADIA 
in 1833 (supplements in 1846 and 1858). The 


PENRUDDOCK’S REBELLION. 


632 


PERCY FAMILY. 


PENNY RECEIPT stamp was appointed in 1853 (post- 
age stamps authorised to be used for receipts after I 
June, 1881), andin 1858 a penny stamp was directed 
to be placed on bankers’ cheques.—PENNY BANKS 
(in 1861 about 200) were established about 1850. 
They have become numerous, and in 1878 were 
authorised toinvest their funds. PENNY READINGS, 
for the working classes, became general in 185g. 
Carpenter’s ‘‘ Penny Readings,” published in 1865-7. 
The value of the Roman penny (mentioned Matt. xx. 2), 
or denarius, was estimated at 73d. of our money. 
Penny dinners for poor Board school children; organi- 
zation proposed at Society of Arts, 6 Dec. 1884. A 
similar self-supporting system existed in the provinces. 


PENRUDDOCK’S REBELLION on be- 
half of Charles II. was suppressed, and colonel John 
Penruddock himself executed, 16 May, 1655. 


PENSIONS. The crown’s power of granting 
them, often much abused, was materially checked 
by statute 1 Anne, c. I (1702). 


English pension list fixed at 95,o00l. 5 2 79r 
Irish pension list said to amount to 489,000l. 7703 
Provision made by parliament to reduce all the pen- 
sion lists of the united kingdom from 145,o000l. to 
a maximum of 75,0001. . ; : Z 5 sALORO 
A committee appointed to define the proper persons 
to whom pensions should be granted : it reported 
in favour of servants of the crown and public, and 
also of those who “‘ by their useful discoveries in 
science and attainments in literature and the arts, 
have merited the gracious consideration of their 
sovereign and the gratitude of their country” . 1834 
The queen empowered to grant annually new pen- 
sions to the amount of 12001. ; 5 
The political offices pension act passed 
The pensions commutation act passed 


1837 


f 9 Aug. 1869 


. 29 June, 
1871 and 1882 
Death of Rev. Thos. Thurlow, nephew of the lord 
chancellor, whereby pensions for abolished 
offices, said to amount to 11,7791. ceased 26 Sept. 1874 


PENTAGRAPH, see Pantagraph. 


PENTAMETER VERSE (five feet), first 
used about the 7th century, B.c.; see Elegy. 


PENTATEUCH, the five books of Moses, pro- 
bably written about 1452 B.c. See Bridle. 


PENTECOST signifies the fiftieth, and is the 
solemn festival of the Jews, called also ‘‘ the feast of 
weeks,”’ because it was celebrated fifty days, or seven 
weeks after the feast of the Passover, 1491 B.c. (Lev. 
xxiii. 15; Hwod. xxxiv. 22); see Whitsuntide. 


PENTLAND HILLS (near Edinburgh). 
Here the Scotch presbyterians, since called Came- 
ronians (which see), who had risen against the go- 
vernment on account of the establishment of episco- 
pacy, were defeated by the royal troops, 28 Nov. 1666. 


PENZANCE, Cornwall. The town was burnt 
by the Spaniards, July, 1595. It was taken by 
Fairfax in 1646. Here sir Humphry Davy was 
born, 17 Dec. 1778, and here was inaugurated his 
memorial statue, 17 Oct. 1872. 


PEOPLE. The duke of Norfolk and C. J. Fox, 
at a dinner in 1798, gave a toast ‘the majesty of 
the people,’’ for which their names were struck off 
the list of privy councillors. <A ‘‘ people’s petition ”’ 
was presented to parliament by Mr. T. Duncombe, 
and rejected, 2 May, 1842. ‘* PEOPLE’S PARKs,”’ 
principally through private liberality, have been 
opened since 1846, at Manchester, Halifax, Bir- 
mingham, Sheffield, Dundee, Bradford, Hull, Bath, 
Bolton, Liverpool, Leeds, &c. (which see). 

People’s Café Company established 1874, to give 

the working classes the advantages of club-houses, 

opened their first house in Upper Whitecross- 

street, London . : : 16 April, 1875 


A ‘*People’s Tribute” to the earl of Beaconsfield, a — 
gold wreath, made by Hunt & Roskeil, by sub- 
scription of 52,800 pennies; collected by the — 
agency of Mr. Tracy Turnerelli. Its presentation 
was declined by the earl. - 6 June, 78 

See Lntertataument. 


PEPPER was used by the Greeks ; licenses 
sell pepper abolished, 1869. Pepper imported in 
the United Kingdom in 1863, 16,810,467 lbs. 5 18% 
28,643,635 lbs. : in 1883, 31,375,589 lbs. 


PEPSIN, 2 peculiar organic substance found ' 
Schwamm in the gastric juice, and named by hi 
from pepsis, digestion. It was experimented on’ 
M. Blondlot in 1843, and has since been prescrib 
as a medicine, / 


PEPYS’ DIARY. Samuel Pepys was bo 
23 Feb. 1632; became secretary to the admira 
about 1664; president of the Royal Society, 16 
died 26 May, 1703. His “ Diary,’ as publish 
begins 1 Jan. 1659-60; ends 31 May, 1669. 


The MSS. at Magdalene College, Cambridge, was b 
deciphered by the Rey. John Smith. The first ; 
edition (witha selection from his correspondence) — 
by Richard, lord Braybrooke, appeared in 1825, 
The publication of a new edition, ‘‘ deciphered 
with additional notes by the Rev. Mynors Bright,” 18 


PERA, a suburb of Constantinople, the resider 
of the British and other ambassadors; has frequen 
been destroyed by fire; see Zurkey, 2 Aug. F 
and 5 June, 1870. j 


PERAK, see Straits Settlement. 
PERCEVAL ADMINISTRATION. — 


commenced on the dissolution of the duke of Po 
land’s, through his death, 30 Oct. 1809. Mr. P 
ceval was assassinated in the lobby of the house 
commons, by Bellingham, 11 May, 1812. Thee 
of Liverpool succeeded as premier. . 


Spencer Perceval [born 1762; chancellor of exchegr 
1807], first lord of the treaswry, chancellor of the eacheq 
and chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. 

Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Earl Camden, lord president. 

Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal. 

Richard Ryder, marquis of Wellesley, and earl of Liy 
pool, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 

Lord Mulgrave, admiralty. ; 

Mr. ie and earl Bathurst, boards of control é 
trade. 

Earl of Chatham, ordnance. 

Viscount Palmerston, secretary-at-war, &c. 


PERCUSSION CAPS, see Fire-arms. 


PERCY FAMILY. William de Percy | 
tained lands in Yorkshire from William the C 
queror, and died at Antioch about 1096. 


The heiress of the last baron Percy married Josceline 
de Louvaine, son of Godfrey, duke of Brabant, in 
the reign of Henry II. ; z - : mY 

Henry de Percy, their descendant, created earl of 
Northumberland in q : é : -1I 

Many of his descendants were slain during the wars 
of the Roses. . 

Lady Elizabeth Percy, the heiress of Josceline 
Percy, who died 1670, married Charles, duke of 
Somerset. 

Lady Elizabeth Percy, heiress of their son Algernon 
Seymour, duke of Northumberland, married sit - 
Hugh Smithson, created duke of Northumber- 
land in 5 ‘ . 3) sine A - oo se 

Their descendant, duke Algernon, died without 
issue, 12 Feb. 1865, and was succeeded by his 
cousin, George Percy, earl of Beverley, who died 
22 Aug. 1867 ; succeeded by George Algernon, the 
present duke. Z 

The Percy Socrery, for the publication of ancient 
ballads, &c., named after Dr. Percy, bishop of 
Dromore (died 1811), who published ballads, was 
established in 1840, published 94 little volumes, 


and was dissolved . A ; . 
Ny ; 


PERED. 


2ED. (Hungary). Here the Hungarians 
Gorgey were defeated by Wohlgemuth and 
ssians, 21 June, 1849. 


REKOP, an isthmus, five miles broad, 
ting the Crimea with the mainland. It was 
by the Tartars Orkapou, ‘‘ gate of the Isth- 
which the Russians changed to its present 
which signifies a barren ditch. The lines 
the isthmus were forced by the Russian mar- 
unich, May, 1736, and the fortress was taken 

, July, 1738. it was again strongly fortified 

han, but was again taken by the Russians 
, who have since retained it. 


RE-LA-CHAISH, see Cemeteries. 
REFECTION, see Ldduminati. 
REUMERY. In Exodus xxx. (1490 B.c.), 


ons are given for making the holy incense. 
Augustus of France granted a charter to the 
‘perfumers in 1190. Perfumes became fash- 
> in England in the reign of Elizabeth. In 
here were about forty manufacturing per- 
; in London; in Paris about eighty. No 
cade as a perfumer was known in Scotland in 
Oreech. A stamp-tax was laid on various 
sof perfumery in England, and the vendor 
dliged to take out a licence in 1786. At the 
of Beaufort-buildings, in the Strand, resided 
the perfumer, mentioned in the Spectator. 


RGAMOS, see Seven Churches. 3. 
RIODICAL LITERATURH, see News- 


, Magazines, and Reviews. 


RIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY, see Ly- 


RJURY. The early Romans threw the 
ar headlong from the Tarpeian precipice ; and 
reeks set a mark of infamy upon him. After 
upire became Christian, any one who swore 
‘upon the Gospels, was to have his tongue cut 
The canons of the primitive church enjoined 
years’ penance; and in some states the false 
x became liable to the punishment he charged 
he innocent. In England perjury was pun- 
with the pillory, fine, and imprisonment, 
By the Abolition of Oaths bill, persons 
ga false declaration are deemed guilty of a 
neanor; Act 5 & 6 Will. IV. cc. 60 and 61, 9 
1835. Perhaps the greatest perjurer in mo- 
imes was Titus Oates; see Oates. A woman 
. Alice Grey was convicted of many perjuries 
6. See Zrials, 1873. 


RKINS’ METALLIC TRACTORS, see. 


wu Magnetism. 


RMANENT COMMITTEES. One was 
ted, 15 Sept. 1871, by the French national 
bly to watch over the proceedings of the go- 
ent during a recess. It consisted of 25 per- 
various parties. A similar committee of the 
heortes, appointed 22 March, 1873, was per- 
‘tily dissolved by the government 22 April 
‘ing. 

RMISSIVE PROHIBITORY BILL 
1 would give power to two-thirds of the rate- 
of a parish to refuse licences for the sale of 
‘eating liquors), advocated by the United King- 
lance party, was rejected by the house of 
ms, 8 June, 1864; 12 May, iy (193-87) 5 17 
(871 (206-124) ; 8 May, 1872 (369-15) ; 7 May, 
321-81); 17 June, te (301-75); 16 June, 
371-86) ; 14 June, 187 ag withdrawn, 


633 


PERSIA. 


25 July, 1877; (278-84) 26 June, 1878. It is 
strongly advocated by sir Wilfrid Lawson, M.P. 
for Carlisle; resolution rejected (252-164) 11 March, 
1879. 

His resolution to give local option (that is, power to the 
inhabitants of any place to stop licensing public- 
houses) was rejected by the commons (248-134) 5 
March, 1880; but adopted (229-203) 18-19 June, 1880; 
(196-154) 14 June, 1881 ; (228-141) 27 April, 1883. 

“Local Option,’ an Americanism, is said not to work ~ 
satisfactorily in the United States. 


PERNAMBUCO, a province of Brazil, with a 
city of the same name, comprising Recife and 
other towns, founded in 1530; seized by the 
British, and retained for a month, 1594; insurrec- 
tions here, 1661, 1710, 1817, 1821, and 1829. 


PERONNE (N. France). Louis XI. of France, 
having placed himself in the power of the duke of 
Burgundy, here was forced to sign a treaty, con- 
firming those of Arras and Conflans, and recognising 
the duke’s independence; 14 Oct. 1468. The not- 
ables declared the treaty invalid and the duke a 
traitor, Nov. 1470. 

PERPENDICULAR, 


tecture. 
PERPETUAL EDICTS, see Edicts. 
PERPETUAL MOTION. For this purpose 


machines have been constructed by the marquis of 
Worcester and many others, although the impossi- 
bility of attaining it was demonstrated by sir Isaac 
Newton and De la Hire, and affirmed by the academy 
of sciences at Paris; 1775. It is still the object of 
experiment by half-taught persons. 


PERRANZABULOBH, Perran in the sands 
(in sabulo), Mid-Cornwall, named from Perran, the 
patron of tinners. The remains of an ancient 
British oratory or church, resembling the arrange- 
ment of protestant churches, were discovered in the 
sand in 1835, with other interesting relics. 


PERSECUTIONS. Historians usually reckon 
ten general persecutions of the Christians ; see Jews, 
Heretics, Inquisition, Huguenots, Protestants, Mas- 
sacres, Bartholomew, St., &c. 

I. Under Nero, who, having set fireto Rome, threw 
the odium upon the Christians ; multitudes were 
massacred ; wrapt up in the skins of wild beasts, 
and torn and devoured by dogs ; crucified, burnt 


see Gothic Archi- 


- alive, &c. ; é : ; : 64-68 
II. Under Domitian . i : < : te edy BIO 
III. Under Trajan. : : : ; ; = 106 
IV. Under Marcus Aurelius . ; : : . 166-177 
V. Under Septimus Severus. , ‘ - 199-204 
VI. Under Maximus . : 235-8 


VII. Under Decius, more bloody than any preceding 250-2 
VIII. Under Valerian H , ; : ; 255-60 
IX. Under Aurelian . , : é ‘ fas 
X. Under Diocletian, who prohibited divine wor- 
ship ; houses filled with Christians were set on 
fire, and many of them were bound together with 
ropes and cast into the sea . R : 303-13 


PERSEPOLIS, the ancient splendid capital of 
Persia. Alexanderis accused of setting fire to it, while 
intoxicated, 331 B.c. Ruins of this city still exist. 


PERSIA or IRAN, in the Bible called Elam,* is 
said to have received its appellation from Perseus, 
the son of Perseus and Andromeda, who settled 


275 


here, and established a petty sovereignty. The 
name is more probably of Indian origin. Persia 


was included in the first Assyrian monarchy, 900 
B.c. When that empire was dismembered by Arbaces, 


* Blamite antiquities presented to the British Museum 
by col. Ross, 1876. 


PERSIA. 


&c., it appertained to Media. Population of 
present kingdom, about 6,500,000. 


Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of the Magi, 
Zoroaster II., Persian philosopher, generally con- 


634 


the 


B.C. (2IES 


founded with the king of Bactria  . P 3 js) LODZ 
x * * * * * * 
Cyrus, king of Persia, 559; overthrows the Medo- 

Babylonian monarchy, about 557; conquers Asia- 

Minor about 548; becomes master of the east, 

536; killed in a war with the Massagetze 529 
Camby ses, his son, king, 529; conquers Egy pt 

(which see) . 525 
The false Smerdis killed ; Darius Hystaspes king, 

521; conquers Babylon . : é F A shy 
Conquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed . ; 498 
Darius equips a fleet of 600 sail, with an army of 

300,000 soldiers to invade the Peloponnesus, 

which is defeated at Marathon (which see) 490 
Xerxes (king, 485); recovers. Egypt, 484; enters 

Greece in the spring at the head of an immense 

force ; battle of Thermopyl ee 480 
Xerxes ‘enters Athens, after having lost 200,000 of 

his troops, and is defeated in a naval engagement 

off Salamis = ; a Ass 
Persians defeated at Mycale and Platea . 22 Sept. 479 
Cimon, son of Miltiasde, with a fleet of 250 vessels, 

takes several cities from the Persians, and de- 

stroys their navy, consisting of about 340 sail, 

near Cyprus . « azo 
Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Artabanus 465 
Artaxerxes I. Longimanus, king, 464; marries Esther, 458 
Xerxes I. xm: slain by Sogdianus, 425; who is de- 

posed by Darius II., Nothus . 3 424 
Artaxerxes II. Mnemon, king, 405 ; battle of Cunaxa, 

Cyrus the younger killed . : * xe AOL 
Retreat of the 10,000 Gr eeks (see Retrea t) ‘ ody 
War with Greece, 399 ; invasion of Persia . $ ~e'. ZOO 
Peace of Antalcidas (w hich see 387 
Artaxerxes III. (Ochus) kills all his relations at his 

accession . 359 
He is killed by his minister Bagoas, ‘and his son, 

Arses, made king 338 
Bagoas kills him and sets ‘up Darius IL, Codoma- 

nus, by whom he himself is killed 336 
Alexander the Great enters Asia; defeats ‘the Per- 

sians at the river Granicus, 334 ; near Issus, 3335 ; 

at Arbela 4 5 331 
Darius III. treacherously killed by Bessus . eS 
Persia partly re-conquered from the Greeks ; sub- 

jugated by the Parthians : + 250 
Artaxerxes I. founds the Sassanides dynasty ; re- A.D. 

stores kingdom of Persia . 226 
Religion of Zoroaster restored and Chr istianity per- 

secuted 227 
Artaxerxes murdered ; succeeded by Sapor ya Ar- 

menia becomes independent under Chosroes 240 
Sapor conquers Mesopotamia, 258 ; repels the Ro- 

mans and slays the emperor Valerian - 260 
Sapor assassinated ; succeeded by Hormisdas L ; 

who favours the Manichees 272 
Varanes I. (Baharam) persecutes them and ‘the 

Christians . 273 
Varanes II. defeated by ‘the emperor Probus ; makes 

peace 277 
Persia invaded by the emper or Carus, who conquers 

Seleucia and Ctesiphon . - Ay ry esse) 
Varanes ITI. king, 293 ; Narses F - 204 
The emperor Galerius conquers Mesopotamia, ‘&e. . 298 
Peace with Diocletian é ‘ ; . MERE 
Hormisdas II. king A 3 ; : - 301 OF 303 
Ormuz built : : about 303 
Sapor II. king, 309; pr oscribes Christianity, 326 : 

makes war successfully with Rome for the lost 

provinces - 337-360 
The emperor Julian invades Persia ; slain near the 

Tigris, 26 June; his successor Jovian ae 

his retreat by surrenderi ing provinces . 363 
Sapor annexes Armenia, 365; ; and Iberia, 366; 

makes peace with Rome : “ Y syiz 
Artaxerxes II. king, 380; Sapor TIL. F : e385 
Armenia and Iberia independent 386 
Varanes IV., oF Yezdejird I., 404 ; conquers ‘Ar- 

menia 412 
Varanes V., 420, persecutes Christians ; conquers 

Arabia Felix, 421 ; makes peace with the Eastern 

Empire for roo years . , : : : even, 422 
Armenia again united to Persia Fi 3 6 428 


PERSIA. 


Wars with Huns, Turks, &c. p A.D, 

Yezdejird IL. king, 440 ; Hormisdas IIL, 4573 civil 
war, 458-86 ; Feroze king 458; Pallas, 484 ; Kobad, 
486 ; Jamaspes, 4973 Kobad again e 

His son, Chosroes I. king ; long wars with Justinian 
and his successors, with various fortune . > | 

Successful campaigns of Belisarius . 

Hormisdas IV. continues the war; degrades his 
general, Baharam, who deposes him; but is 
eventually defeated 

Chosroes II. 591 ; renews the war with success, 603: 
Egypt and Asia Minor subdued 5 

Choer oes totally defeated by the emperor Heraclius, 
who advances on Persia . “ 

Chosroes put to death by his son, Siroes, 628 ; Ar. 
taxerxes III. king, 629 ; Purandokt, daughter 0) 
Chosroes, reigns, 630; Shenendeh, her lover, 631; 
Arzemdokt, her sister, 631 ; Kesra, 631 ; rena 
dad, 632; Yezdejird III. . 

Persia invaded by the Arabs ; the king flees, of 
is betrayed to them and is put to death, and his 
army exterminated 

Persia becomes the seat of the Shiite or Fatimite 
Mahometans 

The Taherite dynasty "established, 813; ; the Sof 
feride, 872; the Samanide_. 

Persia subdued by Togrul Beg and the Seljukica 
Turks, 1038 ; who are expelled, 1194 ; subdued )y 


Genghis Khan and the Mongols : : 84 
Bagdad made the capital . " - : - | 
The poet Hatiz died about . a. 
Persia invaded by Timour, 1380 ; ravaged by him | 
The poet Jami born . : : omy 


Persia conquered by the Turcomans. . 
Who are expelled by the Shiites, who  stablish ‘the 
Sophi dynasty under Ismail ae < 


Ispahan made the capital . 2 - 
The Turks take Bagdad ; great massacre weg 
Georgia revolts to Russia . = A +O I 
Teheran made the capital . 4 : 5 » 
War with Russia ; 


Rupture with England through the Persians taking 
Herat (which see), 25 Oct. ; war declared 1N 
Persians defeated ; Bushire taken 8-10 Dee 
General Outram defeats the Persians at Kooshab, { 
Feb. ; and at Mohammerah . P . 26 Marc 

Peace ratified at Teheran . = . 
Commercial treaty with France, &e. F 
Herat given up by the Persians . : ; 
The shah re-organizes the government 
Railways in process of formation . ° oo 
Electric telegraph introduced . -a 
Great sufferings through three years’ drought, ae 
companied by fever and cholera; about 16,00 
rersons perished at Ispahan, &c. uly-Oct 
Collection in London for relief ; above 13,000l. sub 
scribed . . Oct. 1871—Feb 
Concession to baron Julius de Reuter to mate rail 
ways, waterworks, &c. for 7o years, with a Fy 
power . 
Prosperity restored through a good harvest, oe 
The shah starts to visit Europe, r9 April ; arrives @ 
St. Petersburg, 22 May; at Berlin, 31 May; @ 
Brussels, 16 June; at London, 18 June ; receive 
the gar ter at Windsor, 20 June 5 arrives at Paris 
5J uly ; ; at Turin, 25 J uly ; 5 at Vienna. 30 July 
at Constantinople, 19 Aug. ; returned to ie 
23 Be 
The shah visits Europe in summer; returned t 
Teheran : g Aug 
Rebellious incursions of the Kurds ‘suppressed afte 


much bloodshed (see Kurdistan) . Oct.—Dee 
Treaty with Russia signed R > . 22 Dec 
A.D. SHAHS. 
1502. Ismail or Ishmael: conquers Georgia, 1519 
1523. ‘Tamasp or Thamas I. 
1576. Ismail II. aha Za. 
1577. Mahommed Meerza. 
ree ‘Abbas I. the Great ; made a treaty with the 
lish, 1612 ; died in 1628. 
1628. Shah ’Sophi. 
1641. Abbas II. 
1666. Shah Sophi IT. 
1694. Hussein ; depose 


sed. 
Mahmoud, chief of the Afghans. 
Ashratf the Usur per ; slain in battle. 


di 


PERSON. 


umasp or Thamas II. ; recovered the throne of 
lis ancestors from the preceding. 
hamas-Kouli-Khan, his general, obtained great 
successes in this and the subsequent reigns. ] 
bbas IIL, infant son of Tamasp, under the re- 
yency of Kouli-Khan, who afterwards caused 
himself to be proclaimed king as 

adir Shah (the victorious king); conquers India 
1739 ; assassinated at Korassan by his nephew. 
nah Rokh. 

nterregnum. } 

ureem Khan. 

any competitors for the throne, and assassina- 
tions till— 

a-Mahommed Khan obtains the power, and 
founds the reigning (Turcoman) dynasty ; assas- 
sinated, 1797. 

tteh Ali-Shah. 

hommed-Shah, grandson of Futteh: died, 10 
Sept. 1848. 

sr-ul-Deen, or Nassr-ed-Deen, son ; born 4 April, 
1839; the PRESENT shah of Persia; said to be 
an able prince and friendly to Britain; visited 
Europe, 1873, and 1878. 

ir: son, Muzaffer-ed-Deen, born 1850. 


SON, OFFENCES AGAINST. The statute 
pecting these were consolidated and amended 


SPECTIVE in drawing was observed by 
_Eycks (1426-46) and treated scientifically 
ael Angelo, Lionardo da Vinci, and Albert 
early in the 16th century. Guido Ubaldo 
ad a treatise in 1608; Dubreuil’s treatise 
esuits’ perspective’’) appeared in 1642, and 
thematical theory was demonstrated by 
‘aylor in 1731. 

‘TH (the oldcapital of Scotland), said to have 
inded by Agricola, about a.p. 70. It was 
1 by the Regent Robert, 1339. On 20 Feb. 
umes IJ. was murdered at the Black Friars’ 
ry here, by Robert Graham and the earl of 
‘or which they suffered condign punishment. 
8 conspiracy occurred here, 6 Aug. 1600. 
yas taken from the French garrison by the 
rs, 26 June, 1559. The “‘ Articles of Perth” 
‘to religious ceremonies, were agreed to by 
neral Assembly of Scotland, 25 Aug. 1618. 
was taken by Cromwell in 1651 ; and by the 
Mar after the battle of Dunblane, in 1715. 
tue of the prince consort was inaugurated in 
sence of the queen, 30 Aug. 1864. 

8U (S. America), was long governed by 
aid to be descended from Manco Capac, who 
m the 11th century. Population, 1876, 
45- 


olored and conquered by Francisco Pizarro 


Imagro : . : : 4 é 1524-33 
inca, Atahualpa, put to death . 29 Aug. 1533 
assassinated at Lima ‘ c 26 June, 1541 
8 insurrection of the Peruvians under Tapac 
d,aninca ., . . z ‘ $ . 1780 
rtin proclaims the independence of Peru, 

| ; 28 July, 1821 

inst Spain . ; 4 é : 14 Jan. 1824 
made dictator . . é : Hepes, 
Prado president . . : 28 Nov. ,, 
niards defeated at Ayacucho, and freedom 
uand Chili avhieved . ‘ js OR 

‘ Peruvian constitution signed by the presi- 
fthe republic . i ' - 21 March, 1828 
h Columbia ; treaty of peace 28 Feb. 1829 
succession of fierce party conflicts, general 

a Castilla becomes president; firm and 

. ee X45 


tion of guano began. : 3 # ap ee 
pec ane Echenique, deposed ; Castilla again 


a : ‘ A - ’ 18 

stitution, 1856 ; modified i ; ‘ 180 
on (without Indians) about 2} millions 1859 
‘San Ramon president . : 24 Oct. 1862 
J. A. Pezet president . : - 3 April, 1863 


635 


PERU. 


The Spanish admiral Pinzon took possession of the 
Chincha-isles (valuable for guano) belonging to 
Peru, stating that he would occupy them till the 
claims of his government on Peru were satisfied, 

14 April, 

American congress at Lima ; plenipotentiaries from 
Chili and other states meet to concert measures 
for defence against European powers Novy. 

Negotiations followed by peace with Spain, 28 Jan. ; 
Chincha islands restored . : : ; 3 Feb. 

Revolt against president Pezet, 28 Feb. ; several 
provinces soon lost . ; : : May, 

The insurgents declare war against Spain . Oct. 

They take Lima ; Pezet flies, and Canseco becomes 
president é : : : ; : . Nov. 

Peru joins Chili, and declares war against Spain, 

Feb. 

The Spanish admiral Nufiez, in his attempt to bom- 
bard Callao, repulsed and wounded 2 May, 

The Spaniards quit Peruvian waters to May, 

Riots at Lima against religious toleration 15 April, 

Invasion of ex-president Castilla, May ; dies of fever, 

30 May, 

Mariano-Ignace Prado resigns dictatorship ; made 
provisional president, 15 Feb. ; proclaimed, 

31 Aug. 

Insurrection against Prado; he resigns, 7 Jan. ; suc- 
ceeded by gen. La Puerta; Pezet’s treaty with 
Spain confirmed F 18 Jan, 

Col. J. Balta president . A ; ; . r Aug. 

Several towns in Peru suffered by great earthquakes 
(see Earthquakes) : : Z 13-15 Aug. 

Gold mines discovered at Huacho. Oct: 

Industrial exhibition opened at Lima July, 

Military insurrection at Lima; Tomas Gutierrez, 
minister of war, makes himself dictator, and im- 
prisons president Balta . : 22 July, 

Unsupported by the people, and not recognised by 
diplomatic representatives, he orders Balta to be 
shot ; is himself compelled to fly ; caught ; killed 
by the people, and hanged to a lamp-post; col. 
Zavallos, vice-president, assumes the government ; 
order restored ; about 200 lives were lost during 
the coup Wétat . : : 4 . 26 July, 

Manuel Pardo elected president by the people, as- 
sumed office . 3 ; : . 2 Aug. 

Armed riots in Lima at the execution of cols. Ganrio 
and Zevallos as rebels : , ? May, 

President Pardo escapes assassination 22 Aug. 

Insurrection under Pierola; he is defeated at 
Sorota, near Tarata : . - : 2 Dec: 

Talisman sailed from Cardiff for South America ; 
consigned to Peruvian rebels; seized and con- 
demned as a prize, and English sailors impri- 
soned, Nov. 1874-Nov. 1875; report on ill-usage, 
English government promise inquiry March, 

President, Mariana T. Prado ‘ . 2 Aug. 

Reported insurrection of Nicolas de Pierolas, with 
about 6000 men, endeavouring to establish a 
southern confederacy. ; , . 6-10 Oct. 

He sails away with the Huascar ironclad, 29 May ; 
this is attacked by adm. De Horsey, with H.M.S. 
Shah and Amethyst, as piratical, for attacking 
mail ships ; it is compelled to go into Lima and 
surrender ; the Peruvians resent British inter- 
ference, and threaten reprisals June, 

Peruvian government issues a circular to the 
powers, 10 June; demands reparation 25 June, 

Sir John Holker, att.-general, in house of com- 
mons, said that the Huascar had committed acts 
which made her an enemy of Great Britain, and 
had no belligerent rights; and that De Horsey 
was justified in what he did ; r zr Aug. 

Pierolas and his adherents amnestied Aug. 

Ex-president Pardo, president of the senate, assas- 
sinated at Lima . : ‘ , 16 Nov. 

Peru and Bolivia declare war against Chili, an- 
nounced . : ; : 2 ; 2 April, 

For the events of the war, see Chili, 


1864 


37 


1868 


” 


>? 
1871 
1872 


97 


1876 


29 
2? 


1878 


1879 


1879—81 


Sanguinary revolution at Lima; Pierolas proclaimed 


dictator ; Prado flees : : 22 Dec. et seq. 


Lima occupied by the Chilians : : 17 Jan. 
Sefior F. G. Calderon provisional president at Mag- 
dalena 2 ; : ‘ ; 3 «barclays 
Anarchy in Lima : i ; March, 
Pierolas, near Lima, declares for’ continual war, 
April, 


9? 


1881 


PERUGIA. 


636 


-~ 


>} 


PETERSBURG, ST. . 


Pasco, a seaport, burnt by Peruvian soldiery ; about 
tooo inhabitants massacred announced 20 Feb. 1882 
Pierola quits Peru announced TOApruey oe 
Presideut Montero opposed to truce with Chili; 
disaffection 5 ; ' : May, 5; 
President Iglesias formed a ministry about 12 


Sept.; he signs peace with Chili at Ancon 20 Oet. 1883 
Important territories surrendered. Oct. 
Lima evacuated by the Chilians £ oe ez Cbrens, 
Arequipa surrendered to the Chilians . 20 OCte, 
Gen. Iglesias’ government confirmed by elections, 

about 29 Jan. 1884 
Treaty with Chili ratified by the Notables, March ; 
partial evacuation of Peruvian territory May, 5 


Gen. Caceres makes himself president in opposition 
to Iglesias ; enters Lima with a rabble, and is 
quickly repulsed : 5 * : 27 AUS. 4, 
Montero oscillates between the two parties; civil 
war continues; Truxillo captured for Iglesias ; 
severe fighting announced . : SE 7 OC eae 
Gradual submission to the government DCCua ss 


PERUGIA, a city of central Italy ; as Perousia, 
anciently one of the Etruscan confederation. It 
allied itself with the Samnites, but was ruined b 
two defeats by the Romans, 309 and 295 B.c. It 
was taken by Octavius Cesar from the adherents 
of Antony ; many of whom were immolated on altars 
by their victor, 41. Leo X. took Perugia from the 
rival families Oddiand Baglioni, in a.p. 1520. An 
insurrection here against the pope was put down by 
the Swiss with great cruelty, 20 June, 1859, Perugia 
was taken by the Sardinian general Fanti, in Sept. 
1860, when the cruel papal general Schmidt and 
1600 men were made prisoners. 


PERUKE or Wia. The ancients used false 
hair, but the present peruke was first worn in France 
and Italy about 1620; and introduced into England 
about 1660, and prevailed more or less till about 
1810. 

It is said that bishop Blomfield (of London), in 1830, 
obtained permission for the. bishops to discontinue 
wearing their wigs in parliament, of which they gra- 
dually availed themselves. On account of the heat, sir 
J. P. Wilde, and other judges and several counsel, 
appeared in court without wigs, 22, 23 July, 1868. 


PERUVIAN BARK, see Jesuits’ Bark. 
PESCHIERA, a strong Austrian fortress, on 


an island in the Mincio, near the Lago de Garda, 
N. Italy. It has been frequently taken by siege :— 
bythe French, 1796; by the Austrians and Russians, 
1799; by the French again, 1801; given up by 
them, 1814; taken by the Sardinians, May, 1848; 
retaken by Radetsky, March, 1849. The Sardinians 
were preparing to besiege it in July, 1859, when 
peace was made. It was given up to the Italians, 
9 Oct. 1866 ; see Quadrilateral. 


PESSIMISM (from pessimas, the worst), the 
opposite doctrine to optimism (which see). Mr. 
James Sully’s ‘Pessimism, a History and a Criti- 
cism,” was published in 1877. Arthur Schopen- 
hauer (1788-1860), an eminent pessimist, says, ‘All 
life is eftort, all effort is painful, the pains of life 
must predominate.”’ 


PESTALOZZIAN SYSTEM of education 
was devised by John Henry Pestalozzi, born at Zurich 
in Switzerland, in 1746, died 17 Feb. 1827. In 1775 
he turned his farm into a school for educating poor 
children in reading, writing, and working; but he 
did not succeed. In 1798 he established an orphan 
school where he began with the mutual instruc- 
tion, or monitorial system, since adopted by Lan- 
caster; but his school was soon after turned into 
a hospital for the Austrian army. In 1802, in 
conjunction with Fellenberg, he established his 
school at Hofwyl, which at first was successful, but 
eventually declined through mismanagement. 


PESTH (Hungary), built about 889, o1 
east bank of the Danube, opposite Buda, ws 
Lecceyen taken and besieged in the wars of Hun 
particularly with the Turks. The great inst 
tion broke out here, and the minister, count. 
berg, was killed, 28 Sept. 1848. Buda-Pestl 
taken by the imperialists, 5 Jan. 1849. The 
garians afterwards defeated the Austrians, who 
obliged to evacuate it 18 April, same year 
Hungary.  Buda-Pesth formally consti 
capital of Hungary, Nov. 1873. 


PESTILENCEH, see Plague. 


PETALISM (from the Greek petaion, a 
a mode of deciding upon the guilt of citize 
Syracuse, similar to the Athenian ostracism 
name being written on a leaf (generat 
olive) instead of a shell, about 460 B.c. If 
were established the sentence was usually ba 
ment, 


PETARD, or PETAR, an inventio 
cribed to the Huguenots in 1579. Pet 
metal, nearly in the shape of a hat, were emy 
to blow up gates or other barriers, and al 
countermines to break through into the e 
galleries. Cahors was taken by Henry I 
means of petards, in 1580, when it is said the 
first used. ‘ Hoised with his own petar.” 
speare, Hamlet iii. 4. : 


PETER THE GREAT’S WILL, see 
Wills. 


; 
PETER THE WILD Boy, 2 savage c 
found in the forest of Hertswold, elector: 
Hanover, when George I. and his friends 
hunting. He was found walking on his han¢ 
feet, climbing trees like a squirrel, and feedi 
grass and moss, Nov. 1725. At this time i 
supposed to be thirteen years old. He died, 
under the care of an English farmer, Feb. 178 
The king caused him to taste of all the dishes at th 

table; but he preferred wild plants, leaves, a 
bark of trees, which he had lived on from his 
No efforts of the many philosophic persons 
court could entirely vary his savage habits, or 
him to utter one distinct syllable. Lord M 
represented him to be a proof of the hypothe: 
‘‘man in a state of nature is a mere animal,” — 


PETERBOROUGH, anciently Mede 
stede (Northamptonshire); obtained its pi 
name from a king of Mercia founding an abbe 
dedicating it to St. Peter about 655. The el 
destroyed by the Danes, was rebuilt with 
beauty. The tower becoming dangerous, 1 


tion resolved on, Dec. 1882. Foundation i 
new building, 7 May, 1884. The bishopri 


erected by Henry VIIL., out of the lands of dis 
monasteries in the diocese of Lincoln. 

bishop was John Chambers, the last abbot of 
borough, 1541. The see was valued in the! 
books at 419/. 19s. 11d. Present income 4500 


RECENT ‘BISHOPS. 
Spencer Madan ; died, 8 Oct. 1873. 
John Parsons ; died, 12 March, 1819. 
Herbert Marsh ; died, 1 May, 1839. 
George Davys; died, 8 April, 1864. 
1864. Francis Jeune, May ; died 20 Aug. 1868. 
1868. Wm. Connor Magee ; elected 31 Oct. 


PETERLOO, see Manchester Reform Me 
16 Aug. 1819. 


PETERSBURG, ST., the modern cap) 
Russia, founded by Peter the Great, 27 May, 
He built a small hut for himself, and some W’ 
hovels. In 1710, the count Golovkin built th 
house of brick; and the next year, the em 


5 i 

6 

V 
Pp 


1794- 
1813. 
1819. 
18309. 


if 
¥ 


~ 


PETER’S CHURCH, ST. 


own hands, laid the foundation of a house 
ame material. The seat of empire was 
ed from Moscow to this place in I7II. 
1 1736, a fire consumed 2000 houses; and 
another fire consumed 11,000 houses; this 
was occasioned by lightning. Again, in 
796, a large magazine of naval stores and 
els were destroyed. The winter palace was 
the ground, 29 Dec. 1837. The railway to 
was finished in 1851; to Berlin, opened 
1862. The university was closed in Oct. 
n account of the riotous conduct of the 
. On 10 June, 1862, property to the 
of nearly a million sterling was destroyed 
See Russia, 1879-81.—PETERSBURG, Vir- 
e United States, 1864. 
f St. Petersburg, between Russia and 
a, the former restoring all her conquests to 
ter, signed 5 May, 


: . ; A c 1762 
f St. Petersburg for the partition of Poland 


ticle, Partition Treaties) : a SPAUS.1772 
f St. Petersburg, led to a coalition against 
5 Sept. 1805 


yf Alliance, signed at St. Petersburg, be- 
Bernadotte, prince royal of Sweden, and 
nperor Alexander ; the former agreeing to 
the campaign against France, in return for 
Sweden was to receive Norway 24 March, 
new Alexander II. bridge over the Neva 
a. 4 : ; ‘ F . 12 Oct. 1879 
1al to Cronsdadt completed . : Feb. 1885 


‘ER’S CHURCH, ST. (Rome), originally 
by Constantine, 306. About 1450, pope 
1s V. commenced a new church. The present 
icent pile was designed by Bramante; the 
one laid by pope Julius II. in 1506. In 
ueo X. employed Raphael and two others to 
itend the Dales. Paul III. committed the 
9 Michael Angelo, who devised the dome, in 
nstruction of which 30,000 lb. of iron were 
The church was consecrated 18 Nov. 1626. 
ont is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 
¢, and the majestic dome ascends from the 
of the church toa height of 324 feet; the 
of the interior is 600 feet, forming one of 
ost spacious halls ever constructed. The 
of the exterior is 669 feet; its greatest 
h within is 442 feet; and the entire height 
he ground 432 fect. Renewal of the leaden 
ipe completed, July, 1884. 


TER’S PENCE, presented by Ina, king 
West Saxons, to the pope at Rome, for the 
ment of an English college there, about 725 ; 
ed because agreed to be paid on Peter Mass, 
. The tax was levied on all’ families pos- 
of thirty pence yearly rent in land, out of 
they paid one penny. It was confirmed by 
7, and was afterwards claimed by the popes 
ibute from England, and regularly collected, 
ppressed by Henry VIII. 1534. Camden. A 
‘collection (on behalf of the pope) was for- 
1in France in 1860. 


TERSWALDEN (Germany), CONVEN- 
OF, between Great Britain and Russia, by 
_a firm and decisive alliance between those 
$s was made against France, and the course of 
. against Napoleon Bonaparte was planned ; 
18 July, 1813. This alliance led to the over- 
of Bonaparte in the next year. 


\ERWARADEIN (in Austria), was taken 


. Turks, July, 1526. Here prince Eugene of 
i) gained a great victory over the Turks, 5 Aug. 


1812 


MTITIONS. The right of petitioning the 
1 and parliament for redress of grievances is a 


637 


PETROLEUSES. 


fundamental principle of the constitution. Peti- 
tions are extant of the date of Edward I. In the 
reign of Henry IV. petitions began to be addressed 
to the house of commons in considerable numbers. 
In 1837 there were presented to parliament 10,831 
petitions, signed by 2,905,905 persons; in 1859, 
24,386,,signed by 2,290,579; in 1867, 12,744, signed 
by 1,145,216. See Abhorrers, and Rights. 
A petition from Boulogne for a consul was brought in 
but not received by the commons April-May, 1876 


PETO’S ACT, 13 & 14 Vict. c. 28 (1850), 
renders more simple and effectual the titles by 
which religious bodies hold property. 


PETRA, the ancient Sela, in mount Seir, near 
mount Hor, in the land of Edom. In the 4th cen= 
tury B.c. it was held by the Nabathzans, who 
successfully resisted Antigonus. About Abe 70 it 
was the residence of the Arab princes named 
Aretas. It was conquered by Cornelius Palma, and 
annexed to the empire under ‘l'rajan, 105, to which 
period its remarkable monuments are ascribed. It 
was an important station for commercial traflic with 
Rome. It has been described by Burckhardt and 
other travellers. 


PETRARCH AND LAURA; celebrated for 
the refined passion of the former for the latter, 
began in 1327, and the chief subject of his sonnets. 
He was born 1304, crowned with laurel, as a poet 
and writer, on Easter-day, 8 April, 1341; and died 
at Arqua, near Padua, 18 July, 1374. Laura died 
6 April, 1348. A commemoration of his death at 
Avignon and other places, 18 July, 1874. 


PETRO-BRUSIANS, followers of Pierre de 
Bruys, an early reformer, who was burnt at St. 
Gilles, Languedoc, as a heretic, in 1130. 


PETROLEUM, rock oil or mineral oil 
similar to paraffin, has been found in many parts of 
the world, especially at Rangoon. In 1859-82 a 
number of oil-springs were discovered in the bitu- 
minous coal regions of N. W. Pennsylvania, now 
termed ‘ Petrolia,’’ and others have been dis- 
covered in Ohio and other states, and also in Canada. 
Numerous artesian wells were sunk, manufactories 
erected, and an almost unlimited supply obtained ; 
between 1859-77, 2,802,500,000 gallons; in 1863, 
8,907,305 gallons In consequence of the importation 
of this oil into this country, and many accidents 
having taken place fatuek its inflammability at 
low temperature, acts for ‘‘ the safe keeping of petro- 
leum’’ were passed, 29 July, 1862; July, 1868, Aug. 
1871, and 1879. Petroleum became an awful weapon 
in the hands of the insurgents in Paris, 23-27 May 
1871. About fifty killed by explosion ata petroleum 
manufactory near Rheims, 16 July, 1871. The Pe- 
troleum Association test petroleum, with the view 
of preventing the importation of that which is 
dangerous. Refined petroleum imported: 1872, 
5,670,674 gallons; 1877, 33,474,955 gallons; 18381, 
58,371,386 gallons. Unretined and refined: 1882, 
59,095,982 gallons ; 1883, 70,526,996 gallons. 
Petroleum oil found in Luneberger Haidee, Han- 

over ; colony formed named Cilheim announced 
Petroleum fire at Bristol ; fire floated ieeik oe 

drains into the river : : : . 30 Nov. 
The great petroleum greunds near Baku, a Russian 
town on the Caspian, long monopolized, set free 

1872; greatly developed by Ludwig and Robert 

Nobel, Swedes, since 1875; 34,000,000 gallons of 

oil produced in 1875 ; 200,000,000 in 1882, Russia 

supplied; exportation begun and greatly in- 

creasing . : . 1884 


PETROLEUSKES, 2 name Bee to women 


charged with throwing petroleum on the burning 


188r 


PETROPAULOVSKI. 


houses in Paris during the siege by the govern- 
ment, May, 1871. 


PETROPAULOVSKI, a fortified town on 
the east coast of Kamtschatka, was attacked by an 
English and French squadron, 30 Aug. 1854. ‘They 
destroyed the batteries, but failed in taking some 
Russian frigates, except the Sitka, a store-ship 
taken by the President, and a schooner taken by 
the Pique, Admiral Price was killed, it is sup- 
posed by the accidental discharge of his own pistol. 
A party of 700 sailors and marines landed to assault 
the place, but fell into an ambuscade; many were 
killed, including captain Parker and M. Bourasset, 
English and French officers. The objects of the 
attack were not attained, it is thought from 
want of stores. After this the Russians greatly 
strengthened their defences, but on 30 May, 1855, 
the allied squadron in the Pacific arriving here 
found the place deserted. The fortifications were 
destroyed, but the town was spared. The Russian 
ships escaped. 


PETTY BAG, clerk of the: power was given to 
the treasury, with consent of the lord chancellor 
and master of the rolls, to abolish this office, by the 
Great Seal Offices Act, 1874. 


PEVENSEY (Sussex), said to be the site of 
the Roman Anderida, on which a Norman castle 
was erected. Here William of Normandy landed, 
28 or 29 Sept. 1066. The duke of York, in the 
reign of Henry IV., was for some time confined 
within the walls of this castle; as was also queen 
Joan of Navarre, the last wife of Henry 1V., who, 
with her confessor, friar Randal, was accused of a 
design to destroy Henry Y., her step-son. 


PEWS in churches. ‘‘ In a London will we 
read of sedile vocatum pew’’ (a seat called pew), 
1453. Pews were censured by Latimer and Brad- 
ford, 1553. Walcot. The church of Geddington 
St. Mary, Northamptonshire, long contained a pew 
dated 1602. The rev. W. M. H. Church (vicar 
1844-6) restored and re-seated the church, and pre- 
served the panel with the date in the door of the 
surplice press. Another pew in the chancel was 
dated 1604. 


PFAFFENDORE anp Likonirz (Silesia). 
Near these two places was fought a battle between 
the Imperialists and Prussians, 15 Aug. 1760. The 
Austrians were defeated by Frederick of Prussia, 
who thus prevented the junction of the Russian and 
Austrian armies. 


PHALANX, the Greek phalanx consisted of 
8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, 
and spears crossing each other. The battalion 
of Philip of Macedon, called the Macedonian pha- 
lanx, was formed by him about 360 B.c. 


PHALANSTERY, see Fourierism. 
PHALSBOURG (Pfalzburg, Palatine city), a 


strong town of Alsace, was founded in 1570, by the 
elector palatine George John. It was ceded to France 
in 1661, and its fortress erected by Vauban, 1679. 
It checked the progress of the victorious armies of 
the allies both in 1814 and 1815, and withstood the 
Germans from 16 Aug. to 12 Dec. 1870, when it 
capitulated unconditionally. It was retained at the 
peace in Feb. 1871. 

PHARAOH’S SERPENTS, a dangerous 
chemical toy, composed of sulpho-cyanide of mer- 
cury, appeared in Paris in the summer of 1865. 

PHARISEES, a sect among the Jews; so 
called trom pharash, a Hebrew word for separated, 
because they pretended toa greater degree of holiness 


638 , 


PHILADELPHIA, 


than the rest of the Jews. Luke xviii. 9-12. 7 
Talmud enumerates seven classes of Pharisees, 


PHARMACOPQCIA, a book of directions 
the preparation of medicine, published by colle 
of physicians, the earliest in England 1618, 
1862 the General Medical Council were empowe 
to prepare and sell a new pharmacopoeia, to sup 
sede those of the colleges of London, Edinbar 
and Dublin, which was published in June, 1 
eee by a new one in May, 1867; reprin 
1874. 

PHARMACY : the knowledge of the chem 
and medical properties of drugs and other thj 
employed medicinally. The Pharmaceutical Soe 
of Great Britain, founded I June, 1841, mainly 
Mr. Jacob Bell, obtained its charter in 1843, 
publishes a weekly journal.—The pharmacy 
1852, regulates the qualifications of pharmaceut 
chemists. It was amended by the pharmacy a 
1868 which required all sellers of poisons to 
registered after 31 Dec. 1868; act amended in 1 
Sale of Food and Drugs Act passed . rr Aug. 
Pharmaceutical Society of Ireland was instituted 

by the Irish Pharmacy Act passed rr Aug, 
Pharmacy.—An international pharmaceutical con- 

gress (with an exhibition) was opened in London 
1 Aug. 

PHAROS, of Ptolemy Philadelphus of A 
andria, was esteemed as one of the wonder 
the world. It was a tower built of wi 
marble, completed about 283 B.c. On the 
fires were constantly kept to direct sailors in 
bay. The building cost 800 talents, which” 
equivalent to above 165,100/. English, if Attic; 
if Alexandrian, double that sum. It is said: 
there was this inscription upon it—‘‘King Ptole 
to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailor 
but Sostratus, the architect, wishing to claim 
the glory, engraved his own name upon the ste 
and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar, 
wrote the above inscription. When the mortar 
decayed, Ptolemy’s name disappeared, and 
following inscription became visible: ‘‘ Sostra 
the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods, 
saviours, for the benefit of sailors.”’ See Lighthot 


PHARSALIA, a strong city in Thess 
N. Greece. Near it Julius Cxsar defeated his: 
Pompey, 9 Aug. 48 B.c., and became virtti 
master of the known world. Pompey fled to Kg 
where he was treacherously slain, by ordei 
Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his } 
left naked on the strand, till it was burnt by 
faithful freedman, Philip. : 


PHENOL, or phenic acid, names for carb 


acid (which see). 4 


PHENOPHTHALMOSCOPE, an appi 
tus for investigating the movements of the eye- 
inyenied by Donders, of Utrecht, and announcet 
1870. ‘ 

PHER A (Thessaly, N. Greece), see Zhessa 


PHIGALIAN MARBLES, in the Br 
Museum, were purchased for it by the prince reg 
in 1815. They consist of portions of the fri 
taken from the temple of Apollo Epicurus 
Phigaleia in Arcadia, and are reputed to be wo 
of the earlier school of Phidias, who died 4321 
The bas-reliefs represent the conflicts of the Gre 
and Amazons, and of the Centaurs and Lapithe. 


PHILADELPHIA (Asia Minor), see Sé 
Churches. — PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania, | 
planned by William Penn 24 Oct. 1682, The 
American congress assembled here in 1774; 


4 
i i 
ep! 


>a 


ILANTHROPIC SOCIETY. 


ated the declaration of independence on 
776. It was the capital of the Union till 
en Washington was selected in its place. 
tional Union Convention held its first 
here 14 Aug. 1866; see United States. 


x of centennial year celebrated with great 
stration . : ; ; 1 Jan. 1876 
mnal exhibition opened by the president, 
peror and empress of Brazil present ; very 
ful ; about 130,000 persons present 

TO DLAY, | 45 
ye the most extensive of all exhibitions 
0; vista of three-eighths of a mile ; main 
g 1900 feet long; 6 other large buildings, 
» smaller. 
varded to exhibitors; out of 11,000, 488 
o Great Britain . - . fe 27Sepl. 5; 
ooo persons admitted by payment daily, 
exhibition closed : 7 TORNO VEN & sy 
mitted, 9,789,392; daily average, 61,568 ; 
3, 3,813,749 dollars. ] 
mal congress respecting education July, ,, 
1ent exhibition opened by president Hayes 

to May, 1877 
rm: 384 dwellings, 31 churches, and many 
buildings destroyed; 8 ships sunk; esti- 


OSS, 2,000,000 dollars * 24 Oct. 1878 
stival to honour gen. Grant on return from 

etour . : c - 17-24 Dec. 1879 
on of city celebrated - 24 Oct. 1882 
sh convention - ; 25-27 April, 1883 
natic asylum, 28 perish . ; 12 Feb. 1885 


LANTHROPIC SOCIETY, for the 
ion of criminal boys, was established in 
d incorporated in 1806. It supports a farm- 
Redhill, Reigate, Surrey ; see Leformatory 


LHARMONIC SOCIETY (London), 
ablished in 1813; first concert, 8 March. 
ilharmonic Society began 1852. 


LIPHAUGH, near Selkirk, 8. Scotland, 
1e marquis of Montrose and the royalists 
feated by David Leslie and the Scotch 
ters, 13 Sept. 1645. 


LIPPI (Macedonia), so named by Philip 
[acedon. Here Octavius Cesar and Mare 

in two battles, defeated the republican 
' Cassius and Brutus, who both committed 
Oct. 42 B.c. Paul preached here, a.p. 48, 
te an epistle to the converts, 64. 


LIPPICS, the term applied to the orations 
osthenes against Philip If. of Macedon, 
B.c., and also to the orations of Cicero 
Mare Antony (one of which, called divine 
aal, cost Cicero his life), 44-43 B.c. 


LIPPINE ISLES (in the Malay Archi- 
discovered by Magellan, in March, 1521, 
‘e lost his life in a skirmish. They were 
issession of in 1565 by a fleet from Mexico, 
rst stopped at the island of Zeba, and sub- 
In 1570 a settlement was effected at the 
if the Manilla river, and Manilla became 
ital of the Spanish possessions in the 
nes; see Manilla and Earthquakes. The 
ne commercial company was unsuccessful, 


LIPPIUM, a metal of the yttrium series, 
_ Samarskite earth (in Russia, North Caro- 
_) by M. Mare Delafontaine, by means of 
roscope ; announced Oct. 1878.. Also said 
been found by Mr. Lawrence Smith, and 
fosandrium, July, 1878. 


LISTINES, a people of Palestine, con- 
Srael, 1156 B.c., and ruled it forty years. 
re defeated by Samuel, 1120; and by Saul 


639 


PHILOSOPHY. 


and Jonathan, 1087. They again invaded Israel 
about 1063, when David slew their champion, 
Goliath. After David became king he thoroughly 
subdued them, 1040. In common with Syria their 
country was subjugated by the Romans, under 
Pompey, about 63.—In Germany, about 1830, 
Heine and the liberal party applied the term 
‘* Philistines” to the opponents of progress, or con- 
servative party. 


_ PHILOBIBLON SOCIETY, was instituted 
in 1853 by Mr. R. Monckton Milnes (since lord 
Houghton), M. Sylvain Van de Weyer, the Belgian 
minister, and others. It publishes volumes of 
*¢ Miscellanies,’’ &c. 


PHILOLOGY, the science of language, much 
studied during the present century. 
John Horne-Tooke’s ‘‘ Diversions of Purley” pub- 
lished ; : ‘ 2 : : . « 1786 
Philological society of London established 18 May, 1842 
Lorenz Diefenbach’s ‘“ Lexicon Comparativum ” 1846- 51 
32nd congress of German philologists met at Wies- 
baden, professor Curtius, president 26-29 Sept. 1877 
[See Language, Dictionaries, and Grammarians.] 


PHILOSOPHER’S STONE, see Alchemy. 
PHILOSOPHICAL LAMP, constructed 


by Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner, who applied ir 
it the property possessed by spongy platinum of 
causing the combination of oxygen and hydrogen 
discovered by him in 1823. ee 


PHILOSOPHY (love of wisdom), the know- 
ledge of the reason of things (distinguished from: 
rently the knowledge of facts, and from mathema- 
tics, the knowledge of the quantity of things)—the 
hypothesis or system upon which natural effects are 
explained. Locke. Pythagoras first adopted the 
name of philosopher (such men having been 
previously called sages) about 528 3.c. Philoso- 
phers were expelled from Rome, and their schools 
suppressed, by Domitian, a.p. 83. Philosophy is 
now divided into:—1. Moral or Ethical; 2. Intel- 
lectual ; 3. Natural or Physical. 


MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 

ANCIENT SCHOOLS.—Pythagorean, about 500 B.¢. ; Platonic 
(the academy), by Plato, 374 ; Peripatetic (the Lyceum), 
by Aristotle, 334; Sceptic, by Pyrrho, 334; Cynic by 
Diogenes, 330; Hpicurean by Epicurus, 306 ; Stoic, by 
Zeno, 290; Middle Academy, by Arcesilaus, 278; New 
Academy, by Carneades, 160; New Platonists (who 
attempted to combine Platonisin with Christianity) : 
Ammonius Saceas, died a.p. 243; Plotinus, died about 
270; Porphyry, died about 305; Jamblichus, died 
about 333; Julian the emperor, died 363. 

MopverN Systems.—Nominal, Jean Roscellin, about 
tog2; Abelard, &c. ; Rational, Bacon, about 1624 ; Car- 
tesian, Descartes, about 1560: Reflective or Percepitive 
Locke, 1690; Idealistic, Berkeley, 1710; Elective, 
Leibnitz, 1710; Common Sense, Reid, 1750-70 ; Trans 
cendental, Kant, Hamilton, &e., 1770-1860 ; Scientific 
Fichte, 1800-14 ; Absolute Identity, Schelling, 1800-20 : 
Absolute Idealism, Hegel, 1810-30; Utilitarian Ben- 
tham, Mill, &c. 1790-1873; Positive, Comte . 1830; 
Realism and Evolutionary Materialism, prevalent Dar- 
win, Herbert Spencer, &c¢. 1873. } 


NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Greek and Latin.—Thales, about 600 B.c. ; Pythagoras 
590; Aristotle and Plato, 350; Euclid, 300 ; Archi- 
medes, 287; Hipparchus, 150; Lucretius, about 100; 
Julius Cesar, 50; Ptolemy, a.D. 150. % 

Middle Ages.—Arabians: Ben Musa, 800; Alhazen, &c. 
1100. Gerbert, Decimals, 959. Roger Bacon Opus 
Majus, 1266. 

Inductive Philosophy : 
Copernicus’s system published - ise 
Tycho Brahe : : : 3 ; 1546-1604 
Gilbert’s researches in electricity and magnetism 1600 
Kepler's Laws : F : 1609-18 
Bacon’s Novum Organwn - 1620 
Galileo’s Dialogues LOIS 


‘PHIPPS’ EXPEDITION. 


640 PHOTOGRAPHY, 
Royal Society begins (which see) . .  . . 1645 | attached to pianofortes and other keyed hd 
Otto Guericke—air pump and electric machine . 1654 | ments, by which as music that is played m2 
Newton--Finmnons, r66¢5 Analysia of Light, 1663 °° | Tite, down Gms Dini eee aa’ 
—Fluxions, 1665 ; Analysis ght, 1669 ; ~ ; 
Theory of Gravitation, 1684; Principia pub- prints res ee Sone te was pate 
lished;+6877" death: [oy wae way ue toe) tooe by Mr. Fenby, 13 June, 1563. | € motive- 
Bradley discovers aberration ‘ ; . 5, | 48 electro-magnetism. Machines with & sin 
Euler on Perturbation of the Planets . 1748 | object, were projected by Mr. Creed in 1747; 
Black on Heat Mew a aa Be - 1702 | J. F. Unger in 1774; and by Mr. Carrey 
Laplace on Tides F ; A x77 8 
Lagrange, Mécanique Analytique . 1788 eet : 
‘Galvani and Volta’s researches . 1791 | Anew phonograph by Thomas Elvey Edison, elec. 
Laplace, Mécanique Céleste. . 1799 trician of New Jersey, was announced Dec, 
*Carsted discovers electro-magnetism . 1819 | Linear indentations are made by means of a piniu 
Faraday, magneto-electricity 1831 a sheet of tinfoil by speaking or singing; and 


[See Acoustics, Astronomy, Optics, Chemistry, 
Electricity, &e.] 

_ PHIPPS’ EXPEDITION. The hon. captain 
Phipps (afterwards lord Mulgrave) sailed from 
England in command of the Sea-Horse and Carcase 
‘ships, to inake discoveries, as near as possible to 
‘the North Pole. In August 1773, he was for nine 
«lays environed with barriers of ice, in the Frozen 
‘Ocean, north of Spitzbergen, 80° 48’ N. lat. All 
progress or retreat was impossible, and all on board 
gave themselves up for lost; but a brisk wind in 
‘two or three days accomplished their deliverance. 
‘They returned to England without having made 
‘any discoveries, 20 Sept. 1773. Nelson was cox- 
‘swain to the second in command. 


PHLOGISTON, a term employed by Stahl to 
designate the matter or principle of fire; ‘* the in- 
flammable principle”? of bishop Watson, near the 
close of the 17th century. The chemical theory 
based upon it, considered to have been totally 
wefuted by Lavoisier, 1790, has been recently re- 
vived in a modified form. 


PHOCIS, a state in Northern Greece. The 
Phocians seized Delphi 357 B.c., and commenced 
the second Sacred War. ‘They were opposed by 
‘Thebes and other states, and were utterly subdued 
by Philip I. of Macedon in 346. 


PHCENICIA, on the sea coast of Syria. The 
natives were the most eminent navigators and 
traders of antiquity; their cities or allied states 
being Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripoli, Byblos, and 
Ptolemais, or Acre. From the I9th to the 13th 
centuries before Christ, they established colo- 
nies on the shores or isles of the Mediterranean 
—Carthage, Hippo, Utica, Gades, Panormus, and 
are said to have visited the British Isles. Phoenicia 
was conquered by Cyrus, 537 B.c.; by Alexander, 
332; by the Romans, 47; and after partaking of 
the fortunes of Palestine, was added to the Ottoman 
empire, A.D. 1516. 

PHOINIX CLUBS, of atreasonable charac- 
ter, were formed in Ireland in 1858. They met at 
wight to drill. Several persons were arrested and 
tried in March, 1859, at ‘Tralee ; but the jury could 
mot agree on their verdict. Daniel Sullivan was 
condemned to penal servitude for ten years, April, 
1859. Eventually some of the prisoners pleaded 
guilty, and were discharged on being bound over to 
keep the peace. 


PHGNIX PARK MURDERS, see Jre- 
Zand, 1882-3. 


PHONEIDOSCOPEH, an instrument for ob- 
serving the colour-figures of liquid films under the 
action of sonorous vibrations, being a visible de- 
monstration of the vibratory and molecular motion 
of a telephone plate ; invented by Mr. Sedley Tay- 
lor, 1877; manufactured by S. C. Tisley & Co., 
London, 1878. 


PHONOGRAPH, a machine proposed to be 


from these casts may he taken. When these are 
placed upon the diaphragm of a telephone con. 
nected with revolving apparatus, the sounds may 
be reproduced with a weirdlike effect. Improved 
by Mr. Shelford Bidwell, 1879. See Telephone. — 


PHONOGRAPHY (from the Greek 7 
sound), suggested by Franklin, 1768. The Pho 
society, whose object was to render our m 
writing and printing more consonant to sound, 
established, 1 March, 1843; sir W. C. Treye 

resident, and Mr. Isaac Pitman, secretary, 
atter being the inventor of the system whic 
made known in 1837. Among other works ° 
lished by the promoters of the system, w 
‘“Phonetic News,” in 1849; see Visible Speech 


PHONOSCOPEH, an apparatus for testing 
quality of musical strings, invented by M. Ke 
and exhibited at the International Baxhibitio 
1862. 

Mr. Edmunds’ phonoscope, exhibited to the Britisl 
sociation, Aug. 1878, is an instrument for pro 
figures and light from the vibrations of sound, — 


PHOSPHOR-BRONZE, an alloy of ce 
tin, and phosphorus, invented by Messrs. Mo 
fiore-Levi and Kiinzel, of Belgium, in 1867. — 
very hard, ductile, and elastic, with a col 
sembling gold. 


PHOSPHORESCENCE. The property: 
sessed by some bodies of retaining luminosity | 
exposure to light observed by the ancients; é 
cially noticed by Vincenzo Cascariolo (1602), Be 
Canton, Wilson, and others; and specially stu 


by Edmond Becquerel, and Balmain. See Li 
nous Paint. 4 


PHOSPHORUS was discovered in 1667, 
Brandt, of Hamburg, who procured it from ur 
The discovery was prosecuted by John Kuncke 
Saxon chemist, about 1670, and by the hon. 
Boyle about the same time. Nowv. Dict. Pl 

horic acid is first mentioned in 1743, but is sai 
ave been known earlier. Gahn pointed out 
existence’ in bones in 1769, and Scheele devi 
a process for extracting it. Canton’s phosphe 
is so called from its discoverer, ee -Phosp 
retted hydrogen was discovered by Gengem 
in 1812. The consumption of phosphorus 
immensely increased since the manufacture 
lucifer matches. In 1845, Schrotter, of Vien 
discovered allotropic or ‘amorphous phospho 
which ignites more slowly and is less unwholest 
in working than ordinary phosphorus. 


PHOTOGRAPHY. The action of light 
chloride of silver was known as early as the 1 
century. The phenomenon was studied by Seh 

1777), Senebier (1790), Ritter and Wollas 
1801). From the results of these investigatt 
experiments were made by Thos. Wedgwood é 
Humphry Davy, in the Royal Institution, Lone 
which were ublished in its Journal, 1802. We 
wood may be regarded as the first photograpl 


PHOTOGRAPHY. 


641 


PHYSIC. 


aper was entitled ‘‘an account of a method 
ying paintings upon glass, and of making 
s by the agency of light upon nitrate of 
” 


> 


r discoveries were made by Niépce in 1814, and 


. Herschel in 1819. 


J. M.-Daguerre commenced his experiments in 
; and in 1826 joined Joseph Nicéphore Niépce, 
worked with him till the death of the latter in 

The production of Dagwerreotype plates was 
unced in Jan. 1839; and the French chamber of 
ties granted a pension to Daguerre and to Niépce’s 


sidore. 


Mr. Henry Fox Talbot first published his mode 
ultiplying photographic impressions by producing 
ative photograph (i. e., with the light and shades 
sed) from which any number of positive copies 
His patent for producing the 


be obtained. 
type or Calotype (on paper) is dated Feb. 1841. 


, Collodion (which see) was applied to photography 


r. F. Archer. 


otographic Society of London was established in 
On 22 Dec. 1852, 774 
mens of photography were exhibited at the rooms 


It publishes a journal. 


» Society of Arts, Adelphi. 


» Visite portraits (which see) taken by M. Ferrier 


ce, 1857. 


Mr. Thompson, of Weymouth, photographed the 


m of the sea. 


raphy was successfully applied to the transfer of 
s of art to wood blocks by Mr. John Leighton, in 


ustrated edition of Lyra Germanica, 1861. 


professor O. M. Rood suggested the application 


otography to the microscope. 


nin process introduced by major Russell about 


yright of photographs is secured by an act passed 


2. 
iry Wright photographed objects of surgical inte- 
1 Jan. 1863. 

thlytype process, in which nitrate of silver and 
en are discarded and a double salt of uranium 
ollodion substituted, invented by Wothly, was 
ced in the autumn of 1864. 

it of ignited magnesium was employed for photo- 
s by Mr. Brothers, of Manchester, in the spring 


van der Weyde, an American artist, succeeded in 
ig electric light very effectual in photography, 


aphs of the first page of the Times, containing 
French advertisements (14 inch long by 1x inch 
sent to Paris from Bordeaux by balloons, Jan. 


Is ordered to be photographed (by the act for 
ition of crime), from 2 Nov. 1871. 

te portraits (in which sometimes 9 components 
used) formed by Mr. Francis Galton, by means 
tography, 1877. ae | 

otype process tor transferring and printing reported 
isful, April, 1873. 

J.* Muybridge photographs, instantaneously, 
ls in rapid motion, 1881. . 
bney photographs a disc in rapid motion by the 
¢ spark, 17 March, 1882. 

Photography began with professor Bond, the 
omer, of Cambridge, U.S., who exhibited a 
raph of the moon in 1851. Since then, Mr. 
ade la Rue, of London, has produced excellent 
yraphs of the moon, and other heavenly bodies, 
m 18 July, 1860, photographed the solar 
. See ADDENDA. 

SLIOGRAPH, an apparatus for registering the 

n of the sun’s spots by means of clockwork 
hotography ; erected at the suggestion of sir 
lerschel at Kew observatory about 1857. It was 
y Mr. Warren de ia Rue to photograph the disc 
sun during the eclipse of 18 July, 1860. ! 
-LVANOGRAPHY, the art of producing engravings 
action of light and electricity. The earliest 
ens were produced by Nicéphore Niépee, and 
sed by him in 1827 to the great botanist, Robert 
| Great advances have since been made in this 
MM. Niépce de St. Victor (who published a 
on it in 1856), Vitry, W. R. Grove, H. Fox 
_&e. In 1852, Paul Pretsch patented a process 
‘ie called ‘‘ Photogalvanography.” 


PHOTOGLYPHIC ENGRAVING (a process by which the light 
actually etches a picture on a plate that may be and 
has been printed from) was patented by Mr. Fox 
Talbot in 1858, and is described and exemplified in the 
Photographic News, 9 and 16 Sept. 1859, a specimen 
being given in the latter number. 

PHOTOZINCOGRAPHY (a process by which photographs 
are transferred to zine plates which may be printed 
from) was devised by sir Henry James, chief of the Oril- 
nance Survey, and made known in 1860. By it maps, 
charts, and engravings may be printed at a small cost. 

PxHoro-ScutprurRE: M. Villéme’s employment of photo- 
graphs in the formation of sculpture was announced in 
1863. 

Messrs. Goupil’s process of Photogravure, rivalling 
mezzo-tint, reported highly successful ; fine pictures 
reproduced, Feb. 1884. 


PHOTOMETER (light measurer); one was 
constructed by Dr. W. Ritchie in 1825. Many im- 
provements have been made recently in photo- 
metry. 


PHOTOPHONE. In this apparatus, con- 
structed by professor Graham Bell and Mr. Sumner 
Tainter of Washington, in 1880, a thin plane 
muror is thrown into vibration by the voice; a 
beam of light is reflected from this mirror and re- 
ceived at a distance by a cell of the metal selenium; 
when, by arrangement, this is connected with a 
telephone, the sounds are reproduced. 


PHOTOSPHERE, see Sw, note. 
PHRENOLOGY, see Craniology. 
PHRYGIA (now Karamania), a province in 


Asia Minor, became part of the Persian empire in 
27 B.C., and partook of itschanges. It became a 

oman province in 47 B.c., and a Turkish one, 
A.D. 1392. 


PHYLLOXERA, see Vine. 


PHYSIC appears to have been first practised 
by the Egyptian priests. Pythagoras endeavoured 
to explain the philosophy of disease and the action 
of medicine, about 529 B.c. Hippocrates, the father 
of medicine, flourished about 422 8.c., and Galen, 
born A.D. 131, was the oracle of medical science. 
About 980 Avicenna, an Arab, wrote a system of 
medicine. Dr. R. Quain’s Dictionary of Medicine, 
published 1882. See Medical. 


The dogmatic age of medicine lasted till the Reforma- 
tion, when it was attacked by Paracelsus (1493-1541), 
and Vesalius (1514-64). Since 1800 medical practice 
has been completely transformed by pbkysiological 
and cheinical research. 

The discovery of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. 
Harvey, furnished an entirely new system of physio- 
logical and pathological speculation, 1628. See Medi- 
cal and Societies. 

PHYSICIAN TO THE KinG.—John, the king’s chaplain and 
physician (afterwards bishop of Bath and Wells), men- 
tioned 1ogo. 

The earliest mandate or warrant for the attendance of a 
physician at court is dated 1454, and 33 Henry VI., a 
reign fertile in the patronage which was afforded to 
practitioners in medicine ; but no appointment existed 
which can justly be called physician to the royal per- 
son. By this warrant the king, with the consent of 
his privy council, deputed to three physicians and two 
surgeons the regulation of his diet, and the administra- 
tion of such medicines and remedies as might be suffi- 
cient for his cure, without any allusion to the previous 
existence or permanency of the office which they were 
authorised for a time to fill,-or to a remuneration for 
their services.—Life of Linacre. 

Miss Garrett (afterwards Mrs. Anderson) licensed at 
Apothecaries’ hall, London, to practise medicine, 23 
Sept. 186s. 

At a meeting of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical 
Society, 3 May, 1869, it was resolved that the ‘‘ Royal 
Society of Medicine ” (including the various sections) 
be founded ; the resolution was affirmed, 22 Feb. 1870 ; 
but in 1871 the project dropped. 


TT 


PHYSIC GARDENS. 


642 


PICHEGRU’S CONSPIRACY 


School of Medicine for Women in London (council : 
Professors Burdon-Sanderson and Huxley, Mrs. Garrett- 
Anderson, M.D., Mrs. Blackwell, M.D., and others); 
opened, Oct. 1874. 

Registration of medical women, permitted by Medical 
act, 39 & 40 Vict. c. 41, 11 Aug. 1876. 

See Anatomy. 
EMINENT MEDICAL MEN. 


Born Died 
Cornilius Celsus és . : 14 A.D. 
Paulus Agineta flourished . about 630 
Averrhoes : : 12 Dec. 1198 
Thomas Linacre . - 1460 1524 
Paracelsus 4 ‘ : - 1493 1541 
Aibrose Paré, French surgeon - I517 1590 
William Harvey : - 1578 | 1057 
Thomas Sydenham . 1624 1689 
Malpighi . a : . 1628 1694 
Hermann Boerhaave . . 1668 1738 
R. Mead . ; . 1673 1754 
Albert von Haller - 1708. 1777 
William Hunter . 1718 1783 
John Hunter . E726 8 £703 
R. T. Laennec. . 1781 1826 
John Abernethy . - 1764 1831 
Astley Cooper . : - : : “ = 1708 » £o4r 
Sir James Young Simpson (introducer of 
anesthetics) * : : : - - 1811 1870 
Henry Bence Jones MEE LILO 7S 
Sir Thomas Watson 1792 1882 


PHYSIC GARDENS. The first cultivated 
in England was by John Gerard, surgeon of 
London, in 1567; that at Oxford was endowed by 
the earl of Danby, in 1652; that at Cambridge was 
‘commenced about the middle of the last century ; 
and that at Chelsea, originated by sir Hans Sloane, 
was given to the Apothecaries’ company in 1721; 
this last was very much admired by the illustrious 
Linneus. 

PHYSICAL SOCIETY, established 14 Feb. 
1874; Dr. J. H. Gladstone, first president. 


PHYSICIANS, Royan CoLLEGE oF, of 
London (of England since 1858), was projected by 
Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., who, 
through his interest with cardinal Wolsey, obtained 
letters patent, constituting a corporate body of 
regular physicians in London, with peculiar privi- 
leges, 23 Sept. 1518. Linacre was elected the first 
president of the college. Dr. W. Harvey was a 
great benefactor to this institution, 1653. He built 
a library and public hall, which he granted for ever 
to the college, with his books and instruments. 
The college was afterwards held in a building in 
Warwick-lane, erected by sir C. Wren, where it 
continued till 1825, when the present elegant stone 
edifice in Trafalgar-square was erected from designs 
by sir R. Smirke.—The College of Physicians, 
Dublin, was founded by charter of Charles II. 1667, 
and was re-incorporated in 1692. The Royal Col- 
lege of Physicians, Edinburgh, 29 Nov. 1681. 

RECENT PRESIDENTS OF ROYAL COLLEGE, LONDON. 


1796. Thomas Gisborne. | 1862. Sir Thomas Watson. 
1804. Sir Lucas Pepys. 1867. Sir James Alderson. 
r8rr. Sir Francis Milman. | 1871. Sir George Burrows. 
1813. John Latham. 1876. Sir James’ Risdon 
1820. Sir Henry Halford. Bennett. 

1844. John Ayrton Paris, 1884. Sir Wm. Jenner. 
1857. Thomas Mayo. 


PHYSICS, see under Philosophy. 
PHYSIOGNOMY, a science which affirms 


that the dispositions of mankind may be discovered 
from the features of the face. The origin of the 
term is referred to Aristotle; and Cicero was at- 
tached to the science. It became a fashionable 
study from the beginning of the 16th century; and 
in the last century, the essays of Le Cat and Per- 
nethy led to the modern system. Lavater’s re- 
searclies in the pursuit arose from his having been 


struck with the singular countenance of a gol 
who passed under a window at which he and Z 
merman were standing; his ‘‘ Fragment” on 
subject appeared in 1776. 


PHYSIOLOGY is that part of physics w} 
treats of the inner constitution of animals 
plants, and the several functions and operation 
all their organs and tissues. The works of Mii 
Milne-Edwards, Huxley, and Carpenter are m 
celebrated, and Todd’s ‘‘ Cyclopszdia of Physiolog 
(1836-59) is a library in itself. Physiolog 
Society, in London, founded by Dr. Burdon-San 
son and others, early in 1876; see Royal Inst 
tion. ° 


PIACENZA, see Placentia. 


PIANETTE, a small upright piano intrody 
by Bood of Paris in 1857. 


PIANOFORTE.* The invention is attribr 
to Cristofalli (or Cristofori), an Italian, J. 
Schroter, a German, and Marius, a Frenchm 
early in the 18th century. The strings are str 
by small hammers, and not by quills, as in har 
chords. Schroter is said to have presented a me 
of his invention to the court of Saxony, in 17 
and G. Silberman manufactured pianofortes ¥ 
considerable success in 1772. -Pianofortes y 
made in London by M. Zumpie, a German, I; 
and have been since greatly improved by Cleme: 
Broadwood, Collard, Kirkman, Erard, Pleyel, : 
others. 

Upright pianos, first made in this country, were § 
gested by Isaac Hawkins in 1800, and Thomas Le 
in 1802. Wm. Southwell patented ‘‘ cabinet pian 
in 1807 ; superseded, from about 1840, by the cott 
piccolo, and other pianos. 

A keyed instrument at Modena was named “pian 
forte,” 1598. 

A “stone pianoforte,” formed of a series of flints 
other stones of various sizes, collected in France, 
arranged by M. Baudre, was played on by him at 
Royal Institution, on 16 March, 1866. 4) 

See Grove’s ‘‘ Dictionary of Music,” article “Pianofor 
PICARDY (N. France), was conquered by 

English in 1346, and by the duke of Burgundy 

1417, to whom it was ceded by the treaty of Ar 

ate 1435, and annexed to France by Louis} 

I . 


PICCADILLY, a fine street, W. London; 
name, of uncertain origin, was Pickadilla and _ 
gudello, about 1660, when a house of enterta 
ment existed near the Haymarket, termed Pie 
dilly hall, after which buildings were gradua 
extended westwards. : 


PICCOLO, a small piano introduced by Rob 
Wornum in 1829. 


PICENTINES, a Sabine tribe, subdued by 
Romuans, and their capital, Asculum, taken, 2681 
They began the Social war in go, and were 
quered in 89 B.C. | 


rs PICHEGRU’S CONSPIRACY, see @eor; 
c. 


* The nucleus of the instrument was a little box ¢ 
which was stretched strings: such was the citole, 
dulcimer, and the psaltery. The clavitherium had ke 
the clavichord (about 1500) had dampers; Succes: 
improvements were the virginals (on which queen El 
beth played), the spinet (about 1700), and the har 
chord (with two rows of keys), said to have been t 
in the 15th century, for which Bach and Handel ¢ 
posed in the r7th century. A coHection of harpsieh¢ 
(one dated 1555) is in the South Kensington muse 
A double-pianoforte (with two keyboards revers 
giving remarkable effects (patented by M. M. Menge 
played on at Covent-garden theatre, 21 Oct. 1878 | 


PICKETING. 
IKETING, see Trials, Aug. 1867. 


d and four other. cabinetmakers imprisoned 
icketing . ; : 4 : May, 1875 
YQUET, a game with cards, invented, 
said, by Joquemin, for the amusement of 
s VI. of France, then in feeble health, 1390. 
ay. 
YTS (from Picti, painted), Scythians, who 
Lin Scotland much about the time that the 
egan to seize upon the Hebrides, or Western 
(Hebudes). They afterwards lived as two 
t nations, the Scots in the highlands and 
nd the Picts in that part now called the low- 
Between 838 and 842, the Scots under Ken- 
I. totally subdued the Picts, and seized all 
kingdom. Their incursions in England led 
Saxon invasion ; see Roman Wall. 


YTURES, see Painting. 


IDMONT (Pedemontium, Latin, foot of the 
ains), a region in N. Italy, formerly the seat 
ernment of the kingdom of Sardinia, which 
d Savoy. 


{-POUDRE COURT, the Court of Dusty 
whose jurisdiction was established for cases 
rat fairs and markets, to do justice to the 
and seller immediately upon the spot. B 

7 Edw. IV., it had cognizance of all disputes 
precincts of the market to which it might be- 


‘477: 
iR AND HARBOUR ACT, to facilitate 


rmation, management, and maintenance of 
md harbours in Great Britain and Ireland, 
ssed in 1862. 


YTISTS, a Lutheran sect, instituted in 
¢, by Philip James Spener, a professor of 
sy, about 1689, with the view of reforming 
pular religion. He established ‘‘ colleges of 
8,” with preachers resembling those of the 
y of friends and the methodists in Britain, 
1760. A body resembling the Pietists, named 
lim, arose among the Jews in the Ukraine, 
read through Poland and European Turkey. 


ITRO BARSANTI Crvp, see Italy, 1878. 
IZAMETER (Greek piezo, I compress), an 


tus for measuring the compressibility of 
3, invented by (Ersted (died 1851) ; improved 
spretz & Saigey. 


XHONS were employed as carriers by the 
ts. Hirtius and Brutus corresponded by 
of pigeons at the siege of Modena. The 
is of Aleppo served as couriers at Alexandretta 
tagdad. Thirty-two pigeons liberated from 
nat 7 o’clock in the morning, 22 Nov. 1819; 
n one of them arrived at Antwerp; a quarter 
hour afterwards a second arrived; the re- 
er on the following day. Phillips. At a 
race, 25 July, 1872, from Spalding to Lon- 
ie speed allowed was 90 seconds a mile; see 
Mice, 1870. 
al Peristeronic Society (originating from the Co- 
arian Society, founded in 1750), has annual shows. 
for prohibiting shooting pigeons rising from a 
attended with cruelties, passed by the commons 
| large majorities, in 1883 and 1884 (19s—40), Was 
ted by the lords in 1883 (30—17), and on 9 May, 
(78—48). 
sCHARD FISHERY. Peculiar to Lands 
vornwall, reverts to W. Ireland, after sus- 
‘n of two centuries (stated July, 1883). 


JGRIMAGE or GRACE, a name as- 


643 


PILNITZ. 


| sumed by religious insurgents in the north of Eng- 


land, who opposed the dissolution of the monasteries. 
The movement, which commenced in Lincolnshire 
in Sept. 1536, was suppressed in Oct.; but soon 
after revived in Yorkshire; and an expedition, 
bearing the foregoing name, having banners on 
which were depicted the five wounds of Christ, was 
headed by Aske, and other gentlemen, and joined 
by priests and 40,000 men of York, Durham, Lan- 
caster, and other counties. They took Hull and . 
York, with smaller towns. The duke of Norfolk 
marched against them, and by making terms dis- 
persed them. LEarly in 1537 they again took 
arms but were promptly suppressed, and the leaders, 
several abbots, and many others, were executed. 


PILGRIMAGES began with the pilgrimage 
of the empress Helena to Jerusalem, 326. They be- 
came very frequent at the close of the roth century. 
Robert II. of France made several pilgrimages; 
among others one to Rome about the year I016, 
perhaps in 1020, when he refused the imperial 
dignity and the kingdom of Italy. The pilgrimage 
to Canterbury is described by Chaucer in his Canter- 
bury Tales about 1383. The pilgrimage of Maho- 
metans to Mecca, the birth-place of the prophet, is 
commanded in the Koran. Pilgrimages to shrines 
of the Virgin Mary in France revived in 1873, and 
since, in consequence of miracles alleged to have 
taken place at La Salette in 1846 and at Lourdes, 
It Feb. 1858; those of La Salette discredited by 
Pope Leo X., 1879. See Sacred Heart. 
too American pilgrims received by the pope 9g June, 1874 
About roo agricultural labourers (locked out for 

being unionists) traversed England as pilgrims, 

receiving hospitality and money; beginning 
30 June, ef seq. ,, 

English R.C. pilgrimage to shrine of St. Edmund, 
archbishop of Canterbury, at Pontigny Dept. ss 

English pilgrimage to Lourdes directed by the ‘‘Ca- 

tholic Union of Great Britain,” start proposed ; 

given up . : : : : Aug. 1880 
[See Boulogne. ] 


PILGRIM FATHERS, the name given in 
North America to a party of 74 English puritans 
and 28 women, members of John Robinson’s 
church, who sailed in the May Flower from Leyden 
to North America, and landed on Plymouth Rock, 
where they founded a colony, 25 Dec. 1620. 


“PILGRIMS PROGRESS FROM THIS 
WORLD TO THAT WHICH IS TO COME,” written 
by John Bunyan, in Bedford gaol, where he was 
imprisoned twelve years, 1660-72. The first part 
was published in 1678. A Hebrew version appeared 
in 1851; see Bedford. 


PILLAR SAINTS, see JJonachism. 


PILLORY, a scaffold for persons to stand on, 
to render them publicly infamous. This punish- 
ment was awarded against persons convicted of 
forgery, perjury, libelling, &. In some cases the 
head was put through a hole, the hands through 
two others, the nose slit, the face branded with one 
or more letters, and one or both ears were cut off. 
There is a statute of the pillory, 41 Hen. III. 1256. 
Many persons died in the pillory by being struck 
with stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs 
and putrid offal. It was abolished as a punish- 
ment except for perjury, 1815, and totally abolished 
in 1837. The last who suffered at the Old Bailey 
was Peter Jas. Bossy, for perjury, 24 June, 1830. 


PILNITZ (near Dresden, Saxony). The con- 


vention of Pilnitz, took place between the emperor 


Leopold and the king of Prussia, 20 July, 1791. On 


27 Aug. the treaty of Pilnitz, or, as some style it, 
the Partition treaty, was finally agreed upon ‘ac 


TT 2 


A Pr 


PILOT. 


Pavia by the courts in concert. It was to the effect 
“that the emperor should retake all that Louis XIV. 
had conquered in the Austrian Netherlands, and 
uniting these provinces to the Netherlands, give 
them to his serene highness the elector palatine, to 
be added to the palatinate ;* Bavaria to be added to 
the Austrian possessions,’’ &c. ! 


PILOT. The act relating to pilots, 16 & 17 
Vict. c. 129 (1353), with other acts, is embodied in 
the Merchant Shipping act; see Zirinity-House. 


PILPAY, see Fables. 
PIMLICO, S.W. suburb of London, belonging 


to the Grosvenor family, who have built largely 

upon it since 1830. 

On 20 Dee. 1881, Georgina Moore, 73 years old, living 
with her parents in Winchester-street, disappeared ; 
her body was found by bargemen in the Medway, near 
Yalding, 30 Jan. 1882. Esther Pay, with whom she 
was last seen, accused of her murder, was acquitted, 
29 April, 1882. 

PINCHBECK, an alloy of 25 percent. of zine, 
and 75 copper, used for watch-cases, &c., named 
after Mr. Christopher Pinchbeck, a toyseller in Cock- 
burn-street, London, who died March, 1783. 


PINE-TREES. The stone pine (Pinus Pinea), 
brought to these countries before 1548.. The cluster 
pine (Pinus Pinaster), brought from the south of 
Europe before 1596. ‘The Weymouth pine (Pinas 
Strobus), from North America, 1705. Frankincense 
pine (Pinus Teda), from North America, before 
1713. There are other varieties. 


PINKEY (near Edinburgh), where the English 
under the Earl of Hertford, protector, totally de- 
feated the Scots under the regent Arran, 10 Sept. 
1547. There fell not 200 of the English, but above 
10,000 of the Scots. Above 1500 were taken prisoners. 


PINS have been found in British barrows 
(Fosbroke), are mentioned in a statute of 1483. Brass 
pins were brought from France in 1540, and first 
used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard, 
queen of Henry VIII. Pins were made in England 
in 1543. Stow. They were first manufactured by 
machinery in England in 1824, under a patent of 
Lemuel Wellman Wright, of the United States. 


PIOMBINO, a principality, Italy, previously 
ruled by the Appiani family, was acquired by the 
Spaniards, 1589. It was ceded to France, 1801, 
and given by Napoleon to his sister Elise, wife of 
prince Bacciochi, who held it from 1805 to 1815, 
when it was restored to the Buoncampagni family, 
subject to Tuscany. It became part of the kingdom 
of Italy, 1860. 


PIRACY was severely suppressed by the Ro- 
mans. Pompey destroyed the Cilician pirates, 67 
B.C.; see Buccaneers. Many acts of parliament 
have been passed for the suppression of piracy; the 
latest in 1837. 


PIRZLUS, the port of Athens, was united to 
the city by two long walls, one erected by Themisto- 
cles, and the other by Pericles, 456 B.c., which were 
destroyed by Lysander, 404 B.c. It was fortified by 
Conon, 393 B.c. The Pireus was able to contain 
400 Greek vessels. It was occupied by the French 
during the Russian war in 1854. 


PIRMASENS (Bavaria). Here Moreau and 


the French were defeated by the duke of Brunswick 
and the Prussians, 14 Sept. 1793. 


PISA, an ancient city in Tuscany, was founded 
about six centuries before Christ, and was favoured 
by the early Roman emperors as a flourishing re- 
public. The citizens took an active part in the 


644 


PITT ADMINISTRATIONS. 


Italian wars of the middle ages, but became sub 
to Florence, after a long siege, Figur Int 
Pisa became independent under the protection 
Charles VIII. of France, but was retaken by 
Florentines in 1509. The university was foun 
in 1343, and revived by the Medici in 1472, ; 
1542. The rival popes, Benedict XIII. and G 
gory XII., were deposed at a council held at Pis; 
1409, and Alexander V. electedin theirroom. ‘| 
Campanile or leaning tower was built about 115 
and the Campo Santo about the same time. 


PISCICULTURE, see Fisheries. 

PISTOLS, the smallest fire-arms, said to h: 
been invented at Pistoiain Italy ; were first used 
the cavalry of England about 1544. Of late ye 
they have been made with a revolving cylindri 
breech, in which are formed several chambers 
receiving cartridges, and bringing them in suce 
sion into a line with the barrel ready for firi 
The earliest model of this kind of arm is to be fou 
in the museum of the United Service Instituti 
and is supposed to date from the reign of Charles 
An eight-chambered matchlock revolver of the rf 
century is placed in the Royal Artillery Museu 
Woolwich. The manufacture of pistols by machin« 
was first introduced into England from the Uni 
States, America, in the year 1853, by col. Colt, whoi 
vented the Colt revolving pistol, 1851. This systi 
of manufacture induced the British government 
hit the Enfield armoury, in 1855; see Fi 

rms. 


PITCAIRN’S ISLAND, in the Pacific Oces 
said to have been discovered by Pitcairn in 17( 
seen by Cook in 1773, and since colonised by t 
mutineers from the ship Bounty, captain Bligh, 
1789; see Bounty. 

The mntineers remained unknown to England ur 
discovered accidentally in 1814. A ship nearing the 
land was hailed by a swarthy youth in the Engli 
language, when it appeared that the mutineers, so 
after settling there, had married some black women fr 
a neighbouring island, and had become a well-conduet 
community under the care of Adams, the princi 
mutineer. He died in 1829, when George Hunn Nobl 
an Englishman, who arrived a few years before, becal 
chief. In Aug. 1852 admiral Moresby spent a few da 
on the island. By his means Nobbs was sent to Engla 
and obtained ordination. His death (aged 86) a 
nounced Jan. 1885. As their numbers inereased, t 
island proved incapable of their support. The Engli 
government removed them, with all their property 
the ship Morayshire, on 3 May, 1856, and landed them, aft 
a boisterous passage, on Norfolk Island, prepared p 
viously for theirreception,8 June. The governments tock 
Norfolk Island with 2000 sheep, 450 head of cattle, a1 
twenty horses, and gave them stores to last twel 
months ; their numbers were 96 males and roz2 females 

The island visited by H.M.S. Peterel was found to 
prosperous, Dec. 1875 ; 86 inhabitants, 2 Mar. 1878; ¢ 
15 Aug. 1879; 130 in 1884. 


PITCH, see under Music. 
PITT ADMINISTRATIONS.+ The fir 


* The Campanile was erected to contain bells, a 


stands in a square close to the cathedral. It is built 
tirely of white marble, and is a cylinder of eight storir 
each adorned with a round of columns, rising one abo 
another. It inclines so far on one side from the perpe 
dicular, that in dropping a plummet from the top, whi 
is 188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from the ibe 
Some thought this was done purposely by the architec 
others attributed it to an accidental subsidence of t 
foundation. From this tower Galileo made his obser’ 
tion on gravitation (about 1635). | 

+ William Pitt, second son of the great earl of Chatha 
was born 28 March, 1759; became M.P. 23 Jan. 17® 
moved for a reform in parliament, 7 May, she becar 
chancellor of the exchequer, July, 1782; ed 23 J? 
1806. ; 


PITTSBURG. 


645 


PLAGUE. 


istration was formed on the dismissal of the 
ion ministry (which see) 18 Dec. 1783, and ter- 
ed by resignation in 1801. The second was 
d12 May, 1804; and terminated (after various 
es) by Mr. Pitt’s death, 23 Jan. 1806. A 
+ funeral was decreed to him, and 40,000/. to 
is debts. 


ADMINISTRATION OF 1783. 
m Pitt, first lord of the treasury and chancellor of 
achequer. 
ower, lord president. 
of Rutland, privy seal. 
is of Carmarthen, and earl Temple (immediately 
eeded by lord Sydney), secretaries. 
Thurlow, lord chancellor. 
int Howe, admiralty. 
of Richmond, ordnance. 
m Wyndham Grenville, Henry Dundas, &e. 
Pitt was joined by the duke of Portland, earl 
ncer, and other leading whigs in 1794 ; he continued 
ister until 1801. Many changes occurred in the 
istry in the long period of seventeen years. ] 
ADMINISTRATION OF 1804. 
m Pitt, first lord of the treaswry. 
qdon, lord chancellor. 
of Portland, succeeded by lord Sidmouth (late Mr. 
ington), lord president. 
f Westmoreland, lord privy seal. 
Hawkesbury, lord Harrowby (succeeded by lord 
grave), and earl Cainden (succeeded by viscount 
lereagh), home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
int Melville (succeeded by lord Barham), admiralty. 
of Montrose, Mr. Dundas, &c. 


TTSBURG, see Fort Du Quesne and 
ad States, 1877. The exhibition building 


» 3 Oct. 1883. 


ITSBURG LANDING. (near Corinth, 
essee). On Sunday, 6 April, 1862, a great 
‘was fought between the American federals 
' Grant and Prentiss, and the confederates 
‘ Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard. 
latter began the attack and were victorious, 
ist their able general Johnston. The federals 
reinforced the next day and renewed the at- 
the confederates maintained their ground; 
oon after retired in good order to Corinth. 
mgagement is also named the battle of Shiloh. 


TURINE, a new narcotic, said to have been 
vered in 1882 in Australia. It resembles a 
ire of opium and tobacco, and is extracted 
the dried leaves of the Dudoisia piturt. 


US IV., CREED oF, see Confessions. 


ACENTIA (now Piacenza), N. Italy, 
ed by the Romans about 220 8.c. It suffered 
‘the convulsions attending the fall of the em- 
ind the wars of the middle ages. In 1254 it 
ider the rule of the family of the Scotti. In 
Alberto Scotto was overcome, and Placentia 
nited to Milan, then ruled by the Visconti. 
eir extinction in 1447, Placentia revolted, but 
aken by Sforza duke of Milan, and treated 
ruelly. In 1513 it was given to pope Leo X. 
(5, Paul III. gave it with Parma as a duchy to 
n Peter Louis Farnese. The French and 
ards were defeated by the Austrians and Sar- 
s near Placentia, 16 June, 1746; see Parma. 


AGUE. The plagues of Egypt (1491 B.c. 
seribed in Lxodus ix., &e. The fet ecomdca 
jl plague in all parts of the world occurred 
‘c. Petavius. At Carthage a plague was so 
e that people sacrificed their children to ap- 
the gods, 534 B.c. Baronius. At Rome a 
ting plague prevailed, 453 B.c. The devasta- 
lague at Athens, which spread into Egypt and 
‘Ma, 430 B.C., is admirably described by Thucy- | 


dides. Another which raged in the Greek islands, 
Egypt, and Syria, destroyed 2000 persons every 
day, 187 B.c. Pliny. See Cattle. 


At Rome, a most awful plague ; 10,000 persons perished 
daily, A.D. 80. 

Again ravaged the Roman empire, 167, 169, 189. 

Another in the Roman empire. For some time 5000 per- 
sons died daily at Rome ; many towns entirely depopu- 
lated, 250-265. 

In Britain, a plague swept away such multitudes that 
the living were scarcely sufficient to bury the dead, 


430. 

A long-continued dreadful one began in Europe in 558, 
extended all over Asia and Africa. 

At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its inhabitants 
perished, and in Calabria, Sicily, and Greece, 746-749. 

In London, 962. 

At Chichester, in England, an epidemical disease carried 
off 34,000 persons, 772. Will. Malms. 

In Scotland 40,000 persons perished, 954. 

In London, great mortality, 1094; and Ireland, rogs5. 

Again, in London ; it extended to cattle, fowls, and other 
domestic animals, rrrz. Holinshed. 

In Ireland ; after Christmas this year, Henry II. was 
forced to quit the country, 1172. 

Again, in Ireland, when a prodigious number perished, 
1204. 

The ‘‘ Black Death ” in Italy, 1340. 

A plague raged throughout Europe, causing extensive 
mortality. Britain and Ireland suffered grievously. 
In London alone 200 persons were buried daily in the 
Charterhouse-yard, 1348-9. (That at Florence described 
by Boccaccio.) 

In London and Paris a dreadful mortality prevailed in 
1361-2, 1367, 1369, and in Ireland in 1370. 

A great pestilence in Ireland called the fourth, destroyed 
a great number of the people, 1383. 

30,000 persons perished of a dreadful pestilence in Lon- 
don, 1407. 

Again, in Ireland, superinduced by a famine; great 
numbers died, 1466; and Dublin was wasted by a 
plague, 1470. 

An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471; and throughout 
England, a plague which destroyed more people than 
the continual wars for the fifteen preceding years, 1478. 
Rapin: Salmon. 

The Sudor Anglicus, or sweating sickness, very fatal in 
London, 1485. Delawne. 

The plague in London so dreadful that Henry ,VII. and 
his court removed to Calais, 1499-1500. Stow. 

The sweating sickness (mortal in three hours), in Lon- 
don, 1506; and in 1517. In most of the capital towns 
in England half the inhabitants died, and Oxford was 
depopulated, 9 Henry VIII. Stow. 

Limerick was visited by a plague, when many thousands 
perished, 1522. 

The sweating sickness again in England, 1528; and in 
North Germany in 1529 ; and for the fifth time in Eng- 
land, in 1551. 

30,578 persons perished of the plague in London alone, 
1603-1604. It was also fatal in Ireland. 

200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constantinople in 
1611. 

In London a great mortality prevailed, and 35,417 per- 
sons perished, 1625. 

In France a general mortality ; at Lyons, 60,000 persons 
died, 1632. 

The plague brought from Sardinia to Naples (being intro- 
duced by a transport with soldiers on board), raged 
with such violence as to carry off 400,000 of the inhabi- 
tants in six months, 1656. 


THE GREAT PLAGUE OF Lonpon, began Dec. 1664, which 
carried off 68,596 persons ; some say 100,000. Fires 
were kept up night and day to purify the air for three 
days ; and it was thought the infection was not totally 
destroyed till the great conflagration of Sept. 1666. 

[Graphically described by De Foe in his partially imagi- 
native History of the Plague. ] 

60,000 persons perished of the plague at Marseilles and 
neighbourhood, brought in ship from the Levant, 1720, 

One of the most awful plagues that ever raged, prevailed 
in Syria, 1760. Abbé Mariti. 

In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which carried off 80,000 of 
the inhabitants of Bassora, 1773. 

In Egypt, about 800,000 persons died of plague, 1792. 

In Barbary, 3000 died daily ; and at Fez 247,000 perished, 


PLANE. 


1799; in the east, 1800; 1840; 1873; many deaths in 

Bagdad, &c., April-May, 1876. 

In Spain and at Gibraltar immense numbers were car- 
ried off by a pestilent disease in 1804 and 1805. 

Again at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever much resembling 
the plague, caused great mortality, 1828. 

The Asiatic cholera (see Cholera) made its first appear- 
ance in England, at Sunderland, 26 Oct. 1831 ; in Scot- 
land, at Haddington, 23 Dec..same year; and in 
Ireland, at Belfast, 14 Maich, 1832. 

The cholera again visited England, fee 1848 and 1849 (see 
Cholera). 

The cholera raged at Smyrna and Constantinople, and 
appeared in Paris, Marseilles, Naples ; July-Dec. 1865. 

A great cattle plague (which see) in England, resembling 
typhus, near London, begins June, 1865. 

A new, and hitherto an incurable disease, named black 
death, on account of purple blotches coming out on 
the skin, appeared in Dublin; many persons of all 
ranks died a few hours after the seizure. March 
et seq. 1866. 

Plague in Astracan, Jan.—April, 1879. 

PLANE. A true plane, so important in 
machinery, has been most successfully obtained by 
sir Joseph Whitworth. Fine specimens were ex- 
hibited at the Royal Institution in 1873 


PLANETARIUM, see Orrery. 


PLANETS. Jupiter was known asa planet to 
the Chinese and the Chaldeans, and inserted in a 
chart of the heavens, made about 600 B. c., and in 
which 1460 stars are accurately described; this chart 
is said to be in the national library at Paris. The 
four satellites of Jupiter discovered by Galileo, 7 
Jan. 1610, see Mars, Saturn. We now know nine 
primary planets, termed major; Mercury, Venus, 
the Larth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Nep- 
tune, and’ Vulean (doubtful) ; : and, secondary or 
minor, situated between the orbits of Mars and Ju- 
piter. The numerical order differs in the lists of 
isnglish, German, and French astronomers. In the 
French and German lists, Aglaia to Pandora are 
numbered 47 to 55; Jeleté is 56. 

Uranus, formerly called Georgiwn Sidus and 
Herschel ; discovered by W. Herschel (see Geor- 
gium S* idus) 13 March, 

Neptune, discovered by Galle (in consequence of the 
calculations of Le Verrier and Adams) (see Nep- 
tune) 23 Sept. 

Vulcan (between Mercury and the Sun), AR to be 
discovered by M. Lescarbault, a physician (not 
seen since), 26 March, 1859 ; said to have been seen 
by Watson during the solar eclipse (doubted by 
Peters) - 29, 30d uly, 

A red star seen by M. Trouvelot during the solar 


1781 


1846 


1878 


eclipse, most probably Vulcan “ - 6 May, 1883 
Minor PLANETS (according to Mr. G. F. Ohainbers and 
others). 
1. Ceres, discovered by Piazzi (visible to the naked 
eye) . zr Jan. 1801 
2. Pallas, discovered at Bremen by Olbers (see 
Pallas) 28 March, 1802 
3. Juno, discovered by Harding | I Sept. 1804 
ve Vesta, discovered by Olbers— 29 March, 1807 
ic Astrea, by K. C. Hencke . 8 Dec. 1845 
6. Hebe, by the same . 1 July, 1847 
7. Iris, by J. R. Hind r3,Auo) a. 
8. Flora, by the same . k ToLOCt ee 
9. Metis, by A. Graham . . 25 April, 1848 
to. Hygeia, by A. de Gasparis 12 April, 1849 
11. Parthenope, by the same 11 May, 1850 
12. Victoria, by J. R. Hind . 13 Sept. ,, 
13. Egeria, by A. de Gasparis . ZN OVEN 
14. Irene, by J. R.' Hind 4 : 19 May, 1851 
15. Ewnomia, by A. de Gasparis oe 2O CALL Vs, 15s 
16. Psyche, by the same 17 March, 1852 
17. Thetis, by R. Luther . a7 Aprils ve: 
18. Melpomene, by J. R. Hind 24June, ,, 
19. Fortuna, by the same . 22 Aug. ,, 
20. Massilia, by A. de Gasparis . To Se puss 
21. Lutetia, by H. Goldschmidt a5 NOME me, 
22. Calliope, by J. R. Hind . 16 Nov ,, 
23. Thalia, by the same . TS5UDEC, ee 
24. Themis, by A. de Gasparis | 5 April, 1853 


646 


PLANETS. 

25. Phocea, by M. Chacornac . 6 April, 
26. Proserpine, by R. Luther - 5 May, 
27. Huterpe, by J. R. Hind 8 Nov. 
28.. Bellona, by R. Luther . : 1 March, 
29. Amphitrite, by Mr. Marth. . t March, 
30. Urania, by J. R. Hind . 3 5 22 July, 
31. Hwphrosyne, by James Ferguson t Sept. 

32. Pomona, by H. Goldschmidt. . 26 Oct. 

33 Polyhymnia, by M. Chacornac . 28 Oct. 

34. Circe, by the same . : 6 April, 

a6. Leucothen, by R. Luther . - 19 April, 

36. Atalanta, by H. Goldschmidt 1g April, 

37. Fides, by R. Luther . : 5 Oct. 

38. Leda, by M. Chacornae . 12 Jan, 

39. Letitia, by the same . _ 8 Feb, 

40. Harmonia, by R. Luther 31 March, 
41. Daphne, by H. Goldschmidt 22 <r 
42. Isis, by Norman Pogson 5 23 May, 
43. Ariadne, by the same A . 15 April 
44. Nysa, by H. Goldschmidt 27 May, 
45. Eugenia, by the same . 28 June, 
46. Hestia, by N. Pogson 16 Aug. 
A7- *Meleto, by H. Goldschmidt» 9 Sept. 

48. Aglaia, by R. Luther 15 Sept. 

49. Doris, by H. Goldschmidt 19 Sept. 

50. Pales, by the same. 19 Sept. 

st Virginia, by James Ferguson : 4 Oct. 

52. Nemausa, by M. Laurent. . 22 Jan. 
53. Ewropa, by H. Goldschmidt 6 Feb 

54. Calypso, by R. Luther . 4 April, 

55. Alexandra, by H. Goldschmidt 10 Sept. 

56. Pandora, by Mr. Searle 10 Sept 
57: Mnemosyne, by R. Luther 22 Sept 
58. Concordia, by the saine 2 - 24 March, 
59. Danae, by H. Goldschmidt . . 9g Sept. 
60. Olympia, by M. Chacornac . F 12 Sept. 
61. Hrato, by MM. Forster and Lessing 14 Sept 
62. Echo (orig. Titania), by J. Ferguson 14 Sept 

63. Ausonia, by A. de Gasparis . to Feb. 
64. Angelina, by M. Tempel : 4 March, 
65. Cybele (orig. Maximi liana), by “M. Tempel, 

8 March 

66. Maia, by H. P. Tuttle 9 April, 

67. Asia, by N. Pogson 17 April, 

68. Leto, py R. Luther 29 April, 

69. Hesperia, by M. Schiaparelli 29 April, 

70. Panopea, by H. Goldschmidt . 5 May, 

71. Feronia, by Mr. Safford 29 May, 

72. Niobe, by R. Luther. 1 | 

73. Clytie, by H. P. Tuttle . 7 April, 

74. Galatea, by M. Tempel 30 Aug. 

75. Hwrydice, by C. H. Peters — 22 Sept. 

76. Freia, by M. d’Arrest 21 Oct. 

77. Frigga, by C. H. Peters 15 Nov. 

78. Diana, by R. Luther A 15 March, 

79. Hurynome, by Jas. C. Watson ~ 14 Sept 

80. Sappho, by N. Pogson ©. ‘ 2 May, 

81. Terpsichore, by M. Tempel 30 Sept 

82. Alcmene, by R. Luther 27 Nov 

83. Beatrice, by A. de Gasparis . 3 26 April, 

84. Clio, by R. Luther : z 25 Aug 

85. Io, by C. H. Peters rg Sept 

86. Semele, by F. Tietjen “4 Jan 

87. Sylvia, by N. Pogson ; 17 May, 

88. Thisbe, by C. H. Peters . 5 15 June, 

89. Julia, by M. Stephan . 6 Aug. 

go. Antiope, by R. Luther 5 x Oct. 

or. Aigina, by Alphonse Borelly 4 Nov. 

92..Undina, by C. P. Peters . 8 July, 

93. Minerva, by J. C. Watson 24 Aug. 

94. Aurora, by the same 6 Sept 

95. Arethusa, by R. Luther 23 Nov. 

96. digle, by M. Coggia . 17 Feb. 

97. Clotho, by M. Tempel 17 Feb 

98. lanthe, by C. H. Peters 18 April, 

99. Diké, by A. Borelly . 28 May, 

100. Hecate, by J. C. Watson . ir July, 
ror. Helend, by the same , 15 Aug. 
102. Miriam, by C. H. F. Peters . . 22 Aug 
103. Hera, by J. C. Watson . . > «7 8ept 
104. Clymene, by the same 13 Sept. 
105. Artemis, by J. C. Watson 16 Sept 


18: 


2 


* It was believed at first to be Daphne, No. 41; ar 


hence was called ‘‘ Psewdo-Daphne,” when E. Schube 


proved it to be a new planet. 
by M. Goldschmidt till 1 Sept. 1862, 
present name, that of the Muse of Meditation. 


It was not re-discovert 
when it received i 


. 

a , i 
7 ~ 

" i 


+" 


PLANETS. 


Jione, by J. C. Watson 
Jamilla, by N. Pogson . 
Tecuba, by R. Luther * . 
‘elicitas, by C. H. F. Peters. 
ydia, by Alphonse Borelly 
ite, by C. H. Peters . is 
phigenia, by C. H. Peters. 
Amalthiea, by R. Luther 
lassandra, by C. H. Peters 
"hyra, by J. C. Watson 


Yirona (by R. Luther, 14 Sept. ye by C. H. 


jomia, by A. Borelly 

eitho, by R. Luther 

Althea, by J. C. Watson 
yachesis, by A. Borelly . 
Termione, by J. C. Watson 
reraa, by C. H. F. Peters. 
Brunhilda, by C. H. F. Peters 
dlceste, by C. H. F. Peters . 
Velleda, by Prosper Henry 
Yiberatrix, by Paul Henry 
lohanna, by Prosper Henry 
Vemesis, by J. C. Watson 
Antigone, by C. H. F. Peters . 
Blectra, by C. H. F. Peters . 
Vala, by C. H. F. Peters é Fi 
Aithra, by J. C. Watson 3 : 
Syrene, by J. C. Watson . 
Sophrosyne, by R. Luther 
Hertha, by C. H. F. Peters 
Austria, by J. Palisa 
Melibeea, by J. Palisa 
Tolosa, by M. Perrotin . 
Juewa, by J. C. Watson . 
Siwa, by J. Palisa 

Inmen, by Paul Henry 
Polana, by J. Palisa 
Adria, by J. Palisa . : “ : 
Vibilia, by C. H. F. Peters, night 
Adeona, by C. H. F.. Peters, night 
Lucina, by A. Borelly |. . : 
Protogeneia, by L. Schulhof. 
Gallia, by Prosper Henry 
Medusa, by M. Perrotin 
Nuwa, by J. C. Watson . 
Abunaantia, by J. Palisa 
Atala, by Paul Henry 

Hilda, by J. Palisa A 
Bertha, by Prosper Henry 
Scylla, by J. Palisa 

Xanthippe, by J. Palisa . 
Dejanira, by A. Borelly 
Koronis, by V. Korre 

Emilia, by Paul Henry 

Una, by C. H. F. Peters 

Athol, by J. C. Watson 
Laurentia, by Prosper Henry 
Erigone, by M. Perrotin 

Eva, by Paul Henry 

Loreley, by C. H. F. Peters 
Rhodope, by C. H. F. Peters. . 
Urda, by C. H. F. Peters 
‘Sibylla, by J, C. Watson 

Zelia, by Prosper Henry. ; 
Maria, or Myrrha, by — Perrotin 
Ophelia, by Alphonse Borelly 
Baucis, by Alphonse Borelly 

Ino, by Alphonse Borelly 
Pheedra, by J. C. Watson . 
Andromache, by J. C. Watson 
Idunna, by C. H. F. Peters 
Irma, by Paul Henry . “C 
 Belisana, by J. Palisa —. F 

Clytemnestra, by J. C. Watson 
Garumna, by — Perrotin 
| Bucharis, by — Cottenot 

Elsbeth, by J. Palisa 

Istria, by J. Palisa 

Deiopeia, by J. Palisa . 
| Humiké, by C. H. F. Peters 

Celuta, by Prosper Henry 
. Lamberta, by — Coggia . “ 
i Menippe, by C. H. F. Peters. 
| Phthia, by C. H. F. Peters * 


to Oct. 

17 Nov. 

2 April, 
SO OCt: 
1g April, 
14 Aug. 
19 Sept. 
12 March, 
23 July, 

6 Aug. 
Peters, 
8 Sept. 
12 Sept. 
15 March, 
3 April, 
to April, 
12 May, 
31 July, 
31 July, 
23 Aug. 
rr Sept. 

. 5 Nov. 
5 Nov. 


; : _ 25 Nov. 


5 Feb. 
17 Feb. 
24 May, 

13 June, 
16 Aug. 
27 Sept. 


i 18-19 Feb. 
18-19 March, 


ar April, 
19 May, 
to Oct. 
rs OCUs 
13 Jan. 
28 Jan. 
23 Feb. 
3-4 June, 
3-4 June, 
8 June, 


to-tz July, 


7 Aug. 
21 Sept. 


es 18-19 Oct. 


rt Nov. 

2 Nov. 

2 Nov. 

6 Nov. 

8 Nov. 
22 Novy. 
x Dee. 

4 Jan. 
26 Jan. 

. 21 Feb. 
18 April, 
21 April, 
26 April 
12 July, 


. ro Aug. 


17 Aug. 
29 Aug. 
28 Sept. 
28 Sept. 
ro Jan. 
13 Jan. 
5 Feb. 
2 Aug. 
3 Sept. 
t Oct. 
14 Oct. 
5 Nov. 
6 Nov. 
12 Noy. 
29 Jan. 
2 Feb. 

7 Feb. 

Se oLueb. 
28 Feb. 
zr March, 
6 April, 


arr April; 


18 June, 
g Sept. 


| Atropos said to have been discovered by R. Luther, 


pril, 1869. Not observed since. 


647 PLANTATIONS. 

1868 | 190. Ismene, by C. H. F. Peters . 22 Sept. 1878 
< tor. Kolga, by C. H. F. Peters 30 Sept. _,, 
1869 | 192. Nausikaa, by J. Palisa 17-18 Feb. 1879 
. 193. Ambrosia, by Coggia 287 F eR. ss 

1870 | 194. Procne, by C. J. F. Peters 21 March, ,, 
fe 195. Eurykleia, by J. Palisa . 22 April, ,, 
"7 196. Philomela, by C. J. F. Peters - 17 May, 55 

1871 | 197. Arete, by J. Palisa i 21 May, ,, 
35 198. Ampella, by Borelly TZ 0UDe, 55 
os 199. Byblis, by C. J. F. Peters z TO iveme gs 

200. Dynamene, by C. J. F. Peters 28 July, ,;, 
ay 201. Penelope, by J. Palisa ‘ : 7 AUS sy 
oe 202. Chryseis, by C. J. F. Peters . 3 TE Sept. |5, 

1872 | 203. Pompeia, by C. J. F. Peters = 27 SEP. 55 
a 204. Callisto, by J. Palisa SOc mss 
Be 205. Martha, by J. Palisa.. 13) OCt-2y;3 
A 206. Hersilio, by C. J. F. Peters . Th OCLs 
ae 207. Hedda, by J. Palisa eT7IOCt ues. 
fe 208. Lacrimosa, by J. Palisa . a1 Oct. ;; 
. 209. Dido, by C. J. F. Peters Fs oe ee OClness 
a 210. Isabella, by J. Palisa ; T2NOVeu 4s 
5 211. Isolda, by J. Palisa ro Dec: 4; 
a 212. Medea, by J. Palisa é c 6 Feb. 1880 
a 213. Lilwa, by C. J. F. Peters = 16-17 Feb. ,, 

1873 | 214. Aschera, by J. Palisa : yr; March, ©}; 
Ree 215. (Hnone, by Knorre 7-8 April, ,, 
S 216. Cleopatra, by Coggia SETOFADI sers5 
ra 217. Eudora, by J. Palisa . z ay. 30 AUS. 45 
* 218. Bianca, by J. Palisa ADCP U.b 5s 
ip 219. I'hursnelda, by J. Palisa 2030 BEDUs 5 

1874 | 220. Stephania, : ‘ 5 19 May, 1881 
a 221. Kos, by J. Palisa ° . 18 Jan. 1882 
35 222. Lucia, by J. Palisa . GQ WED. mass 
ss 223. Rosa, by J. Palisa - 9-10 March, ,, 
i 224. Oceana, by J. Palisa 30-31 March, ,, 
~ 225. Henrietta, by J. Palisa IQA DIL, 

1875 | 226. Weringia, by J. Palisa sh TO. WLys vas 
>» 227. Philosophia, by Paul Henry 12 AUS Sass 
pi 228. Agathe, by J. Palisa. TOVAUCS Wess 
- 229, Adalinda, by J. Palisa. 22 Aug. ,;; 
- 230. Athamantio, by L. De Ball a NCD usm 
a5 231. Vindobona, by J. Palisa : to Sept. _,, 
Jy 232. Russia, by J. Palisa . . 31 Jan.-1x Feb. 1883 
- 233. Asterope, by Borelly -. : tr May,. |5; 
be 234. Barbara, by C. H. F. Peters 12 Aug. ,, 
a 235. Carolina, by J. Palisa . A 28 Nov. ,, 
a 236. Honoria, by J. Palisa . 26 April, 1884 
= 237. Celestina, by J. Palisa 27 June, ;, 
as 238. Hypatia, by D. V. Knorre. Tid LY ees 
5 239. Adrastea, by J. Palisa ANate PARDEE | sy 
i! 240. Vanadis, by Borelly BNE oe 
S. 241. Germania, by R. Luther eT 2 Deusen ys 
an 242. Kriemhild, by J. Palisa . 22) S6ptass 

1876 | 243. Ida, by J. Palisa A PSN CII As 
zs 244. , by J. Palisa 14 OCtoas,s 
<5 245. , by J. Palisa . 6Feb. 1885 
a 246. , by Borelly 6. March) eo 
$5 2475 , by Luther T4e Mare Dyas 


2? 
” 
3 


PLANIMETER, a machine for measuring the 


area of any figure by the passage of a tracer round 


about its perimeter. 


Amsler’s planimeter (in use 


for several years) was described at the British 
Association meeting at Brighton, Aug. 1872. 


PLANING-MACHINE. One for wood was 


constructed by Bramah, about 1802; and one for 


iron by Joseph Clement in 1825. 


PLANTAGENET,* HovseE oF, to which 


belonged fourteen English 
1154, to Richard III. 


worth, 1485; see England, Kings. 
PLANTATIONS, see Trade. 


kings, from Henry II. 
killed at the battle of Bos- 


* Fulke Martel, earl of Anjou, having contrived the 


death of his nephew, the earl of Brittany, in order to 
succeed.to the earldom, his confessor sent him, in atone- 
ment for the murder, to Jerusalem, attended by only two 
servants, one of whom was to lead him bya halter to the 
Holy Sepulchre, the other to strip and whip him there, 
like a common malefactor. Broom, in French genet, in 
Latin genista, being the only tough, pliant shrub in 
Palestine, the noble criminal was smartly scourged with 
it, and from this instrument of his chastisement he was 
called Planta-genista, or Plantagenet; other accounts are 
given. Skinner and Mézéray. 


PLASSEY. 


648 


PLEVNA. 


PLASSEY, in Bengal, India, the site of a 
battle fought between the British under Clive, and 
the Hindoos under Surajah Dowlah, 23 June, 1757. 
The nabob, although at the head of about 68,000 
men, was vanquished by 1000 British and about 
2000 sepoys. The victory laid the foundation of 
our empire in India; see India. 


PLASTER oF Paris. Gypsum, sulphate of 
lime, used for moulds, statuary, &c., first found at 
Montmartre, near Paris, whence its name. The 
method of taking likenesses by its use was first 
discovered by Andrea del Verrochio, about 1466. 


PLATA, LA, see Argentine Republic. 
PLATA (Beotia, N. Greece), site of the 


battle between Mardonius, commander of the army 
of Xerxes of Persia, and Pausanias, commander of 
the Lacedzemonians and Athenians, 22 Sept. 479B.C. ; 
the same day as the battle of Mycale. Of 300,000 
Persians scarce 3000 escaped with their lives. ‘The 
Grecian army, about 110,000, lost but few men. 
‘the Greeks obtained immense plunder, and were 
henceforth delivered from the fear of Persian in- 
vasions. Platzea, as an ally of Athens, was destroyed 
by the Thebans, 372; and rebuilt by Philip II. after 
his victory at Cheronea, 338. 


PLATE. In England, plate, with the excep- 
tion of spoons, was prohibited in public-houses by 
statute 8 Will. III. (1696). The celebrated Plate 
act passed in May, 1756. This act was repealed in 
1780. The act laying a stamp-duty upon plate 
passed in 1784; see Goldsmiths’ Company. By 
17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 (1854), gold wares were allowed 
to be manufactured at a lower standard ; but a later 
act excepted marriage rings.—'lhe art of covering 
baser metals with a thin plate of silver, either for 
use or for ornament (PLATING), said to have been 
invented by a Birmingham spur-maker, who began 
with making the branches of a pair of spurs hollow, 
and filling the hollow with a slender rod of steel. 
He continued to make the hollow larger and the iron 
thicker, till at last he merely coated the iron spur 
with silver; see Electrotype. 

Mr. Wilfred Joseph Cripps’ ‘‘Old English Plate,” a valu- 
able work, containing the researches of Mr. O. Mor- 
gan, published, 1878. His ‘‘ Old French Plate,” 1880. 

Duty on silver plate to be reduced gradually till abolished, 
from 1 June, 1881. 


PLATE-WA YS, 0n ordinary roads for waggons 
carrying goods, proposed at Liverpool about 1880, 
to supersede railways for cheapness; not adopted, 


Jan. 1883. 
“PLATINUM, the heaviest of all the metals, 


except iridium. The name originated with the 
Spaniards on account of its silvery colour; Plata, 
signifying silver. It was found in the auriferous 
sand of the river Pinto, in South America, and was 
unknown in Europe until 1741, when don Antonio 
Ulloa announced its existence in the narrative of his 
voyage to Peru. Greig. In its ore have been found 
the metals palladium, rhodium, osmium, iridium, 
and ruthenium (which see). In 1859, M. H. Ste.- 
Claire Deville made known a new method of obtain- 
ing platinum from its ore, in great abundance and 
purity ; and at the international exhibition of 1862 
was shown a mass worth 3840/., weighing 2663 lb., 
of a metal hitherto considered infusible, obtained 
by his process, employing the oxy-hydrogen flame. 
See Philosophical Lamp. 

Dode’s process for coating iron with platinum to prevent 

rust, shown at Johnson & Matthey’s, 11 Jan. 1870. 


PLATONIC PHILOSOPHY, the most 
popular of all systems (see Philosophy). Plato’s 


dialogues have been termed ‘‘ Philosophy backed by 
example.” He was a disciple of Socrates, 409 8.¢, 
and died 347. The leading feature of his mind wa: 
comprehensiveness. 


PLATONIC YEAR, the period of time which 
the equinoxes take to finish their revolution, at the 
end of which the stars and constellations have the 
same place with regard to the equinoxes that they 
had at first. Tycho Brahe says that this year 01 
period requires 25,816 common years to complete 
it; Ricciolus computes.it at 25,920; and Cassini at 
24,800; at the end of which time some imagined 
that there would be a total and natural renovation 
of the whole creation. 


PLATTSBURG. A British expedition against 
this place, a town of New York, on Lake Champlain 
was designed under general sir George Prevost, but 
was abandoned after the naval force of England had 
suffered a defeat in an engagement with the 
Americans, 11 Sept. 1814, when the British 
squadron in Lake Champlain was captured; see 
United States. 


PLAY-GROUNDS. In 1858 a society was 
established by the earl of Shaftesbury and other 
benevolent persons to provide play-grounds for the 
recreation of adults and the children of the humble 
classes. Ground was liberally offered by the govern- 
ment, and by the marquis of Westminster and 
others ; and in 1859 an act of parliament was passed 
to facilitate grants of lands for this purpose, for 
which part of Smithfield was to be reserved. The 
scheme was not successful. 

The Metropolitan Public Garden, Boulevard, and Play- 
ground association formed by lord Brabazon and 


others in 1882 has done good service in the east of 
London. 


PLAYS, see Drama and Theatres. 
PLEADINGS. Clothaire held a kind of 


movable parliament called placita whence came 
the word pleas, A.D. 616. Hénault. In the early 
courts of judicature in England, pleadings were 
made in the Saxon language in 786; and in Norman- 
French from the period of the conquest in 1066 until 
1362. Pleadings were ordered to be in English by 
36 Edward III. 1362, and Cromwell extended the 
rule to all legal proceedings 1650. In English 
law the proceedings are the mutual statements 
of the plaintiff’s cause of action, and the defendant's 
ground of defence. ; 


PLEBEIANS, Plebes, the citizens of Rome, 
as distinguished from the Patricians; see Lome, 
494-306 B.C. ; 

PLEBISCITUM, « term given to a law passed 
by the comitia tributa, an assembly of the Roman 
people in their tribes, first established in 491 B.¢. 
‘he term has been recently revived in France and 
Italy, and applied to Universal Suffrage (which see). 


PLETHYSMOGRAPH, an apparatus for 
detecting the state of the mind by observing the 
relations of the circulation of the blood from the 
heart to the brain, invented by M. Mossol, of Turin, 
1882. 


PLEVNA, Bulgaria, 27 miles NN.W. of Nico- 
polis; near the river Vid; the site of very fierce 
conflicts during the Russo-Turkish war, 1877. 
Occupied by the Russians, 6 July, but retaken by 

Osman Pacha, 18 July, and held by him after 

severe combats, with Schildner-Schuldner, 19, 20 

July ; with Krudener . «29-31 duly, 1877 
The Russians lost about 2000 killed, 4ooo wounded. 

The Russian attack was considered rash, like that 


at Balaclava, and a disastrous check. | 


~ 


PLOTS. 


649 


POET-LAUREAT. 


Pacha defeated in a desperate sortie, about 

30 Aug. 1877 
ybeleff gained a great advantage by captu- 
ovatz (or Loftcha) : : oS Sesigeus 
gan, 7 Sept., with an artillery duel lasting 
¢ : : 6 $ ; 10 Sept. 
$s sanguinary conflicts 11, 12 Sept. 
Pacha carried in reinforcements to Plevna, 


* le 4 3 ; 22S8ept. ,, 
n takes command of the staff 28 Sept. ,, 
ompletely invested ; reported 8 Nov. ,, 
attacks repulsed 12, 15 NOV, |, 


2acha, reduced by want of supplies, despe- 

endeavours to break out at night, 9 Dec. ; 
mded and defeated with great slaughter ; 
ders unconditionally (30,000 prisoners, 128 
Ss, roo guns) é . 4 : to Dee, 


39 
ITS, see Conspiracies, and Rebellions. 


UGH. ‘Thou shalt not plough with an 
an asstogether.’’ Deut. xxii. 10 (1451 B.C.). 
man plough is minutely described by Virgil, 
IB.c. Engines to plough grounds, whether 
or upland, were patented by David Ramsay 
iomas Wildgoose, in 1618; and many im- 
ents in ploughs have been patented since. 
plication of steam power to ploughing was 
d by John Upton in 1837, and by others since, 
pecially by lord Willoughby D’Eresby, the 
sof Tweeddale, and the earl of Caithness ; 
um- Plough. 

ional trial of ploughs, &c. at Haarlem ; prizes 
xy English makers (Howards, Ransomes, &c.), 
Sept. 1879. 


UGH MONDAY, in January, the first 
yafter the Epiphany. It received the appel- 
rom its having been fixed upon by our fore- 
as the day upon which they returned to the 
of agriculture after enjoying the festivities 
istmas. Ashe. On Plough Monday, too, 
ughmen of the north country used to draw 
h from docr to door and beg plough money 
c. Barley. 


JM. We have two native plums; our finer 
ame from Italy and Flanders about 1522. 
ospyros Lotus, the date plum, was brought 
arbary, before 1596; the Pishamin plum, 
ros virginiana, from America, before 1629. 
ly damsons, apricots, and peaches went by 
me, as raisins do to this day. 


JMBAGO, see Graphite. 


JRALITIES. Clergymen have been re- 
1 from holding more than one benefice by 
statutes; the first being 21 Henry VIII. 
In 1838 an act was passed prohibiting the 
‘of more than two benefices except they were 
tance less than ten miles; and the law on 
ject was still further amended in 1850 and 
rovisions being made for the amalgamation of 
uring benefices. 


TRAL NUMBER, see We. 


IS (+) anp Minus (—). Professor De 
_ attributes these signs to either Christopher 
who published a book on algebra about 1522, 
ael Stifelius, about 1544. 


"MOUTH, a fortified seaport in Devon- 
‘riginally Sutton, was incorporated as Ply- 
11439. It was in 1588 the rendezvous of 
lish fleet of 120 sail under Howard, Drake, 
ich pursued the Spanish armada. The fine 
id assembly-rooms were burnt 6 Jan. 1863 ; 
ut 50,0000. 
3cience met here, Sept. 1872. 
Dock-yards, and Population. 


See Break- 


The National Association for | 


The new guildhall was opened by the prince of 
Wales - : : : fs . 13 Aug. 1874 
New wing to British female orphan asylum (esta- 
blished about 1834), founded by the duke of Edin- 


burgh . ; : : : : 7 OCtAEs 
Art and industrial exhibition opened 23 May 1881 
Tercentenary of the birth of sir Francis Drake 


celebrated, statue unveiled . 14 Feb. 1884 
PLYMOUTH BRETHREN, a body of 


Christians calling themselves ‘‘ the Brethren,”’ first 
appeared at Plymouth about 1830. In 1851 they 
had 132 places of worship in England and Wales. 
They object to national churches as too latitudi- 
narian, and to other dissenters as too sectarian. 
They receive into communion all who confess Christ, 
and own the Holy Ghost as his vicar.. Their doc- 
trines agree with those of most evangelical pro- 
testant churches, but they recognise no order of 
ministers. Mr. Darby, regarded as their founder, 
afterwards separated from them with some ad- 
herents. 


PNEUMATIC DESPATCH COMPANY, 
to convey letters and parcels through tubes by means 
of atmospheric pressure and a vacuum. The com- 
eet act was passed 13 Aug. 1859, and tubes were 

aid down in Threadneedle-street on 12 Sept. 1860 ; 

and on 20 Aug. 1861, successful experiments were 
performed at Battersea. In 1862 tubes were laid 
down from the Euston railway station to the N. W. 
post-office in Camden-town, and on 21 Feb. 1863, 
the conveyance of the mail-bags began. In Oct. 
1865, tubes had been laid down between Euston 
railway and Holborn; and on 7 Noy. several persons 
travelled in them. Engineer, Mr. Rammell. The 
company stopped through insufficient support, 1876. 
A pneumatic tube by Siemens, employed to trans- 
mit telegraphic messages, began about Jan. 1871. 


PNEUMATIC LOOM, in which compressed 
air is the motive power, invented by Mr. Harrison, 
was exhibited in London in Dec. 1864. A company 
was formed to bring it into general use. 


PNEUMATICS, the science which treats of 
the mechanical properties of air and gases; see A477, 
and Atmospheric Railways. 


PODESTA (from potestas, power), an Italian 
governor, afterwards a judge; one with supreme 
authority was appointed at Milan by the emperor 
Frederick I., when he took the city in 1158. 


PODOLL (Bohemia), the site of a severe con- 
flict between the Austrians and a part of the army 
of prince Frederick Charles of Prussia, 26 June, 
1866. The Prussians had the advantage. 


PODOSCAPHE, see Canoe. 
POET-LAUREAT. Selden could not trace 


the precise origin of this office. 


Warton, in his History of English Poetry, states that in 
the reign of Henry III. there was a Versificator Regis, 
to whom an annual stipend was first paid of one hun- 
dred shillings. 

Chaucer, on his return from abroad, assumed the title 
of poet-laureat ; and in the twelfth year of Richard 
II., 1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of 
wine. 

In the reign of Edward IV., John Kay was laureat , 
Andrew Bernard was laureat, temp. Henry VII. ; and 
John Skelton, temp. Henry VIII. 

Jamies I. in 1615, granted to his laureat a yearly pension 
of roo marks ; and in 1630, this stipend was augmented 
by letters patent of Charles I. to rool. per annum, with 
an additional grant of one tierce of Canary Spanish 
wine to be taken out of the king’s store of wine yearly. 
We believe that on Southey’s appointment the tierce of 
Canary wine was commuted for_27/. 

Laurence Eusden commenced a series of Birth-Day and 
New Year’s Odes, which continued till the death of 


| 
| Pye, in 1813, 


POETRY. 


650 


POLAND. 3 


On the death of Warton its abolition was recommended 
by Gibbon, whose elegant compliment on the occasion 
still more for cibly applied on Wordsworth’s death, in 
1850—‘‘ This is the best time for not filling up the office, 
when the prince is a man of virtue, and the poet just 
departed was a man of genius.” 

POETS-LAUREAT. 

Edmund Spenser, died 1599. 

Samuel Daniel, died 1619. 

Ben Jonson, (born 1574), died 1637. 

Sir William Davenant, 1637; died 1668. 

John Dryden, 1670; deposed at the revolution, 1688. 

Thomas Shadwell, 1688 ; died 1692. 

Nahum Tate, 1692; died 1715. 

Nicholas Rowe, died 1718. 

Rey. Laurence Eusden, 1718 ; 

Colley Cibber, 1730; died *: 757: 

William Whitehead (on the cofusal of Gray), 1757; 
1785. 

Rev br. Thomas Warton (on the refusal of Mason), 1785 ; 
died 1790. 

Henry James Pye, 1790: died 1813. 

Dr. Robert Southey (on the rehiaal of Scott), 1813 ; 
21 March, 1843 

William Worteyworth! 1843 ; died 23 April, 1850. 

Alfred Tennyson (born 1809), installed 1850. 
POETRY. The song of Moses on the deliver- 

ance of the Israelites, and their passage through the 

Red Sea, 1491 B.c. (Hxodus xv.), Ancient Egyptian 

poetry still extant. Orpheus of Thrace is deemed 

the inventor of poetry (at least in the western part 
of the world) about 1397 B.c.; see Epics, Odes, 

Satire, Comedy, Tragedy, Sonnets, Ballads, Hymns, 

and Verse. 


POICTIERS (W. France), near which was 
fought the battle between Edward the Black Prince 
and John, king of France, in which the English 
arms triumphed, Ig Sept. 1356. The standard of 
France was overthrow n, many of her nobility slain, 
and her king was taken prisoner, and brought to 
London; see Tours, and Vouglé. 


POISONING. A number of Roman ladies 
formed a conspiracy and poisoned their husbands. 
A female slave denounced 170 of them to Fabius 
Maximus, who ordered them to be publicly exe- 
cuted, 331 B.c. It was said that this was the 


died 1730. 


died 


died 


first public knowledge they had of poisoning at | 


Rome. Poisoning was made petty treason in Eng- 
land, and was punished by boiling to death (of 
which there are some remarkable “instances), 23 
Henry VIII. 1531; see Boiling to death. The 
frequency of cases of poisoning by means of arsenic, 
in England, caused the British legislature to pass 
a law rendering the sale of arsenic difficult (14 
Vietse, Feo June, 1851). Thesale of poison is now 
regulated by the Pharmacy act of 1868. Additional 
restrictions’ enacted by act passed in 1885. The 
Poisoned Grain Prohibition Act was passed 28 
July, 1863. 

A deadly poison freely administered by Italians in the 
seventeenth century, was called aqua tofana, from the 
name of the woman Tofania, who made and sold it in 
small flat vials. She carried on this traffic for half a 
century, and eluded the police; but, on being taken, 
confessed that she had been a party in poisoning 600 
people. Numerous persons were implicated by her, 
and many of them were publicly executed. All Italy 
was thrown into a ferment, and many fled, and some 
persons of distinction, on conviction, were strangled 
in prison. It appeared to have been chiefly used by 
married women who were tired of their husbands. 
Four or six drops were a fatal dose ; but the effect was 
not sudden, and therefore not suspected. It was as 
clear as water, but the chemists have not agreed about 
its real composition. A proclamation of the pope 
described it as aquafortis distilled into arsenic, and 
others considered it as a solution of crystallised 
arsenic. 

Between 1666 and 1676, the marchioness de Brinvilliers 
poisoned her father and two brothers and many others. 
She was executed, 16 July, 1676. 


W. Palmer was executed in 1856, and Miss M. Smith t 
in 1857, for poisoning ; see T’rials. Catherine Wil, 
a noted poisoner, was executed on 20 Oct, 1 
Edward William Pritchard, M.D., was exeecutec 
Glasgow, 28 July, 1865, for the slow mune of his» 
and her mother, by antimony. 

Noy. 1858, 17 persons died at Bradford through ea 
sweetmeats in which arsenic had been mixed by 1 
take. Mr. Hodgson, a chemist, was tried for he 
cide, and acquitted. 

Weltmann, a bookbinder at Posen, poisoned 4 wives 
2 children, about 1859. 

Christiana Edmunds, of Brighton, was convictec 
murdering a child by poisoned sweetmeats ; other 
sons barely escaped (sentence remitted on the gro 
of insanity), 16 Jan. 1872. 

Mary Ann Cotton, imprisoned Oct. 1872, suspec ter 
poisoning 16 persons, principally children ; convic 
of poisoning her child, 7 March ; executed at Durh 
24 March, 1873 

About 25 wives scouted of poisoning their husba 
at Gross Bedskereh in Hungary ; Theckla Popav > 
said to be the head of the conspiracy, Aug. 1882. 

Catharine Flanagan and Margaret Higgins (sisters) ¢ 
victed of poisoning Thomas Hi ggins, “to obtain in; 
ance money, g Feb.; other charges not tried: t 
confessed, oth were executed, 3 March, 1884. 

See Bravo case. 


POITOU au ancient province, W. France, 
of the dowry of Eleanor, queen of Henry ra 
England. It partook of the fortunes of Aquitai 


POLA (Illyria), a very ancient city, wh 
Augustus founded the colony Pietas Julia, wh 
flourished during theempire. Off Pola, the Genc 
fleet, under Doria, defeated the Venetians un 
Pisani, 5 or 6 May, 1379, with great loss. 


POLAND (N. E. Europe), part of ancient § 
matia. It is said to have become a duchy un 
Lechus or Lesko I. 550; and a kingdom un 
Boleslaus, about 992. ‘henatives belong to the gr 
Sclavonic family. The word Pole is not older 1] 
the 1oth century. Population of the kingdom 
Poland in 1857 was 4,789,379 ; in 1867, 5,705,6 

in 1872, 6,52 017} in 1882, 7,357)375- 

Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the ducal dignity, 
about 

[Piastus is ‘said to have lived to the age of 120, and 
his reign to have been so prosperous that sue- 
ceeding native sovereigns were called Piasts.] 

Introduction of Christianity, about . 

Boleslaus II. murders St. Stanislaus, the bishop of 
Cracow, with his own hands, 1079; his kingdom 
laid under an interdict by the pope, and his sub- 
jects absolved of their allegiance . I 

He flies to Hungary for shelter; but is "refused it 
by order of Gregory VII., and at lenght et 
himself or dies in a monastery . I 

Tartar invasion . ; ' Fi ~ x 

Premislas assassinated . F = d a oe 

Louis of Hungary elected king I 

Ladislas VI. defeated and slain by the Turks I 

War against the Teutonic knights . : si tdto 70 

The Wallachian invaders carry off 100,000 Poles, 
and sell them to the Turks as slaves : 

The Wallachians defeated . A 

Splendid reign of Sigismund IT. 

Lithuania incor porated with Poland ; 

Stephen forms a militia composed of Cossacks, on 


i ew 
ae a 


whom he bestows the Ukraine . I 
Poland conquered by the Swedes I 
Recovered its independence. . F E esa 
Abdication of John Casimir. I 
Victories of John Sobieski over the Turks at Vienna I 
Many protestants killed after an affray at Thorn I 
Stanislaus abolishes torture : : z 
An awful pestilence destroys 250,000 persons . I 


Civil war so weakened the kingdom that it fell an 
easy prey to Russia, Austria, and Prussia . I 


The first partition tr eaty Pi! Feb. 
The public partition treaty, 5 Aug. s acted on, 18 Sept. 
A new constitution granted by the king 3 May, 


The Russians, &c., on various pre is 
Poland . F z 
Second partition treaty signed — 3 - ae 20 


+ 
4", ini 


POLAND. 


651 


POLAND. 


ection under Kosciusko . ; 
many successes he is defeated by the Russians 
faciejovice and taken prisoner LOO Chileans. 
sacked by Suwarrow . 3 é NGO Yor iss 
ind is annexed to Russia. iho BIOS 
laus resigns his crown at Grodno; final par- 
mofhiskingdom . x F ZS NOV. eee 
usko set at liberty A : ; . 25 Dec. 1796 
rives in London . : Fi . 30 May, 1797 
oles enter the French army and erat help 
ain their victories . 3 4 : 1797 et seq. 
laus dies at St. Petersburg . ; 12 Feb. 1798 
eon I. enters Warsaw; his army wintered in 
a . 1806-7 
oles neglected by the treaty of Tilsit (which 
F é a July, 
aldiet at Warsaw. . : Ue une, 
entral provinces (the duchy at Warsaw, be- 
en 1807 and 1813) made the kingdom of Poland 
er Alexander of Russia . 30 April, 
constitution granted and Cracow declared to 
ifreerepublic . : ‘ ¢ 27 Nov. ,, 
idiet opened . J Sept. 1820 
volution at Warsaw ; the ar my declare in 
yur of the people . 4 : 29 Nov. 
ive declares the throne vacant . . 25 Jan. 
» of Grochow, near Praga; the Russians lose 
>men; the Poles, who keep the field, 2000, 
TO,;20. Hepa; 
> of Wawz (which see) : : 31 March, ,, 
rection in Wilna and Volhynia SAVE time 
ans defeated at Zelicho, 6 April; Seidlece, ro 
til; at Ostrolenka . : 26 May, Ag, 
tussian general Diebitsch dies . PeeT ON UNC}.1 55 
2 of Wilna; Poles defeated . P igJune, ,, 
lduke Constantine dies. é . 27Jdune, ,, 


1807 
1812 


1815 


1830 
1831 


eof Minsk . : : ‘ eI ADU R Gwe 
aw taken by Russians é d von SmeP bay 5 
asurrection suppressed B.OCt.. %, 


2 issued by the emperor Nicholas, decreeing 
t the kingdom of Poland shall henceforth 
m an integral part of the Russian empire, 
26 Feb. 
npted revolution i in Austrian Poland,* 
22-27 Feb. 
‘ourts of Austria, Russia, and Prussia revoke 
| treaty of 1815, which constituted Cracow a 
2 republic, and it is declared Austrian terri- 
aT OUNOV.t y's 
annexation was pr otested against by England, 
imce, Sweden, and Turkey. ] 
kingdom of Poland declared a Russian pro- 
ice May, 
5 popular demonstration in commemoration of 
: battle.of Cracow . : 25 Feb. 
nembers of the Royal Agricultural Bociéty 
led by the military . “A hy AUN ee RS 
t excitement at their funeral; many citizens — 
6 on mourning; an address to the emperor 
»*xander signed by 60,000 persons ; mild conduct 
prince Gortschakoff, the governor 1-7 March, ,, 
hanoff, curator of Poland, who had written a 
cular exciting the peasantry against. their 
ds, quits Warsaw, which is illuminated in con- 
juence . E 5 17 March, ,, 


1847 
1861 


Mn 22 Feb. 1846, an Austrian force under general 
i, Which had entered Cracow on the approach of 
d bands of peasantry, was attacked and driven out 
e town. A provisional government was then pro- 
ied by the insurgents, and two days afterwards they 
ed the Vistula, expecting to be joined by the pea- 
y of Gallicia, who were solicited by the nobles and 
iy to strike a blow in the cause of liberty. The 
tian government, in order to prevent this junction, 
ed in the peasantry a suspicion of the motives of 
10bles, and offered a reward for every noble, de- 
»d up, alive or dead: a general massacre of the 
ity and clergy in the circle of Tarnow followed: the 
gents from Cracow were defeated at Gdow, whence 
| retreated to Podgorze, a suburb of Cracow; here 
were attacked by general Collin, and driven into 
yw on the 27th of February.. The forces of the three 
rs then began to concentrate on Cracow ; the people 
> town opened negotiations with the Austrians about 
Tender, and while these were going on a Russian 

: entered the town without resistance, and soon 
‘wards the revolution was at an end. 


Great meeting in consequence ; 


Great agitation in the rural districts ; 


March, 1794 | The government promises reforms and the re-estab- 


lishment of Poland as a separate kingdom; yet 

abolishes the Agricultural Society . 7 April, 
which is Hiopersed 
by the military (NOW 32,000 str ong) ; above roo are 
killed and wounded . ‘ . 8 April, 
the Russian 


officials quit Lublin; general Chruleff marches 


hither 5 . April, 
80,000 soldiers in Poland ; reign of terror in Phe 
saw . May, 
Death of prince Gortschakoff, lieut. -general of Po- 
land f 30 May, 
New administrative council appointed June, 


Death of prince Adam Czartoryski at Paris, aged gr, 
15 July, 

Oppressive regulations issued respecting dress 

Fresh disturbances ; Warsaw putina state of siege, 


Oct. 

Military arrests in churches in Warsaw ; they are 
closed by the priests : 2 r7 Ochi 
The governor, count Lambert, leaves Warsaw, 
23 Oct. 

General Gerstenzweig, the military SrennOry assas- 
sinated . 25 Oct. 
Bialobzeski, ¢ catholic archbishop of War saw, ar- 


rested, 19 Nov. ; tried and condemned to death 
as a rebel for closing the churches [he died shortly 
after] A . 8 Dec. 
The new archbishop Felinski exhorts the Poles to 
submission . 15 Feb. 
Rigour of the government relaxed ; : amnesty granted 
to 89 eonvicted political prisoners 29 April, 
Attempted assassination of Wielopolski, a liberal 
Pole, president of the council 7 Aug. 
The grandduke Constantine appointed governor, 28 
May ; begins with lenient policy, but his life is 
attempted by Jaroszynsky, 3 July, whois executed, 
ar Aug. 
Count Zamoyski, an eminent loyal Pole, exiled for 
presenting to the government thé report of a 
meeting of nobles at Warsaw, for which he had 
been asked . - sept. 
Telkner, the chief of the secret police, found mur- 
dered eG, NOV. 
Severe military conscription without notice, 14 Jan. 
Insurrection in the night ; at Warsaw 22 Jan. 
Many Russians murdered ; ; Poland put in a state of 
Siege . 5 . 24 Jan. 
The Polish provisional government issues its first 
proclamation A : 2 Feb. 
Louis Mieroslawski announces himself as head of 
the Poles, 19 Feb. ; his band defeated and dis- 
persed . a 23 Feb. 


Marian Danette: déclat ed diction of Poland, 
ro March; after several defeats he enters the 
Austrian territory, is detected and imprisoned, 

1g March, 

The insurrection becomes general, and is supported 
by the landed proprietors, Feb. ; successful 
guerilla warfare March and Apvril, 

The secret central committee assumes the supreme 
command : : March, 

The czar offers an amnesty to all who lay down 
arms before 13 May ; rejected 12 April 

European intervention on behalf of Poland, 17 
April, &e. ; firmly replied to by the Czar, 

26 April, &e. 

The secret committee (as a provisional government) 
levies taxes, 3 May, and forbids payment of taxes 


to Russia . 9 May, 
80,0001. taken from the Russia tr easury at Warsaw 
for the provisional government, 12 June; the 
Poles claim the Poland of 1772 26 J une, 


Fruitless intervention of European powers; san- 
guinary rule of Mouravieff at Wilna June, 
General Berg replaces the marquis de Wiepolski, as 
lieut.-gen., and governs with great rigour, 7 July 
Unsuccessful invasion of Volhynia by the Poles, 
under Wysocki and Horodycki, 1 July; Felinski, 
the R. C. archbishop of Warsaw, banished, July ; 
frequent conflicts with varying results; many 
captured priests and nobles executed . w AUS! 
Lelewel, a brave Pole, after several victories, killed 
in battle . 6 Sept. 
Earl Russell decides against armed intery ention, 
Aug. : negotiation ceases. E . Sept. 


1865 


> 


> 


>> 


>> 


> 


9? 


> 


9? 


1862 


> 


39> 


9> 


”? 


»? 


3> 


>> 


27 


”) 


> 


+> 


+” 


> 


POLE STAR. 


POLAND. 652 
Gen. Berg fired at from the Zamoyski hotel, War- 1177. Casimir II., surnamed the Just. 
saw, 19 Sept. ; the hotel destroyed . Sept. 1863 | 1194. Lesko V., the White: abdicated. 
Many eminent Poles executed, Oct. ; Wm. Alger, 1200. Miecislas III. : restored. 
an Englishman, shot at Warsaw for making 1202. Ladislas III. : retired. 
grenades ; the hotel de ville fired Ocha; 1206. Lesko V. ; restored ; assassinated : succeedec 
Mourning forbidden to be worn for the Poles at his son, an infant. 
Warsaw, 27 Oct.; 41 ladies arrested at night, 1227. Boleslas V., surnamed the Chaste. 
sl NOV ie: 1279. Lesko VI.; surnamed the Black. 
The Times correspondent expelled from Warsaw, 1289. [Horrid anarchy. ] 
27 Nov. ,, 1295. Premislas, styled king of Poland, governs wis 
The abbé Machiewicz, a warlike priest, venerated assassinated. ; 
as a martyr, hanged : : : 28 Dec. ,, 1296. Ladislas I. (IV.), the Short : deposed. 
Mouravieff rules Lithuania with great rigour, Dec. _,, 1300. Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, abandons Poland. 
Numerous skirmishes, and many executions of 1304. Ladislas IV., the Short. 
prisoners captured by the Russians ; the insurrec- 1333. Casimir III., the Great : encourages the arts, 
tion gradually dying out . Jan, to April, 1864 amends the law : killed by a fall from his ho 
The pope promulgates an arrogant encyclical letter 1370. Louis, king of Hungary. 
to the Polish church . : : : 30 July, ,, 1382. Maria; and 1384 Hedwige (daughters of Lot 
Romuald_ Traugott, once a Russian colonel, head and her consort, Jagello, duke of Lithuania. 
of the Polish provisional government, since Oct. the style of Ladislas V. 
1863, and five others, hanged : 5 AUS es 1399. Ladislas II. (V.), alone: annexed Lithuania. 
Decree for reorganising education at Warsaw, 1434- Ladislas III. (VI.), son ; succeeded as king of H 
founding a university, &c. : ; -I1 Sept. ;,; gary, 1440. 
The secret provisional government, after stating 1445. [Interregnum. ] 
that 50,000 men had been slain, and 100,000 ex- »» Casimir IV. 
iled to Siberia, still calls on the Poles to begin a 1492. John (Albert) I., son. 
“national war” . , : ; : 2x Sept. ,, 1501. Alexander, prince of Livonia, his brother. 
Many Roman Catholic convents closed for partici- 1506. Sigismund [., brother; obtained the surname 
pating in the insurrection : ; NOV: 43 the Great. 
Further measures for denationalising Poland 1548. Sigismund IL, Augustus, son (last of the Jagel 
adopted s : : , ; 5 SMD GGs ae dynasty) ; a splendid reign: added Livouia 
The ex-dictator Langiewicz released by the Aus- his kingdom: died 1572. Interregnum. 
trians and sent to Switzerland . > a). gtlebs 865 
The abbe Stanislas Bizoski and his lieutenant, cap- ELECTED, MOMS 
tured and executed ; : . 23 May, ,, 1573. Henry de Valois, duke of Anjou, brother to 
Estates of suspected sympathisers with rebels king of France ; he afterwards succeeded to 
ordered to be sold ee . 2a Deco French throne. Pt 
Church property appropriated by the government ; 1575- Stephen Bathori, prince of Transylvania: est 
the clergy to be paid by the state g Jan. 1866 lished the Cossacks as a militia. 
Military government ceases, and state of siege par- 1586. [Interregnum. ] ) : 
tially raised . sa Se i ee : 17 Feb. ,, 1587. Sigismund IIIL., son of the king of Sweden, to 
Count Goluchowski, a Pole, made governor of exclusion of Maximilian of Austria, elected 
Gallicia - Teak. ott Nts Es De eee ne the nobles. BS 
Insurrection of Polish exiles in Siberia, soon sup- 1632. Ladislas IV. (VII.), Vasa, son of Sigismund I 
pressed, July ; many executed Nov: 5, succeeded by his brother. 
Decree abolishing all political distinctions of Po- 1648. John II., or Casimir V. ; abdicated 1668, and 
land as a kingdom f .19 Dee. ,, tired to France, where he died a monk, in 167 
Promulgated . 2 se ws 5 Jan, 1867 | 1668. [Interregnum.] : ous. a0 
Amnesty to political offenders proclaimed, 3: May, _,, 1669. Michael-Koributh-Wiesnowiski: in this ed | 
Poland designated the ‘Vistula province” in a Cossacks join the Turks, and ravage Poland. 
ukase ; : ; : ; , ‘ Jan. 1868 | 1674: John IIL, Sobieski; the last independent kir 
Its separate internal government abolished, and illustrious for victories over the Cossacks, Tur 
complete union with the empire effected, 29 Feb. ,, and Tartars. 
The distinct financial departments of Poland 1697. [Interregnum. ] 
abolished : ; : > ’ . April, _,, », Frederick-Augustus I., son of John-George, elec 
The Polish language interdicted in public places, os and elector in 1694 ; deprived of | 
July, ,, Peele pore ; 
Conciliatory policy towards the Poles in Russia and 1704. Stanislas I. (Lezinski): forced to retire frou ] 
Austria proposed... =. 2. March, 1872 kingdom in 1709. ‘ 
Count Berg, the last lieutenant-general for Poland, 1709. Frederick-Augustus I. again. 1i 
dies. : , ‘ ; J f 18 Jan. 1873 | 1733- Frederick-Augustus Il., son of the prece¢ 
Polish language prohibited in courts of law and SOVORCIET: 
public offices in Russian Poland June, 1876 | 1763. [Interregnum. ] ; + paddies Gm 
The Czar and Czarina visit Warsaw (great precau. 1764. Stanislaus I. Augustus Poniatowski, — a 
tions) ows ee rs ns Bey Bepte 1884 Sovereignty, 25 Nov. 1795; died at St. Petei 
See Cracow, Warsaw, and Russia, burg, a state prisoner, r2 Feb. 1798. : 
DUKES AND KINGS OF POLAND. POLAR CLOCK. An optical app eee. s 
842. Piastus, duke. vented by professor Wheatstone (about 184¢ 
861. Ziemovitus, his son. whereby the hour of the day is found by means 
892. pee or — Ly, the polarisation of light. 
13. Giemomislas, son of Lesco. . 
Aéi Miecislas I. becomes Christian. POLAR CONFERENCES, INTERNA 
992. Boleslas I., surnamed the Lion-hearted ; obtainea | TIONAL, to organize setting up Stations To 
the title of Kine from the emperor Otho III. the polar area for continuous scientific Inve: 
Miecislas II, ; tigation met at Hamburg, 1879; at Berne in 188¢ 
1034. Richense or Richsa, his consort, regent; driven at St. Petersburg, 1-6 Aug. 1881, and at othe 
from the government. ane os s 
1037. [Anarchy ] places since. : 
ro41. Casimir I., her son, ieee the Pacific ; he had POLARISATION OF LIGHT, see Optic 
retired to a monastery vas invite ; 
Pe toa astery, but was invited to the POLAR REGIONS, see North- West Passag 
058. Boleslas II., styled the Intrepid. and South Pole. ‘ . 
1o81. Ladislas I., called the Careless. of ft) 
1102. Boleslas II., surnamed Wry-mouth. POLE ST AR or P OLAR STAR, “ f _ ‘¢ 
1138. Ladislas, son of the preceding. second magnitude, the last in the tail of the con 
1146. Boleslas IV., the Curled. | stellation called the Little Bear. As its nearness t 
1173. Miecislas IIL, the Old ; deposed. | the North Pole causes it never to set to those in th 


7. 
Wee 
4 


POLICE. 


ern hemisphere, it is called the seaman’s 


658 


.. Two stars in the constellation Ursa Major, 
eat Bear, are called pointers to the Polar star. 
liscovery of the Pole star is ascribed by the 
xse to their emperor, Hong-ti, the grandson 


p.c. Univ. Hist. 


say) of Noah, who reigned and flourished 


LICE. The London police grew out of the 


on watch, instituted about 1253. 


Tts jurisdic- 


was extended 27 Eliz. 1585, and 16 Chas. I. 


) 
quent reigns. See Magistrates. 
offices :—The jurisdiction of twenty-one magis- 
es, three to preside in each of the seven 
sional offices, commenced . x Aug. 
hames police was established in ; F 
Police Gazette (re-modelled by Mr. Howard 
cent in 1884) established . : fs , : 
ondon police, remodelled by Mr. (afterwards 
Robert) Peel, by 1o Geo. IV. 19 June, com- 
wed duty  . : : : 29 Sept. 
ondon police improvement acts passed 3 Vict. 
, 4 Vict. 1840, which were amended by 19 & 20 
be. 2. ‘ : : ¢ E : ; 3 
7 the total expenditure was 445,212. for the 
ropolitan police, consisting of 17 superinten- 
ts, 140 inspectors, 630 sergeants, and 5296 
stables. 
otal efficient police force in England and 
es, exclusive of the metropolis, in Sept. 1859, 
11,309, and in Sept. 1863, 14,661 (see Con- 
ulary). 
on X was established to attend the Interna- 
al Exhibition in = A . 3 F : 
hole police and constabulary in England and 
es amounted to 23,032 men; metropolitan 
ce, 6590; city of London police, 743; dock- 
1 police, &¢., 743 ; é ‘ . 29 Sept. 
politan police, 7493, x Jan. 1866; 7548, 1 Jan. 
7; great increase proposed in : 5. Wee: 
Jowan and Richard Mayne, commissioners of 
ropolitan police, appointed, 1829 ; Mayne died 
26 Dee. 
el Henderson appointed commissioner in room 
ir R. Mayne . P ; é j Feb. 
rst annual report of the commissioner issued, 
: 8883 police constables for a radius of 15 miles 
n Charing Cross (exclusive of the city of Lon- 
), including 3,563,410 inhabitants Dec. 
elective police, only 15 men in June, 1869, has 
n since raised to 266 men and a superinten- 
t, with good effect. . d z . Oct. 
: 9655 of all ranks, Dec. 1871 5 9958 Dec. 
meetings of police to agitate for an increase 
ay : : 3 , : . 17-24 Oct. 
st granted; meeting of some constables 
yugh misapprehension . $ « x6 Noy. 
constables prosecuted, 18 Nov. ; 109 dis- 
sed ; 65 reduced in rank 3 ‘ 20 Nov. 
al policemen censured for misconduct and 
r-zeal, autumn . ; : : : ; 
e Detectives prosecution, see Trials ‘ ‘ 
intment of commission to investigate detec- 
} system in metropolitan police (sir H. Selwyn- 
etson, hon. col. Wm. Fielding, and others), 
ut : : - : A A 13 Aug. 
first class constable, 30s. per week; reserve, 
6d. ; first class sergeant, 36s. ; second class, 


ntent among police respecting pay (crime said 
iave increased ; apprehensions diminished). 
aittee of inquiry (sir M. W. Ridley and Mr. J. 
Maule) appointed to inquire into the pay and 
anisation, about. : ‘ 3 8 Aug. 
us changes (with increase of pay in some 
28) were ordered by the home secretary 
end of Aug. 
) peculiarly made whistles, received for distri- 
ion among the police . : é - March, 
: of England and Wales, year 1871-2, 27,999 
1, COSt 2,372,888. (84/. 158. a man); 1872-3, 
550 men, cost 2,567,4811. ; 1874-5, 29,460 men, 
52,742, 5261. 31875-6, 29,719 men, cost 2,849,073. ; 
5-7, 30,016 men, cost 2,902,635]. (per man, 
148.); 1877-8, 30,673 men, cost 2,980,592. 


and the system improved by various acts in 


1792 
1798 


1828 


1829 


1856 


1862 


1863 
1867 


1868 
1869 
1870 


1869 


1870 
1874 


1872 


POLO. 


(per man, 97/. 38. 5d.) ; 1878-9, 31,407 men, cost 
3,058,6711. (per man, 98I. 10s. 4d.) ; 1881-2, 33,173 
men, Cost 3,264,337/. 5 1882-3 34,488 men, cost 


3,367,678. 
POLICIES OF ASSURANCE ACT, 


passed 20 Aug. 1867 ; see Jnswrance. 


POLITICAL ECONOMY, the science 
which has for its object the improvement of the 
condition of mankind, and the promotion of civili- 
sation, wealth, and happiness. Its history in this 
country may be dated from the publication of Dr. 
Adam Smith’s ‘‘ Wealth of Nations,” 1776. The 
works of Mill, M‘Culloch, and Faweett are cele- 
brated. A professorship of Political Economy was 
established at Oxford by Mr. Henry Drummond, 
M.P., 1825; and at Cambridge, first by Mr. G. 
Pryme, in 1828; but regularly established by the 
university in 1863, Henry Fawcett (blind) being 
the first professor. 

Archbishop Whately endowed a professorship at 
Trinity College, Dublin; Isaac Butt first pro- 
fessor . : : : : : : ; Sake 

The Political Economy Club, London, founded in 
1821, by Thos. Tooke and others, to propagate 
free trade principles, kept the hundredth anni- 
versary of the publication of Smith’s ‘‘ Wealth of 
Nations ” 31 May, 1876 


POLITICAL OFFICES PENSIONS 
ACT passed 9 Aug. 1869. 


POLITICAL UNIONS were formed in Eng- 
land in 1831 to carry the Reform Bill; the most 
important was that of Birmingham. 


POLITICIANS. A politician is described as 
a man well versed in policy, or the well regulating 
and governing of a state or kingdom; a wise and 
cunning man. A man of artifice; one of deep 
contrivance. Sowth. The term was first used in 
France about 1569. A new faction appeared, 
known by the name of Politicians, headed by the 
duc d’Alengcon and the Montmorencies, and 
strengthened by the accession of the Huguenots in 
1574. The duke was arrested and the Montmoren- 
cies sent to the Bastile. 


POLKA, a dance said to have been invented 
between 1830 and 1834 in Bohemia, and to have 
obtained its name in Prague in 1835. It became 
very popular, and was introduced into England 


about 1844. 
POLL ACT passed in Ireland by the Junto of 


the Pale, putting a price upon the heads of certain 
Trish; the earl of Desmond being then deputy, 5 
Edward IV. 1465. ‘This act long endured, see 
Ireland, 1465. 

POLLENTIA (Piedmont, N. Italy), the site 
of a great victory of Stilicho, the Imperial general, 
over Alaric the Goth, 29 March, 403. 


POLL-TAX or CAPITATION TAX, existed 
among the ancient Romans. It was first levied in 
England in 1380; and occasioned the rebellion of 
Wat Tyler (see Zyler), 1381. It was again levied 
in 1513. By the 18th Charles II. every subject 
was assessed by the head, viz., a duke 100/., a 
marquis 8o/., a baronet 30/., a knight 2o0/., an 
esquire 10/., and every single private person I2d., 
1667. This grievous impost was abolished by 
William III. 1689. 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS, see &ivers. 


POLO, the game of ball termed hockey played 
on horseback, became popular in England in, 1872, 
having been introduced from India. Games were 
played by lancers and life-guards at Woolwich, 16, 
19 July, 1872. A polo club was formed, and inter- 


1832 


POLOTSK. 


national contests held; at Brighton one opened 
3 Aug. 1878. Polo is said to have been an old 
Russian game, mentioned 1492 under the name of 
Chigan, as brought from Persia, 

POLOTSK (Russia). The French under mar- 
shal Oudinot were here defeated by the Russians 
under general Wittgenstein, 30 and 31 July, 1812; 
the next day, the Russians were defeated. After 


654 


| 
| 


several smaller actions with various results, Polotsk | 


was stormed by the Russians, and retaken Oct. 1812. 


POLTOWA, see Pultowa. 
POLYGAMY, &c., was permitted among the 


early nations, and now by Mahometans. In Media, 
it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven 
wives. Among the Romans, Mare Antony is 
mentioned as the first who took two wives. The 
practice was forbidden by Arecadius, 393. The 
emperor Charles V. punished polygamy with death. 
In England, by stat. 1 James I. 1603, it was made 
felony, with benefit of clergy. It was formerly 
punished with transportation, but now by im- 

risonment or penal servitude; see Marriages. 

olygamy exists among the Mormonites (which 
see). Abolished in the United States, 23 March, 
1882.—PoLYANDRY (where one woman has several 
husbands) is permitted in some eastern countries, 
the children having equal rights. 


POLYGLOT, from two Greek words denoting 
“many languages,’’ is chiefly applied to editions of 
the Bible in several languages. 

Giustiniani published a polyglot psalter, 1576. 

x. The Complutensian Polyglot, in six vols. folio, was 
printed at Alcala (Complutensis), in Spain, 1502-14; 
the first edition published in 1522, at the expense of 
the celebrated cardinal Ximenes, costing 250,000 
ducats. Six hundred copies of it were printed ; three 
on vellum. Count MacCarthy, of Toulouse, paid 4831. 
for one of these copies at the Pinelli sale. 

The Polyglot, printed at Antwerp, by Montanus, 8 
vols. folio, in 1559-69, at the expense of Philip IL. of 
Spain. 

3. Printed at Paris, by Le Jay, in 10 vols. folio, 1628-45. 
4. Edited by Bryan Walton, in 6 vols. folio, 1654-7. 
Copies of all four are in the library of the British and 

Foreign Bible Society. . 

5. Edited by Dr. Samuel Lee, published by 8. Bagster, x 

vol, folio, 1831. 

6. Hexaglot bible:. begun by Henry Cohn; com- 
pleted by the Rev. Edwd. R. De Levante and others, 

6 vols, 4to., 1874. 


POLYNESIA, a name recently given to the 
usles in the great Pacific Ocean. 


POLYPES, also named Hydra (many- -footed 
animals), on account of their property of repro- 
ducing themselves when cut in pieces, every part 
soon becoming a perfect animal; first discovered b 
Leeuwenhoek, and described by him in the Philo- 
sophical Trans. 1703. The polypes are of the order 
Zoophytes, and partake of the animal and vegetable 
nature. 


POE YTHCHNIC COINS PiU Tron: 
Roya, Regent-street, London, was erected by 
Thompson in 1838, opened 6 Aug. 1839, and 
enlarged.in 1848. It contains a hall of manufac- 
tures with machines worked by steam-power, 
lecture theatres, &c., diving-bell, electric machine, 
&c. Timbs. The institution did not prosper coim- 
mercially, and its decline was hastened by the fall 
of a staircase on 3 Jan. 1859, when one person was 
killed and many injured. The institution was 
closed in May, 1859, but was re-opened by a new 
company on 12 Nov. 1860; see Ecole Polytech- 
nique. Professor Pepper, the director for many 
years, resigned in 1872; returned, 1878. The 


POMPEY’S PILLAR. 


classes were formed into a college, which wa; 
augurated by the earl of Shaftesbury, 7 Oct. 1 
Polytechnic institution announced to be close 
27 Aug. 1881; affairs wound up. Plant sold 
about 2000/. 23 March, 1882. In 1883 it 
occupied by a Youth’s Institute for educati 
purposes, with about 2000 members. 


POMEGRANATE TREE (Punica Gr 
tum) was brought to England from Spain be 
1584. 

POMERANIA, a Prussian province, N. ( 
many, was held by the Poles, 980, and by I 
mark, 1210; made an independent duchy, 1 
and divided between Sweden and Brandenb 
1648. The Swedish part, awarded to Denmar! 
1814, was given up to Prussia for Lauenburg, 1! 
see Denmark ; Wrecks, 1878. 


POMFRET or PonTEFrRacrt (S. York). 
the castle (built 1069), Kichard II. was conf 
and murdered, 10 Feb. 1399. Henry IV., 


_ whom he was deposed, wishing for his death, 


assassin, attended by eight followers, rushed 
the king’s apartment. He wrested a pole-axe f 
one of the murderers, and soon laid four of t 
number dead at his feet, but was at length o 
powered and slain. Some writers assert + 
Richard escaped and died in Scotland. In 
castle also, the earl Rivers, lord Grey, sir Tho 
Vaughan, and sir Richard Haut or Hause, \ 
put to death by order of the duke of Glouce: 
then protector of England (afterwards Richard] 
about 26 June, 1483. The first parliamen 
election by ballot took place here, 15 Aug. 1 
very quietly. 


POMPEII (S. Italy), an ancient city of C 
pania, was partly demolished by an earthquak 
A.D. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, but was o 
whelmed by an eruption of Vesuvius, accompa 
by an earthquake, on the night of 24 Aug. 70. 
principal citizens were then assembled at a the 
where public spectacles were exhibited. 
ashes buried the whole city and covered 
surrounding country. After a lapse of fif 
centuries, a countryman, as he was turning up 
ground, found a bronze figure; and this discor 
led to further search, which brought nume 
other objects to light, and at length the city 
uncovered. The part first cleared was supp 
to be the main street, 1750. The kings of Na 
greatly aided in exploring Pompeii, and the pre 
Italian government resumed the work in 1863. 
A commemorative meeting of antiquaries and p 

sophers met at Pompeii, 25 Sept. 1870. 

Further discoveries made, autumn 1882. 


POMPEY’S PILLAR stands about th 
quarters of a mile from Alexandria, between 
city and the lake Mareotis. The shaft is flu 
and the capital ornamented with palm-leayes ; 
whole, which is highly polished, composed of tl 
pieces, and of the Corinthian order. The colt 
measures, according to some, 94 feet; to oti 
141, and even 160 feet; but of its origin, na 
use, and age, nothing is certain. 

It is generally believed that the column has no refer 
to Pompey, to whom a mark of honour was, never 
less, set up somewhere about this part. Onesupp 
the edifice was dedicated to Vespasian, anothe 
Severus ; and Mr. Clarke, from a half-effaced ins¢ 
tion on the base, considered that Adrian is 
person honoured ; while many assert, from the s 
inscription, that it is dedicated “to Diocle 


Augustus, most adorable emperor, tutelar deity 
Alexandria.” ; 


| 
, ' 
oe 
—————_—_ 


PONDICHERRY. 


-—— 


659 


POOR. 


YNDICHERRY (S.E. India), the capital 
ench India, and first settled by the French in 

It was taken from them by the Dutch in 
restored 1697; besieged by the English, 1748; 
.by them, Jan. 1761; restored, 1763; again 
, Oct. 1778; restored in 1783; taken 23 Aug. 
and in 1803; restored, 1815. 


YNDOLAND, the coast between Cape Colony 


Natal, S. Africa, the British protectorate was | 


aimed and notified, 6 Jan, 1885. 
INT-A-CHIN, see Espierres. 
YNT-A-NOYELLES. At this place, near 


ns, took place a fierce indecisive conflict, 
i from II A.M. to 6 P.M., between the Germans 
r Manteuffel and the French army of the north 
r Faidherbe, 23 Dec. 1870. Both sides claimed 
tory; the French general asserted that he 
ined master of the field. 


INTEFRACT, see Pomfret. 


YNTIFFS (Latin Pontifices), the highest 
in sacerdotal order, established by Numa. The 
re first consisted of 4 patricians, with a chief 
tifex Maximus); to these 4 plebeians were 
l, by the Ogulnian law, 300 B.c. Sylla in- 
ed the number to 15 (8 majores, 7 minores), 
and Julius Cesar to 16. ‘T. Coruncanius, a 
jan, obtained this office, 254 B.c. 


YNTUS, in Asia Minor, seems to have been a 
on of Cappadocia, and received its name from 
cinity to the Pontus Euxinus. Artabazus was 
. king of Pontus by Darius Hystaspes, B.c. 

His successors were mere satraps of the kings 
rsia. 


| of Mithridates I. BC. 383 
arzanes invades Pontus 363 
‘idates IT. recovers it 336 
‘idates III. reigns . 301 
arzanes II. reigns . : . ‘ > 82600 
idates IV. is besieged in his capital by the 
Mg S&C. . : : ; x : : aa Way oe 
ridates attacks Sinope, and is obliged to raise 
siege by the Rhodians : ¢ 5 =} 219 
10f Pharnaces, 190; he takes Sinope, andmakes 
he capital of his kingdom F é We TOS 
10f Mithridates V. . ‘ 5 - 157 
;murdered in the midst of his court . nae 3 
ridates VI. surnamed the Great, or Eupator, 
eives the diadem at 12 years of age . Aa ar 
ies Laodice, his own sister . : ae TLS 
ttempts to poison him; he puts her and ac- 
nplices to death : 3 2 . wetr2 
ridates conquers Scythia, Bosphorus, Colchis, 
l other countries 3 : : TT 
nters Cappadocia 97 
var with Rome : 89 
mes ravages Cappadocia : 3 a SO 
ridates enters Bithynia, and makes himself 
ster of many Roman provinces, and puts 80,000 
mans to death d 2 3 e : Beare Winibs 
elaus defeated by Sylla, at Chzeeronea ; 100,000 
ppadocians slain : 2 X : : he's 
ries and conquests of Mithridates up to this 
ren. : 5 : : é 4 : ine 
leet of Mithridates defeats that under Lucullus te 
two battles : : : ‘ 3 
ridates defeated by Lucullus 69 
ridates defeats Fabius 68 
is defeated by Pompey . 3 é 66 
ridates stabs himself, and dies . 63 
n of Pharnaces ; ; ; ts : ef Nee 
e of Zela (see Zela); Pharnaces defeated by 
SAE). ; : ; ” 3 : : 5 ly 
us reigns ; : ; 39 
non, son of Zeno, reigns . c oae30 
non II. succeeds his father . AC Die 
ridates VII. reigns. : 40 


us afterwards became a Roman province. 

is Comnenus founded a new empire of the 
eeks at Trebisond, in this country, 1204, which 
ntinued till the Turks destroyed it in 1459. 


POONAH, a province, 8.W. India, formerly 
the seat of the power of the peishwa of the 
Mahrattas, 1749. It was captured by Wellesley 
from Holkar, 19 April, 1803, for Bajee Rao, who 
had claimed British protection. Bajee resigned his 
office, 3 June, 1818, for a pension. Visited by the 
prince of Wales, 13 Noy. 1875. 


POOR KNIGHTS oF Wrnpsor, or ALMS 
KNIGHTS. Soon after his institution of the order 
of the Garter, Edward IIT. founded this charity, for 
the provision of 24 (afterwards 26) poor persons 
eminent for military services. Edward IY. dis- 
charged the college from the support of the alms- 
knights, but Elizabeth re-established the charity 
for 13 knights, 1559. King William IV. changed 
the name to the ** Military Knights of Windsor,” 
in consequence of their all having held commissions 
in the army, Sept. 1833.—The ‘Naval Knights of 
Windsor”’ are maintained on a distinct foundation, 
under the bequest of Samuel Travers. An act 
making lieutenants and widowers eligible was 
passed in 1867. 


POOR. The poor of England, till the time of 
Henry VIII., subsisted as the poor of Ireland until 
1838, entirely upon private benevolence. By statute 
23 Edw. ILI. 1349, it was enacted that none should 
give alms to a beggar able to work. By the com- 
mon law, the poor were to be sustained by “ par- 
sons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that 
none should die for default of sustenance ;’’ and b 
15 Rich. II. impropriators were obliged to distribute 
a yearly sum to the poor; but no compulsory law 
was enacted till the 27th Hen. VIII. 1535. ‘he 


| origin of the present Poor LAw is referred to the 


43rd of Elizabeth, 1601, by which overseers Were 


appointed for parishes. 


Additional workhouses ordered to be erected, 1819, 1834. 
Poor Law Amendment Dill passed 1834; forming 
“Unions,” &c., amended in 1836, 1838, 1846 and 1847. 

Poor Law (Ireland) act passed 1838 ; amended 1839. 

A Poor Law system established in Scotland, 1845. 

Poor Law (Ireland) Rate in aid act passed in 1849. 

In Scotland, in the year ending May, 1851, the number 
relieved was 141,870, at an average cost of al. 2s. 5d. 
and the expenditure was 535,943I. 

In Ireland, the poor’s rate for the year ending Sept. 1851 
was 1,101,8781. : 

An agitation for the equalisation of poor’s rates throughout 
the kingdom, began in 1857. i 

The Times drew attention to the condition of the house- 
less poor in London, which led to measures for their 
relief, Dec. 1858. 

Society for relief of distress, St. James’s, established 1860. 

Laws respecting removal of the poor amended in 186r. 

Union relief act passed to enable certain unions to obtain 
temporary aid (on account of the distress in Lanea- 
shire through suspension of cotton mannfactures),:862. 

Metropolitan houseless poor act (authorising guardians to 
receive destitute persons into workhouses, and the 
metropolitan board to reimburse them) passed 29 
July, 1864. ‘ 

Annual report of Poor Law board for 1864, shows great 
decrease of pauperism—issued Sept. 1865. ‘ 

40 refuges for houseless poor established in London 1864-5. 

“Casual wards ” in London workhouses receive 1000 per 
night, Jan. 1865. 

Union chargeability act passed, 1865. 

Field-lane Refuge: new building formally opened by 
earl of Shaftesbury, 6 June, 1866. 

Metropolitan Poor act passed tor establishment of asy- 
lums for the sick, insane, &c., 29 March, 1867. ; 

Poor Law Amendment act makes Poor Law board per- 
manent ; passed, 20 Aug. 1867. ‘ 

Much excitement respecting tie bad condition of London 
workhouse infirmaries, June, 1866; of Farnham work- 
house, Oct. 1867. 


Poor Law Amendment act passed 31 July, 1868 


‘Divided Parishes and Poor Law Amendment act 


passed pO se ee 15 Aug. 
Presidents of the Poor Law board: Gathorne anaes eh 


9 July, 1866; earl of Devon, May, 1867; G. J. 


POPE. 


656 


POPE. 


Goschen, 9 Dec. 1868 to March, 1871; see Local 
Government Board. 

Minute of the poor law board defining limits of 
relief, and recommending organisation of metro- 
politan charitable institutions, 20 Nov., which is 
adopted by several parishes : ; ; Wee: 

Charity Organisation Society (which see), esta- 
blished, 1869 ; reported very successful Jan. 

The act for more equal distribution of charge for 
relief of in-door poor (passed 20 June) came into 
operation . : : : : é 29 Sept. 

Circular of poor law board respecting farming out 
pauper children : é : . 25 Noy. 

New regulations for casual poor published in Times 

27 Nov. 

Poor rate assessment acts amended 

Poor law conference act passed 

Housing of the poor, see Artisans. 

Received, for relief of the poor, in 1869, in England 
and Wales, 11,776,153l. ; in Scotland, 892,712/. ; in 
Treland, 927,046. : total, 13,595,9111. 

Paupers receiving relief 1 Jan. 1878: England and 
Wales, 742,703 ; Ireland, 85,530; 14 May, 1877, 
Scotland, 96,404 ; total, 924,437. 


Paupers in the metropolis receiving relief :—Dec., 


18 June, 


1869 
1878 


1869, 152,557; Dec., 1870, about 147,000 ; Dec., A Poor-law act passed . . : 4 15 Aug. ; 
1871, about 124,000; July, 1872, 104,280; April, ENGLAND AND WALES. 
114,644; Aug., 104,578; Oct., 1873, 97,287; Sept., Expended. Poor rates. Expended. Poor r 
1874, 104,983; June, 1875, 84,598 (indoor 32,661, In"x1586) 92 . £188,811 In1820 . - £7,329 
out 51,937); Dec., 1875, 84,782 (indoor 35,673, 1680 . ee: 665,562 1830 . 3 eee Be 
out 49,109); July, 1876, 77,498 (indoor, 33,735, 1698 . . 819,000 1835 . . 6,356 
out 43,763); Jan. 1877, 82,950; June, 78,203 (in- 1760. « = 55556804 1840. 6." sage 
door, 35,903); 8 Dec. 81,986 (indoor, 42,242); 27 1785) 5 - 2,184,950 1 Orbs alas : B54 
March, 1878, 84,753 (indoor, 41,403); 27 July, 1802. ood OS2Aeu 1853 - - =e ae 
76,709 (indoor, 38,043); 31 Dec. 83,674; 8 Feb. 181g. tw - 57418,845 
PAUPERS RECEIVING RELIEF (NOT VAGRANTS). 
1849. 1858. 1862. 1870. 1875. 1878. 188 
England and Wales, 1 Jan. 934,419 968,186 . 932,400 1,079,391 - 815,587 . 742,703 799; 
Scotland . about14 May . 82,357 - 69,217*. 98433f. 126,187 105,895 . 96,404 . “02, 
Ireland . 5 . £dan, 620,747 50,582 59,541 73,921 | = 030,004 85,530 ‘115, 
Total - 1,637,523 -1,087,985 - 1,070,374 + 1,279,499 1,002,475 924,637 1,007, 
“2 1857. t 1861. I rhe 
ENGLAND AND WALES. Wilfrid, abp. of York, expelled from his diocese 
Years ended Average number of paupers. Expendi- appeals tothe pope . .. *, . (ju. 
Lady-day. Indoor. Outdoor. ture. Custoin of kissing the pope’s toe introduced : 
1858 122,613 786,263 £5,878,542 Adrian I. caused money to be coined with his name 
1859 121,232 744,214 5,558,689 Sergius II. the first pope who changed his name on 
1860 _ . 13,507 731,126 5,454,964 his election, 844; some contend that it was 
186r . . 125,866 758,055 537783943 Sergius I. 687, and others John XII. ale ‘ 
1862 - 132,236 784,906 6,077,922 | Indulgences for the pardon of sin granted by pope 
1863 . 136,907 942,475 6,527,036 | _ Leo III. about - wy a 
1864 - 133,761 881,217 6,423,381 | John XVIIL a layman, made pope . . ae 
1865 . . 4I3%,313 820,586 6,264,966 | The first pope who kept an army, Leo IX. . a ae 
1866 2 132,770 783,376 6,439,517 | Gregory VIL (Hildebrand) obliges Henry IY., em- 
1867 ef 137,310 794,236 6,959,840 peror of Germany, to stand three days, in the 
1868 (x Jan.) . 158,723 876,100 7,498,059 depth of winter, barefooted at the gate of the 
1869 s 163,071 876,478 7,673,100 castle of Canossa, toimplore his pardon... 
1870 sp eats 165,324 914,067 7,644,307 | Lhe pope’s authority fixed in England oy 
1871 ss 165,289 916,637 7,886,724 Appeals from English tribunals to the pope intro- 
1872 * i “ 154,233 823,431 8,007,403 duced (Viner), 19 Stephen . A ; = A 
1873 * é 154,171 736,201 7,692,169 | Henry II. of England holds the stirrup for pope 
1874 eves 149,558 679,723 7,664,957 Alexander III. to mount his horse . s my oS 
1875 ‘ ‘ 153,711 661,876 7,488,481 | Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI.’s 
1876 ie 148,931 600,662 793355858 crown off his head while kneeling, to show his 
1877 os I57,19I 571,159 7,400,034 prerogative of making and unmaking kings . . 2 
1878 a3 . 166,875 575,828 7,088,650 | John king of England did homage to the pope's 
1879 sy + 1753345 625,081 7,829,819 legate for his dominions, and bound himself and 
1880 Ae . 189,394 648,636 8,015,010 his successors to an annual payment to the pope, 
1881 ” . - 189,438 613,688 8,102,136 15 May, 1: 
1882 ares . - 188,433 609,181 8,232,472 | The pope collected the tenths of the whole kingdom 
1883 i ‘ 190,386 608,910 8,353,292 of England. : ; : ; : ‘ a 
1884 ay ed 187,593 586,717 The papal seat was removed for seventy years to 


himself ‘‘servant of the servants of God.” 
title pope was formerly given to all bishops. 


POPE (from the 


Greek 


Pappas and Papa, a 
father or grandfather), considered by Romanists to 
be the visible chief of the church, the vicar of Jesus 
Christ, and the successor of St. Peter. He styles 


The 
It 


was first adopted by Hyginus, 139; and pope Boni- 
face III. induced Phocas, emperor of the east, to 
confine it to the prelates of Rome, 606. By the 
connivance of Phocas also, the pope’s supremacy 
over the Christian church was _ established; see 


Italy, Reformation, and Rome, Modern. 


fe 

1879, 94,765 (indoor, 45,095) ; 19 April, 83,075; 28 

June, 78,680 ; 27 Sept. 79,674 ; 717 vagrants ; aq 

Dec. 92,495. 1880, last week, March, 88,893; 

(indoor, 46,738); June, 84,137 (vagrants, 931); 

Sept. 82,188; Dec. 92,654 (vagrants, 697); 188r, 

last week March, 95,767; indoor, £2,012; Vag- 

rants, 780; June, 86.404 (indoor, 48,293); 18x, 

Oct., 89,740 (indoor, 50,792, vagrants, 932); Dec, 

St, 93,170; vagrants, 883 ; 1882, 1 April, 92,233 

(indoor, 51,480, vagrants, 788); June, 86,417 (in- 

door, 48,363, vagrants, 643); Sept. 88,58x (indoor, 

50,174, Vagrants, 915); Dec. 96,687 (indoor, 

54,373, vagrants, 696); 1883, March, 97,743 (in- 

door, 54,836, vagrants, 497); June, 85,555 {in- 

door, 49,713, vagrants, 386); Sept. 85,849 (indoor, 

50,917, vagrants, 461); 1884, Jan. 94,540 (indoor, 

55,965, vagrants, 471); April, 89,540 (indoor, 

54,122, vagrants, 528); Aug. 85,069 (indoor, 
51,849, vagrants, 482) ; Dec. 94,041 (indoor, 57,092, 
vagrants, 374); 1885, March, 94,047 (indoor 56,491, 
vagrants, 540). 

The powers and duties of the Poor Law board 
merged into the Local Government board by act 
passed 14 Aug. 1871 ; president, James Stansfeld ; 
G. Sclater-Booth . ; 3 : - Reb, ; 


Avignon in France. j Q : - . ; 
The pee demands on England refused by parlia- 
ment . F . ; : F 5 men: © 
After the discovery of America, pope Alexander VI. ; 
granted to the Portuguese all the countries to the 
east, and to the Spanish all the countries to the 
west, of Cape Non, Africa, they might conquer . 14 
Pope Leo X. published, the sale of general indul- 
gences throughout Europe : A : + + IS 
Appeals to Rome from England abolished (Viner) . 15 
The words “‘ Lord Pope” struck out of all English 
books . F - A : oe 3 < ee 
Kissing the pope’s toe and other ceremonies abo- 
lished by Clement XIY. 5 F . ieee £9 


POPE. 657 POPE. 
a political influence greatly diminished by 422. St. Celestine I. : sent missions to Ireland. 
e French revolution ‘ : 2 1789-1814 , 432. Sixtus III. : opposed Nestorius and Eutyches. : 
temporal power lost, see Rome . . Dee. 1870 440. St. Leo I. the Great: zealous ; restrained Alaric ; 
See Pius LX. under Popes. an able writer. 
461. St. Hilary ; rich, liberal. 
BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME 468, St. Simplicius : wise, prudent. 
(the names in italics were antipopes) : 483. St. Felix III.: opposed emperor Zeno respecting 
_ Sr. Peter: (said to have been the first bishop of ee Henoticon. 
Rome, and to have been crucified, head down- | 492: St. Gelasius : opposed heresy ; fixed the canon of 
cards, in 66.) Scriptures ; compiled the mass. 
St. Clement (Clemens Romanus); according. to 496, St. Anastasius II. : congratulated Clovis. 
Pertullian. * 498. Symmachus : zealous against the Henoticon. 


. St. Linus :* martyred ? 
. St. Cletus, or Anacletus? martyred ? 
. St. Clement IL. : abdicated ? 
. St. Evaristus : martyred ; multiplied churches. 
. St. Alexander: martyred. 
. St. Sixtus L : martyred? 
. St. Telesphorus: martyred. 
St. Hyginus: condemns Gnostics ; called himself 
ope. 
' st Bius : martyred. 
St. Anicetus. 
. St. Soterus : martyred under Marcus Antoninus. 
. St. Eleutherius : opposed the Valentinians. 
. St. Victor I. : martyred under Severus. 
St. Zephyrinus : claimed to be Peter’s successor. 
St. Calixtus : martyred. 
[The chair vacant. ] 
St. Urban I. : beheaded. 
St. Pontianus: banished by the emperor Maximin. 
. St. Anterus : martyred. 
. St. Fabian : martyred under Decius, 250. 
. [The chair vacant. ] 
. St. Cornelius : died. 
. St. Lucius: martyred 252. Novatianus: (denied 
restoration to the repentant lapsed). 
. St. Stephen I. : martyred in the persecution of 
Valerian. 
. St. Sixtus II. (his coadjutor) : martyred three days 
before his disciple St. Laurence, in the persecu- 
: tion of Valerian, 258. 
|, [The chair vacant. ] 
. St. Dionysius: opposed the heresy of Sabellius. 
. St. Felix I. died in prison. 
. St. Eutychianus. 
. St. Caius : a relative of the emperor Diocletian. 
. St. Marcellinus : said to have lapsed under a severe 
persecution ?; canonised. 
[The chair vacant. ] 
. St. Marcellus : banished from Rome by the emperor 
Maxentius. ae * 8 
. St. Eusebius : died the same year. 
. St. Miltiades or Melchiades : coadjutor to Eusebius. 
. St. Silvester: commencement of temporal power 
by gifts of Constantine. 
., St. Marcus: died the next year. 
. St. Julius L.: of great piety and learning ; main- 
tained the cause of St. Athanasius. 
. Liberius : banished. 
. Feliz II., antipope: placed in the chair by Con- 
stans, during the exile of Liberius, on whose 
/ return he was driven from it with ignominy. 
[The emperor would have the two popes reign 
together ; but the people cried out, “‘ One God, 
one Christ, and one bishop !”] 
. Liberius again : abdicated. 
Felix became pope. 
. Liberius again : martyred 36s. 
. St. Damasus: opposed the Arians: St. Jerome, 
his seeretary, corrected Latin Bible. 
. Ursinus: expelled by Valentinian. 
. Siricius : combated heretics. 
. St. Anastasius: proscribed works of Origen. 
. St. Innocent I. : condemned Pelagians. 
', St. Zozimus : ditto. ~ 
. St. Boniface I. : maintained by the emperor Hono- 
rius, against Hulalius. 


- 


fe 


< . . 


wie 


. 


St. Linus is frequently set down as the immediate 
essor of St. Peter; but Tertullian maintains that 
as St. Clement. In the first century neither the 
'3 nor order of succession of bishops are reconcilable 
‘ven the best authorities. Some assert that there 
s two or three bishops of Rome at the same 


>? 


514. 
523- 


526. 


530. 
533- 
535: 
5306. 


537- 
555> 
560. 
573- 
574- 
578. 


590. 
604. 


Laurentius : antipope. 

Hormisdas : opposed Eutychians. 

John I.: sent to Constantinople by Theodoric 
tolerant. 

Felix IV. : 
ment, 

Boniface II.—Dioscorus. 

John II. : called Mercurius. 

Agapetus : converted Justinian. 

St. Silverius: son of pope Hormisdas, who had 
been married ; the empress Theodora procured 
his banishment into Lycia (where he died of 
hunger), and made Vigilius pope. 

Vigilius: banished, but restored. 

Pelagius I. : an ecclesiastical reformer. 

John III. : great ornamenter of churches 

[The see vacant. ] 

Benedict I., surnamed Bonosus. 

Pelagius IL. ; died of the plague. 


St. Gregory the Great: revised the liturgy; sent 
Augustin to convert the Anglo-Saxons. 
ee said to have introduced church 
ells. 


introduced extreme unction as a sacra- 


606 or 607. Boniface III. : died in a few mnonths. 
607 or 608. Boniface IV. 

614 or 615. St. Deusdedit 

617 or 618. Boniface V. 


625. 
639. 
640. 
642. 
649. 
654. 
657. 
672. 
676. 
678. 
682. 


683. 
684. 
685. 
686. 
687. 
7Ol. 
705. 
708. 


bd 


715+ 


. Gregory IIL: 


B petcnvolis tie 
. Constantine Theophylactus: killed by Lombards. 
. Stephen IIL. or IV. : literary. 

. Adrian I. : sanctioned images. 

NCO ules 
. Stephen IV. or V. 
y Pascal Te: 
. Eugenius IL. : ‘‘father of the afflicted. ”— Zozimus. 
. Valentinus. 


Honorius I. : interested in British churches. 

[The see vacant. ] 

Severinus : 

John IV. : 

Theodorus I. : 

Martin I.: 

Eugenius I. : liberal. 

Vitalianus : favoured education in England. 

Adeodatus, the gift of God. 

Domnus I. : ornamented churches. 

St. Agathon: tribute to the emperor ceased. 

St. Leo II.: instituted holy water; favoured 
music. 

[The see vacant. ] 

Benedict IT. 

John V. : Jearned and moderate. 

Conon.—Theodore and Pascal. 

Sergius: ‘‘ governed wisely.” 

John VI.: redeemed captives ; firm and wise. 

John VII. : moderate. 

Sisinnius: died 20 days after election. 

Constantine: wise and gentle ; visited Constanti- 
nople. 

St. Gregory II.: sent Boniface to convert Ger- 
mans. 


condemned Monothelites. 


independent; first sent nuncios to 
foreign powers. 


. St. Zacharias, a Greek. 
. Stephen II. elected : died before consecration. 


Stephen II. or IIL : temporal power of the church 
of Rome commenced. 
moderate and pious. 


crowned Charlemagne, 800. 


ascetic, and built churches. 


Gregory IV. : pious and learned. 


. Sergius II. 
> Leo IV.: 
. Pope Joan’s election fabulous (which see). 


defeated the Saracens. 


Benedict III.—Anastasius. 


. Nicholas I., the Great : conversion of Bulgarians. 
. Adrian II. : eminent for sanctity. 
. John VIII. : crowned 3 emperors. 


LL 


882. 
884. 
885. 
8or. 
896. 
897. 


898. 
bos, 
903. 


904. 
git. 
913. 
gt4. 
928. 
929. 
931. 


936. 
939- 
942. 
946. 
956. 


963. 
964. 
965. 


972- 


974- 


975: 
984. 


> 


985. 


996. 


999- 


1003. 


9? 


1009. 


IoI2. 


IO24. 
1033. 


1044. 


9? 


1046. 


1047. 
1048. 


1054. 
JO55- 
1057. 
1058. 


1061. 


1073. 


1080. 
1085. 
1086. 
1088. 


1099. 
1118. 
I1I19Q. 
I124. 


1130. 


1138. 
1143. 


POPE. 658 
Marinus or Martin II. : condemned Photius. II44. 
Adrian IIT. : ditto. 
Stephen V. or VI. : very charitable. IIA5. 
Formosus : political.—Sergius. nip elsge 
Boniface VI. : deposed. 1154. 


Stephen VI. or VIL. : vicious ; dishonoured the corpse 
of pope Formosus ; strangled by the people. 

Romanus.—Sergius. 

Theodorus II. : governed 22 days. 

John IX. 

Benedict IV. : ‘‘a great pope.” 

Leo V.: expelled; died in prison. 

Christopher. 


[Several popes made by the infamous Marozia. ] 


Sergius ITI. : disgraced by his vices. 

Anastasius ITI. 

Landonius, or Lando. 

John X. : stifled by Guy, duke of Tuscany. 

Leo VI. : considered an intruder. 

Stephen VII. or VIII. 

John XI. : son of Marozia ; imprisoned in the castle 
of St. Angelo, where he died. 

Leo VII. : great for zeal and piety. 

Stephen VIII. or IX. : ‘‘ of ferocious character.” 

Marinus IT. or Martin III. : charitable. 

Agapetus II. : of holy life ; moderate. 

John XII., the infamous : deposed for adultery and 
cruelty ; and murdered. 

Leo VIII. : an honour to the chair. 

Benedict V.: chosen on the death of John XILI., 
but opposed by Leo VIII., who was supported 
by the emperor Otho: died at Hamburg. 


John XIII, elected by the authority of the emperor | 


against the popular will. 

Benedict VI. : murdered in prison. 

Domnuus II.—Boniface VII. 

Benedict VII. 

John XIV. : imprisoned by Boniface VIT. 

John XV. : died before consecration. 

John XVI. : loved gain. 

Gregory V.—John XVII. : expelled by the emperor, 
and barbarously used. 

Silvester II. (Gerbert) : learned and scientific ; said 
to have introduced the Arahic numerals, and 
invented clocks. 

John XVII. : legitimate pope, died same year. 

John XVIII. abdicated. 

Sergius IV. (original name ‘‘ Bocca di Porco,” Pig’s 


Snout.) 

Benedict VIII. : supported by the emperor against 
—Gregory. 

John XIX. : elevated by bribery. 


Benedict IX.; became pope, by purchase, at 
12 years of age ; expelled for vices. 

Sylvester III. : 3 months. 

Gregory VI. : deposed.—Sylvester ; and John XX. 
[The emperor very influential. } 

Clement II. died the next year (Clemens Romanus 
the first Clement). 

Benedict IX, again : again deposed. 

Damasus II. : died soon after. 

St. Leo [X.: a reformer of simony and incontinence. 

[The throne vacant one year. ] 

Victor II. : a reformer. 

Stephen IX. or X. 

Benedict X.; expelled. 

Nicholas II. : increased the temporal power. 

Alexander II.: raised the papal power.—Hono- 
rius IT, 

St. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) : vigorous reformer ; 
opposed the emperor Henry IV. respecting in- 
vestitures ; and excommunicated him, 1076; re- 
stored him at Canossa, 1077; died, in exile, 


1085. 

Clement III. (Guibert). 

[The throne vacant one year. ] 

Victor III. (Didier): learned. 

Urban II. ; crusades commenced. 

Pascal II. (Ranieri): Tuscany given to the papacy 
by the countess Matilda. 

Gelasius II.: retired to a monastery.—Gregory 
VIII. : 

Calixtus IT. : settled investiture question. 

Honorius II. 

Innocent II.: condemned heresies: held end 
Lateran council.—Anacletus IT. 

Victor IV. 

Celestine II. : ruled 5 months. 


1159. 


. Alexander IV. : 
. Urban IV. : 
. Clement IV., an enlightened Frenchman 


. Innocent V.: died shortly after. 


. Nicholas III. : 
. Martin IV., French: supported Charles of Anjov 
.'Honorius IV. : 
. Nicholas = 1 Vor 


. Benedict XL. : 


». Urban VI 


. Boniface IX. 
. Benedict (called XITT.) at Avignon. 
. Innocent VII. : died in 1406. 

. Gregory XIT,. Angelo Corario. 


POPE. 


Lucius II. : killed by accident in a popular ec 
motion. 

Eugenius III. : ascetic. 

Anastasius IY. 

Adrian IV., or Nicholas Brakespeare, the o01 
Englishman elected pope: born at Abbot’s La 
ley, near St. Alban’s; Frederick I. prostrat 
himself before him, kissed his foot, heli 
stirrup, and led the white palfrey on which 


rode. 

Alexander III.: learned; canonised Thomas 
Becket ; resisted Frederick L ; 1159, Victor J 
1164, Pascal IIT. ; 1168, Calistus III. ; 1178, I 
cent ITT. 

Lucius III.—The cardinals acquire power. 

Urban III. : opposed Frederick I. 

Gregory VIII. : ruled only 2 months. 

Clement IIT. : proclaimed 3rd crusade. 

Celestine III. 

Innocent III. (Lothario Conti): endeavoured to f 
Rome from foreign influence ; excommunicat 
John of England ; preached crusade against t 
Albigenses; 1204. 

Honorius III. : learned and pious. 

Gregory IX. : preached a new crusade ; collect 
decretals. 

Celestine IV. : died 18 days after his election. 
(The throne vacant 1 year and 7 months. ] 

Innocent IV. : opposed Frederick II. : gave the 
hat to cardinals. 

established inquisition in Frane 

instituted feast of ‘‘ Corpus Christi. 


viously legate to England; discouraged ¢ 
crusades. 


. [The throne vacant 2 years and 9 months. ] 
. Gregory X. : held a council at Lyons to recone 


the churches of the east and west. 

Adrian V. : legate to England in 1254 ; died 36 da 
after election. 

Vicedominus : died the next day. 

John XX. or XXI. : died in 8 months. 

died in 1280. 


supported the French. 
endeavoured to stir up a neé 
crusade. 


. [The throne vacant 2 years and 3 months. ] 
. St. Celestine V. : ascetic ; resigned. 


Boniface VIII.: proclaimed that ‘“‘God had s 
him over kings and kingdoms :” imprisoned I; 
predecessor ; quarrelled with Philip of Frane 
laid France and Denmark under interdict. 

a pious and liberal pontiff: said 

have been poisoned. 


. [The throne vacant rz months. ] 
. Clement V. (Bertrand de 


Got): governed 1 
Philip of France ; removed the papal seat fro 
Rome to Avignon, 1309. 


. [The throne vacant 2 years and 4 months.] 
. John XXII. 

. Benedict XII. (Nicholas V. at Rome.] 

. Clement VI..: learned. 

. Innocent VI. : favoured Rienzi. 

. Urban. Vo 
. Gregory XI. : protector of learning ; restored th 


charitable ; a patron of learning. 


papal chair to Rome; proseribed Wickliffe 

doctrines. 

ScHISM—1378-1447. é 

so severe and cruel that the cardinai 
chose Robert of Geneva, as 

Clement VII. 


Alexander V. : died, supposed by poison. 


_ John XXIII. : deposed. 


Martin V. Otho Colonna. 

Clement VIII. : resigned 14209. 

Eugenius IV. Gabriel Condolmera: deposed by th 
council of Basil, and Amadeus of Savoy chose 
as Felix V., in 1439, who resigned 1449. j 

Nicholas V.: learned; proposed crusade agails 
Turks. 

Calixtus III. Alfonso Borgia : courageous. 

Pius II. Aneas Silvius Piccolomini: learned. 


| j 
‘ rm | 7 4 


- 


isa a 


POPE. 


659 


POPE. 


Paul II. Pietro Barbo: preached a crusade. 
Sixtus IV.: tried to rouse Europe against the 
Turks. 


. Innocent VIII. 
. Alexander VI. Roderic Borgia: poisoned at a feast 


by drinking of a bowl he had prepared for 
another. 

Pius III. Francisco Piccolomini: 21 days pope. 

Julius II. Julian della Rovere: martial ; began St. 
Peter’s. 

Leo X. Giovanni de’ Medici: his grant of indul- 
gences for crime led to the Reformation ; patron 
of learning and art. 


. Adrian VI. : just, learned, frugal. 


Clement VII. Giulio de’ Medici: refused to divorce 
Catherine of Aragon, and denounced the marriage 
of Henry VIII. with Anne Boleyn. 


. Paul III. Alexander Farnese: approved the Jesuits. 
. Julius III. Giovanni M. Giocchi. 


Marcellus IT. : died soon after his election. 

Paul IV. John Peter Caraffa. He would not ac- 
knowledge Elizabeth queen of England ; insti- 
tuted ‘‘ the Index” (which see), and leagued with 
France against Spain. 


. Pius IV. Cardinal de’ Medici: founded Vatican 


press. 


. St. Pius V. Michael Ghisleri : pious ; energetic. 
. Gregory XIII. Buoncampagno : great civilian and 


canonist: reformed the calendar. 


. Sixtus V. Felix Peretti: an able governor ; excom. 


Henry III. and Henry IV. of France. 


. Urban VII. ; died r2 days after election. 


Gregory XIV. Nicholas Sfrondrate. 


. Innocent IX. : died in two months. 
» Clement VIII. Hippolito Aldobrandini: learned 


and just ; published the Vulgate. 


. Leo XI. : died same inonth. 


© 


Paul V. Camille Borghese ; quarrelled with Venice. 
Gregory XV. Alexander Ludovisio: founded the 
Propaganda. 


. Urban VIII. Maffei Barberini: condemned Jan- 


senism. 


. Innocent X. John Baptist Panfili: ditto. 


. Alexander VII. Fabio Chigi: favoured literature. 

. Clement IX. Giulio Rispogliosi: governed wisely. 
. Clement X. Emilio Altieri. 

- Innocent XI. Odesealchi: condemned Gallicanism 


and Quietism. 


. Alexander VIII. Ottoboni, 6 Oct. ; helped Leopold 


against Turks. 


. Innocent XII. Antonio Pignatelli: r2 July ; con- 


demned Fénelon. 


. Clement XI. John Francis Albani : 23 Nov. ; issued 


the bull Unigenitus. 


. Innocent XIII. Michael Angelo Conti: the eighth 


of his family; 8 May; 
Stuart. 

Benedict XIII. Orsini: 29 May; favoured J. E. 
Stuart. 

Clement XII. Orsini: 12 July ; restored San Marino 


pensioned Jas. Ed. 


(republic). 
Benedict XIV. Lambertini: 17 Aug.; learned, 
amiable. 


Clement XIII. Chas. Rezzonico: Avignon lost. 

Clement XIV. Ganganelli: 19 May; suppressed the 
Jesuits. 

Pius VI. Angelo Braschi, Feb. 15: dethroned by 
Bonaparte ; expelled from Rome, and deposed in 
Feb. 1798; died at Valence, 29 Aug. 1799. 

Pius VII. Barnabo Chiaramonte : elected 13 March; 
agrees to a concordat with France, 15 July, 1801 ; 
crowns Napoleon, 2 Dec. 1804 ; excommunicates 
him, ro June, 1809; imprisoned, 6 July, 1809; 
restored in 1814; died, 20 Aug. 1823. (He re- 
stored the Jesuits, 1814.) 

Leo XII. Annibale della Genga, 28 Sept. 

Pius VIII. Francis Xavier Castiglioni, 3: March. 

Gregory XVI. Mauro Capellari, 2 Feb. : died, 1 June, 
1846. 

Pius 1X, Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti (born 13 
May, 1792): elected, 16 June. See Rome, 1846-71. 


| His diplomatic relations with Great Britain au- 


thorised by parliament. 

55, His powers in France greatly checked. i 

The ‘‘ Late Sententix,” regarding excommunica- 
tion and limiting absolution, signed, 12 Oct. ; 
issued, Dec. ‘ 

The pope opens a general council (8 Dec. 1869), | 


1871. 


1872 


1873 


1874. 


which propounds the doctrine of papal infalli- 
bility and list of anathemas (see Councils), Feb. ; 
deprived of the remains of his temporal power 
(see Rome), Dec. 

Visited by the prince and princess of Wales, 27 
March ; celebrates a jubilee (25th anniversary 
of election), 16 June; nominates 14 Italian pre- 
lates, 24 Nov. 

. Performs no Easter solemnities 3x March; in his 
allocution complains of the persecution of the 
church in Italy, Germany, and Spain, Dec. 23. 

. Letter from the pope to the emperor of Germany 
complaining of his persecuting the bishops, and 
asserting his authority over all baptized per- 
sons, 7 Aug.; the emperor replies in justifica- 
tion, and asserts that there is no mediator be- 
tween God and man but Jesus Christ, 3 Sept.; en- 
cyclical letter of the pope on wrongs of the church, 
a Nov.; he appoints 12 new cardinals, 22 

ec. 

The papal nuncio expelled from Switzerland ; pro- 
tests by letter, 17 Jan. ; a bull (said to be forged), 
altering mode of electing a pope, &c., dated 28 
May, 1873; appears, Jan.; 3,600l. (from poor 
girls in Great Britain) presented to the pope by 
lady Herbert of Lea, 9 April; the pope receives 
roo American pilgrims, 9 June; the English un- 
official secretary of legation at the papal court 
withdrawn ; leaves, 11 Nov. ; in his allocution, 
the pope exhorts the faithful to patience, and 
forbids priests meddling with politics, 21 Dee. 


1875. The pope re-appears at St. Peter’s, after four years’ 


1876 


seclusion, 9 Feb.; he dedicates the universal 
church to ‘‘the sacred heart,” 16 June; his 
nuncio issues a circular against religious tolera- 
tion in Spain, Sept. ; allocution: new cardinals 
announced, 17 Sept. 

. Announces an exhibition of sacred objects at the 
Vatican (in celebration of his jubilee) on 21 May, 
1877, Aug. ; Performs a requiem for the souls of 
his enemies, 2 Noy. ; death of his cardinal-secre- 
tary, Antonelli, 6 Nov. ; succeeded by Simeoni, 
about r5 Nov. 


1877. Creates 11 new cardinals, and issues a warm allo- 


1878. 


1879. 


1880. 


r88r. 


1882. 
1883. 


cution against the Italian government, 12 March; 
and circular to foreign powers, on account of the 
bill to repress clerical abuses, 21 March; creates 
3 cardinals, 22 June; 2 cardinals, &c., 28 Dec. 

Died 7 Feb. 1878. 

Leo XIII. Gioacchino Pecci (born 2 March, 1810): 
elected, 20 Feb. 1878. 

Reduces his guards: holds a consistory, with an 
allocution ; revives R. C. hierarchy in Scotland, 
4 March, 

Publishes encyclical endorsing policy of prede- 
cessor, but moderate, 25 April. 

Makes his secretary of state cardinal Franchi, iS 
March ; cardinal Nina, Aug. 

Issues an encyclical letter condemning commun- 
ism, socialism, and nihilism, as results of the 
Reformation ; dated 28 Dec. 

Appoints 10 cardinals (including J. H. Newman), 
12 May. 

Issues encyclical against modern false philosophy ; 
recommends Thomas Aquinas, early in Aug. 

Issues encyclical on marriage, as a sacrament, and 
against divorce ; published 18 Feb. 

Delivers an allocution censuring the government 
of Belgium (which see), and praising the bishops, 
20 Aug. 

Cardinal Nina, secretary, resigns for bad health, 
13 Oct.; cardinal Jacobini successor, 17 Nov. 
Proclaims an extra jubilee for the distressed 

Church, 15 May, 

Issues an encyclical letter, asserting that all 
government is of divine origin, and that wars 
are consequences of the Reformation, July. 

Canonizes De Rossi and three others, 8 Dec. 

Encyclical letter against heresy, socialism, &c., 
read in London Churches, 5 Nov. 

Circular to Irish bishops enjoining abstinence from 
disaffection to the government, rz May. 

Letter to president Grévy censuring the re- 
publican warfare against religion, 23 June. 

Courteous, firm answer delivered, 8 Aug. 

Letter from the Pope defending the papacy. and 
recommending the study of ecclesiastical history, 
Sept. 


Uive 2 


POPE JOAN. 


660 


ll \ 


a 


POPULATION. 


1883. The Pope addresses 20,000 pilgrims in St. Peters, 
and recognises Italian unity, 7 Oct. 

Visited by the crown prince of Germany, 18 Dec. * 

1884. Encyclical letter to French bishops, commending 
early French devotion to religion, and exhorting 
the bishops to re-double their vigilance in regard 
to heresy and infidelity, rz Feb. 

In a letter to cardinal Jacobini he offers 40,000l. 
to erect a hospital for cholera at Rome which he 
would visit, ro Sept. 

Allocution, 8 cardinals 
created, ro Nov. 

1885. The Pope’s messenger, father Giulianelli, well re- 

ceived by the emperor of China, April. 


POPE JOAN. It is falsely asserted that, in 
the gth century, a female named Joan, having con- 
ceived a passion for Felda, a young monk, in order 
to be admitted into his monastery assumed the 
male habit, and that on the death of her lover she 
entered upon the duties of professor, and, being 
very learned, was elected pope, when Leo IY. died, 
in 855. Other scandalous particulars follow ; ‘‘ yet, 
until the reformation, the tale was repeated and 
believed without offence.”’ Gibbon. 


POPISH PLOTS, see Gunpowder Plot and 
Oates’s Plot. 


and many Dishops 


POPLAR TREES. The Tacamahac po 
(Populus pie was brought hither fron 
North America before 1692. The Lombardy popla 
from Italy about 1758. ; 


POPLIN (or Tabinet), an elegant rich fabri 
composed of silk and worsted, introduced by th 
Huguenot refugees from France about 1693; firs 
manufactured in Dublin. Irish poplins are stil 
deservedly esteemed. 


POPULAR CONCERTS, see under Musi 


POPULATION. The population of th 
world was estimated in 1869 at 1,228,000,000; (¢ 
Washington, 1874), 1,391,032,000; by Peterman 
(1877), 1,424,000,000 ; Behm and Wagne 
1,439,145,000 (1878). For the Population of Cour 


ESTIMATED POPULATION OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 


Population. Population. 
1377 + 2,092,978 | 1710 + 5,240,000 
1483 - 4,689,000 | 1720 - 5,565,000 
1696 + 5,250,000 | 1730 - 5,790,000 
1700 - 5:475,000 | 1740 . 6,064,000 


tries, see the table (after the Preface) facing page | 
1869. 1874. 1878. * 
Europe 275,806, 741 300,500,000 . 312,398,4! 
Asia 755,000,000 798,000,000 831,000, 01 
Africa 200,000,000 203,000,000 205,210, 5) 
America 67,896,041 ’ 84,500,000 86,116,0 
Australia . 1,445,000 
Polynesia . 1,500,000 J 4:590;000 + i a 
Population. Populatic 
1750 6,467,000 | 1790 : - *. So7cm 
1760 . 6,736,000 | Estimated population 
1770 - 7,428,000 ScorLanD in 17! 
1780 + 73953,000 1,255,663. 


Estimated population of IRELAND in 1652, 850,000; in 1712, 2,099,094; in 1754, 2,372,634; in 1805, 5,395,456» 


POPULATION OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND BY CENSUS. 


Division. | r8or. 1811. 182r. 1831 r84r. 1851. r86r. 1871.* 
| England . 8,331,434 | 9,551,888 | 11,261,437 | 13,089,338 | 14,995,138 | 16,854,142 | 18,949,130 | 21,487, 58 
Wales. . ~h 541,546 611,788 717,438 805,236 916,619 | 1,060,626 | 1,111,795 | 1,216, 42 
Scotland . . | 1,599,008 | 1,805,688 | 2,093,456 | 2,365,807 | 2,620,184 | 2,870,784 | 3,061,251 | 3,358, 0% 
Army, Navy, &c. 470,598 640, 500 319, 300 277,017 312,493 142,916 162,021 207, 19) 
Total 10,942,646 12,609,864 | 14,391,631 | 16,537,398 | 18,844,434 | 20,936,468 | 23,284,197 | 26,269, 9r 
Ireland . . . 5,937,850 | 8,175,124 | 7,784,934 | 8,175,124 | 6,515,794 | 5764543 | 5,402.75 
Islands in Bri- 6 
Haiiceat age 143,12 143,779 | 144,43 
27,595,388 | 29,192,419 | 31,817, 10 
Division. Year. Males. Females. Inhabited Houses. 

England and Wales . 1861 9,758,852 10, 302,873 3,745,463 

>» » 1871 11}040, 403 11,663,705 4)259,032 

Scotland . 1861 1,446,982 1,614,269 393,289 

as 1871 1,601,633 1,756,980 419,635 

Ireland J. ate | SEBS 2,804,961 2,959,582 995,156 

ey ‘ : 2 aes 1871 2,634,123 2,768,636 g60, 352 


Jo 


Abstract of Census of 4 April, 1881: England and Wales, 25,968,286; Scotland, 3,734,370; Ireland, 5,159,839; Ch 
nel Isles, 87,731; Isle of Man, 53,492; total United Kingdom, 35,246,561; Army, Navy, and Merchant Sean 


abroad, 242,844. 


Population, middle of 1884: United Kingdom, 35,951,865; England and Wales, 27,132,449 ; Scotland, 3,866, 5: 


Treland, 4,952,395. 


* Behm and Wagner. 


PORCELAIN. 


661 


PORT BRETTON. 


Towns. 1801. 1811. 182r. 1831. 1841. 1851. T 1861. ft 1871.} 188r. 
ec 864,845 | 1,009,546 {1,225,694 [1,474,069 |1,873,676 | 2,362,236 |2,803,034 [3,251,804 | 3,452,350 
Tanchester,&c. | 94,876] 115,874 | 161,635 | 237,832 | 242,583 | 404,465 | 357,979 | 383,843 | 393,676 
lasgow, &c. 775385 | 100,749 | 147,043 | 202,426 | 274,533 | 340,653 | 394,857 | 477,144 | 487,948 
iverpool a le7O, 722 |) LOO, 240 131,801 189,244 286,487 375,955 443,938 493,346 552,425 
idinburgh, &ec. | 82,560] 102,987 138,235 162,403 168,182 193,929 168,098 196,500 228,100 
sirmingham 73,670 85,753 106,721 142,251 182,922 232,841 296,076 343,696 400,757 
eeds, we, . * i 2 ‘2 83,796 123,393 152,054 172,270 207,165 259,201 309,126 
sristol, &e. 63,645 76,433 87,779 103,886 122,296 137,328 154,093 182,524 206,503 
heffield . aed Pansat 69,479 | 91,692 | x11,09r | 135,310 | 185,172 | 239,947 | 284,410 
‘lymouth 43,194| 56,060 | 61,212 | 75,534 | 80,059 | 102,380 | 62,599 | 60,414 77,401 
‘ortsmouth 43,461 | - 52,769 56,620 63,026 63,032 72,096 94,799 | 112,954 | 127,923 
yorwich . 36,832 | 37,256 50,288 61,116 72,344 68,195 74,891 80,390 87,843 
cberdeen 27,608 | 35,370 | 44,796 | 58,019 | 63,288 | 71,945 | 73,794 | 88,125 | 105,003 
Yewcastle - on - 

Tyne 36,963) 36,369 | 46,048 | 57,937 70,860 | 87,784 | 109,108 | 128,160 | 145,228 
asley 31,179 | 36,722 47,003 57,466 60,487 69,951 47,419 48,257 55,042 
fottingham 28,861 34,253 40,415 50,680 71,344 57,407 74,093 86,608 111,631 
full. . .| 34,964} 32,467 | 41,874 49,461 71,629 84,690 | 97,661 | 123,111 | 161,579 
yundee 26,084} 29,616 30,575 459355 62,794 77,829 90,425 | 118,974 | 140,054 
righton 75339 | 12,012 24,429 40,634 46,661 65,573 87,317 | 103,760 | 128,407 
ath 30,113] 32,274 36,811 38,063 38, 304 54,240 52,528 53,714 53,761 
ork 23,692] 26,422 29,527 | 34,461'| 38,321 40,359 45,385 50,761 59,596 
reston 11,887) 17,065 245575 33,112 50,131 69,542 82,985 85,428 931797 | . 
'ambridge . 13,360 13,802 14,142 20,917 24,453 27,815 26,361 34,029 40,882 
ixford 15,124] 15,337 16,364 20,432 23,834 27,843 27,560 34,514 40,862 

IRELAND (1881). 
Dublin, 249,602; Belfast, 208,122 ; Cork, 80,124. 
POPULATION OF THE CHIEF CITIES OF THE WORLD. 
From latest returns in *‘ Almanach de Gotha,” Le. 

' Cities. Inhabitants. | Cities. _ Inhabitants. | Cities. Inhabitants. 
lelaide, 188r . ‘ 67,954 | Genoa, 1881 179,515 | Paris, &c., 1881. . 2,269,023 
exandria, Egypt, 1883 208,775 | Ghent, 1882 130,234 | Pekin, 1874 . 1,648,814 
nsterdam, 1883 ; 361,326 | Hague, 1883 131,417 Philadelphia, 1880 «. 8475279 
itwerp, 1882 . : 180,447 | Hamburg, 1880 . 7 289,859 | Prague, 1880 162,323 
hiens, 1884 . 84,903 | Hanover, 1880 . : 122,843 Quebec, 1881 62,446 
Itimore, US., 1880 332,313 | Konigsberg, 1880 F 140,909 | Rio Janeiro, 1872 274,972 
reelona, 1884 3 247,187 | Leipsic, 1880 - 149,081 | Rome, 1881 : 300, 467 
sle, 1880 : 61,399 | Liége, 1882. . 129,200 | Rotterdam, 1883 166,002 
Igrade, 1882 . 36,177 | Lille, 188: . - 145,113 | Rouen, 1881 105,860 
rlin, 1880 “ - 122,330 | Lima, 1873 - 100,073 | Santiago, 1875 150, 3607 
me, 1880 ; : 44,087 | Lisbon, 1878 oe 2d05243 Seville, 1884 : 132,856 
logna, 1881. i 123,274 | Lubeck, 1880 , é 51,015 Smyrna, 1863, estimated 150,000 
mbay, 1881 . a 773,196 | Lyons, 1881 “ - 347,619 | Stockholm, 1883 : 194,469 
rdeaux, 1881 : 217,990 | Madras, 1881 ; 403,848 | St. Etienne, 1881 Zs 114,962 
iston, U.S., 1880 . 362,839 | Madrid, 1884 : 500,900 | St. Petersburg, 1882 . 929,093 
emen, 1880 . 4 - 112,453 | Malaga, 1884, . . 113,426 | Stutgardt, 1880 . 117,303 
eslau, 1880 . . 272,912 | Marseilles, 1881 . : 269,340 | Sydney, 1881 224,211 
‘ussels,1882 . - - 389,782 | Melbourne, 1881 282,947 | Teheran, estimated 90,000 
\da-Pesth, 1880 ? 360,551 | Messina, 1881 126,497 | Tien-tsin, 1877 . 950,000 
“diz, 1881 ’ 57,812 | Mexico, 1882 260,000 | Toronto, 188 86,415 
iro, 1883 368,108 | Milan, 1881 321,839 | Toulouse, 1881 127,196 
leutta, 188: . 766,298 | Montreal, 188r 140,747 | Tunis, estimated 120,000 
nton, 1877 about 1,500,000 | Moscow, 1882 750,867 | Turin, 1881 252,832 
ieago, 1880 a - 503,185 | Munich, 1880 230,023 | Upsal, 1883 17,082 
ristiania, 1877 77,041 | Nankin, estimated . 1,000,000 | Utrecht, 1883 74,304 
_logne, 1880 144,772 | Nantes, 1881 117,555 | Valencia, 1884 - 144,048 
nstantinople, 1884, about 700,000 | Naples, 1881 ‘ 494,314 | Valparaiso, 1883 a 95,000 
penhagen, 1880 273,323 | New Orleans, 1880 216,090 | Venice, 1881 132,826 
esden, 1880 . 220,818 | New York, 1880. . 1,206,299 | Vienna, 1880 . 1,103,857 
“rence, 1881 . . 169,o0o1 | Odessa, 1882 ; 217,600 Warsaw, 1882. 400, 261 
ankfort on Main, 1880 136,819 | Oporto, 1878 105,838 Washington, Leis 1880 347,293 
neva, 1880 68,326 | Palermo, 1881 244,991 Yokohama, 1881 E 63,048 


PORCELAIN, see Pottery. 


a colony. 


POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL TOWNS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 


Glowing prospectuses were issued in 


PORPHYROGENITUS, ‘‘ born in the pur- 
>,’ a term applied to emperors of the east, born 
uile their fathers were reigning. 


PORT BRETON, an isle near New Caledonia, 
uth Pacific. 

1877 the marquis Du Breil de Rays purchased of the 
ting Maragano a quantity of Jand on which to found 


France, a company was formed, and, the scheme being 
favoured by the legitimists, a large number of shares 
were purchased and much money received. Other 
speculating companies were formed, and colonial 
government officers nominated. In spite of warning 
and prohibition several vessels sailed in 1879 with 
emigrants to meet with misery, disease, and, to a 
large extent, with death. A few who had been landed 
in ‘New Caledonia got back to France and published 


* First return. 


+ In 1851, 1,106,558 males, and 1,255,678 females. 


} 1861 and 1871: parliamentary limits of the boroughs. 


PORT EGMONT. 


662 


PORTLAND ISLE. 


their sufferings. The marquis and some of his asso- 
ciates were brought to trial 27 Nov. 1883; he was 
sentenced to four years’ imprisonment and a fine of 
3000 francs; his associates to shorter imprisonment, 
2 Jan. 1884; on appeal, sentence coufirmed, 14 March, 
1884. 
PORT EGMONT, 2 fine harbour on the N.W. 
coast of Falkland Islands. Commodore Byron was 
despatched to found a colony here in 1765; see 
Falkland Islands. 


PORTE, or SUBLIME PORTE, Official name 
of the court of the sultan of Turkey. Mostasem, 
the last of the Abbasside caliphs (1243-58), fixed in 
the threshold of the brinierpal entrance to his palace 
at Bagdad a piece of the black stone adored at 
Mecca, and thus this entrance became the ‘‘ porte ”’ 
by eminence, and the title of his court. The sul- 
tans, successors of the caliphs, assumed the title. 
— Bourllet. 


PORTEOUS MOB. Capt. Porteous, at Edin- 
burgh, on 15 April, 1736, commanded the guard at 
the execution of Wilson, a smuggler, who had 
saved the life of a fellow criminal, by springing 
upon the soldiers around them, and by main force 
keeping them back, while his companion fled. This 
excited great commiseration, and the spectators 
pelted the guard with stones. Fearing a rescue, 
Porteous ordered his men to fire upon the mob, and 
seventeen persons were killed or wounded. He 
was found guilty of murder, 22 June, 1736; but the 
queen granted him a reprieve (the king being then in 
Hanover). The people, at night, broke open the 
prison, took out Porteous, and hanged him on a 
dyer’s sign-post, in the Grass-market, 7 Sept. 1736. 
None of the rioters were ever detected. 

PORTER. Dr. Ashe says that this beverage 
obtained its appellation on account of its having 
been drunk by porters in the city of London, about 
1730.* The number of licensed brewers in 1850, 
in England, was 2257; in Scotland, 154; and in 
Ireland, 96—total, 2507. On 17 Oct. 1814, at Meux’s 
brewhouse two large vats of porter burst, destroy- 
ing neighbouring houses. Several lives were lost; 
and the loss was between 8000 and 9000 barrels. 


Chief Brewers. In 1760. Barrels. 
Calvert & Co. brewed : 74,734 
Whitbread. : : 63,408 
Truman . 5 : 60,140 
Sir Willian Calvert . 52,785 
Gifford & Co.. 41,410 
Lady Parsons 34,098 
Thrale . ; 30,740 
Huck & Co. 29,615 
Harman . 28,017 
Meux & Co. i : ‘ 10,012 

In 1815. 
Barclay & Perkins. : : - 337,621 
Meux, Reid, & Co. : . 282,104 
Truman, Hanbury, & Co. . 272,162 
Whitbread & Co. : , . 261,018 
Henry Meux & Co. . 229,100 
F, Calvert & Co. 2 : Pe2to.3ag 
Combe, Delafield, & Co. ; ‘ . 105,081 
In 1840. 
Barclay, Perkins, and Co. - : - 361,321 
Truman, Hanbury, & Co. . 263,235 


* The malt liquors previously in use were ale, beer, 
and twopenny, and it was customary to call for a pint or 
tankard of half-and-half,—i.e., half of ale, and half of 
beer. In the course of time it also became the practice 
to ask for a pint of three-thirds, meaning a third of ale, 
beer, and twopenny. To avoid trouble, Harwood, a 
brewer, made a liquor which partook of the united 
flavours of ale, beer, and twopenny, calling it entire, or 
entire butt beer, meaning that it was drawn entirely 
from one cask or butt. Being relished by porters and 
other working people, it obtained its name of porter, 


and was first retailed at the ‘“‘ Blue Last,” Curtain-road . 


—Leigh, 


Barrels 
Whitbread & Co. - 218,82) 
Reid and Co. . : ; - 196,44 
Combe, Delafield, & Co. . : 17758 
Felix Calvert & Co. ‘ 3 4 - 136,38 
Sir Henry Meux &Co. . ‘ : 116,54 


PORTERAGE ACT, regulating the charge fo 


porterage of small parcels, passed 1799. \ 


PORT JACKSON (New South Wales), thir 
teen miles north of Botany Bay, was so named b” 
capt. Cook in 1770; see Sydney. Here the duk 
of Edinburgh was shot by O’Farrell, a Fenian 
12 March, 1868, but soon recovered. ‘The assassii 
was hanged, 21 April. 


PORTLAND ADMINISTRATION 
The first was the ‘‘ Coalition ministry,’’ of whicl 
William Henry Cavendish, duke of Portland,*a 
first lord of the treasury, was the head. It obtaine 
the name of the ‘Coalition’? ministry, and in 
cluded lord North with Mr. Fox, formerly in 
veterate opponents. Formed 5 April, 1783; dis 
solved by Mr. Pitt’s coming into power, Dec. sai 
year. 

FIRST ADMINISTRATION. 

Duke of Portland, jirst lord of the treasury. 

Viscount Stormont, president of the cowncil. 

Earl of Carlisle, privy seal. 

Frederick, lord North, and Charles James Fox, home am 
foreign secretaries. 

Lord John Cavendish, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Viscount Keppel, admiralty. 

Viscount Townshend, ordnance. 

Lord Loughborough, chief commissioner of great seal. 

Charles Townshend, Edmund Burke, Richard Fitz 
patrick, Richard B. Sheridan, &c. 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION, 25 March, 1807. 

Earl Camden, lord president. 

Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal. 

Hon. Spencer Perceval, lord Hawkesbury (afterwards ear 
of Liverpool), Mr. Canning, and viscount Castlereag! 
(afterwards marquis of Londonderry), home, foreign, amu 
colonial secretaries. : 

Earl Bathurst and Mr. Dundas, boards of trade am 
control. : 

Lord Mulgrave, admiralty. 

Earl of Chatham, ordnance. 


PORTLAND CEMENT, first mentioned im 
a patent granted to Joseph Aspden, a bricklayer 0 
Leeds, 1824. His son made the true cement a 
Northfleet. Its value as a building material wai 
established by Mr. John Grant’s tests, 1859-71 
Portland cement concrete was used by Mr. H. A 
Bernay in 1867. 


PORTLAND ISLE (off Dorset), the English 
Gibraltar. Fortified before 1142. Portland castl 
was built by Henry VIII. about 1536. Off thu 
peninsula a naval engagement commenced betwee! 
the English and Dutch, 18 Feb. 1653, which con 
tinued for three days. The English destroyet 
eleven Dutch men-of-war and thirty merchantmen 
Van Tromp was admiral of the Dutch, and Blake o: 
the English.—Here is found the noted freeston 
used for building our finest edifices. The Portlant 
lights were erected 1716 and in 1789. The pier 
with nearly half a mile square of land, was washet 
into the sea in Feb. 1792. Prince Albert laid the 
first stone of the Portland breakwater, 25 July 
1849, and the last stone was laid by the prince © 
Wales, 10 Aug. 1872. Mr. James Rendel, the firs 
chief engineer, was succeeded on his death in 185 
by Mr. (aft. sir) John Coode. The breakwater anc 
other harbour works cost 1,033,600/. exclusive © 


* Born 1738; became lord chamberlain, 1765; lore 
lieutenant of Ireland, 1782; premier, 1783; home secre 
tary, 1794; lord president, 1801; premier again, 1807 
died, 1809; when Mr. Spencer Perceval becaine premier 


PORTLAND VASE. 
; 
‘ict labour. The Portland prison was established 
848. A mutiny among the convicts here in 
|, 1858, was promptly suppressed. 
‘ORTLAND (or BARBERINI) VASE. This 
itiful specimen of Greek art (composed of a 
3-like substance, with figures and devices raised 
ton white enamel; height 10 inches; diameter 
che broadest part, 7; with a handle on each 
') was discovered about the middle of the 16th 
‘ury, in a marble sarcophagus in a sepulchre at 
‘ace called Monte del Grano, about 23 miles 
'; Rome. The sepulchre was supposed to have 
', that of the Roman emperor, Alexander Se- 
is (222-235), and his mother Mammza, and the 
is supposed to have been the cinerary urn of 
‘of these fie personages. It was placed in the 
‘ee of the Barberini family, at Rome, where it 
‘ained till 1770, when it was purchased by sir 
liam Hamilton, from whose possession it passed 
‘hat of the duchess of Portland, 1787; at the 
_ of her effects, it is said to have been bought 
the then duke of Portland, who, in 1810, de- 
‘ted it (on loan) in the British Museum. On 
eb. 1845, this vase was smashed to pieces with 
one by a man named William Lloyd; it has 
‘| skilfully repaired, and is now shown to the 
| lic in a special room. Josiah Wedgwood made 
: yuld of it, and took a number of casts. 


ORT MAHON, see Minorca. 


ORTO BELLO (S. America), discovered by 
imbus, 2 Nov. 1502, was taken by Morgan the 
caneer in 1668; by the British under admiral 
aon, from the Spaniards, 21 Nov. 1739, and the 
fications destroyed. Before the abolition of the 
e by the galleons, in 1748, it was the great mart 
ihe rich commerce of Peru and Chili. 


ORTO FERRAJO, capital of Elba (which 

5 built and fortified by Cosmo I. duke of 
‘ence, in 1548. The fortifications were not 
hed till 1628, when Cosmo II. completed them 
i great magnificence; see France. 


ORTO NOVO (S. India). Here sir Eyre 
e, with about 9500 men and 55 light field- 
es, skilfully defeated Hyder Ali, ruler of the 
»iatic, with 80,000 men and some heavy cannon, 
| ily, 1781. Hyder lost about 10,000, the British 
| killed and wounded. 


‘ORTO RICO, a West India island, belong- 
| to Spain; discovered by Columbus in 1493. 
acks on it by Drake and Hawkins repulsed, 
;. Revolt suppressed, 1823. Slavery abolished, 
i darch, 1873. 


‘ORT PHILLIP (New S. Wales), original 


|e of the colony of Victoria (which see). 


L/ORTRAIT GALLERY, &c., see National 


trait Gallery, and Composite Portraits. 


“ORTREEVE (derived from Saxon words 
! ifying the governor of a port or harbour). The 
-f magistrate of London was originally so styled ; 
Richard I. appointed two bailiffs and afterwards 
} don had mayors. Camden ; see Mayors. 


}ORT ROYAL (NX. America), capital of the 
ach colony, Acadie, founded in 1604; after 
ing been taken and restored several times, it was 
‘lly acquired by the British in 1710, and named 
\apolis. 


1692; laid in ashes by fire in 1702: reduced to 
s by an inundation of the sea in 1722; and 


663 


) | 31 Dec. 1863, 8,037,194; in 1872, 
ORT ROYAL (Jamaica), once a consider-_ i 


town, was destroyed by earthquakes in 1602 : 3 
{he constitution granted in 1826 was revised in 


PORTUGAL. 


destroyed by a hurricane in 1774. After these 
calamities, the custom-house and public offices were 
removed to Kingston. Port Royal was again greatly 
damaged by fire in 1750; by another awful storm 
in 1784; and by a devastating fire in July, 1815; 
in 1850 it suffered by cholera. 


PORT ROYAL pDEs CHAMPS (near Paris) 
was a French Cistercian convent, founded by Odo, 
bishop of Paris, at the wish of king Philip Augus- 
tus, 1204. Having fallen into decay, it was revived 
and reformed in 1608 by Angelica Arnauld. In 
1625 the increased community removed to Paris. 
The Port Royal des Champs, in 1656, became the 
retreat of the Arnaulds, Tillemont, Pascal, Lance- 
lot, and other eminent Jansenists, who devoted 
themselves to education, and produced the Port 
Royal grammars, logic, and other works. This 
institution was condemned by the pope in 1709, 
and the buildings were pulled down, and tombs 
desecrated, by the order of Louis XIV., in 1710. 
The Port Royal at Paris was suppressed, with other 
monasteries, in 1790. 


PORTSMOUTH (Hampshire), the most con- 
siderable haven for men-of-war, and most strongly 
fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and 
storehouses were established in the reign of Henry 
VIII. See Popeulation. 


The French under D’Annebaut attempted to destroy 
Portsmouth, but were defeated by viscount Lisle, 
in the then finest war-ship in the world, the Great 
Harry . : ‘ é 2 : F 3 3 

Here George Villiers, duke of Buckingham, was 
assassinated by Felton : : 23 Aug. 

Admiral Byng (see Byng) on a very dubious sen- 
tence was shot at Portsmouth . 14 March, 

The dockyard was fired, the loss estimated at 
400,000l. . : : P , ; uly, 

Another fire occasioned loss of 100,000l. 27 July, 

[The French were suspected both times, but there 
was no actual proof. ] 

Fire caused by James Aitken (John the Painter) 
7 Dec. 1776; executed . : .10 March, 1777 

Royal George (which see) sunk : E 29 Aug. 1782 

Grand naval mock engagement and parade of the 
fleet, the king being present, 22 to 25 June, 1773, 


1545 
1628 


1757 


1760 
1770 


and. . : : ; . 3oJdune, 1794 
Another great fire occurred . : : « 7 Dec. 1776 
A great naval review was held near Portsmouth on 

25 April, 1856 


Visited by a French fleet amid great rejoicings, 
29 Aug.-1 Sept. 

Easter Monday volunteer review, &c., very successful 
13 April, 

Naval review at Spithead before the shah of Persia, 
23 June, 1873 
5 May 1883 


1865 
1868 


Explosion at Priddy’s Hard ; 5 killed 
PORTUGAL, the ancient Lusitania. The pre- 


sent name is derived from Porto Callo, the original 
appellation of Oporto. After a nine years’ struggle, 
under Viriathes, a brave able leader, the Lusi- 
tanians submitted to the Roman arms about 137 B.c. 
Portugal underwent the same changes as Spain on 
the fall of the Roman empire. There are in 
Portugal two universities, that of Coimbra, founded 
in 1308, and the smaller one of Evora, founded in 
1533. Lisbon has also its royal academy, and the 
small town of Thomar has an academy of sciences; 
but, in general, literature is at a low ebb in 
Portugal. The poet Camoens, called the Virgil 
of his country, and author of the Lwsiad (1569), 
translated into English by Mickle, was a native of 
Lisbon. Population of the kingdom and colonies, 
kingdom on the con- 
tinent, with Madeira and Azores, 4,390, 589; colonies, 
3,258,140; in 1878, kingdom and colonies, 8,031,831. 


1852. 


PORTUGAL. 


Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths here 

Conquered by the Moors 

The kings of Asturias subdue some Saracen chiefs, 
and Alfonso IIL. establishes bishops. 

The Moors, conquered by Alfonso VI. the Valiant, of 
Castile, assisted by many other princes and v olun- 
teers ; Henry of Besangon (a relative of the duke 
of Burgundy and king of France), very eminent ; 
Alfonso bestowed upon him Theresa, his natural 
daughter, and Portugal as her marriage portion, 
which he was to hold of him as count. 2 tOOS 

Alfonso Henriquez defeats five Moorish kings, and 
proclaimed king; see Ourique 25 July, 

Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders on their way to the 
Holy Land, he takes Lisbon from the Moors, “is 

25 Oct. 

Part of Algarve taken from the Moors by Sancho I. 

Reign of Dionysius I. or Denis, father of his coun- 
try, who builds 44 cities or tows in Portugal . 1279 

University of Coimbra founded 1308 

Military orders of Christ and St. J ames instituted, 

ace and 1325 

Ifes de Castro murdered « £355 

John I., surnamed the Great, carries his arms into 
Africa. ; ; A . ; 

Maritime discoveries . ; 4 - 1419-30 

Madeira and the Canaries seized 5 ; 


472 
713 


goo 


1139 


1147 
1189 


Code of laws digested . A ‘ ‘ I425 
Lisbon made the capital about £433 
Passage to the East Indies by the Cape of Good 
Hope discovered by Vasco de Gama . 20 Nov. 1497 
Discovery of the Brazils : - 1499 
Brazil discovered by Cabral . . April, 1500 
Camoens, author of the Lusiad, born about 1520 
The Inquisition established . “ ; E 1526 
University of Evora founded 1451 or x 533 
African expedition; king Sebastian defeated and 
slain in the battle of Aleazar . . 4Aug. 1578 
The kingdom seized by Philip II. of Spain : - 1580 
The Dutch seize the Portuguese settlements in India, 
1602-20 
The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and place John, 
duke of Braganza, on the throne : ; ec. 1640 


The Portuguese defeat the Spaniards at Villa Viciosa 1665 
The great earthquake destroys Lisbon t Nov. 1755 
Joseph I. narrowly escapes death by assassins - 1758 
{Some of the first families were tortured to death; 
their very names being forbidden to be mentioned ; 
the innocence of many was soon afterwards made 
manifest; the Jesuits were also expelled. ] 
Joseph, having no son, obtains a dispensation from 
the pope to enable his daughter and brother to 
intermarry, which took place - 6June, 
The Spaniards and French invade Portugal, which 
is saved by the English 1762 and 1763 
John, prince of Brazil, marries his aunt, ted ia 


1760 


Fr rancesca ‘ 1777 
Regency of John (afterw ards king), ow ing to the 
lunacy of queen Maria Z AMity fay) 
War with Spain, 3 March; peace 6 J une, 1801 
Treaty between France and Spain for the partition 
of Portugal, Oct.; Frenchinvasion; Junotarrives 
at Lisbon, 27 Nov.; the court sail for Brazil, 
29 Nov. 1807 
Rise of the Portuguese; several times Hefeateds 
June and July; arrival of Wellington at Oporto, 
July; he defeats Junot at Vimiera, 21 Aug.; con- 
vention of Cintra confirmed i - 30Aug. 1808 
Oporto taken by Soult 5 H 20 March, 1809 
Almeida taken by Massena . a 27 Aug. 1810 
Massena defeated at Busaco : 27 Sept. - 
Wellington secures the lines of Torres Wearas! OcCtaaes 
Massena defeated at Fuentes de Onoro ; retreats, 
5 M: ay, 1811 
The British parliament grants the sufferers br war 
in Portugal 100,000. 5 4 Le Rg Be 
Portugal cedes Guiana to France r - 1814 
Union of Portugal and Brazil A > Se LOLS 
Revolution begins in Oporto . 29 Aug. 1820 
Constitutional Junta established tT .OCtimas. 
Return of the court . E - 4duly, 1821 
Independence of Brazil; the pr ince eta made 
emperor; see Brazil . 4 - 12 Oct. 1822 
The king modifies the constitution . - 5 dune, 1823 
Disturbances at Lisbon; Miguel departs 1-9 May, 1824 
Treaty with Brazil ; f 29 Aug. 1825 | 
Death of John VI. "| z : - 10 March, 1826 | 


664 


PORTUGAL. 


Dom Pedro grants a constitutional charter, and con- 
firms the regency . . 26 April, 
He relinquishes the throne in favour of his daughter, 
Donna Maria da Gloria . 3 2 May, 
Miguel takes oath of fealty at Vienna. 4 Oct. 
Marquis of Chaves’ insurrection at Lisbon in favour 
of Dom Miguel . 6 Oct. 
Dom Miguel and Donna Maria betrothed 29 Oct. 
Por tugal solicits the assistance of Great Britain, 


3 Dec. ; departure of the first British auxiliary 
ore for Portugal . 5 - 17 Dee. 
Bank of Lisbon stops payment 7 Dee. 


Dom Miguel made regent; he arrives in “London, 30 
Dec. 1827; takes the oath at Lisbon 22 Feb, 

The British armament quits Portugal, 28 April; 
foreign ministers withdraw . 3 May, 

Sir John Doyle, a partisan of Donna Maria, arrest 


13 June, 
Dom Miguel assumes the title of king . 4 July, 
He dissolves the three estates 12 July, 
His troops take Madeira 24 Aug. 
Release of sir John Doyle . Sept 


The queen Donna Maria arrives in London 
Miguel’s expedition against Terceira defeated, 


zr Aug, 

Duke of Palmella appointed regent. March, 
Dom Pedro arrives in England . : . 16 June, 
Insurrection in Portugal in favour of the queen; 
more than 300 lives lost. . 21 Aug. 


Dom Pedro’s expedition sail from Belle- isle, 9 Feb.; 
at Terceira proclaims himself regent, 2 April; 
takes Oporto . r July, 
The Miguelites attack Oporto and are defeated 
with considerable loss on both sides 19 Sept. 
Mount Cavello taken 4 2 +9 Ape 
Admiral Napier takes Dom Miguel’s pouadron off 

Cape St. Vincent . 5 duly 
Lisbon evacuated by the duke of Genarals the 

queen proclaimed, 24 July; enters Lisbon, 

22 Sept. 
After various conflicts Dom Miguel capitulates to 
the Pedroites, and Santarem surrenders, 26 May; 
Dom Miguel embarks at Evora for Genoa, 31 May, 


Massacres take place at Lisbon . é . o June, 
The Cortes declare the queen of age 15 Sept. 
Dom Pedro dies . s 24 Sept. 


Oporto wine company abolished : 
Prince Augustus (duke of Leuchtenberg) } prince con- 


sort; married, t Dec. 1834; dies . 28 March, 
The queen marries Ferdinand of Saxe Coburg, 

g April, 

Revolution at Lisbon : “ 4 -. * o Aug 

Another outbreak there : . 8 Noy. 


The duke of Terceira attempts to restore Dom 
Pedro’s charter 
He and Saldanha fail, and embark for England, 


. 18 Aug. - 


18 Sept. 


Oporto wine company re-established 
The northern province in a state of insurrection 
about this time. . : 
The duke of Palmella resigns 3 i 
Action at Evora, the queen’s troops defeat the in- 
surgent forces 1 Oct. 
British squadron under admiral Parker arrives in 
the Tagus, at the queen’s request . 31 Oct. 
Palmella banished ; 
Marquis of Saldanha defeats count Bomfinn at 
Torres Vedras ; ; 5 . 22 Dee 
The insurgents enter Oporto : 7 Jan. 
London conference : England, France, and ‘gpain 
determine to assist the queen of Portugal to ter- 
minate the civil war . A A 1 May, 
Submission of 84 de Bandiera  . 2 
A Spanish force enters Tears and the Junto capi- 
tulates . . 26 June, 
An American squadron in the Tagus to enforce 
claims against the Portuguese : 22 June, 
Military insurrection, headed by the duke of Sal- 
danha, who, being outstripped in his march on 
Santarem by the king of Portugal, flees noi 
to Ap 
Oporto declares for the duke, who had left the city 


7 April, © 


. 26 Nov. © 


’ 


It me | 


i 


for Vigo to embark for England ; but is called 


back by the insurgents : “ . 24 April, 
Saldanha’s entry into Oporto. 4 29 April, 
The conde de Thomar, ae mnintahets resins ; 
arrives in England “ May, 


‘nha, prime minister . : A . 23 May, 1851 
' Miguel marries the princess Adelaide of 
venstein-Rosenberg | 3 : 24 Sept. ,, 
ion of the charter by the Cortes sanctioned by 

* queen; the prince royal takes the oath to 
constitution : é - : . 18 July, 1852 


‘ersion of the public debt 5 ; 18 Dec. 


> 
‘a ofthe queen MarialIl. . : . 15 Nov. 1853 
‘consort recognised as regent : TOLUCCi es ss 
foung king visits England . P > June, 1854 


‘Javes on royal domains freed ; BO WeCi ass 
‘dng visits France. : ; é May, 1855 
‘piration of the king : : ; 16 Sept. ,, 
‘mation of Saldanha ministry. - 5 June, 1856 
‘ Portuguese railway (from Lisbon to Santarem) 


med. . a : ; : ZOLOCVA Mss 
/> vages in Lisbon; the king very active in 
‘eying the sufferers. é Oct. and Nov. 1857 
‘French emigrant ship for negroes, Charles-et- 
‘rges, seized. f ; - ; 29 Nov. ,, 
‘py of the French government; its wtimatum 


't, 13 Oct. ; and ships of war to the Tagus; the 
‘sel restored (see Charles-et-Georges) . 25 Oct. 1858 
a of the duke of Terceira, prime minister, 
tt 26; succeeded by the senhor Aguiar, May 2, 


oresigns . : f : : 2 July, 1860 
a of the king, Pedro V.; succeeded by his 
ther the duke of Oporto. e . rz Nov. 1861 


2 of John, the king’s brother . “ Pxayel Deveney 
‘aw of succession altered in favour of the king’s 

fers ti(«“w . ‘ F . - . 3 dan. 1862 
‘Ine de Loulé becomes minister AY a ee 
‘<ing married to Princess Maria Pia ofSavoy by ~ 


yxy, at Lisbon 6 ; 2 PEL OM Cun a5 
sions : majority for the government SNOW iets: 
‘of Dom Carlos, heir to the throne. 28 Sept. 1863 
‘sterial changes. : Jan. 1864 


h of the celebrated statesman the duke of 
lnella : : : j 7 2 Aprils; 
trade measures introduced . : ET NOs. Poy 
tier treaty with Spain concluded . 29 Sept. ,, 
‘yessels Niagara and Sacramento in the’ Tagus 
ad on, through suspicion of their sailing after 
» confederate vessel Stonewall, 27 March ; the 
ficulty with the U.S. government arranged, 
7 April, 1865 
| premier, De Loulé, resigns ; marquis de Sa 
_ndeira forms a ministry , rpeApril,” "5; 
| titutional privileges granted to the colonies, 
May, ;, 
Jher prince born Mand A ar wuly, |; 
ministry formed ; Aguiar premier aA EDU 55 
international exhibition at Oporto opened by 
2 king 4 h : ‘ ri wie ta eDL 55 
| king visits England and France . : DGG uaNss 
firal Prim enters Portugal, 20 Jan. ; ordered to 
L@ertc |. ; : : : ¢ . 17 Feb. 1866 
| hof Dom Miguel, the ex-king. . 14Nov. ,, 
king and queen of Spain visit Lisbon 11 Dec. ,, 
|: and queen at the Paris exhibition, 
i July—Aug. 1867 
| ministry under count d’Avila 4 5 Jan. 1868 
der SA da Bandeira 5 ‘ r ar suly, 5; 
- der the duke de Saldanha rae ae 7 BAIL. 1869 
| der the duke de Loulé . . 2 PeTIPAUS Hs. 
‘ont opposition of Saldanha ; ordered back to 


ris as ambassador there ; he resigns = Dees -;; 
esdissolved. : : : A Jan. 1870 
| anha heads a military insurrection ; seizes the 
| yal palace ; forms a new ministry . 19 May, ,, 


| trality in the French war proclaimed . July, ,, 
 ifestation against Saldanha in Lisbon and 
\orto . . 3 ‘ s a RATIO’. |; 

_ French republic recognized . : A ED 5s 

| ministry under the bishop of Vizeu, 30 Oct. ,, 
‘ministry under the marquis d’Avila, 30 Jan. ; 

der Fontes Pereira de Mello . 13 Sept. 1871 
/tfireat Lisbon. . ye . 13 June, 1872 
‘| spiracy against the government ; officers in the 

,my arrested . : ; about 26 Aug. ,, 
th of Joaquim A. Aguiar, statesman (see 1860, 

- 65) : s i 5 F 2 26 May, 1874 
| duke of Coimbra visits England. . Aug. 1875 
» prince of Wales at Lisbon . ; . «May, 1876 
| meial crisis: banks of Oporto and Portugal 
‘spend payment ; confidence soon returns, about 

} 1g-24 Aug. ,, 


, PORTUGAL. 665 PORTUGAL. 


Death of the duke de Saldanha (buried in state at 
Lisbon) ‘ ° : ‘ ; 2t Nov. 1876 
Marquis D’Avila forms a new ministry 5 March, 1877 
Resigns after vote of censure ; new ministry formed 
under Fontes Pereira de Mello A . 29 Jan. 1878 
Ministry resigns, 30 May, new one formed by sen. 
A. J. Braamcamp F : ; 1 July, 1879 
Great demonstration in honour of Camoens and 
Vasco da Gama at Lisbon 3 ¢ . dune, 1880 
Discussion in the chambers respecting treaty with 
Great Britain,respecting Lourengo Marques (which 
see), KE. Coast of Africa; ministry resigns; suc- 
ceeded by sen. Sampayo . . 21-26 March, 1881 
Elections; majority in favour of the ministry 
2x Aug. 4, 
The kings of Portugal and Spain open a new rail- 
way between Lisbon and Madrid . - BL OGhen a 
Visit of the king and queen of Spain 10 Jan. et seq. 1882 
National art exhibition at Lisbon opened 
about rs April, _ ,; 
Reform Dill introduced abolishing hereditary 
peerage . end of Feb. 1883 


-The king and queen visit Madrid. L22UM AV ess 


Ministry reconstructed by Fontes Pereira de Mello 
bo OCU. 55 

Circular affirming Portuguese rights over the Congo 
issued Oct. ,, 

The crown prince returned from a visit to England 
at Dees ~,5 

Government bill for reform of constitution adopted 

by the deputies : - : - . 8 Feb. 1884 

Mr. John Dixon’s claims on the Guimaraes railway 

company for compensation for their taking the 

Minho railway, constructed by him; complaint 

of judicial delays ; British intervention ; discussed 
May, ;; 

SOVEREIGNS OF PORTUGAL. 


1095. Henry, count or earl of Portugal. 

r112. Alfonso, his son, and Theresa. i 

1128. Alfonso, count of Portugal, alone. 

1139. Alfonso I. declared KiNG, having obtained a signal 
victory over a prodigious army of Moors on the 
plains of Ourique. 

1185. Sancho I., son of Alfonso. 

1212. Alfonso II., surnamed Crassus, or the Fat. 

1223. Sancho IL., or the Idle: deposed. 

1248. Alfonso III. 

1279. Denis or Dionysius, the father of his country. 

1325. Alfonso IV., the Brave. 

1357. Peter, the Severe. 

1367. Ferdinand I., son. 

1385. John I., the Bastard and the Great ; natural 
brother; married Philippa, daughter of John of 
Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. 

1433. Edward or Duarte. 

1438. Alfonso V., the African. 

1481. John IL., the Great and the Perfect. 

1495. Emmanuel, the Fortunate ; cousin. 

1521. John III., son; admitted the Inquisition. 

1557. Sebastian ; drowned after the great battle of Alca- 
zarquivir, in Africa, 4 Aug. 1578. 

1578. Henry, the cardinal, son of Emmanuel; great uncle. 

1580. Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Emmanuel; de- 
posed by Philip II. of Spain, who united Portu- 
gal to his other dominions. 

1580. Philip IT. 

1598. Philip IIL. brings of Spain. 

1621. Philip IV. 

1640. John IV., duke of BRAGANZa ; dispossessed the 
Spaniards in a bloodless revolution, and was 
proclaimed king, Dec. 1. 

1656. Alfonso VI.; deposed in 1667, and his brother 
Peter made regent. 

1683. Peter II., brother. 

1706. John V., son. 

1750. Joseph Emmanuel ; son. The daughter and suc- 
cessor of this prince married his brother, by 
dispensation frora the pope, and they ascended 
the throne, as 

Maria I. and Peter III. jointly. 
Maria I. alone: this princess afterwards falls into a 
state of melancholy and derangement ; dies, 1816. 

1792. Regency—John, son (afterwards king) ; declared 
regent, 1791. 

1816. John VI., previously regent. He had withdrawn 
in 1807, owing to the French invasion of Portu- 
gal, to his Brazilian dominions ; but the ciscon- 


PORT VICTORIA. 


tent of his subjects obliged him to return in 1821 ; 
died in 1826. 

. Peter IV. (Dom Pedro), son; making his election 
of the empire of Brazil, abdicated the throne of 
Portugal in favour of 

. Maria IT. (da Gloria) ; daughter ; seven years of age. 

. Dom Miguel, brother to Peter IV., usurped the 
crown, which he retained, amid civil conten- 
tions, until 1833. 

. Maria II. restored ; declared in Sept. 1834 to be of 
age; died, 15 Nov. 1853. 

. Peter V. (Dom Pedro), son; born 16 Sept. 1837; 
died, 11 Nov. 186r. 

. Luis L., brother ; born 31 Oct. 1838 ; married Maria 
Pia, daughter of Victor Emmanuel, king of 
Italy (born 16 Oct. 1847), 6 Oct. 1862. 

Heir : Dom Carlos (son), born 28 Sept. 1863. 


PORT VICTORIA, on the Medway, Kent, a 
new port for London, established by the South 
Eastern Railway Company; communications opened, 
Sept. 1884. 


POSEN, a Polish province, annexed to Prussia 
1772 and 1793; made part of the duchy of Warsaw, 
1807; restored to Prussia, 1815. An insurrection 
here quelled, May, 1848. 


POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY set forth by 
Auguste Comte, an eminent mathematician, born 
about 1795; died at Paris, 1852. M. P. Emile 
Littré, the great French philologist, ardently em- 
braced the system, and published ‘‘De la Philo- 
sophie Positive,’’ in 1845. 

Comte’s ‘‘Cours de Philosophie Positive,” published 
1830-42; “‘Systeme de Politique Positive, ou Traité 
de Sociologie, instituant la Religion de l’Humanité 
(Vamour pour principe, l’ordre pour base, et le pro- 
grés pour but),” 1851-4. 

It professes to base itself wholly on positive facts or 
observed phenomena, and rejects all metaphysical 
conceptions, which it considers negatives, having 
nothing real or true in them; and dispenses with the 
science of mind. It sets aside theology and meta- 
physics as two merely preliminary stages in life; and 
abandons all search after causes and essences of 
things, and restricts itself to the observation and 
classification of phenomena and the discovery of their 
laws. Comte asserted that Europe had now arrived 
at the third stage of its progress. 

The Society of Positivists in London meet in Newton- 
hall, in Fleur-de-Lys-court, near Gough-square, on 


Sunday evenings, when discourses ou philosophy, 
morality, science, politics, &c., are delivered. Their 


professed object is to promote the perfection of man 
by means of education in its widest sense, aiming at 
the attaining of universal brotherhood independently 
of all professed religious sects; concerts are occa- 
sionally given; Frederick Harrison, president (Pall 
Mali Gazette, 29 Nov. 1883). 

““The Church of Humanity” is a modified form of 
positivism, described by Mr. Richard Congreve (Pall 
Mall Gazette, 17 Jan. 1884). 


POSSIBILISTS. A section of the liberal 
party in Spain; aiming at reforms: Sen. Castelar, 
a chief, Oct. 1883. 


POSTS, said to have originated in the regular 
couriers established by Cyrus, who erected post- 
houses throughout the kingdom of Persia, about 
550 B.c. Augustus was the first who introduced 
this institution among the Romans, 31 B.c. This was 
imitated by Charlemagne about a.p. 800.—Ashe. 
Louis XI. first established post-houses in France 
owing to his eagerness for news, and they were the 
first institution of this nature in Europe, 1470.— 
Henault. An international commission respecting 
postal arrangements met at Paris, 11 May, and broke 
up 9 June, 1863. 

POST-OFFICE oF ENGLAND. In England, 
in the reign of Edward IV. 1481, riders on post- 
horses went stages of the distance of twenty miles 
from each other, in order to procure the king the 


666 


POST-OFFICE. 


earliest intelligence of the events that passed in 
course of the war that had arisen with the Scot 
Gale. Richard IIT. improved the system of cow 
in 1483. In 1543 similar arrangements existe 
England.—Sadler’s Letters. Post communicat 
between London and most towns of England, § 
land, and Ireland, existed in 1635. —Strype. 


The first chief postmaster of England, Thomas Ran- 
dolph, appointed by queen Elizabeth . F i 

James I. appointed Matthew de lEquester as 
foreign postmaster, 1619 ; and Chas. I. appointed. 
William Frizell and Thomas Witherings . im 

A proclamation of Chas. I., ‘‘ whereas to this time 
there hath been no certain intercourse between 
the kingdoms of England and Scotland, the king 
now commands his postmaster of England for 
foreign parts to settle a running post or two to 
run night and day between Edinburgh and Lon- 
don, to go thither and come back again in six 
Cavs! au . : ; : : rs ‘ ' 

The king commanded his ‘“‘ postmaster of England 
for foreign parts,” to open a regular communica- 
tion by running posts between the metropolis 
and Edinburgh, West Chester, Holyhead, Ireland, 
Plymouth, Exeter, &c. (Rates of postage—1 letter 
carried under 80 miles 2d. ; under 140 miles, 4d. ; 
above that distance in England, 6d. ; to any part 
of Scotland, 8d.). 

An enlarged office erected by the parliament in 
1643; and one more considerable in 1657, with a 
view ‘‘to benefit commerce, convey the public 
dispatches, and as the best means to discover and 
prevent many dangerous wicked designs against 
the commonwealth by the inspection of the cor- 
respondence ” 4 ; : - : ‘ ' 

The Post-oflice as at present constituted was 
founded r2 Chas. II. . : ; : 27 Dee. 

Farmed to John Manley, 1653 ; to Daniel O’Neil 

Penny Post first set up in London and its suburbs 
by a Mr. Robert Murray, upholsterer. +e 

He assigned his interest in the undertaking to Mr. 
Dockwra, a merchant, 1683 ; but on a trialat the 
King’s Bench bar it was adjudged to belong to 
the duke of York, as a branch of the general post, 
and was thereupon annexed to the revenue of the 
crown . E : : . Z ; ‘ 3 

This institution considerably improved and made a 
twopenny post, July, 1794, et seq. 

Cross posts established by Ralph Allen | 

Between 1730 and 1740, the post was only trans- 
mitted three days a week between Edinburgh and 
London: and the metropolis, on one occasion, 
sent a single letter, which was for an Edinburgh 
banker, named Ramsay. 

A penny post was first set up in Dublin . « 

The mails conveyed by coaches ; the first mail left 
London for Bristol (see Mail Coaches) . 2 Aug. 

The mails first conveyed by railway, 1830; by the 
overland route to India 5 y 3 oe 

Post-oftice acts consolidated . 4 . 12 July, 

Early in 1837, Mr. Rowland Hill broached his plan 
of penny postage, which was adopted after a full 
investigation by a committee of the house of 
commons : , 5 5 ‘ : A 4 

The new postage law, by which the uniform rate of 
4d. per letter was tried as an experiment, came 


into operation . ‘. ; : 3 . 5 Deg 
The uniform rate of rd. per letter of half an ounce 
weight, &c., commenced ; ro Jan. 
Stamped postage covers came into use . 6 May, 


Reduction in postage—to be 1d. instead of 2. for 
every ounce above the first . : 3 April, 
Book-Post.—A treasury warrant issued, providing 
for the carriage by post of books, pamphlets, &., 
under certain restrictions— 4 oz. for 1d.; 8 oz. for 


2d., &e. : ss 5 June, 
Altered to under 2 0z., 3d.; every additional 2 0z., 
or part of 2 0z., $d.; begun. : Oct. 


A Money-order Office, set up in 1792, was little used 
on account of the expense, till 1840. In 1839, 
188,291 money orders were issued for 313,124l. ; ID 
1861, 7,580,455 orders for 14,616,348/.; in 1865, 
orders were issued for 17,829,290l.; in 1870, for 
19,993,9871. 

The Postal Guidefirst appeared in 1856; in which year 
London and the vicinity were divided into districts 


| POST-OFFICE. 


i 


ystal purposes ; viz., East, West, &c. The 
\aster-general has issued AnnualReports since 1854 
‘ster empowered to purchase the electric 


‘aphs by act passed 31 July, 1868; work 


1 ae . 2 : c c . 5§ Feb. 1869 
iee money order system applied to France 
tue of a convention signed . 5 Aug. 1870 


mystamped cards issued tothe public, 1Oct. ,, 
post-office act (passed g Aug. 1870) the 
»yaper stamp for posting was abolished ; re- 
‘ed newspapers and pamphlets or patterns 
‘202. to be sent for 3d. on and after 1 Oct. ,, 
‘lowered: Letters sent at the rate of 1d. for 


667 


POST-OFFICE. 


Telegraph acts consolidated and amended by 41 & 
42 Vict. ¢. 76 “ 3 16 Aug. 

New postage stamps issued : 3 rd aps 

Returned letters: 1867, 3,618,838 ; year 1878-9, 
4,286,648 ; 1883-4, 5,732,310. 

New system of receiving small sums for savings- 
banks by stamps tried in some counties ; gene- 
rally adopted . : : : : ; : 

New rates for money orders from 1s. . r Jan. 

International postal congresses met at Paris, 7 
April, 1878; and g Oct. 1880; at Lisbon, 16 
March, 1885 ; (agreement signed 21 March). 

Postrace Stamps for 1d. authorised to be used for 


14d. for 2 oz., &c., from f : 5 Oct. 1871 receipts after 1 June; and for telegrams after 
‘trike of telegraph clerks at Manchester, 1 Nov. 1881 
‘pool, and Dublin 3 e : . Dee. ,, | Reduction of 6d. for 480 3d. newspaper wrappers 
‘gost between London and Tours during the 1 Jan, 1882 
of Paris (48 day mails and 1186 night mails Reply post-cards authorized, 16 March; issued 
‘ : i . 18 Nov. 1870—28 Jan. ,, 2 Oct.) 55 
‘xe scandal, money spent from other funds on Late letters received in the sorting carriage of mail 
/aph service withoutauthority of parliament; trains at stations on and after ft INO Vannss 
red by commons . F : . 29 July, 1873 | Parcel post comes into operation 2 . r Aug. 1883 
‘it for registered letters reduced from 4d. to Post-oftice protection act passed 14 Aug. 1884 
charge for money orders raised ; new postal Postal orders (like bankers’ cheques) largely used 
ers issued 3 : ‘ : zr Jan. 1878 (since 1880) . : P é P = - . 1885 


NUMBER OF LETTERS, &e., DELIVERED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 


‘cluding 6,563,024 franks) 2 82,470,596 | 1851-5 (average) 410,000,000 

pee ts) me 6&6! 168,768,344) 1861-5, 648,000,000 

by 5 3 : % : é . 360,651,187 | 1866-70 ,, ue a A : . «800,000,000 

geiand, 36,512,649. Ireland, 35,982,782. Scotland, 76,000,000. Treland, 60,000,000. 

! Net Revenue. | 
Books ne Ji TRAE es 

Letters. Post Cards. Circulars, News- Para Telegrams. | Postage & | ere 

‘be: papers. rders. Money ele- | 

Orders. | S75: | 

— 2. Beak bee us Pees rey eres 

+ + + 867,000,000 = = as £22,573,547 | 12,473,796 | £1,289,754 | 303,457 | 

885,000,000 | 76,000,000 | 114,000,000 | 109,000,000 25,019,683 | 153535780 | 1,523,976 | 1595835 | 

907,000,000 | 72,000,000 | 129,000,000 113,016,500 | 26,802,264 | 17,821,530 | 1,555,361 | 114,975 | 

964,253,300 | 79,000,000 | 141,967,100 | 117,032,900 | 27,507,672 | 19,253,120 | 1,836,387 | 115,676 

. .« 1,008,392,100| 87,116,300 | 158,666,600 | 121,049,400 27,688,255 | 20,973,535 | 1,894,141 | 245,116 

. 1,018,955,200 | 92,935,700 | 173,724,900 | 125,065,900 | 28,749,512 | 21,726,143 ; 1,947,066 | 189,317 | 

3. =. 1,057,732,300 | 102,237,300 | 189,300,600 | 128,558,000 | 29,153,452 22,171,867 | 2,056,692 | 169,428 | 

'y. . 1,097,372,800 | 111,445,700 | 197,076,500 | 130,895,300 | 27,303,093 | 24,459:775 | 214341374 | 2571500 

30. . 1,127,997,500 | 114,458,400 | 213,963,000 | 130,518,400 | 26,371,020 | 26,547,137 | 2,497,687 | 341,006 | 

|r . 1,165,106,900 | 122,884,000 | 240,356,200 | 133,796,100 26,003,582 | 29,411,982 | 2,597,768 | 368,815 | 

12. « 1,229,354,800 | 135,329,000 | 271,038,700 | 140,789,100 | 25,393,574 | 31,345,861 | 2,741,004 | 264,810 

3. . 1,280,636,200 | 144,016,000 | 288,206,400 140,602,600 | 27,597,883 | 32,092,026 | 2,755,562 235,859 
{ + ~ 1,322,086,900 | 153,586,100 | 294,594,500 | 142,702,300 27,629,879 | 32,843,120] 2,610,026 = 


‘tyielded . 


H 


; 


ae POST-OFFICES. 
“ENERAL Post-orrice of London was originally 
lished in Cloak-lane, near Dowgate-hill, whence 
‘\s removed to the Black Swan, in Bishopsgate- 
t. After the great fire of 1666 it was removed to 
/I'wo Black Pillars, in Brydges-street, Covent- 
m, and afterwirds (about 1690) to sir Robert 
’s mansion in Lombard-street. It was transferred 
e building in St. Martin’s-le-Grand, erected on the 
) of an ancient college, from designs by R. Smirke, 
) pt. 1829. FounJation of a new general post-office 
i «6 Dec. 1870; occupied 1873. 
) w post-office of Dublin opened, 6 Jan. 1818. 


REVENUE OF THE POST-OFFICE, 


' After payment for foreign and colonial mails. 


The foundation of a new post-office at Edinburgh was 


ment responsible to depositors. 
banks and the amount of deposits received on 31 March, 


1862, were— 


£s, 82%. U. Kingdom£ laid by the prince consort in Oct. 186r. : 
| ‘armed fos en Ditto. E Ae oe oe Public receptacles for letters before 1840, 4,028 ; 10 1865, 
| ‘armed 21,500 | 1840. New rate 471,000 16,246; in 1876, 24,171; in 1877, 25,082; Jan. 1879, 
“armed for 43,000 | 1845. Netrevenue 761,982 25,767 ; in 1884, 31,700. 
| tyielded . 65,000 | 1850. Ditto 803,898 | In 1860, there were in the United Kingdom, 11,412 post- 
| itto . . 111,461 | 1855. Ditto . I,137,220 offices ; 1862, 11,316 3 1875, 13,226; 1877, 13,447; Jan. 
ditto 145,227 | 1859. Ditto - 1,150,960 1879, 13,881 ; 1884, 15,951. 
| aidi ges aes ay #102479 | Head offices: 1870, 844; 1875, 886; Tam. 1879, 905 3 1884, 
Nitto . 2 432, Ditto : . 1,236, ae , 
itto as eee ee Ditto ‘pip “ipod 20) The street Letter-bowes were erected in March, 1855. The 
| es 45,313 1864. Ditto ree 53,261 first one was placed at the corner of Fleet-street and 
Pt. Britain 1,424,994 1865 Ditto ‘ 1,482,522 Farringdon-street. There were in 1860, 1,958 ; in 1875, 
))itto . . 1,709,065 | 1866. Ditto . 1,397,986 10,186 ; Jan. 1879, 11,880. 
| itto . 1,755,898 | 1867. Ditto . 1,421,364 | Staff employed: 1862, 25,285; in 1872, 28,959 ; 1874, 
aemedom 2,402,697 | 1868. Ditto . 1,416,922 43,9823; 1875, 44,644 ; 1879, 45,947- 
Litto 2 Peliosis “pica songs 3 7,305,348 Post-OFFICE SAVINGS-BANKS established by parliament 
LN Te 5 tele el Ra ; 14935 1861 (began Sept. 16); interest 2} per cent.; govern- 


The number of these 


Banks. Deposits. 

England . - 1795 £668,879 10 2 
Wales . 129 28,392 2 10 
Scotland . 299 10,237, QO. 9 
Treland C : 300 26,064 18 8 
The Islands. 9 1,679 15 O 

2532 £735,253 16 4 
London distriet : . 267,329 13 8 


1366. Computed total amount of capital held by these 
banks in the United Kingdom, 8,121,175]. 


‘ 


POST-OFFICE ACT. 


668 


POTTERY anp PORCELAIN 


Dec. 1870, 1,183,153 depositors in United Kingdom ; total 
sum held, 15,099,104l.; 10 Dec. 1871, total sum, 
17,303,8151. ; 31 Dec. 1874, 23,157,469/. 188. rod. ; 
31 Dec.1877, 29,713,5291.; 31 Dec. 1878, 30,946,962l. 
in 1883, 6,297,378 depositors; total sum held, 
43,294,949. 

POSTMASTERS. 
The number of postmasters (2) reduced to 1, 1822. 
The offices of postmaster-general of England and of Ire- 
land united in one person, 1831. 
Act passed permitting postmaster to sit in house of 
commons, July, 1866. 

1323. Thomas, earl of Chichester. 

1826. Lord Frederick Montague. 

1827. William duke of Manchester. 

1830. Charles duke of Richmond. 

1834. Francis marquis of Conyngham. 

1835. William lord Maryborough. 

» Francis marquis of Conyngham. 
», Thomas earl of Lichfield. 
1841. William viscount Lowther. 
1846. Edward earl of St. Germans. 
,,  Ulick marquis of Clanricarde. 

1852. Charles Philip earl of Hardwicke. 

1853. Charles John earl Canning. 

1855. George duke of Argyll. 

1858. Charles lord Colchester. 

1859. James earl of Elgin. 

1860. Edward lord Stanley of Alderley. 

1866. James duke of Montrose (July). 

1868. Spencer marquis of Hartington (Dec.). 

1871. Wm. Monsell (Jan.). 

1873. Dr. Lyon Playfair (18 Nov.) 

1874. Lord John Manners (21 Feb.) 

1880. Henry Fawcett (3 May) ; died 6 Nov. 1884. 

1884. Geo. Shaw-Lefevre (18 Nov.) 

CHIEF SECRETARIES. 
Francis Freeling. 
Wm. L. Maberley. ‘ 
Rowland Hill (sec. to postmaster-general, 30 Nov. 
1846); received national testimonial, 17 June, 
1846 ; resigned 29 Feb. 1864; made K.C.B. 1860, 
with a grant of 20,0001. and 2000l. pension ; died 
27 Aug.; buried in Westminster Abbey, 4 Sept. 
1879 (see Rowland Hill Memorial). 

1864. John Tilley (March). 

1880. Stevenson Arthur Blackwood. 


POST-OFFICE ACT, passed 14 June, 1875, 
consolidates previous acts (1840, et seg.), and 
enacts some new regulations. The Post-office 
(Parcels) act was passed 18 Aug. 1882. 


POST-OFFICK DIRECTORY for London, 
published by Kelly & Co., since 1800. County 
directories and trade now published. 


POST-OFFICE Monery-OrpERS Acts, 
I1 & 12 Vict. c. 88 (1848), 43 & 44 Vict. c. 33 (1880). 


POSTAL INTERNATIONAL CON- 
VENTION. A Congress of representatives of 
all the great European powers and the United 
States of North America met at Berne, 15 Sept: 
1874, and signed a convention, 9 Oct., agreeing to 
a uniform postage of 25 centimes, or 23d. for 3 oz. 
letters; newspapers, &c., 4 oz. Id.; commencing 
1 July, 1875. The system was adopted by France, 
commencing I Jan. 1876. 


POSTING. Post-chaises were invented by the 
French, and, according to Grainger, were intro- 
duced into this country by Mr. William Tell, son of 
the writer on husbandry. Posting was fixed by 
statute of Edward VI. at one penny per mile, 1548. 
By a statute, re-establishing the post-office, none 
but the postmaster or his deputies could furnish 
post-horses for travellers, 1660. The post-horse 
duty wasimposed in 1779. Post-horse duty yielded, 
in 1852, in England, 128,501/., and in Scotland, 
40,933¢. 


_ POSTMAN AND TUBMAN, ancient offices 
in the court of exchequer held by barristers with 
certain privileges. 


1797- 
1836. 
1854. 


POTASSIUM, a remarkable metal, disc 
by Humphry Davy, who first succeeded ir 
rating it from its oxide, potash, by mean 
powerful voltaic battery, inthe laboratory ofth 
Institution, London, about 19 Oct. 1807; a1 
the metals Sodiwm from soda, Caleiwm fron 
&c. The alkalies and earths had been pre 
regarded as simple substances. Potassium 
on contact with moisture. 


POTATOHS, natives of Chili and Peru. 
rally considered to have been brought ee 
from Santa Fé, in America, by sir John Ha 
1565. Others ascribe their introduction to sir | 
Drake, in 1586; their general introduction 
Their first culture in Ireland is referred to sir 
Raleigh, who had large estates in that ec 
about Youghal, in the county of Cork. It 
that potatoes were not known in Flander 
1620. A fine kind of potato was first brough 
America by Mr. Howard, who cultivated it « 
dington, near Bedford, 1765; and its cultv 
came general soon after. The failure of the 
crop in Ireland, several years, especially h 
caused famine, to which succeeded pestilent 
of which multitudes died; among them many 
and physicians. Parliament voted ten n 
sterling; and several countries of Europe, a 
United States of America, forwarded provisic 
other succours; see Jreland. In 1868 it wast 
that in England and Wales 500,000 acres, 
Ireland 1,000,000 acres, were under cultivat 
potatoes. Potato disease prevailed greatly i 
land, autumn of 1872. In consequence the y 
potatoes imported in 1872 was 1,654,240/.; i 
only 225,732/.; in 1877, 7,964,840 cwt., 
2,348,749/.; 1n 1883, 5,149,509 cwt., value a 
Temporary alarm respecting the American ©: 
beetle or bug, autumn, 1876. Acres cultive 
potatoes in Great Britain in 1867, 492,217 


627,691 ; 1877, 512,471; 1883, 543,455. 

[Mr. W. Carruthers considers that the disease | 
appear in Britain before 1844; Mr. Thiselt 
thinks that it did.] 

International potato exhibition, Crystal Palac« 
Sept. 1879. 

Rain and want of sunshine greatly injured the ¢ 


1879. 
Raper of a select committee on the failure of the 
crop, Aug. 1880. . 
7th potato show (the 1st, 1874) at the Crystal 
very good, 23 Sept. 1880; 8th exhibition, 20 Se] 


‘Solanum maglia successfully cultivated in wet | 


Mr. A. Sutton of Reading, 1884. 


POTIDZA, a town in Macedonia, a tri 
of Athens, against which it revolted 432 B. 
submitted in 429. It was taken from the 
nians after three years’ siege, by Philip II. of 
don in 358 B.c. 


POTOMAC, see United States, Aug. 18¢ 


POTOSI (Peru). Silver mines here wet 
covered by the Spaniards in 1545; they ar 
mountain in the form of a sugar-loaf. 


POTSDAM (near Berlin), the Versai’ 
Prussia. It was made an arsenal in 1721. 
situated the palace of Sans Souci (built, 166 
embellished by Frederick II., and oceupied | 
poleon I. in Oct. 1806; and the new palac 
residence of prince Frederick William and h: 
the princess royal] of England, married 25 Jan 


POTTERY AnD PORCHLAIN, The: 
facture of earthenware (the, ceramic art) ¢ 
among the Jews as an honourable oceupatic 
1 Chron. iv. 23), and the power of the potte 
the clay as a symbol of the power of God 
scribed by Jeremiah, 605 B.c. (ch. xviii.) 1 


\ 


POULTRY. 


: , 

was made by the ancient Egyptians, Assy- | 
Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans. 

jolica, Raffaelle, or Umbrian ware of the 15th 
iry was probably introduced into Italy from 
Moors from Majorca. Raffaelle and other 
is made designs for this ware. 

+ manufactured at Beauvais, in France, in 
ath century. 

led pottery made at St. Cloud . about 
lella Robbia (born about 1410) applied tin 


1688 


669 


jel to terra-cotta. Fayence ware was made 
‘ance by Bernard Palissy (died, 1589) and his 


ly. : 
tary, formed of earth kaolin, was made in 
‘a in the 2nd century after Christ. Chinese 
glain is mentioned in histories of the 16th cen- 
when it was introduced into England, and 
ly sought after. 

iin made at Bow, near London, early in the 

century, and at Chelsea, before : sys 
4 “History of Ancient Pottery” (1858); Mar- 
s ‘‘ History of Pottery and Porcelain, Medi- 
and Modern” (1857); and Brongniart’s 
tsC éramiques,” are valuable works. 

‘st Buropean porcelain was made at Dresden 
ottcher 3 f ‘ ; . about 
ianufacture was fostered by the king Augus- 
ey 

po di Monte factory at Naples established . 1736 
is Frye painted porcelain, 1749; and Dr. Wall 
jblished the manufacture at Worcester : 
it. Cloud China manufactory removed to 


E58 7 g ; : : é 3 . 1756 
', Wedgwood’s patent ware was first made ._ 1762 
titish manufacture greatly improved by Her- 
_ Minton, who died eetesfo 

1860 


“ity on earthenware taken off . 3 4 : 
was held 


JULTRY. An exhibition of poultry 

ndon, Jan. 1853, when nearly 1000 cocks were 
‘ited; and similar exhibitions have been held 
+ Crystal palace since. 


JULTRY COMPTER (London) was one 
‘e most noted of the old city prisons. The 
‘ter of Wood-street belonged to the sheriff of 
on, and was made a prison-house in 1555. 
latter and Broad-street compter were re-built 
67. The Giltspur-street prison, built to supply 
lace of the old city compters, was puiled down 
55. The Poultry chapel was erectea on tie site 
-} Poultry compter, in 1819.—Leigh. 


YUND, from the Latin Pondus. The value 
3 Roman pondo is not precisely known, though 
"suppose it was equivalent to an Attic mina, or 
7d. The pound sterling was in Saxon times, 
£671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was 
| rentieth part; consequently the latter was three 
sas large as it is at present.—Peacham. Our 
‘dupois pound weight came from the French, 
| contains sixteen ounces; it is in proportion 
‘ir troy weight as seventeen to fourteen; see 
|v Standard. 


| JWDERING THE HAIR, see Hair- 
| ver. 


| JWER-LOOMS, see Looms, and Cotton. 


\OYNINGS’ LAW, named after sir Edward 
‘ings, lord deputy of Ireland at the time of its 
‘ng, at Drogheda, 13 Sept.1494. By this law all 
lation in the Irish parliament was confined to 
‘ers first approved of by the king and the English 
cil. The act was repealed, together with the 
lish Declaratory act of the 6th of Geo. I. and 
‘rt obnoxious Irish statutes, April, 1782. 


RE MONSTRATENSIAN ORDER, or 
‘ITE Canons, founded in 1120 by Norbert, a 
‘k, at Pré Montré, near Laon. Its first house 
Mgland was founded by Peter de Gousla or 
sel, at Newsham, in Lincolnshire, 1143— 


1698 


1700 


1750 


PRAGUE. 


Tanner ; according to others in 1146. The order 
spread widely through England soon after. The 
house at Newsham was dedicated to St, Mary and 
St. Martial.—Levwis. 


PRA MUNIRE, Law oF. This law (which 
obtained its name from the first two words ‘* Pre- 
monert,’” or ** Premuniri facias,’ **Cause to be 
forewarned,’’ which is applied to any offence in the 
way of contempt of the sovereign or his govern- 
ment) derived its origin from the aggressive power 
of the pope in England. ‘The offence introduced a 
foreign power into the land, and created an 
imperium in imperio. ‘The first statute of Pramu- 
nire was enacted 35 Edward I. 1306.—Coke. The 
pope bestowed most of the bishoprics, abbeys, &c., 
before they were void, upon favourites, on pretence 
of providing the church with better qualified suc- 
cessors before the vacancies occurred. ‘l'o put a 
stop to these encroachments, Edward IIT. enacted 
a statute in 1353. The statute commonly referred 
to as the statute of Premunire is the 16th of 
Richard II. 1392. Several similar enactments 
followed. The assertion that parliament is indepen- 
dent of the sovereign was declared a premunire, 1061. 


PRAITORIAN GUARDS, instituted by the 
emperor Augustus (13 B.C.); their numbers en- 
larged by Tiberius, Vitellius, and their successors. 
At first supporters of the imperial tyrants, they 
eventually became their masters, actually putting 
up the diadem for sale (as in March, 193 A.D., 
when it was bought by Didius Julianus). They 
committed many atrocities, and were finally dis- 
banded by Constantine in 312. : 


PRAITORS, Roman magistrates. In 365 B.c., 
one pretor was appointed; a second appointed in 
252 B.c. The pretor urbanus administered justice 
to the citizens, and the pretor peregrinus acted in 
causes relating to foreigners. In 227 B.c. two more 
pretors were created to assist the consul in the 
government of Sicily and Sardinia, lately con- 
quered; and two more when Spain was made a 
Roman province, 197 B.c. Sylla, the dictator, 
added two, and Julius Cesar increased the number 
to 10, which afterwards became 16. After this, 
their number fluctuated, being sometimes 18, 16, or 
12; till, in the decline of the empire, their dignity 
riba and their numbers were reduced to 

ree. 


PRAGA, asuburb of Warsaw, where a bloody 
battle was fought, 4 Nov..1794; 30,000 Poles were 
killed by the Russian general Suwarrow. Near 
here, on 25 Feb. 1831, the Poles, commanded by 
Skrznecki, defeated the Russians, under general 
Giemsar, who lost 4000 killed and wounded, 6000 
prisoners, and 12 pieces of cannon. 


PRAGMATIC SANCTION, an ordinance 
relating to church and state affairs. The ordinances 
of the kings of France are thus called; in one the 
rights of the Gallican church were asserted against 
the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops, 
by Charles VII. in 1438. The Pragmatic Sanction 
for settling the empire of Germany in the house of 
Austria, 1439. The emperor Charles VI. published 
the Pragmatic Sanction, whereby, in default of 
male issue, his daughters should succeed in prefer- 
ence to the daughters of his brother Joseph L., 
1g April, 171 3; and he settled his dominions on 
his daughter Maria Theresa, in conformity thereto, 
1723. Shesucceeded in Oct. 1740; but it gave rise 
to a war, in which most of the powers of Europe 
were engaged, and which lasted till 1748. 


PRAGUE, the capital of Bohemia (which see). 
The old city was founded about 759; the new city 


PRAGUERTE. 


rebuilt in 1348 by the emperor Charles IV., who 
imade it his capital and erected a university. Prague 
has suffered much by war. 
Victory of the Hussites under Ziska 14 July, 
Frederick, the king, totally defeated by the Aus- 
trians near Prague ‘ : : MPaSINOV: 
Prague taken by the Swedes in 1648, and by the 
Frenchin 1741; they leftit . : : be 
Taken by the king of Prussia ; obliged to abandon it, 
Great battle of Prague (the Austrians defeated by 
prince Henry of Prussia, and their whole camp 
taken ; their commander, general Braun, mor- 
tally wounded, and the Prussian marshal 
Schwerin killed) . ; : : 6 May, 
Insurrection in Prague ; soon suppressed June, 
A treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia signed 
at Prague (by its articles Austria consented to 
the breaking up of the Germanic confederation, 
and to Prussia’s annexing Hanover, Hesse Cassel, 
Nassau, and Frankfort; and gave up Holstein, 
and her political influence in North Germany), 
and North Schleswig to Denmark if the people 
vote for it ; (the last not carried out) 23 Aug. 1866; 
abrogated : 2 : : : 5 Feb. 
Riots of Czech and German students; Marshal 
Krause appointed governor about to July, 1881 
45 socialists sentenced to imprisonment . - Dec. 1882 


PRAGUERIE, WAR oF (so named from 
Prague, then celebrated for its civil disorders) ; 
the revolt of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XL, 
against his father Charles VII., aided by Alexander, 
the bastard of Bourbon, and other nobles. It was 
soon quelled ; Louis was exiled, and Alexander put 
to death by drowning, July, 1440. 


PRAIRIAL INSURRECTION at Paris. 
On 1, 2, 3 Prairial, year 3 (20, 21, 22 May, 1795), 
the faubourgs rose against the directory, and were 
quelled by the military. 


PRAISE- GOD - BAREBONES’ PAR- 
LIAMENT, see Barebones. 


PRASLIN MURDER. The duchesse de 
Choiseul-Praslin was murdered by her husband, 
the duc de Praslin, at his own house, in Paris, 17 
Aug. 1847. She was the only daughter of the 
-celebrated marshal Sebastiani, the mother of nine 
children, and in her forty-first year. Circum- 
stances were so managed by him as to give it the 
appearance of being the act of another. During 
the arrangements for the trial, the duke took 
poison. 

PRAYER-BOOK, see Common Prayer. The 
Prayer-book and Homily Society, London, was 
founded in 1812. 

Prayer-book Revision Society, established 1854, for pro- 
moting a revision of the book of common prayer, and 
such liturgical reforms in the church of England as 
will strengthen its Protestant and scriptural character. 


PRAYERS. ‘‘ Then began men to call upon 
the name of the Lord’”’ (Gen. iv. 26), 3875 B.c. The 
mode of praying with the face to the east was 
instituted by pope Boniface II. a.p. 532. Prayers 
for the dead, first introduced into the Christian 
church about 190, are advocated by some ministers 
of the English church. Prayers addressed to 
the Virgin Mary and to the saints are said to have 
been introduced by pope Gregory, 593. See 
LTiturgies. 

PREBENDARY, a clergyman attached toa 
cathedral or collegiate church, who receives an 
income termed prebenda for officiating at stated 
times. The office slightly differs from that of a 
canon. 

PRECEDENCE was established in very early 
ages, and was amongst the laws of Justinian. In 
England the order of precedency was regulated 


1420 
1620 


1742 
1744 


1757 
1848 


1879 


670 


PREROGATIVE ROYAL. . 
chiefly by two statut Hen. VILL. 1 a | 
aru ae atutes, 31 Hen 1539, 


PRECEPTORS, COLLEGE OF, BI 
bury, London, established in 1846, and incorp 
by royal charter 28 March, 1849, for pron 
sound learning, especially among the middle ¢] 
by the instruction of teachers, and by the e 
nation of pupils at stated times. 


PREDESTINATION (Zpies.i.). Th 
trine concerning this is defined in the seyent 
article of the Church of England (Zphes. i 
ftomans ix.). It was maintained by St. Aug 
and opposed by Pelagius, in the early part ¢ 
pth century. In later times it has been maint 

y the Augustinians, Jansenists, the chur 
Scotland, and many dissenters (termed Calvin 
and opposed by the Dominicans, Jesuits, an 
senters (termed Arminian), especially by the 
leyan methodists. 


_ PREHISTORIC ARCH AOLOGY ) 
in Sweden, and first systematised by Mr. Ni 
Daniel Wilson’s ‘Archeology and Pre-hi 
Annals of Scotland,’ published 1851. An : 
national congress for treating prehistorical su 
met at Neuchatel in 1866, and at Paris in 186: 
the third meeting at Norwich, Aug. 1868, it ass 
the name of ‘‘ International Congress for Prehi 
Archeology,” and published its transactions in 
A meeting was held at Stockholm 7-14 Aug. 
See Barrows, Man, and Ancient Monuments. 
Sir John Lubbock divides prehistoric archeolog: 
four great epochs: x. The Drift or Paleolithie « 
stone age; 2. The Neolithic or polished stone a: 
The Bronze age; 4. The Iron age, when bronz 
superseded. —(1880.) 


_PRE-RAPHAELITE SCHOOL, a : 
given about 1850, to J. E. Millais, Wm. Ho 
Hunt, D. G. Rossetti, and other artists, who op 
the routine conventionality of academic teac' 
and resolved to study nature as it appeare 
them, and not as it appeared in the antique. 
a short time they published “ The Germ, or Art 
Poetry,”’ beginning in 1850. Their works 
been much criticised, but their influence has 
beneficial. Their principles are much adyo: 
by the great art-critic, John Ruskin. 


PREROGATIVE COURT, in which 
merly all wills were proved, and all administra 
taken, which belonged to the archbishop of Ca 
bury by his prerogative, a judge being appoint: 
him to decide disputes.* Appeals from this ci 
previously to the pope, were commanded t 
made to the king in chancery, 1533; to the p 
council in 1830-2. This court was abolished, 
the Probate Court established in 1857. Sir J 
Dodson, the last judge, died in 1858. 


PREROGATIVE ROYAL. In Eng 
the sovereign is the supreme magistrate, and it 
maxim that he can do no wrong. He is the |! 
of the established church, of the army and ni 
and the fountain of office, honour, and privil 
but is subject to the laws, unless exempted 
name, The royal prerogatives were greatly exect 
by several despotic sovereigns, such as Elizab 
James I.,and Charles I. Elizabeth used the ph 
‘* We, of our Royal prerogative, which we will 


have argued or brought in question” (15 


* The records date from 1383; but the testamer 
jurisdiction from that year to 1433 was exercised by 
court of arches. Then abp. Stafford transferred it 1 
new court ; president, the commissary of the preroga 
court of Canterbury. There was also a preroga 
court of the archbishop of York. 


PRESBURG. 


‘I. told his parliament ‘‘that as it was blas- 
y to question what the Almighty could do 
| power, so it was sedition to inquire what a 
could do by virtue of his prerogative.” 
extreme doctrines were nullified by the 
ition of 1688, and the exercise of the preroga- 
s now virtually subject to parliament; see 


ESBURG, the ancient capital of Hungary, 
the diets were held and the kings crowned. 
) Dec. 1805, a treaty was signed between 
e and Austria, by which the ancient states of 
2 were ceded to Italy; the principality of 
jadt, part of the bishopric of Passau, the city 
gsburg, the Tyrol, all the possessions of 
a in Suabia, in Brisgau, and Ortenau, were 
erred to the elector of Bavaria, and the duke 
irtemberg, who, as well as the duke of Baden, 
jhen created kings by Napoleon. The inde- 
nee of the Helvetic republic was also stipu- 


ESBYTERIANS are so called from their 
aining that the government of the church 
ited in the New Testament was by presby- 
or association of ministers and ruling elders, 
‘in power, office, and in order. ‘‘ The elders 
k, presbyteros) I exhort, who am also an 
(sympresbyteros).”’ 1 Peter v. I. Presby- 
ism was accepted by parliament in place of 
‘pacy in England in 1648, but set aside at the 
ation in 1660. It became the established 
of church government in Scotland in 1696. 
aets were embodied in the formulary of faith 
» have been composed by John Knox, in 1560, 
was approved by the parliament, and ratified, 
and finally settled by an act of the Scottish 
», 1696, afterwards secured by the treaty of 
with England in 1707. The first Presby- 
.meeting-house in England was established 
mdsworth, Surrey, 20 Nov. 1572. 
presbyterian congress held inLondon. Repre- 
atives of about fifty bodies, British, Ame- 
1,and foreign, agreed to form an “‘ Alliance of 
byterian churches” . : . 19-22 July, 
‘esbyterian church of England re-constituted 
iverpool (in union with the United Presbyte- 
Church of Scotland) . : . 13 June, 
-presbyterian congress, held at Edinburgh, 
nm 3 July, 1877; at Philadelphia, U.S.A., 
23 Sept. 1880 
e Church of Scotland, Cameronians, Burgiers, 
| Relief, Glasites, Free Church, &c. 


‘ESCOTT (Upper Canada). On 17 Nov. 
the Canadian rebels were attacked by the 
h under major Young, and (on the 18th) by 
colonel Dundas, who dispersed the insurgents, 
lof whom were killed, and many taken pri- 
{, and the remainder surrendered. The troops 
iffered considerably. 


-ESERVED MEAT, see Provisions. 


ESIDENT, see Privy Council; United 
', 1789; France, 1848, 1871; Wrecks, 1841.— 
IDENT OF THE CouNcIL, LorpD, the 
| great officer of state, is appointed under the 
seal, durante beneplacito, and, by his office, 
‘attend the sovereign’s royal person, and to 
‘re the debates in council, to propose matters 
‘the sovereign at the council-table, and to 
/ to his majesty the resolutions taken there- 


1875 


1876 


‘ESS, Liperty or THE. The imprimatur 
't be printed” was much used on the title- 
of books printed in the sixteenth and seven- 


centuries. The liberty of the press was 


671 


PRESTON. 


severely restrained, and the number of master- 
printers in London and Westminster limited by the 
Star Chamber, 13 Charles I., July 1, 1637. John 
Milton published his noble work, ‘‘ Areopagitica ; 
or, a Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed 
Printing,’’ 1644. 
“Disorders in printing” were repressed by the 

parliament in 1643 and 1649, and by Charles II. . 1662 
The censorship of the press (by a licence established 

in 1655 and 1693) abandoned. F ; - 1695 
The toast, ‘‘ The liberty of the press ; it is like the 

air we breathe—if we have it not we die,” was 

first given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, at a 

Whig dinner. : : ; 2 é - 1795 
Presses licensed, and the printer’s name required to 

be placed on both the first and last pages of a 

book : ; : ‘ . July, 179 
The severity of the restrictions on the French press 

relaxed by M. Persigny, minister of the interior, 

but soon restored : ‘ é . Dec. 1860 
The liberty of the press in the United States greatly 

checked during the civil war : A - 1861-1865 
Certain restrictions on printers in the United King- 

dom removed by act passed . : July, 1869 
Bill greatly freeing the press in France introduced 

into the chamber < ‘ : : 24 Jan. 1881 
Press (newspaper), a revolutionary journal, pub- 

lished in Dublin: commenced in Oct. 1797; 

Arthur O’Connor, Mr. Emmett, the barrister 

(whose brother was executed in 1803), and other 

conspicuous men, contributors to it ; it inflamed 

the public mind in Ireland on the eve of the 

rebellion in 1798. The paper was suppressed by 

a military force : 2 p 6 March, 1798 


PRESS-GANG for the royal navy was regu- 
lated by statute, 1378, and by 5 & 6 Will. IV. 1835; 
the compulsory service is limited to five years, see 
Impressment. 


PRESSING To DEATH, see Mute. 


PRESTON (Lancashire). Near here Cromwell 
totally defeated the royalists under sir Marmaduke 
Langdale, 17 Aug. 1648. Preston was taken in 
1715 by the Scotch insurgents, under Forster, who 
proclaimed king James VII. They were defeated 
in a battle on 12, 13 Nov. by generals Willes and 
Carpenter, who with the royal army invested 
Preston on all sides. The Scots. laid down their 
arms, and their nobles and leaders were secured } 
some were shot as deserters, and others sent to 
London pinioned and bound together, to intimidate 
their party.—The stoppage of the cotton manu- 
facture in 1861 and 1862, through the civil war in 
America, occasioned great suffering in Preston. See 
Population. 


** The Preston guild Merchant festival,” said to have 
been instituted in Saxon times, recorded as be- 
ginning 1328, and to have been kept once in 20 
years regularly since 1562, was duly celebrated in 

Sept. 1862, and Sept. 

A fine art and industrial exhibition here opened 

ar Sept. 

The new town hall opened by the duke of Cambridge 

3 Oct. 

Statue of the late earl of Derby publicly inaugurated 

3 June, 

Preston strikes.—In 1853, a great number of strikes 
took place among the workmen in the north of 
England. Those at Preston struck for an increase 
of ro per cent. on their wages. On 15 Oct. the 
masters, in consequence, closed forty-nine mills, 
and 20,000 persons were thrown out of employ- 
ment, who were mostly maintained for a long 
time by subscriptions from their fellows. In the 
week ending 17 Dec. 14,972 were relieved, at the 
cost of 2820/1. 8s. The committee of workmen 
addressed lord Palmerston, 15 Nov., who gave 
them his advice : : : . 24 Dec. 

After many attempts at reconciliation, the strike 
closed for want of funds ‘ 1 May, 1854 

Another strike was closed in May, 1869 


1882 
1865 
1867 


1873 


1853 


PRESTON-PANS. 


The executors of Mr. E. C. Harris, a solicitor, 
awarded 70,000l. for a free library, museum, &e. 
Sept. 1879; of which the foundation was laid by 
the earl of Lathom : ; 4 . 5 sept. 1882 
The foundation of the Lancashire county hall laid 
by the earl of Derby / : T4. Sept. = 55 
Mr. Rich. Newsham bequeaths his pictures and art 
treasures, worth about 70,o00l. to Preston 
announced Dec. 1883 


PRESTON-PANS, near Edinburgh, the scene 
of a battle between the Young Pretender, prince 
Charles Stuart, and his Scotch adherents, and the 
royal army under sir John Cope, 21 Sept. 1745. 
The latter was defeated with the loss of 500 men, 
and fled. 


PRETENDERS. A name given to the 


and grandsons of James II. of England. 


The OLD PRETENDER, James Francis Edward 
Stuart, Chevalier de St. George, born ro June, 
1688, was acknowledged by Louis XIV. as James 
Ill. of England, in 1701. 

Proclaimed, and his standard set up, at Braemar 
and Castletown, in Scotland ; 3 Sept. 

Landed at Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, from 
France, to encourage the rebellion that the earl 
of Mar and his other adherents had prompted, 

25 Dec. 

This rebellion having been soon suppressed, the 
Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he 
proceeded to Gravelines) : 4 Feb. 

Died at Rome : , A , : 30; DEC. 

The YouNnG PRETENDER, Charles Edward, was 
bornin . : ; : ; - : 2 : 

(Landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king 


son 


1715 


25 July, 1745 
Gained the battle of Preston-pans, 21 Sept. 1745, 
and of Falkirk : : 17 Jan. 1746 


Defeated at Culloden, and sought safety by flight, 
16 April a. 

He continued wandering among the wilds of Scot- 
land for nearly six months ; and as 30,000l. were 
offered for taking him, he was constantly pursued 
by the British troops, often hemmed round by 
his enemies, but still rescued by some lucky 
accident, and at length escaped from the isle of 
Vist to Morlaix in Sept. He died 31 Jan. 
His natural daughter assumed the title of duchess 
of Albany ; died in ' : : ; : : 
His brother, the cardinal York, calling himself 
Henry IX. of England, born March, 1725; died 
at Rome in . ; ; : . : Aug. 
His alleged grandson, Charles Edward Stuart comte 
d’ Albanie, died . : : : : 24 Dec. 1880 
See France, Louis XVII. ; and Impostors, 1606. 


PREVENTION OF CRIME ACT, 42 & 
43 Vict. ¢. 55, passed 15 Aug. 1879. Another act 
passed 12 July, 1882. See Jredand, May, 1882. 


PRICES, see Corn, Bread, and Provisions. 
Mr. T. Tooke, in 1838, published a ‘‘ History of 
Prices from 1793 to 1856.” He was latterly aided 
by Mr. W. Newmarch. 


PRIDE’S PURGE. On the 6th Dec. 1648, 
colonel Pride, with two regiments, surrounded the 
house of parliament, and seizing in the passage 
forty-one members of the Presbyterian party, sent 
them to a low room, then called hell. Above 160 
other members were excluded, and none admitted 
but the most furious of the Independents. The 
privileged members were named the Rump parlia- 
ment, Which was dismissed by Cromwell, 20 April, 
1653. 

PRIENE, one of the twelve cities of the Ionian 
league in Asia Minor. The temple of Minerva 
Polias, founded here by Alexander the Great, and 
the work of Pythios, was excavated by Mr. R. P. 
Pullan, for the Dilettanti Society, in 1868-9. 


PRIEST (derived from presbyteros, elder), in 
the English church the minister who presides over 


1788 


1789 


1807 


672 


* 


PRINCESS ALICE. 


the public worship. In Gen. xiv. 18, Melchi. 
king of Salem is termed ‘‘ priest of the most 
God.” (1913 B.c.; see Hebrews vii.) The ( 
hiereus, like the Jewish priest, had a saer 
character, which idea of~the priesthood is 
maintained by the Romanists and those who f. 
their views. Among the Jews, the priests ass 
their office at the age of thirty years. The di 
of high or chief priest was fixed in Aaron’s fa 
1491 B.c. After the captivity of Babylon, the 
government and the crown were superadded t 
high priesthood; it was the peculiar privile 
the high priest, that he could be prosecuted - 
court but that of the great Sanhedrim. 
heathens had their arch-flamen or high 7 
resembling the Christian archbishop. For “| 
in Absolution,” see Holy Cross. 


PRIMER. A book so named from the Ri 
book of devotions, and formerly set forth or 
lished by authority, as the first book chi 
should publicly learn or read in schools, conta 
prayers and portions of the scripture. Primer: 
printed 1535, 1539. Henry VIII. issued a pr 
book called a “*primer’’ in 1546. The three 
published by Dr. Burton in 1834. 


PRIMITIVE CULTURE, see Civilis: 
PRIMOGENITURHE, Ricut or. A 


brought down from the earliest times. The 
born in the patriarchal ages had a superiority 
his brethren, and in the absence of his fathe 
priest to the family. In some parts of En; 
by the ancient customs of gavel-kind and bor 
English, primogeniture was superseded. It 
in with the feudal law, 3 Will. I. 1068. 

rights of primogeniture abolished in France, 1 


PRINCE oF THE PEACE, a title cont 
on Manuel Godoy by Charles IV. of Span 
concluding the Treaty of Basle. 


PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND ( 
America), was discovered by Cabot, in 1497 
finally taken from the French by the Briti 
1758; united with Cape Breton as a colony in 
but separated in 1768. W. F. Robinson, gov: 
Aug. 1870; sir Robert Hodgson, 1874; hon. T) 
Heath Haviland, 1879. 


PRINCE OF WALES'S ISLANL 
Penang. 


PRINCE RUPERT'S LAND, see 2x 
Land, and Hudson's Bay. 


PRINCESS ALICH, an iron saloon ste 
belonging to the London steamboat company, 
carrying, it is supposed, above 900 persons, p 
pally women and children, on their return 
Sheerness, was immediately sunk by collisior 
the Bywell Castle, a large iron screw steamer, 
7.40 p.m. on Tuesday, 3 Sept. 1878, in the Thi 
in Gallion’s reach, about a mile below Woo 
arsenal. About 200 persons were saved, } 
these about 16 died afterwards. About 640! 
were recovered and buried ; many at Woolwi 


The Princess Alice was 251 tons gross ; 219 ft. 410. 
2oft. 2in. broad; 8ft. 4in. deep. Engines, 140 
power, by Caird, of Glasgow. Capt. Wm. Gri 
(lost), with (it is said) 6 sailors, 2 engineers, 3 fil 
6 stewards, and 5 boys. 

The Bywell Castle, 1376 tons gross; 254 ft. 31. 
32 ft. rin. broad ; 19 ft. 6 in. deep. Engines, 12¢ 
power. Owners, Hall Brothers, London. © 
Thomas Harrison. 

Mansion House Relief Fund opened, 5 Sept. The 
sent r1osl.; subscriptions came from royal fa 
38,2461. 2s. 6d. received ; final meeting, 30 Dee. : 

Board of Trade Inquiry.—Result : Officers of - 


4 ~ 


PRINCESS’S THEATRE. 


673 


PRINTING. 


astle and Princess Alice not considered responsible for 
he accident, but some were censured for carelessness, 
8 Oct. The Princess Alice considered to be equal to her 
nad ; inquiry concluded, 31 Oct. Decision: ‘‘ that 
he cause of the casualty was the breach of Rule 29 
the Thames Conservancy Regulations, by the 
'rincess Alice not porting her helm when she came 
od on to the Bywell Castle, a vessel coming in the 
pposite direction.” Report dated 6 Noy. 1878. 
oner’s Inquest.—Verdict : ‘* Bywell Castle did not take 
ecessary precautions in time, of easing, &c. ; Princess 
lice contributed to the collision by not stopping her 
igines and going astern, &c.” ; 14 Noy. 1878. 
action for damage against owners of Bywell Castle in 
dmiralty division began 27 Nov. ; decision that both 
xssels were to blame, rz Dec. 1878; decision on 
ypeal that the Princess Alice was solely to blame, r5 


ily, 1879. 
*RINCESS’S THEATRE, see under 


‘atres. 


*RINCETON, New Jersey, N. America. 
‘e Washington defeated the British, 3 Jan. 1777. 


‘RINTED GOODS, see Calico. 


RINTERS PENSION SOCIETY, 
aided 1827; chartered, 1865; almshouses insti- 
d, 1841; orphan schools have been set up. 


'RINTING. Block printing invented by the 
aese about 593 A.D., movable types made in 
10th century. The honour of first printing with 
le types in Europe has been appropriated to 
ttz, Strasburg, Haarlem, Venice, Rome, Flor- 
1, Basle, and Augsburg; but the names of the 
e first only are entitled to attention ; see Press. 


an Junius awards the honour of the invention 
_Laurenzes John Koster, of Haarlem, ‘‘ who 
inted with blocks, a book of images and letters, 
eculum Humane Salvationis, and compounded 
ink more viscous and tenacious than common 
<, which blotted, about 1438.” 
leaves of this book, being printed on one side 
ly, were afterwards pasted together. | 
1859, Mr. Samuel Leigh Sotheby issued an 
borate work compiled by his father and him- 
f, entitled “Principia Typographica,” con- 
ning fac-similes, &c., of the block-books of the 
ih century; and Mr. J. Russell Smith published 
ac-simile of the Biblia Pauperum, a very early 
i¢k-book. ] 

Fust established a printing-office at Mentz, 
lprinted the Tractatus Petri Hispanit . > 

Gutenberg invented cut metal types, and 
1d them in printing the earliest edition of the 
tin bible (termed the Mazarin, from the dis- 
rery of a copy in the cardinal’s library) at 
ntz , ‘ . a 3 : : - 1450-55 
he sale of the Perkins library, 6 June, 1873, a 
oy of this bible on vellum sold for 3400l., one on 
er sold for 2690l.; a copy belonging to sir John 
orold, of Syston-park, sold for 3900l. 13 Dee. 


4.) 

of Psalms, by Fust and Scheeffer o) 14 Aug, 
ohn Thorold’s copy on vellum sold for 4950l. 
*merly sold for 136l.] 19 Dec. 1884. 

Jurandi Rationale, first work printed with cast 
tal types x ; : 3 : ‘ See 
ting was introduced into Oxford, about this 
-@. Collier. Denied by Dibdin.] 
vy printed. Du Fresnoy . - 

first Latin bible with a date 


1442 


1457 


1459 


: 3 - 1460 
completed at 
atz by Fust and Scheffer . ¥ : PAP 
‘Ztaken and plundered, and the art of printing, 
he general ruin, is spread to other towns a | * 
ypes were uniformly Gothic, or old German 
tence our old English or Black Letter), until . 1465 

‘ characters (quotations only) first used, same 
de Officiis printed by Fust at Mentz . 

m characters, firstat Rome . : : ; 
“onicle, said to have been, found in the arch- 
“nop of Canterbury’s palace (the fact disputed), 
Ting the date ‘‘ Oxford, anno 1468.” 

‘ntius, by Sweynheym and Pannartz, near 
me, 1465; Livy by thesame . a . . 1469 


1462 


” 


1467 


William Caxton, a mercer of London, set up the 
first press at Westminster F : : fees BY ble 
[To the west of the Sanctuary in Westminster 
Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry, 
where the first printing press in England was 
erected in 1471, by William Caxton, encouraged. 
by the learned Thomas Miling, then abbot. ] 


He printed Willyam Caxton’s Recwyel of the Hystoryes 
of Troy, by Raoul le Feure. Phillips ‘ Als 
His early pieces were, A Treatise on the Game of 
Chesse and Tully’s Offices (see below). Dibdin 1474 
4sop’s Fables, printed by Caxton, is supposed to be 


the first book with its leaves numbered : - 1484 
Aldus cast the Greek Alphabet, and a Greek book 
printed ap. Aldi ‘ > : : : aye 78 
He introduces the Italics BAS 
The Pentateuch, in Hebrew . : - - 1482 
German Bible at Nuremberg . : : : - 1483 
Homer, in folio, beautifully done at Florence, 
eclipsing all former printing, by Demetrius . 1483 
Caxton prints the Boke of Eneydos . 1490 
Aldus Manutius begins printing at Venice . - 1494 
Printing used in Scotland ‘ : : : - 1509 
The first edition of the whole bible was, strictly 
speaking, the Complutensian Polyglot of cardinal 
Ximenes (see Polyglot) ; : : ‘ Seal STy 
The Liturgy, the first book printed in Ireland, by 
Humphrey Powell E ; : Fe ; . 1550 
Printing in Irish characters introduced by Nicholas 
Walsh, chancellor of St. Patrick’s ‘ ‘4 as 7r 
The first newspaper said to be printed in England 
(see Newspapers) ; : F - . 1588 


First patent granted for printing . . 
First printing press improved by William 
Amsterdam . : . ‘ ‘ : ee 
First printing in America, in New England, when 
the Freeman’s Oath and an almanack were 
printed . ; . : : : ‘ ‘ - 1639 
“Bay Psalm-book” printed at Cambridge, Mass. . 1640 
First bible printed in Ireland was at Belfast. 
Hardy’s Tour ; 3 : 5 a : - 1704 
First types cast in England by Caslon. Phillips . 1720 
Stereotype printing practised by William Ged, of 
Edinburgh : : : : : - about 1730 
(Specimen at Royal Institution, London.] 
The present mode of stereotype invented by Mr. 
Tilloch about 


: - I591 
Blaeu, at 
1604 


. . . . . I 
[Stereotype printing was in use in Holland in the ee 
last century. Phillips.) 
Logographic printing in which words cast in one 
piece were employed: patented by H. Johnson 
and Mr. Walter of the Times ; (soon disused) 1783 
Machine-printing (which see) first suggested by ' 
Nicholson 5 . ; ; 5 : - 1790 
The Stanhope press invented about 1800 ; in general 
use . : : - | ‘ 5 ‘ 1806 
Albion press introduced : , ; 1. 18r6 
The roller, which was a suggestion of Nicholson, 
introduced. ; : 3 : ys 
Cowper’s and Applegath’s rollers 1817 
Columbian press of Clymer patented ; . MF: 
Printing for the blind (by raised characters) begins 1827 


Anastatic Printing, in which written or printed 
matter is transferred upon zine plates, was inven- 
ted by Baldermus of Berlin about 1841, and made 
known in London; lectured on by Faraday in 
1845; and improved by Strickland and Delamotte 
in : = a i 3 C ; ‘ a. gs} 

[A similar process was invented by Mr. Cocks of 
Falmouth in 1836. ] 

Printing-types electro-faced with copper about 

Leake copper-plate electro-faced with iron and 
nicke s : ‘A : ; 


Type-composing machines. —By James Young’s several 
numbers of the ‘‘Family Herald” were set up, 
beginning 17 Dec. 1842; Hattersley’s appeared at 
the Exhibition of 1862; Hart’s was shown at the 
meeting of the British Association at Cambridge 

6 Oct. 

W. H. Mitchel’s composing machine was tried at 
Messrs. Spottiswoode’s, 1861; these machines 
were said to be in use in America in Jan. 

Kastenbein’s composing and distributing machines 
(in use at the Times office) shown at the Inter- 
national exhibition , : : : . 1872 

The ‘‘ Clowes” type-composing machine (Hooker's 
patent), in which electro-magnets are employed, 


x xX 


1862 


1863 


Piss 


PRINTING. 


674 


PRIORIES. 


was shown at the Caxton celebration exhibition, 
South Kensington . : ‘ ; July, 1877 

[10,000 types per hour may be set up in page form. ] 

Alexander Mackie’s type-composing machine in use 
at his office in Warrington, and at Messrs. Clay’s, 
London, in 1871. It was said to be able to set up 
4 columns of the Times in an hour. 

Miss Emily Faithfull established the Victoria 
printing-office in Great Coram-street, London, in 
which female compositors are employed: the 
“‘Englishwoman’s Journal” printed there Aug. 

1861 ; appointed printer and publisher in ordinary 
to her Majesty ; : ; ; : June, 1862 
[See Printing Machine, Stereotype, and Nature Printing. ] 


TITLES OF THE EARLIEST Books or CAXTON AND 
WYNKYN DE WORDE. 


Tr GAME AND PLAYE OF THE CHeEssE. Translated out 
of the Frenche and emprynted by me William Caxton. 
Fynysshid the last day of Marche the yer of our Lord God 
a thousand foure hondred and lxxitij. 

[A fac-simile of this book was printed by Mr. Vincent 
Figgins in 1859. ] 

Tue Dicres AND WISE SAYINGS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS, 
is stated to be the first book printed by Caxton in 
England, 1477. (Fac-simile published by Elliot Stock, 
1877. 

oh Gee oF TULLE oF OLDE AGE Emprynted by me 
simple persone William Caxton into Englysshe as the 
playsir solace and reverence of men grouing in to old age 
the xij day of August the yere of our Lord M. cccc. lxaaj. 
HERBERT. 

THE POLYCRONYCON conteyning the Berynges and Dedes 
of many Tymes in eyght Bokes. Imprinted by William 
Caxton after having somewhat chaunged the rude and olde 
Englysshe, that is to wete [to wit] certayn Words which 
in these Dayes be neither vsyd ne understanden. Ended 
the second day of Juyll at Westmestre the xxij yere of the 
Regne of Kynge Edward the fourth, and of the Incarna- 
cion of oure Lord a Thousand four hondred four Score 
and tweyne [1482]. DiBpin’s Typ. ANT. 

THE CRONICLES OF ENGLoND Empnted by me Wyllyam 
Caxton thabbey of Westmynstre by londonthe v day of 
Juyn the yere of thincarnacion of our lord god 
M. COCC, LX XX. 

Potycronycon. Ended the thyrtenth daye of Apryll the 
tenth yere of the reyne of kinge Harry the seuenth And 
of the Jncarnacyon of owr lord MCCCCLXXXxv. Emupryn- 
ted by Wynkyn The worde at Wesmestre. 

THe HYLLE OF PERFECTION emprynted at the instance of 
the reverend relygyous fader Tho. Prior of the hous of 
St. Ann, the order of the charterouse Acconplysshe[d] 
they fynysshe[d] att Westmynster the utit day of Janeuer 
and ere of owr lord Thousande cocc.LXxxxvil. And in 
the xit yere of kynge Henry the vit by me wynkyn de 
worde. AMES, HERBERT, DIBDIN. 

THe DeEscRIPCYON OF ENGLONDE Walys Scotland and 
Trlond speaking of the Noblesse and Worthynesse of the 
same Fynysshed and emprynted in Flete strete in the syne 
of the Sonne by me Wynkyn de Worde the yere of owr 
lord a M ccccc and tj. mensis Mayiis [mense Maii]. 
Drspin’s Typ. ANT. 

The Festyvall or Sermons on sondays and holidais taken 
out of the golden legend enprynted at london in Flete-strete 
at ye sygne of yt Sonne by wynkyn de worde. In the 
yere of our Lord m.ccccc.vi. And ended the xi daye 
of Maye. AMES. 

THE LORD’S PRAYER [As printed by Caxton in 1483.] 
Father our that art in heavens, hallowed be thy name: 
thy kingdome come to us; thy will be done in earth as is 
in heaven: owr every day bread give us to day; and 
forgive us oure trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass 
against us; and lead us not in to temptation, but deliver 
us from all evil sin, amen. LeEewtis’s LIFE OF CAXTON. 

A Puacarp. [As printed by William Caxton.] If it 
plese ony man spirituel or temperel to bye ony pies uf two 
or three comemoracios of Salisburi use* enprynted after 
the forme of this preset lettre whiche ben wel and truly 
correct, late him come to westmonester in to the almonestye 
at the reed pale [red pale] and he shall have them good 
there. Dippin’s Typ. ANT. 

CAXTON CELEBRATION Of 4ooth anniversary of discovery 


* Romish Service-books, used at Salisbury, by the 
devout called Pies (Pica, Latin), as is supposed from 
the different colour of the text and rubric. Our printing- 
type Pica is called Cicero by foreign printers. —Jt heatley. 


of printing : First meeting at Westminster abbey ; 
Stanley in chair; Messrs. Spottiswoodes, Rivin 
Clowes, and others present, 17 Feb. 1877. 

Exhibition (at South Kensington) of early printed bi 
bibles, and engravings ; printing, paper-making 
reotyping, electrotyping, in operation ; opened by 
W. E. Gladstone, 30 June; closed 1 Sept. 1877. 

rr16l. profit given to the Printers’ Pension Corpora 
30 July, 1878. 

The catalogue contains valuable information. 

PRINTING-MACHINES.—William Nicholson, editor o 
Philosophical Journal, first projected (1790-1), but 
Konig first contrived and constructed a wo; 
printing machine, which began with producing 
Times of 28 Nov. 1814, a memorable day in the a 
of typography. 

In 1818, Mr. E. Cowper patented improvements.* 

Konig’s machine printed 1800 an hour on one 
Cowper’s improvements increased this numbe 
4200. This was raised to 15,000, by Mr. Appleg 
machine, which printed the Times. 

Hoe’s American machine, introduced into London 
prints 20,000 an hour. 

Marinoni’s machine at Paris said to print 36,000 an ] 
Dec. 1868. 

Walter press, invented for the Times by J. C. Maced 
and Mr. Calverley, between 1862-9, prints about 1 
an hour perfected ; 1872. 

American Campbell press said to print 50,000 sheets 
fected in an hour, Feb. 1876. 

Ingram web rotary machine, invented by Mr. W. ¢ 
gram, M.P., for printing illustrated papers ; first 
to print Illustrated London News, 4 Oct. 1877. 

PRINTING IN CoLouRS was first commenced by 
employment of several blocks, to imitate the i 
letters in MSS. (for instance, the Mentz Psalt 
Fust, 1455, which has a letter in three cok 
Imitations of chiaroscuro soon followed (‘“‘ Repc 
Egypt,” engraving on wood after Louis Cranac 
I 3 in Germany; others by Ugo da Carpi, in | 
1518). 

J. B. Jackson (1720-54) attempted, without succes 
imitate water-colour drawings, and to print p 
hangings. 

About 1783, John Skippe, an amateur, printed 
chiaroscuros. 

In 1819-22, Mr. William Savage produced his remar 
work, ‘‘Hints on Colour Printing,” illustrate 
imitations of chiaroscuro, and of coloured draw 
giving details of the processes employed. 

In 1836, Mr. George Baxter produced beautiful speci 
of Picture-Printing, and took out a patent, y 
expired in 1855. In some of the illustrations t 
“Pictorial Album” (1836), he employed twenty} 
ferent blocks. ; 

It has been applied to Lithography (hence Ch 
lithography). 

In 1849, Mr. G. C. Leighton produced imitatior 
water-colour drawings, by means of moditication: 
improvements of Savage’s processes. In 185rz he 
menced colour-printing by machinery, and has 
availed himself of aqua-tinted plates, and also of 
trotyped silver and copper surfaces to obtain puri 
colour as well as durability. 

The large coloured prints of the Illustrated London 
were first issued in Dec. 1856. 

Mr. E. Meyerstein explained his process of pri 
many colours at one impression (stenochromy), 
ciety of Arts, 13 Dec 1876. 

Printing surfaces. Vulcanised india-rubber was firs 
ployed for this purpose by Mr. John Leighton, F’. 
about 1862, and patented in the name of I 
ton, 1864. The application is much used for I 
stamps for books, &c. 

PRINTING EXHIBITION (of specimens, apparatus, ! 
rials, stationery, and machinery), at Agricultural 
London, include 5-17 July, 1880; 14 July cé seg. } 
and 30 July et seg. 1883. 

PRIORIES, at first dependent on the | 
abbeys, are mentioned in 722 in England; 

Abbeys,and Monasteries. Alien priories were 8 


* In 1817 was published Blumenbach’s Physi 
by Elliotson, the first book printed by machinery. 
machine employed was Kénig’s, one which printed 
apie) in one operation at the rate of goo sheets an 

1816). 


am 


PRISCILLIANISTS. 


675 


PRIVY COUNCIL. 


eee ee nee ee ee a ee ee ee eae re ener anaes 


the king (Edward I.) in 1285, and in succeed- 
reigns on the breaking out of war with France ; 
were usually restored on the conclusion of 
e. These priories were dissolved, and their 
tes vested in the crown, 3 Henry V. 1414.— 
ners Feedera. 


RISCILLIANISTS, disciples of Priscillian, 
vanish bishop who propagated doctrines alleged 
omntain Gnosticism and Manicheism, 372. When 
lemned he appealed from the pope to the 
eror, but was beheaded at Treves, 385. 


RISONERS oF WAR, among the ancient 
ons, when spared, were usually enslaved. About 
13th century, civilized nations began to ex- 
ige their prisoners. 
Spanish, French, and American prisoners of 
in England were 12,000 in number, 30 Sept. 1779 
number exchanged by cartel with France, from 
e commencement of the then war, was 44,000 
June, 
English prisoners in France estimated at 6000, 
d the French in England 27,000 Sept. 
English in France amounted to 10,300, and the 
ench, &c., in England to 47,600, in . . wLOLy 
+ numbers made by the Germans in the war 1870-1 


RISONERS’ COUNSEL ACT, 6 & 7 
l. IV. c. 114 (1836), allows counsel to persons 
d for felony ; hitherto prohibited. 


RISONS of EnciAND and Wares. Annual 
: 1867-8, 482,414/.; 1869-70, 501,348/. ; 1880-1, 
6862. ; 1831-2, 375,548/. ; 1883-4, 334,074/. 
land and Wales; in prisons, March, 1882, 18,392; 1883, 
»913- 


RISONS oF Lonpon, see fleet, Iing’s 
ch, Newgate, Poultry, Clerkenwell. 
semonger-lane gaol was built in 1791; closed, 
78; opened as a playground . 5 May, 
state of prisons greatly improved after the 
ertions of Howard.* Cold-Bath Fields prison 
is built on his suggestion ‘ aie S704 
atrocities of governor Aris in this prison were 
posed in parliament . ; : 12 July, 
iffs’ fund for assisting discharged prisoners 
mmenced . , : : : : , . 1809 
tecross-street prison for debtors erected  . 1813-15 
iank prison (see Milbank) received convicts as a 
nitentiary : . : : é 27 June, 1816 
mgh compter mean and confined till visited 
a parliamentary committee in . ‘ ; : 
y prison, for the confinement of deserters from 
2 Guards, formerly situated in the Strand, was 
led down to make room for Waterloo-bridge . 1819 
Bridewell prison was erected as a substitute 
>the City Bridewell, Blackfriars, in. P . 1829 
ill Fields Bridewell, built in 1618, rebuilt - 1836 
old Marshalsea prison, Southwark, built in the 
th century, taken down ; 3 - er TOA 2 
onville Model prison completed 5 : ; 
ank penitentiary reported ‘a failure; changed 
an ordinary prison . - - : ¢ : 
llesex House of Detention, Clerkenwell, erected 


prison, Holloway, opened ; . 6 Feb. 
ul Discharged Prisoners’ Aid society established 


1781 


1798 


1884 


1800 


1817 


> 
1843 
1847 


1852 
1858 


passed for abolishing Queen’s Bench prison . 1862 
ym Ministers’ act passed 1863 


to consolidate and amend the law relating to 
sons, passed . 5 July, 1865 ; Aug. 
ard Association (which see) instituted Ke 
ational Prison Association was organized in 
ow York Sele | ie ; . 1869 or 1870 
ank made a military prison P 5 sens 

| 
-John Howard was born 2 Sept. 1726; made sheriff 
odford, 1773; investigated into the state of English 
ims, 1773-5; and gave, evidence thereon before the 
e of commons, which led to amendments by law, 
; he visited prisions all over the continent, and died 
herson, 20 Jan. 1790. 


1866 


9 


International prison congress met at the Middle 
Temple, London : F : ? : 3July, 

Prison Discipline Society, by the philanthropic 
labours of sir T. F. Buxton, M.P., was instituted 
in 181s, and held its first public meeting in 1820. 
Its objects were the amelioration of gaols, the 
classification and employment of the prisoners, 
and the prevention of crime. 

Whitecross-street prison ; ordered to be pulled down 
and materials sold : “ » rr Oct. 

A prisons bill brought forward, r June ; withdrawn 

3r July, 

The Prison Acts, for England, Ireland, and Scot- 
land, passed 12 July and 14 Aug. 1877. They trans- 
fer management of prisons, after 1 April, 1878, 
from local authorities to the home secretary ; 
provide for re-distribution and reduction of 
number of prisons, &c. 

Other gaols closed. ; - : A ’ 

An international Prison Congress met at Stockholm 

20-24 Aug. ,, 
Prisoners’ aid societies, prison charities act passed 
18 Aug. 1882 


PRIVATEER, 2a ship belonging to private 
individuals, sailing with a licence (termed a Letter 
of Marque), granted by a government in time of 
war, to seize and plunder the ships of the enemy. 
The practice, said to have been adopted by Ed- 
ward I. against the Portuguese in 1295, was gene- 
ral during the war between Spain and the Nether- 
lands in the 17th century, and during the last 
French war. Privateering was abolished by the 
great sovereigns of Europe by treaty, 30 March, 
1856. The United States government refused to 
agree unless the right of blockade was also given up. 
The British government declined this, asserting 
‘that the system of commercial blockade was 
essential to its naval supremacy.’’ On 17 April, 
1861, Jefferson Davis, president of the southern 
confederacy, announced his intention of issuing 
letters of marque, and on the 19th president Lin- 
coln proclaimed that all southern privateers should 
be treated as pirates. This decree was not carried 
out; see United States. All the great powers for- 
bade privateering during the American civil war 
(which see). By the treaty of Washington priva- 
teering was prohibited. 


PRIVILEGED PLACHS, see Asylums. 


PRIVY COUNCIL. A council was instituted 
by Alfred, 895. ‘The number of the council was 
about twelve when it discharged the functions of 
state, now confined to the members of the cabinet ; 
but it had become of unwieldy amount before 1679, 
in which year it was remodelled upon sir William 
Temple’s plan, and reduced to thirty members: 
Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, being presi- 
dent. ‘The number is now unlimited. To attempt 
the life of aprivy councillor in the execution of his 
office was.made capital, occasioned by Guiscard’s 
stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter was examining 
him on a charge of high treason, 9 Anne, I7II. 
JUDICIAL COMMITTEE OF THE PRIVY CounciL.—In lieu of 

the Court of Delegates, for appeals from the lord chan- 

cellors of Great Britain and of Ireland in cases ot 
lunacy—from the Kcclesiastical and Admiralty Courts 
of England, and the Vice-Admiralty courts abroad— 
from the Warden of the Stanunaries, the courts of the 

Isle of Man, and other islands, and the Colonial courts, 

&c.,—fixed by statute 3 & 4 Will IV., c. 41, 1833; 

amended by ether acts in 1844, 1851, 1852. 
JupGes.—The lord president, lord chancellor, master of 

the rolls, vice-chancellor, lords justices in appeal, lord 

chief justice of the queen’s bench and common pleas, 
lord chief baron, judges of the courts of bankruptcy, 
probate, and admiralty, and others appointed by the 
queen. In consequence of the increase of business, 
and consequent delay, the queen was empowered to 
appoint four new judicial members of the committee, 
by 34 & 35 Vict. ¢ ox (21 Aug. 1871). The attorney- . 
general, sir R. Collier, was made a judge of the Common 
xx 2 


1872 


1870 
1876 


1878 


PRIVY SEAL. 


676 PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATI( 


Pleas, 7 Nov., and a member of the judicial committee 
22 Nov. 1871. 

These proceedings were considered contrary to the spirit 
of the act by several judges and the legal profession 
generally. A vote of censure on the Gladstone ministry 
was negatived in the house of lords (89-87), 15 Feb. ; 
in the commons (268-241), rg Feb. 1872. 

Other changes were made by an act passed in 1876. 


PRIVY SEAL, THE LorD, the fifth great 
officer of state, has the custody of the privy seal, 
which he must not put to any grant, without good 
warrant under the king’s signet. ‘This seal is used 
by the king to all charters, grants, and pardons, 
signed by him before they come to the great seal. 
Richard Fox, bishop of Winchester, held this office 
in the reign of Henry VIII. previously to 1523, 
when Cuthbert Tunstall, bishop of London, was 
appointed. The privy seal has been on some 
occasions in commission.—Beatson. See under 
Liverpool, Canning, Wellington, and succeeding 
Administrations. Present lord, Archibald Philip 
Primrose, earl of Rosebery, appointed 11 Feb. 
1885. 


PRIZE-FIGHTING, see Bowing. 
PRIZE MONEY, arising from captures made 


from the enemy, was decreed by government to be 
divided into eight equal parts, and distributed by 
order of ranks, 17 April, 1793. The distribution of 
army prize-money is regulated by an act passed in 
1832. Naval prize-money is now regulated by royal 
proclamation; the last, 19 May, 1866. 


PROBABILITY, THkEory oF (termed by 
Butler, “the guide of life’; by Laplace, ‘good 
sense reduced to calculation’’), was originated by 
Pascal, and taken up by Fermat, in their corre- 
spondence in 1654. 

Its object is “‘the determination of the number of ways 
in which an event may happen or fail, in order that 
we may judge whether the chances of its happening or 
failing are greater.”’— Jevons. 

It has been treated upon by the most eminent mathema- 
ticians, viz., the Bernouillis, De Moivre, D’Alembert, 
Euler, Lagrange, Laplace, and Quetelet. 

Isaac Todhunter’s copious ‘‘ History of Probability,” 
published 1865. 


PROBATE COURT, established in Aug. 1857 
by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 77, which abolished all powers 
exercised by the ecclesiastical courts in the granting 
of probates of wills, &c.; see Prerogative Court. 
The first judge appointed, 5 Jan. 1858, was sir 
Cresswell Cresswell, who took his seat on 12 Jan. 
On his death, sir James P. Wilde (now lord Pen- 
zance) was appointed judge, 28 Aug. 1863; see Sw- 
preme Court. The present judge of the probate, 
divorce, and admiralty divisiou is sir James Hannen 
(1885). A probate and matrimonial division of the 
high court of justice of Ireland was established b 
Judicature act, 1877; present judge, Robert Richard 
Warren(1885). Prodateis the exhibiting and proving 
a will before the proper authority. The probate 
registry is now at Somerset House (1885). 


PROCESSIONS ACT, 13 Vict. c. 2, passed 
12 March, 1850, prohibited party processions, with 
banners, &c. It was repealed in 1872. 


PROCLAMATIONS, Royat, “have only 
a binding force when grounded upon and to enforce 
the laws of the realm.”’—Coke. Henry VIII., in 
1539, declared that they were as valid as acts of 
parliament. This was annulled, 1547. 


PROCTOR (from procurator’, an office in 
ecclesiastical courts, corresponding to that of an 
attorney or solicitor in courts of common law. It 
was abolished by the Judicature at, 1873. The 
persons chosen to represent the clergy in convoca- 


tion are termed proctors. The university proc 
enforce discipline. 


PROFILES. The first profile taken, as recor 
was that of Antigonus, who, having but one eye 
likeness was so taken, 330 B.c.— Ashe. “ Until 
end of the 3rd century, I have not seen a Ro 
emperor with a full face; they were always pai 
or appeared in profile, which gives us the view 
head in a very majestic manner.’’— Addison. 


PROGRESISTAS, a political party in Sy 
headed by Espartero, duke of Victory, and lat 
by general Prim. Since 1865 they adopted a px 
of inaction in public affairs; by uniting with 
unionists and republicans in Sept 1868, the goy 
ment were overthrown, see Spain. 


PROGRESSIONIST THEORY sup; 
that the existing species of animals and plants ° 
notoriginally created, but were gradually devel 
from one simple form; see Species. 


PROMISSORY NOTES were regulated 
allowed to be made assignable in 1705. First t 
by a stamp in 1782; the tax was increased in 1 
and again in 1808, and subsequently; see Bi/ 
Exchange. 


“PRO NIHILO,” a pamphlet, said tot 
count Henry Arnim, attacking count Bisma 
published Noy. 1875. He was prosecuted for 
1876; see Prussia. 

PRONUNCIAMENTO, a revolution 
Spain or South America) effected by a mil 
leader; in France, termed a coup a’ état. 
France and Spain. 


PROPAGANDA FIDE, ConcrEc: 
DE (congregation for the propagation of the fai 
the Komish church), was constituted at Rom 
Gregory XV. in 1622; the college in 1627. 


PROPAGATION oF THE GOSPEL Soc! 
received its charter, 16 June, 1701. Its sphe 
generally limited to the British colonies. Ge 
income in 1867, 114,546/.; in 1879, 145,240/. 
1884, 109,572. 


PROPERTY. The assessments on 
property, under the property tax of 1815, 
51,898,423/.; of which Middlesex was 5,595,5 
Lancashire, 3,087,774/.; and Yorkshire, 4,700,0 
Wales, 2,153,801/. Estimated wealth of the cou 
(1878), 8,500,000,000/. See Income Tax, Capit 

ESTIMATED ANNUAL VALUE OF REAL PROPERTY 
(LANDS, MINES, &C.) 


1814. 1873. 
England - £53,495,000 175,280,000 
Scotland - 6,643,000 23,068,000 
Treland (1854) 11,892,000 14,647,000 


PROPHESYING. About 1570 the purita 
part of the clergy, particularly at Northam] 
held meetings (termed prophesyings) for prayer 
exposition of the scriptures. ‘These were forbi 
by ep Elizabeth, 7 May, 1577, and immedi 
ceased. 


PROPHETS, see under Jews. 


PROPORTIONAL REPR 
SENTATION, a society to introduce 
principle was formed in Feb. 1884. It ineh 
sir John Lubbock (president), Mr. Leonard 
Courtney, and many other M.P’s, 

It proposed that ‘‘in all cases where an elect 
entitled to one vote only, to euable the electo 
nominate more than one candidate to whom, U 
certain circumstances, that vote might be trans/« 
in the manner indicated by the elector.” Negative 
the commons, 134—31, 3 March; 1885. 


PROROGATION. 


LOROGATION oF PARLIAMENT. Byan 
assed 12 Aug. 1867, her majesty was enabled 
ue a proclamation for the prorogation of par- 
mt during the recess. 


ROSECUTOR. By the Prosecution of Of- 
s Act, 42 & 43 Vict. c. 22 (3 July, 1879), the 
ntment of a director of public prosecutions 
assistants was enacted, somewhat resembling 
rs in Scotland and Ireland. It came into ope- 
11 Jan. 1880. John Blossett Maule, appointed 
‘or of public prosecutions, Dec. 1879. 

nmittee reported the plan to be a failure, and 
ymmended changes, June; act amended, 1884. 

lie prosecutor, ‘‘ procureur du roi,” in France, is 
itioned in the r4th century; replaced by ‘‘accusa- 
> publique” (elected), 1791; by ‘‘commissaire na- 
al,” 1793; “‘procurer” restored by Napoleon I. 


,OTECTION OF LIFE AND PRO- 
TY ACT (for part of Ireland), passed 16 
1871. See Lreland. 


LOTECTIONISTS, that section of the con- 
tive party which opposed the repeal of the corn 
and which separated from sir Robert Peei in 

The name was derived from a ‘ Society for 
votection of Agriculture,’ of which the duke 
chmond was chairman, and which had been 
lished to counteract the efforts of the Anti- Corn 
League, 17 Feb. 1844. Lord George Bentinck 
he head of the party from 1846 till his death, 
pt. 1848. The Derby administration not pro- 
¢ the restoration of the corn-laws, the above 
y was dissolved, 7 Feb. 1853.—The protection 
tive manufactures is maintained in the United 
s, 1868-85, and maintained in France, Ger- 
, and other countries, 1885. 


,OTECTORATES tn ENGLAND. That 
> earl of Pembroke, 19 Oct. 1216, ended by his 
, 1218. Of Humphry, duke of Gloucester, 
1 31 Aug. 1422; he was seized 11 Feb. 1447, 
ound dead a few days after. Of Richard, duke 
oucester, began May, 1483, and ended by his 
Ling the royal dignity, 26 June the same year. 
merset began 28 Jan. 1547, and ended by his 
nation in 1549. Of Oliver Cromwell began 16 
1653, and ended by his death, 3 Sept. 1658. 
chard Cromwell began 3 Sept. 1658, and sited 
8 resignation, 25 May, 1659; see England. 


ROTEIN, from the Greek (proteion, princi- 
a chemical term introduced by Mulder about 
for the basis of albumen, fibrin, and casein. 


ROTESTANT REFORMATION SO- 
TY, established 1820; it employs mission- 
and readers. 


tOTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. 
la diet at Spires in 1529, to request aid from 
rerman princes against the Turks, and to devise 
8 for allaying the religious disputes which 
raged owing to Luther’s opposition to the 
in catholic clergy. Against a decree of this 
to support the doctrines of the church of Rome, 
utheran princes, with the deputies of thirteen 
rial towns, formally and solemnly protested, 19 
,1529. Hence the term protestants was given 
2 followers of Luther; it afterwards included 
nists, and other sects separated from the see of 
». ‘Ihe six protesting princes were: John, 
wr of Saxony; George, margrave of Branden- 
; Ernest and Francis, the dukes of Lunenburg; 
andgrave of Hesse; and the prince of Anhalt; 
/ Were joined by the citizens of Strasburg, 
mberg, Ulm, Constance, Heilbron, and seven 
cities ; see Lutheranism, Calvinism, Hugue- 
Germany, Church of England, &c. 


677 


Protestants persecuted in Scotland and Germany . 1546 
Edward VI. established Protestantism in England. 1548 
Mary re-establishes Romanism, and persecutes the 
Protestants : above 300 put to death . : 1553-8 
Ridley, bishop of London, and Latimer, bishop of 
Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, 16 Oct. 1555; 
and Cranmer, abp. of Canterbury 21 March, 
[During three years of Mary’s reign, 277 persons were 
brought to the stake ; besides those punished by 
imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among 
those who suffered by fire were 5 bishops, er 
clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, roo 
husbandmen, servants, and labourers, 55 women, 
and 4 children. The principal agents of the queen 
were the bishops Gardiner and Bonner. ] 
Elizabeth restores Protestantism ‘ : aap 
Protestant settlements formed in Ulster, N. Ireland 
1608-11 
The Protestant union of princesin Germany, 4 May, 
1608; metlast . : , A . May, 1621 
Thirty years’ war between Romanists and Protestants 
in Germany . é : : ; : 1618-48 
Protestants persecuted at Thorn, in Poland » 1724 
Protestant Association (see Gordon’s ‘‘ No-Popery” 
Mob) : : ; : , : ; . : 
A society for planting communities of the poorer 
Protestants on tracts of land, particularly in the 
northern counties of Ireland, established in Dub- 
lin in : : : : ; ; : Dec. 
(London) Protestant Society, established 1827 ; Pro- 
testant Association, 1835 ; Protestant Alliance . 1849 
Protestant Conservative Society established g Dec. 1831 
Protestant Alliance formed at Armagh 7 Nov. 1845 
Pan-protestant conference held at Worms (about, 
tooo delegates) é : : : . 31 May, 1869 
Meeting of a general synod of the Reformed Church 
of France (M. Guizot present), to propose return to 
early doctrine and discipline, held at Paris, 
7 June, 
The ‘“‘liberal party” attack the doctrines of the 
authority of the Bible, the divinity and resurrec- 
tion of Christ, &c. ; an orthodox confession is car- 
ried amid strong opposition (61-45) . 20 June, ;; 


PROTOPLASM, the material of the minute 
ultimate particles of all animal and vegetable tis- 
sues, termed formerly sarcode ; by Von Mohl, proto- 
plasm (1884), ‘‘the physical basis of life,” by Huxley 
(1868). The protamceba, the lowest form of life, is 
a structureless mass of protoplasm; the ameba, a 
similar mass, contains a nucleus. Protoplasm is 
eomposed of carbonic acid, water, and ammonia. 


PROVENCE (the Roman Provincia), S. E. 
France, was made a kingdom by the emperor Lo- 
thaire for his son Charles. It afterwards became 
part of the kingdom of Arles as a feudal fief, and 
was re-united to the German empire in 1032 by 
Conrad II. On the fall of the Hohenstaufens it 
was acquired by Charles of Anjou, who married the 
heiress of the count in 12455 and became king of 
Naples, in 1268; and was held by his successors 
till its annexation to France by Charles VIII. in 
1487. 

PROVERBS. ‘The book of Proverbs by Solo- 
mon is dated about 1000 B.c. The latter part was 
collected by order of Hezekiah, about 700 B.c. 
Ray’s collection of English proverbs appeared in 
1672, and Bohn’s general collection in 1857. Martin 
F. Tupper’s ‘‘ Proverbial Philosophy”? appeared in 
1839. Alfred Henderson’s “‘ Latin Proverbs,” 1869. 


PROVIDENCE, capital of Rhode Island, U.S. 
(which see), 1636. 


PROVIDENT KNOWLEDGESOCIETY 
established in 1872, to forward the post-office finan- 
cial schemes; by establishing penny banks, sending 
out lecturers, and publishing papers for the promo- 
tion of thrift among the lower classes. It held its 
first annual meeting, 9 May, 1873, the earl of Derby 
in the chair. 


PROVISIONS OF OXFORD, see Oxford. 


1556 


1558 


1780 


1829 


1872 


PROVISIONS. 678 PRUSSIA. 


PROVISIONS—REMARKABLE  STATE- 
MENTS CONCERNING THEM. The high value 
of money at the time must be borne in mind. 


Sale of Food and Drugs act passed 11 Aug. 1875 (see 
Aduilteration). 

Wheat for food for roo men for one day worth only one 
shilling, and a sheep for fourpence, Henry I. about 1130. 
The price of wine raised to sixpence per quart for red, 
and eightpence for white, that the sellers might be 
enabled to live by it, 2 John, 1200.—Bwrton’s Annals. 

When wheat was at 6s. per quarter, the farthing loaf was 
to be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces (inade of 
the whole grain), and to sixteen the white. When 
wheat was rs. 6d. per quarter, the farthing white loaf 
was to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the whole grain 
(the same as standard now) ninety-six, by the first 
assize, 1202.—Mat. Paris. 

A remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280.—Dufresnoy. 

Wheat 1s. per quarter, 14 Edw. L, 1286.—Stow. 

The price of provisions fixed by the common council of 
London as follows: two pullets, three half-pence ; a 
partridge, or two woodcocks, three half-pence ; a fat 
lamb, sixpence from Christmas to Shrovetide, the rest 
of the year fourpence, 29 Edw. I., r299.—Stow. 

Price of provisions fixed by parliament: at the rate of 
al. 8s. of our money fora fat ox, if fed with corn, 3). 12s. ; 
a shorn sheep, 5s.; two dozen of eggs, 3d. ; other 
articles nearly the same as fixed by the common council 
above recited, 7 Edw. IL., 1313.—Rot. Parl. 

Wine the best sold for 20s. per tun, 10 Rich. II., 1387. 

Wheat being at 1s. rd. the bushelin 1390, this was deemed 
so high a price that it is called a dearth of corn by the 
historians of that era. 

Beef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound, and veal 
three farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Hen. VIIL., 
1533-—Anderson. 

Document from a ‘‘ Book of the Joint Diet, Dinner and 
Supper, and the charge thereof, for Cranmer, Latimer, and 
Ridley,” kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were 
in their custody :— 

t Oct. 1554. DINNER. 
Bread and Ale : : A 

Oysters s : : sat 

Butter . : : F : : 

Eggs . 4 . ° : Apts 

Lyng . : ; é 

A piece of fresh salmion 

Wine 2 : : é 

Cheese and pears. i BEES 


th 

o0000000 
H 

NWO CON NHN 


00000000 


The three dinners OMS 06 

Milk sold, three pints ale-measure for one balfpenny, 2 
Eliz. 1560. Stow’s Chronicle. 

Liebig’s discovery of his ‘‘ Extractum Carnis,” extract of 
meat, announced 1847. 

Since the autumn of 1865, meat, milk, and butter greatly 
increased in price owing to the cattle-plague, Xe. 

The ‘‘ Food Committee” of Society of Arts first met 2 
Dec. 1866. 

Meat very dear in England, 1868-73. Introduction of 
Australian preserved meat by Mr. John McCall in 186s ; 
imported in 1866, 91 cwt. ; in 1871, 237,160 cwt. Meat 
imported here in 1863, 3283 cwt. ; in 1877, 599,181 ewt. 

Carcases frozen by Harrison’s method; cargo sent to 
England from Melbourne, Australia, 23 July; arrived, 
18 Oct. ; proved a failure, 2 Nov. 1873. 

Good preserved American meat sold in London, 27 Dee. 
1875. Great influx of meat preserved by cold, 1877. 
Bell & Coleman’s patent refrigerators reported successful 

in preserving meat, &c., Aug. Sept. 1878. 

Fresh meat brought from Australia, Feb. 1880. 

5,000 frozen sheep arrived from New Zealand, 25 May, 
1882. 

Refrigerator railway car conveyed fresh herrings from 
Wick to London, 15 Aug. 1883. 

10,0001, worth of fresh meat imported from Libau, Russia, 
during July, 1883. 

The Elderslie with 25,000 frozen sheep from New Zealand, 
arrives in London, Dec. 1884. 

For the price of Bread since 1735, see Bread. 

See Milk, Cattle. 


PROVVEDIMENTO SOCIETIES in 
Italy, formed to aid in acquiring Rome and Venice, 
elected Garibaldi as their chief, 10 March, 1862. 
They were tolerated by Ricasoli, and warned to be 
moderate by Rattazzi. 


PROXIES. Voting by proxy, an ancient 
lege of the house of peers, was very frequ 
abused. In the reign of Charles II., when the 
of Buckingham sometimes brought 20 proxies 
pocket, it was ordered that no peer should 
more than two proxies. From 1830 to 1867 
inclusive, proxies were only called 73 time: 
conformity with the recommendation of a comm 
a new ‘‘standing order’? was adopted, 31 M 
1868, by which it was ordered ‘*That the pract 
calling for proxies on a division shall be di 
tinued.’” 


PRUD’HOMMES, CoNSEILS DE 
prudens homo,a prudent man), trade tribuns 
France, composed of masters and workmen, 
constituted to arbitrate on trade disputes in 
Similar bodies with this name existed as far be 
1452 at Marseilles, and at Lyons in 1464. 


PRUSSIA. This country was ancient; 
sessed by the Venedi, about 320 B.c. They 
conquered by the Borussi, who inhabited thi 
phean mountains; and from these the countr 
called Borussia. Some historians derive the 
from Po, signifying near, and Russia. The Pe 
afterwards intermixed with the followers o 
Teutonic knights, and latterly with the Poles. 
constitution, established 31 Jan. 1850, was moi 

Oo April, 1851; 21 May, 5 June, 1852; 7 a1 
Lay, 1853; 10 June, 1854; 30 May, 1855; ar 
May, 1857. Population, with Lauenburg (anz 
14 Aug. 1865), 19,304,843; with Hanover, H 
Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort, Dec. 

24,039,543; 1875, 25,742,204 ; 1880, 27,27¢ 
President of the ministry, &e., prince Bism 
Sept. 1862. 


St. Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach Chris- 


tianity, and is slain F ‘ . . about 
Boleslaus of Poland revenges his death by dreadful 
ravages . : 


Berlin built by a colony from the Netherlands, in 
the reign of Albert the Bear 5 5 A 

The Teutonic knights returning from the holy wars, 
undertake the conquest and conversion of Prus- 
slay hoe : i 

Thorn founded by them 3 2 j 5 

Konigsberg, lately built, made the capital . : 

Largely re-peopled by German colonists 12-13th 
century. 

Frederick IV. of Nuremberg (the founder of the 
reigning family) obtains by purchase from Sigis- 
mund, emperor of Germany, the margraviate of 
Brandenburg. - 2 § : 3 = 

Casimir LV. of Poland assists the natives against 
the oppression of the Teutonie knights ‘ 5 

Albert of Brandenburg, grand master of the Teutonic 
order, seizes its territories, renounces the Roman 
catholic religion, embraces Lutheranism, and is 
acknowledged duke of East Prussia, to be held as 
a fief of Poland . ‘ ; c : oe 

University of Kénigsberg founded by duke Albert, 

John Sigismond created elector of Brandenburg and 
duke of Prussia. A : ;: 5 : ; 

The principality of Halberstadt and the bishopric 
of Minden transferred to the house of Branden- 
burg . , A 3 F ; 3 a 

Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia as an inde- 
pendent state, under Frederick William, sut- 
named the Great Elector ‘ ; : ‘ : 

Order of Concord instituted by Christian Ernest, 
elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia, to 
commemorate the part he had taken in restoring 
peace to Europe : : 6 2 c 3 4 

Frederick III. in an assembly of the states, puts a 
crown upon his own head and upon the head of 
his consort; is proclaimed king of Prussia by the 
name of Frederick I., and institutes the Order of 
the Black Eagle . 3 3 é $ 18 Jan. 

Gueldres taken from the Dutch ; : ‘ . 

Frederick I. seizes Neufchatel or Neunburg, and 
purchases Tecklenburg. : é - : 

The principality of Meurs added to Prussia .  . 


. . . . 


PRUSSIA. 


679 


PRUSSIA. 


rick II: the Great, king, who made the Prus- 
monarchy rank among the first powers of 
ope = : F : - - 1740 
ua ceded to Prussia . - 1741 
1, Glatz, &c., ceded : LL 7A2 
m years’ war” (see Battles) ; Y af 1750-03 
rick II. victor at Prague, 6 May ; defeated at 


in, 78 June; victor at Rosbach 5 Nov. 1757 

Lacy, with an Austrian and Russian army, 

ches to Berlin ; the city is laid under contri- 

ion, &e. ; magazines destroyed Oct. 1760 
of Hubertsburg (ends “‘ seven years’ war”’) ; 

sia gained by Prussia. : ae as epi r763 

ia Shares in the first partition of Poland. 5 ENE: 

rick the Great dies : : 17 Aug. 1786 

rick William II. invades France . See Giee- 
the coalition against France 1793 


russians seize Hanover r80r and 1806 


ia joins the allies of England against France, 


G.OCt-9,; 
battles of Jena and Auerstadt . We a OCU. 255 
arly all the monarchy subdued. ] 
decree promulgated ; 20 Nov. ,, 
of Tilsit (which see) . 5 . . g July, 1807 
ution of the Tugendband (which see), a patriotic 
ety (promoted by Von Stein) . ‘ 3 Ae 
ntion of Berlin . : . 5 Nov. 1808 
nhorst secretly restores the army by the sys- 
of reserves ; forming a nation of soldiers 1809-13 


eople rise to expel the French from Germany 
he king’s appeal, and form the ‘‘landwehr” or 


tia . = : 7 - . 17 March, 1813 
y of Paris $ : 4 rz April, 1814 
ing visits England . 4 p sae OPO UTLe, y 

try of education established 5 Ae LOTT 
ess of Carlsbad : F - 6 zt Aug. 1819 


er dies in Silesia, aged 77 . IZ Sept..°",5 
this time Prussia pursued a peaceful and un- 
urbed policy until 1848. ] 

mment disputes with R. C. clergy begin, 
Jugh ultramontanism of the Radziwill family 
@ 1830 A 3 ' ; = ; ; : 
is attempt made on the life of the king, by an 
issin named Tesch, who fired two shots at him 


26 July, 1844 
rection in Berlin . : : . 18 March, 1848 
1 declared in a state of siege To. INOVer =, 


constituent assembly meets in Brandenburg 
Dee ; : za < - on 20 NOV: 45; 
assembly dissolved ; the king issues a new 
stitution i : 4 : : pe SeDeCm 5 
rerman National Assembly elect the king of 
ssia “‘hereditary emperor of the Germans” 
28 March, 
ing declines the imperial crown 29 April, _,, 
ingdom put under martial law . s 16 May; ~;, 
russians enter Carlsruhe res eo Ue 755 
stice between Prussia and Denmark. 10 July, _,, 
ja declared for an imperial constitution with 
king of Prussia at its head 8Sept. ,, 
y between Prussia and Austria 30 Sept. ,, 
ia protests against the alliance of Prussia with 
minor states of Germany . i mor Noy: ©; 
constitution, 31 Jan. ; the king takes the oath 
uired by it . , ‘ : : 6 Feb. 
yer withdraws from the Prussian alliance, 
25hieb: 9; 
y signed at Munich between Austria, Bavaria, 
ony, and Wiirtemberg to maintain the German 
on. ; A “ : F 4 27 Heb. * \; 
emberg denounces the insidious ambition of 
king of Prussia, and announces a league be- 
en Wiirtemberg, Bavaria, and Saxony, under 
sanction of Austria . : 15 March, ,, 


npt to assassinate the king - 2 22 May, ,, 
a-Darmstadt withdraws from the Prussian 


zue . ‘ : . : : 30 June, ,, 
y of peace between Prussia and Denmark, 

2 July, ” 
ngress of deputies from the states included in 
» Prussian Zollverein opened at Cassel 


Tats UY, es 
sia refuses to join the restricted diet of Frank- 
te : é c : eoctAugs ,, 
Prussian government addresses a despatch 


the cabinet of Vienna, declaring its resolve 
uphold the constitution in Hesse-Cassel, 
, 21 Sept. ,, 


Count Brandenburg, prime minister, dies, 6 Nov. 
Decree, calling out the whole Prussian army, 
223,000 infantry, 38,000 cavalry, and 29,000 artil- 
lery, with 1080 field-pieces . P F 7 Nov. 
The Prussian troops in Hesse occupy the military 
road in that electorate : : - 9g Nov. 
The Prussian forces withdraw from the grand 


duchy of Baden . : : : 14 Nov. 
General Radowitz, late foreign minister, visits 
queen Victoria at Windsor 26 Nov. 


Convention of Olmutz for the pacification of Ger- 
many . ‘ ‘ : 2 : : 29 Nov. 
The Prussian troops commence their retreat from 
Hesse-Cassel . ; - . : s 5 Dec, 
Prince Schwartzenberg visits the king + 28 Dee. 
The king celebrates the r5o0th anniversary of the 


Prussian monarchy . : ; . 18 Jan. 
The king visits the czar of Russia 18 May, 


Statue of Frederick the Great, by Rauch, inaugu- 
rated at Berlin . : : : - 27 May, 
The king and ezar leave Warsaw for Olmutz to meet 


the emperor of Austria . ; . Ee 3t. ay; 
The king revives the council of state as it existed 
before the revolution of 1848 . ‘ 12 Jan. 


A Prussian industrial exhibition opened at Berlin, 


28 May, 
Prussia repudiates a customs’ union with Austria, 

7 June, 
But agrees to a commercial treaty . see LG Le Ds 
Democratic plot at Berlin detected April, 
Death of Radowitz . 4 : : . 25 Dec. 
Vacillation of the government upon the Hastern 


question . : : : March and April, 
Agrees to a protocol for preservation of the integrity 


of Turkey, which is signed at Vienna 7 April, 
Declares neutrality in the war 6 Sept. and Oct. 
Excluded from the conferences at Vienna Feb. 


Disputes with Switzerland (see Newfchdtel) 
Noy. 1856, to May, 
Alarming illness of the king, the prince of Prussia 
appointed regent . A - 23 Oct. 
Chevalier Bunsen ennobled : . x Jan. 
Prince Frederick William of Prussia married to the 


princess royal of England 25 Jan. 
Queen Victoria visits them at Potsdam . 10 Aug. 
Prince of Prussia permanent regent . 7 Oct. 


Resignation of Manteuffel ministry ; succeeded by 
that of prince Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (liberal): 
the elections end in favour of the new Ne eae 

ov. 

Prince Frederick William, son of the princess royal 
of England, born. c ‘ s 27 Jan. 

Italian war—Prussia declares its neutrality, but 
arms to protect Germany May and June, 

The regent announces that “the Prussian army 
will be in future the Prussian nation in arms,” 

12 Jan. 

The regent and several German sovereigns meet 

the emperor of the French at Baden (see Baden), 
15-17 June, 

Baron Bunsen dies (aged 70) . : 27 Nov. 

Disclosures respecting the oppressive system of 
Prussian police ; Stieber, the director, prosecuted 
and censured, but not punished ‘ Nov. 

Death of Frederick William IV. Accession of Wil- 
liam I. : 3 : : : : . 2dan 

Meeting of the chambers: on the motion for the 
address, M. von Vincke carries an amendment in 
favour of Italian Unity and ‘‘a firm alliance with 
England” : : : c ‘ 6 Feb. 

On 12 Sept. 1860, capt. Macdonald was committed 
to prison at Bonn, for resisting the railway autho- 
rities there ; the English residents appealed and 
were censured ; a correspondence ensued between 
the Prussian government and the British foreign 
secretary ; and strong language was uttered in 
the house of commons, 26 April, and in the Prus- 
sian chambers .. , : : ; . 6 May, 

The Macdonald affair settled by a firm yet concilia- 
tory despatch from the Baron von Res 

ay, 

Attempted assassination of the king by Becker, a 
Leipsic student, 14 July ; who is sentenced to 20 
years’ imprisonment . : . : 23 Sept. 

The king meets the emperor Napoleon at be 

i ct. 

The king and queen crowned at Konigsberg; he 


1850 


»? 


PRUSSIA. 


declares that he will reign by the ‘‘Grace of 


God” H 18 Oct. 
Bill for making the yministry ‘responsible, passed 
6 March, 


The chamber of representatives oppose the govern- 
ment in regard to the length of military service, 6 
March: and resolve on discussing the items of 
the budget; the ministry resigns ; the king will 
not accept the resignation, but dissolves the 
chambers tz March, 

The ministry (liberal) Yesigns, and a reactionary 
cabinet formed under Van der Heydt, 18 March- 

12 April, 

Elections go against the government; only one 
minister elected. May, 

Parliament opens ; ministers appeal to the patr iotism 
of the members 9 May, 

Severe discussion on military Seeaicny the 
chamber reduces the vote for the maintenance of 
the army from 200,000 tO 135,000 men 11-16 Sept. 

Van der Heydt resigns; succeeded as premier 
by the count Bismarck Schonhausen, 23 Sept. ; 
who informs the chamber that the budget is 
deferred till 1863; the chamber protests against 
this as unconstitutional : 30 Sept. 

The chamber of peers passes ‘the budget Sihout 
the amendments of the chamber of : representa- 
tives ; which (by 237 against 2) resolves that the 
act is contrary to the letter and spirit of the con- 
stitution . tr Oct. 

The king closes the session (6sth) saying, ‘“‘ The 
budget for the year 1862, as decreed by the cham- 
ber of representatives, ‘having been rejected by 
the chamber of peers on the ground of in- 
sufficiency, the governmentis under the necessity 
of controlling the public affairs outside me con- 
stitution” : 3 Ort. 

Agitation in favour of the constitution proc Stinae : 
passive resistance adopted ; several liberal papers 
suppressed Nov. 

The chambers reassemble ; unconciliatory address 
from the king, 14 Jan. ; bold reply of the depu- 
ties ; adopted fs 23 Jan. 

They recommend neutrality in the Polish war 

28 Feb. 

Violent dissension between the deputies and the 
ministry . May 

The chee bes of deputies addr ess the king on their 
relation with the ministry, and the state of the 
country, 22 May ; the king replies, that his minis- 
ters possess his confidence, and adjourns the 
session . 27 May; 

The king resolves to govern without a Peli ccrecesl 

The press severely restricted, 1 June; the crown 
prince in a speech disavows participation in the 
recent acts of the ministry, 5 June; and censures 
them in a letter to the king, 6 July ; reconciled to 


the king ; . 8 Sept. 
The liberal members féted in the pr ovinces 
18, 19 July, 


The chamber of deputies dissolved, 2 Sept. : oi 
liberal majority re-elected Oct. 
A motion in favour of maintaining the rights of 
the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, carried 2 
Dec. ; but the chamber. obstinately refused its 
assent to it or to defray the expenses of war, Dec. 
Chambers dissolved . Jan. 
[For the events of the war, see Denmark. J 
Preliminaries for peace with Denmark . 1 Aug. 
Peace with Denmark signed ‘ : - 30 Oct. 
The opening of the chambers, 14 Jan. ; revival of 
the constitutional agitation for control over the 
army budget 16 Jan. 
International exhibition at Cologne opened by the 
erown prince 2 June, 
The deputies having rejected the budget, the pills 
for reorganizing the army and increasing the fleet, 
and meeting the expense of the war with Denmark, 
the chamber is prorogued ; the government will 
rule without it = . 17 June, 
The king at Carlsbad issues a ‘despotic decree ap- 
propriating and disposing of the revenue, 5 July, 
A political dinner of the liberal deputies pr ‘ohibited 
at Cologne, and forcibly prevented at Overlahn- 
stein, in Nassau 24 July, 
Convention of Gastein (see Gastein), sicned 14 Aug. 
Navigation treaty with Great Britain concluded, 
16 Aug. 


680 


1861 
1862 


> 


PRUSSIA. 


The king takes possession of Lauenburg, purchased 
from Austria with his own money 15 Sept. : 
Bismarck visits the emperor Napoleon at Biarritz, 


Novy. 

The chambers opened with a supercilious speech 
from M. Bismarck f : - «25 Jane 
The opposing chamber pr orogued 22 Feb. 


Decree asserting Prussian jurisdiction over Holstein, 
rz March, 
Prussian cireular ealling on German states to decide 
whether they will support Austria or Prussia 
(they profess neutrality) . ; 24 March, 
Prussia prepares for war 27 March, 
Treaty between Prussia and Italy, said to have been 
concluded 27 March, 
The French government pr ofesses neutrality, April, 
Austria demands the demobilisation of the Prussian 
army, 7 April; Bismarck proposes a German 
parliament 9 April, 
Great meeting at Berlin in favour of peace, I April, 
Blind’s attempt to assassinate Bismarck a 
ay, 
Recriminatory correspondence between Mensdorff 
(Austrian) and Bismarck, calling for disarmament, 
April, May, 
Alliance with Italy ‘ 4 . May, 
The Prussians enter Holstein ; " Austrians retire, 
7 June, 
Meeting of the Federal diet at Frankfort; the 
demobilisation of the Prussian army proposed by 
Austria ; voted for by Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, 
Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and others; Prussia 
declares the Germanic confederation to be dis- 
solved 14 June, 
Prince Alexander of Hesse appointed to oom 
the Federal army Fs June, 
The Prussians declare war. against Hanover and 
Saxony : 1s June, 
Justificatory ‘manifestoes issued by aie and 


Prussia 7 June, 
Prussia declares w ary : royal manifesto to ie eonl 
18 June, 


The Prussians occupy Hanover and Hesse-Cassel, 
Saxony and Nassau . 16-20 June, 
The Austrian northern army enters Silesia, " June; 
joined by the Saxons about June, 
Nearly all the northern states join iensass i aa 
une, 
Prince Frederick Charles and the first are and 
the army of the Elbe enter Bohemia, 23 June; 
victorious in severe engagements at Liebenau, 
Tiirnau, and Podoll, 26 June; Hthnewasser, 27 
June; Miinchengriitz, 28 June ; Gitschin, 29 June, 
The crown prince and the second army (of Silesia) 
enter Bohemia, 22 June; repulsed at Trautenau, 
27 June; victorious at Soor and Trautenau, 28 
June; Koniginhof : . 29 June, 
The left column of the crown prince "3 army ? defeat 
the Austrians at Nachod, 27 June; Skalicz, 28 
June: Schweinschadel . . + eee June 
Fruitless victory of the Hanoverians at Langensala 
27 June; they capitulate to the Prussians,29 June, 
Communications opened between the two armies, 
30 June, 
The command assumed by the king. . «duly 
Battle of Koniggratz, or Sadowa ; total bays of 
the Austrians under Benedek . Ys 
Benedek superseded by the archduke Atbreekt, 
y> 
Campaign of the army under Végel von Falken- 
stein against the army of the confederation, 
under princes Charles of Bavaria and Alexander 
of Hesse; Prussian victories at Wiesenthal and 
Dermbach, 4 July; Hammelburg and Kissingen, 
ro July, 
Advance of the united armies under the king; 
cavalry skirmish at Saar; Austrians retire, 
. o July, 
Prince Frederick Charles enters Brinn, on of 


Moravia ; uly, 
Campaign on the Maine: Prussian cichona at 
Laufach, 13 July, and Aschaffenburg 14 July, 


The members of the German diet retire from Frank- 


fort to Augsburg. . » IgOmnre 
Austrians defeated at Tobitschau. . x5 July, 
Frankfort occupied by Falkenstein . . 16 July, 


Severe fight at Blumenau Shick ie Mes om nem of an 
armistice. . ; 2 July, 


PRUSSIA. 
iaries of peace signed at Nikolsburg, 
26 July, 1866 
issians occupy Wiesbaden, 18 July ;_vic- 
sat Tauberbischofsheim, Hochhausen, Wer- 
24 July ; Neubrunn, Helmstadt, Gerscheim, 
y ; Wiirzburg, 28 July ; armistice granted, 
3o July, ,, 
y reviewed by the king fifteen miles from 
a, 31 July ; begin their return home, 
TUL wlss 
Jia occupied by the Prussian army of reserve, 
‘the grand duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
ly-r Aug. ; armistices granted T=3) AUC. « 55 
t at Augsburg recognised the dissolution of 


ermanic confederation . 4 AUS. 55 
a and Moravia cleared by . TOLAUS.. 5, 
ity of peace signed at Prague 23 Aug. ,, 


- of special committee of the chamber of de- 
;; cost of the war stated, 88,000,000 dollars, 

29 Aug. ;, 
rith Wiirtemburg concluded, 13 Aug. ; with 
an, 17 Aug.; with Bavaria, 22 Aug. ; with 
Darmstadt (ceding Hesse-Cassel, Hesse- 


burg, &c.) . , A % SQiBeDL. 55 
ion of the North German confederation (see 

any) : : F : “ (QaCae ee 
ity bill for the ministry passed 8 Sept... <5, 


f the army into Berlin ; enthusiastic reception, 
20 Sept. ,, 
for the annexation of Hanover, Electoral 


e, Nassau, and Frankfort . 20 Sept. _ ,, 
ion taken of Hanover, 6 Oct. ; of Hesse, 

au, and Frankfort . E s ‘ S.0ctr as 
of peace with Saxony AT OCU has, 


al law for new German parliament promul- 
| at Berlin : 5 23 Oct... «5, 
in chambers reassemble . : IP INOVs, Lo55 
vig and Holstein incorporated with Prussia 


2cree; promulgated . 24 Jan. 1867 
ers closed . : : : ; Se ORY ee 
German parliament meet at Berlin, 24 Feb. ; 


t a federal constitution ; closed . 17 April, ,, 
un chambers opened by the king 29 April, __,, 
cecept the North German constitution (sacri- 
x Prussian eivil rights to German unity), 

8 May, ,, 
bourg question settled by a conference at 
lon (see Luawembourg) . 711 May, ;, 
ng visits Paris ; leaves it . TA OIE; © 55 
russian chambers approve German 
titution ; closed by the king. Card LEGS as 5 
.w Prussian parliament opened by the king, 

TE ANON sos 
with the United States respecting aan 
of aliens signed at Berlin. 22 Feb. 
wliament closed _. : : 29 Feb. ,, 
of the king of Hanover’s property seques- 
ad, on account of his maintaining a Hano- 
un legion, &c. . : j ; SR 0 RS 
Napoleon Jerome visits Berlin ; left, March, ,, 

German parliament opened by the king, 
23 March, ,, 
Bismarck defeated in the North German 
iament ; his bill withdrawn . B2TA DT a. «55 
Wilhelm, a noble ironclad, originally con- 
eted for the sultan by Mr. E. Reed, the chief 
‘tructor of the British admiralty, bought by 
ssia, launched at Blackwall men eADTI, iiss 
ms’ parliament at Berlin  .27 April-23 May, ,, 
anoverians convicted of incipient treason 
nst Prussia - : : : 20 May, ,, 
yon Bismarck’s temporary retirement through 
ealth . , : é : : LUC. as 
German parliament closed by the king, 
2zoJune, ,, 
men’s congress at Berlin, to promote centrali- 
on . ; : . : . 26-29 Sept. ,, 
ian chamber opened with a pacific speech 
n the king . ; : : : : Noyonc.; 
sition in the chambers ; violent speech of the 
ister, Leonhardt 4 : : a OCs tas 5 
ek, recovered, returns to Berlin 8 Dec... *;, 
roperty of the king of Hanover sequestrated 
his opposition . ‘ . : 15 Feb. 
arliament closed . ‘ 4 6 March, ,, 
Prussian army exercised in manoeuvring at 
ttin, Kénigsberg, &c. in presence of the king, 
Sept. ,; 


North 


681 


PRUSSIA. 


The parliament meet, 6 Oct. ; rejects the proposal 
for disarmament . : : A .) 2x Oct. 1669 
The crown prince visits Vienna . 7 OCD ays 


Prince Leopold, of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, con- 
sents to become candidate for the throne of Spain, 
about 5 July, 
In consequence of the virulent opposition of the 
French government he, with the king’s consent, 
relinquishes the candidature r2July, ,, 
The French government requiring guarantees from 
the king against the future, the king repulses 
and declines to receive the French minister, 
Benedetti, 13 July; and issues a circular to his 
representatives at foreign courts T8 dtlya ees 
The emperor of the French declares for war, 
15 July, 2” 
The North German parliament meet, and vote to 
support Prussia ; F ; 1g July, ,, 
Proclamation of the king, granting ‘‘amnesty for 
political offences,” and ‘‘accepting the battle for 
the defence of the fatherland,” 31 July ; and to the 
army, undertaking the command of the whole 
army . ; , s 2 : : a AUP. 25, 
For the events of the war see Franco-Prussian War. 
Order of the ‘“‘Iron Cross” (distributed in the war 
of 1813) revived ; given to the crown prince for 
his victory at Wissembourg on . : AUS. 4 uty 
Prussian bishops protest against infallibility of the 
pope. ; : 2 ; é end of Aug. ,, 
Great rejoicing at Berlin, &c., at the surrender of 
the emperor Napoleon . : ; 3Sept. ,, 
Munich, Stuttgardt, and other southern cities, de- 
mand union with North Germany 6 Sept. ,, 
M. Jacoby arrested at Konigsberg by Von Falcken- 
stein for speaking against the annexation of Alsace 
and Lorraine. F , z early in Sept. ,, 
Restriction on democratic meetings rescinded_by 
gen. Von Falckenstein . ; ¥ 7 Oct. 45 
Herr Twesten, the liberal ‘opponent of government 
in the chamber, dies ‘ . - ALO Chases s 
Jacoby and other liberals released by royal decree 
(Jacoby died 7 March, 1877) about 26 Oct. ,, 
Election of new parliament, Nov. ; opened with 
speech promising internal reforms, 14 Dec. ; aris- 
tocratic address from the peers congratulating 
the king as nominated emperor (see Germany), 
er De... 55 
The king proclaimed emperor of Germany at Ver- 
sailles ; ‘ ; ; Z 7 18 Jan. 
The Prussian parliament closed . ge eD res 
The emperor arrives at Berlin. : . 17 March, ,, 
The new imperial diet opened at Berlin 21 March, ,, 
Bismarck created a prince . 22 March, ,, 
The czar arrives at Berlin i ; S.J UNG. ws 
Triumphal entry of the German army into Berlin ; 
inauguration of the statue of Frederick William 
ka : : F : ‘ ; r6June, 5; 
The bishop of Ermeland excommunicates Dr. Woll- 
ner for denying the pope’s infallibility 5 July ; 
similar acts disapproved by the government, 


1870 


July, ,, 

The imperial prince and princess arrive in London, 
6 July, ” 

Convocation of the evangelical church at Berlin, 
2) AU ays 
Meeting of the parliament 27 Nov. ff 


Von Miihler, minister of public instruction, ultra- 
conservative, forced to resign . : . 17 Jan. 
Clerical interference with schools opposed in the 
parliament : : : F 8-10 Feb. ,, 
Meeting of German princes at Berlin on the em- 
peror’s birthday : 4 - 22 March, ,, 
The new ‘“‘national conservative party” formed, 
about May, ,, 
Law for expulsion of the Jesuits, published 5J TL eg 
Memorial to Von Stein, the statesman (see 1807), 
at Nassau, inaugurated : ; gJuly, ,, 
Government disputes with the R. C. clergy sup- 
porting papal infallibility ; the bishop of Erme- 
land’s salary ordered to be suspended, from 1 OCS. eenag 
The government defeated in the house of peers on 
the district administrations bill (2.45—18) (the bill 
would deprive the peers of power in the provinces 
by granting representatives to the peasants in the 
local assemblies). 3 : F ab SLLOCU ai ys 
The parliamentary session closed, xz Nov. ;  re- 
opened, government firm. ; nL 52 NOV ears 
24 hew peers created . : A 4 ae PxSP TOR 


PRUSSIA. 


The principle of the reform bill passed by the peers 
(114—87) : 7 Dee. 
Bismarck resigns the presidency ; pontinuas the 
foreign department ; ; announced 18 Dec. 
Count Roon to be chairman of the ministry Dec. 
Great financial prosperity ; surplus revenue said to 

be 187,000,000 thalers (38. each) 

Declaration of the R. C. archbishops of “Cologne 
and Posen against proposed legislation on church 
affairs . Feb. 

Subjection of the church to the state affirmed by 
the legislature : 12 March, 

Laws introduced by M. Falk, minister of public 
worship, establishing a roy al tribunal of ecclesias- 
tical affairs, in opposition to the authority of the 
pope, 9 Jan. ; ; passed . ari ALay, 

The emperor recognises the ‘‘ old Catholic ” bishop, 
Reinkens, about 5 meATE, 

Letter from the pope to the emper or complaining of 
the ecclesiastical prosecutions, and asserting his 
authority over all baptized persons, 7 Aug. ; the 
emperor replies justifying them, and asserting 
that there is no mediator between God and man 


but Jesus Christ . 3 Sept. 
Parliament dissolved, rr Oct. ; new ratament 

elected i “ Noy. 
The emperor visits Vienna 17 Oct. 


Archbishop Ledochowski of Posen ‘fined for thr eat- 
ening to excommunicate a professor ; and arch- 
bishop Melchers fined for instituting priests with- 
out government permission . Oct. 

The pope (by letter) encourages archbishop Ledo- 
chowski to resist . 3 Nov. 

Parliament opened: (votes for governient, 432 3 
opposition, 121) 2 Nov. 

Government’ defeated in attempt to restrict the 
press; the ultramontanes join the opposition 

Dec. 

A new oath of implicit obedience to the state pro- 

posed for the clergy ; the civil marriage bill passed 
Dec. 
Several bishops fined for disobedience to the law 


Dec. 
Archbishop Ledochowski imprisoned, 3 Feb. ; de- 


prived . 15 April, 
Serious illness of Bismarck, March ; recovering 
June, 


New ecclesiastical laws, restraining authority of 
bishops, with punishinent for disobedience, pro- 
mulgated . phon Maye 

Van der Heydt, statesman (see 1862) dies 14 June, 

Martin, bishop of Paderborn resists the ecclesias- 
tical laws > to July, 

Bismarck wounded by Kullmann, a fanatical cooper, 
near Kissingen . : 13 July, 
Catholic associations in Berlin closed 21J uly, 

Bishop of Paderborn, summoned to resign, refuses, 
7 Sept. 5 sentenced to imprisonment for sedition 

21 Sept. 

Launch of the iron-clad Friedrich der Grosse at Kiel, 
in the presence of the emperor 20 Sept. 

Arrest of count Harry Arnim and confinement in 
Berlin for refusing to give up documents sent to 
him as ambassador, 4 Oct. ; for illness released 
on bail, 28 Oct. ; again arrested . 12 Noy. 


Kullmann sentenced to 14 years’ imprisonment 30 Oct. 


Government defeated in parliament on a bank-note 


DULL, . 16 Nov. 
Ultramontanes attack Bismarck in parliament : he 
replies Dec. 


Bismarck’s proffered resignation not fea 
7, 18 Dec. 
Arnim’s trial, 9 Dec. ; convicted of pany away 
with ecclesio- “political documents ; acquitted of 
other charges ; sentence, 3 months’ opin 
9 Dec. 
Catholic bishops and priests imprisoned for titra: 


tion of ecclesiastical laws a é Jan, 
Deprivation of the bishop of Paderborn 5 Jan. 
Parliament opened . 5 ead ea 
Civil marriage adopted by the parliament 25 Jan. 


Encyclical of the pope to the bishops encouraging 
firmness, protested against by the R. C. deputies 
of parliament i é . sg Beb; 

Exportation of horses prohibited % 4 March, 

Clerical control over parish funds taken awage bill 
sot depriving the R. C. oe of state aid brought 

16 March, 


. . . . . . 


€8 


1872 


29 


9 


y) 


2 PRUSSIA. 


Alarm of war with France arises. April 
Prussian bishops at Fulda appeal to the empero: 
against ecclesiastical legislation, 2 April ; rebukec 
for not submitting to the law . . 9 April 
Visit of the ezar to Berlin; war panic in Europe 
to—13 May; diplomatic “intervention of Grea: 
Britain leads to assurances of peace about 24 May 
Bismarck abolishes the semi-official press 
about 26 May 
King and queen of Sweden arriveat Berlin 28 May 
George von Vincke, an eminent constitutional states 
man, dies, June. 
Count Arnim’s new trial, I 5 J une; verdict, confirm 
ing sentence . 20 Oct 
Partial submission of the bishops: announced 


Launch of the Wilhelm, iron-clad 
Forster, prince-bishop of Breslau, sentenced to de 
pr ivation . - 6 Oct 
The emperor warmly received by the king of Italy 
at Milan (prince Bismarck too illto go) 18-23 Oct 
Statue of Von Stein (see 1807 above) inaugurate 
by the crown prince . . 26 Oet 
German parliament opened by the emperor ; firn 
and pacific speech read . 27 Oct 
Letter from count Arnim rebutting accusations i 
the Times of . 1g Noy 
He is to be prosecuted for treason in a pamphle 
entitled ‘* Pro Nihilo,” published at Zurich Noy 
Prussian diet opened . 16 Jan 
Asserted deficiency in revenue of about 2,500,0001 
about 25 Jal 

Archbishop Ledochowski released from aed (pre 
ceeds to Rome) . : : 3 Fet 


The empress visits England ‘ 3 May-J une 
Parliament dissolved, 14 Oct. ; liberal ‘majority i 
new parliament 7 Oct 


The emperor celebrates his goth military snnivaral 
1 Jan.; eightieth anniversary birthday 22 Jar 
Chambers opened ; . 12 Jar 
Berlin Conference on Eastern question (emperor ¢ 
Russia, prince Gortschakoff, and count Andrassy 
See Berlin 11, 12 May 
Prince Bismarck’s resignation not accepted ; h 
retires temporarily for his health . ‘ Ti 
Count Enlenburg’s policy as minister of interior dis 
pleases prince Bismarck ; the count’s resignatio. 
not accepted ; he is granted six months’ absence 


Sept 
Parliament opened ; loan for military pe pre 
posed . ; r Oct 


Resolutions against ¢ government defeated in parle 
ment through promised administrative ey, 

27 Oc 

Prince Bismarck resumes his active duties as pe 
of ministry, 15 Feb. ; in the German parliament 
asserts strict neutrality and non-interference 
with Russia in the Eastern question . 19 Fek 
Ministerial crisis: resignation of Camphausen 


finance minister : : “ z 6 March 
Ministry unsettled . ; . May 
Hodel (called Lehman), a socialist, fires at the em 
peror and misses, at Berlin . . x1 May 
The emperor wounded by shots by Dr. Nobilings | 
June ; gradually recovered . .  dJune—Sep 
Hodel executed at Berlin . 16 Aug 


Statue of Frederick-William III. unveiled a th 
emperor at Cologne : fs Sept 
Count Arnim publishes eS Quid faciamus nos?” Jal 
Marriage of princess Louise Margaret of Prussia t 
the duke of Connaught . 13 Marek 
The emperor’s golden wedding kept rz June 
New Parliament opened by the emperor a 
for Bismarck)  . 8 Oct 
Letter from the pope to Melchers, abp. ‘of cotoees 
recommending submission of names of priests t 
the government, dated . : . 24 Fe 
Ecclesiastical laws (Falk) amendment Dill, pre 
moted by prince Bismarck; much discussed 


May ; passed (maimed ; 206-202) . 28 June 
Parliament opened . . 28 Oct 
Discussion on the social movement against the Jew 

through jealousy; no vote . . 20-22 Nov 


Anti-Semitic league very active ; much opposed Db, 
the prince imperial and others’ . Jan 
The minister of the interior, count Eulenburg, r 
signs through offence of prince Bismarck, 
about 19 Fel 


ia ad 


PRUSSIC ACID. 


William, grandson of the emperor and of 
Victoria, married to princess Augusta Vic- 
f Schleswig-Holstein . 27 Feb. 
‘count Arnim at Nice ro May, ;, 
< Korum nominated bishop of Treves, at 
; approved by Bismarck .- 14 Aug, et seq. 
» surplus announced s : . 18 Jan. 
k’s tobacco bill rejected by his economic 

aie = : ‘ 3 A ever Marcel. 5 
rather weakened by elections about 29 Oct. _,, 
t of reconciliation with the Vatican ; amend- 
of the ecclesiastical laws of May, 1873, 
ucéd ¢ : : - 5 dune, 
sed; diet closed : A : 2 July, 
of the Prussian Council of State, the crown 
. president, royal family members 18 June, 1884 
ent opened i - 15 Jan. 1885 


1883 


(See Germany.) 
RGRAVES, ELECTORS, DUKES, AND KINGS. 


(ARGRAVES OR ELECTORS OF BRANDENBURG. 
Ibert I., the Bear, first elector of Brandenburg. 
tho I. 
tho II. 
lbert II. 
yhn I. and Otho III. 
ohn IT. 
tho IV. 
Taldemar. 
fenry I. the Young. 
nterregnum. ] 
ouis I. of Bavaria. 
ouis II. the Roman. 
tho V. the Sluggard. 
Venceslas, of Luxemburg. 
igismund, of Luxemburg, 
ossus, the Bearded. 
igismund, again emperor. 
rederick I. of Nuremberg (of the house of HoHEN- 
ZOLLERN). 
‘rederick II., surnamed Ironside. 
Ibert III. surnamed the German Achilles. 
ohn IIL. his son ; as margrave ; styled the Cicero 
of Germany. 
‘ohn III. as elector. 
‘oachim I. son of John. 
oachim II. poisoned by a Jew. 
‘(ohn-George. 
foachim-Frederick. 
fohn-Sigismund. 
DUKES OF PRUSSIA. 
fohn-Sigismund. 
yeorge-William. 
trederick-William, his son, the ‘‘Great Elector.” 
Prederick III., son of the preceding ; crowned king, 
18 Jan. 1701. ; 
KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 
Frederick I. ; king; died. 
Prederick-William I., son of Frederick I. 
Frederick I. (or Frederick III. ; styled the Great), 
son; made Prussia a military power. 
Prederick-William II., nephew of the preceding. 
Frederick-William III. (he had to contend against 
the might of Napoleon, and after extraordinary 
vicissitudes, he aided England in his overthrow), 
died 7 June, 1840. 
Frederick-William IV., 
died, 2 Jan. 1861. 
William I., brother (born, 22 March, 1797); pro- 
claimed emperor of Germany at Versailles, 18 Jan. 
1871); married princess Augusta of Saxe-Weimar, 
11 June, 1829; golden wedding kept, 11 June, 


son; born 15 Oct. 1795; 


1879. 

Heir? his son, Frederick-William ; born 18 Oct. 
1831; married Victoria, princess-royal of Eng- 
land, 25 Jan. 1858. 

Issue: William ; born 27 Jan. 1859 (married princess 
Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein, 27 Feb. 
1881); another son and four daughters living. 


2USSICG ACID (hydrocyanic acid), acci- 
lly discovered by Diesbach, a German chemist, 
og, and first obtained in a separate state by 
ele about 1782. It is colourless, smells like 
1 flowers, freezes at 5° Fahrenheit, is very 
ile, and turns vegetable blues into red. Simple 
r distilled from the leaves of the dawro-cerasus 


683 


PUBLIC HEALTH ACTS. 


first ascertained to be a most deadly poison by Dr. 
Madden of Dublin; see Blue. 


PRUTH, 2 river in Moldavia, the boundary of 
Turkey. Peter the great crossed the Pruth, was 
surrounded by the Turks, and lost much by a con~ 
vention, June, 1711. The Russians crossed it 2 
July, 1853, and war ensued. 


PRYTANIS, 2 magistrate of Corinth, annually 
elected from 745 B.c. till the office was abolished by 
Cypselus, a despot, 655 B.C. 


PSALMS OF DAVID were collected by 
Solomon, 1000 B.C. ; others added, 580 and 515 B.C. 
The Church of England Old Version in metre by 
Sternhold and Hopkins was published in 1562; the 
New Version by ‘Tate and Brady in 1698. 

The version of Francis Rous, provost of Eton, first pub- 
lished in 1641, was ordered to be used, by the parliament 
in 1646. It is the basis of the Scotch version, which 
appeared in 1650. The marquis of Lorne published a 
yersion in 1877. Many other versions published. 


PSEUDOSCOPE (from pscudos, false), a 
name given by professor Wheatstone (in 1852) to 
the stereoscope, when employed to produce ** con- 
versions of relief,” ¢.¢., the reverse of the stereo- 
scope: a terrestrial globe appears like a hollow 
hemisphere. 


PSYCHIC FORCE, see Spiritualism. 
PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY, founded 


Feb. 1875, by serjeant Cox and others; dissolved 
31 Dec. 1879, after the death of the serjeant. The 
Nociety for Psychical Research was constituted 20 
Feb. 1882. 


PSYCHROMETER (from psychros, cold), an 
apparatus for measuring the amount of elastic 
vapour in the atmosphere ; invented by Guy Lussac 
(died 1850), and modified by Regnault (about 1848). 
An electric psychrometer was described by Edmond 
Becquerel, 4 Feb. 1867. 


PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. Claudius Ptolemy 
of Pelusium, in Egypt (about A.D. 140), supposed 
that the earth was fixed in the centre of the uni- 
verse, and that the sun, moon, and stars moved 
round once in twenty-four hours. The system (long 
the official doctrine of the church of Rome) was uni- 
versally taught till that of Pythagoras (500 B.C.) 
was revived by Copernicus, A.D. 1530, and demon- 
strated by Kepler (1619) and Newton (1687). 


PUBLICANS, farmers of the state revenues 
of Rome. Soon after the battle of Cann they were 
so wealthy as to be able to advance large sums to 
the government, payable at the end of the war. No 
magistrate was permitted to be a publican. 


PUBLIC BATHS, &c., see Baths, Education. 


PUBLIC ENTERTAINMENTS ACT, 
38 Vict. c. 21, passed 14 June 1875, amends the Act 


25 Geo. II. ¢. 36, 1752. 
PUBLIC GOOD, see Leagues. 
PUBLIC HEALTH ACTS. New act, con- 


solidating all the previous sanitary and nuisance 
acts, passed, 11 Aug. 1875; wnother act passed in 
1883. An act relating to supply of water passed 4 
July, 1878. See Sanitary Legislation. 
RATE OF DEATHS PER 1,000. 
England in 1660-79, 80 ; 1840-74, 223- 
In 1884 :— 

Birmingham, 28. 
Leeds, Leicester, Bradford, 

Sheffield, 20. 
Salford, Dublin, 30. 
Newcastle, Wolverhamp- 

ton, Liverpool, 32. 


Bristol, Portsmouth, Edin- 
burgh, 17. 

London, Norwich, 18. 

Oldham, 22. 

Glasgow, 25. 

Nottingham, 26. 

Manchester, Hull, 27. 


PUBLIC HOUSES. 


‘PUBLIC HOUSES, see Victuallers. 
PUBLIC LIBRARIES ACTS, passed 1855 


and 1871; amended in 1877. 


PUBLIC LOAN. COMMISSIONERS 
were constituted by the act passed 13 Aug. 1875. 
Other acts passed 1879-83. 


PUBLIC OFFICES SITE ACT (for the 
Admiralty and War) passed 24 July, 1882. 


PUBLIC PROSECUTOR, sce Prosecutor. 
PUBLIC RECORDS, see 2ecords. 
PUBLIC SAFETY, CoMMITTEE OF, was 


established at Paris during the French Revolution 
on 6 April, 1793, with absolute power, in conse 
quence of the coalition against France. The severe 
government of this committee is termed the Reign 
of Terror, which ended with the execution of Robes- 
pierre and his associates, 28 July, 1794. A similar 
committee was established at Paris by the com- 
munists, March-May, 1871. 


PUBLIC SCHOOLS ACT, 1868, amended 
by acts passed 1870 aud 1872; see Hducation. 


PUBLIC STORES. The laws relating to 
their protection were consolidated and amended by 
an act passed 29 June, 1875. 


PUBLIC WORKS ACT, passed 21 July, 
1863, to provide work for the unemployed persons 
in the manufacturing districts at the time of the 
cotton famine. It enabled corporate bodies to raise 
loans, and proved very successful. It was continued 
in 1864—75. 


PUBLIC WORSHIP REGULATION 
ACT, 37 & 38 Vict. c. 85, principally for the re- 
pression of ritualism in the church of England, was 
introduced into the House of Lords by the archbishop 
of Canterbury, 21 April, and after very much dis- 
cussion, received the royal assent, 7 Aug. 1874. 
By it a new judge in the provincial courts of Canter- 

bury and York was appointed: the first being 

lord Penzance ; the act came into operation 
1 July 
First cause, the parish of Folkestone v. rev. C. J. 

Ridsdale, the vicar, 4 Jan., 1876; tried at Lam- 

beth palace ; verdict for plaintifts Leg eb: 
Rev. Arthur Tooth of Hatcham, and rey. T. Pelham 

Dale of St. Vedast’s, London; monition to dis- 

continue practices A 18 July, 
Rev. A. Tooth disregards monition ; justifies him- 

self and denies authority of court, 21 Dec. 1876; 

carries on ritualistic services up to 14 Jan. ; pro- 

nounced contumacious by lord Penzance in court 
of Arches, 13 Jan. ; imprisoned in Horsemonger- 
lane gaol from 22 Jan. to 17 Feb. The church was 
forcibly entered, and he celebrated holy com- 
munion in the censured form . 14 May, 
Proceedings against him quashed by the Queen’s 

Bench on appeal, because the trial did not take 

place in the diocese of Rochester 19 Noy. 
Sentence upon Rey. T. P. Dale set aside through 

legal difficulty ; he resumes service . 22 July, 

[Again convicted and admonished, 8 Feb. 1879.] 
The Queen’s Bench division assert the public wor- 

ship regulation court is a new court, and nota 

modification of the court of Arches TO NON amie 
Rey. John Edwards of Prestbury suspended for six 
months, and Rey, A. H. Mackonochie warned, 
23 March, 

Rev. A. H. Mackonochie sentenced by court of 

Arches to three years’ suspension from benefice 

and office, for disobedience to monition of the 


court : A : : : : rJune, ,, 
Enforcement of the sentence prohibited by the 
Queen’s Bench . : S AUgo ey. 


Rey. J. Edwards’ suspension also set aside . Aug. 
Sentence of court of Arches against Mr. Mackonochie 
affirmed by court of Appeal, 28 June; he is sen- 
tenced to 3 years’ suspension from benefice (from 
23 Nov. 1879), he protests . 


” 


684 


Mr. Sinclair, nominated to officiate, retires ; Mr. 
Mackonochie officiates as usual - 23 Novy. 
Martin v. Mackonochie, new trial; lord Penzance 
declines to decide, as the former sentence has not 
been carried out . ‘ : A 5 June, 
Rey. T. Pelham Dale is imprisoned in Holloway 
gaol for contempt of court. 3 - 30:OG. 
Ttev. Sidney F. Green, rector of Miles Platting, Man- 
chester, and Rev. Rd. Wm. Enraght, of Bor- 
desley, Birmingham, convicted 20 Nov. ; Mr. 
Enraght imprisoned in Warwick gaol 27 Novy. 
Mr. Dale applies to Queen’s Bench for release on 
ground of illegal proceedings ; his detention 
affirmed = : 3 : 4 6-13 Dee 
Mr. Dale on appeal to house of lords released till x1 
Jan. 1881 ; Mr. Enraght prefers to remain 
18 Dee. 
Mr. Dale (and consequently Mr. Enraght) dis. 
charged through technical irregularity respecting 
the writ by decision of Appeal court 15 Jan. 
Rey. 8. F. Green imprisoned in Lancaster Castle 
March 1881; released ‘ 5 : . 5 Nov. 
Rev. A. H. Mackonochie’s appeal to the house of 
lords dismissed ; sentence of 1878 to take effeet 
7 April 
The judicial committee of privy council grant hin 
anew trial, 3 Feb.; remit to Lord Penzance te 
decree suitable punishment. : . 22 Feb. 
Mr. Mackonochie sentenced to deprivation by court 
of Arches, 21 July, 1883. He resigns the benefice 
of St. Peter’s, London Docks . a . ar Deg 
Sir Percival Heywood, v. the bishop of Manchester, 
for refusing to institute Rev. Cowgill, curate 0} 
Rev. 8. F. Green, as his successor, 10, 12 Dee 
1883; Baron C,. Pollock decides for the bi 
21 Jan. 


PUBLISHERS’ CIRCULAR, still i 
twice a month; organised chiefly by Mr. Wi 
Longman (died 1877); first published by 
Sampson Low, 2 Oct. 1837. 


PUDDLING, making the walls of ¢ 
water-tight by means of clay, was largely ad 
by Brindley in constructing the Bridgewater ec: 
1761 et seg.; see also under Iron Manufactun 


PUEBLA, see Mexico, 1863. 
PUERTO, see Porto. 
PUGILISM, see Boxing. 


PULLEY, vice, and other mechanical ir 
ments, are said to have been invented by Are 
of Tarentum, about 400 B.c., or by Archin 
287-212. In a single movable pulley the ] 
gained is doubled: in a continued combinatio 
power is equal to the number of pulleys, les: 
doubled. 


PULLMAN CARS, see under Railway: 


PULTOWA (Russia), where Charles XJ 
Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the | 
of Russia, 8 July, 1709. He fled to Bende 
Turkey. 

PULTUSK (Russia), where a battle was f 
between the Saxons, under their king Augustus 
the Swedes, under Charles XII., in which 
former were signally defeated, 1 May, 1703. 
also the French under Napoleon fought the Ru 
and Prussian armies: both sides claimed the vit 
but it inclined in favour of the French, 26 
1806. 


PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria is sa 
have invented pumps (with other hydraulic im 
ments), about 224 B.c., although the invent 
ascribed to Danaus, at Lindus, 1485 B.c. P 
were in general use in England, a.b. 425. A 
scription on the {pump in front of the late | 
Exchange, London, stated that the well was 


15 Noy. 1879 | in 1282. The air-pump was invented by 


PUNCH. 


e in 1654, and improved by Boyle in 1657; 
and Wedls. 


[CH, the puppet show, borrowed from the 
Polichinello, is descended from a character 
own in the theatres of ancient Rome. os- 
The satirical weekly publication, Punch, or 
udon Charivari, was established by Henry 
y, Mark Lemon, Douglas Jerrold, Gilbert 
tt, and others: first published 17 July, 1841. 
emon, the first editor, died 23 May, 1870; 
irley Brooks, died 23 Feb. 1874; 3rd, ‘tom 
died July, 1880; 4th, Francis Cowley Bur- 
Richard Doyle, who designed the wrapper, 
;a frequent contributor, died 11 Dec. 1883; 
sech died 1864. See Caricatures and Cha- 


ICTUATION. The Hebrew accents for 
ition are very ancient. The period (.) is the 
cient; the colon (:) was introduced about 
he comma (,) was first seen about 1521, and 
iicolon (;) about 1570. In sir Philip Sid- 
Arcadia” (1587), they all appear, as well as 
fe of interrogation (?), asterisk (*), and 
eses (). 


VIC WARS, see Carthage, 264 B.c. 


YISHMENTS, see Beheading, Blinding, 
, Death, Drowning, Flogging, and Powson- 


YJAB (N. W. Hindostan) was traversed by 
der the Great, 327 B.c.; by Tamerlane, 
98; by Mahmoud of Ghizni, about 1000. It 
“independent state under Runjeet Sing, 
339. Our wars with the Sikhs began here, 
“1845, and were closed on 29 March, 1849, 
he Punjab was annexed; see India. The 
has since greatly flourished, and on 1 Jan. 
as made a distinct presidency (to include the 
states and the Delhi territory) ; see Durbar. 
‘hind canal (502 miles) opened by the vice- 
irquis of Ripon, 24 Nov. 1882. Local self- 
ment bill passed 10 Oct. 1883., 


PPETS (Italian, puppi; French, marion- 
of which the eyes, arms, &c., were moved by 
.were used by the ancients, and are men- 
by Xenophon, Horace, and others. Skilful 
cal performances with puppets have been 
times exhibited in London (at the Ade- 
allery, 1852). A performance with pup- 
3 large as life, began at St. James’s-hall, 
872. M.Ch. Magnin published a ‘* Histoire 
rionnettes,’’ 1852. 


a CLUB, formed Aug. 1836; dis- 
863. 

RCELL SOCIETY, founded 21 Feb, 
° publish and perform the works of Henry 


RCHASE SYSTEM in the army. The 
nt of a present or gratuity for a commission 
»hibited by William IIT., 1693; butin 1702 pur- 
vas legally re-organised. In 1711 the sale of 
ssions was forbidden without the royal permis- 
in 1719-20 regulations were issued; and a 
cale of prices was adopted in consequence of 
nission in 1765. Large over-regulation pay- 
continued to be paid. Commissions of inquiry 
eld frequently since 1858; and in 1871 the 
. was abolished, with compensation, by royal 
it, 20 July, 1871, the bill for the purpose 
» been rejected by the house of lords. For 
its paid, see under Army. 


RGATIVES of the mild species (aperients), 


685 


PYRAMIDS. 


particularly cassia, manna, and senna, are ascribed 
to Actuarius, a Greek physician, 1245. 


PURGATORY, the middle place between 
heaven and hell, where, it is believed by the Roman 
catholics, the soul passes through the fire of purifi- 
cation before it enters the kingdom of God. The 
doctrine was known about 250; wasintroduced into 
the Roman church in the 5th century, and made a 
religious dogma by Gregory I., 590-604. It was 
first set forth by a council at Florence, 1439; en- 
forced by the council of ‘rent, Dec. 1563; see Jn- 
dulgences. 


PURIFICATION, after childbirth, was or- 
dained by the Jewish law, 1490 B.c. (Lev. xii.) ; see 
Churching. ‘The feast of the purification was insti- 
tuted, 542, in honour of the Virgin Mary’s going to 
the temple. (Lwke ii.) Pope Sergius I. ordered 
the procession with wax tapers, whence Candlemas- 
day. 


PURITANS, the name first given, it is said, 
about 1564, to persons who aimed at greater purity 
of doctrine, holiness of living, and stricter discipline 
than others. They withdrew from the established 
church, professing to follow the word of God alone, 
and maintaining that the church retained many 
human inventions and popish superstitions; see 
Cathari, Nonconformists, and Presbyterianism. 


PURLEY, see Diversions. 


PURPLH, a mixed tinge of scarlet and blue, 
discovered at Tyre. Itis said to have been found 
by a dog’s having by chance eaten a shell fish, 
called murex or purpura; upon returning to his. 
master, Hercules Tyrius, he observed his lips tinged,. 
and made use of the discovery. Purple was anciently 
used by the princes and great men for their gar- 
ments. It was restricted to the emperor by 
Justinian I. 532, and porphyrogenitus attached to 
the names of some emperors signifies ‘‘ born to the 
purple.” 


PURVEYANCH, an ancient prerogative of 
the sovereigns of England of purchasing provisions, 
&c., without the consent of the owners, led to much 
oppression. It was regulated by Magna Charta, 
121 a and other statutes, and was only surrendered 
by Charles IT. in 1660, for a compensation. 


PUSEYISM, a name attached to the views of 
certain clergymen and lay members of the church 
of England, who proposed to restore the practice of 
the church of England to what they believed to 
be required by the language of her Liturgy and 
Rubrics, but which were considered by their oppo- 
nents to be of a Romish tendency. The term was 
derived from the name of the professor of Hebrew 
at Oxford, Dr. Edwd. Pusey. The heads of houses of 
the university of Oxford passed resolutions censuring 
Dr. Pusey’s attempts to renew practices which are 
now obsolete, 15 March, 1841; and his celebrated 
sermon was condemned by the same body, 30 May, 
1843; he died 16 Sept. 1382; see Zractarians, and 
Ritualism. 

PUTNEY, anciently Putilei and Putenheath, 
N.E Surrey, on the Thames, opposite Fulham. A 
new granite bridge, founded by the prince of Wales 
(to replace the wooden one completed in 1729), 12 
July, 1884. 


-PYDNA (Macedon), where Perseus, the last 
king of Macedon, was defeated and made prisoner 
by the Romans, commanded by Aimilius Paulus, 22 
June, 168 B.c. 


PYRAMIDS or Eayprr. The three prin- 


cipal are situated on a rock, at the foot of some 


PYRENEES. 


686 


PY 


high mountains which bound the Nile. The first 
building commenced, it is supposed, about 1500 B.c. 
The greatest is said to have been erected by Cheops, 
1082 B.c., but earlier dates are assigned. ‘The 
largest, near Gizeh, is 461 feet in perpendicular 
height, with a platform on the top 32 feet square, 
and the length of the base is 746 feet. It occupies 
about twelve acres of ground, and is constructed of 
stupendous blocks of stone. There are many other 
smaller pyramids to the south of these. They have 
been visited and described by Belzoni, 1815; Vyse, 
1836; C. Piazzi Smyth, and others.—The battles of 
the Pyramids, when Bonaparte defeated the Mame- 
lukes, and thus subdued Lower Egypt, took place 
13 and 21 July, 1798; see Lgypt. 


PYRENERBS. After the battle of Vittoria 
(fought 21 June, 1813), Napoleon sent Soult to super- 
sede Jourdan, with instructions to drive the allies 
acrossthe Ebro; Soultretreatedinto France witha loss 
of more than 20,000 men, having been defeated by 
Wellington in a series of engagements from 25 July 
to 2 Aug. One at the Pyrenees on 28 July. A 
railway through the Pyrenees (from Bilbao to 
Miranda) was opened 21 Aug. 1862.—THE PEACE 
OF THE PYRENEES was concluded between France 
and Spain, by cardinal Mazarin, for the French 
king, and don Louis de Haro, on the part of Spain, 
in the island of Pheasants, on the Bidassoa. By 
this treaty Spain yielded Roussillon, Artois, and her 
right to Alsace; and France ceded her conquests in 
Catalonia, Italy, &c., and engaged not to assist 
Portugal, 7 Nov. 1659. 

PYROLETER, a mechanical and chemical 
apparatus for extinguishing fires, especially in ships, 
invented by Dr. Paton; tried at Greenhithe, and 
reported successful, I June, 1875. 


PYROMETER (fire-measurer), an apparatus 
employed to ascertain the temperature of furnaces, 
&c., where thermometers cannot be employed; 
Muschenbroek’s .pyrometer (a metallic bar) was 
described by him in 1731. Improvements were 
made by Ellicott and others. Wedgwood employed 
clay cylinders, 1782-6. In 1830 professor Daniell 
received the Rumford medal for an excellent pyro- 
meter made in 1821. Mr. Ericsson’s pyrometer 
appeared in the Great Exhibition of 1851. (ng. 
Cyc.) Mr. C. W. Siemens employed electric resist- 
ance in his pyrometers, exhibited in 1871. 


PYROPHONE (Greek, pur, fire; phone, 
a musical instrument, invented by M. Fr 
Kastner, of Paris. It consists of glass tul 
various lengths; the tones being produc 
what are termed “singing flames.” It is 
upon the ‘chemical harthonicon.’’ Key 
attached for playing, as in the piano. Thei 
tion was reported to the French Acader 
Sciences, 17 March, 18735 exhibited at V: 
same year; and at the Society of Arts, 17 
1875. M. Kastner died aged 31, July, 1882. 


PYROXYLIN, the chemical name of 


Cotton (which see). 
PYRRHONISM, see Scepties. 


PYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOP 
Pythagoras, of Samos, head of the Italic 
flourished about 5553B.c. He issaid to have t 
the doctrine of metempsychosis, or transmig 
of the soul from one body to another, forbidd. 
disciples to eat flesh and beans, invented the x 
plication table, improved geometry, and taug] 
present system of astronomy. 


PYTHIAN GAMES, in honour of A 
near the temple of Delphi; asserted to have 
instituted by himself, in commemoration 
victory over the serpent, Python. Also said to 
been established by Agamemnon, or Diomed 
Amphictyon, or lastly, by the council oi 
Amphictyons, 1263 B.c. They lasted till 394. 


PYX, the casket in which Catholic priests 
the consecrated wafer. In the ancient chapel 
pyx, at Westminster abbey, are depositec 
standard pieces of gold and silver, under the 
custody of the lords of the treasury and the « 
troller-general. The ‘‘ trial of the pyx”’ sig 
the verification by a jury of goldsmiths o 
coins deposited in the pyx or chest by the mas 
the mint; this took place on 17 July, 1861, a 
exchequer office, Old Palace-yard, in the pre 
of twelve privy councillors, twelve goldsmiths 
others, and on 15 Feb. 1870. This trial is said to 
been ordered in the reign of Henry II., 115: 
King James was present at one in 1611. The 
annual trial of the pyx, appointed by the Co: 
act of 1870, took place 18 July, 1871. 


QUACKERY. 


QUAKERS. 


\OKERY. Quack medicines were taxed 
et seg. An inquest was held on the body of 
¢ lady, Miss Cashin, whose physician, St. 
ong, was afterwards tried for manslaughter, 
. 1830; he was found guilty, and sentenced 
a fine of 2502., 30 Oct. following. He was 
r manslaughter in the case of Mrs. Catherine 
and acquitted, 19 Feb. 1831. Dr. Vries, 
slack doctor,’ a professed cancer-curer, at 
was condemned to fifteen months’ imprison- 
s an impostor in Jan. 1860; see Homeopathy 
ydropathy. 


ADRAGESIMA SUNDAY, first Sun- 
Lent and 4oth day before Good Friday; see 


nd Quinguagesima. 


ADRANT, a mathematical instrument in 
m of a quarter of acircle. The solar quad- 
as introduced about 290 B.c. The Arabian 
mers under the caliphs, in 995, had a quad- 
‘21 feet 8 inches radius, and a sextant 59 feet 
4s radius. Davis’s quadrant for measuring 
was produced about 1600; Hadley’s quadrant 
1731; see Navigation. 


ADRILATERAL or QUADRANGLE, 


applied to four strong fortresses in N. Italy, 
eld by the Austrians, but surrendered to the 
1s, Oct. 1866 ;—Peschiera, on an island in the 
>; Mantua on the Mincio; Verona and Leg- 
both on the Adige; see Italy, Peschiera, &c. 
rkish Quadrilateral was Shumla, Varna, Rustchuk, 
Silistria, lost to the sultan by the treaty of Berlin, 
h established the autonomy of Bulgaria. 


"ADRILLE, a dance (originally guadrille 
on danse, introduced into French ballets 
1745), in its present form became popular in 
e about 1804. It was introduced into this 
ry about 1803 (Miss Berry), and promoted 
é duke of Devonshire and others, in 1813. 
8. 


[ADRIVIUM, see Arts. 
[ADRUPLE ALLIANCE. That be- 


“Great Britain, France, and the emperor 
dat London, 22 July, 1718); on the accession 
> states of Holland, 8 Feb. 1719, obtained its 

It guaranteed the succession of the reign- 
smilies of Great Britain and France, settled 
wrtition of the Spanish monarchy, and led to 


TADRUPLE TREATY, concluded in 
om 22 April, 1834, by the representatives of 
_ Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, gua- 
ed the possession of her throne to Isabella II., 


oung queen of Spain. 


JADRUPLEX TELEGRAPHY, see 
r Klectricity. 


JASSTOR, in ancient Rome, had the man- 
ent of the public treasure; appointed about 
3.c. It was the first office any person could 
in the commonwealth, and gave a right to sit 
e senate. At first there were two questors, 
wards eight. Two were added in 409 B.C. 


to forty. 
city) Urbani. 


Sylla raised the number to twenty; Julius Cesar 
Two were called Peregrini, two (for the 


QUAKERS or SocrEty oF FRIENDS, origin- 


ally called Seekers, from their seeking the truth, 
and afterwards Friends (3 Jon, 14). 
net, of Derby, gave the society the name of Quakers 
in 1650, because George Fox (the founder) admon- 
ished him and those present to quake at the word 
of the Lord. This sect was commenced in England 
about 1646, by George Fox (then aged 22), who 
was joined by George Keith, William Penn, and 
Robert Barclay, of Ury, and others. 
all religious ordinances, explained away the com- 
mands relative to baptism, &c. ; 
ordinary names of days and months, and used thee 
and thou for you, as more consonant with truth. 
He published a book of instructions for teachers and 
professors, and died 13 Jan. I691. 
explains the Quaker calendar in his Chronology of 
History. The first meeting-house in London was 
in White Hart-court, Gracechurch-street. 


Justice Ben- 


Fox rejected 


discarded the 


Sir H. Nicolas 


Their principles are contained in ‘‘ Extracts of minutes ” 


(from the beginning) published 1782: revised 1802, 


1861, and 1883. 


The Quakers early suffered grievous persecutions. 


At 


Boston, U.S., where the first Friends who arrived were 
females, they (even females) were cruelly scourged, and 


had their ears cut off; some put to death. 


In 1659 they stated in parliament that 2000 Friends had 
endured sufferings and imprisonment in Newgate: 


and 


164 Friends offered themselves at this time, by name, 

to government, to be imprisoned in lieu of an equal 

number in danger (from confinement) of death, 1659. 
Fifty-five (out of r20 sentenced) were transported to 


America, by an order of council, 1664. 


The masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some 


service. 


diers from the Tower were employed. 


Holland, the rest having died of the plague. 
reached America. 

First meeting of Quakers in Ireland in Dublin in 
1658; and their first meeting-house there was 
opened in Eustace-street : : : é : 

The solemn affirmation of Quakers enacted to be 
taken in all cases in the courts below, wherein 
oaths are required from other subjects (see Affir- 
mation) . , : : E f s BY hs 

William Penn, with a company of Friends, colon- 
ised Philadelphia . i 2 2 F - H 

John Archdale, a Quaker, elected M. P. for Chipping 
Wycombe; refused to take the oaths, and his 
election was declared void 3 ‘ ae 

Quakers emancipated their negro slaves . r Jan. 

Joseph Pease, a Quaker, was admitted to parliament 
on his affirmation : 7 ; 15 Feb. 

The Quakers had in England 413 meeting-houses in 
1800, and 372 in ? : : , Ae: 

At an annual assembly it was agreed to recommend 
that mixed marriages should be permitted, and 
that many of the peculiarities of the sect in speech 
and costume should be no longer insisted sie 

2 Nov. 


An act passed rendering valid Quaker marriages 


when only one of the persons is a Quaker. May, 


The Quakers publish an address deprecating the 


continuance of the war : e : Jan. 


months, an embargo was laid on West India ships, 
when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the 
The Friends would not walk on board, 
would the sailors hoist them into the vessel, and sol- 
In 166s, 
vessel sailed; but it was immediately captured by the 
Dutch, who liberated twenty-eight of the prisoners in 
Few 


nor 


the 


1692 


1696 
1682 
1699 
1788 


1833 
1872 


1858 
1860 


1871 


QUALIFICATION. 


688 


QUEEN CAROLINE'S TRIAL 


Said to be 14,441 Quakers in Great Britain, May, 
1877 ; about 14,700 : - ; : May, 1880 
Great Britain and Ireland, 17,977 in . 1883 


QUALIFICATION For OFFICE ABOLI- 
TION ACT, passed May, 1866, rendered it unneces- 
sary to make and subscribe certain declarations. 


QUARANTINE: the custom observed at 
Venice as early as 1127, whereby all merchants and 
others coming from the Levant were obliged to 
remain in the house of St. Lazarus, or the Lazar- 
etto, forty days before they were admitted into the 
city. Various southern cities have now lazarettos ; 
that of Venice is built in the water. In the times 
of plague, England and all other nations oblige 
those that come from the infected places to perform 
quarantine with their ships, &e., a longer or shorter 
time, as may be judged most safe. Quarantine acts 
were passed in 1753 and in 1825. By order of coun- 
cil, 10 Nov. 1866, foreign cattle were made subject 
to quarantine. 


QUARTER SESSIONS were established, 
25 Edw. III. 1350-1. The days of sitting were 
appointed, 2 Hen. V. 1413. In 1830 it was en- 
acted that quarter sessions of the peace should be 
held in the first week after 11 Oct., 28 Dec., 31 
March, and 24 June. Further regulated, 1842, 1848, 
and 1858. 


QUARTERLY REVIEW, the organ of the 
Tory party, first appeared in Feb. 1809, under the 
editorship of William Gifford, the celebrated trans- 
lator of ‘‘ Juvenal.’’ He died 31 Dec. 1826. 


QUASI MODO, a name given to Low Sunday 
(the first Sunday after Kaster) from the commence- 
ment of a hymn sung on that day. 


QUATERNIONS, an important mathemati- 
cal method or calculus, invented by Sir Wm. 
Rowan Hamilton, about 1843. 

It is based upon the separation of multiplication from 
addition, and its fundamental idea is mental trans- 
ference or motion by what he termed vectors. He 
attributed to addition motion from a point; to mul- 
tiplication about a point. Four numbers are generally 
involved, hence the name quaternion. Hamilton’s 
“‘Lectures on Quaternions,’ was published 1853: his 
‘‘Blements,” 1866. Other works by professors Kelland 
and Tait, published since. 


QUATRE-BRAS (Belgium). Here on 16 
June, 1815, two days before the battle of Waterloo, 
a battle was fought between the British and allied 
army under the duke of Brunswick, the prince of 
Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the French 
under marshal Ney. The British fought with re- 
markable intrepidity, notwithstanding their inferi- 
ority in number, and their fatigue through march- 
ing all the preceding night. The 42nd regiment 
(Royal Highlanders) suffered severely in pursuit of 
a French division by cuirassiers posted in ambush 
behind growing corn. The duke of Brunswick was 
killed. 


QUEBEC (Lower Canada), was founded by the 
French in 1608. Population, 1861, 1,111,566 ; 
1871, about 1,200,000; 1881, 1,358,469. 

Quebec reduced by the English, with all Canada, in 

1629, but restored . : : ; : . - 1632 
Besieged by the English, but without success - 1711 
Conquered by them after a battle memorable for the 

death of general Wolfe in the moment of victory, 


and of the French general Montcalm 13 Sept. 1759 
Besieged in vain by the American provincials, under 
general Montgomery, who was slain 31 Dec. 1775 


Bishopric established ‘ : F : P ‘ 
Public and private stores and several wharfs de- 
stroyed by fire; the loss estimated at upwards of 
260,000]... F f 2 A - Sept. 1815 


1793 


Awful fire, 1650 houses, the dwellings of 12,000 per- 


sons, burnttothe ground . ; - 28 May, 
Another great fire, 1365 houses burnt . 28 June, 
Fire at the theatre, so lives lost 12 Jan, 
Quebec made the seat of government . 17 April, 
Visited by the prince of Wales . 18-23 Aug. 


Great fire in French quarter; 2500 houses and 17 
churches destroyed, and nearly 20,000 persons 
made homeless . 5 14 Oct. 

Great fire; 500 houses burnt . : . 24 May, 

Great fires at St. John’s—commercial district; g 
churches and 7 hotels said to be destroyed. 


18 June, 
600 small wooden houses destroyed by fire . June, 
Parliament buildings burnt (incendiary) 19 April, 


Dynainite explosions destroying new parliament 
buildings . ‘ : 5 < : - x11 Oct. 
(See Canada and Montreal.) 


QUEEN (Saxon, ewen; German, koni 
The first woman invested with sovereign author 
said to have been Sebeknefrura, an Egyptian q 
regnant of the 12th dynasty of Thebes, about 165 
In 1554 an act was passed ‘‘ declaring that the r 
power of this realme is in the quenes maj 
[Mary] as fully and absolutely as ever it w: 
any of her moste noble progenitours kinges of 
realme.” The Hungarians called a queen-reg 
king; see Hungary. John Knox’s “ Mons 
Regiment of Women,” published 1555, ag 
aaa queen of Scots, greatly offended Hlizabe 
England. 


QUEEN ANNE’S BOUNTY, establ: 
by her in Nov, 1703, being the first fruits with 
tenths, to increase the incomes of the poorer cli 
There were 5597 clerical livings under 50/. 
annum found by the commissioners under the 2 
Anne capable of augmentation. Chalmers. A 
consolidate the offices of first fruits, tenths, 
queen Anne’s Bounty, passed 1 Vict. 1838. 


QUEEN ANNE'S FARTHINGS. 
popular stories of the great value of this coil 
fabulous, although some few of particular | 
have been purchased by persons at high pi 
The current farthing, with the broad brim, v 
in fine preservation, is worth 17, The com 
patterns of 1713 and 1714 are worth 1. The 
patterns with Britannia under a canopy, and I 
on a car, R RR, are worth 2/. 2s. each. 
pattern with Peace in a car is more valuable 
rare, and worth 5/. Pinkerton (died 1826). 


QUEEN CAROLINE’S TRIAL, &e. 


Caroline Amelia Elizabeth, second daughter of 
Charles William Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, 
born 17 May, 1768; married to George, prince of 
Wales ©. (YS) See 8 April, 

Their daughter, princess Charlotte, born 7 Jan. 

The ‘‘ Delicate Investigation” (which see) 22 May, 

Charges against her again disproved i - ; 

The princess embarks for the continent Aug. 

Becomes queen, 20 Jan.; arrives in England, 

6 June, 

A secret committee in the house of lords, appointed 
to examine papers on charges of incontinence, 

8 June, 

Bill of pains and penalties introduced by lord 
Liverpool §. sw») sen 

The queen removes to Brandenburg-house 3 Aug. 

Receives an address from the married ladies of the 
metropolis (and many others afterwards) 16 Aug. 

Hertrialcommences . . . . 1g Aug. 

Last debate on the bill of pains and penalties, when 
the report was approved by 108 against 99; the 
numerical majority of nine being produced by the 
votes of the ministers themselves. Lord Liver- 
pool moves that the bill be reconsidered that day 
six months : 5 r ; : . 10 Noy. 

Great public exultation; illuminations for three 
nights in London : . +» /ix0, Tee 

The queen goes to St. Paul’s in state . 29 Nov. 

She protests against her exclusion from the corona- 


QUEEN CHARLOTTE. 689 QUIETISM. 


QUEEN’S UNIVERSITY (see Queen's Col- 
leges), was directed to be dissolved by 42 & 43 Vict. 
ce. 65 (1879), and was dissolved by proc amation, 31 
Jan. 1882; see University of Ireland. 


QUEEN VICTORIA Sram SHIP. 
Wrecked 15 Feb. 1853; see Wrecks. 


QUENTIN, ST. (N. France). The duke of 
Savoy, with the army of Philip I. of Spain, as- 


sisted by the English, defeated the French under 


, 19 July; taken ill at Drury-lane theatre, 30 
oF; dies at Hammersmith. =~. . 7 Aug. 1821 
mains removed on their route to Brunswick ; 
larming riot occurs ; two persons were killed 


naffray withthe guards. ; T4OUSs~ x 


JEEN CHARLOTTE Sure oF WAR, 
-rate ship of the line, of I10 guns, the flag- 
of lord Keith, then commanding in chief in 
[editerranean, was burnt by an accidental fire, 
1e harbour of Leghorn, and more than 700 
sh seamen out of a crew of 850 perished by fire 
owning, 17 March, 1800. 


JEEN’S ADVOCATE, prosecutes or de- 
-on the part of the crown in all cases in the 
, of admiralty. Sir R. J. Phillimore, ap- 
ed in 1862, was succeeded by sir Travers 
s, Aug. 1867, who resigned in March, 1872; 
\ecessor appointed. 


UEEN’S BENCH COURT anv PRI- 
N, see King’s Bench. 


UEEN’S COLLEGES, see Cambridge and 
wd. Queen’s colleges, Ireland, from their un- 
ian character termed the ‘‘ Godless Colleges,”’ 
, instituted in 1845, to afford education of the 
est order to all religious denominations. They 
> placed at Belfast, Cork, and Galway; the last 
opened on 30 Oct. 1849. —THE “ QUEEN’s UNI- 
sity in Ireland,’’ comprehending these colleges, 
founded by patent, 15 Aug. 1850; the earl of 
endon, lord lieutenant, the first chancellor. 
se were ‘‘condemned”’ by the Propaganda and 
pope, and bya majority (a small one) of the 
h bishops in a synod held at Thurles, in Sept. 
), A supplemental charter, granted in June, 
5, created much dissension when acted upon in 
yber following, and was suffered to expire, 31 
. 1868; see Colleges. 
yvernment commission of inquiry into the col- 
ges was appointed about 3 . May, 1876 
‘olution of the Queen’s University enacted, ano- 
ier to be created, by 42 & 43 Vict. c. 65, passed 
, Aug. 1879. 


YUEENSLAND, Moreton-bay, a British 
my, comprising the whole of the north-eastern 
tion of Australia; was separated from New South 

Jes and made a distinct colony, in 1859, when 
sbane, the capital, founded by Oxley, 1823, was 
de a bishopric. Chinese immigrants are virtually 
luded. 

George Fergusson Bowen, the first governor, 
ueceeded by Mr. Blackall, 1868 ; the marquis of 
formanby, 1871; Mr. Wm. Wellington Cairns, 

374; sir Arthur E. Kennedy, Jan. 1877; sir An- 
hony Musgrave, March, 1883. 
yulation in 1859, about 23,450 5 in 1871, 125,146 5 
tn 1875, about 163,182; in 1884, 301,577. 
ief exports, wool, gold, copper, tallow, live stock, 
otton, and sugar; value in 1871, 2,560, 383). 5 
883; 5,276, 6081. 


aE ENG or ENGLAND, sce under Eng- 


the constable De Montmorency, at St. Quentin, 10 
Aug. 1557. In fulfilment of a vow made before 
the engagement, the king built the monastery, 
palace, &c., the Escurial, considered by the Span- 
iards the eighth wonder of the world; see Escurial. 
During the Franco-German warthearmy of the north, 
under Faidherbe, was defeated here by the Ger- 
mans after seven hours’ fighting, on 19 Jan. 1871; 
total loss about 15,000: the German loss about 
3100. 


QUERETARO (Mexico), was besieged and 
taken (through the treachery of Lopez) by the 
liberal general Escobedo, 15th May, 1867. The 
emperor Maximilian and his generals Miramon and 
Mejia, were taken prisoners, and, after trial were 
shot 19 June following. 


QUERN or HANDMILL, is probably the im- 
plement spoken of in Isaiah xlvii. 2, about 712 B.C. 
So-called Roman querns have been found in York- 
shire. 


QUESNOY (N. France), was taken by the 
Austrians, II Sept. 1793, but was recovered by the 
French, 16 Aug. 1794. /1t surrendered to prince 
Frederick of the Netherlands, 29 June, 1815, after 
the battle of Waterloo.-It was here that cannon 
were first used, and called bombards. Hénault. 


QUETTAH, sce Beloochistan. 


QUIBERON BAY (W. France). A British 
force landed here, Sept. 1746, but was repulsed. In 
the bay admiral Hawke gained a complete victory 
over the French admiral Conflans, and thus defeated 
the projected invasion of Great Britain, 20 Nov. 
1759. Quiberon was taken by some French regi- 
ments in the pay of England, 3 July, 1795; but on 
21 July, through treachery, the French republicans, 
under Hoche, retook it by surprise, and many emi- 
grants were executed. About 900 of the troops, 
and nearly 1500 royalist inhabitants who had joined 
the regiments jin the pay of Great Britain, effected 
their embarkation on board the ships. 


QUICKSILVER, in its liquid state, mercury. 
Its use in refining silver was discovered, 1540. 
There are mines of it in various parts, the chiet of 
which are at Almaden, in Spain, and at Idria, in 
Illyria; the latter, discovered by accident in 1497, 
for several years yielded 1200 tons. A mine was 
discovered at Ceylon in 1797; and at New Almaden 
and other places in California. Quicksilver was 
congealed in winter at St. Petersburg, in 1759. It 
was congealed in England by a chemical process, 
without snow or ice, by Mr. Walker, in 1787. Cor- 
rosive sublimate, a deadly poison, is a combination 
of mercury and chlorine; see Calomel. 


QUICUNQUE VULT, sce Athanasian 
Creed. 

QUIETISM, the doctrine of Miguel Molinos, 
a Spaniard (1627-96), whose work, the ‘‘ Spiritual 
Guide,” published in 1675, was the foundation of a 
sect in France. He held that religion consisted in 
an internal silent meditation on the merits of 
Christ and the mercies of God. Madame de la 
Mothe-Guyon, a quietist, was imprisoned in the 

: Spx 


QUEEN'S THEATRE, see Opera House. 
QUEEN’S TITLE, see Royal Style. 
QUEENSTOWN (Upper Canada). This town, 


“the river Niagara, was taken in the war with 
‘aerica by the troops of the United States, 13 Oct. 
12; but was retaken by the British forces, who 
feated the Americans with considerable loss in 
Jed, wounded, and prisoners, on the same day. 
jeenstown suffered severely in this war.—The 
ve of Cork was named QUEENSTOWN, 3 Aug. 1849, 
' the queen on her visit. 

uary, 


. - 


QUILLS. 


690 


QUO WARRANTO ACT. 


Bastile for her visions and prophecies, but released 
through the interest of Fénélon, archbishop of 
Cambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of 
Meaux, arose a controversy, 1697. Quietism was 
finally condemned by pope Innocent XII. in 1699. 


QUILLS are said to have been first used for 
pens in 553; some say not before 635. 


QUINCE, the Pyrus Cydonia, brought to this 
country from Austria, before 1573. The Japan 
quince, or Pyrus Japonica, brought hither from 
Japan, 1796. 

QUINDECEMVIRI, fifteen men, chosen to 
keep the Sybilline books. The number, originally 
two (duumyiri), about 520 B.c., was increased to 
ten in 365 B.c., and afterwards (probably by.Sylla) 
to fifteen, about 82.B.c. Julius Cesar added one ; 
but the precedent was not followed. 


QUININE or QurntA, an alkaloid (much 
used in medicine), discovered in 1820 by Pelletier 
and Caventou. Itis a probable constituent of all 
genuine cinchona barks, especially of the yellow 
bark; see Jesudts’ Bark. Artificial quinine was 
prepared (synthetically) by Mr. W. L. Scott, in 
Oct. 1865.—QUINOIDINE, see Lworescence. John 
Eliot Howard, promoter of the cultivation of cin- 
chona in India, and author of ‘‘ Quinologia ”’ (1862) 
died 22 Nov. 1883. 

QUINQUAGESIMA SUNDAY. The ob- 
servation is said to have been appointed by Gregory 
the Great (pope, 590-604). The first Sunday in 
Lent haying been termed Quadragesima, and the 
three weeks preceding having been appropriated to 
the gradual introduction of the Lent fast, the three 
Sundays of these weeks were called by names sig- 
nificant of their position in the calendar: and 
reckoning by decades (tenths), the Sunday pre- 
ceding Quadragesima received its present name, 
Quinquagesima, the second Sexagesima, and the 
third Septuagesina. 


QUINTILIANS, heretics in the 2nd century, 
the disciples of Montanus, who took their name 
from Quintilia, a lady whom he had deceived by 
his pretended sanctity, and whom they regarded as 
a prophetess. They made the eucharist of bread 
and cheese, and allowed women to be priests and 
bishops. Pardon. 


QUIRINUS, a Sabine god, afterwards identi- 


fied with Romulus. L. Papirius Cursor, genera 
the Roman army, first erected a sun-dial in 
temple of Quirinus, from which time the days be; 
to be divided into hours, 293 B.c. -4dspin. 
sun-dial was sometimes called the Quirinus, fi 
the original place in which it was set up. -4: 
The Sabines who be¢ame Roman citizens w 
termed QUIRITES. 


QUITO (capital of the republic of Equat 
celebrated as having been the scene of the meas 
ment of a degree of the meridian, by the Fre 
and Spanish mathematicians, 1736-42. Forty th 
sand persons perished by an earthquake wk 
almost overwhe!med the city of Quito, 4 Feb. 1° 
Since then violent shocks, but not so disastr« 
occurred; till one, on 22 March, 1859, when ak 
5000 persons were killed; see Harthquakes, Equa 


QUIXOTH, see Don Quixote. 


QUOITS, a game said to have originated vy 
the Greeks, and to have been first played at 
Olympic games, by the Idei Dactyli, fifty y 
after the deluge of Deucalion, 1453 B.c. VPerss 
the grandson of Acrisius, by Danae, having in 
vertently slain his grandfather, when throwin 
quoit, exchanged the kingdom of Argos, to wl 
he was heir, for that of Tirynthus, and founded 
kingdom of Mycene, about 1313 B.c. 


QUOTATIONS. Athenzus’s “ Deipnosophe 
or Banquet of the Learned”’ (compiled about 2: 
and Burton’s “ Anatomy of Melancholy” (16: 
contain masses of extracts. Henry Ainswor 
“Communion of Saints’’ (died 1622), is a mosai 
Scripture quotations. . 

Macdonnel’s ‘‘ Dictionary of Quotations,” 1796; 

Moore’s : 4 : : : ‘ fone 
Riley’s ‘‘ Dictionary of Latin Quotations,” with a 

Selection of Greek, published by H. Bohn . 
Collections of English Quotations are now numerous 

Friswell’s ‘‘ Familiar Words,” 2nd ed. A tae 

Bartlett’s ‘‘ Familiar Quotations” . : ‘ 

Adams’ ‘‘ Cyclopeedia of Poetical Quotations” . ; 

Bohn’s ‘‘ Dictionary of Poetical Quotations”. . - 

QUO WARRANTO ACT, passed 1289. 
it a writ may be directed to any person to ing 
by what authority he holds any office or franch 
Charles II. directed a writ against the corporatio 
London in 1683, and the court of king’s bench 
clared their charter forfeited. The decision 
reversed in 1690. The proceedings have been re 
lated by various acts, 1710, 1792, 1837, 1843. 


R. 


RABELAIS. 


\BELAIS Cuups, to promote the study of 
ais and the illustration of his works; lord 
hton, sir W. Frederick Pollock and his sons, 
or Besant, and others; first meeting, Dec. 


\CES, one of the ancient games of Greece; 
hariots. 
ry early times. Fitz-Stephen, in the days of 
y Il:, mentions the delight taken by. the 
ns of London in the diversion. In James I.’s 
Croydon in the south, and Garterly in the 
, were celebrated courses. Near York there 
races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 
Camden. In the end of Charles I.’s reign, 
were performed at Hyde Park. Charles II. 
nised them, and instead of bells, gave a silver 
or cup, value 100 guineas. William III. 
| to the plates (as did queen Anne), and founded 
ademy for riding. 
rst racing calendar is said to have been pub- 
ed by John Cheney . : 
or suppressing races by 
§e8, to GeO. 1x. : ; : : 5 ted 
nost eminent races in England are those at 
vinarket (which see), established by Charles IT. 
7; and at Epsom, begun about 1711; by Mr. 
khurst (annual since 1730, Allen’s Swrrey). 
e earl of Derby began the Oaks, 1779; the 
by, 1780 (first won by Diomed)]. See Derby 


: . : oT 
ponies and weak 


1739 


/. 
cot, begun by the duke of Cumberland, uncle 


xeorge III. ; mentioned : : : See L727; 
mecaster, by col. St. Leger (the St. Leger stakes 
e founded in 1776, and so named in 1777) 4.2770 


odwood, begun by the duke of Richmond, in 
ariel) : ‘i X : : : ike 
Stamford, said to have engaged Jemmy Grim- 
w, a light-weight jockey, at a salary of roool. 
ar . A ; : : : . March, 
bersall’s,” the ‘‘high-change of horse-flesh,” 
established by Richard Tattersall, near Hyde 
k Corner (hence termed ‘‘the Corner’’)in 1766, 
the sale of horses. The lease of the ground 
ing expired, the new premises. at Brompton 
e erected and opened for business on 
to April, 
ockey Club, which now chiefly regulates races 
the betting connected with them, was founded 
1750. Its gradually accumulating rules were 
lified in 1828 and revised in : : 3 
itions recommended by a committee appointed 
\pril; adopted by the club 16 July following. 
revised, Nov. 1876; reforms made : 
Scott, a most eminent trainer, died, aged 77, 
ct. 1871 
g. Between 1858 and 1868, 75,000]. and 
coool. have been won upon a single race. 
ting is now much reprobated ; see Betting. 
nectings: Races held in fields by publicans 
others ; Metropolitan Race-course Act (42 & 
Vict. ¢. 18), to check them, passed 3 July, 


1802 


1865 


1879 


RACE-HORSES. 


ing Childers, bred in 1715 by the duke of Devon- 
was allowed by sportsmen to have been the fleetest 
that ever ran at Newmarket, or that was ever bred 
» world ; he ran four miles in six minutes and forty- 
seconds, or at the rate of 354 miles an hour, carry- 
ine stone two pounds. He died in 1741, aged 
irs. 

ipse was the fleetest horse that ran in England since 
me of Childers; he was never beaten, and died in 
lary, 1789, aged 25 years. 


Horse-races were known in England | 


His heart weighed rq tb., | 


RADIOMETER. 


which accounted for his wonderful spirit and courage. 
Christie White's Hist. of the Turf. 
On the accession of queen Victoria, the royal stud 
was sold for 16,4761. on . : é 25 Oct. 
The comte dela Grange’s stud (in consequence of the 
war) was sold for 23,7301. Gladiateur fetched s8ool. 
Middle-park stud (property of Mr. Blenkiron, de- 
ceased) sold for 102,005 guineas ; Blair Athol, for 
12,0001. (to the English Stud Company) ; 4 days’ 
sale. : ; : ‘ : : 26 July, 
Lieut. Lubowitz, Hungarian, rode from Vienna to 
Paris, on his horse Caradoc, in 15 days, winning 
a Wager, arriving : : : . 9 Nov. 
Death of Comte Frédéric Lagrange,eminent French 
studmaster ; : 3 : : . 22 Nov. 
Lord Falmouth’s stud sold for 36,420 guineas ; (Har- 
vester 8,600 guineas; Busybody 8,800 guineas) 
28 April, 
Lord Falmouth’s stud sold for 75,440 guineas 
30 June, 1884 


RACK, an engine of torture, for extracting a 
confession from criminals, mentioned by Demo- 
sthenes, de Corond, B.c. 330, and in later times an 
instrument of the Inquisition. Lord Coke states 
from tradition that the duke of Exeter, in the reign 
of Henry VI., erected a rack of torture (thence called 
the duke of Exeter’s daughter, now seen in the 
Tower, 1447). In the case of Felton, who murdered 
the duke of Buckingham, the judges of England 
protested against the proposal of the privy council 
to put the assassin to the rack, as contrary to the 
laws, 1628; the use of the rack was abolished 1640. 
See RLavaillac and Lorture. 


RADCLIFFE Liprary, OxForp, founded 
under the will of Dr. John Radcliffe, an eminent 
physician. He died 1 Novy. 1714, leaving 40,000/. 
to the university of Oxford for the founding a 
library, the first stone of which was laid 17 May, 
1737, and the edifice was opened 13 April, 1749.— 
The RADCLIFFE OBSERVATORY, Oxford, founded by 
the exertions of Dr. Hornsby, Savilian professor of 
astronomy, about 1771, was completed in 1794. The 
publication of the observations was commenced in 
1842, by Mr. Manuel J. Johnson, the director, ap- 
pointed in 1839. \ 


RADIATION, see Heat. 
RADICALS or “‘RapicAL REFORMERS,’’ 


persons who professed to aim at procuring a thorough 
reformation in the government and policy of Eng- 
land, became prominent in 1816, when Hampden 
clubs were formed, of which sir Francis Burdett, 
lord Cochrane, major Cartwright, and William 
Cobbett were prominent members. Samuel Bam- 
ford’s ‘‘ Life of a Radical,’ published in 1842, gives 
much information; he died 13 April, 1872. Many 
radicals were severely punished, 1817-20. Wn. 
Harris’s ‘‘ History of the Radical Party,’’ published 
early in 1885.—The ‘‘ Radicals’? in the United 
States were the party headed by Thaddeus Stevens, 
bitterly opposed to the policy of president Johnson, 
as too favourable to the subdued Southern States. 


RADICLE, see Compound. 
RADIOMETER, &c. (termed a light-miil), a 


little instrument constructed by Mr. Wm. Crookes, 
F.R.S., 1873-6. Two little disk arms, mounted on 
a pivot placed in an exhausted glass-bulb, revolve 


Veyes 


1837 


1870 


1872 


1874 
1883 


1884 


RADSTADT. 


692 ‘ 


RAILWAYS. 


when placed in bright light. The motion was 

attributed to heat-absorption, 1877 ; see Light. 

Radiaphone. By this apparatus professor Bell, at Phila- 
delphia, showed how a ray of strong light, acting ona 
selenium cell, conveyed sound 500 feet, Sept. 1884. 


RADSTADT, Austria. Here Moreau and the 
French defeated the Austri ians, 5 July, 1790. 


RAFFAELLE WARE, see Pottery. 
RAGGED SCHOOLS, "feo schools for out- 


cast destitute ragged children, set up in large towns. 

The instruction is based on the scr iptures, and most 
of the teachers are unpaid. John Pounds, a cobbler, 
of Portsmouth, who died in 1839, opened a school of 
this kind ; and one was set up by Andrew Walker, 
in ‘‘ Devil’s Acre,”? Westminster, in 1839. night. 

They did not receive their name "till 1844, when the 
*¢ Ragged school union”’ was formed, principally by 
Mr. 8. Star ey and Mr. Wm. Locke (after wards hon. 

secretary). The earl of Shaftesbury was chairman. 

In 1856 there were 150 Ragged school institutions, 
Sunday ragged schools reported in London in 
1867, 226; in 1878, 177; day schools, in 1867, 
204; in 1878, oe week evening schools, in 1867, 
207, in 1878, 147. Ragged school buildings were 
exempted from rates, ‘1869. These schools are 
being gradually superseded by those established by 
the London school board. Dr. Guthrie, a founder 
of ragged schools in Edinburgh, &c., died 24 Feb. 

1873. The earl of Shaftesbury presided at the goth 
anniversary of the Ragged School Union, 12 May, 
1834. See Shoe- Black. 


RAGMAN ROLL (said to derive its name 
from Ragimunde, a papal legate in Scotland) con- 
tains the records of the homage and fealty to 
Edward I., sworn to by the nobility and clergy of 
Scotland at Berwick in 1296. The original was 
given up to Robert Bruce, king of Scotland, in 1328, 
when his son David was contracted in marriage to 
the princess Joanna of England. 


RAGUSA, a city on the Adriatic, on the south 
confines of Dalmatia, was taken by the Venetians, 
1171, but became an independent republic, 1358. 
It suffered much by an earthquake, 1667; was 
taken by the French in 1806, and given up to 
Austria in 1814. 


RAID oF RUTHYVEN, see Ruthven. 


RAILWAY COMMISSIONERS; see ai- 
ways, 1873 and 1880. 


RAILWAYS. Short roads, in and about New- 
castle, laid down by Mr. Beaumont, so early as 
1602, are thus mentivned in 1676 :—* The manner 
of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the 
colliery to the river, exactly straight and parallel; 
and bulky carts are made with four rollers fitting 
those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one 
horse w ill dr aw down four or five chaldron of coals, 
and is an immense benefit to the coal merchants.”’ 
Roger North. They were made of iron at White- 
haven, in 1738; see Zramroads. For electric rail- 
ways see Hlectricity. 

An iron railway laid down near Sheffield by John 


Curr (destroyed by the colliers) 1776 
The first considerable iron railway was laid down 
at Colebrook Dale . 1786 


The first iron railway sanctioned by ‘parliament (ex- 
cept a few undertaken by canal companies as 
small branches to mines) was the Surrey iron 
railway (by horses), from the Thames at Wands- 


worth to Croydon . 1801 
Trevethick and Vivian obtained a patent ‘for a high 
pressure locomotive engine 1802 


William Hedley of Wy Jam colliery made the first 
travelling engine (locomotive), or substitute for 
animal power rina colliery . ‘ 4 . = long 


The first locomotive constructed by George Stephen- 
son, travelled at the rate of 6 miles per hour 

The Rocket travelled at the rate of 25 and 35 miles 
per hour 

(It obtained the prize of 5001. ‘offered by the directors 
of the Liverpool and Manchester railway com- 
pany for the best locomotive, Oct. 1829.) 

The Firefly attained a speed of 20 miles per hour 

The North Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles 
per hour 

At the present ‘time locomotiy es have attained a 
speed of 70 miles per hour. 

Stockton and Darlington railway, constructed by 
Edw. Pease and Geor ge Stephenson, first opened 
for passengers (see 1875-1881, below) . 27 Sept. 

The Liverpool and Manchester railway commenced 
in Oct. 1826, and opened (Wm. Huskisson, M.P., 
killed) . I5 Sept. 

Act for transmission of mails by railways . 

Duty on Railways:—3d. a mile for 4 passengers 
(2 &3 Will. IV. c. 720), 1832 3 5 per. cent. on gross 
receipts (5 & 6 Vict. ¢. 59) = 

Railway clearing house established 

The examination of railway schemes, before Bots 
introduction into parliament, by the Board of 
Trade, was ordered * 

7&8 Vict. c. 85, required companies to run “cheap 
trains every day, and to permit erection of elec- 
tric telegraphs, and authorised government, after 
1 Jan. 1866, to buy existing railways with the 
permission of parliament 

George Hudson, a draper, mayor of York in "1830, 
by his successful management as chairman of 
the Leeds and York railway and others, was eg 
the ‘‘railway king” 


An act passed ro Vict. for constituting « commis- 
sioners of railways, who have since been incor- 
porated with the Board of Trade . 28 Aug. 

The Railway Mania and panic year, when 272 rail- 
way acts passed 

Act for compensating families of persons killed by 
accidents (see Caimpbell’s Act) 

George Stephenson died p 

Act for the better regulation of railways : 

Act to enable railway companies to setile differences 
with other companies by arbitration | 

Railway Clauses Consolidation act passed . 4 

Joint committee of both houses of parliament ap- 
pointed to report on railway schemes .— 5 Feb. 

Murder of.Mr Briggs in a railway carriage (see 
Trials 1864) - gduly, 

(See Atmospheric and Street Railways. ) 


Period of ‘‘ contractors’ lines ” : 
London, Chatham, and Dover company suspend 
payment ; directors censured for their policy 
Railway Companies Securities act passed . Aug. 
A Welsh railway train (about to wi seized for 
rte : 27 Nov. 
250 railway bills “passed, 1865; ; only 9 8 
Strike of 350 men on London and Brighton’ line, 
25-27 Mar ch, 
Strike of 500 on North Eastern line, 11 April; over- 
come by the company 25 April, 
Railway commission report against the government 
buying the railways, &e. May, 
Railway acts amended by act passed 20 Aug. 
A climbing locomotive, by means of central rails, 
ascended Mont Cenis in 1865. [The experiments 
were first tried on the High Peak railway, Sept. 
1863 and Feb. 1864.] The railway completed and 
traversed by a locomotive and two carriages, con- 
taining Mr. Fell, the inventor of the plan, and 
others ; an unexampled journey in regard to steep- 
ness of gradients and the elevation of the summit 
level, 6700 feet, 21 Aug. 1867. After successful 
trials in May, the railway was opened __r5 June, 
Lord Cairns (on appeal) decides that holders of de- 
‘ bentures are responsible as qualified proprietors, 
28 Jan. 
Capt. Yolland, government inspector, reports that 
in his opinion electric communication between 
the passengers and the railway servants on trains 
stopping only at long interv als is necessary and 
practicable ‘ 3 March, 
Railway Regulation acts passed ; 1868, 
Conference of railway shareholders at Manchester, 


12 , Aug. 


- 185¢ 


Lal 


Lal 


i 


nw 


le 


ota 


a es 


14, 15 April, : 


eee 


RAILWAYS. 693 


hern Railways Amalgamation bill; opposed in 

> lords ; withdrawn 3 2 . dune, 1868 
t Cenis railway opened for traffic 15 June, 
act to amend the laws relating to railways, 
& 31 Vict. ¢. 119; (it orders smoking compart- 
nts, and communication between passengers 
d railway servants in certain trains; and_pro- 
bits trains for prize-fights, Wc.) passed, 31 July, 
and railway station, St. Pancras (which sec), 
ened ; 2 : : : ‘ erect. 
‘route to Liverpool (by a viaduct over the Mer- 
y at Runcorn), opened ‘ : . «April, 1869 
fic railway: from the Atlantic to the Pacific ; 


2? 


3? 


”? 


ened A : 4 ‘ f T2) Mays. 55 
vandonment of Railways act” passed 11 Aug. ,, 


way Companies Powers act (1864) and Con- 
ruction Facilities act (1864) amended by act 
issed . : ‘ Z : 20 June, 1870 
‘ilway Association” established: (it consists of 
rectors and representatives of shareholders, to 
atch legislation, &c.,)inaugural dinner, 21 July, ,, 
ler the London, Dover, and Chatham railway 

t, the arbitrators, the marquis of Salisbury and 

rd Cairns, decide for the amalgamation of the 
meral undertaking; extensions for award pub- 
shed : : : : Aug. 1871 
i Mountain railway (up to 4000 feet above sea 
vel), opened 2 23 May, 
ision-house station of District 


9? 


the Metropolitan 


iilway inaugurated . : : Pe ae LLY ts e's 
opean and North American railway opened at 
angor, Maine é ‘ ee re OC: 1's, 


posed amalgamation of the Midland and Glas- 
ow and South-Western : : : : : 
algamation of the London and North-Western. 
nd the Lancashire and Yorkshire railways, voted 
y companies ‘ : s 20 Oct. 
ged telegram announcing proposed amalgama- 
ion of the Midland and Manchester, Sheffield, 
nd Lincolnshire railways (led to purchase of 
hares, and affected the market), about 23 Nov. 
orge Hudson, the ‘‘ railway king,” died, aged 71, 
14 Dee. 
ike of porters of London and North-Western 
oinpany ; settled : : 26, 27 July, 1872 
ath of Thos. Brassey, who made 6600 miles of 
ailways,which cost 78,000, 000l. (able, honest, kind) ,, 
rliamentary committee report in favour of rail- 


> 


9 


»? 


vay amalgamation, published . Arar Ts 
st railway in Japan opened c2June, ,, 


e-rail railway laid down at Paris by M. Larmen- 
at, reported successful for short distances Aug. 
nalgamations already accomplished : London and 
North-Western, 61 branch lines ; Great Northern, 
; Great Eastern, 27; London and Brighton, 22; 
London and South-Western, 22; Midland, 17 
Lilway proposed by M. de Lesseps from Orenburg 
to Peshawur (2500 miles), to connect by means of 
Russian and East Indian railways Calais and 
Calcutta. : : : : . May, 1873 
ill for amalgamation of London and North-Western 
and Lancashire and Yorkshire coimpanies rejected 
by the commons committee . 23 May, 
ew Regulation of Railways Act passed (commis- 
sioners to be appointed to carry out the Act of 
1854), 21 July; commissioners: sir Frederick 
Peel, Mr. Price, and Mr. Macnamara ; met first 
time. : ; ; 2 : . 11 Nov. 
irst railway in Persia begun at Resht_. 11 Sept. 
ailway accidents investigated by Capt. Tyler ; 1871, 
171; in 1872, 246; in the United Kingdom in 
1872, 541 railway servants killed, 499 injured. 
“ircular from the Board of Trade, by Mr. Chichester 
Fortescue, to the railway companies respecting 
the increase of preventable accidents and un- . 
punctuality : : - . ELOLNOY. 
the justificatory replies of sir Edward Watkin for 
the London and Brighton Co., and of R. Moon 
for the L. and N. W. Co. ; from other companies 
Dec. 
fen railway servants convicted of robbing the lug- 


”? 


> 


. 


2? 


gage, severely sentenced . : ? = TO INQV.. 55 
r20 persons killed ; 48 without their own fault ; in 
six months : 1873-4 


The Board of Trade’s "reply (by Mr. Malcolm) to 
the railway companies, publishedabout 24 Feb. 1874 
The Pullman palace saloon cars (American) intro- 


Commission to inquire i 


Board of Trade Arbitration Act passed 
New standing orders respecting labourers’ houses 


Other compani 
Persons employed on railways: England, 228,958 5 


RAILWAYS. 


duced on the Midland railway, 21 March ; opened 
to the public : : : . r June, 
nto causes of railway acci- 
dents agreed to by government, 27 April; nomi- 
nated (duke of Buckingham and others) 11 June, 


Circular from sir C.-Adderley, recommending punc- 


tuality and care, to avoid accidents . duly, 


Railway Travellers’ Protection Society organised ; 


duke of Manchester, president 23 July, 


30 July, 


removed for making railways, passed 30 July, 


Statement of railway servants : that 632 were killed 


in 1872, and 773 killed in 1873 ; many injured ; 
[asserted to be less than the truth] Sept. 


Midland railway company announces change of 


fares: first-class to 13d. a mile; second class 
abolished ; no return tickets at lower fares ; 
began F : : 3 5 igen Jar. 
ies announce reductions in fares Jan. 
Scotland, 31,023; Ireland, 14,554; total, 274,535 5 
(L. & N. W. company, about 40,000); announced 
Jan. 

House of lords on appeal decide that railway com- 
panies are responsible for negligence in conveying 
persons and goods, although they disclaim it on 
tickets 2 : ; ; ‘ ; . 1 June, 
Great trial of continuous railway brakes on Midland 
railway, near Lowdham ; Westinghouse auto- 
matic air pressure break considered the best June 
Extension of Metropolitan railway to Great Eastern 
opened, ro July, 

arlington ; soth anniversary of 
kton and Darlington railway ; 
27 Sept. 


Railway jubilee at D 
opening of the Stoe 
statue of Joseph Pease unveiled 

Dr. Strousberg, ‘‘ German railway king,” tried for 
fraud, &c., at Moscow : : : : oh 

Metropolitan extension to Aldgate opened . 11 Nov. 

Elevated street railways erected in New York, 
U.S.A. : : J : : 2 ; 

First railway in China, from Shanghae to Oussoon 
(11 miles), constructed by Europeans; at first 
opposed ; trial trip, 16 March ; publicly opened, 
go June, 1876; much opposed; stopped ; plant 
taken to Formosa ‘ : ‘ ; : 

Passenger duty received, 507,076l. for year 1872-3 ; 
736,3091. for year 1875-6; 728,718l. for 1876-7 ; 
741,9191. for 1877-8 748,500 for 1880-1; 798,364 

° Phot 


? 
or < 5 : : : : 
Folkestone and Dover tunnel injured by rains ; 
fallings in . ; ; : : eros cd 
Fusion of South-eastern and London, Chatham, & 
Dover companies, voted by former . . 18 Jan. 
Railway accident commission report: recommend 
that the companies’ responsibilities be not 
diminished, &c. . ; F : ‘ Feb. 
Proposed fusion of the Great Northern and Great 
Eastern, fails. ‘ : : : . June, 
Of the Manchester and Sheffield and Lincolnshire 
with the Great Northern and Midland, fails Nov. 
Many embarrassed subsidiary lines purchased by 
the French government (for about 11,000,000l.) . 
Great increase of 3rd-class passengers, receipts, 
about 7,000,000l. 1869 ; about 14,000,000!, « 
Sudden strike of goods-guards on Midland railway 
through alteration of mode of payment, 3 Jan., 
fails : - 3 A . about 20 Jan. 
South-Eastern railway company v. Railway Commis- 
sioners (who had given orders for enlarging station 
at Hastings, &c.), Queen’s Bench ; verdict restrict- 
ing powers of the commissioners (see above, 1873), 
two judges against one : Wes 13 Jan. 
Enlarged dividends on the principal lines for half- 
year . : . ; . 1 Jan. to 30 June, 
Expended on railways in the United Kingdom, about 
cool. (since 1829); gross annual receipts 
about 62,000,000l., net earnings about 30,000,000l. 
reported : : : 3 . Aug. 
Packet of dynamite placed on rails between Bushey 
and Watford (L. & N. W. Railway), night, 12-13 
Sept. 

reular respecting precautions 
&e. (accidents of 10, 11 Aug. 
. 20 Sept. 

. ro March, 


720,000, 


Board of Trade ci 
against accidents, 
attributed to neglect). : 

Railway rates select committee meet 


88 


Siemens’ & Halske’s electrical railway at Berlin, 


1874 


876 


2? 


1877-8 


. 1877-8 


I-Z 


5 Jan. 1877 


39 


3? 
27 


37 


1878 


. 1879 


7 


1880 


7 


” 


7” 


97 


r88x 


RAILWAYS. 


694 


RAILWAYS. 


184 miles an hour, tried 12 May ; net to the 
public May, 
Centenary of Geor ze Stephenson’ s birth ealenratad 
at Newcastle, Chesterfield, the Crystal Palace, 
London, and throughout the counties of Durham 


and Northumberland. . 9 June, 
Murder of Mr. Fk. Isaac Gold in a carriage on 
London and Brighton railway . 27 June, 


[Percy Lefroy alias Mapleton arrested on suspicion, 
8 July; committed for trial, 2x July ; convicted, 
8 Nov. ; executed 29 Nov. ] 
International congress for the unification “at the 


1881 


39 


rolling stock on the railways at Berne opened 
16 Oct. 1882 
The committee on railway and canal rates for the 
conveyance of persons, merchandise, &e., defer 
their report, recommend re-appointment of the 
committee, and also the establishment of a tri- 
bunal to decide questions and enforce decisions ; 
revision of rates, &c., early Aug. 1881; issue 
report with few recommendations 27 July, 5, 
A Pullman car burned near Hunslet, Dr. Arthur 
perishes ~ 29 OC. 
Caledonian railway strike, traffic partly snaveniene 
Glasgow, &c. : . I5, 16, 17 Jan. 1883 
A compromise ; strike ends SORA ane + 
Proposed reduction of duty on third class apres 
, Apri ‘S 
Metropolitan railway carried 36,753,321 pasenee 
in six months without ace ident 7 
Association of railway shareholders established ; 
meeting held in London - 8 Aug. r 
Existing : railway and canal, railway companies, 
railway shareholders, associations - ME 
Another cheap trains act passed - 20 AUS. 4; 
Northern Pacific railway (2,500 miles) opened 8 Sept. _,, 
4,oool. awarded to Rey. Joseph Lloyd Brereton, and 
6,500l. to gen. Brereton for injuries caused by 
derangement of machinery, We., 28 July, 1882; 
25, 26 Feb. 1884 
Parks railway bill rejected by committee 20 May, ,, 
Railway regulation bill making it a permanent 
court of record, enlarging powers, &c., read first 
time, 22 May; dropped i - to July, 3; 
M. Lartigue’ s balance railw ay, (single rail) re- 
ported successful i in Normandy ; 7 oUNC) 5, 
Renewed agitation respecting breaks ; the board of 
trade’s recommendations neglected Ne 
Metropolitan Inner Circle completed ; opened 1 Oct. Os 
312,047 railway servantsin England. . Oct. +4, 
RAILWAYS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 
Capital Miles Net 
Year. paid-up. opened. Receipts. 
1851. £240,807 6,890 
1854. 286,068,794 8,054 £11,009,519 
1860. 348,130,127 10,433 4,579,254 
1865. 455478,143 13,289 18,602,582 
1870. 529,908,673 15,537 23,362,618 
1875. 630,223,494 16,658 28,016,272 
1877. 674,059,048 17,077 29,115,350 
1879. 717,003,469 17,696 29,731,430 
1880. 728,316,848 17,933 31,890,501 
1881. 745,528,162 18,175 32,255,000 
1882. 767,899,570 18,457 33,206,688 
1883. 784,921,312 18,668 33,693,913 


Working expenses : 1854, 9,206,2051. ; 1861, 13,843, 3371. ; 


1870, 21,715;525l. 5 1874, 32,612,712. ; 
33,857,9781. ; 1880, 33,601,124. ; 
Number of passengers : 
111,206,707; 1860, 


1877, 
1883, 37,368, 4591. 
1845, 33791,253; 1854, 


163,483,572; 1865, 251,959,862 ; 


1870, 331,701,801 ; 1874, 478, 316,761; 1877,549,541,3253 
1880 603,885,025;1883, 683,718, 137 (not season-ticket 


holders), 
Miles opened. 

| 1861.| 1874.| 1877.) 1880, 
/ 


1843. 18709. 


England & 
Wales 

Scotland 

Treland 


1775 
225 | 1626 
3r | 1423 

For 1847-9, it was calculated that out of 4,782,188 
travellers by railway, one person was killed, from 
causes beyond his own control; for 1856-9, one 
in 8,708,411; 1866-8, one in 12,941,170. In 1878, 
one in 7,503,000. Passengers killed from causes 
beyond their control: in 1871, 12; 1862-72, 271; 
34872, 24; 1876, 811. 


1883. 


7820 |11,622|/12 ,008| 13,847 12,656/13,202 
2,700) 2,776, 2,864] 2,907 2,064 
2 51271 2,203 2,285] 2,370] 2,502 


° 
United Kingdom. 
1874, 1424 killed—-21r passengers (not their fault, 
86); 788 servants, 425 trespassers ; 5047 injured. 
1876, 1286 killed—139 (by own fault, Ior) passen- 
gers ; 6112 injured, 1883 passengers. 

1877, 1175 killed—126 passengers; 3705 injured, 
1283 passengers, 

1878, 1112 killed ; 6507 injured by various causes. 

1879, 1032 killed; ” 160 passengers ; 3513 injured, 1307 
passengers. 

1882, 1,121 killed ; 127 passengers ; 4,60r injured, 
1,739 passengers; 1884, 1135 killed; 4100 injured ; 

Railway servants killed: annual average (1872-5) 
740; 1880, reduced to 483. 


Compensation paid for injuries by companies. 


1873. 1874. 1883. 
Passengers . . £364,509 £355,876 £247,032 
Goods 231,707 259,293 197,941 


PRINCIPAL RAILWAYS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 


The railways are generally named after their termini. 


Railways. Date of Opening 
Arbroath and Forfar 3 Jan. 183 
Atmospheric Railway (which see) 184 
Bangor and Carnaryon . 5 J uly, 185 
Belfast and county of Down April, 185 
Birmingham and Derby . 3 12 Aug. 183 
Birmingham and Gloucester 7 Dec. 184 
Birmingham, Wolverhampton, and Stour Valley, 

July, 185 
Brighton and Chichester . : . . 8June, 184 
Brighton and Hastings a7June, ,, 
Bristol] and Exeter . f : “ e i May, 184. 
Bristol and Gloucester July, 184 
Caledonian : A i : Feb. 184 
Canterbury and Whitstable 4 May, 183 
Charing Cross Railway, London, opened ir Jan, 186 
Cheltenham and Swindon : : 12 May, 184 
Chester and Birkenhead . z 5 . 22 Sept. 184 
Chester and Crewe . : ; . 184 
Cockermouth and Workington : 28 April, 184 
Colchester and Ipswich . : : 15 June, 184 
Cork and Bandon : : ; 8 Dec. 185 
Cornwall . 2 1 May, 185 
Coventry and Leamington . : : 2 Dec. 184 
Croydon and Epsom 5 : - 17 May, 184 
Devon and Somerset . H 7 Nov. 187 
Dover and Deal, begun , - 29 June, 187 
Dublin and Belfast Junction . : , dune, 185 
Dublin and Carlow . “ to Aug. 184 
Dublin and Drogheda . 26 May, 184 
Dublin and Kingstown oo 17 Dec. 183 
Dundee and Newtyle .: : - : neu Wee, 132 
Dundee and Perth 22 May, 184 
Durham and Sunderland 28 June, 183 
Eastern Counties sEeLer UC. , 
Eastern Union (London and Colchester), 29 March, 184 
East London . : - - zo April, 187 
Edinburgh and Berwick . 5 18 June, 184 
Edinburgh and Glasgow . 8 Feb. 184 
Ely and ‘Peterborough ; ; : Jan. 184 
Exeter and Plymouth (part) : 29 May, 184 
Glasgow and Ayr 2 - 19 Sept. 184 
Glasgow and Greenock . . 24 March, 184 
Glasgow, Garnkirk, and Coatbridge s July, 184 
Gloucester and Chepstow . Sept. 185 
Grand Junction (Bir mingham to Newton). July, 183 
Gravesend and Rochester : to Feb. 184 
Great Northern . é 185 
Great Western to Maidenhead, 4 J une, 1838 : to 
Bristol : 30 June, 184 
Hertford branch of Eastern Counties 31 Oct. 184 
Highland . : E : - 186 


Inner Circle, London 2 
Ipswich and Bury 8t. Edmunds . 
Isle of Man 

Kendal and Windermere. 


24 Dec, 
1 July, 


"ax July, 1882- 


184 
187 


. 2r April,.184 


Lancaster and Carlisle . $ : : 16 Dec. 184 
Lancaster and Preston , ; 30 June, 184 
Leeds and Bradford. F . Z 1 July, 164 
Leeds and Derby a 3 . ; July, 184 
Liverpool and Birmingham i 2 5 July, 183 
Liverpool and Manchester F : - 15 Sept. 183 
Liverpooland Preston. . « . 31 Oct. 18:3 
London and Birmingham . ee “rR sep *. 
London and Blackwall . r é - 2 Aug. 184 


London and Brighton Fy ‘ : : 


Ri NE NEEEEEEEE——_——————_————————E————_—————— anneal 


RAILWAYS. : 


\ 


ways. Date of Opening. 
and Bristol 30 June, 1841 
and Cambridge - . jgoduly, 1845 
, Chatham, and Dover 29 Sept. 1860 
and Colchester 29 March, 1843 
and Croydon . zr June, 1839 
and Dover 7 Feb. 1844 
and Greenwich 26 Dec. 1838 
and Richinond 27 July, 1846 
and Southampton ir May, 1840 
and Southend June, 1856 
and MARE R cai e) anch of the Great 
fern». F . Aug. 1850 
oft branch ; Norwich and Yarmouth . 1847 
nd Ely wba. : tS ee 
ster and Birmingham ; to Aug. 1842 
ster and Leeds t March, 1841 
‘ster and Sheffield ; 1 22 DeCy x845 
olitan, London; act obtained, 1853; con- 
tion began, 1860 ; epee to Jan. 1863 
1 Counties ; : 30 June, 1840 
tle and Berwick July, 1847 
tle and Carlisle. : 18 June, 1839 
tle and North Shields 18 June, ,, 
rket and Cambridge . eQeb. 1852 
mpton and Peterborough . 2June, 1845 
wud South-Western Junction . Dec, 1852 
British ; P 3 x ° i . 1862 
Hastern : July, 1854 
hand Yarmouth . t May, 1844 
sham to Granthani -. July, 1850 
rham and Lincoln . 3 Aug. 1846 
sham branch ; Rugby and Derby . 30 May, 1839 
‘pranch of London and Bristol 12 June, 1844 
, Worcester, and oe May, 1852 
ceto Camborne . A : Bibiveny ee 
and Derby July, 1840 
and Leamington . . Feb. 1851 
lrew’s : July, 1852 
en’s ; first act passed : 1830 
iry branch of the London and a Southampton. 1847 
und Carlisle . 1 May, 1876 
mpton and Dorchester Ted TEHOs ess 
Devon . : . 1850 
Hastern (London and Dover) . 7 Feb. 1844 
Eastern ; North Kent line ; : . 1849 
on. and Darlington - . 27 Sept. 1825 
Valley : . 26 June, 1847 
: Aug. 1839 
nd Fast. India Docks and Birmingham Junc- 
from the Blackwall railway to Camden Town, 
Aug. 1850 
ster and Droitwich . 2 Jan. 1852 
nd Darlington (N. astern) 4 Jan, 1841 
nd Neweastle a 17 June, 1847 
nd Normanton Ap . 30 June, 1840 
nd Searborough ,, . 7 July, 1845 
uth and Norwich r May, 1844 


1 Extent or Raitways (in miles), 1884 :— 
rian dominions, 12,820 ; Belgium, 2699; Denmark, 
; France, 17,000 ; Germany, » 22 ,617 3 ; Great Britain 
Treland, 18 ,68r; Greece, 107; Holland, , 1320; 
&, 10,832 ; Italy (1883), 5651; Norway, 9713 Por- 
1, 950; Prussia, 13,904 ; Russia, 15,274; Spain, 
; Sweden, 4000; Turkey (1877), 1137; United 
es of America, 121,532. 


MEMORABLE RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.” 
vany (where only 2 persons killed) are not noted ; 
n nearly all cases a large number were injured. 
iskisson, M.P., killed at the opening of the 


rpool and Manchester railway 15 Sept. 1830 
Corby (Newcastle and Carlisle) ; train runs 

ne; 3 killed : 2° Syl Blefe eideeto) 
vood (Eastern Counties) : carriages see 

ed; 3 killed . . 21t Aug. 1840 
eld (London and Brighton) : “engine runs off 

4 killed . ; ee ztOCt.uroar 
ighill cutting, near Reading : engine forced 

ine ; 8 killed SADC ara. 


lles : carriages take fire, passengers locked i my; 


n Dec. 27, 1864, the queen wrote to the directors of 
ilway companies of London, requesting them ‘ to 
careful of other passengers as of herself.” 


695 


RAILWAYS. 


52 or 53 lives lost, including admiral D’Urville, 
8 May, 
Masborough (Midland Counties): collision ; Mr. 
Boteler ‘and others killed, many injured, 20 Oct. 1845 
Stratford (Hastern Counties): collision through great 
carelessness ; Mr. Hind killed, many mutilated, 
18 July, 1846 
Pevensey (Brighton and ee EN dee 40 
injured 4 Aug. 3 
Clifton (Manchester and Bolton) : express mins off 
line ; 2 killed, many injured BCCI mss 
Chester (Chester and Shrewsbury) : inn runs 
off bridge; 4 killed; greater number injured, 
18 May, 1847 


1842 


Wolverton (North Western): collision; 7 killed, 
many injured’ : : Sd UNC es 
Shrivenham (Great Western): collision ; 7 killed, 


many injured . 
Carlisle (Caledonian) : axletree of carriage breaks ; 

5 killed to Feb. 
Frodsham Tunnel (Chester and Warrington Junc- 

tion): collision ; 6 killed : 30 April, 1851 
Newmarket Hill (Lewes and Brighton): frat runs 


1o May, 1848 


1849 


off line ; 4 killed LOMO WKED op 
Bicester (Oxfordshire) : collision ; 6 killed, 6 Sept. oe 
Burnley (Great Northern): collision ; 4 killed, 


12 July, 1852 
Dixonfold (Great Northern) : engine wheels broke ; 


7 killed hae ae le reh TS59 
Wear Straffan (Great Southern and Warten Ire- 
land): collision; 13 killed . BS OCUae ss 
Near Harling, Norfolk (Hastern Counties) : colli- 
sion ; 6 killed . 12 Jan. 1854 
Croy don (Brighton and Dov er): collision ; 3 killed, 
4 Aug. Hic 
Burlington, between New York and Philadelphia 
2I kill ed ; o Aug. ¢,, 
Reading (South Eastern): ‘collision ; 5 killed, 12 = Sent 1855 
Near Paris : collision ; 9 killed : 9 Oct. 
Between Thoret and Moret: collision; 16 killed 
2LOCUM wy, 


Campbell (N. Pennsylvania): collision ; above 100 


killed . 17 July, 1856 
Dunkett (Waterford and Kilkenny): collision; 7 
killed . 19 Noy. oF 


Kirby (Liverpool and Blackpool) : collision ; 200 
injured ; none killed 27 June, 1857 
Lewisham (North Kent): collision ; 11 killed; 28 June, . 
Between Pyle and Port Talbot : collision ; 4 killed 
4 OCT Lass 
Attleborough, Warwickshire (North Western) : 
train thrown off the line thr ough a cow crossing 
the rails ; 3 killed Io May, 1858 
Near Mons, Belgium: coke waggon on the rails ; 
at killed . JUTE ees 
Chilham (South Easter mn): either too er eat speed or 
broken axletree ; 3 killed . 2 836, JUNC ar. 
Near Round Oak Station (Oxford and Py aivers 
hampton)—excursion train: collision ; 14 killed, 
23Aug. ,, 


Tottenham (Eastern Counties): engine wheel 
breaks ; 6 killed . 20 Feb. 1860 
Helmshore (Lancashire arid Yorkshire)—excursion 
train: collision ; 11 killed , 4 Septis,; 
Atherstone (North Western): collision of mall and 
cattle trains ; 11 killed. TO NOVare ss 
Near Wimbledon : Dr. Baly killed . 28 Jan. 1861 
Railway tunnel falls in near Haddon Hall, Derby- 
shire ; 5 men killed . ese el eer 
Clayton Tunnel (London and Brighton): collision ; 
23 killed, 176 injured ag Aug. ,, 
Kentish Town ee June tion): ie killed, 
-320 injured : AME Sept. Ae 
Market Harborough : collision ; ca killed and 50 
injured : 28 Aug. 1862 
Near Winchburg oh (Edinburgh and eae ws colli- 
SlOnGers killed, roo, wounded S\OCiamers 


Near Streatham (London and Brighton): Sepia 
of boiler through attempting too great speed ; 4 
killed ; above 30 injured 30 May, 1863 
Near Lynn(Lynn and Hunstanton): carriages upset 
through bullock on the line; 5 killed 3 :AUS Se. 
Egham (South Western) : collision ; 5 killed, above. 
20 injured 7 June, 1864 
Canada : train ran off a “bridge at St. Hilaire in 
crossing; about 83 killed, 200 wounded, 


29 June,” ,, 


RAILWAYS. 


Blackheath Tunnel: fast train ran into a ballast 
train ; 6 killed LORE: 
Near Rédnal (on a branch of Great Western) : train 
ran off insecure rails ; 13 killed, about 40 injured, 
7 June, 
Near Staplehurst (South Eastern): train ran off in- 
secure rails, &c.; 10 killed and about 50 injured, 
9 June, 
Near Colney Hatch (Midland): collision with coal 
trucks: above 50 persons injured . . 30 Aug. 
Fall of a bridge at Sutton (8. coast line): 6 men killed, 
28 April, 
Near Caterham junction (London and Brighton): 3 
killed, r2 injured . 30 April, 
In Welwy n Tunnel (Great Northern) : “a steam tube 
burst ; collision of three goods trains ; and a great 
fire; 2 lives lost)”. bn dspace: June, 
Near Royston (Great Northern) : ‘ train ran off ime; 
3liveslost . A 2 July, 
Brynkir station (Carnarvonshirey: points said to 
have been tampered with; train ran off line ; 6 
persons killed 6 Sey nt. 
20 miles from Carlisle (Lancaster and Carlisle): an 
axle of carriage of goods train broke; collision 
with another goods train ; fire, and explosion of 
5 tons of gunpowder ; 2 killed 25 Feb. 
Between Bhosawul and Khundwah (Great Indian 
Peninsular): train precipitated into a chasm 
made in an embankment by ariver torrent ; many 
lives lost - . 26 June, 
Walton Junction, Warrington (London and North 
Western) : collision with coal trains “error Of 
pointsman ; 8 lives lost . ‘29 June, 
At Brayhead, near Enniscorthy (Dublin, Wicklow, 
and Wexford) : went off the line into a gorge ; 2 


killed, many injured 9g Aug. 
Between New Mills and Peak Forest : 2 collisions ; 
5 lives lost 9 Sept. 


Frenc h Great Northern, about I4 miles from Parisi 


several killed, many wounded 27 Oct. 
Lake Shore railway, New York: oiibaninens fell; 
4r persons burnt to death . 18 Dee. 


Carr’s Rock, on river Delaware; Erie railway: 
carriages precipitated down an embankment ; 
26 persons killed, 52 very seriously ae 

4 April, 

Abergele, N. Wales (London and North-Western); 
collision between Irish mail train and luggage 
train ; barrels of petroleum ignited ; 33 persons 
burnt to death (see Abergele) ; 20 Aug. 

Near Birlingbury station (Rugby and Leamington): 
carriages went over Draycot embankment; 2 
persons killed . x Oct. 

Near Bull’s Pill, 8S. Wales (Great Western) : mail 
train ran into a cattle train; xr person and much 

cattle killed . : 6 Nov. 

Near Copenhagen tunnel, Holloway (Great North- 
ern): coal train ran off the line ; ; 2 killed, 18 Jan. 

Near Khandalla, Bombay (Great Indian Peninsular) 
train ran off the line ; about 18 killed 26 Jan. 

Arch fell in at Bethnal Green (Great Eastern) : 
coal train passing ; 5 killed : 25 Feb. 

Newecross (London and Brighton): collision; 2 
killed, many injured ; loss to the company by 
compensation, about 70,0001. , 23 June, 

Near Barnet (Great Northern): collision ; x man 
burnt to death ‘ - 16 Aug. 

Long Eaton Junction (Midland) : collision ; oe 


Oct. 

Near Welwyn (Great Northern): collision ; 3 *cilled 
24 Oct. 

Eureka, St. Louis, Missouri; collision ; 19 titled, 
12 May, 


Near Newark (Great Northern): collision; a 
waggon of a goods train, through the breaking of 
an old axle, went off the rails ‘and met an excur- 
sion train ; 19 deaths ; 1.30 A.M. 21 June, 

Near Carlisle : collision ; 5 killed Io J uly, 

Tamworth (London and” North Western) : Trish 
mail (late), sent into a siding; broke down a 
buttress and ran into the river Anker (error of a 
pointsman) ; 3 deaths - 4.7 A.M. r4 Sept. 

Plessis near Tours : collision ; re two trains ; 
several killed ‘ A.M. 20 Sept. 

Harrow (London and North- Preston}: collision 
with coal waggons ; 7 killed . -- 26 Noy: 

Brockley Whins (North Eastern): collision through 
mistake of Hedley, a pointsman ; 5 killed 6 Dee. 


696 


1864 


1865 


1868 


39 


”? 


9 


RAILWAYS. 


Barnsley (Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire 
railway): collision; goods trucks broke loose ; 
r4 killed, many injured . . 12 Dec. 1 
Bell-bar, near Hatfield (Great Northern) : tire of 
wheel ‘proke ; break and carriages overturned ; 8 
killed . ¥ 26 Dee. 
Between Bandoz and St. Nizaire : explosion of gun- 


powder in casks ; 60 killed . pages Web, ya 
Revere (Boston and Portland, U. Ss Ne Pollision. ; 
above 20 killed : 26 Aug. 
Near Champigny (Lyons Company) : a spring 
broke ; rr killed ; 16 Sept. 
Ferry -hill (North British) : collision ; 2 killed, 
16 Oct. 


Antibes railway between Nice and Cannes: train 
thrown into the river Brague ; r2 said to be killed 
24 Jan. 
Belleville (Grand Trunk of Canada): engine Beak 
otf the line ; many burnt, scalded, &e. ; about 
30 killed 22 J une, 
Connellsville (Baltimore ‘and Pittsburg) : collision ; 
many hurt, 3 killed . : 22 June, 
Juvisy (Orleans railway) : express ran into luggage 
train ; boiler exploded ; 5 burnt to death (includ- 
ing mother of the duchess of Malakoff) 26 June, 
Rose-hill junction (Newcastle and Carlisle) : colli- 
sion; 4 killed . 5 July, 
Red-hill junction (Great Western and L. &N We); 
near Hertford ; 2 killed 29 July, 
Clifton junction (Lancashire and Yorkshire) : col- 
lision ; 4 killed 3 Aug. 
Kirtlebr idge, Dumfries (Caledonian) : Weinaian: 
express train late ; error of pointsman; 12 killed, 
2 Oct. 
Kelvedon, near Chelmsford (Great Eastern): loco- 
motive driven off the line by a raised re eRe 
killed, many hurt : 7 Oct. 
Near Woodhouse junction (Manchester, Sheffield, 
and Lincolnshire) : collision ; two killed, 18 Oct. 
Corry, Pennsylvania, U.S. : train broke through a 
bridge ; ; about 20 killed ‘ 24 Dec. 
Near Pesth: train run off line ; 21 ‘killed, 
about 7 May, 
Near Shrewsbury (Great Western and London & 
N. W. Junction): axle of engine broke; car- 
riages driven off the line ; 4 killed . 8 May, 
Near Higham, Derby shire (Midland); engine-tire 
broke ; “train ran off the line; 2 killed 21 June, 
Wigan (London and North Western) : carriages 
thrown off the line ; sir John Anson and others 
(x3 persons) killed. : 23 Aug. 
Retford Junction (Great Northern, Mianehesee and 
Sheffield): collision ; 3 killed : 23 Aug. 
Near Hartlepool (North Eastern): train rots off 
the line; 3 killed . 2 Sept. 
Peamarsh er ossing, near Guildford (South Wastacntt 
collision with a bullock; train thrown os the 
line ; 3 killed ept. 
Barkston J unction, near Grantham (Great Nortte 
ern): 2 killed . a4 Osea, I 
Near Manuel and Bo'ness J unetion, ‘between Edin- 
burgh and Glasgow (North British): collision of 
London express with mineral train ; 16 ae 
27 Jan. 
Euxton Junction, between Preston and Wigan ; Col- 
lision through fog and too great speed; 2 killed 
20 Feb. 
Merthyr-Tydvil (Great Western): coupling broke, 
causing collision; about 4o seriously ae 
r death 2 ; May, 
Bargoed’ (Rhymney railway) ; ‘collision ; tafe ran 
away through brakes not acting ; 2 killed ; much 
damage 4 12 Aug. 
Thorpe, near ‘Norwich ‘(East Norfolk) : collision ; 
two trains met (mistake of Cooper and Robson, 
telegraph clerks, committed for trial for man- 
slaughter) ; 26 deaths ; about soinjured ; 8.30 p.m. 
1o Sept. 
[Cost the company above 13,000/., Cooper sen- 
tenced to 8 months’ imprisonment, 7 April, 1875.] 
Shipton, near Oxford (Great Western) ; tire of car- 
riage-wheel broke ; train driven over an embank- 
ment ; 34 deaths ensued, about 70 ee {D 
ec. 


She of inquiry, accidental deaths ; 16 ‘March, 


I 


Hw 


Rothbavy, near Morpeth (North Eastern): train 
ran off embankment ; 4 killed. : 3 July, : 


eS ee 


697 


RAILWAYS. 


wick, near Skipton, Yorkshire (Midland): 
sotech express ran into an excursion train ; 
deaths, 11.30 p.m . ; : 3 28 Aug. 1875 
ween Mutford and Somerleyton; train ran off 
ie line ; 3 killed ; : 4 rJan. 1876 
r Odessa : train ran over embankment; about 
3 killed * é 4 ¢ . 8 Jan. 
jot’s Ripton (Great Northern), near Hunting- 
on; 2collisions; first, Scotch express with coal 
ain; and second, with Leeds express from Lon- 
on, whereby 14 deaths ; including Mr. Thos. 
lure, Scotch advocate, a son of Mr. Noble, the 
sulptor ; asonof Mr. Dion Boucicault, dramatist ; 
rother and 2 nieces of Dr. Burdon Sanderson ; 
uring a snow storm ; : k az Jan. 
[Coroner’s inquest : verdict, virtually accidental 
eaths ; directors censured for not having a sepa- 
ite line for mineral traffic, 3 Feb. 1876. ] 
x Long Ashton (on Great Western), “ Flying 
yutchman” express : about 57 miles an hour; 
river and stoker killed ; defective condition of 
ermanent way . : ; ; : 27 July, 
ween Radstock and Wellow ; about 4 miles from 
3ath (Somerset and Dorset), single line ; collision 
tween excursion trains; 14 killed ; about 
T p.m. : : : : hE .7 Aug. 
[Inquest: verdict, manslaughter against James 
sleep, station-master, 12 Sept. 1876.] 
mbrechie, near Lille (French great northern) : 
ollision with a conveyance on level crossing, 6 
riled > = ; ; , : SES UNOYV: 
lsey siding, near Hitchin (Great Northern) : col- 
ision of Manchester express with goods train, 5 
<illed : ‘ : . : : 23 Dec: 
[Verdict of inquest : neglect of Thos. Pepper, 
the driver (killed), in not observing the signal, 
5s Jan. 1877.] 
‘ar Ashtabula, U.S., Pacific express from New 
York : a bridge over a creek broke down during 
4 snow storm, above roo perished by drowning, 
burning, &e. : A : : Z 29 Dec. 
sar Morpeth (North Eastern): Scotch express 
went off the line; 5 killed . early 25 March, 1877 
ear Billing, Northamptonshire (London and North 
Western): collision, 2 deaths. 18 Oct. 
iekstone Junction, near Grantham (Gt. Northern): 
express ran off the rails ; 2 killed 7 Dec. 
oleombe, near Leeds (Midland): collision of trains 5 
2killed . 5 : : : c > 24 Dee: 
hester: 2 carriages went off rails ; 1 death 
30 hurt - : 3 
eweross: collision between carriages of Brighton 
and §. Eastern Cos. ; several injured, 7.45 p.m. 
(Bank Holiday) : , ; eS AUS. 
ittingbourne (London, Chatham, & Dover): cheap 
fast train, bringing home holyday-makers ; run 
into luggage trucks; mistake of pointsman ; 
midday . : z : : Sar Aug. 
[Jacob Moden and Charles Clarke, committed 
for trial for manslaughter, 3 Sept. 1878.] 
‘urragheen, near Cork : engine uncoupled ; ran off 
line ; 3 killed and many injured : 8 Sept. 
Jear Pontypridd junction (Rhondda branch of Taft 
valley line) ; collision through error of signals ; 
13 killed ; about 40 hurt =. F : 19 Oct. 
‘alybont (Brecon and Merthyr); engines uncon- 
trolled ; ran down steep descent; 4 killed ; great 
destruction of property . : : . 2 Dec. 
3loomfield, near Tipton, Staffordshire (London and 
North Western); collisions; about 30 severely 
injured 


9? 


2? 


? 


2? 


>? 


99 
; above 


. . . 


?? 


”» 


? 


2) 


”? 


Near Manningtree (Great Eastern); train ran_ off 
line ; 1 killed ; several injured . OL CC-m ss 


Tay bridge, Dundee ; bridge and train blown into 
the river ; about 74 lives lost 28 Dec. 
Brickfield siding, Burscough junction (Lancashire 
and Yorkshire); collision ; through error of 
signalman; 8deaths . _. ei 
Argenteuil, near Paris ; collision; 7 killed 4 Feb, 
Lofthouse, near Wakefield (Great N orthern) ; train 
runs off line; 2deaths . 2 : 20 March, 
\ bridge fell near Hereford (Midland); x death 
18 June, 
Marshall Meadows, 2 or 3 miles N. of Berwick 
(North British) ; “Flying Scotchman” engine 
-ran off the line ; carriages precipitated down em- 
bankment ; guard, driver, and fireman killed ; 


9) 


bP) 


9 


2? 


8 July, 1878 


31 May, 1879 


15 Jan. 1880 


RAILWAYS. 


ee 


much damage to carriages ; few passengers ; (al- 
leged cause, loose rails), about 11 a.m. ro Aug. 1880 
Near Wennington Junction, rz miles N. of Lan- 
caster (Midland); train went off the rails; 8 
deaths ; : : 4 C 4 iz Aug. 
Near Manchester (Midland); train went off rails ; 
17 injured : 4 ; ‘ 2 Sept. 
Near Nine Elms station, Vauxhall (South Western) ; 
collision of train with a left engine; 5 killed ; 20 
injured - : : ‘ < rr Sept. 
Kibworth : Leicestershire (Midland); Scotch ex- 
press ; driver by mistake reversed the engine ; 
collision with advancing train ; several severely 
injured . : - : : 3 9 Oct. 
Leeds (Midland); collision; 2 deaths ; many _in- 
jured . : : ‘ ; ‘ A a1 Dec. 
Dalston Junction (North London) ; collision ; 
through error in signalling; 2 deaths ensued ; 
about 30 hurt urs : : 26 Feb. 1881 
Mexico; Morelos railway ; through fall of bridge 


3? 


3? 


bP] 


? 


39 


near Cuartla; train precipitated into river San 
Antonio ; about 200 lives lost ; night of 24 June 
Blackburn (Lancashire and Yorkshire); collision ; 


39 


5 deaths ; about 4o injured 4 SEG ANS sie ss 
Bow Station (Great Eastern); collision ; 2 killed 
3 Sept. ;, 
Charenton (Lyons Railway); collision; about 20 
killed 3 : : : . 3 . 5Sept. 5, 
Desford, near Leicester (Midland); collision; 5 


killed, 22 Oct. ; (Butler pointsman arrested for 
manslaughter) . : : Fi F . 6 Nov. 
Tayport, Fife (North British) ; collision with goods 
train ; 4 deaths : : : 2 . 25 Nov. 
Highbury Tunnel, near Canonbury (North London) ; 
collision of 3 trains; 5 deaths + tO eC. 
Slough (Great Western) ; express runs into a goods 
train ; r2 killed. - - $ ; , 24 Dec. 
Between Middlesborough and Stockton ; explosion 
of locomotive ; 4 deaths . : z . 26 Dec. 
Hudson river railway, near New York; collision 
and fire ; 8 or 9 killed, including senator Wagner 
burned to death : ; ; : . 13 dan. 1882 
Hornsey (Great Northern) ; collision ; fog; 2 deaths 
2 25 Jan. 

Near Old Ford Station ; collision of train with broken 
up coal trucks ; 6 deaths . é . 28 Jan, 
Near Cork ; collision ; about 40 injured . g July, 
Between Tcherny and Bastigeur (Moscow Kursk- 
line); 8 carrriages run off the rails; about 178 
killed Z z : ; i s » 13 vuly, 
Streatham Fen (Great Eastern) : destruction of the 
express train, &c., by being thrown off the line 
28 July, 

Hugstetten, between Freiburg and Colmar, Baden ; 
excursion train ran off the line; about 70 
killed. : : , : : . 3 Sept. 
Crewe (London and North Western); collision ; 
many injured . 30 Sept. 
Bromley (London, ; fall ofa 
bridge; 7 killed : : : : . 24 Nov. 
Near Auchterless (Macduff and Turiff section of 
Great North of Scotland) ; train wrecked by fall 
of a bridge ; about skilled . 27 Nov. 
Vriog, near Barmouth (Cambrian) ; cliff gave way, 
part of train falls over; 2 killed . 1 Jan. 1883 
Near the Eglinton Street Station, Glasgow ; col- 
lision ; 4 killed : - : : 19 March, 
Near Lockerbie (Caledonian); collisions ; 8 deaths, 
11.30 p.m. 2 : : - ‘ . 14 May, 
Watford (London and North Western) ; express runs 
into empty carriages ; 1 death ar Oct. 
Near Toronto, Canada (Grand Trunk); collision ; 
about 31 killed - F : . 2dan. 
Stepney; collision; about 30 persons injured 
22 March, 

Between Breamore and Downton (South Western) ; 
coupling broke, train falls over embankment ; 

5 killed and 41 injured. J : . 3 June; 
Near Sevenoaks Station (South Eastern); collision ; 
of goods trains ; 2 killed : . 7 June, 
Bullhouse Bridge, near Penistone (Manchester, 
Sheffield, and Lincolnshire) ; express, 55 miles an 
hour; crank-axle of locomotive engine broke, 
train wrecked over an embankment; sharp 
curve; 24 deaths, afternoon . A . 16 July, 
Near Penistone; coal waggon, by breaking of an 
axle, thrown into the way of an excursion train ; 

4 deaths, many injured . rdan. 1885 


37 

? 

39 

7 


39 


7 


7 
2? 


3? 


7 


”? 
3? 


Chatham and Dover) 
37 


3) 


) 
? 


” 


1884 


7 


” 


” 


RAINBOW. 


RAINBOW, Its theory was developed by 
Kepler in 1611, and by René Descartes in 1629; 
see Spectrum. 


RAIN-FALL. Mr. G. J. Symons printed a 
table of rain-fall in Britain for 140 years, 1726-1865, 
in the Reports of the British Association in 1866. 
The wettest year was 1852, being 38 percent. above 
the average; but 1872 was 58 per cent. He began 
to publish his ‘‘ Annual Rainfall in the British 
Isles’ in 1866. In 1867 he published, “ Rain : 
How, When, Where, Why, itis Measured.”’ It con- 
tains an attempt at a rainfall table of the world. 


RALEIGH’S CONSPIRACY, termed the 
Main Plot (which see). 


: RAMADAN, the Mahometan month of fasting, 
in 1885 will begin 14 June. It is followed by the 
festival of Bairam (which see). 


RAMBOUILLET, a royal chateau, about 25 
miles from Paris. Here Francis I. died 31 March, 
1547; and here Charles X. abdicated, 2 Aug. 1830. 
After being owned by the count of Thoulouse and the 
ducde Penthiévre, it was bought by Louis XVI. 1778. 

RAMILLIES (Belgium), the site of a brilliant 
victory gained by the Englsh under the duke of 
Marlborough and the allies over the French com- 
manded by the elector of Bavaria and the marshal 
de Villeroy, on Whitsunday, 23 May (0.s. 12), 1760. 
The French were soon seized with a panic, and a 
general rout ensued: about 4000 of the allied army 
were slain in the engagement. This accelerated 
the fall of Louvain, Brussels, &c. 


RANELAGH (near Chelsea), a public garden 
for concerts and dancing, occupying the grounds of 
Ranelagh House (built by Jones, earl of Ranelagh, 
about 1691), was opened with a breakfast, 5 April, 
1742. ‘The music jor the orchestra was frequently 
composed by Dr. Arne. The gardens were closed, 
and. the buildings taken down, in 1804. 


RANGOON, maritime capital of the Burmese 
empire, built by Alompra, 1753, was taken by sir 
A. Campbell on 11 May, 1824. In Dec. 1826, it 
was ceded to the Burmese on condition of the pay- 
ment of a sum of money, the reception of a British 
resident at Ava, and freedom of commerce. Oppres- 
sion of the british merchants led to the second 
Burmese war, 1852. Rangoon was taken by storm 
by general Godwin, 14 April, and annexed to the 
British dominions in December. An English 
bishopric founded, 1877, Destructive fire for two 
days about 18 April, 1884. See Burmah. 


_ RANSOME’S ARTIFICIAL STONE, the 
invention of Mr. Fred. Ransome, 1848, is made by 
dissolving common flint (silica) im heated caustic 
alkali, adding fine sand. The mixture is pressed 
into moulds and heated to redness. 


RANTERS, 2 sect which arose in 1645, similar 
to the Seekers, now termed Quakers. ‘I'he name 
is now applied to the Primitive Methodists, separated 
from the main body in 1810; see WVesleyans. 


RAPE was punished with death by the Jews, 
Romans, and Goths; by mutilation and loss of 
eyes in William I.’s reign. This was mitigated by 
the statute of Westminster 1, 3 Edw. I. 1274. 
Made felony by stat. Westminster 2, 12 Edw. III. 
1338 ; and without benefit of clergy, 18 Eliz. 1575. 
Rape made punishable by transportation in 1841 ; 
by penal servitude for life, or a less period, 1861. 


RAPHIA, a port of Palestine. Here Antiochus 
III. of Syria was defeated by Ptolemy Philopater, 
king of Egypt, 217 B.c. 


698 


RATTENING. 
RAPHOE, a bishopric in Ni Ireland. S$ 


Columb-kille, a man of great virtue and learning 
and of royal blood, founded a monastery in thi 
place, and it was afterwards enlarged by other hol 
men: but it is the received opinion that St. Kuna: 
erected the church into a cathedral, and was th 
first bishop of the see in the 8th century. Rapho 
was united to the bishopric of Derry by act 3 & 
Will. IV. 1833; see Bishops. 


RAPPAHANNOCK, see Chancellorsville, an 
Trials, 1865. 

RASPBERRY, not named among the fruit 
early introduced into this country from the conti 
nent. The Virginian raspberry (Rubus occiden 
talis) before 1696, and the flowering raspberr 
(Rubus odoratus), about 1700, came from Nort 
America. 


RASTADT, Baden. Here the preliminaries ¢ 
a peace were signed, 6 March, 1714, by marshal 
Villars on the part of the French king, and b 
prince Eugéne on the part of the emperor; th 
German frontier was restored to the terms of th 
peace of Ryswick.—The CoNGRESS of RAS 
TADT, to treat of a general peace with th 
Germanic powers, was commenced 9 Dec. 1797 
and negotiations were carried on throughout 1798 
The atrocious massacre of the French plenipoten 
tiaries at Rastadt by the Austrian regiment o 
Szeltzler took place 28 April, 1799. 


RATCLIFFE HIGHWAY (nowSt. George’ 
street), East London. Mr. Marr, a shopkeeper here 
with his wife, child, and boy, were brutally mut 
dered in a few minutes, 7 Dec. 1811. In th 
same neighbourhood, on 11 Dec., Mr. and Mr: 
Williamson, their child, and servant, were als 
murdered. A man, named Williams, arrested o 
suspicion, committed suicide, 15 Dec. 


RATHMINES (near Dublin). Colonel Jone: 
governor of Dublin castle, made a sally out, route 
the marquis of Ormond at Rathmines, killed 400 
men, and took 2517 prisoners, with their cannor 
baggage, and ammunition, 2 Aug. 1649. 


RATING ACT, 37 & 38 Vict. c. 54, passe 
7 Aug. 1874; abolishes exemptions from the poo 
law act, 43rd of Elizabeth; and provides for th 
rating of woods, mines, rights of fowling, fishing, &« 


RATIONALISM, the doctrine of those wh 
reject a divine revelation and admit no other mean 
of acquiring knowledge but experience and reasor 
The leading writers are Reimarus of Hamburg (die 
1768), Paulus of Heidelberg, Eichhorn, Reinharc 
and Strauss. W. Lecky’s ‘‘ History of Rationalis1 
in Europe”’ appeared, July, 1865; and Dr. J 
Hurst’s, April, 1867. 


RATISBON (in Bavaria), was made a fre 
imperial city about 1200. Several diets have bee 
held here. A peace was concluded here betwee 
france and the emperor of Germany, by which wa 
terminated the war for the Mantuan succession 
signed 13 Oct. 1630. In later times, it was a 
Ratisbon, in a diet held there, that the Germa: 
princes seceded from the Germanic empire, an 
placed themselves under the protection of th 
emperor Napoleon of France, 1 Aug. 1806, Ratis 
bon was made an archbishopric in 1806 ; secularise 
in 1810; was ceded to Bavaria in 1815; becam 
again an archbishopric in 1817. 


RATTENING (from ratten, provincial for rat’ 
the removing and hiding workmen’s tools as 
punishment for nonpayment to trades unions, ¢ 
opposition to them. Much ‘‘rattening”’ was dis 


RAUCOUX. 


d at the commission of inquiry at Sheffield in 
et and at Manchester Sept. following ; see 
eld. 


AUCOUX (Belgium). Here marshal Saxe 
the French army totally defeated the allies 
r prince Charles of Lorraine, 11 Oct. 1746. 


AVATLLAC’S MURDER of Henry IV. of 
ce, 14 May, 1610. The execution of the assassin 
7 May was accompanied by most elaborate 
res. 


AVENNA (on the Adriatic), a city of the 
1 states, founded by Greek colonists, fell under 
toman power about 234 5.c. It was favoured 
embellished by the emperors, and Honorius 
- it the capital of the Empire of the West about 
404. In 568 it became the capital of an 
shate. It was subdued by the Lombards in 
and their king, Astolphus, in 754 surrendered 
Pepin, king of France, who gave it tothe pope 
1en, and thus laid the foundation of the tem- 
power of the holy see. On the 11th of April, 
a battle was fought between the French, 
r Gaston de Foix (duke of Nemours and 
ew of Louis XII.), and the Spanish and Papal 
»s. De Foix perished in the moment of his 
Y and his death closed the good fortune of the 
ch in Italy. Ravenna became part of the king- 
of Italy in 1860. 

of the Accoltellatori, a secret society of as- 

ins (said to have been formerly followers of 
ibaldi), who long kept the city in terror, 
sted, Sept.—Oct.; condemned to life im- 
onment . : 1 r2 Dec, 1874 


i ISLE OF (W. coast of France,near Rochelle). 


r beds planted here in 1862 have flourished. 
vochelle. 


YADERS, a new order of ministrants in the 
h of England, received the assent of the 
ishops and bishops in July, 1866. ‘They were 
) be ordained or addressed as reverend. 


TADING (Berkshire). Here Alfred defeated 
anes, 871. The abbey was founded in 1121 
enry I. The last abbot was hanged in 1539 
enying the king’s supremacy. ‘lhe palace 
1 was erected 1850. New town hall, free 
y, &e. opened 31 May, 1882. 


IAL ACTIONS Lim1rTation ACT, passed 


comes into operation I Jan. 1879. 
!ALISTS, see Nominalists. 
1AL PRESENCE, see Transubstantia- 


\APING-MACHINES. One was invented 


‘s country early in the present century, but | 


from its intricacies. At the meeting of the 
b Association at Dundee, Sept. 1867, the rey. 
‘k Bell stated that he invented a reaping- 
ne in 1826, which was used in 1827; the 
ple being that on which the best American | 
nes are now constructed. On 15 Jan. 1868, | 
is presented with a valuable testimonial, and 
in money. McCormick’s American machine 
vented about 1831, and perfected in 1846; he 
eda gold medal from the jurors of the Exhibi- 
f€ 1851; and also at the Royal Agricultural 
y’s competition at Bristol, 6 Aug. 1878. The 
*s are bound by these reaping machines. 
200 patented; few good. Hussey’s machine, 


699 


American, exhibited in 1851, was highly 
onded. 

ASON was cecreed to be worshipped as 
dess by the French republicans, 10 Noy. 


REBELLIONS. 


1793, and was personified by an actress.—Thomas 
Paine’s ‘¢ Age of Reason”? was published in 1794-5 ; 
Immanuel Kant’s ‘Critique of Pure Reason,’’ 
(‘* Kritik der reinen Vernunft’’), 1781. 


REBECCA RIOTS, see Wales, 1843, 1878. 


REBELLIONS or InsuRRECTIONS. IN 
BritisH HisTrory. Details of many are given 
in separate articles. See Conspiracies. 


Against William the conqueror, in favour of Edgar 
Atheling, aided by the Scots and Danes, ro6o. 

By Odo of Bayeux and others, against William II. in 
favour of his brother Robert, 1088 ; suppressed, 1ogo. 

In favour of the empress Maude, 1139. Ended, 1153. 

ee rebellion of prince Richard against his father Henry 

- 1180. 

Of the Barons, April, 1215. Compromised by the grant 
of Magna Charta, 15 June following. 

Of the Barons, 1261-67. 

Of the lords spiritual and temporal against Edward IT. 
on account of his favourites, the Gavestons, 1312. 
Again, on account of the Spencers, 1321. 

Of Walter the Tyler, of Deptford, vulgarly called Wat 
Tyler, occasioned by the brutal rudeness of a poll-tax 
collector to his daughter. He killed the collector in 
his rage, and raised a party to oppose the tax itself, 
1381 ; see Tyler. 

In freland, when Roger, earl of March, the viceroy and 
heir presumptive to the crown, was slain, 1398. 

Of Henry, duke of Lancaster, who caused Richard IT. to 
be deposed, 1399. 

Against. king Henry IV. by a number of confederated 
lords, 1402-3. 

Against Henry V. by earl of Cambridge and other lords, 


I415. 

Of Jack Cade, against Henry VI. 1450; see Cade’s Insur- 
rection. 

In favour of the house of York, 1452, which ended in the 
imprisonment of Henry VI. and seating Edward IV. of 
York on the throne, 146r. 

Under Warwick and Clarence, 1470, which ended with 
the expulsion of Edward IV. and the restoration of 
Henry VI. the same year. 

Under Edward IV. 1471, which ended with the death of 
Henry VI. 

Of the earl of Richmond, against Richard III. 1485, which 
ended with the death of Richard. 

Under Lambert Simnel, 1486, who pretended to be 
Richard III.’s nephew, Edward Plantagenet, earl of 
Warwick ; his army was defeated, leaders slain, and he 
was discovered to be a baker’s son ; he was pardoned, 
and employed by the king as a menial. 

Under Perkin Warbeck, 1492 ; defeated ; executed 1499. 

Under Thomas Flammock and Michael Joseph, in Corn- 
wall, against taxes levied to pay the Scottish war ex- 
penses. They marched towards London, and lord 
Audley took the command at Wells. They were de- 
feated at Blackheath, 22 June, and the three leaders 
were executed, 28 June, 1497. 

The ‘‘ Pilgrimage of Grace” against Henry VIII. 1536-7. 

Of the English in the West, to restore the ancient liturgy, 
&c., 1549 ; Suppressed same year. 

In Norfolk, headed by Ket, the tanner, but soon sup- 
pressed, Aug. 1549. 

In favour of lady Jane Grey, against queen Mary. Lady 
Jane was proclaimed queen of England on the death of 
Edward VI. ro July, 1553; but she resigned the crown 
to Mary a few days afterwards: she was beheaded for 
high treason, in. the Tower, 12 Feb. 1554, aged 17. 

Of sir Thomas Wyatt, son of the poet, and others, against 
queen Mary’s marriage with Philip of Spain, &c., fails ; 
he is beheaded rz April, 1554. 

Of the Roman catholic earls of Northumberland and 
Westmoreland against queen Elizabeth, Nov. and Dec. 
1567. The former fled to Scotland, but was given up 
by the regent Morton and executed. 

Of the Irish under the earl of Tyrone, 1599, suppressed 
in 1601. 

Under the earl of Essex, against queen Elizabeth, 1600 ; 
it ended in his death, 1601. 

Of the Irish under Roger More, sir Phelim O’Neil, &c., 
against the English in Ireland, 1641-5. 

The ‘‘Great Rebellion,” 1641-60. 

Rebellion of the Scots Covenanters, 1666; soon put 
down. 

Under the duke of Monmouth, 1685 ; executed 15 July. 


RECEIPTS. 


700» 


Of the Scots in favour of the Old Pretender, 1715 ; quelled 
in 1716. 

Ofthe Scots under the Young Pretender, 1745 ; suppressed 
in 1746; lords Lovat, Balmerino, and Kilmarnock be- 
headed. 

Of the Americans on account of taxation, 1774. This 
rebellion led to the loss of our chief North American 
colonies, and the independence of the United States, 
1782. 

In irene called the Great Rebellion, when great num- 
bers took up arms, commenced 24 May, 1798 ; sup- 
pressed next year. 

Again in Ireland, under Robert Emmett, a gifted enthu- 
siast, 23 July, 1803, when lord Kilwarden was killed 
with several others by the insurgents. 

Canadian Insurrection (which see), Dec. 1837 to Nov. 1838. 

Of Chartists at Newport (which see), 4 Nov. 1839. 

Smith O’Brien’s silly Irish rebellion ; terminated in the 
defeat and dispersion of a multitude of his deluded 
followers by sub-inspector Trant and about sixty police 
constables, on Boulagh common, Balliugary, co. Tip- 
perary, 29 July, 1848; see Ireland. 

Sepoy mutiny in India (see India), 1857-8. 

«Of Fenians in Ireland ; see Fenians and Ireland, 1865-7. 


RECEIPTS For MONEY, were first taxed by 
a stamp duty in 1783. ‘The act was amended in 
1784, 1791 et seg., and receipts were taxed by a 
duty varying to the amount of the money received, 
in all transactions. Stamps required on bills of 
exchange, notes, and receipts in Ireland, by stat. 
35 Geo. JII. 1795; see Bills of Exchange. The 
uniform stamp of one penny on receipts, for all sums 
above 2/., was enacted by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 59 (4 Aug. 
1853); see Stamps. Penny postage-stamps used 
for receipts after 1 June, 1881. 


RECIDIVINSTS, the French term for habitual 
criminals, The proposal of the French govern- 
ment to transmit many of these to New Caledonia, 
with partial freedom, was opposed in France as 
dangerous to liberty, and very warmly protested 
against by our Australian colonies, especially 
Queensland and New South Wales, fearing their 
‘intrusion as dangerous to public security, 1883-4. 


French legislation resumed; bill passed 12 May, 1885 


RECIPROCITY ASSOCIATION, founded 
at Manchester Sept. 1869, in consequence of the 
restrictions on the importation of British manu- 
factures into their territories imposed by foreign 
governments. 

Reciprocity, a form of protection, was advocated by lord 

Bateman and others in 1878-9. His resolution was 

negatived by the lords, 29 April, 1879. 


RECIPROCITY TREATY between Great 
Britain and the United States, regulating the rela- 
tion between the latter and Canada, in regard to 
trade, fisheries, &c., negotiated by lord Elgin, and 
ratified 2 Aug. 1854. Its abrogation, proposed by the 
United States government in 1864, was effected 17 
March, 1866. Its renewal was desired in the states 
in 1867. 


RECITATIVE, a’species of singing differing 
but little from ordinary speaking, and used for nar- 
ratives in operas, is said to have been first employed 
at Rome by Emilio del Cavaliere, who disputed the 
claim of Rinuccini to the introduction of the opera, 
1600; see Opera. 


RECORD, Evangelical, or Low Church, weekly 
newspaper, established 1828. 


RECORDER, the principal judicial officer of 
great corporations. The first recorder of London 
was Jeffrey de Norton, alderman, 1298; right hon. 
Russell Gurney, Q.C., recorder, Dec. 1856—Jan. 
1878. Sir Thomas Chambers, Feb. 1878. The 
salary, originally Io/. per annum, is now 3000/. 


ee nha: ia | 


REDOWA. 


RECORDS, PuBLic, IN ENGLAND, be 
to be regularly preserved in 1100, by order of He¢ 
I. ‘The repositories which possessed materials 
most ancient and interesting to the historian w 
the Chapter-house of Westminster Abbey, the Tc 
of London, the Rolls Chapel, and the Que 
Remembrancer’s offices of the exchequer. The e 
records of Scotland, going from London, were 
by shipwreck in 1298. in Ireland, the cour 
chamber and most of the records were burned, 1 
Public Records act, 2 Vict. c. 94 (10 Aug. 1838 
A new Recorp OFrrice bas been erected on the I 
estate, between Chancery and Fetter-lanes, to w! 
the records have been gradually removed. 
Record Commissioners commenced their pub 
tions in 1802. Mr. F. Thomas’s valuable ‘ H: 
book to the Public Records,’’ was published in 1: 
Mr. Ewald’s ‘‘Our Public Records,” in 1 
Acts relating to the Public Records of Irel 
passed 1867 and 1875. 


RECREATION, see Playground. 
RECREATIVE RELIGIONISTS, an 


given to an association of gentlemen for diffusin 
knowledge of natural religion by the aid of scie 
formed in Dec. 1866. In Jan. 1867 lectures \ 
given on Sunday evenings at St. Martin’s I 
London, by professor Huxley, Dr. W. B. Carper 
and others, sacred music being performed at inte1 
during the evening. This was decided not to b 
infraction of the Sunday act, 21 Geo. III. ec. 4 
the trial, Baxter v. Baxter Langley, 19 Noy. 1 
See Sunday Lecture Society. 


RECRUITING, see Army, 31 Oct. 1 
Recruits : 1878, 28,325; 1879, 25,062 ; 1880, 25," 
1883, above 33,000 (new regulations) ; 1884, 35, 


RECUSANTS, persons who refuse to at 
church, I Eliz. c. 2, 1559; dissenters relieved : 
this act, 1689; it was repealed, 1844. 


REDAN, 2 field fortification, consisting of 
faces meeting in a salient angle directed tow 
the enemy; see Russo- Turkish War, 1855. 


RED CRAG, deposits of fossil remains on 
coast of Essex and Suffolk, so designated by Ed 
Charlesworth about 1835. They are much ust 
the manure manufacture. 


RED CROSS on a white ground, the fiz 
the Geneva Convention (which see). Third i 
national convention at Geneva, 1 Sept. 1884. 
Russian Red Cross society, with others, was 
active during the Servian war, July-Aug. ees 
order of the Royal Red Cross for ladies who 
acted as nurses in war, &c. and others, instil 
by queen Victoria, 23 April, 1883. The prince 
Wales and other ladies nominated, 25 
1883. 


REDE LECTURE, Cambridge; sir R 
Rede, chief justice of common pleas, in 1507: 
dowed some lectureships. In 1859 these 
replaced by an annual lecture: which has 
given by professors Owen, Phillips, Ansted, Tyr 
and other eminent persons. 


REDEMPTORISTS, see Liguorians. 
REDHILL, see Reformatory Schools. 


REDISTRIBUTION OF SEATS 4 
see Reform, 1885. 


REDOWA, a Bohemian dance in 3-4 tim 
troduced in 1846 or 1847, at Paris, and soon af 
London. 


RED RIVER SETTLEMENTS. 


701 


REFORM. 


ED RIVER SETTLEMENTS, a name On 28 Feb. 1859, Mr. Disraeli brought in a reform bill, 


n to part of the Hudson bay settlements. 


ED SEA. In 1826 Ehrenberg discovered that 
colour was due to marine plants, the Zricho- 
rium Erythreum ; see Suez. 


EFERENDUM, the name given to an 
“le in the Swiss constitution of 29 Muay, 1874, 
vhich certain laws passed by the Cantonal and 
eral legislations might be referred to the people 
irge by plébiscite. 


EFLECTORS, see Burning-glass. 


EFORM ASSOCIATION, instituted at 
tminster to protect electors, 20 May, 1835. 


EFORM BANQUETS, see France, 1847. 


EFORM CLUB, established in 1836, to 
eed the Westminster Club, 1834-6. The 
ding in Pall Mall, designed, by sir Charles 
‘y, was completed in 1841. 


EFORM In PARLIAMENT. Mr. Pitt’s mo- 
for a reform in parliament was lost by a majority 
9, 7 May, 1782; of 144, 7 May, 1783; and of 74, 
pril, 1785; see Radicals. The measure of reform 
arl Grey’s administration was proposed in the 
se of commons by lord John Russell, 1 March, 1831. 


BILL OF 1831. 
| division ; second reading: for it, 302; against it, 
rt; 22 March. 
notion for a committee, general Gascoyne moved an 
nendment, ‘that the number of representatives for 
igland and Wales ought not to be diminished.” Amend- 
ent carried on a division, 299 to 291 ; 19 April. 
bill abandoned, and parliament dissolved, 23 April. 
»w parliament assembled, 14 June. Bill again intro- 
iced, 24 June. 
sion on second reading : for it, 367 ; against it, 231— 
ajovity, 136; 7 July. 
sion on third reading of the bill: for it, 345; against 
, 236—majority, 109 ; 22 Sept. 
the Lorps :—first division, on second reading; lord 
harncliffe moved, ‘‘ that the bill be read that day six 
onths.” For the amendment, 199 ; against it, 158— 
ajority, FORTY-ONE ; 8 Oct. [Parliament prorogued, 
Oct. 1831. ] 


ACT OF 1832.* 
d in the Commons a jirst time without a division, 12 
ec. 1831. Second reading ; division, viz. : for the bill, 
4; againstit, 162—majority, 162 ; 17 Dec. 1831. Third 
ading ; division, viz. : for the bill, 355; against it, 
39 —majority for it, 116; 23 March, 1832. 
he Lorps :—read a first time on motion of earl Grey, 
7 March. Second reading: for the bill, 184 ; against 
, 175—majority, NINE; 14 April. In the committee 
rd Lyndhurst moved, ‘‘that the question of enfran- 
1isement should precede that of disfranchisement.” 
he division was 151 and 116-——majority against minis- 
1S, THIRTY-FIVE, 7 May. 
ignation of ministers, 9 May; great public excitement 
isued, and they were induced to resume office on the 
ing granting them full power to secure majorities by 
ve creation of new peers. 
she Lorps, the bill was carried through the committee, 
>» May; read a third time: 106 against 22—majority, 
IGHTY-FOUR; 4 June. Received the royal assent, 7 
une, 1832. 
‘royal assent given to the Scotch reform bill, 17 July ; 
nd to the Irish one, 7 Aug, 1832. 


ABORTIVE REFORM BILLS. 
d John Russell introduced a new reform bill, 13 Feb. 
354, Which was withdrawn, 11 April, 1854, in conse- 
uence of the war with Russia. 


By this ‘‘ Act to amend the Representation of the 
ple in England and Wales” (2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 45), 56 
oughs in England were disfranchised (schedule A.), 30 
‘e reduced to one member only (B.) ; 22 new boroughs 
‘e created to send two members (C.), and 20 to send 
‘member (D.) and other important changes were 


which was rejected by the commons on 31 March, by a 
majority of 39. This led to a dissolution of parlia- 
ment, and eventually to a change of ministry. 

The new government (lords Palmerston and J. Russell» 
brought forward a new bill, r March, 1860; but witb- 
drew it, 11 June. No reform bill was brought forwar@ 
by the government, 1861-5 ; see Commons. 

The discussion respecting parliamentary reform was re- 
vived in the autumns of 1864 and 186s. 

Mr. Baines’ reform bill was rejected by the commons, & 
May, 186s. 

Mr. Gladstone introduced a franchise bill, 12 March, 1866 ;. 
after much discussion, it was read a second time, 28: 
April. A re-distribution of seats bill was introduced, 
and incorporated with the franchise bill, 7 May; an 
amendment (on a clause, substituting ‘‘ rateable” for 
“clear yearly value”) was passed, in opposition to the 
government, 19 June; which led to the resignation of 
the government, 26 June; and the withdrawal of the: 
bill (See Adullam), 19 July, 1866. 

Numerous great reform meetings: London, Hyde-park 
(riotous), 23, 24 July ; Agricultural Hall, 30 July ; and 
Guildhall, 8 Aug.; Manchester, 24 Sept. ; Leeds, 8: 
Oct. ; Glasgow, 16 Oct. ; Edinburgh, 17 Nov. ; Con- 
ference at- Manchester, r9 Noy. 1866. 

Reform demonstration of trades-unions in London ; pro- 
cession of about 25,000; great order observed, 3 Dec., 
1866. 

Procession of about 18,oco men to Agricultural Hall, 
Islington : good.order kept; 11 Feb. 1867. 

Mr. Disraeli announced his plan of proceeding with re- 
form by 13 resolutions, 11 Feb. ; these withdrawn, 26 
Feb. 1867. 

““Ten Minutes’ bill” introduced and withdrawn, 25 Feb. 
1867. 

[It comprised a 6/. franchise for boroughs, and 2ol. for 
counties. Said by sir John Pakington to have been 
agreed to in the last ten minutes ‘of a cabinet council. } 

New bill (with household suffrage) introduced 18 March ; 
read second time, 27 March, 1867. 

The ‘‘Tea-room meeting” of liberals (Messrs. Owen Stan- 
ley, Dillwyn, Grant Duff, and others), who agree to 
support the bill in opposition to Mr. Gladstone’s reso- 
lution, which is withdrawn, and the bill goes into 
committee, 8 April; Mr. Gladstone’s amendment re- 
jected by 22 (for 288, against 310), 12 April, 1867. 

Peaceable reform meetings at Birmingham, 22 April ; 
Hyde Park, 6 May; National Reform Union (first 
meeting), 15 May, 1867. 

ACTS OF 1867-8. 

The new Reform bill passed by the commons, 15-16 July ;. 
by the lords (with amendments, when lord Derby said,,. 
that it was ‘‘a great experiment,” and ‘‘a leap in the: 
dark”) 6 Aug. ; received the royal assent, 15 Aug. 
1867.* 

Scotch reform bill introduced by lord advocate, 17 Feb. ; 
passed 13 July, 1868. 

Trish bill introduced by the earl of Mayo, 19 March ; 
passed 13 July, 1868. 

The Reform league was dissolved 13 March, 1869; re- 
vived, Oct. 1876. 

Bill for extending household suffrage to counties brought: 
in annually by Mr. G. O. Trevelyan, see Hovrsehold’ 
Suffrage. 

ACTS OF 1884-5. 

New bill for Representation of the People of the United 
Kingdom extending household and lodger suffrage to 
counties uniform with boroughs, adding about 2,000,000 
voters introduced by Mr. Gladstone, the premier, 28 
Feb., read first time 3 March; lord John Manners” 
amendment, declining to pass the bill without know- 
ledge of re-distribution of seats, 24 March ; negatived, 
(340-210), bill read second time, 7-8 April ; third time, 
27 June. Lords, first time, 27 June: rejected by ear] 
Cairns’s amendment (conservatives led by Marquis of 
Salisbury), (205-146), 8-9 July ; earl of Wemyss’s com~ 
promise rejected (182-132) ; earl Cadogan’s amendment, 
(adjourninent, instead of prorogation of parliament till 
the autumn), adopted 17 July. Commons, bill read 


* This act is divided into three parts :— : 

I. FRANCHISES. Boroughs: All householders rated fcr 
relief of the poor; lodgers, resident for twelve months, 
and paying rol. a year. Cownties: Persous of property «f 
the clear annual value of s/. ; and occupiers of lands or 
tenements paying ral. a year. At a contested election for 
any county or borough represented by three members, no 


REFORMATION. 


702 


REGENCY BILLS. 


first time, 24 Oct.; second time, (372-232) 7-8 Nov. ; 
third time, rr Nov. Lords bill read first time, 14 Nov.; 
second time, 18 Nov. ; (compromise with the govern- 
ment) ; third time, 5 Dec. ; passed 6 Dec. 1884. 

Redistribution of Seats Act; commons, read first time, 
x Dee. ; second time, 4 Dec. 1884; third time (116-33), 
11-12 May,1885. Lords, read first time, 12 May ; second 
time, 15 May ; third time, 12 June, 1885. 

REDISTRIBUTION OF SEATS Act.—Boroughs to cease as such 
(having less than 15,oo0 inhabitants): England, 80; 
Scotland, 2; Ireland, 22. Yo be included in their 
counties: Berwick, Lichfield, Carrickfergus, and Drog- 
heda. Disfranchised for corrwption : Macclesfield, Sand- 
wich. To lose one member (having less than 50,000 in- 
habitants): England, 34; Ireland, 3. Jo have addi- 
tional menbers (with more than 50,000 inhabitants) ; 
England, 12; Scotland, 3; Ireland, 2. New boroughs: 
England, 43. 160 seats obtained by disfranchisement 
to be divided among counties and boroughs now under- 
represented. Certain boroughs and counties return- 
ing more than one member, formed into new sub- 
divisions, returning one member. London only to have 
two members. Total number of members to be raised 
from 652 to 670; England to have 6 more, Scotland 12 
more. 


REFORMATION, THE. Efforts for the 
reformation of the church may be traced to the 
reign of Charlemagne, when Paulinus, bishop of 
Aquileia, employed his voice and pen to accomplish 
it. The principal reformers were Wickliffe, Huss, 
Jerome of Prague, Savonarola, Erasmus, Luther, 
Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Melanchthon, Cranmer, 
Latimer, Knox, and Browne. Luther thus charac- 
terised himself and his fellow reformers : ‘‘ Res non 
Verba—Luther.’ ‘*Verba non Res—Erasmus.’’ 
“Res et Verba—WMelanchthon.” ‘*Nec. Verba nec 
Res—Carlstadt ;” see Wickliffites, Protestants, Cal- 
vinists, Lutherans, Presbyterianism, &c. The eras 
of the reformation are as follows :— 

In France (Albigenses), said to have been a surviving 


gnostic sect, not Christian reformers about 1177 
In England (Wickliffe) . - 1360 
In Bohemia (Huss). i . 1405 
In Italy (Jerome Savonarola) : Asay tts: 
In France (by Farel) . before 1512 
In Germany (Luther) ; ca LoL 
In Switzerland (Zwinglius) . : SEL5IO 
In Denmark (Andreas Bodenstetiv) . 1521 
AnVeTussiaiwes. : : : 3 : . 1527 
In France (Calvin); see Huguenots . pL 20 
Protestants first so called ; a3 
In Sweden (Petri) . : - 1530 
In England (Henry VIII.) . : : Soda 
Iu Ireland (Archbishop George Browne) : - 1535 
In England, completed (Cranmer, Bucer, Fagius, 


&e.), 1547; annulled by Mary, 1553; restored by 


Elizabeth : A : : : 4 4 - 1558 
In Scotland (Knox), established . ; - sae SOO 
In the Netherlands, established : F . 1562 


REFORMATORY SCHOOLS, for juvenile 
delinquents.* The Reformatory School at Mettray, 


person to vote for more than 2 candidates ; in London, 
to vote for 3 only. 

Disfranchised: 
Lancaster. 

Il. DistRrBuTION OF SEATS: Boroughs with less than 
1o,o0o0 population, to return one member only (38 in 
Schedule A.). Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, and 
Leeds, to have 3 members instead of 2. 

Chelsea (with Fulham, Hammersmith, and Kensington) 
made a borough : Merthyr Tydvil, and Salford, to return 
two members ; Tower Hamlets divided into two boroughs 
—Hackney, and Tower Hamlets. (Other new boroughs 
in Schedwe B.) University of London to return one 
member. 

Ill. SuPPLEMENTARY Provisions: Registration, &c. 
Boundary Commissioners (which see). Parliament not to 
be dissolved on any future demise of the crown. Mem- 
bers holding offices of profit from the crown not to vacate 
their seats on acceptance of another office. 

*Tt was calculated (about 1856) that there were in 
London 30,000, and in England 100,000 youths under 


Totnes; Reigate; Great Yarmouth ; 


near Tours in France, was founded in 1839 by 1 
de Metz, formerly a councillor of Paris, warm 
seconded by the vicomte de Courcelles, who ga 
the estate on which the establishment is place 
The one at Redhill, Surrey is situated on lai 
purchased in 1849 by the Philanthropic Societ 
and under the direction of the rev. Sydney Turne 
The first stone of the building was laid 30 Apr 
1849, by the prince consort. The inmates of the 
establishments are instructed in farm labour, a1 
divided into so-called families. In 1854 the Juveni 
Offenders act was passed. In 1851 and 1853 gre 
meetings were held on this subject; and in Au 
1856, the first grand conference of the Nation 
Reformatory Union was held. 
North-West London Preventive and Reformatory 
Institution in the New-road, established ; all kinds 


of trades taught : F ; : ete 
Reformatory and Refuge Union founded oy a83] 


Acts for establishing reformatory schools passed, 
1857, 1858, 1866, 1868; amended . b "i 5 
Fifty-one reformatory schools in England (and nine 
in Ireland), 1863; 53 reformatory schools (with 
4,674 boys; 1165 girls), 1872; 108 schools in 


England and Wales . m - “ : * 
An international exhibition of the works of these 


schools at the Agricultural Hall, Islington, near 
London, opened by the prince of Wales . eeLO 


“REFORMED CHURCH” (Calvinistic 
established in Holland and in some parts of Ge 
many. For the Reformed Presbyterian Church - 
Scotland, see Cameronians, note. - 


REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH 
founded in the United States of North America ° 
1873; in this country a secession from the Fr 
Church of England in 1877. 

Dr. Cummins, assistant bishop of Kentucky, after 
revising the prayer-book, consecrated C, E. 
Cheney as bishop, 14 Dec. 1873; others since 
consecrated and churches formed. 


REFRACTION, see Light. 
REFRESHMENT HOUSES for the sa 


of wine, &c., are licensed in putes of an a 
passed in 1860, amended in 1861: a new act pass 
in 1864, 1865. See Licences. 


REFRIGERATORS, see Provisions. 
REFUGE FOR THE DESTITUTE (cr 


minal young females), Dalston, London, Ii. 
instituted 1805, incorporated 1838. 


REFUGEES’ BENEVOLENT FUND 
stituted in consequence of the war, ata great meetin 
held at the Mansion-house, London, 21 Oct. 1870. 


REFUGES, see Poor 1864. Refuges for Dest 
tute boys and girls, established in Great Queen 
street in 1852. See Chichester. 


REGALIA, see Crown. 


REGATTA. <A public boat race, introduce 
into this country from Venice in 1775: and in tha 
year one took place on the Thames. 


REGELATION. See ce. 
REGENCY BILLS. One was passed 175: 


One was proposed to parliament in consequence < 
the mental illness of George III., and debated 1 


18 


18 


17 leading a vagabond life, and that out of 15,0co of thos 
who were committed for trial nearly half were in custod 
for the first time. 


REGENTS. l 


03 REGULATION. 


1788. It was relinquished on his majesty’s 
very, 26 Feb. 1789. ‘The return of the malady 
o the prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.) 
¢ sworn in before the privy council as regent of 
‘ingdom, 5 Feb. 1811. ‘The Regency Bill pro- 
1g for the administration of the government, 
ld the crown descend to the princess Victoria 
e under eighteen years of age, passed 1 Will. 
23 Dec. 1830. A Regency Bill appointing 
ve Albert regent in the event of the demise of 
jueen, should her next lineal successor be under 

passed 4 Aug. 1840. 


HEGENTS, see Protectorates. 
EGENT’S CANAL, begun at Paddington, 


eit joins a cut to the Grand Junction, passes 
r Maida-hill, continues its course by the Re- 
s-park to Islington, where another subterranean 
vation, about three-quarters of a mile in length, 
formed for its passage. It then proceeds by 
on, Hackney, Mile-end, to Limehouse, where 
ins the Thames. The whole length of it is 
miles; it comprises twelve locks and thirty- 
1 bridges. Begun, 1812; opened r Aug. 1820. 
t explosion of gunpowder (which see), 2 Oct. 

New bridge, near Gloucester gate, Regent’s 
, opened by the duke of Cambridge, 3 Aug. 1878. 
nt’s Canal and City Railway Co. act passed, 


HGENT’S PARK, originally part of the 
ids belonging to a palace of queen Elizabeth, 
to the north end of Tottenham court-road, 
d down in 1791. Since 1600, the property was 
"various persons, but the leases having expired 
erted to the crown; and in 1814 great im- 
ments were commenced under the direction of 
Nash. The park consists of about 450 ACYES ; 
n it are the gardens of the Zoological Society 
the Royal Botanical Society. During a frost 
5 Jan. 1867, the rotten ice of one of the lakes 
way, and about 200 persons were immersed, of 
1 above 40 perished. Addition of 20 acres 
to the public park, 1883. 


GENT STREET, London, W.; designed 
xecuted by John Nash; authorised by act, 53 
ye III. 1813. Thecolonnades of the quadrant 
removed in 1848. 


iGGIO, see Rhegium. ¢ 


{GICIDKS, in English history, are the com- 
oners appointed to try king Charles I., 150 in 
er; of whom 70 acted, and 59 signed the 
-warrant, Jan. 1649. Of these last, 29 were 
and Io executed: Harrison, 13 Oct.; Cook 
Peters, 16 Oct.; Scott, Scroop, Clement, and 
, 17 Oct.; Axtell and Hacker, 19 Oct. 1660. 
asserted themselves to be martyrs. Others 
imprisoned. See Assassinations. 


Foreign Regicides, 
; I. of Scotland, by nobles 20 Feb. 
PLT. $3 an 3 po See divs. 
ILI. of France, by Clement, x Aug. ; d. 2 Aug. 
LY. » by Ravaillac wed, May, 
XVI. i by convention 21 Jan. 
vus ITI. of Sweden, by Ankarstrém, 16 March; 
d. 29 March, 
. 24 March, 


1437 
1488 


1589 


1610 


4793 


1792 
Mf Russia, by nobles 1801 


IGIMENTAL EXCHANGE ACT, 
1 28 May, 1875. 


IGIMENTS or INFANTRY were formed in 
e about 1588; see Infantry. The following 
1e approximate dates of the establishment of 
1 British regiments :— 


: CAVALRY. 

Oxford Blues are erroneously said to have been 

formed in the reign of Henry VIIL. ; they derive 
their name from their colonel, the earl of Oxford, 
in : ; , : 2 : : : ee. 
Three Indian regiments (19th, 2oth, and 21st) added 

Aug. “3, 

The Dragoon Guards, the Royal Ivish, and the Scots 

Greys were formed by James II., about 1684-6 
Several regiments of Light Dragoons were armed 

with lances and termed Lancers Sept. 1816 


1661 


INFANTRY (see Guards). 
1st Royalor Royal Scots regiment, 1633 ; the old title 
resumed . : : : : : : Dec. 1871 
Coldstream Guards, established by Monk, in . 1660 
3rd Butts, represent London train bands and have 
special privileges : F 


2nd Queen’s Royal ‘ 1661 
4th King’s Own . ; : - 1685 
5th Northumberland Fusiliers ae 

26th Cameronian : - 1689 
tooth Canadian : , : . 1858 
torst to rogth (Indian) added Aug. 1861 


The Highland regiments are the gond, 71st, 72nd, 
78th, 79th, g2nd, and 93rd. See Army Organization. 


REGISTERS. The registering of deeds and 
conveyances disposing of real estates was ap- 
pointed to be effectedin Yorkshire and in Middlesex, 
2 Anne, 1703, et seg. Greater security was thus 
given to purchasers and mortgagees; and the value 
of estates increased in those counties. Wills have 
been for a series of years kept and registered, in 
London, at Doctors’ Commons; see Wills. The 
registering of shipping in the Thames was com- 
menced, 1786; and throughout England, 1787; and 
several acts and amendments of acts have since 
followed for keeping and improving registers. 

The duties and payments of the Lord Clerk Register 
of Scotland and his deputy were regulated by 42 
& 43 Vict. ¢. 44 : : : - : 32879 


REGISTERS, PARrocutat, were established 
by Cromwell, lord Essex, by which the dates of 
births, marriages, and burials, became ascertainable, 
27 Henry VIII. 1530-8. This measure was opposed 
by the people, who feared some new taxation. A 
stamp-tax was laid on registers in 1784. Laws for 
their better regulation were enacted in 1813 et seq. 
The great Registration act (introduced by lord John 
Russell), 6 & 7 Will. IV. ¢. 86, passed 17 Aug. 1836; 
see Bills of Mortality, &e. 

A new registration act for births and deaths, passed 

7 Aug. 1874, came into operation .1 Jan. 1875 
Major George Graham, the first registrar-general, 

was succeeded by sir Brydges Powell Henniker, 

appointed - 7 Jan. 1880 


REGISTRATION oF Voters was enacted 
by the Reform act, passed 7 June, 1832, and by 
acts -passed in 1868 and 1885; see Revising 
Barristers. 

New Parliamentary and Municipal Registration act 

passed : : : : ; é 22 July, 1878 
Births and Deaths Registration act for Ireland 

passed. : 2 Ang. 1880 


REGIUM DONUM (Royal gift), an allowance 
from the sovereign for the maintenance of the Pres- 
byterian ministers in Ireland, commenced by 
Charles II. in 1672, and revived by William III. in 
1690, was commuted by the Irish Presbyterian 
Church act passed June, 1871. The allowance to 
certain protestant dissenting ministers in Ireland 
was given up by them in 1857, in deference to the 
wishes of English dissenters. 


REGULATION OF PUBLIC WOR- 
SHIP, see Public Worship. 


REGULATION oF THE Forces AcT passed 
17 Aug. 1871. See Army. 


REICHENBACH. 7 


04 


RENTS. 


REICHENBACH (Prussia). Here Duroc 
was killed during the conflicts between the French 
and the allies, 22 May, 1813; see Bawtzen. Here 
was signed a subsidy treaty between Russia, Prussia, 
and England, whereby the last engaged to provide 
means for carrying on the war against Napoleon I. 
on certain conditions, 14, 15 June, 1813. Austria 
joined the alliance soon after. 


REICHSRATH, the representative council of 
the empire of Austria, reconstituted by decree 5 
March; met on 31 May, 1860. In May, 1861, the 
upper house consisted of 17 spiritual, 55 hereditary, 
and 39 peers. The lower house consisted of 136 
elected deputies. No representatives came from 
Hungary, Transylvania, Venetia, the Banat, Sla- 
vonia, Croatia, and Istria. The Reichsrath was 
abolished by a rescript, 21 Sept. 1865, with the 
view of restoring autonomy to Hungary and other 
provinces. It again met 20 May, 1867. 


REIGATE (Surrey), sent two members to 
parliament in the reign of Edward I.; lost one by 
the Reform Act of 1832, and was wholly disfran- 
chised for corruption by that of 1867. 


REIGN OF TERROR. Maximilien Robes- 
pierre headed the populace in the Champ de Mars, 
in Paris, demanding the dethronement of the king, 
17 July, 1791. He was triumphant in 1793, and 
numbers of eminent men and citizens were sacrificed 
during his sanguinary administration. Billaud 
Varennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in 
the tribune, 27 July, 1794. The next day he 
suffered death, with many of his companions; 
see France. This has been termed the Zed Terror. 
The reaction after the restoration of the Bourbons, 
1815, disgraced by many atrocious acts of wanton 
cruelty, has been termed the White Terror. The 
Jesuits were then conspicuous in the destruction 
of their adversaries. 


REIGNS OF SOVEREIGNS. The average 
duration, according to Newton, is 19 years each; 
according to Hales 224 years; that of the sovereigns 
of England being 235 years, and that of the popes, 
7% years. Pius 1X. was the first pope who reigned 
above 25 years, 1846-78. 


RELICS, the trade in these became general in 
the 7th century, fragments of bones, &c. being 
brought from Jerusalem. The sale of relics was 
prohibited by pope Innocent III. 1198, without 
effect. 


RELIEF CHURCH, 2 secession from the 
church of Scotland, founded by Thomas Gillespie, 
who was deposed from his ministry for opposing the 
doctrine of passive obedience to the law of the 
church of Scotland respecting the settlement of 
ministers, 23 May, 1752. The church was consti- 
tuted as the ‘presbytery of relief,’’ 22 Oct. 1761. 
The Relief and Secession churches were united as 
the United Presbyterian Church, 13 May, 1847. 


RELIEF OF DISTRESS (IRELAND) 
ACT, 43 & 44 Vict. c. 14, passed 2 Aug. 1880. 


RELIGION (from redigo, I bind again, in the 
sense of a vow or oath) comprehends a belief in the 
being and perfections of God, and obedience to his 
commandments. The Jewish religion is set forth in 
the Old and the Christian religion in the New Testa- 
ment. Departure from these scriptures has been 
the origin of all corrupt forms of religion, as foretold 
in them. Buddhism differs from this. See AM/aho- 
metanism, and other religions and sects under their 
names. The population of the globe with reference 
to religious worship, is given by Balbi (who assumed 


the total population to be 1,050,000,000), a1 
Dieterici (who assumed it to be 1,288,000,000), | 
follows: 

Balbi (1836). Dieterici (185 
Jews 


JOW 4,500,000 5,000,0 
Christians oe ae 225,000,000 335,000,0 

Roman Catholics - 160,000,000 170,000,0 
Mahometans P : - 155,000,000 160,000,0 
Idolators, &c, not professing the 

Jewish, Christian, or Mahome- 

tan worship | : : - 665,500,000 800,000,01 

Estimate in 1869 : 1,375,000,000. 

Roman Catholies - - : : 195,460, 2 
Protestants 100, 385,01 
Eastern church 81,478, 01 
Buddhists A ; 360,000, 0 
Other Asiatic religions 260,000, 0% 
Pagans . A 3 - 200,000,0 
Mahometans 165,000,0¢ 
Jews 7,000, 0% 


In Europe (estimated) 1869 (Almanach de Gotha.) 
Roman Catholics 4 ‘ . p I44,000,0¢ 


Protestants 68,500, 0¢ 
Greek Church . - 68,000,0¢ 
Jews . 4,400,0¢ 
Mahometans . 6,642, 0c 


RELIGION OF HUMANITY, see Pos: 


tive Philosophy and Secularism. 


RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCTRTY, founde 
1799; receipts (1877) including sales, 152,520/. 
benevolent income, 27,171/., grants, 37,947/. 


REMISSION OF PENALTIES ACT 


see Sunday. 


REMONSTRANCH, THE GRAND, draw 
up by the house of commons, and presented to kin 
Charles I., 1 Dec. 1641. It consisted of 206 article: 
dwelt bitterly on all the ‘king’s illegal and oppres 
sive acts, and was printed by order of the house. 


REMONSTRANTS, see Arminians. 


RENAISSANCE, aterm applied to the reviva 
of the classic style of art in the 15th and 16th cen 
turies, under the patronage of the Medici an: 
others; see Painters, and Sculptors. 


RENDSBURG. (Holstein), was taken by th 
imperialists in 1627; by the Swedes in 1643; and b: 
the Prussians and confederate troops in 1848. Th 
first diet of Schleswig and Holstein met here - 
April, 1848. It was re-occupied by the Danes i1 
1852, and taken by the Prussians after a seriou 
conflict, 21 July, 1864. 


RENNES (capital of Brittany, N. W. France) 
Here was established by Henry II., in 1 553; the 
parliament so celebrated for its independence 
especially in its struggle with the court, 1788-89 
On 20 May, 1788, it declared infamous every on 
who should take part in the cour pleniére then pro- 
posed, but afterwards suppressed. 


RENTS said to have been first made payable in 
money, instead of in kind, about 1135. Numerous 
statutes have been enacted in various reigns to 
define the relations and regulate the dealings 
between landlord and tenant. 8 & g Vict. e. 10€ 
(1845) regulates leases. By the act § Anne, 1709, 
no goods are removable from tenements under an 
execution until the rent shall have been paid to the 
landlord by the sheriff, 1709. The rental of Engiand, 
including land, houses, and mines, was 6,000,000. 
about the year 1600, and twelve years’ purchase the 
value of land. About 1690, the rental amounted to 
14,000,000/., and the land was worth eighteen 
years’ purchase. Davenant on the Revenues, The 
rental of the. United Kingdom has been estimated 
in the present century at 127,000,000/.; Great anti~ 
rent agitation in Ireland, 1879-81 ; see Land, Xe. 


REPEAL... 705 RETREAT. 


EAL OF THE UNION, IRELAND. An 
sociation was formed with this object under 
ices of Mr. O’Connell, in 1829. See Lome 
ent. 
nation of the lord lieutenant prohibited the 

gs of a society “‘leagued for the purpose of 

ing a repeal of the union, under the name 
Trish Society for Legal and Legislative 


or the Anti-Union Society ” . 18 Oct. 1830 
mons, by a majority of 484, reject Mr. 
\ell’s motion for repeal 27 April, 1834 


sociation in 1841, 1842, and 1843 became 

violent. Assemblies of the lower classes 

people were held in the last-named year, 

‘ious parts of Ireland, some of them 

ting to 150,000 persons, and called ‘‘ monster 
”? 


neeting at Trim, 16 March ; other meetings 
eld at Mullingar, Cork, and Longford, 
21, and 28 May, respectively ; at Drogheda, 
ny, Mallow, and Dundalk, on 5, 8, 11, and 
e; at Donnybrook and Baltinglass, 3 and 
7; at Tara, r5 Aug. ; at Loughrea, Clifton. 
jismore, 10, 17, and 24 Sept.; and at 
hmast . : ‘ : : eT OC 2043 
ig to be held at Clontarf, on 8 Oct. was 
ted by government ; and Mr. O’Connell and 
ief associates were brought to trial for 
al conspiracy, 15 Jan. 1844; and convicted 
».: but the sentence was reversed by the 
of lords, 4 Sept.; see Trials. 

ciation for the repeal of the union con- 
for some time under the direction of Mr. 
y’Connell, but was little regarded. 

1 “repeal rent” is said to have amounted 


3791. : 
ss attempt was made in Dublin to revive 
agitation - 4 Dec. 1860 


LENISHER, see Electricity (Frictional). 


-ORTING. The publication of the debates 
ament is forbidden as a breach of privilege, 
virtually conceded, after a severe struggle, 
.* Reporters’ galleries were erected in the 
of parliament after the fire of 1834. To the 
red liberty of reporting we doubtless owe 
vf our freedom and good government; see 
raw. By the verdict for the defendant in 
»of Wason v. The Times (for libel) reports 
amentary debates were decided to be privi- 
Yov. 1868. For the attempted exclusion of 
rs, see Parliament, 1875. A commons com- 
on reporting recommend continuance of 
d’s debates with improvement, May, 1879. 


PRESENTATION OF THE PEOPLE 
oR ENGLAND, passed 15 Aug. 1867; for 
and Scotland, 13 July, 1868; a new act 
6 Dec. 1884. See Reform. 


IPTILE BUREAUCRACY,” term ap- 
| Germany te certain journalists writing for 
nent pay, 1871, e¢ seq. 


>UBLICANS, see Democrats. Sir Charles 
M.P. professed himself a republican at public 
rs and was much applauded, Nov. 1871; 
some places his appearance led to riotous 
ings. His motion for returns respecting the 
iture of the civil list by the queen was nega- 

the house of commons (2—276), 19 March, 
. national republican conference of delegates 


*y inaccurate reports of parliamentary debates 
serted in the Gentleman’s Magazine and other 
als in the middle of the last century. Miller, 
yf the London Evening Mail, was arrested in the 
sondon, by order of the house of commons, for 
ng the debates, but was discharged by the lord 
who for doing this was sent to the Tower, where 
ined until the end of the session. No opposition 
le to the publication of the debates in the next 


1772. 


was held at Sheffield, 1 Dec. 1872, when a national 
flag was adopted. 


REPUBLICS, see Athens, Rome, Genoa, 
Venice, France (1792, 1848, 1870), and Spain (1873). 


REQUESTS, Courts oF; see Cowrt of Con- 


scvence. 


REQUIEM, a solemn mass, sung for the 
dead, so called from the introit ‘‘ Requiem 
Aternam,”’ &c. Palestrina’s Requiem was printed 
at Rome, 1591; Vittoria’s at Madrid, 1605; Mo- 
zart’s last work was a requiem, 1791. 

REREDOS, the screen or decorated portion of 
the wall behind the altar in a church. 

A highly sculptured reredos, designed by sir G. G. 
Scott, was erected in Exeter cathedral, by sub- 
scription - : fs : A : : 2 

Prebendary Phillpotts, the chancellor, and others 
who objected, brought their objections before the 
bishop’s visitation court, on 7 Jan. ; it was decided 
that the bishop had jurisdiction in the matter, 
and he ordered the reredos to be removed, 15 
April, 1874. Dean Boyd appealed to the court of 
arches, and sir R. Phillimore reversed the pre- 
vious decision . : : . J . 6 Aug. 1874 

Prebendary Philpotts appealed to the judicial com- 
mittee of the privy council, who decided that the 
reredos should remain 5 ; 24 Feb. 1875 


RESERVE FORCES. In the summer of 1859, 
acts were passed to provide for the establishment 
of a military reserve force of men who have been in 
her majesty’s service (not to exceed 20,000), and a 
volunteer reserve force of seamen not to exceed 

0,000. These acts were consolidated and amended 
in 1867 and 1882. The reserve forces called out by 
proclamation, on account of possible war with Russia, 
2 April, 1878. About 35,000 good soldiers appeared, 
and were commended. ‘They were disbanded 31 
Aug. 1878. Again called out on account of war in 
Egypt, 25 July, 1882, and prospect of war with 
Russia, 27 March, 1885. 

RESOLUTE, ship, see Franklin Search, 
1854. 

RESONATOR, a small apparatus, placed in 
the mouth to strengthen and increase the volume of 
the voice in singing, invented by signor Alberto 
Bach, who exhibited its effects at the Royal 
Academy of Music, 29 June i88o. 


RESPIRATORS, see Charcoal and Fireman. 
RESTITUTION BILL, of Mr. Jesse Col- 


lings, proposes the surrender of lands illegally 
taken from commons, to be given to small culti- 
yators, to become peasant proprietors, Jan. 1885. 


RESTORATION, THE, of king Charles I. 
to the crown of England, after an interregnum of 
eleven years and four months, between 30 Jan, 1649, 
when Charles I. was beheaded, and 29 May, 1660, 
when Charles II. entered London amidst the accla- 
mations of the people. ‘The annual form of prayer, 
with thanksgiving, then appointed, was ordered 
to be disused by 22 Vict. c. 2, 25 March, 1849. 
See France,1814, 1815. 


RETREAT oF THE TEN THOUSAND 
GREEKS, who had joined the army of the younger 
Cyrus in his revolt against his brother, Artaxerxes 
Mnemon. The Greeks were victors, but Cyrus was 
defeated and slain at the battle of Cunaxa, 401 B.c. 
Artaxerxes having enticed the Greek leaders into 
his power and killed them, Xenophon was called to 
the command of his countrymen. Under continual 
alarms from sudden attacks, he led them across 
rapid rivers, through vast deserts, over the tops of 
mountains, till he reached the sea. The Greeks re- 


ZZ 


1873 


REUNION. 7 


turned home after a march of I155 parasangs or 
leagues (3465 miles), which was performed in 215 
days, after the absence of fifteen months. ‘This 
retreat has been immortalised by the account given 
by its conductor, in his ‘‘ Anabasis Cyri’’ (Expedi- 
tion of Cyrus). 


REUNION, see Order. 
REUSS-GREIZ anp REUSS-SCHLEIZ, 


two principalities in central Germany, with a united 
population of 152,112 in 1880. The reigning family 
sprang from Ekbert, count of Osterode, in the Ioth 
century. The princely dignity was conferred by 
the emperor Sigismond in 1426. 


1859. Henry XXII., prince of Reuss-Greiz, 8 Noy. ; born 
28 March, 1846. 


REVELATION, see Apocalypse. 


REVENUE Anp EXPENDITURE OF ENG- 
LAND. The revenue collected for the civillist, and for 
all the other charges of government, as well ordinary 
as extraordinary, was 1I,200,000/. per annum, in 
1660, the first after the restoration of Charles II. In 
1690 it was raised to 6,000,000/., every branch of the 
revenue being anticipated; this was the origin of 
the funds and the national debt, 2 William and 
Mary. Salmon. The revenue laws were amended 
in 1861. Previously to 1854 there had been an 
average surplus of 2,500,000/. since 1849. In con- 
sequence of the Russian war the deficiency in 1854 
was 3,209,059/.; in 1855, 21,141,183/.; in 1856, 
10,104,412/. Jn 1857 there was a surplus of 36,097/. ; 
in 1858, of 1,127,657/.; in 1859, a deficiency of 
2,019,584/. 


PUBLIC REVENUE, 


06 REVIEWS. 


Revenue. | Expenditur 
1855, 26t ~ £63, 364,605 £65,692,962 
| 1856 8,008,623 88,428,345 
1857. 66,056,055 75,588,067 
1858 61,812,525 68,128,859 
| 
Gross 
Gross Expenditure 
Revenue. exclusive 0: 
Fortificatior 
1859, 31 March, gross | £65,477,284 £64,663, 883 
1860 . : : ; 72,089,669 69,502,289 
TSO aa 70,603,561 69,302,008 
1864 . 70,208,964 67,056,286 
1865 FO; 35 S547 66,462,207 
1866 . aN ; 67,812,292 65,914,357 
S670. : - «| ~ 6o;4su 508 66,780,396 
1868 . : : : 69,600,219 71,236,242 
1869 (tg 72,591,991 72,069,961 
1870. 7594541252 68,864,752 
1871. 69,945,220 69,548,539 
1872" 74,708, 314 71,490,020 
1873 76,608,770 79,714,448 
1874. 773352657 76,466, 510 
1875. 759434252 74)328,040 
1876. 77131,693 76,621,773 
1877. 78,565,036 78,125,227 
1878 . 79,763,298 82,403,495 
1879 83,115,972 85,407,789 
1880. 81,265,055 84,105,754 
1881 84,041,288 83.107,924 
1882. 85,822,282 85,472,556 
IS83" Ye 89,004,456 88,906,278 
1884. 87,205,184 86,999; 504 
Lao5 lve : son 88,043,660 89,092,883 
1886 (estimated) . 85,140,000 88,872,000; 
Vote of Credit, 27 | 
April, 1885 es. 11,000,000 


The weekly instead of the quarterly publication of 
public revenue and expenditure was begun by Mr. Rol 
Lowe, the chancellor of the exchequer, 16 Feb. 1! 

By an act passed 31 July, 1868, revenue officers are | 
mitted to vote for the election of members of parliam: 

Above roo statutes relating to inland revenue fell | 


disuse z Jan. 1871. 


The revenue friendly societies, and national debt : 


45 & 46 
act passed, 1884. 


Vict., c. 72, passed 18 Aug. 1882. New reve 


REVEREND, an honorary appellation gi 
to the clergy, since the middle of the 17th centu 
In Tamworth parish register the minister 1s first 


styled 


wards ; but regularly so after 1727. 


‘‘reverend,” in 1657, occasionally after- 
It first ap- 
pears in the registry of All Hallows, Barking 


a 


The prefix on a family tombstone was refused 
to Mr. Keet, a Wesleyan preacher, by the bishop 
of Lincoln, but given by the archbishop of Can- 


terbur 


On trial, Mr. Walter G. F. Phillimore, the chancellor 


of Lincoln, decided against Mr. Keet, who gave 


notice of appeal, 3 June. 


Sir R. Phillimore gave 
a similar decision in the court of arches, 31 July, 


ws 


On appeal to the privy council these decisions were 


William I. estimated . $400,000 
William Rufus 350,000 
Henry I. . 300,000 
Stephen . 250,000 
Henry II.. : - ; 200,000 
RichardI. . ; 3 - > 150,000 
John 2 : ; 100,000 
Henry III. 80,000 
Edward I. 150,000 
Edward II. . T00,000 
Edward Ill. . 154,000 
Richard I. . 130,000 
Henry IV. 100,000 
Henry V. 76,643 
Henry VI. : 64,976 
Edward IV. . ty OR 
Edward VY. : 100,000 
Richard IIT. . 130,000 
Henry VII. . 400,000 
Henry VIII. . 800,000 
Edward VI. 400,000 
Mary 5 ° . 450,000 
Elizabeth . 5 5 500,000 
James I. : . 600,000 
Charles I. s ‘ . 895,819 
Commonwealth. . ° 1,517,247 
Charles IT. I,400,000 
James II. . “ 4 2,001,855 
William III... . 5 - 3,895,205 
Anne (at the Union) . 5 “ 5,691,803 
George I. . e A : 6,762,643 
George II. . x 8,522,540 
George III., 1788 : 15,572,971 
a 1800, about. 38,000,000 
United Kingdom, 1820 65,599,570 
George IV., 1825. 62,871,300 
William IV., 1830 559431317 
» 1835 50,4945732 
Victoria, 1845, net - 53,060,354 
os 1850 fs : : 5 52,810,680 

> XESS vee ely ey ty 54,430,344 


reversed. It was decided that there is no law or | 
usage restricting the epithet to ministers of the 
Church of England ; it is merely laudatory. 
21 Jan, : 
REVIEWS. The Journal des Scavans, p 
lished on 5 Jan. 1665, by Denis de Salo, under 
name of Hédouville, was the parent of crit 
journals. It was soon imitated throughout Eurc 
and was itself translated into various languages 
is still published. George III. spoke of this pu 
cation to Dr. Johnson, in the private interview W 
which he was honoured by his majesty, in 
library of the queen’s house, in Feb. 1767. Lose 
The Bibliotheque Anglaise came out in 1716- 
For Military Reviews, see Army and Voluntee 


REVISERS. RHINE. 
ly Review . . 1749 ) Dublin 1836 blishment of the presbyterian kirk of Scotland, 
l : A . 1756 | North British : 1844 the power of granting supplies limited to the 
vcobin . . 1798 | British Quarterly Ee house of commons, the purification of the admin- 
irgh . . 1802 |N em 1855 istration of justice, and unlicensed printing. 
rly . 1809 | Saturday e , 
oS : . 1813 | Fortnightly 1865 REVOLVERS, see Pistols. 
American . 1815 | Contemporary 1866 
pective . 1820 | Academy : 1869 REVUE DES DEUX MONDES, the 
inster . . . 1824 | National Review 1883 French literary and historical periodical published 
Beis et). sx 828 on the 1st and 15th of each month, first appeared in 


VISERS, see under Bidle. 
VISING BARRISTERS’ COURTS, to 


ne the lists of voters for members of parlia- 
were instituted by the Reform Act of 1832. 


VISION, see under Bible. Advocates of 
syision of the French constitution, chiefly 
artists or Jeromists, termed evisionists, 


(884. 


‘VIVALS on the subject of religion arose in 
nited States in 1857. In the autumn of 1859, 
vegan in Scotland, the north of Ireland (par- 
rly Belfast), and England. Many meetings 
held for prayers and preaching throughout the 
as well as on Sundays. The ‘ twelve days’ 
mm,” a series of revival services, took place in 
London churches during advent 1869. 

[oody, preacher, and Mr. Sankey, singer, Ame- 
n Revivalists, visited many towns in the United 
gdom, 1874-5. Their meetings in London began 
he Agricultural Hall, 9 March, about 15,000 pre- 
-; at the Queen’s theatre, Haymarket, 12 April- 
fay ; farewell meeting, 12 July, 1875. Moody and 
key again in London, 6 Oct. 1881 ; 3 Nov. 1883- 
une, 1884. 


‘SVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR, see 


+h Revolution, and Calendar. 


YWOLUTIONARY TRIBUNAL, esta- 
>d at Paris, Aug. 1792. 

27 July, 1794, when Robespierre was deposed, it 
put to death 2774 persons, including queen Marie 
oinette, the princess Elizabeth, and a large number 
nobility and gentry, male and female. The oldest 
im was counsellor Dupin, aged 97; the youngest, 
les Dubost, aged 14. From 27 July to 15 Dec. 
4, only Robespierre and his accomplices (about 
) suffered by it. 


VOLUTIONS :— 


Assyrian empire destroyed, and that of the 
les and Persians founded by Cyrus the Great, 


B.Ce_ 536 
facedonian empire founded on the destruction 
he Persian, hy the defeat of Darius Codoma- 
, by Alexander the Great : ‘ B.C. * 331% 
toman empire established on the ruins of the 
ublic by Julius Cesar : : : ; a Ag 
mpire of the Western Franks begun under 
rlemagne ; ; : - A.D. 800 
rtugal ; . 1640 
gland 1649 and 1688 
ssia : . 1730 and 1762 
rth America . : eet 7 75 
nice P : eet 707 
‘eden. : eg : - , 1772 and 1809 
Mand, 1795 ; counter-revolution : Org 
land . ; : ; 1704, 1795, and 1830 
» Netherlands é ° See ass 
unswick Saas 5 
azil Lege 
gary : : . 1848 
me. A : : : 1798 and 1848 
ance 1789, 1830, 1848, 1851, 1870, and 1871 
sly . é : A ; : 1859 and 1860 
iited States 2 5 1860-5 
nubian principalities. Fd oopitst oye: 
pal States, suppressed . Oct. 1867 


ain. 3 ; A Sept. 1868 and Dec. 
| [See the countries respectively. J 

ig the results of the Revolution of 1688 in 
‘at Britain, were the toleration act, the esta- 


1874 


1831. It includes among its contributors the most 
eminent writers in France. 


REYNARD THE FOX, “REINEKE 
Fucus,” a satirical epic in low German, in which 
beasts are actors and speakers, was first printed as 
Reineke Vos, at Lubeck in 1498, and professes to be 
written by Hinreck van Alkmer. It has been fre- 
quently translated. Goethe’s version in High (or 
literary) German hexameters appeared in 1794. 
Jacob Grimm has shown that the subject-matter of 
this ‘* Thier-sage”’ or ‘‘beast-fable’’ is very ancient, 
many incidents being found in Pilpay and_ other 
oriental writers. The early French had a “ Roman 
de Renart,’’ and “ Renart le Nouvel.’’? A poem, 
entitled ‘der Reinaert,” in Flemish, was known in 
the 11th century ; Caxton’s translation in English 
prose was printed 1481; a poetic English translation 
of Goethe’s version, by T. J. Arnold, appeared in 
1855. 

REZONVILLE, BATTLE of, 18 Aug. 1870, 
see Metz. 


RHZAXTIA (or RmTIA), an ancient Alpine 
country, comprising the modern Grisons, Tyrol, 
and’ part of Lombardy, inhabited by a wild rapa- 
cious people, after a long struggle was conquered 
by Drusus and Tiberius, B.c. 15. 


RHE, Iszez oF, see Lé and Rochelle. 
RHEA, see China Grass. 


RHEGIUM (now Reggio), S. Italy, a Greek 
colony, flourished in the 5th century, B.c. It was 
held by the Campanian legion, 281-271, afterwards 
severely punished for its rebellion. Reggio was 
taken by Garibaldi, Aug. 1860. 


RHEIMS (N. France). The principal church 
here, built before 406, rebuilt in the 12th century, 
is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy, the 
archbishop, is preserved behind the high altar, in a 
magnificent shrine. The kings of France were 
crowned at Rheims; probably because Clovis, the 
founder of the French monarchy, when converted 
from paganism, was baptized in the cathedral in 
496. Several ecclesiastical councils have been held 
here. ‘The city was taken and retaken several 
times in the last months of the French war, 1814. 
University founded by cardinal Lorraine, 1547, 
suppressed about 1790. 


RHEOMETER, see under Electricity. 


RHETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents 
were invented by Aristophanes of Byzantium, 200 
B.c. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at Rome by 
Photius Gallus, about 87 B.c. He taught Cicero, 
who said ‘‘ We are first to consider what is to be 
said; secondly how; thirdly, in what words; and 
lastly, how it is to be ornamented.” A regius pro- 
fessor of rhetoric was appointed in Edinburgh, 
23 April, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first pro- 
essor. 


RHINE (Latin, Rhenus; German, hein ; 
French, Rhin), ariver, about 760 miles long, rising 
in Switzerland, receiving the Moselle, Main, Meuse, 
Neckar, and other rivers, terminating in many 
arms in Holland, and falling into the German 


zz 2 


RHODE ISLAND. 


ocean. On its banks are Constance, Basel, Stras- 
bourg, Spires, Mannheim, Cologne, Dusseldorf, 
Utrecht, and Leyden. The possession of the banks 
of the Rhine has been the cause of many wars, and 
it has been crossed by the French above twenty 
times in acentury. In the beginning of the revo- 
lutionary war, Custine invaded Germany by crossing 
it in 1792; and at the close of the war in 1815, 
France retained the left bank, but lost it at the close 
of the Franco-Prussian war, 1870-1 (which see). 
Anayigation treaty with other powers was signed by 
France, 17 Oct. 1868. A central committee for the 
navigation exists, formed by members for Alsace, 
Lorraine, Baden, Bavaria, Hesse, Holland, and 
Prussia. Very great damage (about 4,000,000/.) 
and loss of life, caused by the rising of the river 
through excessive rain, end of November and De- 
cember, 1882; relieved by government grants. 
Becker’s German song ‘‘ They shall not have it, the free 
German Rhine;” and Alfred de Musset’s reply, in 
French, ‘‘ We have had it, your German Rhine,” ap- 
peared in 1841. Max Schneckenburger, author of ‘‘ The 
Watch on the Rhine,” died 1851. All were popular 
during the war, 1870-71. 


RHODE ISLAND (N. America), settled by 
Roger Williams about 1636, was taken in the war 
of independence by the British, 8 Dec. 1776; but 
was evacuated by them, 25 Oct. 1779; see United 
States. 


RHODES, an island on the coast of Asia 
Minor, is said to have been peopled from Crete, as 
early as 916 B.c. The Rhodians were great navi- 
gators, and institutors of a maritime code after- 
wards adopted by the Romans. The city was built 
about 432 and flourished 300-200 B.c.; see Colossus. 
Rhodes, long an ally of the Romans, was taken by 
the emperor Vespasian, A.D. 71. It was held by the 
Knights Hospitallers from 1309 to 1522, when it 
was conquered by the Turks, who still retain it. 
The knights retired to Malta (which see). Rhodes 
suffered severely by an earthquake on 22 April, 
1863. 


RHODIUM, a rare metal, discovered in pla- 
tinum ore, by Dr. Wollaston in 1804. It has been 
used for the points of metallic pens. 


RHODOPE MOUNTAINS (Turkish, Des- 
poto Dagh), a plateau.in Roumelia. 
In these about 150,000 Mahometans took refuge 
during the Russo-Turkish war, on the approach of 
the Russians in Dec. 1877, and Jan. 1878 ; and re- 
sisted the invaders. The Russians were accused 
of killing and outraging thousands of men, women, 
and children. A European commission of inquiry ; 
met 21 July; closed, 26 Aug.; confirmed the 
statements, but issued no united report; some 
members seceded . - - é E : - 1878 
The insurgents assert that they are not resisting 
the sultan himself, but maladministration. They 
are now governed by an English chief, col. St. 
Clair, who receives the taxes, &., and is styled 
‘““commander-in-chief of the national army of 
the Rhodope” ‘ Sept. 1878 
About 40,000 destitute ; 18 Jan. 1879 


RHUBARB. This plant was first cultivated 
for its stalks to be used as food by Mr. Myall, of 
Deptford, about 1820, and ‘soon after came into 
general use. 


RHUDDLAN, statute of, see Vales, 1283. 


RIALTO, BRIDGE OF THE, at Venice (men- 
tioned by Shakspeare in his ‘‘ Merchant of Venice’), 
built about 1590, consists of a marble arch across 
the Grand Canal, go feet wide and 24 feet high. 


RIBBONISM, a term given to the principles 
of a secret society in Ireland, organised about 1820, 


reported 


708 


RIGHTS. 


to retaliate on landlords any injuries done to th 
tenants. To the ribbonmen are attributed ma 
of the agrarian murders, 1858-71-79. An act y 
passed to repress them, 16 June, 1871. 


RICH, the Oryza sativa of botanists, in t 
husk termed paddy; largely grown in intert 
pical regions, occupying the same place as wh 
in the warmer parts of Europe. It was convey 
to South Carolina near the end of the 17th centu 
and its cultivation greatly increased. ‘ 
The duty on foreign rice, r5s., on colonial rice, rs, } 

ewt., was reduced by sir Robert Peel in 1842 to 6s. | 

and 6;3,d. respectively. Further reductions were me 
in 1846, and in 1860 the duty was totally abolished. 
Imported into Britain : 1846, 770,604 ewt.; 1856, 3,724, 

cewt. ; 1866, 2,309,494 Cwt.; 1856, 3,700,124 Cwt. 5 18 

2,276,792 cwt.: 1877, 6,617,739 CWt. ; 1879, 6,857,330 4 

1881, 8,500,062 cwt.; 1883, 7,747,725 Cwt. 


RICHMOND (Surrey), anciently called She 
which in the Saxon tongue signifies resplende 
Here stood a palace in which Edward I. and _ 
resided, and Edward III. died, 1377. Here a 
died Anne, queen of Richard II., 1394. The pal 
was repaired by Henry V., who founded three 1 
ligious houses near it. In 1497 it was destroyed 
fire; but Henry VII. rebuilt it, and command 
that the village should be called Richmond, 
having borne the title of earl of Richmond (Yor 
shire) before he obtained the crown: and here 
died in 1509. Queen Elizabeth was a prisoner 
this palace for a short time during the reign of I 
sister. When she became queen it was one of I 
favourite places of residence; and here she di 
24 March, 1603. It was afterwards the residence 
Henry, prince of Wales. The beautiful park a 
gardens were enclosed by Charles I. The obs 
vatory was built by sir W. Chambers in 1769. 
Richmond, ‘Thomson ‘‘sang the Seasons and th. 
change;’’ and died 27 Aug. 1748. 

The Star and Garter tavern burnt; W. Lever, the 
manager, perished ; ; F 12 Jan. 
Mrs. Julia Martha Thomas was murdered at Rich- 
mond, her body cut up, put in bags and cast into 

river Thames, by Katherine Webster, aged 30, 

about 2 March ; John Church, a publican, arrested 

on suspicion, discharged 17 April; Webster com- 
mitted for trial, 16 May ; convicted, 8 July ; con- 
fessed ; executed at Wandsworth 29 July, 


c 

RICHMOND (Virginia, U.S.) became i 
capital of the southern confederate states. T 
congress adjourned from Montgomery, Alabama, 
Richmond, where it met 20 July, 1861. After 
siege of 1452 days and many desperate battle 
Richmond was evacuated by the confederates,2 Apr 
1865; see United States. By the fall of the floori 
in the state capital building, about 60 persons we 
killed, 27 April, 1870. <A statue of “ Stonewall 
Jackson (subscribed for by Englishmen), was @ 
veiled here in presence of his wife and child, : 
Oct. 1875. . 

RIDING, see Races. 


Leon, a Mexican, rode roo miles, consecutively, 
in 4 hours 57 minutes, using 6 ‘‘ Mustang horses,” 

15 July, 1876; 505 miles in 4g h. 513} min. 

S8—xo Feb. 18 

RIFLE CORPS, see Volunteers, and Fi 
arms. kifle Brigade formed, 1800. Internation 
rifle meeting, Washington, began, 26 Sept. 187 
Another at Creedmoor, near New York, began 
Sept. ; the British victors, 1882. 

RIGHTS, Birtu oF, To the PEririon | 
Rieuts, preferred 17 March, 1627-8, Charles 
answered, ‘‘I will that right be done according 
the laws and customs of the realm.” Both hous 
addressed the king for a fuller answer to th 


fod 


( 


RIMNIK. 


09 


RIOTS. 


n of rights, whereupon he gave them an 
rless evasive, ‘‘ Soit droit fait comme i est 
” 7 June, 1628. The petition thus became a 
» 13 Car. I.c.1. An important declaration 
ade by the lords and commons of England to 
ince and princess of Orange on 13 Feb. 1689, 
act ‘* declaring the rights and liberties of the 
t, and settling the succession of the crown.” 
sill of Rights, virtually the same as the de- 
ion, was passed by parliament. It totally 
hed the dispensing power of the crown, Oct. 
See Claim of Right. 


VINIK (near Martinesti, Wallachia). Here 
ustrians and Russians under prince Coburg 
mn. Suwarrow, gained a great victory over the 
, 22 Sept. 1789. 


eel siae German for cattle plague 
see). 


By DES NIBELUNGEN, see Nide- 
Ot. 


NGS anciently had a seal or signet engraved | 


em, to seal writings, and they are so used to 
ay. In Genesis xli. 42, it is said that Pharaoh 
Joseph his ring. Rings are now put upon 
n’s fourth finger at marriage; but the Jews 


them at the espousal or contrac ar= | ‘ 
ppoueat or, contract before max | In various parts of the north of England, by the 


Wedding-rings are to be of standard gold by 
e, 1855. 
NK (from the Gaelic xian, or Saxon Arne, a 
), aterm used in the Scotch game, “ curling.” 
elgravia skating rink, London, 8.W., was 


1ed to the public : : : . 2 Aug. 1875 
; since at Brighton and other places. Skates 


1 rollers (said to have been introduced in a 

e of Meyerbeer’s ‘‘ Prophete,” at Paris, 16 

il, 1849), areused. Mr. Plimpton, an Ame- 

n, patented roller-skates in 1865; his right 

affirmed on a trial for infringement. 28 Jan. 1876 
See Glaciariwn. 


O DE JANEIRO (S. America), discovered 


» Sousa, I Jan. 1531; see Brazil. In 1807 it 
nade capital of the empire of Brazil. 


OTS. The riotous assembling of twelve or 
persons, and their not dispersing upon pro- 
ition, was first made high treason by a statute 


ed 2 & 3 Edw. VI. 1548-9. The present Ltiot | 


vas passed I Geo. I. 1714. 


against Jews in London . : ‘ : . 1189 
riotous citizens of London demolished the 
vent belonging to Westminster abbey ; the 
leader was hanged, and the rest had their 


ds and feet cut off, 6 Hen. WL. : PeMeeT oer 
miths’ and Tailors’ companies fought in the 
ets of London; several killed’; the sheriffs 
led it ; and thirteen hanged , é . 1262 
| at Norwich; the rioters burn the cathedral 
monastery ; the king went thither, and saw 
ringleaders executed ; . : Bay Bi 
of Evil May-day (which see) 5 y LST 
amb killed by the mob . 5 June, 1628 
t on pretence of pulling down houses of ill- 
1e ; several of the ringleaders hanged . 1 OOS 
her, at Guildhall, at the election of sheriffs ; 
eral considerable persons, who seized the lord 
yor, were concerned . 1682 


dinburgh and Dumfries, on account of the 
ion . F : ; i : : var: 
mdon, on account of Dr. Henry Sacheverel, for 
aching two sermons (one 5 Nov. 1709), voted 
the house of commons to be scandalous and 
itious ; several dissenting meeting-houses were 
ken open and destroyed “ : SP seb: 
of the Whig and Tory mobs, called Ormond 
1 Newcastle mobs. : ; . 29 May, 
Mug-house riot, in Salisbury-court, between the 
ligs and Tories ; the riot quelled by the guards ; 
e rioters hanged ‘ : 24 July, 1716 


1797 


1710 


1715 


Of the Spitalfields weavers, on account of employing 
workmen come over from Ireland ; quelled by the 
military, but many lives lost : : : : 

Porteous riot at Edinburgh (see Porteous) _ 7 Sept. 

The nailers in Worcestershire march to Birming- 
ham, and make terms with iron merchants there 

Of the Spitalfield weavers; the duke of Bedford 
narrowly escaped death ; lives lost . ee aye 

A mob in St. George’s-fields, to see Mr. Wilkes in 
the King’s Bench prison ; the military aid indis- 
creetly called for by the justices of the peace, and 
several innocent persons, particularly young Allen, 
fired upon, and killed . ] to May, 

Gordon’s ‘‘ No popery” riots . to May, 2-9 June, 

At Birmingham, on account of commemorating the 
Freneh revolution, when several houses were 
destroyed : ; : ? - 14 July, 

In various parts of Scotland, on account of the 
militia act, when several were killed Aug. 

At Maidstone, at the trial of Arthur O’Connor and 
others, 22 May, 1798; the earl of Thanet, Mr. 
Ferguson, and others, were active in endeavouring 
to rescue O’Connor, for which they were tried and 
convicted . : : t : : 25 April, 

At Liverpool, occasioned by a quarrel between: a 
party of dragoons and a press-gang . 27 June, 

O. P. riot (which see) at Covent-garden . Sept. 

In Piccadilly, in consequence of the house of com- 
mons committing sir Francis Burdett to the 
Tower ; : : : : 6 April, 

Machinery destroyed by rioters at Nottingham from 

Noy. r8rz to Jan. 


Luddites, during . ; p i . 1811 and 
At Sheffield, during which 800 muskets belonging 
to the local militia were destroyed 14 April, 
At the Theatre Royal, Dublin, on account of the 
celebrated Dog of Montargis, several nights, Dec. 
Alarming riots at Westminster, on account of Corn 
pill ; lasted several days, . : : . March, 
At the depot at Dartmoor, in quelling which seven 
American prisoners of war were killed, and thirty- 
five wounded . ‘ ; : é ; April, 
Popular meetings at Spa-fields, when the shops of 
the gunsmiths were attacked for arms. Mr. Platt 
shot in that of Mr. Beckwith, on Snow-hill (Wat- 
son tried for high treason, but acquitted, June, 


1817) . ; : ; ; ; : . 2 Dec. 
In the park, on the prince-regent going to the house, 
an air-gun was fired at him 28 Jan. 
At Manchester, at a popular meeting 3 March, 


Affray at Manchester, called the ‘‘ Field of Peterloo” 
(see Manchester reform mecting)  . 26 AU 
At the Theatre Royal, Dublin, of several nights’ 
duration 


Riot at Paisley and Glasgow ; many houses plun- 
dered . : : : s : 16 Sept. 
At Edinburgh, on the acquittal of queen Caroline, 
19 Noy. 

In London, at the funeral of the queen 14 Aug. 


At Knightsbridge, between the military and the 
populace, on the funeral of Honey and Francis, 
(killed 14 Aug.) . : , i : 26 Aug. 

At the theatre in Dublin ; the riot called the “‘ Dotile 
conspiracy,” against the marquis Wellesley, lord- 
lieutenant : : : 3 t4. Dee: 

Riot at Ballybay ; Lawless arrested . 9 Oct. 

Riot at Limerick ; the provision-warehouses plun- 
dered and mischief done. : :. 75 June, 

Fatal affrays at Castlepollard, 23 May ; and Newtown- 
barry (which see). ; : : . 18 June, 

Alarming riots at Merthyr-Tydvil among the iron- 
workers ; several fired upon by the military, killed 


and wounded . : : : 4 3 June, 
Riot at the Forest of Dean (see Dean) 8 June, 
Nottingham castle burnt by rioters . 10 Oct. 

| Reform riots at Bristol (see Bristol) . 29 Oct. 


Affray at Castleshock, county Kilkenny, when a 
number of police, attacked by the populace, were, 
with their commander, Mr. Gibins, killed, 14 Dec. 

Riot at Boughton, near Canterbury, produced by 
persons called Thomites, headed by a fanatic, 
Thom, or Courtenay, who, with others, was killed 


(see Thomites) . s ; : 28-31 May, 
Great riots throughout the country, occasioned by 
the chartists ; a proclamation 12 Dec. 
Riots in Birmingham ; much mischief July, 


1736 


2? 
1737 


1765 


” 


> 


1838 


”»> 


1839 


RIPON. 710 ROADS. 
Chartist riot at Newport (which see) 4 4 Nov. 1839 


Meditated chartist outbreak at Sheffield, with most 
destructive objects, providentially discovered, 


and many persons arrested . ; . imrdan. 1840 
Rebecca riots against turnpikes in Wales mero s 
Chartist demonstration (see Chartists) to April, 1848 


Fatal affray at Dolly’s Brae, near Castlewellan, in 
Ireland, between the Orangemen and the Roman 
catholics ; several of the latter lost their lives, 
and some of their houses were ransacked and 
burnt . : : : ‘ 2 : 12 July, 1849 

Serious riots at Yarmouth, through a dispute be- 
tween the shipowners and the seamen 23 Feb. 1851 

Riots occasioned by a procession of Orangemen at 


Liverpool, and several lives lost . pea TOL Vommests 
Riot at Stockport, Cheshire ; two catholic chapels 
destroyed and houses burnt. : 29 June, 1852 


Fierce religious riots at Belfast, in Ireland, occur, 
14 July, 5, 
Fatal election riot at Six-mile-bridge, in the county 
of Clare, in Ireland ; five persons shot dead by 
the military : ; a : 22 July, ,, 
Riots at Wigan, among the coal-miners, suppressed 
by the military without loss of life . 28 Oct. 1853 
Bread riots at Liverpool . : : . .19 Feb. 1855 
Riots at Hyde-park, about Sunday bill, July, 1855 ; 


about dearness of bread. Jie TA eT eS Chneuiss 
Riots at Belfast through the open-air preaching of 
the rev. Hugh Hanna . - . 6, 13, 20 Sept. 1857 


Religious riots at St. George’s-in-the-East, London, 
on Sundaysin . ; : . Sept. and Noy. 1859 
Break-out of the convicts at Chatham, suppressed 


by the military j : : s . ar Feb, 1861 
Violent riots at Belfast begin, through an Orange 
demonstration . 17 Sept. 1862 


Fierce rioting (caused by the Irish against the 
favourers of Garibaldi) at Hyde-park, London, 28 
Sept. and 5 Oct. ; and at Birkenhead, Cheshire, 

8 and r5 Oct ss, 

Rioting at Staleybridge (on account of the mode of 
relief to the unemployed cotton-workers), princi- 
pally Irish ; put down by the military, 


Fierce conflicts between Romanists and protestants 
at Belfast ; 9 persous killed, and about 150 injured 


10-27 Aug. 1864 | 


Reform riots in Hyde-park, London ; much damage, 
and many hurt. ; : ‘ - 23, 24 July, 1866 

Anti-popery riots at Birmingham, through the lec- 

turing of Murphy ; much damage done to houses, 
17, 18 June, 1867 

Col. Kelly and Deasy committed for trial as Fenians ; 

rescued from the prisoners’ van ; Brett, a police 


sergeant, shot dead . - ; . 18 Sept. ,, 
At Wigan ; colliers on strike . . end of April, 1868 


Fierce riots against a colliery manager at Mold, 

. Flintshire, put down by the military ; 4 deaths, 
2June, 1869 

Violent rioting at a colliery at Thorneliffe, near 

Sheffield ; quelled by intervention of lord Wharn- 


cliffe and others . : : ‘ ; 21 Jan. 1870 
Rioting at Armathwaite, near Carlisle, between 

English and Ivish nayvies. 5 Foe OcOC hag: 
Violent riots at Belfast . : 19, 20 Aug. 1872 


Riots at Northampton, because Mr. C. Bradlaugh 
was not elected M. P. ; suppressed by military 
6 Oct. 1874 
At Blackburn, Burnley, Accrington, Preston, and 
other places, through cotton strike and lock-out ; 
several mills and houses destroyed ; riots quelled 

by the military : : F - 14,15 May, 1878 
At Camborne, Cornwall, against the Irish; a 

Romanist church destroyed . - 17-18 April, 1882 
At Wrexham, of coal miners . : - 19 April, 
Westminster colliery. : : oe LOwA PILe ame. 
In Skye, cottars against rent about 1g April-Sept. 
In Dublin, through resignation of police, suppressed 

by the military . ‘ : , : RISC DU 
At Kidderminster . : : ; - 4-8 April, 1884 

See Strikes, 1881, Ireland. 

RIPON (Yorkshire), an ancient town. About 
661 an abbey cell was built here by Eata. Ripon 
was made a bishopric by archbishop Wilfred, in 
690, but did not endure so. It suffered much by 
the ravages of the Danes, the Normans (1069), and 
the Scots (1319 and 1323). The present see was | 


2? 


21 March, 1863 


| the actions. 


erected ‘ Oct. 1836, out of the archdeaconry of Yor 
in the West Riding. Income 4200/. The cathedr; 
was under restoration, by sir G. G. Scott: the choi 
was re-opened 27 Jan. 1869. 


BISHOPS. 
1836. Charles Thos. Longley, trans. to Durham, 1856. 
1856. Robert Bickersteth, died 15 April, 1884. 
1884. Wm. Boyd Carpenter, May. 


RITUALISTS, a name given in 1866 to 
party in the church of England, formerly terme 
Puseyites, for endeavouring to give a more im 
posing character to public worship, by the use o 
coloured vestments, lighted candles, incense, é&e, 
professing to go back to the practices of the chure) 
in the time of Edward VI. An exhibition of thes 
things was held during the church congress at Yor! 
in Oct. 1866, but was not officially connected wil 
it. The practices of the ritualists (said by Mr 
Disraeli to be symbolical of doctrines they wer 
bound to renounce), were censured in seyera 
episcopal charges in Dec. 1866; in two report 
of the ritualistic commission, I9 Aug. 1867, am 
April, 1868, and by the judicial committee o 
the privy council on appeal, 23 Dec. 1868. Se 
Church of England and Trials, 1867-9. Ata gene 
ral convocation of the American episcopal church a 
Philadelphia, 20) 28 Oct. 1868, after a warm dis 
cussion on ritualism, the discussion was adjourned. 
It was renewed at the convocation 10 Oct. 1874 
and the ritualists were decidedly beaten by th 
evangelical party, a stringent canon on ceremonie 
being passed 27 Oct. The ‘ Public Worship Regu 
lation Act’’ was passed 7 Aug. 1874, for the re 
pression of #itwalism in England. See Publi 
Worship. | 

RIVERS COMMISSIONS, first appointed 
1865, Messrs. R. Rawlinson, J. T. Harrison, an 
Professor Way; second, 1868 ; sir Wm. Denison 
Mr. J. Chalmers Morton, and Professor Frankland. 


2 


| Published six blue books : e - ow oe 
| Association for preserving the rivers of Scotland, 


formed . : ‘ § ‘ : é . Jan. 187) 
The Pollution of Rivers Act passed . . 15 Aug. 1871 
RIVOLI (near Verona, N. Italy). Near here 
the Austrians defeated the French, 17 Nov. 1796 
and were defeated by Bonaparte 14, 15 Jan. 1797 
Massena was made duke of Rivoli for his share it 


ROAD CLUB, established in the autaie i 


| 1874 in London, by gentlemen interested in the 


revival of coaching. 


ROAD MURDER. On the night of 29-3¢ 
June, 1860, Francis Savile Kent, four years old, 
was murdered, and his body hid in a garden 
water-closet at Road. His sister Constance Kent 
(aged sixteen), and the nurse Elizabeth Gough 
(the first suspected), were discharged for want 
of evidence. ‘The coroner was severely blamed 
for charging the jury improperly, but the court 0! 
queen’s bench, in Jan. 1861, refused to issue @ Writ 
for a new inquiry. Constance Kent, on 25 April. 
1865, before sir Thomas Henry at Bow-street, and 
at her trial at Salisbury, on 21 July following, con- 
fessed herself to be guilty of the murder. Het 
punishment was commuted to penal servitude fo1 
life. Road is near Frome, Somerset. 


ROADS, see Roman Roads. The first general 
repair of the highways of this country was directed 
about 1285. Acts were passed for the purpose im 
1524 and 1555, followed by others in Elizabeth's 
and succeeding reigns. Roads through the High- 
lands of Scotland were begun by general Wade in 
1726. Loudon M‘Adam’s roads were introduced 


Sem 


 - ROAD STEAMERS. 


711 


ROCROY. 


| 
1818. Wooden pavements were tried with 
“success in the streets of London: at White- 
1839, and in other streets in 1840 ; asphalte 
ent soon after. An act ‘ for the better man- 
at of the highways’? was passed in 1862 
nuch opposition; another, 16 Aug. 1878; 
sgulated the use of locomotives on roads. 
yoad-rollers were tried in 1867; used in 
a 18 March, 1868: see Macadamising, Tolls, 
‘ooden Pavements. 
AD STEAMERS. Mr. R. W. Thomson, 
nburgh, in 1868, by adding india-rubber to 
es of the wheels of {o 
e solved the question of steam traction on 
mm roads. 


comotives is considered | 


| 


Road steamers have been success- | 


mployed in Edinburgh and Leith for drawing | 


waggons up inclined planes, and are adapt- 
9 any draught work. They were tried at 
rich, 1 Oct. 1870, and reported successful by 
ntauthorities; and theirapplication to plough- 
lord Dunmore was exhibited 1 Feb. 1871. 


ANOAKE, an island off N. Carolina, U.S., 
ered by sir Walter Raleigh, 1584, and settled 
a, 1585, without success. Other settlers also 


ASTING ALIVE. An early instance is 

f Boechoris, king of Egypt, by order of Saba- 
Ethiopia, 737 B.c. Lenglet. Sir John Old- 

lord Cobham, was thus put to death in 1418, 

‘ichael Servetus for heresy at Geneva, 27 Oct. 
see Burning Alive, and Martyrs. 


YBBERS were punished with death by 
nd I.’s laws, which directed that the eldest 
-should be hanged. Remarkable robbers in 
nd were Robin Hood, 1189 (see Robin Hood), 
laud Du Val, ‘“‘ executed at Tyburn,”’ says an 
ian quaintly, ‘‘to the great grief of the 
n,”? Jan. 1670. In Ireland, the famous Mac- 
was hanged at. Naas, 19 Aug. 1691. 
ogan, the rapparee, flourished at this period. 
y, the celebrated highwayman, surrendered 
if, 10 May, 1749. The accomplished Barring- 
as transported, 22 Sept. 1790. See Trials. 


‘BIN HOOD, captain of a band of robbers, 
arwood forest, Nottinghamshire; traditionally 
ed to have been the earl of Huntingdon, dis- 
1 and banished the court by Richard 1. at his 
ion (1189). Robin Hood and Little John and 
band are said to have continued their depre- 
is till 1247, when Robin died. Stow. 


the first part appeared in 1719. See Juan 
mdez. Three old ladies, Mary Ann, Jane 


ia, and Sarah Frances De Foe, lineally de- | 
| SECOND ADMINISTRATION, March to x July, 1782, when the 


ed from De Foe, pensioned by the queen, 
1877. 
\CHEFORT (W. France), a seaport on the 
mte. The port was made by Louis XIV. in 
In Aix-roads or Basque-roads, near Roche- 
sapt. lord Cochrane attacked the French fleet 
estroyed four ships, 11-12 April, 1809. Near 
efort, the emperor Napoleon surrendered him- 
o capt. Maitland of the Bellerophon, 15 July, 


JCHELLE (W. France), a seaport on the 
itic, belonging to the English for some time, 
inally surrendered to the French leader, Du 
elin, in 1372. As astronghold of the Calvinist 
', it was vainly besieged by the duke of Anjou 
(33 and was taken after a siege of thirteen 
‘hs by cardinal Richelieu in 1628. The duke 
ackingham was sent with a fleet and army to 


Gallop- | 


relieve it; but the citizens declined to admit him. 
He attacked the isle of Rhé, near Rochelle, and 
failed, 22 July, 1627. He was repulsed 8 Nov. fol- 
lowing. A conspiracy here in 1822 caused loss of 
life to sergeant Bories and others. 


ROCHESTER, in Kent, the Roman Duro- 
brive. The bishopric, founded by Augustin, 604, 
is the next in age to Canterbury. The first cathe- 
dral was erected by Ethelbert, king of Kent. St. 
Justus was bishop in 604. Alterations were made 
in the diocese in 1845. Rochester is valued in the 
king’s books at 358/. 3s 2;d. per annum. Present 
income 3000/. ‘The cathedral re-opened after 
repairs of the choir, 11 June, 1875. The old castle 
and grounds were purchased for the public by the 
Corporation, 1883. The “ten churches fund,” 


_ begun by the bishop, 1884. 


RECENT BISHOPS. 
Samuel Horseley, trans. to St. Asaph’s, 1820. 
Thomas Dampier, translated to Ely, 1808. 
Walter King, died 22 Feb. 1827. 
Hugh Percy, translated to Carlisle, 27 Oct. 
George Murray, died 16 Feb. 1860. 
Joseph Cotton Wigram, died 6 April, 1867. 
1867. Thos. Legh Claughton. 
1877. Anthony Wilson Thorold, consecrated, 25 July. 


ROCKETS, destructive war implements, were 
invented by sir William Congreve about 1803. The 
carease-rockets were first used at Boulogne, 8 Oct. 
1806, when they set the town on fire, their powers 
being previously demonstrated in the presence of 
Mr. Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. 
Improved rockets were made by Hales in 1846. 
Boxer’s life-saving rope-carrying rocket, for com- 
municating with stranded vessels, described in 1878. 


ROCKINGHAM ADMINISTRATIONS. 
The first succeeded the administration of Mr. Geo. 
Grenville; the second succeeded that of lord North. 


FIRST ADMINISTRATION, 13 July, 1765 to 30 July, 1766. 

Charles, marquis of Rockingham,* jirst lord of the trea~ 
Sury. 

William Dowdeswell, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl of Winchilsea and Nottingham, lord president. 

Duke of Newcastle, privy seal. 

Earl of Northington, lord chancellor. 

Duke of Portland, lord chamberlain. 

Duke of Rutland, master of the horse. 

Lord Talbot, lord steward. 

Henry Seymour Conway and the duke of Grafton, secre- 
taries of state. 

Lord Egmont, admiralty. 


1793- 
1802. 
1809. 
1827. 
1827. 
1860. 


| Marquis of Granby, ordnance. 
| Viscount Barrington, secretary-at-war. 


| Viscount Howe, treasurer of the navy. 


XOBINSON CRUSOE,” by Daniel De | 


Charles Townshend, paymaster of the forces. 
Earl of Dartmouth, first lord of trade. 
Lords Besborough and Grantham, lord John Cavendish, 
Thomas Townshend, &c. 
See Chatham administration. 


marquis died. 

Marquis of Rockingham, first lord of the treasury. 
Lord John Cavendish, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Lord Camden, president of the council. 
Duke of Grafton, privy seal. 
Lord Thurlow, lord chancellor. 
William, earl of Shelburne and Charles James Fox, secre- 

taries of state. 
Augustus viscount Keppel, first lord of the admiralty 
Duke of Richmond, master-general of the ordnance. 
Thomas Townshend, secretary-at-war. 
Isaac Barré, Edmund Burke, John Dunning, &e. 


ROCROY (N. France). Here, 19 May, 1643, 
the Spaniards were totally defeated by the French, 
commanded by the great Condé. 


* Charles Watson Wentworth, marquis of Rockingham, 
was born 13 May, 1730; succeeded his father as marquis, 
1750. He died without issne, r July, 1782; and his 
estates passed to his nephew, earl Fitzwilliam. 


RODNEY’S VICTORIES. 712 ROMAN CATHOLICS. 


RODNEY’S VICTORIES. Admiral Rodney | 


fought, near Cape St. Vincent, the Spanish admiral, 
Don Langara, whom he defeated and made prisoner, 
capturing six of his ships, one of which blew up, 
16,17 Jan. 1780. On 12 April, 1782, he encountered 
the French fleet in the West Indies, commanded by 
the count de Grasse, took five ships of the line, and 
sent the French admiral prisoner to England: 
Rodney was raised to the peerage, June, 1782. 


ROGATION WEEK. Rogation Sunday, the 
Sunday before Ascension-day, received its title from 
the Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday following it, 
called Rogation days, derived from the Latin rogare, 
to beseech. Extraordinary prayers and supplica- 
tions for these three days are said to have been 
appointed in the third century, as a preparation for 
the devout observance of our Saviour’s ascension on 
the next day succeeding to them, denominated 
Holy Thursday or Ascension-day. The whole week 
in which these days happen is styled Rogation 
week; and in some parts it is still known by the 
other names of Crop week, Grass week, and Pro- 
cession week. The perambulations of parishes have 
usually been made in this week. 


ROHAN, an illustrious family, descended from 
the ancient sovereigns of Brittany. Henri de 
Rohan, son-in-law of the great Sully, after the 
death of Henry IV. (14 May, 1610), became head of 
the Protestant party, and sustained three wars 
against Louis XIII. He eventually entered the 
service of the duke of Saxe-Weimar, and died of 
wounds received in battle in 1638. Of this family 
sh the cardinal de Rohan; see Diamond Neck- 
ace. 


ROHILCUND, a tract of country, N.E. India, 
was conquered by the Rohillas, an Afghan tribe, 
who settled here about 1747. After aiding the 
sovereign of Oude to overcome the Mahrattas, they 
were treated with much treachery by him, and 
nearly exterminated. Rohilcund was ceded to the 
British in 1801. After the great mutiny, Rohileund 
was tranquillised in July, 1858. 


ROLLER SKATES, see Rink. 
ROLLING-MILLS, in the metal manufac- 


tories, were in use here in the 17th century, and in 
1784 Mr. Cort patented his improvements. 


ROLLS, see Master of the Rolls, and Records. 
ROLLS’ CHAPEL (London), founded by 


Henry III., about 12 33, for receiving Jewish rabbis 
converted to Christianity. On the banishment of 
the Jews in 1290 the buildings now called the Rolls, 
and the chapel, were annexed by patent to the 
office of the keeper or master of the rolls of chan- 
cery, from which circumstance they took their 
name. A number of public records from the time 
of Richard III., kept in presses in this chapel, have 
been removed to the Record Office (which see). 


ROLT’S ACT, 25 & 26 Vict. c. 42 (1862), 


relates to the Chancery Court. 
ROMAGNA, a province of the papal states, 


comprised in the legations of Forli and Ravenna. 
It was conquered by the Lombards; but taken from 
them by Pepin, and given to the pope, 753. Cesar 
Borgia held it as a duchy in 1501, but tet it in 
1503. In 1859 the Romagna threw off the temporal 
authority of the pope, and declared itself subject to 
the king of Sardinia, who accepted it in March, 
1860. It now forms part of the province of Amilia, 
in the new kingdom of Italy. See Rome. 


ROMAINVILLE And BELLEVILLE, heigl 
near Paris, where Joseph Bonaparte, Mortier, ai 
Marmont were defeated by the allies after 
vigorous resistance, 30 March, 1814. The next d: 
Paris capitulated. . 


ROMAN CATHOLICS, Romanists a1 
Papists. ‘Their religion was the established ox 
in Britain till the Reformation. Since then mar 
laws were made against them, which have been rm 
pealed; see Rome, Religion, Leagues, Maynoot, 
Among other disabilities, Roman Catholics we 
excluded from corporate offices, 1667 ; from parli: 
ment, 1691; forbidden to marry protestants, 170! 
to possess arms, 1695, &c. The grand church of tl 
Oratory opened at South Kensington, 25 Apr 
1884. 
ee Catholic Church in England and Wales, 1878 ; 

H. BE. Manning, archbishop of Westminster, metro- 

politan, 1865; cardinal, 1875 ; auxiliary bishop, 

Wim. Weathers, 1872. 12 bishops (Beverley, Bir- 

mingham, Clifton, Hexham, Liverpool, Newport, 

Northampton, Nottingham, Plymouth, Salford, 

Shrewsbury, Southwark). Scotland. hierarchy 

revived, 4 March, 1878. Ireland, 4 archbishops 

(metropolitan, Paul Cullen, archbishop of Ar- 

magh, 1850; of Dublin, 1852); 24 bishops. Dee. 

1882, England, 17 bishops, 2,112 priests ; Scotland, 

6 bishops, 306 priests. 

Roman Catholics in Great Britain, about 539,500 3 
clergy, 624; churches, 522 in 1840; 1,384,000 
persons ; 2282 clergy ; 1461 churches in 1880. 

Bishop Fisher, sir Thomas More, and others, exe- 
cuted for denying the king’s supremacy . . . 

Catholics absolved from their allegiance to the king 
by Paul III. 1535; by Pius V. 

They rebel in. ; F ; ; 2 

The Gunpowder Plot (which see) . ‘ ? ek 

They suffer by Oates’s fictitious popish plot . - 3 

They are excluded from the throne 4 wri 

They suffer by the Gordon riots : 2 June, 17 

Various disabilities removed in . P 1780 and 17 

Mr. Pitt proposes measures for their relief, which 
he givesup . : : ; ; 3 , 180: 

Roman Catholic Association organised in Ireland, 
with the object of removing the political and civil 
disabilities of Roman catholics. ‘ : . 18 

Bills in their favour frequently brought in without 
effect from . : : : R a . 1813 to 18 

An act of parliament passed for the suppression of 
the Catholic Association (it had voted its own 
dissolution, 12 Feb.) . ; 3 . 5 March, 

The duke of Wellington and sir Robert Peel carry 
the Catholic emancipation bill (ro Geo, IY. ¢. ? 
in the commons, 30 March ; in the lords, ro April; 
received the royal assent . ; : 13 April, , 

The duke of Norfolk and lords Dormer and Clifford, 
the first Roman catholic peers, take their seats, 

28 April, , 

The first English R. C. member returned, the earl 
of Surrey, for Horsham . : A . 4 May, 

Mr. O’Connell elected for Clare, 1828, takes his seat 
(first Roman catholic M.P. since 1689) . Aug. , 

Mr. Alexander Raphael, the first Roman catholic 
sheriff of London é : : - 28 Sept. 18 

Sir Michael O’Loghlen, the first Roman catholic judge 
(as Master ofthe Rollsin Ireland),appointed,30O0ct. 18 

St. George’s cathedral, Southwark, erected by A. 
W. Pugin ; founded : p ¢ 5 : : 

Tablet newspaper established ‘ : : one 

Mr. O’Connell elected first Roman catholic lord 
mayor of Dublin . : : : . at ip 

‘Catholic Poor School Committee” established . 18 

The ‘‘Papal Aggression” (which see); cardinal 
Nicholas Wiseman appointed archbishop of West- 
minster. ; ; : : ¢ 30 Sept. 18 

Roman catholic university, Dublin, originated 5 May, 18 

Universe newspaper established 3 i : . 18 

Agitation in favour ofthe pope . , ee 

Missionary college founded at Drumecondra, Ire- 
land ; : ; ? : : . zo July, 18 

Roman catholic chaplains permitted for gaols, by 
Prison Ministers act . Bee iat’ d : Y, 18 

Serjeant Wm. Shee made a justice of the Queens 
Bench, the first Roman eatholie judge since the 
Reformation [died 19 Feb. 1868) . . 15 Dee. , 


15 


; ze 
1549 and 15 
16 


8 


Lal 


nn nnn ee EEE UII ESSE SSSI SS SSNS Sn 


~ 


ROMAN LAW. ) 


13 


ROME. 


th of cardinal Wiseman, aged 63; 7th English 
rdinal since the Reformation 75 Leb: 
ry Manning (formerly an archdeacon in the Eng- 
sh church) consecrated archbishop of West- 
inster . : : ‘ a : 8 June, 
ference of Roman catholic bishops at Dublin ; 
iblish resolutions declining state help (in accor- 
wmce with the papal injunctions, 1801 and 180s), 
id condemning mixed education and secret 
rcieties ‘ ; : A : . 17 Oct. 
reat Britain 1639 Roman catholic priests ; 1283 
aapels and churches ; 227 convents for women 
wincipally educational); 21 colleges and large 
thools : ; : F 2 , Se EC: 
roposal of the Derby government to endow a 
itholiec university for Ireland, Oct. 1867, failed 
rough the catholic bishops claiming the entire 
ractical control . - ; f 31 March, 
Justice Thomas (aft. lord) O’Hagan, appointed 
rd chancellor of Ireland, is the first Roman 
itholic who has held that office since the revolu- 
on of 1688-9 «yj. : : , é ig) OTE 
toman catholic made M.A. at Oxford, after the 
bolition of the test ? : : 22 June, 
-eatholics opposing the dogma of papal infalli- 
ility term themselves ‘‘ old catholics” (which see) 
: Ecclesiastical Titles act (see Papal Aggression) 


spealed 3 F . ‘ ‘ 24 July, 
by the R. C. bishops in 


1865 


> 


1867 


1868 


” 


toral issued Treland 
laiming endowment for colleges, &c. under their 
dle control 2 d ; P : . Oct. 
atholic Education Crisis Fund” established. 
» R. C. bishops consecrated at Salford 28 Oct. 
atholic Union,” Dublin, re-organised to obtain 
ducation under ecclesiastical control, about 

4 Dec. 
man Catholic university senate meet . 21 May, 
thbishop Manning made a cardinal . 
cholic Congress at Venice met . y2 June, 
s marquis of Ripon becomes a Roman Catholic 

7 Sept. 
man Catholic university college, Resta dtgn : 
nonsignor Capel, principal ; opened r5 Oct. 
veral English clergymen secede to Rome . Oct. 
w Catholic club opened in London by the duke 
ff Norfolk, lords Denbigh and Petre, and others 

27 Noy. 
, Gladstone’s pamphlet, ‘‘ The Vatican Decrees” 
»eeasions declarations respecting papal infalli- 
vjlity, from abp. Manning, monsig. Capel, the 
Jatholic Union and others for it ; from lords Acton, 
Jamoys, and sir George Bowyer, against it, Nov. 
C. hierarchy re-established in Scotland, by pope 
Leo XIII... | “1 ‘ , : 4 March, 
r the dissension between Church and State re- 
specting the doctrine of papal infallibility, see 
Prussia and Germany. 
urch in low state in Germany, 3 dioceses (of 12) 
yecupied: 200 parishes without priests; 1500 
oriests expelled, reported z : Apr, 
rd Petre a R. C. priest takes his seat in the house 
Jelordsy 7% : . 3 Nov. 1884 


ROMAN LAW, see Codes; Roman Litera- 


RE, see Latin. 


ROMAN ROADS tn ENGLAND. Our 
storians maintain, but are mistaken, that there 
re but four of these roads. Camden. ‘The 
mans,”’ says Isidore, ‘‘made roads almost all 
er the world, to have their marches in a straight 
\e, and to employ the people ;”’ and criminals were 
squently condemned to work at such roads, as we 
in from Suetonius, in his life of Caligula. They 
sre commenced and completed at various periods, 
tween the 2nd and 4th centuries, and the Roman. 
diery were employed in making them, that inac- 
ity might not give them an opportunity to raise 
iturbances. Bede. 

;, WATLING-STREET, so named from Vitellianus, who is 
supposed to have directed it, the Britons calling him 
| i: er language Guwetalin (from Kent to Cardigan 

ay). 


”? 


2) 


1879 


4, IkeneExp, or IKENILD-STREET, from its beginning | 


among the Iceni (from St. David’s to Tynemouth). 
1, Fossr, or Foss— Way, probably from its having 


1878 | 


been defended by a fosse on both sides (from Cornwalt 

to Lincoln). 
4th, Ermry-street, from Irmunsul, a German word, 

meaning Mercury, whom our German ancestors wor- 
shipped under that name (from St. David’s to South- 
ampton). 

ROMAN WALLS. One was erected by 
Agricola (79 to 85) to defend Britain from the in- 
cursions of the Picts and Scots; the first wall ex- 
tended from the Tyne to the Solway frith (80 miles) ; 
the second from the frith of Forth, near Edinburgh, 
to the frith of Clyde, near Dumbarton (36 miles). 
The former was renewed and strengthened by the 
emperor Adrian (121), and by Septimus Severus 
(208). It commenced at Bowness, near Carlisle, 
and ended at Wallsend near Newcastle. It had 
battlements and towers to contain soldiers. The 
more northern wall was renewed by Lollius Urbicus, 
in the reign of Antoninus Pius, about 140. Many 
remains of these walls still exist, particularly of the 
southern one; see Bruce’s ‘*‘ Roman JVall,” pub- 


lished 1853-1868. 


ROMANCKRH, originally a composition in the 
Romance or Provencal idiom. The term in the 
middle ages was extended to narrative poetry in 
general. Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricca, in Thessaly, 
about 398, was the author of Hthiopica (relating to 
the loves of Theagenes and Charicleia), the first work 
in this species of writing. The first part of the 
‘Roman de la Rose’? was written by Guillaume de 
Lorres (1226-70); the second, a separate poem, by 
Jean de Meung (1285-1314), the Decameron of Boc- 
caccio was published, 1358; Don Quixote, by Cer- 
vantes, 1605; Gil Blas, by Le Sage, 1715. Dunlop’s 
‘‘ History of Fiction,’ published 1814. See Hnglish 
Authors ; *‘ Reynard the Fox.” 


ROME. The foundation of the city, by 
Romulus, was laid on the 20th April,* according to 
Varro, in the year 3961 of the Julian period (3251 
years after the creation of the world, 753 years be- 
fore the birth of Christ, 431 years after the Trojan . 
war, and in the fourth year of the sixth Olympiad. 
Other dates given: Cato, 751; Polybius, 750; 
Fabius Pictor, 747; Cincius, 728 B.c.) ‘The Romans 
conquered nearly the whole of the then known 
world. In the time of Julius Czsar, the empire 
was bounded by the Euphrates, Taurus, and Armenia 
on the east; by Authiopia on the south; by the 
Danube on the north; and by the Atlantic on the 
west. Numerous ecclesiastical councils have been 
held at Rome, from 197 to 1869-70. _ Population, 
1872, about 240,000; 1877, 250,000; 1881, 300,467. 
Chiefly through the exertions of Mr. John Henry 
Parker of Oxford, the Roman exploration fund was 
established, for the preservation of ancient archi- 
tecturalremains. His ‘‘ Archexology of Rome”? (with 
many photographs) published, 1874-8. The Italian 
government votes 1200/7. a year for a similar pur- 
pose. 


Foundation of the city by Romulus ee BO ase 
The Romans seize on the Sabine women at a public 
spectacle, and detain them for wives : My ase: 
The Ceeninians defeated, and first triumphal proces- 
SLOMM: Wis ; ; 3 : : : , Moca ges 
Rome taken by the Sabines; the Sabines incor- 
porated with the Romans as one nation 747 


* Tn its original state, Rome was but a small castle om 
the summit of mount Palatine ; and the founder, to give 
his followers the appearance of a nation or a barbarian 
horde, was obliged to erect a standard as a common 
asylum for criminals, debtors, or murderers, who fled 
from their native country to avoid the punishment which 
attended them. From such an assemblage a numerous 
body was soon collected, and before the death of the 
founder, the Romans had covered with their habitations 
the Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, and Esquiline hills, 
with Mounts Ceelius and Quirinalis, 


ROME. 7 


Mt ROME. 


aS sole king of the Romans and Sabines B.c. 742 
The Circensian games established by him 732 
Romulus murdered by senators 716 


Numa Pompilius elected king, 715; institutes the 
priesthood, the augurs and v estals 710 
Roman calendar of romonths reformed and made pes 
The Romans and the Albans contesting for supe- 
riority, agreed to chose three champions on 
each part to decide it. The three Horatii, Roman 
knights, overcame the three Cwriatii, Albans, and 


united Alba to Rome . . about 669 
War with the Fidenates ; the city of Alba Fyre ed 665 
Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, built 627 
The capital founded . 615 
The first census of the Roman state taken . 566 
Political institutions of Servius Tullius 550 
The rape of Lucretia by Sextus, son of Tarquin 510 
Royalty abolished: the Patricians establish an 

aristocratical commonwealth . 509 ° 
Junius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus ‘first con- 

suls ; first alliance of the Romans with Carthage 508 
The capitol dedicated to Jupiter reg 507 


First dictator Titus Lartius . : OL 
The Latins and the Tarquins declare war against 
the republic, 501 ; defeated at lake Regillus 498 or 496 
Secession of the Plebeians to the sacred mount ; 
establishinent of tribunes of the Plebeians 
First agrarian law passed: Spurius Cassius put to 


death by Patricians : 493 
©. Martius Coriolanus banished : 2 EAGT 
He (with the Volsci) besieges Rome, but withdraws 

at the suit of his wife and mother 488 
Contests between the Patricians and Plebeians re- 

specting the agrarian law 486 
Quiestors “appointed about 484 
The Fabii slain (see Fabit) 3 477 
Cincinnatus, dictator, defeats the ZEqui 458 
The Secular Games first celebrated . 456 
The Decemviri created . : , ; ; Sees espe 
Virginius kills his daughter, Virginia, to save her 

from the decemvir, Appius Claudius ; (Appius 

killed himself in prison ; the decemviral govern- 

ment abolished) 449 
The Canuleian law passed, “permitting marriages be- 

- tween Patricians and Plebeians 445 
Military tribunes first created . 444 
Office of censor instituted 443 
Rome afflicted with an awful famine, and many per- 

sons on account of it drown themselves in the 

Tiber 440 
The Veientes defeated, and their king “Tolumnus 

slain . - : : : : 437 
War with the Tuscans ; 434 
A temple is dedicated to Apollo on account of a 

pestilence 431 
Equi and Volsci defeated by Tubertus, dictator a 
Two more queestors appointed . . : 421 
Another dreadful famine at Rome 411 
Three queestors are chosen from the Plebeians “for 

the first time . 409 


Institution of the Lectisternian festiv al on ae count 
of a pestilence 


Veii taken by Camillus after ten years’ siege . $306 | 
La 


Banishment of Camillus Fe Lae 
The Gauls under Brennus, besiege Clusium (see 

Gauls). C : : 4 GOO 
They are expelled by Camillus. 389 
Rome burnt to the ground by the Gauls, ‘who: be- 

siege the capitol. 387 
Rebuilt— Capitoline games instituted a 
M. Manlius Capitoline thrown from the Tar peian 

rock on a charge of aiming at sovereign power 384 | 
The first appointment of curule magistr: ates 371 
Lucius Sextus, the first Plebeian consul . 366 
Marcus Curtius leaps into the gulf which had opened 

in the forum : . B rite) =362 
The Gauls defeated in Italy. 350 
Treaty with Carthage to repress Greek piracy 348 
War with the Samnites (with breaks) 51 years 343 
Latin war 340-338 
Embassy to Alexander the Great . 324 
Defeat at Caudium 321 
Priests first elected from the Plebeians 
Etruscans, Samnites, and others, defeated at Senti- 

num by Fabius : . : : » 295 
End of the third Samnite war 290 


The Gauls invade the Roman territory ; siege of 


AYeZZO 284 


Etruscans defeated at Vadimonian lake B.C. 310 and 283 

Pyrrhus of Epirus invades Italy, 28r ; defeats the 
Romans at Pandosia, 280 ; and at Asculum, gids ; 
defeated by them at Benevento : 


2 
All Italy subdued by Rome “Pea 
First Punic war commenced (see Punic Wars) 204 
First Roman fleet built 260 
Attilius Regulus said to be put to a cruel death by 
the Carthaginians : : 255 
End of first Punic war ; Sicily annexed 241 
Temple of Janus closed ! z 235 
Corsica and Sardinia annexed 231 
First Roman embassy to Greece . 228 
Invasion of the Gauls ; beaten by the consuls . 225 
Second Punic war breaks out 3 218 
The Romans are defeated aie Hannibal at Thrasy- 
mene, 217; Canne . : 5 . 2 Aug, 216 
Syracuse taken by Marcellus 212 
Marcellus defeated by Hannibal, and slain near 
Venusia 208 
Scipio defeats Hannibal at Zama in Africa — 202 
rte Mac edonian wars with Philip begin, a and 
; his defeat at Cynoscephale - SRoF 
Death of Scipio Africanus the elder . 5 185 
Third Macedonian war begins 171 ; Perseus beaten 
at Pydna ; Macedon annexed ; : = Giee6e 
First publie library erected at Rome 167 
Philosophers and rhetoricians banished "from 
Romen ars : E . ‘ . hee ay 
Third Punic war begins 149 
Corinth and Carthage destroyed by the Romans (see 
Corinth and Carthage) ; . a6 
Celtiberian and Numantine war in Spain » 153-133 
Attalus Ill. of Pergamos bequeaths his ee 
and riches to the Romans |. : ; ers 
The Servile war in Sicily. - : : 2) ES 2 
Two Plebeian consuls chosen . - 3 Lear, 
Agrarian disturbances : Gracchus slain Pret 
The Jugurthine war . : : + 112-106 
The Mithridatic war (w hich see) ; 3 : 108-63 
The Ambrones defeated by Marius 102 


The Social war ; : : “88 

Rome besieged by four armies (viz. : those of 
Marius, Cinna, Carbo, and Sertorius) and taken . 87 

Sylla defeats Marius : becomes dictator ; sanguinary 
proscriptions, 82: abdicates . 

Bithynia bequeathed to the Romans ns king Nico- 


medes. oS RIT 4: 
Revolt of Spar tacus and the slaves . : «73-78 
Syria conquered by Pompey . «i enmO§ 
The Catiline conspiracy suppressed by Cicero . seh F 


The first triumvirate : Cesar, Pompey, and Crassus 60 
Ceesar’s campaigns in Gaul, 58 ; in Britain . : 3.2 3 
Crassus killed by the Parthians ¢ = Z 2 9053 

Gaul conquered and made a province . ‘ . Rees 


War between Cesar and Pompey. * Asa 
Pompey defeated at Pharsalia (which see) : ; 48 
Ceesar defeats Pharnaces at Zela ; and writes home 
‘* Veni, vidi, vici’”’ . 47 
Cato kills himself at Utica; Ciesar dictator for ten 
years . > ee 46 


Ciesar killed in the senate-house Aer 5 March, 44 
Second triumvirate : Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus 43 
Cicero killed, proscribed by Antony . Se 
Battle of Philippi ; Brutus and Cassius defeated. 42 
Lepidus ejected from the triumvirate, 36; war be- 
tween Octavius and Antony, 32 ; Antony defeated 
totally at Actium =. i . 2S8ept. 31 
Octavius emperor, as Augustus Cesar 2a 
The empire now at peace with all the world ; the 
temple of Janus shut ; Jesus CHrisT born. ’ (See 


Jews) 4 April, 5 
Varus defeated by Hermann and the Gernale A.D. 9 
Ovid banished to Tomi é . Q : 3 
Death of Ovid and. Livy : Whe 


8 
Tiberius retires to Caprea ; tyranny of ‘Sejanus a 
A census being taken by Claudius, the emperor and 
censor, the inhabitants of Rome are stated to 
amount to 6,944,000.—[It is now considered that 
the population of Rome within the walls was _ 


under a million. ] . : Pas Soe: 
Caractacus brought in chains to Rome 4 - 7 50 
St. Paul arrives in bonds at Rome : 62 
Nero burns Rome to the ground, and charges ‘the 

crime upon the Chr istians % - . cee Of: 
Seneca, Lucan, &c., put todeath . 5 <tr OF 


Peter and Paul said to be put to death ; wane OF 
Jerusalem levelled to the ground by Titus 8 Sept. 70 


ROME. 


715 


ROME. : 


um founded by Vespasian . 3 : Ac Dee 7 5 
acian war begins (continues 15 years) . Bele) 
junior, proconsul in Bithynia, sends Trajan 


celebrated account of the Christians . aos toy: 
’s expedition into the East against the Par- 
ns, &c. ; subdués Dacia . : ‘ ‘ % 106 
1's column erected at Rome. ; ; II4 
n resides in Britain, and builds the wall. I2i 
apitol destroyed by lightning 188 
tium taken ; its wallsrazed . 196 
ths are paid tribute . , : . vie A222 
Goths, Vandals, Alani, Suevi, and other 
thern nations attack the empire. ] 
ey’s amphitheatre burnt . : 3 " 248 
ion of the Goths . : ‘ i ‘ bbra SEO 
ence throughout the empire. ‘ : 252 
victory over the Goths obtained by Clau- 
3 IL. ; 300,000 slain - f é Sst 209 
relinquished to the Goths : : P = 270 
yra conquered, and Longinus put to death . 273 
ra of Martyrs, or of Diocletian ee, 284 
ranks settle in Gaul. Fréret . : i - 287 
antius dies at York 306 
emperors reign at one time : : S508 
antine the Great, it is said, in consequence of 
ision, places the cress on his banners, and 
ins to favour the Christians : * Be Ee 
antine defeats Licinius, at Chrysopolis, and 
ns alone . ; : i i 2. 718 Sept: ~§ 323 
lerates the Christian faith . : : : of 
his son Crispus to death . : : a 32H. 
‘antine convokes the first general council of 
ristians at Nice : , ‘ : a ege5 
eat of empire removed from Rome to Byzan- 
m, 321; dedicated by Constantine : ler eyiey 
tantine orders the heathen temples to be 
troyed . ; : ; : : ‘ ae 
lt of 300,000 Sarmatian slaves suppressed 334 
a of Constantine, soon after being baptized 337 
irmy under Julian proclaims him emperor 360 
n, who had been educated for the priesthood, 
Lhad frequently officiated, abjures Christianity, 
1 re-opens the heathen temples, becoming the 
ran pontiff . 2 ‘ ; : - oe RN velo 
n killed in battle in Persia; Christianity ~ 
tored by Jovian - : < 303 
mpire divided into Eastern and Western by 
lentinian and Valens, brothers : the former has 
» Western portion, or Rome . F ; by ee oen OA 
(See Western and Eastern Empires ; and Italy.) 
e placed under the exarchate of Ravenna 404 
n by Alaric ‘ ‘ j 24 Aug. 410 
n and pillaged by Genseric ts July, 455 
cer takes Rome, and becomes king of Italy 476 
e recovered for Justinian by Belisarius sete: 
ken by Totila the Goth, 546; recovered by 
lisarius, 547: seized by Totila . : : a 546 
vered by Narses, and annexed to the eastern 
pire ; and the senate abolished in S53 
e at her lowest state . ; : ‘ about 600 
e independent under the popes about 728 
an of France compels Astolphus, king of the 
mbards, to cede Ravenna and other places to 
3 Holy Church 4 : ; : 2 ee 55 
irmed and added to by Charlemagne . 774 
lemagne crowned emperor of the West by the 
peat Rome . : : : : .25 Dec. 800 
e taken by Arnulf and the Germans. : . 896 
1 I. crowned at Rome. : ; . 2Feb. 962 
emperor Henry IV. takes Rome March, 1084 
ld of Brescia, endeavouring to reform church 
1 state and to establish a senate, is put to 
lath asa heretic . ; ‘ ¢ A oe TESS 
pope removes to Avignon . : 2 ‘ » 1309 
la di Rienzi, tribune of the people, establishes 
republic, 20 May; is compelled to abdicate, 
| 15 Dec. 1347 
wns ; made senator, 1 Aug.; assassinated, 8 Oct. 1354 
u court returns to Rome : . ha 1377 
of the families, Colonna, Orsini, &c. about ,, 
is II. conquers the Romagna, Bologna, and 
rugia  . , F ‘ : ; : . 1503-13 
city greatly embellished by pope Leo X. 1513-21 
captured by the constable de Bourbon, who is 
wm. - : 4 ‘ é < . 6 May, 1527 
ara annexed ‘ A ° . , : + 1597 
eter’s dedicated. ‘ 18 Nov. 1626 
usion of the Jesuits . 5 ‘ . 16 Aug. 1773 


| Recovered for the pope by the Neapolitans, 


Harassed by the French, German, and Spanish 
factions from the 16th to the 18th century. 
The French invasion ; the Legations incorporated 
with the Cisalpine republic . ; ‘ ; ‘ 
The French proclaim the Roman republic, 20 March, 
Nov. 
Retaken by the French, 1800; restored to Pius VII. 
July, 
Annexed by Napoleon to the kingdom of Italy, and 
declared second city of the empire May, 
Restored to the pope, who returns 23 Jan. 
He re-establishes the Inquisition and the Jesuits, 
7 Aug. 
The papal government endeavour to annul all inno- 
vations, and thus provoke much opposition ; the 
Carbonari increase in numbers P 
Political assassinations in the Romagna . 
The “Young Italy” party established by Joseph 
Mazzini; temporary insurrections at Bologna 
suppressed by Austrian aid 2 i 
Election of Pius. IX. : : E . 16 dune, 
He proclaims an amnesty ; and authorises a national 
guard and municipal institutions : : 
The Romans desire to join the king of Sardinia 
against the Austrians ; the pope hesitates ; the 
Antonelli ministry retires; and the Mamiani 
ministry is formed : ‘ : P é ; 
Count Rossi, minister of justice of the pontifical 
government, assassinated on the staircase of the 
Chamber of Deputies at Rome . : 15 Nov. 
Insurrection at Rome, the populace demand a 
democratic ministry and the proclamation of 
Italian nationality; the pope (Pius IX.) hesi- 
tates, the Romans surround the palace, and a 
conflict ensues. The pope accepts a popular 
ministry (Cardinal Palma, the pope’s secretary, 
shot in this conflict) ; : P . 16 Nov. 
A free constitution published 6 20 Nov. 
The pope escapes in disguise from Rome to Gaeta, 
24 Nov. 
M. de Corcelles leaves Paris for Rome, a French 
armed expedition to Civita Vecchia having 
preceded him, to afford protection to the pope, 
27 Nov. 
Protest of the pope against the acts of the provi- 
sional government ; : : 28 Nov. 
A constituent assembly meets at Rome 5 Feb. 
The Roman National Assembly divests the pope 
of all temporal power, and adopts the republican 
form of government. Y : : 8 Feb. 
The pope appeals to the Catholic powers, 
; 18 Feb. 
Civita Vecchia occupied by the French force under 
Marshal Oudinot : : : 26 April, 
A French force repulsed with loss . 30 April, 
Engagement between the Romans and Neapolitans ; 
the former capture 60 prisoners and 4oo muskets, 
5 May, 
The assembly refuses to receive the French as allies, 
19 May, 
The French under marshal Oudinot commence an 
attack on Rome ; : : : 2 3 June, 
After a brave resistance, the Romans capitulate to 
the French army . , Fe 30 June, 
The Roman assembly dissolved . . 4duly, 
An officer from Oudinot’s camp arrives at Gaéta, to 
present the pope with the keys of the two gates 
of Rome by which the French army had entered 
the city 3 : : é 4 July, 
The re-establishment of the pope’s authority pro- 
claimed at Rome : ; - 15 July, 
Oudinot issues a general order stating that the 
pope (or his representative) now re-possesses 
the administration of affairs, but that public 
security in the pontifical dominions still remains 
under the special guarantee of the French army, 
Aug. 
visit to the king of 


The pope arrives at Portici on a 
. 4 Sept. 


Naples E é 
He arrives at Rome ; becomes 
foreign minister. 3 ; ; : April, 
He issues the bull establishing a Roman catholic 
hierarchy in England (see Papal Aggression), 
24 Sept. 

Important concordat with Austria. 18 Aug. 
The pope visits his dominions. May-Sept. 
Inswirectionin the Romagna, at Bologna, and fen 
une, 


eardinal Antonelli 


”> 


. 1815-17 
SeLOr 7) 


7 Loge 


1846 


. 1847 


1848 


” 


9? 


1849 


3° 
1850 

9 
1855 
1857 
1859 


ROME. 


The pope appeals to Europe for help against Sardinia 
12 July, 
The Legations form a defensive alliance with 
Tuscany, Parma, and Modena 20.Aug, 
The queen of Spain engages to send troops to 
Rome, if the French retire 26 Aug. 
The assembly at Bologna vote annexation to Pied- 
mont, 7 Sept. ; the king engages to support their 
cause before the great powers, 15 Sept. ; the pope 
annuls the acts of the assembly at Bologna ; and 
announces the punishment due to those who 
attack the holy see, 26 Sept. ; and dismisses the 
Sardinian chargé (affaires at Rome r Oct. 
The Romagna, Modena, and Parma formed into a 
province, to be called #milia_. ‘ 24 Dec. 
The Sardinian government annul the Tuscan and 
Lombard concordats : . 27 Jan., 20 March, 
Riots at Rome suppressed by the police with great 
cruelty . : A 5 5 . 19 March, 
The pope excommunicates all concerned in the 
rebellion in his states 26 March, 
General Lamoriciére takes command of the papal 
army, March; which is re-organised, and in- 
creased by volunteers from Ireland, &c. May, 
Tuscan volunteers enter the papal states and are 
repulsed : 4 : . 19 May, 
Irish volunteers are severely treated for insubor- 
dination ; many dismissed July 
The papal army estimated at 20,000 : . Aug. 
Insurrection in the Marches, 8 Sept. ; Fossembrone 
subdued by the papal troops ; the people appeal 
to the Sardinian government, whose troops, 
under Cialdini and Fanti, enter the Papal States, 
ir Sept. 
Fanti takes Pesaro, 12 Sept.; and Perugia, in- 
cluding general Schmidt and 1600 prisoners, 
14 Sept. 
Ancona besieged by sea and land 17 Sept. 
Severe allocution of the pope against France and 
Sardinia ; he appeals to Europe for help, 28 Sept. 
Cialdini defeats JLamoriciere at Castel-Fidardo, 
18 Sept. ; and takes Ancona 29 Sept. 
Additional French troops sent to Rome Oct. 
The Marches vote for annexation to Sardinia, Nov. 
Subscriptions raised for the pope in various coun- 
tries ; the formal collection forbidden in France 
and Belgium ; permitted in England . . Nov. 
Monastic establishments suppressed in the Lega- 
tions ; the monks pensioned ; educational institu- 
tions founded . ‘ : : : : Dee. 
The French emperor advises the pope to give up his 
revolted provinces : : 21 Dec. 
Publication of Rome et les Hvéques, 6 Jan. ; and of 
La France, Rome et l'Italie, 15 Feb. ; great excite- 
ment, and strong advocacy ot the pope’s temporal 
government (attacked by prince Napoleon) in the 
French chambers ; : : : March, 
Cavour claims Rome as capital of Italy, 27 March, 
Petition to*the emperor Napoleon to withdraw 
French troops from Rome 1o May, 
The emperor of France declines a union with 
Austria and Spain for the maintenance of the 


. 


. 


pope’s temporal power : ; ; . June, 
Grand ceremony at the canonization of 27 Japanese 
martyrs (see Canonization) : . 8June, 


The pope declares a severe allocution against the 


Italians : , . . ; 9 June, 
Garibaldi calls for volunteers, taking as his watch- 
word, ‘‘ Rome or death !” : - 19 July, 


Railway between Rome and Naples completed ; its 
Opening opposed by the papal government, Noy. 
Earl Russell’s offer to the pope of a residence at 
Malta, 25 Oct. ; declined lt tPNOV: 
Antonelli’s resignation of his office not accepted, 
5 March, 

Convention between France and Italy: French 
troops to quit Rome within two years, 15 Sept. 
Encyclical letter of the pope, publishing a ‘‘sylla- 
bus,” censuring 80 errors in religion, philosophy, 
and politics ; (caused much dissatisfaction, and 
was forbidden to be read in churches in France 
and other countries) 8 Dec. 
Jews persecuted at Rome . d : Dec. 
Fruitless negotiations between the pope and the 
king of Italy (by Vegezzi); mutual concessions 
proposed 21 April to 23 June, 
Pope’s severe allocution against secret societies 
(Freemasons, Fenians, &v.) 25 Sept. 


. 


716 


| 


ROME. 


1859 | Apart of the French troops leave the papaldominions 


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Nov. 

Rupture with Russia Dec. 1865—Jan. 
A Franco-pontifical legion (1200 men) formed at 
Antibes, arrives ; blessed by the pope, 24 Sept. 
Pope’s severe allocution against Italy and Russia, 
29 Oct. 

The pope invites all catholic bishops to west at 
Rome to celebrate the 18th centenary of the 
martyrdom of Peter and Paul : 8 Dec. 
The pope’s blessing given to French troops, 6 Dec., 


. . 


who all quit Rome $ : *. . 2-12 Dee, 
Rome tranquil . ; . 13 Dee, 


Law prohibiting protestant worship except at 
embassies in Rome enforced 31 Dee. 
Negotiation with Italy fruitless ; the Italian coun- 
cillor, Tonello, quits Rome . April, 


. . 


599 bishops and thousands of priests present at the 
pope’s alloeution, 26 June; and canonization of 


25 martyrs . : , 5 ‘ 5 29 June, 
The pope receives an album and address from too 
cities of Italy . é ; : . 8 July, 


Cholera in Rome ; death of cardinal Altieri, while 
assisting the afflicted rz Aug 
The pope’s allocution censures the sacrilegious 
audacity of the Sub-alpine kingdom, in confisca- 
ting ecclesiastical property . 20 Sept. 
Garibaldi arrested at Sinalunga, near the Roman 
frontier ‘ : : 5 23 Sept. 
Irruption of Garibaldians in Viterbo—conflicts with 
various results ; reported appeal of Antonelli for 
help from the great powers Oct. 
Zouave barracks at Rome blown up, many killed, 


i 22 Oct. 


Attempt at insurrection in Rome suppressed, 22 
Oct. ; state of siege proclaimed ; Garibaldi within 
20 niles of Rome, 24 Oct. ; takes Monte Rotondo 

26 Oct. 

French brigades enter Rome . 30 Oct. 

Italian troops cross the frontier, 30 Oct. ; occupy 
several posts z c é t Noy. 

Garibaldians defeated by the papal and French 


. . 


troops at Mentana (which see) . p . 3 Nome 
Italian troops retire from the papal states Nov. 


The Roman committee of insurrection issue a narra- 
tive, and state that their watchword is “Try 
again and do better” : ; : Dee. 

The papal army increased to about 15,000 . Dee. 

The pope’s short allocution (thanking and blessing 
the French government) ; 19 Dec. 

Nine cardinals made; Lucien Bonaparte one 

13 March, 

Sudden death of cardinal Andrea: . 15 May, 

The pope, in his allocution, censures the Austrian 
new civil marriage law ‘ . 22dune, 

Arrangement respecting the papal debt made with 
Italy : : 5 30 July, 

Encyclical letter of the pope, summoning an cecu- 
menical council at Rome on 8 Dec. 1869, and in- 
viting ministers of the Greek and other serge 

13 Sept. 

The patriarch of the Greek church declined toattend 

about 3 Oct. 

Monti and Tognetti (for complicity in the explosion 
of the Zouave barracks, 22 Oct. 1867), executed 

24 Nov. 

The pope celebrates a jubilee tr April, 

In his allocution he deplores the opposition to the 
church in Austria and Spain 25 June, 

He declares, in a letter to archbishop Manning, 
that no discussions on disputed points ean take 
place at the council . : : P . 4 Sept. 

The council opened, see Council XX. 8 Dee. 

An exhibition of objects of Christian art opened by 
the pope : ‘ : : Feb. 

British and American bishops protest against dis- 
cussing the dogma of papal infallibility in the 
council, 11 April; the discussion begins 14 May, 

Count Arnim, on behalf of the North German con- 
federation, protests against the dogma . May, 

| Papal infallibility adopted by the council and pro- 
mulgated (533 for; 2 against ; many retire) ; the 
council adjourns to 11 Nov. 18. July, 

Rome completely evacuated by French troops in 


. . 


consequence of the war; 8: mortars and 15,000 


Merode, the papal minister of war, dismissed,20 Oct. 1865 


1866 


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' troops sent from Civita Vecchia . 2t Aug. 


» 


om 


ROME. 


717 


ROME. 


liatory letter from Victor Emmanuel to the pope 
8 Sept. 
tion in the papal provinces; the Italian 
yps invited to enter about ro Sept. 
ope refuses terms offered him by the king of 
y (sovereignty of the Leonine city and reten- 
1 of his income) : . rr Sept. 
Cadorna crosses the Tiber at Casale ; sends 
s of truce to gen. Kanzler, commander of the 
laves, who refuses to surrender ; baron Arnim 
rain negotiates between them 17 Sept. 
lish with papal Zouaves ; several oe 
4 Sept. 
talians occupy Civita Vecchia pithout resist- 
e ; : about 15 Sept. 
r from the pope to gen. Kanzler directing that 
erely formal defence be made at Rome, and 
t bloodshed be avoided 19 Sept. 
a brief resistance from the foreign papal 
ops, stopped by order of the pope, the Italian 
ops under Cadorna make a breach and enter 
me amid enthusiastic acclamations of the 
ple. . 20 Sept. 
ted Italian. loss, about 22 killed, 1307 
anded ; papal troops, 55 killed and wounded. | 
nal Antonelli issues a diplomatic protest 
inst the Italian occupation of Rome 1 Sept. 
papal troops surrender arms; about 8500 
eioners march out with honours of war ; they 
ult. the Italians ; the native troops retained, 
22 Sept. 
it 10,000 persons assemble in the Coliseum, 
ose 44 names for a provisional government 
untc) : ; a é - 22 Sept. 
ast of the pope : . 26 Sept. 
e of St. Angelo oceupied by Italian troops at 
» pope’s request . 28 Sept. 
lar letter from the pope to the cardinals 
nplaining of the invasion and of his loss of 
erty, and interference with his private post bag 
29 Sept. 
inta of 14 (the duke Gaetani chief) solontad from 
> 44 Names chosen ; approved by Cadorna 
30 Sept. 
ral Masi in command of Rome and the pro- 
ices ; 8.P.Q.R. appears on the proclainations 
30 Sept. 
iscite : out of 167,548 votes, 133,681 for union 
th the kingdom of Italy ; 1507 against; the 
nainder did not vote . 2 Oct 
inal Antonelli issues a protest ; ; published 
Oct. 
pope said to have accepted 50,000 2 cat (his 
mthly civil list) from the Italian government 
Oct. 
result of the plébiscite sent to the king, ef Oct., 
yme and its provinces incorporated with the 
ngdom by royal decree 9 Oct. 
ral La Marmora enters Rome as viceroy ; 
proclaims that the pope shall be guaranteed 
his sovereign powers as head of the church 
rr Oct. 
Roman provinces united into one by decree 
1g Oct. 
pope issues an encyclical letter adjourning the 
eeting of the council 20 Oct. 
melli- protests against the occupation of the 
lirinal by the king , to Novy. 
introduced into the Italian parliament respect- 
¢ the transfer of the seat of government to 
yme in about six months, and the preservation 
the spiritual and temporal sovereignty of the 
ype : : : : A . about r2 Dee. 
idation of the Tiber; great suffering of the 
‘ople, 27, 28 Dec. ; the king gives 200,000 lire ; 
sits Rome suddenly, the city illuminated 
44.M. 31 Dec. 
‘guaranteeing to the pope full personal liberty 
id honours, arevenue of 3,225,000 livres Ac., 
, May ; rejected by the pope in his allocution 
15 May, 
th anniversary of the city kept ; the pope cele- 
‘ates a jubilee on the 25th anniversary of his 
ection : 16 June, 
Ttalian government: remove to Rome, 2, 3 J uly, 
icution ‘of the pope, appointing some Ttalian 


shops ; still rejecting guarantees 27 Oct. 
nd reception of the king a1 Nov. 


1870 


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He opens the serlineceh saying, ‘‘ The work to 

which we have consecrated our life is completed ” 
27 Nov. 

The pope receives an address from nobles and others 

27 Nov. 

Commission appointed to dredge the bed of the 
Tiber to recover antiquities : PR LIeCs 

Easter solemnities not performed by the pope 

31 March, 

The pope delivers an allocution complaining of per- 

secution of the church in Italy, Germany, and 
Spain : tb joa Dee: 
American Protestant church dedicated to St. Paul ; 


founded 25 Jan. 1873 
First Anglican church within the walls opened 
25 Oct. 1874 


Assassination of Raffaele Sonzogno, a republican 
printer and manager of ‘‘ J1 Capitale, mG Keb; 
trial of Pio Frezza, the murderer caught in the 
act with Luciani, Armati, and others, as incitors 
to the crime ; convicted * with extenuating cir- 
cumstances ;”’ penal servitude for life . 13 Nov. 

Re-interment on the Janiculum hill of remains of 
Angelo Brunetti (termed Ciceruacchio) and other 
unarmed Italian patriots (shot by the Austrians 
ro Aug. 1849) . . 12-Oct. 1879 

2634th pirthday of the city kept 3 21 April 1880 

International exhibition of fine art, opened 21 Jan. 1883 

The German crown prince arrives at Rome, 17 Dec. 
visits the pope . prose. 

2,637th anniversary of the foundation of Rome 

2t April, 

First Italian derby day . . 24 April, 

A sale of part of the Castellani collection, 21 days, 
about 48,o00/. realized April, 

Dispute ; a cardinal stopped from ¥ isiting a ‘cholera 
hospital without quarantine 4, Oct. 

Discoveries about the Temple of Vesta in the 
Forum by Prof. H. Jordan, announced April, 

See Popes, Pius IX. et seq., and Italy. 


1875 


’ 


B,C, KINGS OF ROME. 

735. Romulus ; murdered by the senators. 

[Tatius, king of the Sabines, had removed to Rome 
in 747, and ruled jointly with Romulus six 
years. ] 

716. [Interregnum. ] 

715. Numa Pompilius, son-in-law of Tatius the Sabine, 
elected ; died at the age of 82. 

673. Tullus Hostilius ; murdered by his suecessor, by 
whom his palace was set on fire; his family 
perished in the flames. 

640. Ancus Martius, grandson of Numa. 

616. Tarquinius Priscus ; son of Demaratus, 2 Corinthian 
emigrant, chosen king. 

578. Servius Tullius, a manumitted slave ; married the 
king’s daughter ; > and succeeded by the united 
suflrages of the army and the people. 

Bods Tarquinius Superbus, grandson of Tarquinius Pris- 
cus ; assassinates his father-in- -law, and usurps 
the throne. 

sro. [The rape of Lucretia, by Sextus, son of Tarquin, 
and consequent insurrection, leads to the aboli- 
tion of royalty and the establishment of the 
consulate. | 

REPUBLIC. 
sto-82. First period. From the expulsion of Tarquin to 
the dictatorship of Sylla. 
2-27. Second period. From Sylla to Augustus. 
48. Caius Julius Cesar ; perpetual dictator ; assassi- 
nated, 15 March, 44 B.c. 
ei Octavianus Cesar, 
EMPERORS. 
27. AuGuSTUS IMPERATOR, died rg Aug. A.D. 14. 
A.D. 
14. Tiberius (Claudius Nero). 


. Caius Caligula: murdered by a tribune. 
. Claudius I. (Tiberius Drusus): poisoned by his wife 
Agrippina, to make way for 
. Claudius Nero; deposed; kills himself, 68. 
. Servius Sulpicius Galba; slain by the preetorians. 
. M. Salvius Otho; stabbed himself. 
Aulus Vitellius; deposed by Vespasian, and put to 
death. 
Titus Flavius Vespasian. 
. Titus (Vespasian), his son, 


. M. Aurelius Caracalla and Septimius Geta. 


“Maxentius, son of Maximianus Hercules. 


ROME. 


the twelve Ceesars ; assassinated. 


. Cocceius Nerva. 

. Trajan M. Ulpius Crinitus). 

. Adrian or Hadrian (Publius ius). 

. Antoninus Titus, surnamed Pius. 

. Marcus Aurelius (a philosopher) and Lucius Verus, 


his son-in-law ; the latter died in 169. 


. Commodus (L. Aurelius Antoninus), son of Marcus 


Aurelius ; poisoned by his favourite mistress, 
Martia. 


. Publius -Helvius-Pertinax ; put to death by the pree- 


torian band. 

[Four emperors now start up: Didianus Julianus, 
at Rome; Pescennius Niger, in Syria; Lucius 
Septimius Severus, in Pannonia; and Clodius 
Albinus, in Britain. ] 

Lucius Septimius Severus; died at York in Britain, 
in 211; succeeded by his sons, 

Geta 

murdered by Caracalla, 212; who is slain by his 

successor 


. M. Opilius Macrinus, prefect of the guards; be- 


headed in a mutiny. 


. Heliogabalus (M. Aurelius Antoninus), a youth ; put 


to death for his enormities. 


. Alexander Severus; assassinated by some soldiers 


corrupted by Maximinus. 


. Caius Julius Verus Maximinus; assassinated in his 


tent before the walls of Aquileia. 


_M. Antonius Gordianus, and his son; the latter 


having been killed in a battle with the par- 
tisans of Maximinus, the father strangled him- 
seif in a fit of despair, at Carthage, in his 80th 
year. 


. Balbinus and Pupienus ; put to death. 


Gordian III., grandson of the elder Gordian, in his 
16th year; assassinated by the guards, at the 
instigation of his successor 


. Philip the Arabian ; assassinated by his own soldiers ; | 
his son Philip was murdered at the same time, in | 


his mother’s arms. 


. Metius Decius; he perished with his two sons, 


and their army, in an engagement with the 
Goths. 


. Gallus Hostilius, and his son Volusianus ; both slain 


by the soldiery. 


. #milianus; put to death after a reign of only four 


months. 

Valerianus, and his son Gallienus; the first was 
taken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, and 
flayed alive. 


. Gallienus reigned alone. 


[About this time thirty pretenders to imperial power 
arise in different parts of the empire; of these 
Cyriades is the first, but he is slain. ] 


. Claudius II. (Gallienus having been assassinated by 


the officers of the guard) succeeds ; dies of the 
plague. 


. Quintillus, his brother, elected at Rome by the senate 


and troops ; Aurelian by the army in Illyricum. 
Quintillus, despairing of success against his 
rival, who was marching against him, opened his 
veins and bled himself to death. 

Aurelianus; assassinated by his soldiers on his 
march against Persia, in Jan. 275. 


. [Interregnum of about nine months. ] 


Tacitus, elected 25 Oct.; died at Tarsus in Cilicia, 
13 April, 276. 


. Florianus, his brother; his title not recognised by 


the senate. 
M. Aurelius Probus; assassinated by his troops at 
Sirmium. 


_M. Aurelius Carus; killed at Ctesiphon by light- 


ning ; succeeded by his sons 


. Carinus and Numerianus; both assassinated, after 


transient reigns. 


. Diocletian ; who associated as his colleague in the 


government, 


. Maximianus Hercules; the two emperors resign in 


favour of 


. Constantius I. Chlorus and Galerius Maximianus ; 


the first died at York, in Britain, in 306, and the 
troops saluted as emperor his son, 


. Constantine, afterwards styled the Great; whilst 


at Rome the pretorian band proclaimed 
Besides 
these were 


718 


. Titus Flavius Domitian, brother of Titus ; last of | 306. 


— eee 


ROSARY. 


Maximianus Hercules, who endeavoured to recov 
his abdicated power. 

Flavius Valerius Severus, murdered by the last 
named pretender ; and 

Flavius Valerianus Licinius, the brother in-law o 
Constantine. 

[Of these, Maximianus Hercules was strangled i 
Gaul,in 310; Galerius Maximianus died wretched]. 
in 311; Maxentius was drowned in the Tiber i 
312; and Licinius was put to death by order o 
Constantine in 324. ] 

. Constantine the Great now reigned alone; died 01 


Whitsunday, 22 May, 337. 
Sons of Constantine; divide 
the empire between them ; th. 
| first was slain in 3.0, and th 

peror. 

. Julian, the Apostate, so called for abjuring Chris 
tianity, having been educated for the priesthood 
mortally wounded in a battle with the Persians 


39> 


307. 


Constantine IT. 
Constans. 


Constantius IL second murdered in 350, whe: 


the third became sole em 


3. 

. Jovian; reigned eight months; found dead in hi 
bed, supposed to have died from the fumes o 
charcoal. 

Valentinian and Valens, 

375. Valens with Gratian and Valentinian II. 

379. Theodosius I., &e. 

392. Theodosius alone. 

395. The Roman empire divided; see Eastern Empire 


Western Empire, Popes, and Italy. 


ROMILLY’S ACT, Smr SAMUEL, 52 Geo 
III. c. 101 (1812) relates to charities. 


RONCESVALLES (in the Pyrenees), where 
it is said, Charlemagne’s paladin, Roland, o 
Orlando, was J egg defeated and slain by th 
Gascons, 77 n 25 July, 1813, marshal Soul 
was defeated here by the British entering France. 


RONDO. A short piece of music having on 
prominent subject to which returns are made, man) 
composed by Beethoven, Chopin, and others. 


ROOF. The largest in the world was said to b: 
that over a riding-school at Moscow, erected it 
1791, being 235 feet in span. The roof of th 
London station of the Midland railway, in Euston 
road, London, N.W., is 240 feet wide, 690 feet long 
125 feet high. The extent of ground covered i 
about 165,000 square feet. 


ROPE-MAKING MACHINE. One wa 
patented by Richard March in 1784, and by Edmd 
Cartwright, in 1792. Many improvements have bee: 
made since, 


RORKE’S DRIFT, boundary of British terri 
tory of Natal, in South Africa and Zululand 
Behind extemporised trenches a handful of Britis! 
soldiers here successfully resisted a large Zul 
army, and probably saved the colony, 22 Jan. 1879 
See Zululand. 


ROSAMOND’S BOWER. Rosamond wa 
daughter of lord Clifford, and mistress of Henry II 
about 1154. A conspiracy against her was formed b} 
the queen, prince Henry, and the king’s other sons 
Henry kept her in a labyrinth at Woodstock, wher 
his queen, Eleanor, it is said, discovered her apart: 
ments by the clue of a silk thread, and poisoned her 
She was buried at Godstow church, from whence 
Hugh, bishop of Lincoln, had her ashes removed 
IIQl. 


ROSARY, see Beads. 


In a brief of pope Pius IX., 30 Sept. 1852, it was assertec 
that 40 repetitions in a rosary of 40 beads of * Swee 
Heart of Mary, be my salvation!” will obtain a larg 
number of days of indulgence for souls in purgatory 
(23,300 days calculated). 


364. 


ROSAS. 


719 


ROTTERDAM. 


ROSAS (N. E. Spain), Bay or, where a brilliant | 
naval action was fought by the boats of the Tigre, | 
Cumberland, Volontaire, Apollo, Topaze, Philomel, 
Scout, and Tuscan, led by lieut. John Tailour (of 
the Tigre), which ended in the capture or destruc- 
tion of eleven armed vessels in the bay, 1 Noy. 
1809; for which purpose lord Collingwood had 
organised the expedition commanded by capt. Hallo- 
well. Rosas was gallantly defended by lord Coch- 
rane, 27 Noy.; but surrendered, 4 Dec. 1809. 


ROSBACH  (Rosebecque), Flanders. Here 
Charles VI. of France beat the Flemings, who had 
revolted against their count, 27 Noy. 1382.—At 
RosBacH, in Prussia, a great battle was fought 
between the Prussians, commanded by Frederick 
the Great, and the combined army of French and 
Austrians, in which the latter were defeated with 
severe loss, 5 Nov. 1757. 


“ROSCIUS, INFANT,’ Wm. Henry West 
Betty, born 13 Sept. 1791. After acting at Belfast, 
16 Aug. 1803, and at other places, with much ap- 
plause, he appeared at Covent-garden, 1 Dec. 1803, 
as Selim, in “ Barbarossa,’ and is said to have 
gained in his first season, 17,2100. 

After several years’ retirement, he re-appeared, but 
soon left the stage, not being successful. He 
retired on the fortune he had amassed, and died 

Aug. 1874 

His portrait may be seen at the Garrick club. 


ROSH, see under F/owers. The rose, a symbol 
of silence, gave rise to the phrase sub rosa, ‘* under 
the rose ;”’ said, by Italian writers, to have risen 
from the circumstance of the pope’s presenting 
consecrated roses, which were placed over the con- 
fessionals at Rome, to denote secrecy, 1526. The 
pope sent a golden rose to the queen of Spain, which 
was given to her with much solemnity, 8 Feb. 1868. 
A ‘‘national rose society”? opened its first annual 
show, St. James’s hall, 4 July, 1877. 


ROSE’S ACT, 33 Geo. III. c. 54 (1793) brought 


benefit societies under the control ot government. 


ROSES, WARS OF THE, between the Lan- 
castrians (who chose the red rose as their emblem) 
and the Yorkists (who chose the white rose), 1455- 
1485. Itisstated that in the Wars of the Roses 
there perished 12 princes of the blood, 200 nobles, 
and 100,000 gentry and common people. The union 
of the roses was effected in the marriage of Henry VII. 
with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IY. 
1486. 

Richard II., who succeeded his grandfather Edward 
Ill. in 1377, was deposed and succeeded in 1399 
by his cousin Henry IV. (son of John of Gaunt, 
duke of Lancaster, the fourth son of Edward IIL), 
in prejudice to the right of Roger Mortimer 
(grandson of Lionel, duke of Clarence, Edward’s 
third son), who was declared presumptive heir to 
the throne in . 2 : : - 2 A : 

Roger’s grandson, Richard duke of York, first 
openly claimed the crownin . : : ars 

Attempts at compromise failed, and the war began 


BDL. . : : : : ‘ : ; 3 
The Lancastrians were defeated at St. Alban’s; the 
protector Somerset was slain; a truce was made, 
and Richard was declared successor to Henry VI. 

23 May, 

The war was renewed, and the Yorkists defeated the 
Lancastrians at Bloreheath ‘ 23 Sept. 

~The Yorkists eventually dispersed, and the duke 
was attainted. 

He defeated his opponents at Northampton, took 
Henry prisoner, and was declared heir to the 
erown; but fell into an ambuscade near Wake- 

-_ field, and was put to death . F on: Dec: 
His son (Edward) continued the struggle; was in- 
stalled as king . ? : : 4 March, 

Defeated the Lancastrians at Towton . 29 March, 


Was deposed by Warwick, who restored Henry VI. 
Sept. 1470 

Edward defeated the Lancastrians at Barnet, 14 
April, and finally at Tewkesbury . 4 May, 1471 

The struggle ended with the defeat and death of 
Richard II. at Bosworth 22 Aug. 1485 


ROSETTA (in Egypt), taken by the French in 
1798 ; and by the British and Turks, 19 April, 180r. 
The Turks repulsed the British here, 22 April, 1807. 
Near Rosetta was fought the battle of the Nile, 
I Aug. 1798; see Nile. Mehemet Ali rendered great, 
service to his country by constructing a canal 
between Rosetta and Alexandria. 

The Rosetta Stone, discovered by the French in 1799, was 
brought from Rosetta in a French vessel, from whence 
it was taken by Mr. Wm. R. Hamilton, who deposited 
it in the British Museum. In 1841, Mr. Letronne pub- 
lished the text and a translation of the Greek inscrip- 
tion. Itis a piece of black basalt, about 3 feet long 
and 2} feet wide, with an inscription in three languages, 
viz., hieroglyphies, modified hieroglyphics (enchorial), 
and Greek, setting forth the praises of Ptolemy 
Epiphanes (about 196 B.c.). It has been studied by 
Dr. T. Young and Champolion. 


ROSICRUCIANS, a sect of mystical philo-- 
sophers who appeared in Germany in the 14th 
century, and again early in the 17th century, occa- 
sioned much controversy. The Confessio Rosee 
Crucis, 1615, is attributed to Valentine Andreas. 
They swore fidelity, promised secrecy, and wrote 
hieroglyphically, and affirmed that the ancient 
philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, Magi of 
Persia, and Gymnosophists of the Indies, taught 
the same doctrine. 


ROSS, Cork (S. Ireland), a bishopric founded, 
it is supposed, by St. Fachnan, in the beginning of 
the 6th century. It was united to Cork in 1340; 
and Cloyne to both, by the Irish Church Temporali- 
ties act (1833) ; see Bishops ; New Ross. 


ROTA CLUB, a society who met at Miles’s 
Coffee-house in New Palace-yard, Westminster, 
during the administration of Oliver Cromwell; 
their plan was that all the great officers of state 
should be chosen by ballot: and that a certain 
number of members of parliament should be changed 
annually by rotation, from whence they took their 
title. Sir William Petty was one of the members 
in 1659. Biog. Brit. 


ROTHESAY CASTLE, see Wrecks, 1831. 
ROTHSCHILD FAMILY. Meyer Am- 


schel, or Anselm, was born at No. 148, Judengasse 
(Jew-lane), Frankfort, in 1743. In 1772 he began 
business as a money-lender and dealer in old coins, 
in the same house, over which he placed the sien 
of the red shield (in German, Roth Schild). Hay- 
ing had dealings with the landgrave of Hesse, that 
prince entrusted him with his treasure (said to have 
been 250,000/.) in 1806, when the French held his 
country. With this sum as capital, Anselm traded 
and made a large fortune, and restored the 2 50,0002. 
to the landgrave in 1815. At his death his sons 
continued the business as partners. His son, Na- 
than, began at Manchester in 1798, removed to 
London in 1803; and died immensely rich, 28 July, 
1836. The baron, James, head of the family, died 
at Paris, 15 Noy. 1868. 


ROTTERDAM, the second city in Holland. 
Its importance dates from the 13th century. The 
commerce of Antwerp was transferred to it in 1 509. 
In 1572, Rotterdam was taken by the Spaniards by 
stratagem, and cruelly treated. It suffered much 
from the French revolutionary wars, and from in- 
undations in 1775 and 1825. Desiderius Erasmus 
was born here in 1467. The museum and picture- 


ROUEN. 


720 


ROYAL ACADEMY. 


gallery of Rotterdam were destroyed at the fire of 
the Schieland palace, 16 Feb. 1864. 


ROUEN (N. France), an archbishopric, 260, be- 


came the capital of Normandy in the Ioth century. | 
Tt was held by the English kings till 1204; and was | 


retaken by Henry V., 19 Jan. 1419. Joan of Are, 

the Maid of Orleans, was burnt here, 30 May, 1431. 

It was taken by Charles VII. of France in 1449; 

and by the duke of Guise from the Huguenots, Oct. 

1562 and 1591. Rouen, after slight conflicts, 4, 5 

Dec. 1870, surrendered to general Von Goben, 

6 Dec. It was ordered to pay a contribution of 

17,000,000 francs. 

The theatre, destroyed by fire; many persons in- 
jured, and 13 killed . : , ; 25 April, 1876 
“ROUGH TERROR,” a term given in 1874 

to the prevalence of brutal assaults on women, 
children, and unprotected persons among the lower 
classes, especially in Lancashire and other manu- 
facturing districts, for the repression of which the 
law appeared to be inadequate. 


ROUMANTA, « kingdom, the name assumed 
by the Danubian principalities (which see) on 23 
Dec. 1861, when their union was proclaimed a 
Bucharest and Jassy. 

M. Catargi, the president of the council of minis- 
ters, assassinated as he was leaving the chamber 


of deputies : 5 5 : ' 20 June, 1862 
The united chambers of the two principalities meet 

at Bucharest ; : . . 3 ROH CL 
Coup d’état of prince Couza against the aristocrats 5 

a plebiscite for a new constitution, 2 May ; which 

is adopted é 28 May, 1864 


Law passed enabling peasants to hold land = Aug. ,, 
Revolt at Bucharest suppressed, 15 Aug. ; amnesty, 


, rr Sept. 1865 
Revolution at Bucharest; forced abdication of 
prince Couza ; and provisional government esta- 
blished 22 Feb. 1866 


The offered crown declined by the count of Flan- 
ders, Feb.; prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sig- 
maringen elected hospodar by plebiscite, 20 
April; enthusiastically received at Bucharest, 
‘22 May ; sworn to observe the constitution 

Ta gas 

Recognised hereditary hospodar by the sultan, and 
received at Constantinople - af OCt.< 8% 

Roumania unsettled ; “‘ nationality” projects, Nov. 1867 

The legislature proposes to repudiate the just claims 
of the German shareholders in the Roumanian 
railways ; the prince assents reluctantly ; Bis- 
marck appeals to the Porte, which declines to 
interfere . : : : July- Aug. 

Peace between the prince and chambers NOV ease 

Austria, Germany, and Russia inform Turkey that 
they claim the right to conclude separate treaties 
with Roumania; the sultan objects ; Oct. 

Convention with Russia, giving permission to cross 
Roumania, signed 16 April ; Russians enter Mol- 
davia A - ¥ : ; - 24 April, 

The Senate vote a declaration of independence and 
war with Turkey . . . ~ ex May,~,, 

The Roumanians actively engaged before Plevna. 

See Russo-Turkish War, 1877. 

Roumania declared independent by treaties of San 
Stefano (3 March) and of Berlin (losing the part 
of Bessarabia acquired in 1856, in exchange for 
the Dobrudscha) : : : . 13 July, 

Independence recognised by England, France, and 
Germany . . : : eek Ae 20 Feb. 

The prince and princess crowned king and queen, 

23 May, 

Temporary rupture with Austria respecting the 

Danube, about 5 o 2 t=27 UCC res, 
PRINCES AND KING OF ROUMANIA. 

1859. Alexander Couza ; abdicated 1866. _ 

1866. Charles I. (of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen) ; born 
20 April, 1839; elected 20 April, 1866 ; mar- 
ried Elizabeth, daughter of prince Hermann 
von Wied, 15 Noy. 1869; nominated KING 26 
March, 1881, and crowned with the queen, 23 
May, 1881. 


_earl of Essex, about I510. 


ROUMELIA or RomAntA (Turkey), part of 
Thrace (which sce). The Roumelian railway opened 
17 June, 1873. Population, 1880, 815,946. 

By the treaty of Berlin, the province of Eastern 

Roumelia was constituted, to be partly autono- 

mous, with a Christian governor, nominated by 


the sultan. 3 : 2 ; - 13 July, 1878 
Sir H. D. Wolff appointed H.M.’s European com- 
missioner for organisation of the province, 
TOUS. § 5, 
Russian prince Dondoukoff Khorsakoff rules here 
July-Nov. ,,; 


Scheme for government of the province approved 
by the sultan and the allied commissioners Nov. 


39 
Russian evacuation begins. : . 5 May, 1879 
Aleko Pasha (prince Alexander Vogorides, a Bul- 


garian) installed as governor at Philippopolis 


ay gt 30 May, ,, 
Much political disorganisation reported Hept....,, 
Tranquillity restored . ‘ , . - Sec. 55 
Great prosperity reported : . Sept. 1883 


governor-general by the 


M. Crestovitch appointed 
. to May, 1884 


Porte, about . 5 ‘ é : 

ROUND. Aspecies of musical canon in regular 
rhythm. Ancient rounds for six voices were com- 
posed in Italy, and introduced into England by the 
The first printed col- 
lection appeared in 1609. Warren’s collection pub- 
lished 1763-94. Round, Catch, and Canon club 
founded in 1843. 


ROUND-HEADS. In the civil war which 
began in 1642, the adherents of Charles I. were 
called Cavaliers, and the friends of the parliament 
Round-heads. The term, it is said, arose from those 
persons who had a round bowl or dish put upon 
their heads, and their hair cut to the edge of the 
bowl; see Cavaliers. 

ROUNDWAY DOWN (near Devizes, Wilt- 
shire). Here the royalists defeated the parliamen- 
tarians with great slaughter, 13 July, 1643. 

ROVEREDO (Austrian Tyrol) was held by 


the Venetians from 1416 till 1609, when it was ac- 
quired by Austria. It was taken by Bonaparte and 


the French, 4 Sept. 1796, after a brilliant victory. 


ROWING, see Boat Races, Doggett, and Unn 
versity. 
On 16 Oct. 1873, Mr. Reginald Herbert undertook to row 

on the Thames, from Maidenhead to Westminster 

bridge (47 miles 3 furlongs), in twelve hours, for roool. 

He did it in roh. 2m. 19sec. 

ROWLAND HILL MEMORIAL FUND. 
See Mansion House. Mr. W. D. Keyworth was 
chosen to make a bust of sir Rowland Hill for 
Westminster abbey, March, 1881. The establish- 
ment of a benevolent fund for the widows and 
orphans of postmen was proposed. A statue of him 
at the Royal Exchange uncovered by the prince of 
Wales, 17 June, 1882. 


ROXBURGHE CLUB was _ instituted in 
1812 by earl Spencer, for the republication of rare 
books, or unpublished MSS., in memory of John 
duke of Roxburghe. 


ROYAL AGRICULTURAL, ASTRONOMICAL, 
GEOGRAPHICAL, HORTICULTURAL, &c.; sev 
under Agriculture, Astronomy, Geography, Horti- 
culture, &e. 


ROYAL ACADEMY. A society of artists 
met in St. Peter’s-court, St. Martin’s-lane, about. 
1739, which Hogarth established as the society of 
Incorporated Artists, who held their first exhibition 
at the Society of Arts, Adelphi, 21 April, 1760. 
From this sprang the Royal Academy, im con- 
sequence of a dispute between the directors and the 
fellows. On 10 Dec. 1768, the institution of the 


ROYAL ACADEMY. 


present Royal Academy was completed under the 
patronage of George II].; and sir Joshua Reynolds, 
snighted on the occasion, was appointed its first 
resident. Leigh. ‘The first exhibition of the 
wademicians (at Pall-Mall) was on 26 April, 1769, 
when 136 works appeared. In 1771 the king 
granted them apartments in old Somerset-house, 
ind afterwards, in 1780, in new Somerset-house, 
vhere they remained till 1838, when they removed 
0 the National Gallery. Among the professors have 
een Johnson, Gibbon, Goldsmith, Macaulay, and 
dallam. Turner, the painter, gave funds to the 
cademy for the award of a medal triennially for 
andscape-painting, which was awarded to Mr. N. 
). Lupton in 1857. A commission of inquiry into 
he affairs of the academy, appointed in 1862, re- 
ommended various changes in July, 1863, which 
vere carried into effect. The hundredth anniversary 
f the foundation ofthe academy was celebrated 
0 Dec. 1868. The Royal Academy held its first 
xhibition in the new building, 3 May, 1869. The 
nnual exhibition of pictures by the old masters, 
vith some British, began 3 Jan. 1870. The money 
eceived has been devoted to the establishment of 
_professorship of chemistry and a laboratory, &c. 
n 1874 the exhibition included many of Landseer’s 
ictures. 
ir Francis Chantrey, sculptor, died 25 Novy. 1841. At 
the death of his wife Jan. 1875, in conformity with 
his will, about 3000/. a year accrued to the Academy 
for the purchase of works of art for the nation, and 
other purposes. 
‘he gallery containing the sculptures of John Gibson, 
bequeathed by him, was opened free, 27 Nov. 1876. 


PRESIDENTS. 
Sir Joshua Reynolds. 
792. Benjamin West. 
805. James Wyatt. 
. Benjamin West. 
. Sir Thomas Lawrence, 
. Sir Martin A. Shee. 
. Sir Charles Eastlake, died 23 Dec. 1865. 
. Sir Edwin Landseer elected ; declines, 24 Jan, 
», Sir Francis Grant, Feb. 1; died 5 Oct. 1878. 
. Sir Frederick Leighton, 13 Nov. 


ROYAL ACADEMY or MUSIC was es- 
ublished in 1823, mainly by the exertions of lord 
urghersh (afterwards earl of Westmoreland, who 
ied 16 Oct. 1859), and was incorporated by charter 
3 June, 1830. The first concert took place 8 
lec. 1828. Its reconstruction was proposed in 1866, 
ad since effected. 


ROYAL ADELAIDE, see Wrecks, 1850. 
ROYAL ASSENT. If the king assent to a 


iblic bill, the clerk of the parliament declares in 
orman French, ‘‘ Le roy le veult,’’ the king wills 
so to be. If the king refuses his assent, it isin the 
mtle language of ‘‘Le roy s’avisera,”’ the king 
ill consider it. Hale. By the statute 33 Hen. 
II., 1541, the king may give his assent by letters- 
tent. Blackstone's Com. 


ROYAL BOUNTY, a fund from which sums 


e granted to female relatives of officers killed or 
ortally wounded during service. 


ROYAL CHARTER, sce Wrecks, 1859. 
ROYAL EXCHANGE (Cambium Regis), 


mdon. The foundation of the original edifice was 
id by sir Thomas Gresham, 7 June, 1566, on the 
te of the ancient Tun prison. Queen Elizabeth 
ened it on 23 Jan. 1571, and her herald named it 
e Royal Exchange. Hume. It was totally de- 
toyed bythe great fire, Sept. 1666. Charles II. 
id the foundation-stone of the next edifice, 23 Oct. 
7, which was completed by Mr. Hawkesmore, a 


768. 


721 


ROYAL INSTITUTION. 


pupil of sir Christopher Wren, in about three 
years ; it was repaired and beautified in 1769. This 
also was burnt, 10 Jan. 1838. The new Royal Ex- 
change, erected under the direction of Mr. Tite, was 
opened by the queen, 28 Oct. 1844.—The Roya. 
EXcHANGE, Dublin, commenced 1769, opened 1779. 


ROYAL GEORGE, a man-of-war of 108 
guns, lost off Spithead. While keeled over to repair 
a pipe, a sudden gust of wind washed the sea into 
her ports, and she went down. The rear-admiral 
Kempenfeldt, the crew, many marines, women, and 
Jews, in all about 600 persons, were drowned, 29 
Aug. 1782. By the use of the diving-bell, the ship, 
embedded in the deep, was surveyed in May, 1817, 
et seg. Portions of the vessel and its cargo were 
brought up in 1839-42, under the superintendence 
of sir Charles Pasley, when gunpowder was ignited 
by the agency of electricity. 


ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY (London), 


see Humane Society. 


ROYAL INSTITUTION oF GreEar 
BRITAIN, the earliest of the kind in London, was 
founded g March, 1799, by count Rumford, sir 
Joseph Banks, earls Spencer and Morton, and several 
other noblemen and gentlemen. It received the 
immediate patronage of George III., and was in- 
corporated 13 Jan. 1800, by royal charter, as ‘‘ The 
Royal Institution of Great Britain, for the diffusing 
knowledge, and facilitating the general introduc- 
tion of useful mechanical inventions and improve- 
ments, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical 
lectures and experiments, the application of science 
to the common purposes of life.” It was enlarged 
and extended by an act of parliament in 1810; the 
original plan, as drawn up by count Rumford, in 
1799, having been considerably modified. The mem- 
bers are elected by ballot, and pay ten guineas on 
admission, and five guineas annually, or a com- 
position of sixty guineas. ‘‘The Royal Institution, 
its Founder, and its first Professors,’ by Dr. Bence 
Jones, hon. sec., published 1871. 


The House (in Albemarle-street, Piccadilly) was pur- 
chased in June, 1799, and the present front was added 
by subscription in 1838. The Lecture theatre was 
erected in 1803, under the superintendence of Mr. T. 
Webster. 

The Laboratory established in 1800; was rebuilt, with 
the modern improvements, 1872. 

The LisrARY was commenced in 1803, by the munificent 
subscriptions of the proprietors of the institution. 
It now (1885) comprises about 50,000 volumes. Clas- 
sified catalogues (by W. Harris) were published in 
1809 and 1821; new ones(by B. Vincent)in 1857 and 188r. 

The Museum contains original philosophical apparatus 
of Young, Cavendish, Davy, and Faraday. 

The first LecruRE was delivered 4 March, 1801, by Dr. 
Garnett, he bemg the first professor of natural philo- 
sophy and chemistry. 

In Aug. he was succeeded by Dr. Thomas Young, so cele- 
brated for his researches in optics, resulting in the 
discovery of the interference of light, and the estab- 
lishment of the theory of undulation. His ‘‘ Lectures 
on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts,” first 
published in 1807, are still considered a text-book of 
physical science. His works on antiquarian literature 
(hieroglyphic inscriptions, &ec.) are also highly es- 
teemed. 

In Feb. 1801, Mr. (afterwards sir Humphry) Davy was 
engaged as assistant lecturer and director of the labo- 
ratory, and on 31 May, 1802, hé was appointed pro- 
fessor of chemistry. His lectures were eminently 
successful, and his discoveries in chemistry and elee- 
tricity have immortalised his name, and conferred 
honour on the institution. By him the alkaloids, po- 
tassium and sodium, were discovered in 1807; the 


nature of chlorine was determined in 1810, and the ' 


safety-lamp invented in 1815. 
William Thomas Brande succeeded sir Humphry as pro- 
fessor of chemistry in 1813, and held that office till his 


3A 


ROYAL MARRIAGE ACT. 


722 


ROYAL SOCIETY. , 


resignation in 1852, since which time, till his death 
(Feb. 1866), he was hon. professor, From 1816 to 1850 
he delivered, in the laboratory of this institution, his 
celebrated chemical lectures to students. 

1813 Michael Faraday (born 22 Sept. 1791), on the 
recommendation of sir H. Davy, was engaged as as- 
sistant in the laboratory, and in 1825 as its director ; 
in 1827 he became one of the permanent lecturers of 
the institution. In 1820 he commenced those researches 
in electricity and magnetism which form an era in the 
history of science. In 1823-4 he discovered the con- 
densability of chlorine and other gases; in 1831 he 
obtained electricity from the magnet; in 1845 he ex- 
hibited the two-fold magnetism of matter, compre- 
hending all known substances, the magnetism of gases, 
flame, &c.; in 1850 he published his researches on 
atmospheric magnetism: died, 25 Aug. 1867. 

John Tyndall, F.R.S., the present professor of natural 
philosophy, first elected in July, 1853, is eminent for 
his researches on magnetism, heat, glaciers, &c. 

Edward Frankland, F.R.8., professor of chemistry 1863-8, 
is eminent for his discoveries in organic chemistry. 

In 1804, sir J. St. Aubyn and other gentlemen proposed 
to form a SCHOOL OF MINES at this institution ; but the 
plan, although warmly supported by the members, was 
withdrawn for want of encouragement by the govern- 
ment and by mining proprietors. 

The WEEKLY EVENING MEETINGS, on the Fridays, from 
January to June, as now arranged, commenced in 
1826. Discourses (of which abstracts are printed) are 
given at these meetings by the professors of the insti- 
tution, and other eminent scientific men. 

Enpowments. In 1833, John Fuller, esq., of Rosehill, 
endowed two professorships, of chemistry and physio- 
logy; the former bestowed on Mr. Faraday for life; 
succeeded by Dr. Wm. Odling, 1868-73; by Dr. John 
Hall Gladstone, 1874; by James Dewar, 1877. The 
latter on Dr. Roget for three years, to be filled up after- 
wards by triennial election.—The Fullerian professors 
of physiology have been P. M. Roget, R. E. Grant, T. 
R. Jones, W. B. Carpenter, W. W. Gull, T. W. Jones, 
T. H. Huxley (twice), R. Owen, J. Marshall, Michael 
Foster, Wm. Rutherford, Alfred H. Garrod, and E. A. 
Schifer (1878-81), J. G. McKendrick, 1881-4; A. Gamgee, 
1884.—In 1828, Mrs. Acton gave roool, to be invested for 
paying every seven years roo guineas for the best essay 
on the beneficence of the Almighty, as illustrative of a 
department of science; which have been awarded— in 
1844 to Mr. G. Fownes; in 1851 to Mr. T. Wharton 
Jones; in 1858 no award was made; in 1865 to Mr. 
George Warington; in 1872 to Rev. George Henslow 
and B. Thompson Lowne ; in 1879, to Mr. G. T. Boulger. 

The ‘‘Fund for the Promotion of Experimental Re- 
searches ” was founded on 6 July, 1863, by sir Henry 
Holland, Professor Faraday, sir R. I. Murchison,. Dr. 
Bence Jones, and others. 

The first officers were sir Joseph Banks, president, till the 
charter was granted, afterwards the earl of Winchilsea ; 
Mr. (afterwards sir Thomas) Bernard, treasurer; rev. 
Dr. Samuel Glasse, secretary.—Algernon duke of 
Northumberland, K.G., elected president, 1842; suc- 
ceeded by sir Henry Holland, in 1865 (died 27 Oct. 
1873) ; by Algernon George, duke of Northumberland, 
1873. W. Pole, esq., treasurer, elected 1849; suc- 
ceeded by Wm. Spottiswoode, esq., in 1865; by George 
Busk, esq., 1873. The rev. John Barlow, secretary, 
elected 1842; succeeded by Henry Bence Jones, M.D., 
1860; by Wm. Spottiswoode, 1873; by Warren de 
la Rue, 1879; by sir Wm. Bowman, 1882; by sir Frede- 
rick J. Bramwell, 1885. Librarians: Wm. Harris, 
1803-23; S. Weller Singer, 1826-35; Wm. Mason, 1835-48; 
Benjamin Vincent, 18409. 


ROYAL MARRIAGE ACT, &c., see Mar- 
riage Act ; Military and Naval Asylums ; Navy, 
and Prerogative. 


ROYAL NAVAL COLLEGE, see Naval. 
ROYAL SOCIETY (London). In 1645 


several learned men met in London to discuss philo- 
sophical questions and report experiments; the 
Novum Organon of Bacon, published in 1620, hav- 
ing given great impulse to such pursuits. Some of 
them (Drs. Wilkins, Wallis, &c.), about 1648-9, 
removed to Oxford, and with Dr. (afterwards Hisar 
Seth Ward, the hon. Robert Boyle, Dr. (afterwards 


sir) W. Petty, and several doctors of divinity and 
physic, frequently assembled in the apartments of 
Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham college, Oxford. They 
formed what has been called the Philosophical 
Society of Oxford, which only lasted till 1690. The 
members were, about 1658, called to various parts 
of the kingdom, on account of their respective pro- 
fessions; and the majority coming to London, con- 
stantly attended the lectures at Gresham college, 
and met occasionally till the death of Oliver Crom- 
well, 3 Sept. 1658; see Societies. 


The society was organised in 1660, and constituted by 
Charles II. a body politic and corporate, by the appella- 
tion of ‘‘ The President, Council, and Fellowship of the 
Royal Society of London, for improving Natural Know- 
ledge,” 22 April, 1662. 

Evelyn records the first anniversary meeting, St. An- 
drew’s-day, 30 Nov. 1663. 

The Philosophical Transactions begin 6 March, 1664-5. 

In 1668 Newton invented his reflecting telescope (now in 
the possession of the society), and on 28 April, 1686, 
presented to the society the MS. of his Principia, 
which the council ordered to be printed. This was 
done under the superintendence and at the expense of 
Halley the astronomer, at that time clerk to the 
society. 

The society met for some years at Gresham College, and 
afterwards at Arundel House (1666), where it came 
into possession of a valuable library, presented by Mr. 
Howard, grandson of its collector, the earl of Arundel. 
After various changes the fellows returned to Gresham 
College, where they remained till their removal to 
Crane-court, in a house purchased by themselves, 
8 Nov. 1710. 

The Bakerian lecture was established by Henry Baker, 


1774. 

The first Copley medal was awarded to Stephen Gray in 
1731; the royal medal to John Dalton, 1826; the Rum- 
ford medal (instituted in 1797) to count Rumford him- 
self in 1800. 

The society remove to apartments granted them in Somer- 
set-house, 1780; to apartments in Burlington-house, 
Piccadilly, 1857. 

Parliament votes annually roool. to the Royal Society 
for scientific purposes. 

Regulations made by which only fifteen fellows are to be 
annually elected, who pay ten pounds on admission, and 
four pounds annually, or a composition of sixty pounds, 
March, 1847. In consequence, the number of fellows 
was reduced from 839 in 1847, to 626 in 1866; to 567 in 
1875; to 552 in 1877. 

The entrance fee abolished, and the annual payment re- 
duced to 3/., announced, Nov. 1878. 

The “Royal Society Scientific Fund” was founded in 
imitation of the ‘‘ Literary Fund” in 1859; see Scien- 
tific Fund. 

The Davy Medal (which see) first awarded, Noy. 1877. 


PRESIDENTS. 
1660. Sir Robert Moray. 1768. James West. 
1663. Lord Brouncker. 1772. James Burrow. 
1677. SirJosephWilliamson| ,, Sir John Pringle. 
1680. SirChristopher Wren. | 1778. Sir Joseph Banks. 
1682. Sir John Hoskyns. 1820. Dr. W. H. Wollaston. 
1683. Sir Cyril Wyche. ,, Sir Humphry Davy. 
1684. Samuel Pepys, author | 1827. Davies Gilbert. 

of Diary. 1830. Duke of Sussex. 
1686. John, earl of Carbery. | 1838. Marquis of North- 
1689. Thomas, earl of Pem- ampton. 

broke. 1848. Earl of Rosse. 
1690. Sir Robert Southwell. | 1854. Lord Wrottesley. 
1695. Chas. Montague (afts, | 1858. Sir Benj. C. Brodie. 


earl of Halifax). 
John, lord Somers... 


1861. Maj.-gen. sir Edward 
Sabine. 


1698. 
Sir G. B. Airy. 


1703. Sir Isaac Newton. 1871. ‘ 
1727. Sir Hans Sloane. 1873. Dr., afterwards sir, 
1741. Martin Folkes. Joseph Daltom 
1752. George, earl of Mac- Hooker. 

clesfield. 1878. Wm. Spottiswoode, 
1764. James, earlof Morton, died 27 June, 1883. 


1768. James Burrow. 1883. T. H. Huxley, 5 July. 


ROYAL SOCIETY oF EDINBURGH, incor-| 
porated 29 March, 1783, arose out of the Philoso- 
phical Society of Edinburgh, founded in 1739. It 
received a second charter in I8II. 


ROYAL SOCIETY. 
ROYAL SOCIETY or LITERATURE was 


ounded under the auspices of king George LV. in 
$23, and chartered 13 Sept. 1826. 


ROYAL STYLE, see Style, Royal. 
ROYAL UNIVERSITY or IRELAND, see 


Tniversity. 

RUBICON, a small river flowing into the 
driatic sea, separated Cisalpine Gaul from Italy 
roper. Roman generals were forbidden to pass 
us river at the head of an army. Julius Cesar 
id so, Jan. 49 B.C., and thereby began a revolt and 
eadly civil war. 


RUBIDIUM, an alkaline metal, discovered by 
unsen by means of the spectrum analysis, and 
ade known in 1861. 


RUBRICS, directions in church offices, often 
tinted in red. New ones for the English service 
sreed to by convocation, 4 July, 1879. 


RUFFLES became fashionable about 1520; 
ad went out about 1790. 


RUGBY SCHOOL (Warwickshire), was 
unded in 1567 by Lawrence Sheriff, a London 
desman; its arrangements were affected by the 
ublic Schools act 1868. Dr. Thomas Arnold, the 
storian, entered on the duties of head-master here 
_ August, 1828, and under him the school greatly 
‘ospered. Hedied 12 June, 1842. See New Rugby. 
r. H. Hayman, one of his successors, was opposed by 
the masters of the school, and after much dissension 
and discussion, was dismissed by the trustees, Dec. 
1873, and Dr, Jex Blake elected in his room, Feb. 1874. 
Vice-Chancellor Malins decided against Dr. Hayman in 
his attempt to set aside his dismissal, but expressed 
his own opinion on ‘‘the grievous hardship of Dr. 
Hayman’s case,” 21 March, 1874. 

r. Disraeli, the premier, presented Dr. Hayman to 
the living of Aldingham, Lancashire, April, 1874. 


RUGEN, anisland in the Baltic, has frequently 

anged masters, having been held by the Danes, 

vedes, and French. It was transferred to Prussia 
1815. 


RUHMKORFFY’S INDUCTION COIL, 


e Induction. 


“RULE, BRITANNIA.” Nearly all the 
mds are by James Thomson; the music, ascribed 
Dr. Arne, is said by Schcelcher (in his life of 
-andel) to have been taken from an air in Handel’s 
Oecasional Oratorio’’ composed 1746, but the song 
d music were really printed in Dr. Arne’s masque 
‘* Alfred,” 1740. Grove. 


-RULE-OF-THE-ROAD, see Seas. 
RULING MACHINES, used for ruling 


per with faint lines, for merchants’ account- 
oks, &c. They were invented by an ingenious 
‘itchman, resident in London, in 1782, and were 
bsequently greatly improved by Woodmason, 
yne, Brown, and others. ‘hey were improved 
Scotland in 1803. An invention has lately ren- 
red account-books perfect by the numbering of 
» pages with types, instead of the numbers being 
-itten by a pen, so that a page cannot be torn out 
m them without being discovered. The late Herr 
A. Nobert devised a ruling machine in 1845 for 
‘2 production of microscopical test plates, diftrac- 
‘nm gratings, and micrometers, specimens of which 
re exhibited in 1851. The test plates contain 
nds of lines in a graduated series of fineness from 
oo tO spdq5 Of a Paris line. 


RUM (French rhwm), ardent spirit distilled 
m sugar lees and molasses, deriving its peculiar 


723 


RUSSELL ADMINISTRATIONS. 


flavour from a volatile oil. Rum is principally 
made in the West Indies. The duty (since 1858) on 
colonial rum imported into the United Kingdom is 
8s. 2d. per gallon. The duty on rum to be employed 
as methylated spirits was reduced in 1863. 


Imported. Gallons. | Imported. Gallons. 
1848 . - 6,858,981 | 1879 : e 6,946,657 
1851 4,745,244 | 1880 , 6,107,661 
1857 6,515,683 | 188r - 4,816,887 
1863 72194,738 | 1882 + 71305,679 
1871 7,526,890 | 1883 51979498 
ID 77 + 7,920,150 


RUMFORD MEDAL, sce Royal Society. 


RUMP PARLIAMENT, see Pride’s Purge. 
RUNES. Alphabetic characters, probably of 


Phoenician origin, but popularly ascribed to the god 
Odin, cut or scratched on stone monuments, wea- 
pons, ornaments, implements, &c., which have been 
hypothetically dated from 1000 B.c. to 1000 A.D. ; 
principally found in Scandinavia and England, and 
sometimes in Western Europe. Professor George 
Stephens, of Copenhagen, in his “Old Northern 
Runic Monuments in Scandinavia and England ”’ 
(1866-84), has given the results of forty years’ 
studies. 


RUNNY-MEDE (council-mead), near Egham, 
Surrey. Here king John granted Magna Charta, 
15 June, 1215. 


RUPERT’S LAND (N. America), or Red 
Ttiver Settlement, formerly the territories of the 
Hudson’s bay company, was made a bishopric in 
1849. See Hudson’s Bay, Canada, and Manitoba. 


RUPTURE SOCIETY, London, established 
1804; see Truss. 


RUSKIN MUSEUM, see Sheffield. 
RUSSELL ADMINISTRATIONS, * see 


Palmerston Administration, &e. 


FIRST ADMINISTRATION (formed on the resignation of sir 
Robert Peel), July, 1846. 


First lord of the treasury, lord John Russell. 

Lord chancellor, lord Cottenham (succeeded by lord 
Truro). 

Lord president of the council, marquis of Lansdowne. 

Privy seal, earl of Minto. 

Chancellor. of the exchequer, Mr. (aft. sir Charles) Wood. 

Foreign, home, and colonial secretaries, viscount Pal- 
merston, sir George Grey, and earl Grey. 

Boards of control and trade, sir John Hobhouse (aft. lord 
Broughton), and earl of Clarendon (succeeded by Mr. 
Labouchere). 

Admiralty, the earl of Auckland (succeeded by sir 
Francis Thornhill Baring). 

Duchy of Lancaster, lord Campbell (succeeded by the earl 
of Carlisle, late viscount Morpeth), 

Secretary at war, Mr. Fox Maule. 

Postmaster, marquis of Clanricarde. 

Paymaster-general, T. B. Macaulay. 

Lord John Russell and his colleagues resigned their 
offices, 21 Feb. 1851; but were induced (after the 
failure of lord Stanley’s party to form an adminis- 
tration) to return to power, 3 March following. 


* Lord John Russell, third son of John, duke of 
Bedford, was born 19 Aug. 1792; M.P. for Tavistock, 
1813 ; for London, 1841-61 ; was paymaster of the forces, 
1830-34 ; secretary for home department, 1835-9; for the 
colonies,» 1839-41; first minister, July 1846 to March 
1852; secretary for foreign affairs, Dec. 1852 to Feb. 
1853; president of the council, June 1854 to Feb. 1855 ; 
secretary for the colonies, March to Nov. 1855 ; secretary 
for foreign affairs, June 1859 to Oct. 1865, when he suc- 
ceeded lord Palmerston as premier; created a peer, as 
earl Russell, 30 July, 1861. His motion for reform in 
parliament was negatived in 1822; adopted x March, 
1831; he introduced the registration bill and a new 
marriage bill in 1836 ; introduced and withdrew a reform 


bill, 1860; died, 28 May, 1878. 
3A 2 


RUSSELL INSTITUTION. 


SECOND ADMINISTRATION (or continuation of his first), 
March, 1851. 

First lord of the treasury, lord John Russell. 

President of the council, marquis of Lansdowne. 

Lord privy seal, earl of Minto. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, sir Charles Wood. 

Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries, sir George Grey, 
viscount Palmerston (succeeded by earl Granville, 22 
Dec.), and earl Grey. | 

Lord chancellor, lord Truro. 

First lord of the admiralty, sir Francis T. Baring. 

Board of control, lord Broughton. 

Board of trade, Mr. Labouchere. 

Secretary at war, Mr. Fox Maule (aft. lord Panmure, and 
earl of Dalhousie). 

Postmaster-general, marquis of Clanricarde. 

Paymaster-general, earl Granville. 

Lord Seymour, earl of Carlisle, &e. 

This ministry resigned 21 Feb. 1852; see Derby Adninis- 
tration. 

THIRD ADMINISTRATION. (On the decease of lord Pal- 
merston, 18 Oct. 1865, earl Russell received Her 
Majesty’s commands to reconstruct the adminis- 
tration.) 

First lord of the treasury, John, earl Russell. 

Lord chancellor, Robert, lord Cranworth. 

Postmaster-general, John, lord Stanley of Alderley. 

President of the poor-law board, Chas. Pelham Villiers 

Lord president of the council, George, earl Granville. 

Lord privy seal, George, duke of Argyll. 

Chancellor of the eachequer, Wm. E. Gladstone. 

Secretaries—foreign affairs, George, earl of Clarendon ; 
colonies, Edward Cardwell; home, sir George Grey ; 
war, George, earl de Grey and Ripon, succeeded by 
Spencer, marquis of Hartington, Feb. 1866; India, sir 
Charles Wood, resigned (created viscount Halifax) ; 
sueceeded by earl De Grey, Feb. 1866. 

First lord of the admiralty, Edward, duke of Somerset. 

President of the board of trade, Thos. Milner Gibson. 

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, George J. Goschen. 

Secretary for Ireland, Chichester Fortescue. 

This ministry resigned, 26 June, 1866, in consequence of 
a minority on 19 June (see under Reform, and Derby 
Administrations). . 


RUSSELL INSTITUTION (Great Coram- 
street, London), was founded in 1808 by sir Samuel 
Romilly, Francis Horner, Dr. Mason Good, Henry 
Hallam, sir James Scarlett (since lord Abinger), and 
others. The building comprises a library, new 
room, billiard room, &c. 


RUSSELL TRIAL. William, lord Russell’s 
trial for complicity in the Rye-house plot was 
marked by a most touching scene. When he re- 
quested to have some one near him to take notes to 
help his memory, he was answered, that any of 
his attendants might assist him; upon which he 
said, ‘‘ My wIFe is here, and will do it for me.” 
He was beheaded in Lincoln’s-Inn- Fields, 21 July, 
1683. Lady Russell survived him forty years, 
dying 29 Sept. 1723, in her eighty-seventh year. 
His attainder was reversed, I Will. III. 1689. 


RUSSIA, the eastern part of ancient Sarmatia. 
The name is generally derived from the Roxolani, 
a Slavonic tribe. Ruric, a Varangian 
appears to have been the first to establish a govern- 
ment, 862. His descendants ruled amid many 
vicissitudes till 1598. The progress of the Russian 
power under Peter the Great and Catherine II. is 
unequalled for rapidity in the history of the world. 
‘he established religion of Russia is the Greek 
church, with toleration of other sects, even Mahome- 
tans. By animperial ukase, in 1802, six universi- 
ties were established, viz., at St. Petersburg, 
Moscow, Wilna, Dorpat (in Livonia), Charcov, and 
Kasan; but literature made little progress till the 
present century, the native publications being 
very few, and the best books being translations. 
The Russian language, though not devoid of 
elegance, is, to a foreigner, of very difficult pro- 


724 


chief, . 


RUSSIA. 


nunciation : the number of letters and diphthongs is 
forty-two. The population of the empire in 1867, 
82,159,630; in 1872, about 85,685,945; in 1877 
(estimated), 86,952,347; in 1881, 102,187,600. By 
the first Russian budget (1862), the estimated 
revenue was 34,500,000/. ; expenditure, 37,850,000/. 
Besides about 500 cathedrals, about 35,000 churches 
(Greek church, which see). 


Russia invaded by the Huns . 5 4 A.D. 
Ruric the Norman or Varangian, arrives at Novgorod 
(or New City), and becomes grand duke [anni- 
versary kept 20 Sept. 1862] : P : 4 ay 
Oleg successfully invades the Greek empire . 5 
Baptism of Olga, widow of duke Igor, at Con- 
stantinople, about , : : q ; ee O55 
Vladimir the Great marries Anne, sister of the 
emperor Basil II., and is baptized : y - 988 
The Golden Horde of Tartars conquer a large part 
of Russia about : : 3 es 
The grand duke Jurie killed in battle A = / 1237 
Alexander Newski defeats the invading Danes . 1241 
The Tartars establish the empire of the khan of 
Kaptschak, and exercise great influence in Russia 1242 
He is made grand duke of Russia by the Tartars . 1252 
Moscow made the eapital . : : 2 A . 130C 
Tartar war, 1380; Moscow burnt. K z aa PAQCENS 
Tamerlane invades Russia, but retires. : - 1395 
Accession of Ivan III. the Great—able and despotic, 
founds the present monarchy . . ks ee h407 
Ivan introduces fire-arms and cannon into Russia . 1475 
Great invasion of the Tartars; consternation of 
Ivan AR : 2 ; 4 ¢ é - 1479 
His general Svenigorod annihilates their power. 1481 
War with Poland . ; : ; ; A - 1506-23 
The English ‘‘ Russian company” established pe25 3 
Richard Chancellor sent to open the trade supe WEES 4 
Discovery of Siberia - 5 - s es 
The royal body-guard (the Strelitz) established . 1568 
Ivan solicits the hand of queen Elizabeth of 
England , : : : “ : : : 
Murder of Feodor I., last ofthe race of Ruric, which 
had governed Russia for 700 years ote 
The imposition of Demetrius (see Impostors).— 
Matins of Moscow : : é . 29 May, 
Michael Fedorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, 
ascends the throne . A : . 3 ee EO Le 
Finland ceded to Sweden s - = - COI 
Russian victories in Poland , F : - “s 1654 
Subjugation of the Cossacks. é : : . 1671 
Reign of Ivan and Peter I. or the Great . .. . 1682 
Peter sole sovereign 1689 
He visits Holland and 
dockyard at Deptford : : ; : aes 
Recalled by a conspiracy of the Strelitz, which he 
cruelly revenges ; 2000 tortured and slain ; he be- 
heads many with his own hand . : . 5 
The Russians begin their new year from x Jan. (but 
retain the old style) . ; ; 3 4 sete 
War with Sweden ; Peter totally defeated by Charles 
XII. at Narva : 3 A : BOUNOVENE 53 
Peter founds St. Petersburg as a new capital 
27 May, 


376 


862 
907 


1223 


1579 
1598 
1606 


England, and works in the 
1697 


1698 


The Strelitz abolished 5 : ‘ Z : 4 
Charles XII. totally defeated by Peter at Pultowa, 
and flees to Turkey . : s : . § July, 
14,000 Swedish prisoners sent to Siberia . ; as 
War with Turkey: Peter and his army cross the 
Pruth, and are surrounded by the Turks; they 
escape by the energy of the empress Catherine, 


who obtains a truce A : ; . June, r71Zz 
Esthonia, Livonia, and a large part of Finland 
added to the empire ; Se he % - . 1715 
Peter visits Germany, Holland, and France BEET. 55 
The Jesuits expelled . ; ; : , eee X 72S 
Conspiracy and mysterious death of prince eed 
TYUWY, 55 
Peter IL. (last of the Romanoffs) deposed, and the 
crown given to Anne of Courland . 1730 


Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I., reigns, in prejudice 
of Ivan VI., an infant, who is imprisoned for life 1741 
Peter III. dethroned and murdered, succeeded by 
Catherine his wife é - ; q : . 1762 
Ivan VI., the rightful heir, till now immured, put 
to death . 4 : ; ; < eae, 1704 
Treaty of Kutschoue Kainardji ; independence of 
the Crimea and freedom of Black sea . July, 1774 


RUSSIA. 


725 


RUSSIA. 


ebellion of the Cossacks, 1774 ; suppressed 


ismemberment of Poland ; commenced by Cathe- 


rine (see Poland), 1772 ; completed - 1795 
uccessful invasions of the Crimea . 1769-84 
atherine gives her subjects a new code of laws ; 
abolishes torture in punishing criminals ; and 
dies . é : . 1796 
nsuccessful war with Per: sla Ps 
ussian treaty with Austria and England - 1798 
awarrow, with an army joins the “Austrians, and. 
checks the French in Italy : : . 1799 
ental derangement of Paul, 1800; murdered, 

24 March, 1801 
lexander I. makes peace with England . May, 
e joins the coalition against France Th 5 “April, 1805 
llies defeated at Austerlitz vor lDeGe uss 
reaty of Tilsit with France 7 July, 1807 
ussians defeated by the Turks, ‘near silfstria, 

26 Sept. 1809 

ar with France . June, 1812 


he Russians defeated at Smolensko, 17 Aug. ; and 


at the Borodino 7 Sept. 
oscow burnt by the Russians, 14 “Sept. ; rot eat of 
the French begins 5 Oct. 


lexander present at the battle of Leipsie, Oct, rt aR 
entered Paris P - March, 

e visits England ; June, 
orms the Holy Alliance 
1e grand duke Constantine renounces the right of 
succession 26 Jan. 

eath of ‘Alexander, r Dec. : Pestal’s. conspiracy 
against Nicholas I. ; insurrection of troops at 


Moscow ; suppressed 26-29 Dec. 
icholas crowned at Moscow . 3 Sept. 
ar against Persia 28 Se pt. 


icholas visits England ; invested with the or eG of 
the Garter 9 July, 1 
ace between Russia and Persia 22 Feb. 
ar between Russia and the Ottoman Porte declared 
(see Turkey and Battles) ze April, 
ace of Adrianople : Sept. 
1e war for the independence of Poland ipeaings 


Russia (see Poland) 29 Nov. 
uilure of the expedition against Khiva Jan. 
‘eaty of London (see Syria) 15 July, 
1e emperor Nicholas arrives in London . 1 June, 


1e grand duke Constantine arrives at Portsmouth 
in the Ingermanland, of 74 guns g June, 
or the participation of Russia in the Hungarian 
war of 1848-9, see Hungary. ] 

issia demands the expulsion of the Hungarian 
and Polish refugees from Turkey (see Turkey) 


5 Nov. 
1ey are sent to Konieh, in Asia Minor Jan. 
mspiracy against the emperor detected 6 Jan. 
arbour of Sebastopol completed Feb. 


ve emperor decrees seven men in each thousand 
of the population of Western Russia to be enrolled 
in the army, giving a total increase of 180,000 


soldiers : Aug. 

. Petersburg and ‘Moscow railway begun es 
ie ezar visits Vienna & 8 May, 
mecentrates forces on fr ontiers of Turkey Feb. 


tigin of the Russo-TuRKISH war (which see, and 
Holy Places) . March, 
mference between the emperors of Russia and 
Austria at Olmutz 
id king of Prussia at War saw 
terview of Mr. J. Sturge and other quakers with 
the ezar to obtain peace ; . Feb. 
1e northern provinces put in a ‘state of siege, 
5 March, 
1e czar issues a manifesto to his subjects ; he will 
combat only for the faith and Christianity, 
23 April, 
sath of the ezar Nicholas, and accession of Alex- 
ander II. ; no change of policy . 2 March, 


ost extensive levy ordered by the ezar (at 


Nicolaieff) . ~ A Es NOV: 
® visits his army at Schastopor . to Noy. 
sath of prince Ivan Paskiewitsch, aged 74 1 Feb. 


reaty of peace at Paris 30 March, 
exander Gortschakoff foreign minister and chan- 


eellor ‘ 29 April, 
mnesty granted ‘to the Palen 27 May ; five poli- 
tical offenders, &c. ; Alexander II. crowned at 
Moscow. 5 7 Sept. 


” 


” 


Manifesto on account of the English and French 
interference in the affairs of Naples 2 Sept. 
St. Petersburg and Warsaw railway begun by go- 
vernment, 1851; ceded to Great Russian railway 
company (about 335 miles, the half completed) 
Grand duke Constantine visits France and England, 
April, 
The czar meets the emperor Napoleon at Stutgerdt” 
25 Sept. ; and the emperor of Austria at Weimar, 
1 Oct. 
Partial emancipation of the serfs on the tapeHal 
domains . . 2duly, 
A Russian naval station established at Villa Franca, 
on the Mediterranean, creates some political ex- 
citement . Aug. 
New commercial tr eaty with Great Britain 12 Jan. 
Russia reproves the warlike movements of the Ger- 
man confederation during the Italian war, 27 May, 
The czar protests against the recognition of the 
sovereignty of peoples : 13 Feb. 
Fruitless meetings of the emperors of Russia and 
Austria and the regent of Prussia at Warsaw 
20-25 Oct. 
Treaty with China for enlargement of commerce 
x Jan. 
Decree for the total emancipation of the serfs 
(23,000,000) throughout the empire in two years 


(19 Feb.) 3 March, 
Demonstrations and r epr ession in Poland (wohfich see) 
Feb.-April, 


Disturbances in South Russia, caused by an im- 
postor asserting himself to be a descendant of 
Peter III.; many peasants shot or flogged 

May and June, 

Inundations at Kiev, 615 houses under 
water May, 

Death of prince Michael Gortschakoff, governor of 
Poland 5 4 Ma 

Student riots at the university of St. Betems bares 
which is closed, 6-9 Oct. ; reopened 24 Oct. 

The nobles sign a petition for a political fontitulio 

Nov. 

Increased privileges granted to the Jews . 26 Jan. 

Death of Nesselrode, the chancellor of. the empire, 

20 March, 

Alarming increase of fires at St. Petersburg and 
Moscow ; the government suppresses various edu- 
cational institutions June, 

Russia recognises the kingdom of Italy to July, 

roooth anniversary of the foundation of the Rus- 
sian monarchy at Novgorod, celebrated 20 Sept. 

Re-organisation of the departments of justice de- 
creed ; juries to be employed in trials, &c. 14 Oct. 

Trade tax bill introduced, admitting foreigners to 
merchants’ guilds, &c, > 26 Noy. 

Insurrection in Poland 22-24 Jan. 

[For events, see Poland. ] 


Moscow ; 


Termination of serfdom 3 March, 
Provincial institutions established sar OuRhout 
Russia . 13 Jan. 


Great victory over ‘the Ouby Ihs i in the Caucasus, 31 
March ; emigration of the Caucasian tribes into 
Turkey, April ; submission of the Aibgas; the 
war declared to be at an end. 2 June, 


The ezarowitch betrothed to the princess Dagmar 


of Denmark : 28 Sept. 
Serfdom abolished in the Trans-Caucasian provinces ; 

new judicial system promulgated Dec. 
The Russian nobles request the emperor to esta- 

blish two houses of representatives [declined] 


24 Jan. 
New province, ‘‘ Turkestan,” in central Asia, created 
14 Feb. 
The ezarowitch Nicholas dies at Nice . 24 April, 
Industrial exhibition at Moscow closes. 16 July, 


Censorship of the press relaxed ; law begins, 13 Sept. 
Rupture with the pope, on account of Russian 
severity to Polish clergy . Jan. and Feb. 
Assembly of the nobility ; short, stormy session 
March, 
Inauguration of trial by jury in Russia . 8 Aug. 
Karakozow attempts to assassinate the czar, 16 
April ; after long investigation into the origin of 
the plot, he is executed F S 5 Sept. 
War with Bokhara ; conflicts with varying veuuites 
Russians advance in May, et seq.; ended . Nov. 
Marriage of prince Alexander, heir ‘to the crown, to 
princess Dagmar of Denmark g Nov. 


1856 


1861 


9” 


RUSSIA. 


Emancipation of many state serfs in Poland, rr Nov. 1866 | 


Three decrees for abolishing the remains of Polish 

nationality r Jan. 
Congress of Slavonian “deputies at Moscow 5 May, 
Russian America sold to the United States for 


7,000,000 dollars, by treaty, 13 March; ratified 
15 May, 
Amnesty in favour of the Poles F 29 May, 
The czar visits Paris (which see) . June, 


Escapes assassination by Ber ezowski, : a Pole, 6 June, 
Decree for the use of the Russian language in the 
Baltic provinces ; 7 July, 
A Romanist college to replace the authority of the 
pope, established at St. Petersburg 2 Aug. 
The separate interior government in Poland sup- 


pressed : . 29 Feb. 
Samarcand taken by Kaufmann 26 May, 
Amnesty for political offences granted . 6 June, 


Polish language interdicted in publie places in 
Poland : ~ July, 
The Government Messenger, official journal, dele 
at St. Petersburg ; 3 Jan. 
Socialist secret conspiracy among the startet! 
headed by Sergius Netschajew, detected ; the in- 


former assassinated : 4 : . dan. 
Burlingame, Chinese envoy, arrives : 2 Feb. 
Dies at St. Peter sburg . 22 Feb. 
Russia neutral in the Franco- -Prussian war J uly, 


Said to be arming, 20 Sept. ; contradicted 27 Sept. 
Fruitless visit of M. Thiers at St. Petersburg on 
behalf of the French government 27 Sept. 
Diplomatic circular of prince Gortschakoff, foreign 
minister, repudiating the clauses of the treaty “of 
30 March, 1856, respecting the Black Sea, 31 Oct. ; 
received by earl Granville, 9 Nov., who replies, 
maintaining the force of the treaty to Novy. 
Vigorous protest of British and Austrian govern- 
ments ; 16 Nov. 
Decree for forming military reserves, about 16 Nov. 


1867 


Conciliatory despatch from prince Gortschakott to - 


earl Granville, agreeing to a conference for revi- 

sion of the treaty of 1856 : : 20 Nov. 

Prussian government expresses surprise at Gortscha- 
koff’s circular, and proposes a conference 

about 26 Nov. 

Firm courteous despatch from earl Granville, con- 

senting to a conference which shall ‘‘ assemble 


without any foregone conclusion” - 28 Nov. 
The other powers agree to a conference 7 Dec. 
Re-organisation of the army ordered - . gan. 
The conference meets in London 17 Jan. 


The Black Sea clauses abrogated (see Black Sea), by 
treaty, signed : 13 March, 
Schamyl, the Circassian chief, ‘dies about April, 
The grand duke Wladimir visits England June, 
Military exercises, sham battles round St. Peters- 
burg, 30,000 engaged ; emperor present, 
15-23 Aug. 
Trial of persons implicated in a socialist conspiracy 
(at St. Petersburg) ; many condemned to impri- 
sonment . Sept. 
Electric telegraph between St. Peter sburg and N aga- 
saki, Japan, completed : . Nov. 
zooth anniversary of the birth of Peter the Great, 
30 May, 1672 (0.s.), solemnly observed by the court 
and nation - 11 June, 
Peter the Great ironclad (incomplete) launched at 
St. Petersburg - Aug: 
Great Russian ‘Encyclopedia undertaken by prof. 
Beresina autumn 
Reconnoitring expedition to Khiva a; ‘defeat of gen. 
Markosoff announced Dee. 
Diplomatic visit of count Schouvaloff to London 


respecting this ; presented to the queen ; Russian 
concessions reported satisfactory ~ 13 Jan, 
Expeditions against Khiva start March, 


The emperor of Germany warmly received at St. 
Petersburg 27 April, 
The Shah of Persia visits St. Peter sburg 22-31 May, 
Khiva surrenders, ro June ; a rebellion suppressed, 
July 
Jumuden Turcomans defeated at Tschandyr a 
25, 27 July, 
New treaty with Bokhara, published . Dec. 
Marriage of the grand duchess Marie with the ae Le 
Edinburgh : 
Visit of the emperor of Austria at St. bee 
13 Feb. ; the czar in proposing his health, says, 


+B) 


” 


RUSSIA. 


“In the friendship which binds us and also the 
emperor William and the queen Victoria, I see a 
most sure guarantee of peace”  . p15 Feb. 
The czar visits England . 13-21 May, 
Count Schouvaloff sueceeds Brunnow as ambas- 
sador in London : autumn, 
New law for organization of the army Sept. 
Son born to the duke of Edinburgh and “grand- 
duchess Marie . Bs Oct. 
Visit of the empress and the ezarewitch to Sntand 
15 Oct.-24 ‘Nov. 
Mitrophania, mother abbess, of Serpatehiber. Mos- 
cow, prosecuted for fabricating commercial bills ; 
convicted, and sentenced to 14 years’ exile, Novy. 
International telegraphic conference at St. Peters- 
burg i—19 July, 
Expedition (with scientific men) to Krasnovodsk, 
Central Asia, spoken of A 5 ; Aug. 
War with Khokand (which see) 4 Sept. —Oct. 
Commercial panic through failure of Dr. Strousberg, 
a German railway speculator, at Moscow, Prague, 
and Berlin . Nov. 
At adinner of “ Knights of St. George, ” the czar 
declares that the three emperors are united to 
maintain peace : Sas DEC; 
Baltic provinces (formerly a provincial federation 
with a governor), incorporated with the empire 
under the ministry of the interior, on the death 
of the governor Bagration . - 29 Jan. 
Khokand, formally annexed (as Ferghana) 29 Feb. 
Prosecution of a sect ‘White Doves” (Skoptzi) 
April, 
Warlike enthnsiasm: Russian volunteers in the 
Servian army . July-Sept. 
Depression through Servian defeats . . Oct. 
Pacific declaration of the czar to lord Aug. ante 
2 Nov. 
The czar, in an address at Moscow, says that if suf- 
ficient guarantees are not given by Turkey, he 
will act ; independently F 10 Nov. 
Dr. Strousberg and others tried for fraud, &e., Nov. ; 
he is sentenced to banishment from Russia 
14 Nov. 
Enthusiasm for Bulgarians ; partial mobilisation of 
the army ordered about 14 Nov. 
Internal loan of 10 million roubles 19 Nov. 
Great enthusiasm for Bulgarians ; war declared, and 
begun . o Se April, 
See Tw ‘key 3 : and Russo-Turkish Ww ar, be Se 
The czar warmly received at Moscow, 4 "May : and 
St. Petersburg F May, 
Great trial of Nihilists for revolutionary propa- 


gandism, begun about . : -. 31, Ue 
Russian loan of 1 5,000, 000l. at 5 per cent. anacn 
2 Nov. 


The czar at St. Petersburg; celebrates cenianians 
anniversary of birth of Alexander I. 
Ill-feeling against Bulgarians A 
Nihilist trial ended ; about 160 sentenced to hard 
labour ; about 90 acquitted, about 9 Feb. 
Treaty of peace with Turkey signed at San Stefano: 3 
Europe dissatisfied . March, 
Vera Zasulitch (or Sassuliteh), ayoung woman, who 
acknowledged firing at gen. Trepoff, ” prefect of St. 
Petersburg. (5 Feb. ; for severity to prisoners, ac- 
quitted by jury =F . 12 April, 
Reported spread of N ihilism in Kieff, ee res 
? 
Public depression : feeling against Bulgarians ; de- 
sire to get quit of the Eastern question 
May-June, 
Conference at Berlin (which see) meets 13 June; 
treaty signed . 3 July, 
Gen. Kauffmann’s advance on the Oxus pe occupy 
Balkh; reported . 
Nihilists tried and condemned at Odessa ; ots 
ensued . Z 5 Aug. 
General disaffection to the government ; general De 
Mesentzoff, chief of police, assassinated in the 
street in St. Petersburg . . 16 Aug. 
New 5 per cent. loan (300,000,000 roubles) issued on 
bonds é 9, 30, 31 Aug. 
Ukase decreeing ‘state offences to = punished by 
military law 3 end of Aug. 
Gen. Drentelen made chief of police ; - 6 Oct. 
Students at a college in St. Petersburg present an 
address to the ezarewitch complaining of griev- 
ances, 11 Dec.; they are attacked and punished 


1874 


”? 


39 


”? 


RUSSIA. 


by the police and cossacks, 12 Dec.; they issue an 
address soon after é Dec. 

Prince Demetrius Krapotkine, governor, assassi- 

nated while returning from a ball at Khar koff, 

21 oY 22 Feb. 

Sltsspted assassination of Drentelen, 25 March ; and 
of the czar by Alexander Solovieff, a schoolmaster, 
with arevolver . 14 April, 
‘The poll tax abolished by ukase . 4 April, 
Riots at Rostoff on the Don suppressed by militar y, 
14 April, 

Ukase establishing martial law in the paariices of 
St. Petersburg, creas Kieff, Odessa, “e War- 
saw, dated . - x7 April, 

“Tand and Liberty, ’'a Nihilist poreuener. freely 


yet feanatprinalt dd circulated . April, 
Solovieff condemned, 7 June; executed 9 June 
Discontent at the small results of the war eh uly, 


Trials, convictions, and executions of Nihilists at 
Kieff and Odessa E May-Aug. 
Gen. Lazareff, commander of expedition against the 
Tekké Turkomans, dies at Tchat about 13 Aug. 
Gen. Lomakine succeeds in command ; severe battle 
at Geok Tepe or Dengli Tepé; Russians said to 
be victorious, yet retreat with heay y loss 
28 Aug. (O.8.), 9 Sept. 
Tergukasoff succeeds Lomakine in command, 
25 Sept. 
Leon Mirsky condemned to death for Ribemnstetl 
assassination of gen. Drentelen, chief of police 
27, 28 Nov. 
Count Schouvaloff, ambassador at London, resigns, 
27 No 
Attempted assassination of the czar, by “eB 
ing railway train near Moscow ; none hurt ; bag- 
gage carriages destroyed 1 Dee. 
The newspaper Golos secede for 6 months, 4 Dec. 
Proclamation of the executive revolutionary com- 
es justifying the attempted assassination on 
4 Dee: 
Plot - a blow up the Winter Palace, St. Ee eeture, 
discovered - . 12 Dee. 
** Will of the People ” revolutionary paper freely 
cireulated . Nov. Dec. 
Explosion in a guard- room filled with dynamite and 
gun-cotton under the dining-room of the Winter 
Palace, St. Petersburg ; the czar and family escape 
through being a little late for dinner; 11 soldiers 
killed ; 47 wounded ; between 6.0 and 7.0 P.M., - 
17 Fe 
Hartmann, owner of a house near the ne bey 
arrested at Paris . about 20 Feb. 
Panic at St. Petersburg ; “ukase issued ; appointing 
supreme executive commission, gen. "Loris Meli- 
koff, president, with extensive powers ; virtual 
dictator 3 - 24 Feb. 
Extradition of Hartmann requested by edain: 
declined : March, 
Iwenty-fifth anniversary “of the czar’s accession cele- 
brated at St. Petersburg . é 2 March, 
Hippolyte Molodzoff (Mladetsky, or Wladitsky, or 
Mlodecki), a converted Jew, fires at gen. Loris 
_ Melikoff, 4 March ; hanged . 5 March, 
Hartmann expelled from France ; ; goes to England ; 
Prince Orloff, ambassador, quits France, 
about 6 March, 
Nihilist trials at St. Petersburg; sentences to death 
and ag gereniaas (Dr. Weimar and others); com- 
muted . May, 
Death of the empress after a long ‘illness, 3 June, 
21 extreme Nihilists convicted at Kieff (capital sen- 
tences remitted) . ki about 7 Aug. 
Ukase of 24 Feb. superseded ; Melikoff, who had 
governed well, appointed minister of the interior, 
with charge of the police 3 - x18 Aug. 
Count Loris Melikoff’s scheme for administrative 
reform sanctioned by the czar ; announced 3 Oct. ; 
put into action . 25 Oct. et seq. 
** Russia,” new national daily paper, published Oct. 
Great Nihilist trial at St. Petersburg for assassina- 
tions, explosion at Winter Palace, Ke. ; Sentences, 
 Kviatofski and 4 others condemned to death: 
8 men and 3 women to imprisonment ._ 10 Nov. 
Kviatofski and Priessnakoff hanged 16 Nov. 


Gen. Skobeleff’s expedition into Central Asia, D 
24 Dec. 

|Serere conflicts with the Tekké Turkomans, 14 Jan. 

Geok Tepé besieged; taken . 24 Jan. 


oe 


72 


1878 


1879 


” 
” 


39 


1881 


2? 


~ 


7 RUSSIA. 


Assassination of the czar Alexander IT. by explosion 
of a bomb; assassin himself killed; Risakoff 
seized : xo PM. 13 March, 

A mine for explosion discover ed in the mtadie of St. 
Petersburg about 15 March, 

Circular of the new czar Alexander III. to foreign 
powers ; he will aim at moral and material de- 
velopment of Russia, and a pacific foreign policy 

16 March, 

Manifesto from the Nihilist executive committee to 
the czar offering peace, if an amnesty with a legis- 
lative assembly to be elected by universal suffrage, 
free press, &c., be granted 22 March, 

Sophie Peroffskaja, and other Nihilists, arrested 

23 March, 

The czar’s magnificent funeral at St. Petersburg ; 
the prince and princess of Wales present, 27 March, 

A representative council for St. Petersburg elected 

about 31 March, 

Trial of Risakoff, Sophie Peroffskaja, Jelaboff, Jessie 

or Hessie Heljmann, Kibaichick, and Michailoft 
oe men and two women), all Sete to 
death . A : : 8, 9 April, 

The Tekkés submit ; maraudings cease; object of 
Skobeleft’s expedition accomplished ; announced 

g April, 

Risakoff and others hanged; Heljmann toncohiie 
reprieved a 15 April, 

Treaty of peace w ith China announced April, 

Nihilist manifesto styling the assassins ‘‘ martyrs,” 
&e. =o eto April, 

Changes in ministerial offices ; tendency to reduce 
autocracy of the ¢zar announced . about 4 May, 

Ukase supplementary to that of 19 Feb. 1861, for 
emancipating serfs, remitting payments to many 
peasant proprietors ; announced early May, 

Reactionary proclamations in favour of autocracy 
(29 April), 11 May; resignation of count Loris 
Melikoff and other liberal ministers soon after, 

about 13 May, 

General Ignatieff, chief minister, issues manifesto, 
declaring for suppression of rebellion, and promis- 
ing reforms ; manifesto from N ihilists offering 
peace if reforms be granted May, 

The czar, closely guarded, living in close seclusion ; 
continued policy of repression . : June, 

The czar well received at Moscow, &c., 30 July; 
the czar meets the emperor of Germany at Dantzic 
3 Sept. ; stringent decree respecting public order 

21 Sept. 
Treaty with Persia signed : F 22 Dec. 

Nihilist trials at St. Petersburg; 10 sentenced to 
death, 28 Feb. ; commuted to penal servitude 
(except Suchanoff, to be shot) March, 

Gen. Strelnikoff, public prosecutor, assassinated at 
Odessa by two students, 30 March; executed 

3 April, 

Retirement of the chancellor and foreign minister, 
Gortschakoff (his policy war-like); succeeded by 
his assistant De Giers about 9 April, 


Mine discovered under Moscow cathedral ; 80 work- 
men arrested . : about 15 April, 
General Kaufmann died, aged 64 16 May, 


Decree for the gradual abolition of the poll tax 
(imposed by Peter the Great) beginning June, 
Ignatieff resigns; succeeded by count Tolstoi 
about 12 June, 
Keteu of general Scobeleff, the hero of Plevna, aged 
ae | ‘J uly, 
Genel Tchernaieff appointed to command in Cen- 
tral Asia . 
Successful exhibition of Russian arts and manu- 
factures . - summer, 
Tranquillity restored ; great festivities thr ough the 
visit of the duke and duchess of Edinburgh 
Jan.—Feb. 
Death of prince Gortschakoff, aged 85 x11 March, 
Arrest of 200 persons at St. Petersburg 
about 20 March, 
Trial of Nihilists at St. Petersburg: some sentenced 
to death (remitted), others to imprisonment 
1g April, 


| The emperor and empress crowned with cere- 


mony at Moscow May, 
Patriotic and pacific manifesto, and xiaeates 27 
May ; and popular festival 2 June, 


Poll tax abolished for the poorest, reduced for 


others (x Jan. 1884) on . 8 June, 


188r 


1882 


RUSSIA. 


The czar and the kings of Denmark and Greece 
breakfast with Mr. Gladstone on board the /’em- 
broke Castle, Copenhagen . ; ° 18 Sept. 

Reported discovery of a great conspiracy at St. 
Petersburg; many arrests . about 27 Sept. 

Government projects for re-modelling the com- 
munes ; : : 5 published Oct, 

Grand funeral of Tourgénieff at St. Petersburg 9 Oct. 

Foundation of memorial church at the place where 
Alexander II. was assassinated at St. Petersburg 
laid by the ezar . : 3 : . 16 Oct. 

63 Nihilists sentenced to Siberia. six Oct: 

Lieut. Sudeikin, chief of secret police, and his 
nephew, M. Sadovsky, assassinated at St. Peters- 
burg; attributed to Nihilists aided by Jablonsky, 
a subordinate, whose life he had saved 

night of 28-29 Dec. 

37 students at Moscow arrested announced g Jan. 

Loyal address of the nobles to the czar, advocating 
union of nobles and peasantry . ; .25 Jan. 

Surrender of Merv to Russia, effected by general 
Komaroft : : . . announced 14 Feb. 

Proposals for state loan not taken up, Noy. 1883; 
another loan at 6 per cent, offered in open market 
about 3 Dec. 1883; taken up 4 April, 

Convention with Persia for cession of Sarakhs 
(threatening to Afghanistan) reported 6 May, 

The majority of the czarewitch (aged 16) declared 

18 May, 

Death of general Todleben, born 1818 . 1xJuly, 

Alleged dynamite conspiracy against the ezar at 
Warsaw . : : , s . 8 Sept. 

Maria Wassilieona Kaliouchnaia, at Odessa, sen- 
tenced to 20 years’ hard labour for attempt to 
shoot colonel Katensky . . about rr Sept. 

The czar meets the emperors of Germany and 
Austria at Skiernievice, near Warsaw 15, 16 Sept. 

The letters of ‘‘Stepniak” and others expose the 
cruel, dishonest, and unscrupulous conduct of 
government officials in prohibiting the diffusion 
of knowledge and literature ; proposed united op- 
position of the nobility and peasantry Sept.-Oct. 

The circulation of many religious books prohibited 

14 Nihilists (including 6 officers and 3 women, one, 
Mary F. Figner) convicted by secret court martial ; 
8 sentenced to death at St. Petersburg, 11 Oct. ; 
two men executed . 3 5 : sie28 Oct: 

The Nihilist journal, Narodnaia Volia, reappears 

about 27 Oct. 

Great discontentamong workmen and peasantry Jan. 

Mission of M. Lessar,engineer-diplomatistto London 
respecting central Asian boundaries Feb. 

Ship canal from St. Petersburg to Cronstadt com- 
pleted . : m 3 : F *WeDs 

Russians advance to about go miles from Herat, 
and hold Zulfikar pass : * a0 «Keb: 

Three courses before them: to retire; to remain 
and negotiate ; to make war . . 1 March, 

Arrangement that no further advance on the 
‘“debated or debatable ground” be made by 
Russians or Afghans (since termed a ‘ solemn 
covenant ”’) Z , : - 160r17 March, 

Gen. Komaroff attacks the Afghans at Ak Tepe, on 
the river Kushk, alleging provocation ; hundreds 
of Afghans killed, others perish from exposure, 
and the rest retire from their camp ; 53 Russians 
killed and wounded, 30 March; his statements 
controverted by sir Peter Lumsden (see ADDENDA) 

14 April, 

British government announce agreement to arbitra- 

tion (by Denmark) . c 3 - 4 May et seq. 


SOVEREIGNS OF Russia. 
DUKES OF KIOY. 
850? Ruric. 
879. Oleg. 
913. Igor I. 
945. Olga, widow ; regent. 
955. Swiatoslaw I.—victorious. 
973. Jaropalk I. 
980. Vladimir, Wladimir, the Great. 
1015. Swiatopalk. 
1018. Jaraslaw, or Jaroslaf I. 
1054. Isiaslaw I. 
1073. Swiatoslaw II. 
1078. Wsewolod I. 
1093. Swiatopalk II. 
1113. Vladimir II. 


728 


pb] 


VET S53 


IT32. 


RUSSIA. 


Mitislaw. 
Jaropalk If. 


1138. { Wiatschelaw. 

1139. (| Wsewolod II. 

1146. § _Isiaslaw II. and Igor II. 

1153. | Rostislaw. 

1149. Jurie or George I. ; the city of Moscow was built 


by this duke. 
GRAND-DUKES AT WLADIMIR. 


1157. § Andrew I. until 1175 ; first grand-duke. 


I175. 
Ta ay bre 
C22 30 


1217-18. 


1238. 
1245. 
1263. 
1270. 
1275. 
1281. 
1204. 
1303. 
1305. 


1320. 
1325. 


1327. 


1796. 
18ot. 


1825. 


1855. 


¢ Michael I. 


Wsewolod III. 
Jurie or George II. 
Constantine. 
Jaraslaw II. ; succeeded by his son, 
Alexander-Nevski or Newski, the Saint. 
Jaraslaw III. 
Vasali or Basil I. 
Dmitri or Demetrius I. 
Andrew IT. 
Daniel-Alexandrovitz. 
Jurie or George III. ; deposed. 
Michael ITI. 
Vasali or Basil IT. 
Jurie or George III: restored. 
Alexander IT. 
[The dates are doubtful, owing to the difficulty 
that occurs at every step in early Russian 
annals. ] 


GRAND-DUKES OF MOSCOW. 


. Ivan or John I. 

. Simeon, the proud. 

. Ivan or John II. 

. Demetrius II. prince of Susdal. 
- Demetrius III. Donskoi. 

. Vasali or Basil III. Temnoi. 

. Vasali or Basil LV. 


CZARS OF MOSCOVY. 


. Ivan (Basilovitz) or John III. : took the title of 


czar, 1482. 


. Vasali or Basil V. obtained the title of emperor 


from Maximilian I. 


. Ivan IV, the terrible ; a tyrant. 
. Feodor or Theodor I.; and his son, Demetrius, 


murdered by his successor 


. Boris-Godonof, who usurped the throne. 
. Feodor II., murdered. , 
. Demetrius, the Impostor, a young Polish monk ; 


pretended to be the murdered prince Demetrius ; 
put to death. 
Vasali-Chouiski, or Zouinski. 


. Ladislaus of Poland ; retired 1613. 
. Michael-Feodorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, 


descended from the ezar Ivan-Basilovitz. 


. Alexis, son ; styled the father of his country. 
. Feodor or Theodor II. 


Ivan Y. and 
Peter I. brothers of the preceding. 


EMPERORS AND EMPRESSES, ~ : 


. Peter I. the Great, alone ; took the title of emperor 


22 Oct. 1721 ; founded St. Petersburg. 


. Catherine I. his widow; at first the wife of a 


Swedish dragoon, said to have been killed on the 
day of marriage. 


. Peter II. son of Alexis-Petrovitz, and grandson of 


Peter the Great : deposed. 


. Anne, duchess of Courland, daughter of the ezar 


Ivan. 


. Ivan VI. an infant, grand-nephew to Peter the 


Great ; immured in a dungeon for 18 years ; mur- 
dered in 1764. 


. Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, reigned 


during Ivan’s captivity. 
be) 


. Peter III: son of Anne and of Charles-Frederick, 


duke of Holstein-Gottorp: deposed, and died 
soon after, supposed to haye been murdered. 

Catherine II. his consort: a great sovereign ; ex- 
tended the Russian territories on all sides ; died 
17 Nov. 1796. 

Paul, her son, murdered, 24 March, 18or. 

Alexander I., son (who, after many adverse battles, 
and a forced alliance with France, at length 
aided in the overthrow of Napoleon Bonaparte), 
died 1 Dec. 1825. 

Nicholas I. brother ; died 2 March, 1855. ‘ 

Alexander II. son, born 29 April 1818; married 28 


RUSSIA COMPANY. ‘( 


April, 1841, Mary princess of Hesse (she died 
3 June, 1880); said to have married (morganatic), 
princess Dolgorouki, 19 (31) July; marriage 
announced, Oct. 1880; assassinated at St. 
Petersburg, 2 P.M., 13 March, 188r. 

8x. Alexander I1I., born 10 March, 1845 ; married Mary 
(formerly Dagmar), princess of Denmark, g Noy. 
1866. 

Heir: Nicholas, son, born 18 May, 1868. 


RUSSIA COMPANY, see Russia, 1553-4. 


2e America. 


RUSSO-TURKISH WAR.* The Russian 
id French governments having each taken a side 
_ the dispute between the Greek and Latin 
urches as to the exclusive. possession of the 
loly Places (which see) in Palestine, the Porte 
lvised the formation of a mixed commission, 
hich decided in favour of the Greeks, and a 
man was promulgated accordingly, 9 March, 
553 : to this decision the French acceded, although 
ssatisfied. 

1e Russians make further claims, and prince Men- 
schikoff (who arrived at Constantinople 28 Feb. 
1853), by various notes (between 22 March and 

18 May), demands that a convention should be 
signed by the sultan granting to the czar such a 
protectorate over the Greek Christians in Turkey, 

as the sultan considered inimical to his own 


authority 22 March-18 May, 1853 
enschikoff’s ultimatum rejected ; he quits Con- 
stantinople . 2x May, ,, 


Ye sultan issues a hatti-scherif confirming all 
the rights and privileges of the Greek Chr istians, 
and appeals to his allies . : G JUNE, © 5, 
1e English and French fleets anchor in Besika Bay 

rs June, 5, 
1e Russians, under gen. Luders, cross the Pr uth 
and enter Moldavia ao uly eg 
reular of count Nesselrode in justification, 2July ; 
lord Clarendon’s reply Se TO JUL, wees 
1e conference of repr esentatives of England, 
Franee, Austria, and Prussia meet at Vienna, 
agree to a note, 31 July; accepted by the czar, 
ro Aug.; the sultan requires modifications, 
1g Aug. ; which the czar rejects. 7Sept. ,, 
vo English and two French ships enter the Darda- 
nelles P eh TA septs, 35 
1e sultan (with consent of a great national council) 
declares war against Russia 2 5 OCU: 7,5 
ie Turkish fortress at Issaktocha fires ona Rssian 
flotilla (the first act of war) . ‘ BOCK se; 
te Turks cross the Danube at Widdin and Avretiae 
Kalafat p20 Oct-3 Nova, 5; 
issia declares war against Turkey . TEN OVI? 
iglish and French fleets enter Bosphorus 2 Nov. 
issians defeated at Oltenitza SAU NOVe. yy 
irks (in Asia) defeated at Bayandur, “Atskur, and 
Achaltzik ; £4;,18, 26 NOv.; ,, 
irkish fleet destroyed at Sinope. go Nov. ,, 
lective note from the four powers requiring fs 
know on what terms the Porte will negotiate for 
peace A : Secs. 55 


* In 1844, when the czar was in England, he conversed 
th the duke of Wellington and lord Aberdeen (whom 
had known many years) respecting the dissolution of 
¢ Turkish empire ; and on his return he embodied his 
»ws in a memorandum drawn up by count Nesselrode, 
lich was transmitted to London, but kept secret till 
weh, 1854. In January and February of that year the 
w had several conversations on the subject with the 
itish envoy at St. Petersburg, sir G. H. Seymour, in 
eof which (Jan. 14) he compared Turkey to a “‘ sick 
in” in a state of decrepitude, on the point of death, 
d made proposals to the British government as to the 
jposal of his property. He stated frankly that he 
muld not permit the British to establish themselves at 
nstantinople; but said in another conversation, he 
mld not object to their possessing Egypt. The pur- 
ttof these conversations was conveyed in despatches 
lord John Russell, who replied that the British govern- 
mt declined to make any provision for the contingency 
the fall of Turkey. The czar made similar proposals 
the French government with the same result. 


29 


RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 


Contests at Kalafat : - 31 Dec. 1853-9 Jan. 
At the request of the Porte (s ee +s the allied fieets 
enter the Black Sea . 4 Jan. 
Russians defeated at Citate : ome Ils 
Reply of the Porte to the note of Dec. 5, containing 
four points as bases of negotiation: viz., r. The 
promptest possible evacuation of the principali- 
ties. 2. Revision of the treaties. 3. Maintenance 
of religious privileges to the communities of all 
confessions. A definitive settlement of the 
convention respecting the Holy Places (dated 


31 Dec.),—approved by the four powers 13 Jan. 
Vienna conferences close 3 -* 16 Jan. 
Kalafat invested by the Russians 28-31 Jan. 


Proposal in a letter from the emperor of the French 
to the czar (29 Jan.) declined . 9 Feb. 
Turkish flotilla at Rustchuk destroy ed iy the 
Russians under Schilders Pore wel 
Ultimatum of England and France sent fo St. 
Petersburg . 27 Feb. 
The Czar “did not judge it suitable to give an 
answer ’ : 19 . Mar ch, 
Baltic beget sails, ‘under sir OC. Napier II March, 
Treaty between England, France, and Turkey, 
12 March, 

Russians under Gortschakoff pass the Danube and 
occupy the Dobrudscha; severe conilicts; the 
Turks retire 5 iu Peer March, 
France and England declare war against Russia, 
27, 28 March, 

Rupture between Turkey and Greece 28 March, 
Gen. Canrobert and French troops arrive at Galli- 
poli, soon after followed by the English, 
31 March, 

Russians defeated by the Turks at Karakai 30 May, 
English vessel Furious, with a flag of truce, fired on 
at Odessa F : 8 April, 
Four powers sign a pr otocol at Vienna guaranteeing 
the integr ity of Turkey and civil and religious 
rights of her Christian subjects 10 April, 
Russians defeated at Kostelli by Mustapha Pacha, 
Io April, 

Offensive and defensive alliance between England 
and France . : 10 April, 
Treaty between Austria and Prussia . . 20 April, 
Bombardment of Odessa by allied fleet 22 April, 
Russians, under gen. Schilders, assault Kalafat ; 
repulsed ; the blockade raised . . 19-21 April, 
The Tiger steamer run aground near Odessa, cap- 


tured by the Russians : 12 May, 
Russians defeated at Turtukai. 13 May, 
Siege of Silistria begun : 17 May, 
Allied armies disembark at V arna 29 May, 


Mouths of the Danube blockaded by allied fleets, 
r June, 
Russians repulsed at Silistria; Paskiewitsch and 
many officers wounded : 5 June, 
Turks defeated at Ozurgheti (in Asia) . 16 June 
Severe conflict before * Silistria ; the siege raised, 
13-26 June, 
Batteries at the Sulina mouths destroyed by capt. 
Parker . 4 : 26, 27 June, 
Captain Parker killed ; 8 July, 
Russians defeated at Giurgevo . PER 7ie WEY 
10,000 French troops embark at Boulogne for the 
Baltic . 15 July, 
Turks defeated at Bayazid i in “Armenia, 29, 30 July ; 
and near Kars . : 6 : 25 Aue, 
Surrender of Bomarsund : 16 Aug. 
{In July and August the allied armies and fleets in 
the east suffered severely from cholera. } 
The Russians defeated by Schamyl in Georgia, 
about 28 Aug. 
They evacuate the principalities . Aug.-20 Sept. 
By virtue of a treaty with Turkey (June 14) the 
Austrians, under count Coronini, enter ead 
6 Sep 
Allies sail from Varna, 3 ads and land at Old Fort, 


near EKupatoria* . 14 Sept. 
Skirmish at the Bulganac “ 1g Sept. 
Battle of the Alma (See Alma) — 20 Sept. 


Russians sink part of their fleet at. Sebastopol, 


23 Sept. 
Allies occupy Balaklava. : . 26 Sept. 
Death of marshal St. Arnaud 29 Sept. 


1854 


* 40,000 men, a large number of horses, and a powerful 


artillery, were landed in one day. 


RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 


730 


RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 


General Canrobert, his successor . 24 Nov. 
Siege of Sebastopol commenced—grand were 
(without success) 7 Oct. 


Battle of Balaklava—charge of the light oni 
with severe loss 25 Oct. 
Sortie from Sebastopol repulsed by generals Evans 
and Bosquet : 26 Oct. 
Russian attack at Inkert man ; : defeated 5 Nov. 
Miss Nightingale and nurses arrive at Scutari, 
6 Nov. 
Great tempest in the Black Sea, loss of the Prince 
and store vessels z . 14-16 Nov. 
Treaty of alliance between England, France, Austria, 
and Prussia—a commission to meet at Vienna ; 
signed . 4 5 : 5 2 Dec. 
Russian sortie o Dec. 
Omar Pacha arrives in the Crimea (follow ed ee the 
Turkish army from Varna) 5 Jan. 
Sardinia joins England and France 26 Jan. 
Great sufferings in the camp from cold and sickness, 
Jan. & Feb. 
Russians defeated by the Turks at Eupatoria, 


17 Feb. 
Death of emperor Nicholas; accession of Alex- 
ander IT. (no change of policy) . 2 March, 
Sortie from the Malakhoff.tower . 22 March, 
Capture of Russian rifle-pits 19 April, 
Arrival of Sardinian contingent . 8 May 
Resignation of ger Canrobert, succeeded by gen. 
Pelissier . 16 May, 


Desperate night combats ‘ 22-24 May, 
Expedition into the sea of Azoff (under sir kK. Lyons 
and sir G. Brown); destruction of Kertch and 
large amount of stores 24 May-3 June, 
Taganr og bombarded 3 June, 
Massacre of an English boat’ s crew with flag of truce 


at Hango . é 5 June, 
Russians evacuate Anapa - 5 June, 
The White Works and Mamelon Vert taken, 
6,°7 June, 

Unsuceessful attack on the Malakhoff tower and 
Redan . 18 June, 
Death of lord Raglan; succeeded by general Simpson, 
28 June, 


Russians invest Kars in Armenia, defended by gen. 
Williams ; : 15 July, 
Bombardment of Sweaborg + o Aug: 
Defeat of the Russians at the Tcher naya 16 Aug. 
Ambuscade on the glacis of the Malakhoff taken ; 
Russian sortie repulsed : 18 Aug. 
The French take the Malakhoff (which see) by assault ; 
the English assault the Redan without success; 
the Russians retire from Sebastopol to the N orth 
Forts, and the allies enter the city ; the Russians 
destroy or sink the remainder of their fleet, 
8 Sept. &c. 
Tanan and Fanagoria captured . 24 Sept. 
The Russians assaulting Kars are defeated with 
great loss . 29 Sept. 
Russian cav alry defeated (50 killed, 105 spreshay tre 


at Koughil, near Eupatoria, by the French, 
29 Sept. 

Kinburn taken . ‘ 3 - 27 °Oct. 
Russians blow up Oczakoff . .18 Oct. 


Large stores of corn destroyed near Gheisk, in the 
sea of Azoff 4 Nov. 
Defeat of the Russians, and passage of the “etal 
by the Turks under Omar Pacha . 6 Nov. 
The czar visits his army near Sebastopol 10 Noy. 
Sir Wim. Codrington takes the command in room of 
gen. Simpson . 4 Nov. 
Explosion of 100,000 tb. of powder | in the eeueh 
siege-train at Inkerman, with great loss of life, 


15 Nov. 

Sweden joins the allies by a treaty 2rt Nov. 
Capitulation of Kars to gen. Mouravieff, after a 
gallant defence by gen. Williams Zz Noy. 
Death of admiral Bruat . 7 Nov. 


Russian attack on the French posts ‘at Baidar re- 
pulsed 8 Dec. 
Proposals of peace from Austria, with the ec 
of the allies, sent to St. Peter sburg oye 2 Dec. 
Centre dock at Sebastopol blown up ‘by the English, 
2 dan, 

Council of war at Paris. ~w kr-Jd an, 
Protocol signed accepting the Austrian propositions 
as a basis of negotiation for peace . z Feb. 
Destruction of Sebastopol docks . . 


1 Feb. 


1854 


| Report of Sir John M‘Neill and col. Tulloch on 


state of the army before Sebastopol, published 
Feb. 


Peace conferences open at Paris, an armistice till 


31 March agreed on . : , 25 Feb. 
Suspension of hostilities - 29 Feb. 
Treaty of peace concluded at Paris 30 March, 


Proclamation of peace in the Crimea, 2 April; in 
London . . if : : #29 April, 
The Crimea evacuated . 3 , 9 July,* 


RUSSO-TURKISH WAR, 1877. For 


185 


» 


the 


insurrections, Servian war, and the negotiations. 


see Turkey. 


The czar addresses the armynear Kischeneff, saying 
that ‘“‘ he has done everything in his power to avoid 
war, and patience is exhausted;” the Russian 
embassy quits Constantinople fe A 

War declared; the czar’s manifesto says that he 
is compelled, by the haughty obstinacy of the 
Porte, to proceed to more decisive acts ; a justifi- 
catory circular to foreign powers sent out by prince 
Gortschakoff ; the Russians enter the Turkish do- 
minions in Roumania and Armenia . 24 April, 

The sultan’s circular protests against the war, and 
refers to his reforms and the treaty of Paris 

25 April, 

[Russian generals-in-chief in Bulgaria, grand duke 
Nicholas ; ; in Armenia, grand duke Michael; 
Turkish generals: Abdul-Kerim in Europe : 
Mukhtar Pasha, in Asia Minor. ] 

Russians defeated at Tchuruk Sou, near Batoum 

26 April, 

The Russians, under the grand duke Michael and 
Loris Melikoff, advance into Armenia, defeat 
Turks and occupy Bayazid (deserted) 29, 30 April, 

The Turks stop the passage of the Danube, and 
blockade the Black Sea ‘ 3 May 

The earl of Derby replies to the Russian circular ; 
lie refers to the treaty of 1856 as broken ; does not 
consider that the war will benefit the Christians, 
and asserts that Russia has separated herself from= 
European concert ; the British government gives 
neither concurrence nor approval to the war 


1 May, 
Kalafat occupied by Roumanians : - 3 May, 
Russians defeated in attacking Batoum . : May, 


The Lufti-Djelil, Turkish monitor, with 300 men, 
blown up near Ibraila, or Braila, on the Danube 
(said to be by Russian shells) . : 11 May, 

Much artillery firing down the river . May, 

Sukhum Khaleh, Russian fortress in the eee 

captured by Turks 4 May, 

Ardahan, near Kars, Armenia, stormed by Melikott 


17 May, 
Iusurrection in the Caucasus supported by the 
sultan ‘ . 18 May, et seq. 


Explosion of Turkish monitor Dar-Matoin, by 
lieuts. T. Daubassoff and Sheshlakoff, with tor- 
pedoes x : 26 May, 

Neutrality of the Suez Canal assured : corr espond- 
ence A May-June, 

Kars invested by Russians 3 June, 

The czar arrives at Plojesto (Ployesto) i in Rotwmania 

une 

Turks defeated at Tahir, or Taghir, Armenia 16 June 

Turks victors at Zewin. Dooz, Eshek-Khalian, Deli- 
baba, and other places; Russians retreating 

20 June, 

Turks successful in Montenegro; country reported 
subdued é . I2-20 June, 

Russians cross Lower Danube by bridges at Galatz 
and Braila; 6 hours’ conflict ensues ; Turks re- 
tire, 223 une ; Russians occupy Matchin, 23 June 
and Hirsova 25, 26 June, 

The grand duke Nicholas crosses the Danube at 
Simnitza by 208 pontoons, and enters Bulgaria; 
the Turks retire after severe conflicts ; 289 Rus- 
sians said to be killed . : . 27 June, 


23 April 1877 


- 
~~ 


» 
7 


* The English lost: killed in action and died of wound 


about 3500; 
nearly 16,000; total loss nearly 24,000 (including 
officers) ; 2873 were disabled. The war added to 
national debt 41,041,000. 
men; the Russians about half a million. 


died of cholera, 4244; of other disease 


27¢| 
the 


The French lost about 63, 50¢ 
The army 


suffered greatly by sickness; see Scutari, Times, anc 


Nightingale. 


wie 


. 


RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 731 RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 
he ezar in his proclamation to Bulgarians en- attacks Turks under Mukhtar Pasha; severely 
courages Christians and warns Mahometans defeated . 4 Oct. 
28 June, 1877 | Turkish monitor ‘in the Danube eevladed by 


he Simnitza bridge destroyed by a storm or by 
Turks ‘ . about 30 June, 
he British fleet arrives at Besika bay 3 July, 
tiela, Bulgaria, taken by Russians about 5 July, 
levna, Bulgaria, oecupied by Russians 6 July, 
irnova, ancient capital of Bulgaria, captured by 
Russians under gen. Gourko , . 6,7 July, 
iayazid re-occupied by Turks . a . 12 duly, 
jussians compelled to retire from Kars by Mukh- 
tar Pasha. 13 July, 
he invasion of Armenia considered a failure July, 
‘ourko crosses the Balkans and enters Roumelia, 
13 July ; (this movement censured), several skir- 
mishes A . 14, 15, 20 July, 
licopolis (Nikopol) surrenders (after severe con- 
flicts, 12-14 July); capture of 2 pashas, 6000 men, 
2 monitors, and 40 guns 15, 16 July, 
he Turkish commander Abdul-Kerim replaced by 
Mehemet Ali (Jules Détroit, of French extrac- 
tion); Russians retreating ~ aduly, 
aleiman Pasha brought from Montenegro to the 
Schipka Passes. . about ax J uly, 
.ziz Pasha (able and popular) killed in a rash 
conflict at Esirje, near Rasgrad . 26 or 28 July, 
‘ussians severely defeated ; Plevna ' retaken by 
Osman Pasha, 19, 20 July ; ‘ oe again de- 


feated ‘ - x July, 
lostilities revive in Montenegro ; . thre Turkish 
fortress Niksich besieged . : : July, 
he Roumanian army joins the Russians g Aug. 


evere conflicts between Russians and Suleiman 
Pasha; the Turks eventually victors: Eski 
Saghra and Yeni Sagra, July; Kezanlik and 
Kalofer, 30 July, et seq 
‘ussians under pos "expelled from Roumelia ; ; 
retreat to Schipka passes . about 11 Aug. 
Jussians in the Schipka Passes relieved by Radetzky 
ar Aug. 
vussians defeated at Kara Silar, near Osman Bazar, 
14 Aug. ; in the valley of the Lom, by Mehemet 
Ali ‘ about 22-24 Aug. 
‘ussians defeated by Mukhtar Pasha at Kurukdara, 
or Kizil Tepe, between Kars and Alexandropol 
24, 25 Aug. 
lesperate fruitless attempts of Suleiman Pasha to 
gain the Schipka Pass held by Gourko and 
Radetzky ; great slaughter . . 20-27 Aug. 


evere twelve hours’ battle in valley of the Lom, 
near Szedina; Karahassankoi taken and re-taken 
six times ; Russians (under the Czarewitch) retire 
in good order. : : 3 30 Aug. 


‘ince Charles with Rocanians crosses the 
Danube . . about 31 Aug. 
urther successes of Mehemet Ali on the Lom at 
. Katzelevo, Ablava, &c. 4-6 Sept. 
ovatz or Luftcha (important) captured a Prince 
_ Imeritinsky and Russians after a sharp conflict 
Sept. 
‘liksich (left by Turks) captured by Rpeteneccines 
: Sept. 
anguinary conflicts at Plevna, greatly stren einen ed 
_ by Osman Pasha ; artillery duel 7-10 Sept. 
‘ierce assault by Russians and Roumanians; they 
| gain the strong Gravitza redoubt (with others, 
_ which are re-taken); the czar present ; Russian 
' loss about 20,000 ./ 11, 12 Sept. 
‘ort St. Nicholas in Schipka ‘Pass taken by Sulei- 
- man Pasha and quickly lost; much bloodshed 
17 Sept. 
fehemet Ali repulsed in his attack on positions at 
Tchercovna, fifteen miles from Biela 21 Sept. 
iege of Plevna; Chefket Pasha enters with re- 


- inforcements after several skirmishes 22 Sept. 
lontenegrine successes continued : Sept. 
tattles of the Yagni; severe conflicts ; Russians 


repulsed near Ardahan, Asia about 27, 30 Sept. 
ussian losses, killed, wounded, and missing, 
47,400 reported : ; up to 20 Sept. 
fehemet Ali retires to Kara Lom about 25 Sept. 
fen, Todleben made chief of staff before Plevna 

28 Sept. 
fehemet Ali replaced by Suleiman ee Raouf 

Pasha sent to Schipka . 3 Oct. 
Jattles near Kars; army of grandduke arichael 


torpedoes F 8 Oct. 
Relief and supplies received ‘by Turks at Plevna 
about 9 Oct. 
Battle of Aladja Dagh before Kars ; Russians, under 
grand duke Michael, and generals Loris Melikoff, 
Lazareff, and Heimann, totally defeat Ahmed 
Mukhtar, taking 10,000 prisoners 15 Oct. 
Gravitza battery, near Plevna, captured by Rou- 
manians, is quickly re-taken . 19-20 Oct. 
Suleiman and his army said to be retreating from 
Kadikoi to Rasgrad 22 Oct. 
Battle at Gornij ~Dubnik, near Plevna ; Russians 
under Gourko said to be v ictorious ; losses about 
equal (2,500) 24 Oct. 
Russians said to be defeated near Kara Guia 
Armenia . 24 Oct. 
Battle of Sofia Road, near Plevna; Turkish osittols 
at Teliche captured a 28 Oct. 
Mukhtar Pasha defeated by Heimann and Tergu- 
kasoff at Deve-Boyun, Armenia, after nine hours’ 
conflict . F Nov. 
Russians severely defeated at Azizi, before Erze- 
roum, by Mukhtar Pasha 9 Nov. 
Change in Turkish generals : Suleiman aided to 
command the army of Roumelia, replaced by 
Azli Pasha; Mehemet Ali organises army to re- 
lieve Plevna early in Nov. 
Russian attack on Plevna repulsed 12 Nov. 
Turks thrice repulsed near Pleyna 15 Nov. 
Kars taken by storm; the Russians climbed steep 
rocks ; fierce conflict from 8 p.m. to 8 a.m. ; 300 
guns and 10,000 prisoners taken; about 5000 
Turks killed and wounded ; Russian loss about 
2,500; the grand-duke Michael present 17-18 Nov. 
Russians said to be severely repulsed at Orchanié, 
16 Nov. 

Plevna said to be thoroughly invested (30 miles 
round, with 120,000 men) . Nov. 
Osman Pasha, invited to surrender at Plevna, re- 
fuses . about 16 Nov. 
Rahova on the Danube taken by tien or 
1 Nov. 

Entrepol (fortified) near Plevna taken by Russians, 
Noy. 
Indecisive fighting in the valley of the Lom Sohween 
the czarewitch ‘and Mehemet Ali; Russians said 


to be defeated : - : 30 Noy. 
Turks capture Elena with guns cand prisoners, after 
sharp conflict . r A é : oy COLD 
Skirmishing on the Lom 4-6 Dec, 


Osman Pasha endeavours to break out of Plevna, 
about 7 p.m. g Dec. ; six hours’ fierce conflict ; 
* surrounded ; unconditional surrender ; said to be 
30,000 prisoners, 128 officers, roo guns; great 
slaughter on both sides : . to Dec. 
The Servians declare war against Turkey, 12 Dec. ; 
cross the frontier and capture villages 15 Dec. et seq. 
Turkish circular note to the great powers, request- 
ing mediation, 12 Dec. ; merely acknowledged, 
action declined . 3 about 12 Dec. 
Montenegrines successful . Dee. 
Suleiman made general of the army of Roumelia ; 
and Todleben of that of Rustchuk, about 19 Dec. 
Suleiman retires on the quadrilateral; visits Con- 
stantinople ; armies concentrating near Adria- 
nople . . about 20 Dec. 
tay said to have taken Ak Palanka See e 
hours’ fight Dec. 
Erzeroum, “Armenia, nearly invested ; ees resist- 
ance by Mukhtar Pasha . about 24 Dec. 
Many Turkish wounded prisoners perish (arn cold 
during removal ; : Dec. 
Turkish steamer with 875 men, ‘said to be captured 
in Black Sea 5 about 25 Dec. 
Alleged Russian losses, 80,435 men; Turkish much 
more, and 80,000 prisoners. Dec: 
Mukhtar Pasha recalled to Constantinople, epee 
29 Dec 
The sultan requests mediation of Teneland: the 
British government only convey to ‘Russia the 
sultan’s desire to make peace; Russia declines 
mediation 26—31 Dec. 
Servians advancing “successfully . end of Dec. 
Gourko crosses the Balkans and advances on 


RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 732 _ RYSWICK. 


Sofia; Turks defeated in an engagement, about Definitive treaty of peace with Turkey signed at 
31 Dec. 1877 Constantinople . hes te “ 3 . 8 Feb. 1879 
Col. Baker gallantly protects the retreating Turkish Estimated cost of the war to Russia, 120,000,000l. 
army, defeating the Russians. . : .1 dan. 1878 : 
Sofia taken by Russians after an engagement, 3Jan. ,, RUSTCHUK, Turkish town on the Danube, 
Russians said to be defeated near Erzeroum, about one of the ‘‘ quadrilateral”’ fortresses lost to Turkey 


sdan. ,, | with Bulgaria by treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 1878. 
Servians defeated; Kurschumli reoccupied by 


Turks yaclr ahha es Lae eae 6,7 Jan. 4, RUTHENIUM, a rare metal, discovered in 
Gen. Radetzky crosses the Balkans; the Trojan the ore of platinum by M. Claus, in 1845. 
pass taken about g Jan.; the Turkish army ’ 
(about 32,000) and cannon taken by Skobeleff and Woe S ACT, LorD (13 & 2 
Radetzky, after conflicts, 8, 9, 10 Jan. (see Senova); ict. c. 36), for simplifying law proceedings in 
Gourko advances towards Adrianople . xx Jan. ,, | Scotland, passed 1850. 
Nisch taken b Servians 5 ivari by the Mon- f 
Toneenloas ona set are so ae i pag ce is RUTHVEN, Rarp of, 2 term applied to the 


Russians advance successfully ; Turkish envoys seizure of the person of James VI. of Scotland by 
proceed to treat for peace . about 16-13Jan. ,, | William Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, and other nobles, 


Gourko advances toward Philippopolis; totally in 1582, to compel the king to dismiss his favourites, 
defeats Suleiman Pasha, who retreats to the sea, Arran and Lennox. Ostensibly for this, Gowric 
losing many prisoners and much ree a ae was judicially put to death by his two opponents in 

Adrianople abandoned; occupied by Russians, i 1584. 

Mid : 19, 20 Jan. 5 RUTLAND, STATUTE OF, 10 or 12 Edw. I. 

Suleiman with remains of his army at Karala on 1282 or 1284 
the Agean transporting his troops, aboute2r Jan. ,, x } 

Servians occupy nearly all Old Servia . 2gJan. ,, RYE-HOUSE PLOT, ae plot (some think 

Russian attack on Batoum defeated . .30Jan. ,, | pretended) to secure the succession of the duke of 

After much delay, an armistice signed at ae Monmouth to the throne in preference to the duke 

gr van. » | of York (afterwards James II.), a Roman catholic. 

EVOSSion JOSbGs ANNGNE As 89,079 ten eae ee) Soe a conspirators are a to have projected 

Continued advance of Russians towards Constanti- eg rhe ire: ; ‘ogee oad 
nople ; great panic ; flight of many Turks ; many the assassination of the king, Charles II., and his 
deaths and great sufferings .  . dan. Feb. ,, | brother. This design is said to have been frus- 

Part of British fleet ordered to Constantinople to trated by the king’s house at Newmarket acciden- 
protect British life and property, 8 Feb. ; enters tally taking fire, which hastened the royal party 


Dardanelles without permission of the Porte, away eight ass before the plot was to take etfect, 


13 Feb. 5 
Erzeroum evacuated by Turks ; 17-21 Feb. fe rf Merely 16 5 see a Ride” rae poe 
Rustchuk occupied by Russians A . 20Feb. ,, Iscoveread I2 vune iollowing. ord William 


Treaty of peace signed at San Stefano (sce Stefano), Russell on 21 July, and Algernon Sidney on 7 Dec. 

3 March; ratified at St. Petersburg . 17 March, ,, following, suffered death for being concerned in this 
The war lasted 322 days, 12 April, 1877, to 3 March, »» | conspiracy. The name was derived from the con- 
Long negotiation respecting a European congress, spirators’ place of meeting, the Rye-house at Brox- 


March-May, ,, - 
Grand duke Nicholas in Roumelia replaced by gen. bourne, Hertfordshire. 


Todleben, who assumes command . 30 April, _,, RYSWICK (Holland), where the celebrated 
te a eer ite acereoeey 37 une ; treaty aa peace was concluded between England, France, 
Grand review of about 80,coo Russians near Con- ‘4 Spain, and Holland, signed, by their representa - 

stantinople 17 Aug. ,, | tives, 20 Sept., and by the emperor of Germany, 30 


40,000 Russians have sailed forhome  . 12Sept. 3) | Oct. 1697. 


S. 


SAALFIELD. 


SAALFIELD (Saxony, N. Germany). Tiered 


1e Prussians, under prince Louis of Prussia, were | 


efeated and their leader slain by the French under 
annes, 10 Oct. 1806. 


SAARBRUCK, the Roman Augusti Muri or 
ar@ pons, an open town on the left bank of the 
aar, in Rhenish Prussia, founded in the tenth 
mtury, long subject to the bishops of Metz, after- 
ards ruled by counts (about 1237), and by the 
ouse of Nassau about 1380. It was captured by 
1e French and retaken by the Germans 1676, 
united to France 1794-1814, and ceded to Prussia, 
315. On 2 Aug. 1870, it was bombarded by the 
rench under Frossard (between I1 and I in the 
vytime), and the Prussians in small force were 
islodged, and the town occupied by the French 
oneral Bataille. The mitrailleuses were said to be 
ery effective. The emperor Napoleon, who was 
resent with his son, said in a telegram to the 
npress, ‘* Louis has gone through his baptism of 
re. He has not been in the least startled. We 
ood in the foremost rank, and the rifle balls were 
ropping at our feet, and Louis picked up one that 
ll near him. His bearing was such as to draw 
ars from the soldiers’ eyes.’”? On the 6 Aug. the 
russian generals Goeben and Von Steinmetz, with 
1e first army, recaptured Saarbruck, after a 
inguinary conflict at the village of Spicheren. 
he heights taken by the French on the 2nd are in 
ermany, those taken by the Germans on the 6th 
re in France, and both battles were fought between 
aarbruck and the town of Forbach, which was 
uptured and has given a name to the second con- 
ict. The loss was great on both sides. The 
rench general Francois was killed, and the 2nd 
rps under Frossard nearly destroyed. The French 
treated to Metz. They were greatly superior in 
umbers at the beginning of the fight, but were 
idly commanded. 


SABBATARIANS. Traces exist of Sabba- 
irli, or Sabbathaires, among the sects of the 16th 
tury on the continent. Upon the publication of 
1e ** Book of Sports’? in 1618, a violent contro- 
ersy arose among English divines on two points: 
rst, whether the Sabbath of the fourth command- 
ient was in force among Christians; and 
‘condly, whether, and on what ground, the first day 
>the week was entitled to be distinguished and 
yserved as ‘the Sabbath.” In 1628, Theophilus 
rabourne, a clergyman, published the first work 
. favour of the Seventh-day or Saturday, as the 
tue Christian Sabbath. He and several others 
iffered great persecution for this opinion; but 
‘ter the restoration there were three or four con- 
regations observing the last day of the week for 
ablic worship in London, and seven or eight in 
1e country parts of England. In 1851 there were 
‘ree Sabbatarian or Seventh-day Baptist congre- 
utions in England; but in America (especially 
ithe New England states) they are more nume- 
yus.—Joseph Davis suffered imprisonment in 1670. 
leand his son bequeathed property to maintain 
ie sect; and litigation respecting its disposal was 
ittled by vice-chancellor Stuart in conformity with 
leir intentions in June, 1870. Very few Sabba- 
wians then remained. 


By M _ SACRAMEN dig 
SABBATH: ordained by God. Gen. ii.; 


Exod. xx. 8; Isaiah lviii. 13. Jews observe the 
seventh day in commemoration of the creation of 
the world, and of their redemption from the bondage 
of the Egyptians; Christians observe the first day 
of the week in commemoration of the resurrection 
of Christ from the dead, and the redemption of 
man; see Sunday. 


SABBATH SCHOOLS, see Sunday Schools. 
SABBATICAL YEAR: a Jewish institution, 


1491 B.c. Hxodus xxiii. During every seventh 
year the very ground had rest, and was not tilled; 
and every forty-ninth year all debts were forgiven, 
slaves set at liberty, and estates, &c., that were 


before sold or mortgaged, returned to their original 
families, &e. 


S ABELLIANISM, from Sabellius (of Ptole- 
mais in Egypt), who flourished in the 3rd century, 
and who taught that there was but ove person in 
the Godhead, the other persons of the Trinity being 
but different names of the same person. This 
doctrine was condemned at a council at Rome, 260. 


SABINES, from whom the Romans, under 
Romulus, took away their daughters by force, 
having invited them to some public sports or shows 
on purpose. When the Sabines determined to 
revenge this affront, the women became mediators 
to their fathers in behalf of their husbands, the 
Romans, and a lasting peace was made between 
them, 750 B.c. After many conflicts, the Sabines 
became a part of the Roman people, about 266 B.c. 
One of the ecclesiastical provinces is still called 
Terra Sabina ; chief town, Magliano. 


SACCHAROMETER, an instrument for de- 
termining the amount of sugar in solutions, 
Soleil, an optician, of Paris, in 1847 made use of 
rotary polarised light for this purpose in‘a sacchari- 
meter, since improved by Duboscq. 


SACHEVEREL RIOTS, see Riots, 1710. 
SACRAMENT (from sacramentum, an oath, 


obligation, also mystery). The Christian sacra- 
ments are baptism and the Lord’s supper. ‘he 
council of Trent, in 1547, affirmed the doctrine of 
the schoolmen that there are seven sacraments : 
baptism, the Lord’s supper, confirmation, penance, 
holy orders, matrimony, and extreme unction. ‘he 
name was given to the Lord’s supper by the Latin 
fathers. The wine was restricted to the clergy about 
the beginning of the 12th century. Communion in 
one kind-only was authoritatively sanctioned by the 
council of Constance, 15 June, 1415. Henry VII. 
of Germany was poisoned by a priest by the conse- 
crated wafer, 24 Aug. 1313. ‘The sacramental wine 
was poisoned by the gravedigger of the church at 
Ziirich, by which sacrilegious deed a number of 
persons lost their lives, 4 Sept. 1776. In 1614 
members of both houses of parliament were ordered 
to take the sacrament, as a guard against the intro- 
duction of Roman Catholics. In 1673 the test act 
was passed ; repealed in 1828; see Zransubstantia- 
tion. 


SACRAMENTO. 


734 


SAGUNTUM. : 


“‘Society of the Blessed Sacrament ” (English church- 
men), London, founded, 1860; ‘‘Confraternity of the 
Blessed Sacrament,” founded 1862 ; the two united, 1867. 


SACRAMENTO, Sr., a Portuguese settle- 
ment in S. America, claimed by Spain in 1680, but 
relinquished in 1713 ; several times seized ; ceded in 
1777; acquired by Brazil in 1825. 


SACRED BAND, see Zhebes. 
SACRED BOOKS or THE East. The 


publication of translations of the sacred books of the 

religion of the Brahmans, Buddhists, and Moham- 

medans, and of the followers of Khung-fu-tze and 

Lao-tze, edited by professor Max Miller, began in 

1879. Twenty volumes have been published, 

1885. 

SACRED HARMONIC SOCIETY, see 
Music. 

SACRED HEART oF JEsus;_a form of 
devotion said to have been instituted in England in 
the seventeenth century, and much promoted by 
Marguerite Marie Alacoque, an enthusiastic French 
nun, who asserted that Christ had appeared to her, 
and taken out her heart, placed it in his own, glow- 
ing in flame, and then returned it. She died in 
1690. 

Her book ‘ Dévotion au Coeur de Jesus,” published 
in 1698, much advocated by father Joseph Gallifet 
about 1726; and introduced into France, by 
request . A 3 : page : , : 

A pilgrimage from England, specially blessed by 
the pope, and headed by the duke of Norfolk, 
went to the shrine of Marguerite, at Paray-le- 
Monial, and returned : : : 1-6 Sept. 

The R.C. diocese of Salford dedicated to the Sacred 
Heart, 4 Sept. 1873: and a church at Mont- 
martre, near Paris, founded for the same purpose, 

16 June, 

The pope dedicated the universal church to “the 

Sacred Heart ” *) Th-dune,” 5, 


SACRED WARS.—I. Declared by the Am- 
phictyons against Cirrha, near Delphi, for robbery 
and outrage to the visitors to the oracle, 595 B.C. 
Cirrha was razed to the ground, 586.—II. Between 
the Phocians and Delphians for the possession of 
the temple at Delphi, 448, 447.—II1. The Phocians, 
on being fined for cultivating the sacred lands, 
seized the temple, 357. They were conquered by 
Philip of Macedon, and their cities depopulated, 
346. See Crusades. 


SACRIFICE was offered to God by Abel, 3875 
B.c. Sacrifices to the gods were introduced into 
Greece by Phoroneus, king of Argos, 1773 B.C. 
Human sacrifices seem to have originated with the 
Chaldeans, from whom the custom passed into other 
Eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God were 
to cease with the sacrifice of Christ, 33 A.D. Hed. 
x. 12-14. Pagan sacrifices were forbidden by the 
emperor Constantius IT. 341. 


SACRILEGE. In 1835, the punishment (for- 
merly death) was made transportation for life. By 
23 & 24 Vict. c. 96, s. 50 (1861), breaking into a 
place of worship and stealing therefrom was made 
punishable with penal servitude for life. 


SACRIPORTUS (Latium, Italy). Here 
Sylla defeated the younger Marius and Papirius 
Carbo with great slaughter, B.c. 82, and became 
dictator, 81. 


SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans 
used neither saddles nor stirrups. Saddles were in 
use in the 3rd century, and are mentioned as made 
of leather in 304, and were known in England about 
600. Side-saddles for ladies were introduced by 
Anne, queen of Richard II. in 1388. Stow. 


1765 


1873 


1875 


SADDUCEES, a Jewish sect, said to hav 
been founded by Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonus 
about 200 B.c., who, misinterpreting his master’s 
doctrine, taught that there was neither heaven nor 
hell, angel nor spirit ; that the soul was mortal, and 
that there was no resurrection of the body from the 
dead. The Sadducees rejected the oral law, main- 
fanee the Pharisees. Seé Matt. xxii. 23; Aets 
Selo. 


SADLER’S WELLS (N. London), so called 
after Mr. Sadler, who built an orchestra to entertain 
the invalids who used the waters medicinally, 1683. 
In time the orchestra was enclosed, and the build- 
ing became a place for dramatic performances. 
The theatre was opened in 1765. Eighteen 
persons were trampled to death at this theatre, 
on a false alarm of fire, 18 Oct. 1807; see under 
Theatres. The theatre put up to auction and not 
sold, 31 Aug. 1875; and 30 July, 1878. Opened 
for miscellaneous entertainments, 6 Jan. 1877. 
Taken by Mrs. Bateman, Sept. 1878; partly rebuilt; 
opened as New Sadler’s Wells on 9 Oct. 1879, with 
the opera ‘* Rob Roy. ”’ Miss Isabella Bateman became 
manager after her mother’s death, 13 Jan. 1881, but 
did not succeed. The house was opened with 
Shakspeare’s ‘‘ Twelfth Night,” by Roze de Vane, 
12 April, 1884. 


SADOWA, see Koniggratz. 


SAFES. A National Safe Company, London, 
opened vaults for storage of valuables, 1876. 


SAFETY LAMP. One was invented in 1815 
by sir Humphry Davy, to prevent accidents which 
happen in coal and other mines. The safety-lamp 
is founded on the principle that flame, in passing 
through iron-wire meshes, loses so much of its heat 
as to be incapable of igniting inflammable gases. 
The father of all safety-lamps was Dr. Reid Clanny, 
of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements 
are authenticated in the Transactions of the Society 
of Arts for 1817. The ‘‘Geordy,’”’ constructed by 

eorge Stephenson, the engineer, in 1815, is said 
to be the safest, A miner’s electric light,.by MM. 
Dumas and Benoit, was exhibited in Paris on 8 
Sept. 1862. On 14 Aug. 1867, safety-lamps were 
rigidly tested by several mining engineers, and 
serious doubts thrown upon their complete efficacy. 
Col. Shakespear’s safety lamp (light extinguished 
by opening) exhibited at Royal Institution, {c., 
May, 1879. Messrs. Fleuss and Foster’s new safety 
mining lamp approved, Jan. 1884. 


SAFFRON (saffran, French; saffrano, Italian), 
the flower of crocus, was first brought to England in 
the reign of Edward III. by a pilgrim, about 1339, 
probably from Arabia, as the word is from the 
Arabic saphar. Miller. It was cultivated in Eng- 
land in 1582. 


SAGE (Sauge, French 3, Salvia, Latin), a whole- 
some herb, comfortable to the brain and nerves. 
Mortimer. A species of this garden plant grew 
early in England, and some varieties were imported. 
The Mexican sage, Salvia mexicana, was brought 
from Mexico, 1724. The blue African sage, Salvia 
africana, and the golden African sage, Salvia aurea, 
were brought to England from the Cape of Good 
Hope in 1731. 


SAGUNTUM, or ZAcynTHUS, now Mur- 
viedro, in Valentia, E. Spain, renowned for the 
dreadful siege it sustained, 219 B.c. The citizens, 
after performing incredible acts of valour for eight 
months, chose to be buried in the ruins of their cy 
rather than surrender to Hannibal. They burnt 


SAHARA. 7 


emselves, with their houses, and the conqueror 
came master of a pile of ashes, 218 B.C. 


SAHARA, a great. sandy desert, North Africa, 
ath of Barbary States. A project for making an 
land sea here was entertained in 1883. 


SAIGON, French colony in Cochin China, 
anded in 1860, after a defeat of the Chinese, 17 
‘b. 1859. 


SAILORS’ HOME, in Well-street, London 
cks, established by Mr. George Green, 1830; 
ened, 1835; enlarged, 1865. In one year it 
mitted 5444 boarders, who, besides home, had 
ening instruction, the use of a savings’ bank, &c. 
1e establishment is self-supporting, aided by 
bscriptions. Similar institutions have since been 
tablished. Sailors’ orphan girls’ school and 
me, Hampstead, established 1829. 


SAINT. For names with this prefix, see the 
mes themselves throughout the book. 


ST. JAMES’S GAZETTE, anti-radical 
ening paper, edited by Fred. Greenwood, formerly 
itor of Pall Mali Gazette, first appeared, 31 May, 
‘80. Price 2d., reduced to 1d. 2 Jan. 1882. 


SAKYA MUNI, see Buddhism. 
SALADO, a river, S. Spain; see Tarifa. 


SALADS, are stated to have been in use in 
e middle ages; lettuces are said to have been 
troduced into England from the Low Countries, 


‘20-47. 
SALAMANCA (W. Spain), taken from the 


wacens 861. The university was founded 1240, 
id the cathedral built 1513. Near here the British 
id allies, commanded by lord Wellington, totally 
‘feated the French army under marshal Marmont, 
: July, 1812. The loss of the victors was most 
yere, amounting in killed, wounded, and missing, 
nearly 6000 men. Marmont left in the victor’s 
inds 7141 prisoners, II pieces of cannon, 6 stands 
‘colours, and 2 eagles. This victory was followed 
r the capture of Madrid. 


SALAMIS (near Athens). Ina great sea-fight 
re, 20 Oct. 480 B.c., Themistocles, the Greek com- 
ander, with only 310 sail, defeated the fleet of 
erxes, king of Persia; which consisted of 2000 
il.—Near Salamis, in Cyprus, the Greeks defeated 
e Persian fleet, 449 B.c.; and Demetrius Polior- 
tes defeated the fleet of Ptolemy and his allies, 
16 B.C. 


SALASSI, a turbulent Alpine tribe, were 
oroughly subdued by Terentius Varro, 25 B.C., 
id a Roman colony established in their territories 
ow Aosta). 


SALDANHA BAY, S. Atlantic Ocean; north- 
ard of the Cape of Good Hope. Here on 17 Aug. 
96, a Dutch squadron, under admiral Lucas, was 
ptured by vice-admiral sir George Keith Elphin- 
me, without resistance; sir George was created 
rd Keith. 


SALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS ACT, 
ussed 11 Aug. 1875; repeals all adulteration acts, 
id makes new arrangements. 


SALENCKEMEN, on the Danube. Herea 
etory was gained by the imperialists, under prince 
mis of Baden, over the Turks, commanded by the 

and vizier Mustapha Kiuprigli, 19 Aug. 1691. 


SALERNO (Salernun, S. Italy), an ancient 
oman colony. Its university, with a celebrated 


35 SALMON FISHERIES. 


school of medicine, reputed to be the oldest in 
Europe, was founded by Robert Guiscard the Nor- 
man, who seized Salerno in 1077. Salerno suffered 
much in the wars of the middle ages. 


SALFORD, near Manchester. 


An incendiary explosion at the barracks caused one 
death ; Fenians suspected . 14Jan, 1881 


SALIQUE or Saric Law, by which females 
are excluded from inheriting the crown of France, 
is said to have been instituted by Pharamond, 424, 
and ratified in a council of state by Clovis L., the 
real founder of the French monarchy, in 511. 
Heénault. This law, introduced into Spain by the 
Bourbons 1700, was formally abolished by decree 
29 March, 1830; and on the death of Ferdinand VII. 
his daughter succeeded as Isabella II., 29 Sept. 1833; 
see Spain. By this law also Hanover was separated 
from England, when queen Victoria ascended the 
English throne, 1837. 


SALISBURY (Wilts), founded in the begin- 
ning of the 13th century, on the removal of the 
cathedral hither from Old Sarum. National councils 
or parliaments were repeatedly held at Salisbury, 
particularly in 1296, by Edward I.; in 1328, by 
Edward III.; andin 1384. Henry Stafford, duke of 
Buckingham, was executed here by order of Richard 
III., in 1483.—On Sarispury PuaIn is Stone- 
henge (which see). This plain was estimated at: 
500,000 acres. On it were so many cross roads, and 
so few houses to take directions from, that Thomas, 
earl of Pembroke, planted a tree at each milestone 
from Salisbury to Shaftesbury, for the traveller’s 
guide. The autumn military manceuvres took place 
on Salisbury Plain, Aug., Sept. 1872; see under 
Army.—The first seat of the BisHoPRIc was at 
Sherborne, St. Aldhelm being prelate, 705. Her- 
man removed the seat to Old Sarum, about 1072; 
and the see was removed to Salisbury by a papal 
bull, in1217. It has yielded to the church of Rome 
one saint and two cardinals. The building of the 
cathedral commenced 28 April, 1220, and was com- 
pleted in 1258. This edifice is reckoned one of our 
finest ecclesiastical erections. Its spire, the loftiest 
in the kingdom, was considered in danger in April, 
1864, and subscriptions were begun for its im- 
mediate repair. The choir was re-opened, after 
restoration by sir G. G. Scott, 1 Nov. 1876.* The 
bishopric is valued in the king’s books at 1367/, 
11s. 8d. Present income 5000/. 

RECENT BISHOPS. 
John Fisher, died 2 July, 1825. 
Thomas Burgess, died 19 Feb. 1837. 
Edmund Denison, died 6 March, 1854. 
Walter Kerr Hamilton, died 1869. 
George Moberly, elected 9 Sept. 


1797- 
1825. 


1837. 
1854. 
1869. 


SALLEH, a port of Morocco, long a haunt for 
pirates, destroyed by the British in 1632, and about 
300 captives released. 


SALLENTINI, allies of the Samnites, the 
only Italian tribe not subject to Rome, were over- 
come in war in 267 and 266 B.c., and Brundisium, 
their port, taken. 


SALMON FISHERIES. The laWs relating 
to them were consolidated and amended in 1861, 
and the report of a commission of inquiry (in- 
eluding sir Wm. Jardine) was published, in Feb. 
1862. An act restricting the capture of salmon at 
certain times, passed in 1863, was amended in 1869- 
1870, and 1873. During the ‘‘salmon_fence,’’ 
14 Sept. tor Feb., it is unlawful to catch fish of 
the salmon kind. A salmon-fishery congress opened 
at South Kensington, 7 June, 1867. Salmon eggs 
sent to New Zealand, Jan. 1878. 


SALONICA. 


‘Sautmon Ova, packed in boxes with moss, charcoal, 

and ice, to retard development—a plan suggested 

and proved practicable by Mr. E. H. Moscrop in 

1863—adopted successfully by Mr. J. A. Youl, 

who sent ova to Australia in the ‘‘ Norfolk,”  . 1864 
Salmon disease, in rivers, announced, 1879 ; commis- 

sion of inquiry appointed, Mr. F. Buckland and 

others ‘ : : : : : Jan. 1880 
Very great increase in the nunber of salmon caught, 1883 


SALONICA, see Thessalonica. 


SALT (chloride of sodium, a compound of the 
gas chlorine and the metal sodium) is procured from 
the rocks in the earth, from salt-springs, and from 
sea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wielitzka, 
near Cracow in Poland, have been worked 600 
years. The salt-works in Cheshire, called the 
WIcHES (Nantwich, Northwich, and Middlewich), 
were of great importance in the time of the Saxon 
heptarchy. The salt-mines of Staffordshire were 
discovered about 1670. Salt duties were first ex- 
acted in 1702; they were renewed in 1732; re- 
«duced in 1823; and in that year were ordered to 
cease in 1825. During the French war the duty 
reached to 30/. perton. For thesalt-tax in France 
see Gabelle. 'The government salt monopoly in India 
was abolished in May, 1863, by sir C. Trevelyan. 
Since 1797 salt has been largely employed in the 
manufacture of chloride of sodium or bleaching 
powder (by obtaining its chlorine), and soap (by 
obtaining its soda). On this are based the chemical 
works of Cheshire, Lancashire, and other places. 
See under Alkalies. 


SALTAIRE, see Alpaca. 
SALT LAKH, see Mormonites. 
SALT-PETRE (from sal petra, salt of the 


rock), or Nitre, is a compound of nitric acid and 
‘potash (nitrogen, oxygen, and potassium), and 
ease is called nitrate of potash. It is the explo- 
sive ingredient in gunpowder, many detonating 
powders, and lucifer matches. Boyle in the 17th 
century demonstrated that salt-petre was composed 
of aqua fortis (nitric acid) and potash; the dis- 
coveries of Lavoisier (1777) and Davy (1807) showed 
its real composition. Its manufacture in England 
began about 1625. During the French revolu- 
tionary war, the manufacture was greatly increased 
by the researches of Berthollet. 


SALUTE at SEA. Itisa received maxim at 
sea, that he who returns the salute always fires 
fewer guns than he receives, which is done even 
between the ships of princes of equal dignity; but 
the Swedes and Danes return the compliment with- 
out regarding how many guns are fired to them. 
‘The English claim the right of being saluted first 
in all places, as sovereigns of the seas; the Vene- 
tians claimed this honour within their gulf, &c. 
‘The admiralty issued a code of rules for salutes, 
Dec. 1876. See Flag, and Naval Salute. 


SALVADOR, SAN, one of the Bahamas, and 
the first point of land discovered in the West Indies 
or America by Columbus. It was previously called 
Guanahani, or Cat’s Isle, and Columbus (in ac- 
knowledgment to God for his deliverance) named it 
San Salvador, 11 Oct. 1492. Population about 
600,000. The capital, San Salvador, was destroyed 
by an earthquake, 16 April, 1854, and is now 
abandoned. 


SALVADOR, SAN, one of the republics of 
Central America, with a constitution established 
24 Jan. 1859. General Barrios elected president 
1 Feb. 1860, was compelled to flee in Oct. 1863; 
when Francis Duefias became provisional president; 
his formal election took place April, 1865. The ex- 


SAMARCAND. 


president, Gerard Barrios, was surrendered b 
Nicaragua, tried and shot, Aug. 1865. A _ re 
attempted revolution failed ; Zaldivar fled; gener: 
Gonzales president, 1 Feb. 1872; R. Zaldivar, Ma} 
1876. Population, 1880, 554,785. The capital, Sa: 
Salvador, was nearly destroyed by an earthquake 
19 March, 1873, about 50 persons perished. Th 
convulsion began 5 March and thus gaye timel 
warning. 


“SALVATION ARMY,” a name assume 
by a body of persons terming themselves th 
“Christian Mission’ (formed 1865), to deal wit 
the lowest classes; Mr, William Booth,was general 


A great ‘‘Hosanna” meeting to celebrate the formatio 
of the ro4th corps at Northampton, was held at th 
headquarters (with prayers, addresses, and singing 
272, Whitechapel-road, 30 June, 1879. 

17th anniversary kept at the Alexandra Palace, 

3 July, 188 

Gen. Booth set forth his principles in the Contem- 
porary Review for August, 1882; he upholds the 
gospel, opposes sectarianism, and requires from 
his soldiers implicit obedience, aiming at the re- 
formation of drunkards and other reprobates.* 
His army much annoyed by a ‘‘skeleton army ;” 


he checks processions 3 A - Feb. 188 
The Eagle Tavern and Grecian Theatre, City Road, 
London, purchased; occupied, early 12 Aug.; de- 
voted, 14 Sept. 1882 ; conditions of sale not kept, 
ordered to quit : 4 CwUly, v5) 


Indian contingent Qnajor Tucker and others), land 
at Bombay ; fined ; imprisoned on non-payment, 
28 Sept. ,, 
Their ‘‘invasion” opposed by the authorities in 
Switzerland, Jan. et seg.; severely opposed, June; 
Miss Booth imprisoned at Neufchatel, Sept.; ac- 
quitted, 1 Oct. ; expelled 4 seeer OCioumn, 
Great fighting between Salvation and Skeleton 
armies at Gravesend [and other places] 15 Oct. ,, 
**s553 army brigades in the United Kingdom; 182 
abroad.” —Gen. Booth - April, 188. 
West-end centre building founded . 14 June, ,, 
Severe decree against the army in Berne, 2 Sept. ; 
unconstitutional persecution Aug.-Sept.  ,, 
Severe rioting at Worthing; the army attacked by 
the Skeleton army, 18-20 Aug.; a man wounded 


by a revolver fired by Mr. G. Head, 7 Sept.; 
rioting at Brighton ; : seep uses, 
SALZBACH (Baden). Here the French gene 


ral Turenne was killed, at the commencement of ¢ 
battle, 27 July, 1675. 


SALZBURG, an ancient city of Germany, wa 
annexed to Austria, 1805; to Bavaria, 1809; t 
Austria again 1815. It was the birthplace o 
Mozart, 1756. The meetings of the emperors o 
Austria and France here, 18 Aug. 1867, and thie 
emperors of Austria and Germany, 6 Sept. 1871 
which caused some anxiety, were reported to be iz 
favour of peace. 


SAMAJ, or Somas, see Deism. 
SAMANIDE DYNASTY, began with Ismai 


Samani, who overcame the army of the Safferides 
and established himself in the government o 
Persia, 902; his descendants ruled till 999. 


SAMARCAND (in Tartary) was conquered by 
the Mahometans, 707; by Gensins Khan, 1220, anc 
by Timur, or Tamerlane, who ruled here in grea’ 
splendour. Samarcand was occupied by the Rus, 
sians under Kaufmann 26 May, 1868, after a con- 
flict on the previous day. The garrison left, resistec 


* The army has officers of various grades; head 
quarters, ror, Queen Victoria Street, London; publish 
ing offices, &c., Paternoster Square ; official gazette, the 
War Cry, price 4d., in various languages, of whiel 
millions are sold, The propagandism is very vigorous. 


i 


SAMARITANS. 


ee siege till relieved by Kaufmann, 13-20 J une, 
I . 


SAMARITANS. Samaria was built by Omri, 
j25 B.C.; and became the capital of the kingdom 
of Israel. On the breaking up of that kingdom 
(721 B.C.), the conqueror Shalmaneser placed natives 
of other countries at Samaria. The descendants of 
hese mixed races were abominable to the J ews, and 
nuch more so in consequence of the rival temple 
yuilt on Mount Gerizim by Sanballat the Samaritan, 
332 B.C., which was destroyed by John Hyrcanus, 
30 B.c.; see John iv. & viii. 48, and Luke x. 33. 

e Samaritan Pentateuch (of uncertain origin) 
vas published in his Polyglot by Morinus, 1632. 


SAMNITES, a warlike people of S. Italy, who 
trenuously resisted the Koman power, and were 
ot subjugated till after three sanguinary wars, 
rom 343 to 292 B.c. Their brave leader, Caius 
ontius, who spared the Romans at Caudium, 320, 
aving been taken prisoner, was basely put to 
eath, 292. They did not acquire the right of 
itizenship till 88 B.c. 


SAMOAN ISLES (or Navigators), (nine in- 

abited), near the Fiji islands; christianized by 
ev. John Williams, 1830. King Malictoa suc- 
2eded, 8 Nov. 1880. The isles have a political con- 
‘tution; their parliament voted annexation to 
‘ew Zealand, March, 1885. . 


SAMOS, an island on the W. coast of Asia 
linor. Colonised by Ionians about 1043 B.c. The 
ty was founded about 986. Polycrates, ruler of 
amos (532-22 B.C.), was one of the most able, 
irtunate, and treacherous of the Greek tyrants, 
id possessed a powerful fieet. He patronised 
ythagoras (born here) and Anacreon. Samos was 
ken by the Athenians, 440; and, with Greece, 
‘came subject to Rome, 146. It was taken by the 
enetians, A.D. 1125, who here made velvet (samet), 
\d became subject to the Turks, about 1459. 


was made a principality by sultan Mahmoud in 1832; 
present prince, Constantine Adossides, born 23 Feb,, 
1822 ; appointed 4 March, 1879. 


SAMPFORD COURTENAY (Devon). 
ere John, lord Russell, defeated the Cornish and 
»vonshire catholic rebels, the middle of Aug. 1549. 


SANCTION, see Pragmatic. 
SANCTUARIES, see Asylums. Privileged 


ices for the safety of offenders are said to have 
on granted by king Lucius to churches and their 
oeinets. St. John’s of Beverley was thus pri- 
eged in the time of the Saxons. St. Burian’s, 

Cornwall, was privileged by Athelstan, 9353 
2stminster, by Edward the Confessor; St. Mar- 
’s-le-Grand, 1529. Being much abused, the pri- 
oge of sanctuary was limited by the pope in I 503 
_ the request of Henry VII.), and much reduced 
1540. In London, persons were secure from 
‘est in certain localities: these were the Minories, 
isbury - court, Whitefriars, Fulwood’s - rents, 
‘re-court, Baldwin’s-gardens, the Savoy, Clink, 
adman’s-place, Montague-close, and the Mint. 
is security was abolished 1697, but lasted in some 
vee till the reign of George II. (1727). 


JAN DALS, see Shoes. 
3AND-BLAST. Gen. B. ©. Tilghman, of 


ladelphia, has invented a method of cutting stone 
‘ard metal by a jet of quartz sand impelled by 
‘ipressed air or steam. A hole of 14 inch diameter 


12 inch deep was bored through a block of 
mdum, nearly as hard as diamond, in 25 


F 
i 


737 


SANITARY LEGISLATION. 


minutes. The invention was submitted to the Frank- 
lin Institute, Philadelphia, 15 Feb. 1871. It may 
be employed in the arts, for etching, &c.; for this 
purpose a company was at work, 1874. 


SANDEMANIANS, see Glasites. 


SANDHURST, Royat Minrrary 
COLLEGE, founded, first at High Wycombe, in 
1799; removed to Great Marlow in 1802, and to 
Sandhurst in 1812. It consists of the statf college 
and cadets’ college. Competitive examination for 
entrance into the latter began in Feb. 18 58. A wing 
of the college was destroyed by fire, 21 Jan. 1868. 


SANDWICH (Portus Rutupensis, Kent). It 
suffered by Danish invaders in 851, 993, and 1014, 
but was rebuilt by Canute, and became prosperous ; 
it became chief of the cinque ports about 1066. It 
contributed 22 ships and 504 mariners to Idward 
III.’s French expedition. “It was taken and plun- 
dered by the French under Brézé in Aug. 1457. 
Flemish silk and woollen manufactories were set- 
tled here by Elizabeth in 156r. 


SANDWICH ISLANDS or Hawarr Ar- 
CHIPELAGO, @ group in the Pacific Ocean, discovered 
by captain Cookin 1778. In Owh yhee or Hawai, one 
of these islands, he fell a victim to the sudden re- 
sentment of the natives, 14 Feb. 1779. The king 
and queen visited London in 1824, and died there 
in July. These people have made great progress in 
civilisation, and embraced Christianity before any 
missionaries were settled among them. Population 
in 1882, 66,895. King Kaméhaméha IV. married 
Miss Emma Rooker, 1856. She came to Knzland 
in 1865; landing at Southampton, 13 July, and 
visited our queen, g Sept. An English bishopric 
was established at Honolulu in 1861, for which 
Dr. Thomas Staley was consecrated, 18 Aug. 1862. 
The king died ; Kaméhaméha V. king Nov. 1863 
The duke of Edinburgh warmly received at Hono- 


lulu. : : : : ; 21 July, 1869 
Bishop Staley resigns, Aug. 1870; bishop Alfred 


Willis consecrated ; 2 Feb, 1872 
Kaméhaméha V. died, unmarried , TEeDecs.y 
Wm. C. Lunalilo crowned, 8 Jan. 1873; died, 3 Feb. 1874 
David Kalakaua (born 16 Nov. 1836), elected king, 

in opposition to queen Emma . 3 3 coe byr: 
Visits the president at Washington . 12 Dee: ,> 
Visits Europe; at Rome, x July ; received by the 

queen at Windsor : - 12 July, 188z 


SAN FRANCISCO (California). The cen- 
tenary of its foundation by Franciscan monks, 
8 Oct. 1776, was celebrated in 1876; owes its 
present prosperity to the gold discovery in 1847; 
see California. ; 


SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council 
of the highest jurisdiction, of seventy, or, as some 
Say, seventy-three members, usually considered to 
be that established by Moses, Num. xi. 16,—1490 
B.C. It was yet in being at the time of Jesus 
Christ, John xviii. 31. A Jewish Sanhedrim was 
summoned by the emperor Napoleon I., 23 July, 
1806. A meeting of Jewish deputies was held 18 
Pept and the Sanhedrim assembled, 9 March, 
1807. 

SANITARY INSTITUTE or Great 
BRITAIN, founded 13 July, 1876; president, the 
duke of Northumberland. Congress at Leamingtun, 
3 Oct. 1877; at Stafford, 2 Oct. 1878; at Croy- 
don, 21 Oct. 1879; opened a School of Hygiene in 
London, Nov. 1879. Congress at Glasgow, 27 Sept. 
1883; at Dublin, 30 Sept. 1884. 


SANITARY LEGISLATION, &. Strics 


cleanliness is enjoined in the law of Moses, 1490 B.c_ 


3B 


SANITAS. 


Great attention has been paid to the public health 
in France since 1802. Tardieu published his ‘‘ Dic- 
tionnaire de Hygiéne,” 1852-54. To Dr. South- 
wood Smith is mainly attributable the honour of 
commencing the agitation on the subject of public 
health in England about 1832; his ‘‘ Philosophy of 
Health’? having excited much attention. Since 
1838 he has published numerous sanitary reports, 
having been much employed by the government. 
Professors of hygiene are now appointed. 

Nuisances Removal act passed (repealed) . 1845-1860 


Baths and Washhouses act P : ; . 1846-1847 
Public Health act (subsequent Supplemental acts). 1848 


Common Lodging Houses act : 1851-1853 
Labouring Classes Lodging Houses act . 1851 
Smoke Nuisance Abatement act Eons 
Diseases Prevention act --1855 


Public Health act passed . 
Metropolitan Interments acts 
Labouring Classes Dwelling - 


. ? : 1850-1855 
house act passed 
March, 1866 


New Sanitary act (stringent) passed Aug. 1866; 
amended i : : 2 ; : 1868, 1870 
Public Health act passed to Aug. 1872 


National health society founded Bese 


International sanitary congress at Vienna, closed 


z Aug. 1874 
Public Health act for Ireland passed 7 Aug.- ,, 
Sanitary Laws Amendment act passed . 7 Aug. 


> 
New Consolidated Public Health act passed . = 1675 
Parkes ‘‘museum of hygiene,” instituted 1876, at 
University college, London; incorporated and 
removed to Margaret-street, Cavendish-square, 
1882; opened by the duke of Albany 26 May, 
Sanitary Assurance Association, formed by sir Jo- 
seph Fayrer, Drs. Andrew Clark, Corfield, Tyn- 
dall, and others ; constituted . ses il Bete 
London Sanitary Protection Association, founded by 
sir Wm. W. Gull, professor Huxley, and others . 
International sanitary exhibition, royal Albert hall, 
16 July—13 Aug. 
International sanitary congress at Washington, 
U.S.A., opened, Jan. 1881; at Geneva y 
National health society’s exhibition opened 2J1ne, 
International health exhibition, 1884; proposals 
adopted, Nov. 1882 ; opened by the duke of Cam- 
bridge, 8 May ; closed, 30 Oct. ; conferences held 
about r2 June; the juries inaugurated by the 
prince of Wales, 17 June; admitted, 4,167,681; 
medalsawarded (242 gold, 5096 silver, and others), 
27 Oct. 1884; estimated surplns, 19,000l.. _ Feb. 1885 
sth International sanitary conference at the Hague, 
21 Aug. 1884 


SANITAS (health), a new antiseptic and dis- 
infectant, invented by Mr. C. T. Kingzett, about 
1875. ' 
Having discovered that the salubrity of the air surround- 

ing certain trees, such as the Eucalyptus globulus and 
pines, is due to their volatile oils producing peroxide 
of hydrogen and camphoric acid; he devised a method 
for procuring these re-agents by the decomposition of 
common turpentine, and in 1877 they were manufac- 
tured and sold as ‘‘ Sanitas.” - 


SAN JUAN ISLAND, see Juan. 
SAN SALVADOR, see Salvador. 


SANSCULOTTES, a term of reproach applied 
to the leaders of the French republicans about 1790, 
on account of their negligence in dress, and after- 
wards assumed by them with pride. The comple- 
mentary days of their new calendar were named by 
the Mountain party Sansculottides. 


SANSKRIT, the language of the Brahmans of 
India, spoken at the time of Solomon, has been 
much studied of late years. Sir Wm. Jones, who 
published a translation of the poem Sakuntala, in 
1783, discovered that a complete literature had been 
ane Nea in India, comprising sacred books (the 

‘edas), history and philosophy, lyric and dramatic 


1883 


poetry. Texts and translations of many works have |. 


738 


SAPPHIC VERSE. 


been published by the aid of the East India Com-! 
pany, the Oriental Translation Fund, and private’ 
liberality. The professorship of Sanskrit at Ox- 
ford was founded by colonel Boden. The first pro- 
fessor, H. H. Wilson, appointed in 1832, translated 
part of the Rig-veda Sanhita, the sacred hymns of 
the Brahmins, and several poems, &c. Professor 
Monier Williams (elected 1860) published an Eng- 
lish and Sanskrit dictionary, 1851. Professor Max 
Miiller published his history of Sanskrit Literature 
in 1859, and has edited the original text of the 
Vedas. Philologists have discovered an intimate 
connection between the Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, 
Latin, Teutonic, Slavonian, Celtic, and Scandi~ 
navian languages. 


SAN STEFANO, see Stefano. 
SANTA CRUZ (Teneriffe, Canary Isles). Here 


admiral Blake, by daring bravery, entirely destroyed 
sixteen Spanish ships, secured with great nautical 
skill, and protected by the castle and forts on the 
shore, 20 April, 1657. Clarendon. In an unsuc- 
eessful attack made upon Santa Cruz by Nelson, 
several officers and 141 men were killed, and the 
admiral lost his right arm, 24 July, 1797.* See 
under Virgin Isles. 


SANTA FE DE BOGOTA, see New Gra- 


nada. 


SANTA HERMANDAD, see Hermandad. 


SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELLA (N.W. 
Spain), was sacked by the Moors in 995, and held by 
them till it was taken by Ferdinand IIL. in 1235. 
The order of Santiago, or St. James, was founded 
about 1170 to protect pilgrims to the shrine of St. 
James the Greater (Acts, xii. 2), said to be buried in 
the cathedral. The town was taken by the French in 
1809, and held till 1814.—Sant1AGo, the capital of 
Chili, S. America, founded by Valdiiia in 1541, has 
suffered much by earthquakes, especially in 1822 
and 1829. ‘ 

About seven o’clock in the evening of 8 Dec. 1863, the 
feast of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary 
and the last day of a series of religious celebrations i1 
the ‘‘month of Mary,” the church of the Campania 
when brilliantly illuminated in a dangerous manner 
was burnt down, the fire beginning amidst the com 
bustible ornaments, and above 2000 persons, princi 
pally women, perished; the means of egress being 
utterly insufficient. 

On 20 Dec. the government ordered the church to be 
razed to the ground, and much public indignation was 
excited against the fanatical priesthood. 


SAPPERS Aanp MINERS, a name given it 
1812 to the non-commissioned officers and private: 
of the corps of Royal Engineers. Brande. 


SAPPHIC VERSE, invented by Sappho, th: 
lyric poetess of Mitylene. She was equally cele- 
brated for her poetry, beauty, and a hopeless passior 
for Phaon, a youth of her native country, on whicl 
last account it is said she threw herself into the se: 
from Mount Leucas, and was drowned, about 59 
p.c. The Lesbians, after her death, paid her divine 
honours, and called her the tenth muse. Som« 
consider the story fabulous. : 


preserved, as being the first letter written by the hero wit) 
his left hand :—‘‘ My DEAR Mrs. FREMANTLE,—Tell m 
how Tom is, I hope he has saved his arm, Mine ts off 
but, thank God! I am as well as I hope heis. Ever yours 
‘‘ Horatio NELSON.” 


SAPPHIRE. 
SAPPHIRE, 2 precicus stone of an azure 
olour, and transparent; in hardness it exceeds the 
uby, and is next to the diamond. One was placed 
n the Jewish high priest’s breast-plate, 1491. 
‘“hamas Kouli Khan is said to have possessed a 
apphire valued at 300,000/., 1733. Artificial sap- 
shires were made in 1857 by M. Gaudin. Equal parts 
f alum and sulphate of potash were heated in a 
rucible. 


SARABAND. A stately dance invented by 
jarabanda, a dancer of Seville, in the 16th century. 


SARACENS, an Arab race, the first disciples 
f Mahomet, who within forty years after his death 
632), had subdued a great part of Asia, Africa, and 
jurope. They conquered Spain in 711 ef seqg., and 
under Abderahman) established the caliphate of 
Jordova in 755, which gave way to the Moors in 
237. The empire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad 
veing taken by the Tartars, 1258. 


SARAGOSSA (N.E. Spain), anciently Cisarea 
\ugusta, founded 27 B.c., was taken by the Goths, 
70; by the Arabs, 712; by Alfonso of Spain, 1118. 

ere Philip V. was defeated by the archduke 
Yharles, 20 Aug.1710. On17 Dec. 1778, 400 of the 
habitants perished ina fire at the theatre. Sara- 
-ossa, after successfully resisting the French in 
808, was taken by them after a most heroic defence 
iy general Palafox, 20 Feb. 1809. ‘The inhabitants, 
f both sexes, resisted until worn out by fighting, 
amine, and pestilence. 


SARAH SANDS, see Wrecks, 1857. 
/ SARAKHS, see Russia, 1884. 
| SARATOGA (New York State, N. America). 


Tere general Burgoyne, commander of a body of the 

3ritish army, after a severe engagement with the 
imericans at Germanstown, in which he was vic- 

orious, 3, 4 Oct., being surrounded, surrendered all 
\isarmy (5791 men) to the American general Gates, 
7 Oct. 1777. This was the greatest check the 
sritish suffered in the war. 


» SARAWAK, see Borneo. 


SARDINTA, an island in the Mediterranean, 
uccessively possessed by the Phoenicians, Greeks, 
Jarthaginians (about 500 B.c.), Romans (238), 
Tandals (A.D. 456), Saracens (720-40), Genoese 
1022), Pisans (1165), Aragonese (1352), and 
‘paniards. From settlers belonging to these 
‘arious nations the present inhabitants derive their 
rigin. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, acquired 
Jardinia in 1720, with the title of king ; see Savoy. 
opulation of the Sardinian dominions in 1858, 
Hat04,807; of Sardinia alone, 1881, 682,002. ‘The 
ing of Sardinia was recognised as king of Italy by 
is parliament in Feb. 1861; see Italy. 


‘‘onquered by the English naval forces, under sir 
John Leake and gen. Stanhope : 5 i Wyfohss 
‘'eded to the emperor Charles VI... 1714 
tecovered by the Spaniards : : 1717 
jJeded to the duke of Savoy with the title 
as an equivaleut for Sicily . - * : 1720 
‘ictor Amadeus abdicates in favour of hisson . . 1730 
| ttempting to recover his throne, he is taken, and 
| dies in prison ‘ ; ‘ , . ; ‘ 
| ‘he court kept at Turin, till Piedmont is overrun 
_ by the French A : c ; : Af ag 
‘harles Emmanuel resigns to his brother, duke of 
i; Aosta . £ - : - af 4 June, 1802 
‘iedmont annexed to Italy . 26 May, 1805 
‘he king'resides in Sardinia . < ; . 1798-1814 
|*iedmont restored to its sovereign, with Genoa 
| added é p ; 3 ; ; : bye DECAaayes 
| ting Charles-Albert promulgates a new code. . 1837 
Javour establishes the newspaper ‘‘Il Risorgi- 
Inento” (‘‘ the Revival”) . ; - c . 1847 


22 Aug. 
of king, 


1732 


1792 


739 


SARDINIA. 


| The king grants a constitution, and openly espouses 
the cause of Italian regeneration against Austria, 

23 March, 

Defeats the Austrians at Goito ; and takes Peschiera 
30 May, 

Incorporation of Lombardy with Sardinia 28 June, 


and Venice ; ; : : : . 4Jduly, 
Sardinian army defeated by Radetzky 26 July, 
Sardinians at Milan capitulate to Radetzky 5 Aug. 
Armistice signed : ‘ : g Aug. 


Hostilities resumed . d : : . 12 March, 
Radetzky defeats a division of the Sardinians, and 
occupies Mortara. ; : 21 March, 
Complete defeat of the Sardinians by the Austrians 
at Novara . 23 March, 


Charles-Albert abdicates in favour of his son, 

Victor-Emmanuel ; : 23 March, 
The Austrians occupy Novara, &c. . . 25 March, 
Another armistice : : : 26 March, 
Death of Charles-Albert, at Oporto 28 July, 


Treaty of Milan between Austria and Sardinia, 
signed- . : : : 2 - —eOlLAUE. 
Adoption of the Sicecardi law, which abolishes 


ecclesiastical jurisdictions . 9 April, 
Arrest of the bishop of Turin 4 May, 
He is released from the citadel 2 June, 


Cavour minister of foreign affairs . ? ‘ 3 
Bill for suppression of convents and support of 
clergy by the state passed 2 March, 
Convention with England and France signed; a 
contingent of 15,000 troops to be supplied against 
Russia , ; ; ; to April, 
10,000 troops under general La Marmora arrive in 
the Crimea . : : : : : 8 May, 
Who distinguish themselves in the battle of the 


Tchernaya . ‘ : - 16 Aug. 
The king visits London, &c. . : 30 Nov. &c. 
Important note on Italy from count Cavour to 


England . ; ; . : : . 16 April, 
Rupture with Austria ; subsequent war (see Austria, 
1857, et seq.) 
Cavour declares in favour of free trade June, 
Prince Napoleon Jerome marries princess Clotilde 
(see Italy) : d : ‘ 30 Jan. 
Preliminaries of peace signed at Villa Franca, 11 
July ; count Cavour resigns, 13 July; Rattazzi 
administration formed . - 19 July, 
The emperor Napoleon’s letter to Victor-Emmanuel 
advocating the formation of an Italian confedera- 
tion : the latter declares it to be impracticable, 
and maintains his engagements with the Italians, 


20 Oct. 
Treaty of peace signed at Zurich Novy. 
Garibaldi retires into private life . 17 Nov. 
Count Cavour returns to office . 16 Jan. 


The Sardinian government refers the question of 
annexation of Tuscany, &c., to the vote of the 
people . : . : : : - 29 Feb. 

Annexation of Savoy and Nice proposed by the 
French government; the Sardinian government 
refer it to the vote of the people 25 Feb. 

Annexation to Sardinia voted almost unanimously 
by Aimilia, 14 March; by Tuscany, 16 March ; 
accepted by Victor-Emmanuel . 18-20 March, 

Treaty ceding Savoy and Nice to France, signed 

24 March, 

Prussia protests against the Italian annexations 

27 March, 

New Sardinian parliament ‘opens . 2 April, 

Annexation to France almost unanimously voted 
for by Nice, 15 April; by Savoy 22 April, 

The government professes disapproval of Garibaldi’s 
expedition to Sicily (which see) . 18 May, 

The chambers ratify treaty of cession of Savoy and 
Nicesaee A 2 : F , - 29 May, 

The Sardinian troops enter the papal territories 
(see Italy, and Rome) ‘ : . 11 Sept. 

Victor-Emmanuel enters the kingdom of Naples 


15 Oct. 
Naples and Sicily vote for annexation to Sardinia 
21 Oct. 
Railway from Sassari to the sea opened 9 April, 


[For the disputes, and war with Austria, and the 
events of 1859-61, see Austria, France, Rome, 
Sicily, and Naples.] 


[For later history see Italy.] 
3B 2 


” 


SARDIS. 


740 


. SAVINGS’ BANKS. 


KINGS OF SARDINIA. See Savoy. 

Victor-Amadeus I. king (as duke II.) ; resigned, in 
1730, in favour of his son ; died in 1732. 

Charles-Emmanuel I. (III. of Savoy), son. 

Victor-Amadeus II., son. 

Charles-Emmanuel II., son; resigned his crown 
in favour of his brother 

Victor-Emmanuel I., brother; 4 June. 

[Sardinia merged in the kingdom of Italy, of which 
the emperor Napoleon was crowned king, 26 
May, 180s. ] 

Victor-Emmanuel restored; resigned in March, 
1821 ; and died in 1824. 

Charles-Felix. 

Charles-Albert ; abdicated in favour of his son, 23 
March, 1849. Died at Oporto, 28 July, 1849. 
Victor-Emmanuel II., son; born 14 March, 1820; 

died, g Jan. 1878. 

Humbert, king of Italy ; born, 14 March 1844. 

See Italy, end. 


SARDIS, see under Seven Churches. 


1720. 
1730. 
1773: 
1796. 
1802. 
1805. 
814. 


1821. 
1831. 


1849. 


SARMATTA, the ancient name for the country 


in Asia and Europe between the Caspian Sea and 
the Vistula, including Russia and Poland. The 
Sarmate or Sauromate troubled the early Roman 
empire by incursions. After subduing the Scythians 
they were subjugated by the Goths, in the ah and 
4th centuries. ‘They joined the Huns an 
barbarians in invading Western Europe in the 5th 
century. 

SARNO (S. Italy). Near this river Teias, king 
of the Goths, was defeated and slain by Justinian’s 
general Narses, March, 553. 

SARUM, OLD (Wiltshire), an ancient British 
town, the origin of Salisbury (which see). Although 
completely decayed, it returned two members to 
parliament till 1832. 


SASSANIDES, descendants of Artaxerxes or 


Ardishir, whose father, Babek, was the son of 


Sassan. He revolted against Artabanus, the king 
of Parthia; defeated him on the plain of Hormuz, 
226; and re-established the Persian monarchy. This 
dynasty was expelled by the Mahometans, 652; 
see Persia. 


SATAN, see Devil Worship. 
SATELLITES, see Planets, Jupiter, Mars, 


Saturn. 


SATIRE. About a century after the introduc- 
tion of comedy, satire made its appearance at Rome 
in the writings of Lucilius, called the inventor of it, 
116 n.c. Livy. The Satires of Horace (35 B.c.), 
Juvenal (about A.D. 100), and Persius (about a.p. 
60), are the most celebrated in ancient times, and 
those of Churchill (1761) and Pope (1729), in 
modern times. Butler’s ‘“‘ Hudibras,”’ satirizing 
the presbyterians, first appeared in 1663. Satire 
Menippée, a celebrated satirical pamphlet, partly 
in verse and partly in prose, attacking the policy of 
the court of Spain and the league, written in the 
style of the biting satires of the cynic philosopher 
Menippus. The first part, ‘‘ Catholicon d’ Espagne,”’ 
by Leroy, appeared in 1593; the second, ‘‘ Abrégé 
des Etats de la Ligue,” by Gillot, Pithou, Rapin, 
and Passerat, appeared in 1594. Bouillet. 


SATRAPTES, divisions of the Persian empire, 
formed by Darius Hystaspes about 516 B.c. 


SATTARA (W. India) was long a flourishing 
state, founded by Sevajee about 1646; subjugated 
by the Mahrattas about 1749; conquered by the 
British, 1818 ; ruled by a rajah under the protection 
of the company. ‘The last rajah died without issue 
in 1848; when the country was annexed. 


SATURDAY (the last, or seventh day of the 


other 


week ; the Jewish Sabbath; see Sabbath). It wa 
so called from an idol worshipped on this day b: 
the Saxons, and according to Verstegan, was name 
by them Saterne’s day. Pardon. It is mor 
probably from Saturn, dies Saturni. Saturdar 
Review, an independent literary weekly journal 
was first published, 3 Nov. 1855. See Hospital. 


SATURN, the planet, ascertained to be abou 
900 millions of miles distant from the sun, and it: 
diameter to be about 77,230 miles. One of the 
eight satellites was discovered by Huyghens (2! 
March, 1655); four by Cassini (1672-84); two bj 
sir William Herschel (1789), and one by Bond anc 
Lassells (1848). The ring was observed by Galileo 
about 1610; its annular form determined by Huy- 
ghens, about 1655; and discovered to be two-folc 
by Messrs. Ball, 13 Oct. 1665; an inner ring was 
detected in 1850 by Dawes in England (29 Noy.). 
and by Bond in America. 


SATURNALIA, festivalsin honour of Saturn. 
father of the gods, were instituted long before the 
foundation of Rome, in commemoration of the 
freedom and equality which prevailed on the earth 
in his golden reign. Some, however, suppose that 
the Saturnalia were first observed at Rome in the 
reign of Tullus Hostilius (673-640 B.c.), after a 
victory obtained over the Sabines: whilst others 
suppose that Janus first instituted them in gratitude 
to Saturn, from whom he had learned agriculture. 
Others assert that they were first celebrated after a 
victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator 
Posthumius, when he dedicated a temple to Saturn, 
497 8.c. During these festivals no business was 
allowed, amusements were encouraged, and dis- 
tinctions ceased. Lenglet. 


SAVAGE CLUB, instituted by various 
literary men, in 1857, facetiously terming them- 
selves ‘savages,’ on account of their freedom from 
conventionalism. On some occasions they gave a 
war-whoop. Sala. Mr. W. E. Gladstone was pre- 
sent at the 22nd anniversary, 14 June, 1879, and 
the prince of Wales has been a visitor (1882). 


SAVANDROOG (Mysore, S. India), a strong 
fortress, was captured by the British without loss, 


21 Dec. 1791. 
SAVINGS’ BANKS. The first of these was 


instituted at Berne, in Switzerland, in 1787, by the 

name of caisse de domestiques, being intended for 

servants only ; another was set up in Basel, in 1792, 

open to all depositors. The rey. Joseph Smith, of 

Wendover, began a Benevolent Institution in 1799; 

and in 1803-4, a ‘* charitable bank”’ was instituted | 

at Tottenham by Miss Priscilla Wakefield. The rev. | 

Henry Duncan established a parish bank at Ruthwell 

in 1810. One was opened in Edinburgh in 1814. 

The benefit clubs, among artisans, having accumu- 

lated stocks of money for their progressive purposes, 

a plan was adopted to identify these funds with the 

public debt of the country, and an extra rate of 

interest was held out asan inducement ; hence were 
formed savings’ banks to receive small sums, re- 
turnable with interest on demand. 

Rt. hon. Geo. Rose developed the system, and brought it 
under parliamentary control, 1816. 

In 1840 there were 550 banks ; 766,354 depositors ; amount, 
22,060,9041. : 

Acts to consolidate and amend previous laws relating to 
savings’ banks were passed in 1828 and 1847; extended 
to Scotland in 1835 ; again consolidated and amended 
in 1863. 2 

On 20 Noy. 1851, the number of savings’ banks in Great 
Britain and Ireland was 574, besides above 20,000 
friendly societies and. charitable institutions. The 
depositors (in the banks) were 1,092,581, while the 


SAVONA. 


societies embraced a vast but unknown number of 
persons : the amount of deposits was. 32,893,5111. 

nount of computed capital of savings’ banks in the 
United Kingdom :—1853, 33, 362, 260. ; 1860, 41,258, 3681. ; 
1870, 37,958,549/.—1871, England, 31,413,002l. ; Wales, 
1,066,543/. ; Scotland, 4,119,735/. ; Ireland, 2,220, 383I. ; 
total, 38,819,663. In 1877, England, 34,750,7471.; 


Wales, 1,189,254l.; Scotland, 6,026,802/.; Ireland, 
2,271,8831.; total, 44,238,6861. In 1883, England, 


34,441,7871. ; Wales, 1,103,201/. ; Scotland, 7,359,586. ; 
Ireland, 2,082,549/.; total, 44,987,123/. 


1877. Received by Trustees. Paid. 
igland . £6,590, 428 - £7,031, 233 
ales 178,260 224,434 
otland 2,090,480 . 1,927,283 
land 504,463 - 472,185 
9,363,631 9,655,135 
1883. Received by Trustees. Paid. 
gland . . £6,666,554 - £7;471,992 
ules . : : 188,108 206,824 
otland. : 2,308,162 . ; 2,227,378 
sland =. A A 429,214 A 482,516 
9,592,038 10,388,710 


r Post-Office Savings’ Banks, established in 1861, see 
under Post Office. 

vings’ Banks Investment acts, passed March, 1866, 
and Aug. 1869. 

9 old Savings’ Banks in the United Kingdom, 1,506,714 
accounts, deposits, 43,797,805/., 1880. 
sw Savings’ Bank Act, 43 & 44 Vict. c. 36, passed, 1880, 
came into effect, interest to depositors reduced to 
2l. 15s. per cent. 1 Noy. 1880. 


CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIRST 20,000 DEPOSITORS, 


ymestic servants ; ‘ 4 « 7245 
sons in trade, mechanics, &c. - 7473 
\bourers and porters . : 672 
iners A ‘ ‘ - : - 1454 
iendly and charitable societies 58 


rsons not classed, viz., widows, teachers, sailors, 
ge. . , ; ° . 3098 


SAVONA (a manufacturing town, N. Italy, 
ag held by the Genoese) was captured by the king 
Sardinia in 1746; by the French in 1809, and 
mexed; restored to Sardinia at the peace. Pope 
us VII. was kept here by Napoleon I., 1809-12. 
ap is said to have been invented here, and hence 
| French name savon. 


SAVOY, the ancient Sapaudia or Sabaudia, 
mmerly a province in N. Italy, east of Piedmont. 
became a Roman province about 118 B.c. ‘The 
emanni seized it in A.D. 395, and the Franks in 
>. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till 
out 1048, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, 
ve itto Humbert, with the title of count. Count 
tomas acquired Piedmont in the 13th century. 
aadeus, count of Savoy, having entered his 
minions, solicited Sigismund to erect them into 
luchy, which he did at Cambray, Ig Feb. 1416. 
stor-Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the 
igdom of Sicily from Spain, by a treaty, in 1713, 
t afterwards exchanged it with the emperor 
the island of Sardinia, with the title of king, 
20. The French subdued Savoy in 1792, and 
de it a department of France, under the name of 
mt Blanc, in 1800. It was restored to the king 
Sardinia in 1814; but with Nice annexed to 
ance in 1860, in accordance with a vote by uni- 
‘sal suffrage, 23 April, 1860. Savoy was visited 
the emperor and empress of the French in 
gust, 1860. The annexation was censured in 


gland. 
DUKES OF SAVOY. 
x, Count Amadeus VIII. is made duke in 1416 ; he was 
named pope, as Felix V. He abdicated as duke 
of Savoy, 1439: renounced the tiara, 1449; died 
in 1451. 
g. Louis. 


741 


SAXE-COBURG. 


Amadeus IX. 

Philibert I. 

Charles I. 

Charles IT. 

Philip II. 

Philibert IT. 

Charles III. 

Emmanuel-Philibert. 

Charles-Emmanuel I. 

Victor-Amadeus I. 

Francis-Hyacinthe. 

Charles-Emmanuel IT. 

Victor-Amadeus II. became king of Sicily, 1713; 
exchanged for Sardinia (which see) in 1720. 


SAVOY PALACE (London), was built by 
Peter of Savoy, uncle of Eleanor, queen of Henry 
IIT., in 1245, on land granted to him. He gave it 
to the fraternity of Mountjoy (Monte Jovis), from 
whom it was purchased by queen Eleanor for her 
son Edmund. Here resided John, king of France, 
when a prisoner, 1357 et seg. The Savoy was burnt 
by Wat Tyler and his followers, 1381. It was 
restored as an hospital of St. John the Baptist by 
Henry VII. about 1505. The fruitless CONFERENCE 
of bishops and eminent puritans for the revision of 
the liturgy was held at the Savoy, April-July, 1661. 
The hospital was dissolved in 1702, and the build- 
ings (then used as a military prison) removed for 
Waterloo-bridge and its approaches, 1817-19. The 
ancient Chapel (which once possessed the privilege of 
sanctuary), after several restorations, was destroyed 
by fire, 7 July, 1864, and was rebuilt at the queen’s 
expense, and re-opened 26 Nov. 1865. The privi- 
lege of sanctuary, much abused, was abolished by 
parliament, 1697. 

Savoy Theatre, erected for Mr. D’Oyly Carte by Mr. C. 
J. Phipps, opened 1o Oct. 1881; lit by Swan’s incan- 
descent electric light successfully (z194 lamps) ; roooth 
performance of ‘‘ Patience,” 28 Dec. 1881. 


SAW. Invented by Dedalus. Pliny. Invented 
by Talus. Apollodorus. Talus, it is said, having 
found the jaw-bone of a snake, employed it to cut 
through a piece of wood, and then formed an instru- 
ment of iron like it. Saw-mills were erected in 
Madeira in 1420; at Breslauin 1427. Norway had 
the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, 
ambassador from Mary of England to the court of 
Rome, describes a saw-mill there, 1555. The 
attempts to introduce saw-mills in England were 
violently opposed, and one erected by a Dutchman 
in 1663 was forced to be abandoned. Saw-mills 
were erected near London about 1770. The 
excellent saw-machinery in Woolwich dockyard is 
based upon the invention of the elder Brunel, 
1806-13. The circular saw was introduced into 
England about 1790. The saw-gin for separating 
cotton wool from the pod, invented by Eli Whitney, 
an American, in 1793, led to the immense growth of 
cotton in the southern states of the Union. Powis 
and James’s band-saw was patented in 1858. 


SAXE-ALTENBURG. (formerly Hildburg- 
hausen), a duchy in central Germany. The dukes 
are descended from Ernest the Pious, duke of 
Saxony. Ernest,the first duke, died in 1715. The 
present duke, Ernest, born 16 Sept. 1826; succeeded 
his father, George, 3 Aug. 1853; he entered into 
alliance with Prussia, 18 Aug. 1866. Heir, brother, 
Maurice, born 24 Oct. 1829. 

SAXE-COBURG Aanp GOTHA (central 
Germany), capitals Gotha and Coburg. The reigning 
family is descended from John Ernest (son of Ernest 
the Pious, duke of Saxony), who died in 1729. 


1465. 
1472. 
1482. 
1489. 
1496. 
1497- 
1504. 
1553- 
1580. 
1630. 
1637. 
1638. 
1675. 


DUKES. 
1826. Ernest I. duke of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg ; born, 2 
Jan. 1784; married Louisa, heiress of Augustus, 
duke of Saxe-Gotha, and became by convention 


SAXE-MEININGEN. 


duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 12 Nov. 1826 ; died, 
29 Jan. 1844. 

[His brother, Leopold, married the princess Char- 
lotte of England, 2 May, 1816 ; became king of 
the Belgians, 12 July, 1831 ; and Ferdinand, the 
son of his brother Ferdinand, married Maria da 
Gloria, queen of Portugal, 9 April, 1836.] 

1844. Ernest IJ. son (brother of Albert, prince consort of 
Great Britain); born 21 June, 1818; married 
Alexandrina, duchess of Baden, 3 May, 1842 ; no 
issue. He entered into alliance with Prussia, 18 
Aug. 1866. 

Heir (presumptive): Prinee Alfred of England, 
duke of ‘Edinburgh ; born, 6 Aug. 1844 (in whose 
favour the prince of Wales resigned his rights, 
19 April, 1863.) 


SAXE-MEININGEN (a duchy in central 
Germany). The dukes are descended from 
Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxony. ‘The first duke, 
Bernard (1680), died in 1706. Bernard (duke, 24 
Dec. 1803, died 3 Dec. 1882), abdicated in 
favour of his son George II., 20 Sept. 1866, who 
professed his adhesion to the Prussian policy; he was 
born, 2 April, 1826. Heir, his son, Bernard, born 
1 April, 1851. Bya fire at Meiningen, about 3000 
persons became houseless, 6 Sept. 1874. 


SAXE-WEIMAR- EISENACH (central 
Germany). ‘The grand-dukes are descended from 
John Frederic, the Protestant elector of Saxony, 
who was deprived by the emperor in 1548; see 
Saxony. ‘The houses of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe- 
Gotha, Hilberghausen, and Saxe-Meiningen also 
sprang from him. They are all termed the senior 
or Ernestine branch of the old family.—Saxe- 
Weimar became a grand duchy in 1815. The dukes 
have greatly favoured literature and their capital 
Weimar has been called the Athens of Germany. 

GRAND-DUKES. 
1815. Charles Augustus. 
1828. Charles Frederic ; died, 8 July, 1853. 
1853. Charles Alexander; born, 24 June, 1818. He 
entered into alliance with Prussia, 18 Aug. 
1866. 
Heir: Charles Augustus : born, 31 July, 1844. 


SAXONY, a kingdom in N. Germany. The 
Saxons were a fierce warlike race, the terror of the 
inhabitants of the later western empire, frequently 
attacked France, and conquered Britain (wich see). 
After a long series of sanguinary conflicts they were 
completely subdued by Charlemagne, who instituted 
many fiefs and bishoprics in their country. Witi- 
kind, their great leader, who claimed descent from 
Woden, professed Christianity about 785. From 
him descended the first and the present ruling 
family (the houses of Supplinburg, Guelf, and 
Ascania intervened from 1106 to 1421). Saxony 
became a duchy, 880; an electorate, 1180; and a 
kingdom, 1806. It was the seat of war, 1813; the 
king being on the side of Napoleon. In the conflict 
of 1866 the king took the side of Austria, and the 
army fought in the battle of Koniggratz, 3 July. 
The Prussians entered Saxony 18 June. Peace 
between Prussia and Saxony was signed 21 Oct. 
(subjecting the Saxon army to Prussia), and the 
king returned to Dresden, 3 Nov. Population, 1861, 
2,225,240; 1871, 2,556,244; 1875, 2,760,586; 1880, 
2,972,805. Constitution of, 4 Sept. 1831; modified, 
1849, 1851, 1860, 1861, 1868, and 1874. 

ELECTORS. 
1423. Frederic I., first elector of the house of Misnia. 
1428. Frederic II. 
{His sons Ernest and Albert divide the states. ] 

1464. Ernest. 1464. Albert. 
1486. Frederick II. 1500. George. 
1525. Jolin. 1539. Henry. 

1541. Maurice. 
1532. John Frederic ; deprived by the emperor Charles 

V. ; succeeded by 


742 


SCHAUMBURG LIPPE. 


Maurice (of the Albertine line). 
Augustus. 

Christian I. 

Christian II. 


1548. 
1553- 
1586. 


I5gI. 


1611. John George I. 

1656. John George IT. 

1680. John George III. 

1691. John George IV. 

1694. Frederic Augustus I., king of Poland, 1697. 

1733. Frederic Augustus IL, king of Poland. ’ 

1763. Frederic Augustus III. becomes king, 1806. 

KINGS. 

1806. Frederic Augustus I. ; increased his territories b 
alliance with France, 1806-9; suffered by peac 
of 1814. 

1827. Anthony Clement. ; 

1836. Frederic Augustus II., nephew (regent, 1830) ; die 
g Aug. 1854. 

1854. John, brother (born 12 Dec. 1801) ; celebrated hi 
golden wedding (50 years), 10 Nov. 1872; died 
29 Oct. 1873. 

1873. Albert ; born, 23 April, 1828; married, 18 June 


1853, Caroline of Wasa. 
Heir: George, brother; born 8 Aug. 1832. 


SCANDALUM MAGNATUM, a speci: 
statute relating to any wrong, by words or i 
writing, done to high personages of the land, suc 
as peers, judges, ministers of the crown, officers i 
the state, and other great public functionaries, b 
the circulation of the scandalous statements, fals 
news, or horrible messages, by which any debat 
or discord between them and the commons, or an 
scandal to their persons, might arise. Chamber: 
This law was first enacted 2 Rich. II. 1378. 


SCANDINAVIA, the ancient name of Sweder 
Norway, and great part of Denmark (which see’ 
whence proceeded the Northmen or Normans, wh 
conquered Normandy (about 900), and eventuall 
England (1066). They were also called Sea-king 
or Vikings. They settled Iceland and Greenlanc 
and, itis thought, visited the northern regions < 
America, about the 9th century. A ‘‘ Nation: 
Scandinavian Society”? has been formed at Stock 
holm ; see Sweden, Dec. 1864. 


SCARLET, or kermes dye, was known in th 
Fast in the earliest ages; cochineal dye, 151i 
Kepler, a Fleming, established the first dye-hons 
for scarlet in England, at Bow, 1643. ‘The art « 
dyeing red was improved by Brewer, 1667. Bech 
mann. 

SCEPTICS, the sect of philosophers founde 
by Pyrrho, about 334 B.c. He gave ten reasons fc 
continual suspense of judgment; he doubted ¢ 
everything, never made any conclusions, and whe 
he had carefully examined the subject, and inves 
tigated all its parts, he concluded by still doubtin 
of its evidence. He advocated apathy and un 
changeable repose. These doctrines were held b 
Bayle (died 1706). 

SCEPTRE, a more ancient emblem of royalt 
than the crown. In the earlier ages the sceptres « 
kings were long walking-staves; afterwards carve 
and made shorter. ‘Tarquin the elder was the fir: 
who assumed the sceptre among the Romans, abot 
468 B.c. The French sceptre of the first race « 
kings was a golden rod, A D. 481. Le Gendre. 


SCHAFFHAUSEN (N. Switzerland), a fish 
ing village in the 8th century, became an impere 
city in the 13th; was subjected to Austria, 133C 
independent, 1415; became a Swiss canton, I501. 


SCHAUMBURG LIPPE (Germany), we 
formed into a county by Adolphus, of Sondersleber 
1033. In 1640, on the death of count Otho IV 
his mother, Elizabeth, transferred the domains 1 
Philip of Lippe, from whom descended the reignin 


SCHELDT TOLLS. 


743 


SCILLY ISLES. 


Brince (the title assumed in 1807). Adolphus, born 

I Aug. 1817, succeeded his father, 21 Nov. 1860. 
Heir, son, George, born 10 Oct. 1846. Population 
of the principality, 1882, 35,753. 


SCHELDT TOLLS were imposed by the 
treaty of Munster (or Westphalia), 1648. The tolls 
were abolished for a compensation, 1867. The house 
of commons voted 175,650/. for the British portion, 
on 9 March, 1864. ‘The Scheldt was declared free 
on 3 Aug. with much rejoicing at Antwerp and 
Brussels. ~ 


SCHIEHALLIEN, a mountain in Perthshire, 
where Dr. Neville Maskelyne, the astronomer- 
royal, made his observations with a plumb-line, 
24 Oct. 1774, from which Hutton calculated that 
the density of the earth is five times greater than 
water. 


SCHIPKA PASSES, on the Balkans, Tur- 
key. ‘Through these the Russian general Gourko 
entered Roumelia. After his retreat, they were 
fortified, and desperately, but on the whole unsuc- 
cessfully, assailed by the Turks under Suleiman 
Pasha, with great slaughter on both sides, 20-27 
Aug. He took and lost fort St. Nicholas, 17 Sept. 
1877. ‘The Russians re-entered Roumelia, Jan. 


1878. 
SCHISM, see Heresy, and Popes. 


SCHISM ACT, 13 Anne, ec. 7, introduced by 
lord Bolingbroke, 1713; repealed by 5 Geo. I. c. 4, 
in 1719. By it teachers were required to declare 
their conformity to the established church. 


SCHLESWIG, see Holstein, Denmark, and 


Gastein. 
SCHOOL BOARD, see Education. 
SCHOOLMEN or ScHOLASTIC PHILOSO- 


PHY, began in theschools founded by Charlemagne, 
800-14; and prevailed in Europe from the 9th to 
the 15th centuries; see Doctors. 


SCHOOLS. Charity schools were introduced 
into London to prevent the seduction of the infant 
poor into Roman catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 
1687. Rapin. Charter schools were instituted in 
Ireland, 1733. Sewlly. In England there were, in 
1847, 13,642 schools (exclusively of Sunday schools) 
for the education of the poor; and the number of 
children was 998,431. The parochial and endowed 


schools of Scotland were (exclusively of Sunday | 


schools) 4836; and the number of children, 181,467. 
The schools in Wales were 841, and the number of 
children, 38,164; in Ireland, 13,327 schools, and 
774,000 children. In 1851 there were 2310 schools 
im connection with the Education Committee 
actually inspected in England and Scotland. They 
included: .1713 church of England schools in 
England and Wales; 282 protestant dissenting 
schools in England and Wales; 98 Roman catholic 
schools in Great Britain; and 217 presbyterian 
schools in Scotland, whereof 91 were of the free 
church: the whole affording accommodation for 
299,425 scholars; see Lducation, Design, Ascham, &e. 


SCHOOL SHIPS, see Chichester. Corn- 
wall, off Purfleet, established 1859, accommodates 
between 250 and 300 vagrants (1878). 


SCHWARZBURG (the seat of two princi- 
palities, N. Germany). Gunther, count of Schwarz- 
burg, whose family dates from the 12th century, was 
elected emperor of Germany in 1349. From the 
two sons of eountGunther, who died 1552, sprang 
the present rulers. 


SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT 
(a principality, 1697). 
1807. Albert (28 June), born 30 April, 1798 ; died 26 Nov. 
86 


. 1869. 
1869. George (born 23 Nov. 1838), 26 Nov. 
SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN 
(a principality, 1710). 
1835. Gunther (r9 Aug.), born 24 Sept. 1801 ; abdicated. 
1880. Charles, son (born 7 Aug. 1830), 17 July. 


SCHWEIDNITZ, Prussia, often besieged and 
taken in the thirty years’ and seven years’ wars. 
Near it Frederick II. defeated the Austrians under 
marshal Daun, 16 May, 1762. 


SCHWEIZ, a Swiss canton, which with Uri . 
and Unterwalden renounced subjection to Austria, 
7 Nov. 1307. The name Switzerland, for all the 
country, dates from about 1440. 


SCIENCH, see Lducation, Chemistry, and 
other branches. 


SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS. The Interna- 
tional Loan Exhibition, at South Kensington, con- 
sisting of about 17,000 objects, many of great 
historical interest, from all countries except Ame- 
rica, was opened (by the queen,) 13 May, and 
closed 30 Dec. 1876. Conferences were held, 16 May 
—2 June, and many free lectures given by eminent 
persons. Reopened 30 June, 1877. 


SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION, for pro- 
motion of research ; proposed at the meeting of the 
American Association at Philadelphia, Sept. 1884. 
Mrs. Elizabeth Thompson promised liberal support. 


SCIENTIFIC FRONTIER (in reference to 
Afghanistan), a term used by Lord Beaconsfield, 9 
Noy. 1878. 


SCIENTIFIC INDUSTRY, SoclEery For 
PRomorTING, established at Manchester, in 1873. 
It proposed setting up a library and museum, the 
delivery of lectures, and the publication of reports. 


SCIENTIFIC RELIEF FUND. In18509, 
several fellows of the Royal Society (Messrs. 
Gassiot, Wheatstone, Miller, Tyndall, and others) 
commenced the collection of subscriptions with the 
view of establishing a permanent fund to be ex- 
pended in aiding necessitous men of science and 
their families, in imitation of the ‘‘ Literary Fund.”’ 
In the spring of 1860, 33657. had been subscribed ; 
in Jan. 1865, 5320/.; in 1867, 60522.; in 1877, 
6428/.; and many cases had been relieved. 


SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES’ HOUSE 
COMPANY proposed March, 1873. 


SCIENTIFIC SURVEYING EXPEDI- 
TION, see Deep Sea. 


SCILLY ISLES (the Cassiterides or Tin- 
islands). They held commerce with the Pheenicians; 
and are mentioned by Strabo. They were con- 
quered by Athelstan, 936; and given to the monks. 
They were granted by Elizabeth to the Godolphin 
family, by whom they were fortified; the works 
were strengthened in 1649 by the royalists, from 
whom they were taken by Blake, 1651. Mr. Augus- 
tus Smith, the owner, and termed the king of these 
isles, after a long paternal rule, died in Aug. 1872. 
A British squadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel were 

wrecked here, when returning from an expedition 

against Toulon ; he mistook rocks for land, and struck 
upon them. His ship, the Association, in which were: 
persons of rank, and 800 brave men, went instantly to 
the bottom. The Hagle, captain Hancock, and the 

Romney and Firebrand, were also lost; the rest of the 

fleet escaped, 22 Oct. 1707. Sir Cloudesley’s body was 

conveyed to London, and buried in Westminster abbey, 
where a monument was erected to, his memory. 


SCINDE. 


~ SCINDE, see Sinde. 
SCIO MASSACRE, 11 April, 1822, see Chios. 
SCLAVONTA, see Slavonia. 


SCONE (near Perth). The Scotch coronation 
chair was brought from Scone to Westminster abbey 
by Edward I. in 1296. Here Charles II. was 
crowned, I Jan. 1651. 


SCOPTZI, see White Doves. 


SCORE, MuvsIcat, was written by the monk 
Hucbald, who wrote “ Enchiridion Musicae ;”’ he 
died 930. Specimens ‘written in the 13th century 
exist in the British Museum. 


SCOTISTS. Those who adopted the doctrines. 


of John Duns Scotus (who died 8 Noy. 1308) 
on divine grace, freewill, the origin of the moral 
law, the Conception of the Virgin Mary, &c., 
strongly opposed by the Thomists, disciples of St. 
Thomas Aquinas, whe died 7 March, 1274. 


SCOTLAND, see Caledonia. ae the death of 
queen Elizabeth, 24 March, 1603, James VI. of 
Scotland, as the most immediate heir, was called to 
the throne of England, and pr oclaimed king of Great 
Hritain, 24 Oct. 1604. Each country had a separate 
parliament till 1707, when the kingdoms were 
united; see England. 


Bahcion: capital ofthe Picts, taken by Kenneth II.and 
every living creature put to the sword or destroyed, 
The Norwegians occupy Caithness 9th ce 

Scotland ravaged by Athelstan . 

The feudal sy stem established 3 Malcolm II." 

Invaded by Canute : 

Divided into baronies 

The Danes driven out of Scotland 

Duncan I. is murdered by his kinsman Macbeth, by 
whom the crown is seized . 

Malcolm III., aided by Edward the Confessor, ‘de- 
feats the usurper at Dunsinane, 1054 ; Macbeth 
killed by Macduff . 1056 or 

The Saxon-English language introduced into Scot- 

land by fugitives from England escaping from the 
Normans . - 1080 

Siege of Alnwick : “Malcolm III. killed - 1093 

Reign of David I., a legislator  . - I124-53 

Scotland invaded by Hacho, king of N orw ay, ‘with 160 
ships and 20,000 men ; the invaders are defeated by 

Alexander III., who now recovers the Western Isles 

Death of Margar ‘et of Norway, heiress to the throne, 

7 Oct. 

John Balliol and Robert Bruce contend for the 
throne, 1291 ; Edward I. of England, as umpire, 
decides in favour of John . Nov. 

John Balliol, king of Scotland, appears. to a sum- 
mons, and ‘defends his own cause in Westminster 
hall against the earl of Fife 

Edward, wishing to annex Scotland to England, 
dethrones J ohn, ravages the country, destroys 
the muniments of Scottish history, and seizes the 
prophetic stone (see Coronation) 

William Wallace defeats the English at Cambus 
Kenneth, and expels them, 1297; is defeated at 
Falkirk, 22 July, 1298 ; taken by the pata and 
executed at Smithfield’ . 3 Aug. 1305 

Robert Bruce, crowned, 1306 ; he defeats the Eng- 
lish, 1307 ; and takes Inv erness, 1313; defeats the 
English at Bannockburn 24 June, 

Edward Balliol gains the throne for a little time 
by his victory at Dupplin, 1: Aug. 1 332 § ; and 
by the victory at Halidon-hill . 9 July, 

David II. taken prisoner at the battle of Durkne 
(and detained in captivity 11 years) . 

Battle of Chevy Chase, between Hotspur Per Peay and 
earl Douglas (see Otterbur nN). ; Aug. 

Murder of duke of Rothesay, heir of Robert IIL, ie 
starvation . “ “3 April, 

The Scots defeated at Homildon-hill ©. 4 Sept. 

James I. captured by the English near Finmibion ough 
head on his passage to France 4 30 March, 

St. Andrews university founded by bishop William 
Turnbull P ‘ = a . 1451 


843 


933 
- 1004 


1057 


1263 


1290 


1292 


1293 


1296 


1314 


1333 
1346 
1388 


I401 
1402 


1406 


744 


SCOTLAND. 


University of Aberdeen founded . 

James IV. invades England, slain at Flodden Field, 
and his army cut to] pieces < ig Ger) 

James V. banishes the Douglases fe i. 

He establishes the conrt of session . 

Order of St. Andrew, or the Thistle, is revived : 

Mary, the queen of Scots, born 7 Dec. ; succeeds 
her father, James V., who dies . 14 Dec. 

The regent, cardinal Beaton, persecutes the re- 
formers, 1539, 1546; he is assassinated at St. 


Andrews : x 29 May, 
The Scots defeated at Pinkie E ri to Sept. 
Mary marries the dauphin of France April, 


The parliament abolishes the jurisdiction of the 
pope in Scotland 24 Aug. 
Francis II. dies, leaving Mary a widow ; Dee 
The Reformation in Scotland, by John Knox, and 
others, during the minority of Mary, between 1550 & 
Mary, after an absence of thirteen years, arrives at 
Leith from France 27 Aug. 
Upon an inquisition, which was officially taken, by 
order of queen Elizabeth, only 58 Scotsmen were 
found in London. Stow. . 
Mary marries her cousin, Henry Stuart, lord Darn- 
ley . . 29 July, 
David Rizzio, her confidential ‘secretary, murdered 
by Darnley i in her presence -_9 March, 
Lord Darnley blown up by gunpowder, in his house 
(Mary accused of conniving at his death), 10 Feb. 
James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, carries off the 
queen, who marrieshim . 15 May, 
Mary made prisoner at Carberry hill by her r nobles, 
une, 
Resigns her crown to her infant son dauiea Vi.s 
the earl of ] Murray appointed regent 22 July, 
Mary escapes from prison, and collects a large 
army, which is defeated by the regent Murray, at 
the battle of Langside, 13 May; enters England, 


16 May, 

The regent Murray murdered 23 Jan. 
The earl of Lennox appointed regent 12 July, 
The earl of Lennox murdered, 4 Sept. ; the earl of 
Mar chosen regent . ; ; Sept. 
Death of the reformer John Knox 24 Nov. 


{His funeral in Edinburgh is attended by most of 
the nobility, and by the regent Morton, who ex- 
claims, ‘‘ There lies he who never feared the face 
of man !’’] 

The university of Edinburgh founded . % GS 

The Raid of Ruthven (see Ruth ven) . 

Mary having taken refuge in England, 16 May, 1568, 
is after a Tong captivity, beheaded at Fotheringay 

castle (see Fotheri ngay) : F pie 

Gowrie’s conspiracy fails . Aug. 

Cnion of the crown of Scotland with that of Eng- 
land by the accession of James VI. 24 March, 

James proclaimed ‘‘king of Great Britain, France, 
and Ireland” . 24 Oct. 

Charles I. attempts in vain to introduce ine Eng- 
lish liturgy ; tumult at Edinburgh 23d uly, 

Solemn league and covenant subscribed Mar ch, 

A Scotch army enters England. 

Charles joins the Scotch army, 1646; betrayed ny 
the hands of the English par liament 30 Jan. 

Marquis of Montrose defeated at Philiphaugh, 13 


Sept. 1645 ; executed at. Edinburgh . 21 May, 
Charles I. crowned at Scone, 1 Jan. ; defeated at 
Worcester A 22 Aug. 
Scotland united to the English commonwealth by 
Oliver Cromwell. ‘ Sept. 


Charles II. revives episcopacy in 1 Scotland 
Argyll beheaded H 
Scottish hospital, London, incorporated 
The Covenanters defeated on the Pentland hills | 
Abp. Sharpe murdered near St. Andrews, by John 
ERalfour of Burley and others 3 May, 
The Covenanters defeat Claverhouse at ‘Drvioolak 
1 June; are routed at Bothwell bridge 22 June, 
Richard Cameron’s declaration for religious liberty 
22 June, 
Resolution of a convention in favour of William IIL. ; 
re-establishment of presbytery . Ea March, 
The ‘‘claim of right” accepted by. Willfam and 


27 May, 


Mary .. xz May, 
Insurrection of Claverhouse: killed at eS ae 
27 ’ 

Massacre of the Macdonalds at Glencoe 13 Feb. 


” 


1562 


1562 
1565 
1566 


1567 


1565 
1570 


33 


LA 
1572 


SCOTLAND. 745 SCOTLAND. 

arish schools established by the parliament. - 1697 4 March ; the Scotch protestant bishops protest 
egislative union of Scotland with England 1 May, 1707 against this 2 : 13 April, 1878 
nsurrection under the earl of Mar in favour of the Public Parks Act passed é EORManCLA as. 
son of James II. (see Pretender) 1715 | Marriage Notice Act passed . i SUAS hry 
he rebels defeated at Preston, 12 Nov. ; and at Education Act amended, by act i 6 Aug. 
Dumblane (or Sheriffmuir) BeNOVGL 5; Visit of Mr. Gladstone to Mid- -Lothian, Edinburgh, 
aptain Porteous killed by a mob in 'Haiiburgh (see Glasgow, &c., many speeches 24—29 Nov. 1879 
Porteous) 7 Sept. 1736 About 40,000 Scottish volunteers reviewed in the 
rince Charles Edward proclaimed. at Pirth, Queen’s Park, Edinburgh, by the queen 25 Aug. 1881 


Sept. ; at Edinburgh, 16 Sept. ; with the High- 
landers defeats sir John Cope at Prestonpans, . 2I 
Sept. ; takes Carlisle, 15 Novy. ; arrives at Man- 
chester, 28 Nov. ; at Derby, 4 Dec. ; retreats to 
Glasgow . 5025 Dec. 1745 
efeats general Hawley at Falkirk, 7 dan. 1s 
totally defeated at Culloden 16 pri 1746 
1e Highland dress prohibited by parliament, 12 Aug. _,, 
ords Kilmarnock and Balmerino executed for high 
treason on Tower-hill . : 3 : TO AWE. 5; 
mon Fraser, lord Lovat, aged 80, executed g April 1747 
eritable jur isdictions abolished by parliament 

iomson, the poet, dies. - 27 Aug. 1748 
ie Old Pretender, ‘Chevalier de St. George,” dies 
at Rome 30 Dec. 
ince Charles Edward Louis Casimir, the Poe 
Pretender, dies at Rome . : : 31 Jan. 1788 
‘ath of Robert Burns . 21tJuly, 1706 
ott’s ‘‘ Lay of the Last Minstrel ” published - 1806 
rdinal Henry duke of York (last of the Stuarts) 


1765 


lies . : . 31 Aug. 1807 
e Court of Session i is formed into two divisions “A 

yal Caledonian asylum, London, founded Sista 
ott’s “ Waverley” published 1814 


e establishment of a jury court under a lord 
shief commissioner z : 
sit of George IV. to Scotland . - A "Aug. 
* Walter Scott dies . 3 21 Sept. 
ven ministers of the presbytery of Strathbogie are 
leposed by the General Assembly of the Chur ch of 
Scotland for obeying the civilin preference to the 
ecclesiastical law. (Their deposition was formally 
orotested against by the minority of ministers and 
ders, headed by Dr. Cook) . 28 May, 
e General Assembly condemn patronage as a 
srievance to the cause of true religion that ought 
0 be abolished . 23 May, 
sit of the queen, prince Albert, and the eee 
she landed at Granton pier . i Sages ie Aes) 99 are 
session of the non-intrusion ministers of the 
hurch of Scotland (about 400) at the General As- 
embly (see Free Church) . 3 . 18 May, 
ath of Jeffrey . ; - 26 Jan. 
tional Association for vindication of Scottish 


1815 
1822 
1832 


ights formed . Nov. 1853 
t for better government of the universities passed 
Aug. 1858 


mon Fisheries act passed plete uly, 1864 
e queen’s visit to the borders, Kelso, Melrose, &e. 

21-24 Aug. 1867 
tech reform bill introduced into the commons, 
7 Feb. passed 13 July, 1868 
ycedure in court of session and jsticiary and 
ther courts amended . : F ; oily, 53 
»tch Reform act passed . Gd ; July, ie 


nd Registers and Titles to Land act Peed July, 5, 
mmission appointed to inquire into the adminis- 
ration of justice 4 Oct. 
inicipal elections amendment act passed, 9g Aug. 
t to unite counties for sheriffs’ duties ae 


bert Chambers, author and publisher, died Sat # 

L7 Mar ch, 
ott centenary celebrated in Edinburgh, &c. (Scott 
orn 15 Aug. 1771) : ; . g Aug. 
»tch Hancation a et passed é z Io Aug. 
turn of owners of land and heritages, 1872-3 (a 
rind of Domesday Beak published by govern- 


ment. . £ April, 1874 
tronage in the established church (see 1842) 
ibolished by act passed AU ie 
ttish Church Disestablishment Association : first 
mnual meeting . 8 March, 1875 
sit of the queen to Edinburgh : the Benttion 
tational monument, by J. Steell, to prince Albert, 
mveiled by her. 17 Aug. 1876 


manist hierarchy revived by the pope; arch- 
lishopric of Glasgow, bishopric of Dunkeld, &c. 


Agitation respecting rents in Aberdeen, Banff, &c. 
Sept. “Oct. An 
Farmers’ alliance founded at Aberdeen by delegates 
from above 4000 farmers ‘ x Dec, 50 
Old Scottish regimental colours deposited in St 
Giles’s cathedral, Kdinburgh, by the duke of 
Cambridge . 13 Nov. 1883 
Death of Walter, duke of Buccleugh, aged 78; mu- 
nificent patron of public works, ‘agriculture, 
science, literature, and art. 15 April, 1884 
See Edinburgh. : 


KINGS OF SCOTLAND. 
BEFORE CHRIST. 


(The early accounts of the kings are in a great measure 
fabulous. The series of kings is carried as far back as 
Alexander the Great. | 


330. Fergus I. : ruled 25 years ; lost in the Irish Sea. 
[Fergus, a brave prince, came from Ireland with an army 
of $ Scots, and was chosen king. Having defeated the 
Britons and slain their king Coilus, the kingdom of the 
Scots was entailed upon his posterity for ever. He 
went to Ireland, and, having settled his affairs there, 
was drowned on his return, launching from the shore, 
near the harbour, called Carrick-Fergus to this day, 
3699 A.M. Anderson. ] 


AFTER CHRIST, 


357. Eugenius I., son of Fincormachus ; slain in battle 
by Maximus, the Roman general, and the Picts. 

*.* With this battle ended the kingdom of the Scots, 
after having existed from “the coronation of 
Fergus I.,a period of 706 years ; the royal family 
fled. to Denmark. Boece ; Buchanan. 

{Interregnum of 27 years. ] 

. Fergus II. (1.) great grandson of Eugenius, and 
goth king ; slain in battle with the Romans. 

. Eugenius Il. or Evenus : reigned 31 years. 

P Dongardus or Domangard, brother: defeated and 
drowned, 

. Constantine I., brother: assassinated. 

. Congallus I. nephew; just and prudent. 

. Goranus, brother; murdered. Boece. Died while 
Donald of Athol was conspiring to take his life. 

. Eugenius III. nephew; ‘‘none excelled him in 
justice.” 

. Congallus IT. brother. 

. Kinnatellus, brother; resigned for 

. Aidanus or Aldan, son of Goranus. 

. Kenneth, son of Congallus II. 

. Eugenius IV. son of Aidanus. 

. Ferchard or Ferquhard I. son; confined for mis 
deeds to his palace, where he laid violent hands 
upon himself. Scott. 


632. Donald IV. brother; drowned in Loch Tay. 

646. Ferchard II. son of Ferchard I. ; ‘‘ most execrable.” 

664. Malduinus, son of Donald IV. ; strangled by his wife 
for his supposed infidelity, for which crime she 
was immediately afterwards burnt. 

684. Eugenius V. brother. 

688. Eugenius VI. son of Ferchard IT. 

698. Amberkeletus, nephew; fell by an arrow from an 
unknown hand. 

699. Eugenius VII. brother; some ruffians designing 
the king’s murder, entered his chamber, and, he 
being absent, stabbed his queen, Spontana, to 
death. Scott. 

715. Mordachus, son of Amberkeletus. 

730. Ktfinus, son of Eugenius VII. 

761. Kugenius VIII. son of Mordachus; sensual and 
tyrannous ; put to death by his nobles. 

764. Fergus III. son of Etfinus; killed by his jealous 
queen, who afterwards stabbed herself to escape 
a death of torture. 

767. Solvathius, son of Eugenius VIII. 

787. Achaius : just and wise. 

819. Congallus IIT. ; a peaceful reign. 

824. Dongal or Dougal, son of Solvathius ; drowned. 


SCOTLAND. 


831. Alpine, son of Achaius; beheaded by the Picts. 

. Kenneth II. son; surnamed Mac Alpine; defeated 
the Picts, slew their king, and united them and 
the Scots under one sceptre, and became the first 
sole monarch of all Scotland, 843. 

. Donald V. brother: dethroned ; committed suicide. 

. Constantine IL. son of Kenneth IT. : taken in battle 
by the Danes and beheaded. 

. Eth or Ethus, surnamed Lightfoot ; died of grief in 
prison ; confined for sensuality and crime. 

. Gregory the Great; brave and just. 

. Donald VI. son of Constantine II. ; excellent. 

. Constantine III. son of Ethus ; became a monk, and 
resigned in favour of 

. Malcolm I. son of Donald VI. ; murdered. 

. Indulfus or Gondulph; killed by the Danes in an 
ambuscade. 

Duff or Duffus, son of Maleolm; murdered by 
Donald, the governor of Forres castle. 

Cullen or Culenus, son of Indulphus; avenged the 
murder of his predecessor; assassinated. 

Kenneth III. brother of Duffus ; murdered by 
Fenella, the lady of Fettercairn. 

Constantine IV. son of Cullen: slain. 

Kenneth IV. or Grimus, the Grim, son of Duffus ; 
routed and slain in battle by Malcolm, the 
rightful heir to the crown, who succeeded. 

Malcoln IJ. son of Kenneth III. ; assassinated on 
his way to Glamis; the assassins in their flight 
crossing a frozen lake were drowned. 

1033. Dunean I. grandson; assassinated by his cousin. 

1039. Macbeth, usurper; slain by Macduff, the thane of Fife. 

*,* Historians so differ, up to this reign, in the number 
of the kings, the dates of succession, and the 
circumstances narrated, that no account can be 
taken as precisely accurate. 

Malcolm III. (Canmore), son of Duncan; killed 
while besieging Alnwick castle. 

Donald VII. (Donald Bane), brother ; usurper; fled 
to the Hebrides. 

Dunean II. natural son of Malcolm ; murdered. 

Donald VII. again ; deposed. 

Edgar, son of Malcolm (Henry I. of England 
married his sister Maud). 

Alexander I. the Fierce, brother. 

David I. brother; married Matilda, daughter of 
Waltheof, earl of Northumberland. 

Malcolm IV. grandson. 

William the Lion ; brother. 

Alexander II. son; married Joan, daughter of John, 
king of England. 

Alexander Ill. married Margaret, daughter of 
Henry III. of England ; dislocated his neck, when 
hunting near Kinghorn. 

Margaret, the ‘‘ Maiden of Norway,” grand-daughter 
of Alexander, ‘‘recognised by the states of Scot- 
land, though a female, an infant, and a foreigner ;” 
died on her passage to Scotland. 

A competition for the vacant throne; Edward I. of Eng- 

land decides in favour of 

1292. John Balliol, who afterwards surrendered his 

crown, and died in exile. 
[Interregnum. ] 

1306. Robert (Bruce) I. a great prince. 

1329. David (Bruce) II. son; Edward Balliol disputed 

the throne with him. 

David II. again; a prisoner in England, 1346-57 
(Edward Balliol king, 1332-4.) 

Robert (Stuart) II. nephew ; died 19 April. 

Robert (John Stuart) IIT. son; died 4 April. 

James I. second son; imprisoned 18 years in Eng- 
land; set at liberty in 1423; conspired against, 
and murdered at Perth, 21 Feb. 

James II. son; killed at the siege of Roxburgh 
castle by a cannon bursting, 3 Aug. 

James III. son; killed’in a revolt of his subjects at 
Bannockburn-field, rz June. 

James IV. son; married Margaret Tudor, daughter 
of Henry VII. of England ; killed at the battle of 
Flodden, g Sept. 

James V. son; succeeded when little more than a 
year old; a-sovereign possessing many virtues ; 
died 14 Dec. 

Mary, daughter; born, 7 Dec. 1542; succeeded 
14 Dec. ; see Annals, above. 

James VI. son; succeeded to the throne of England, 
and the kingdoms were united, 1603. 

See England. 


961. 
965. 
970. 


994. 
995. 


1003. 


1057. 
1093. 
1094. 
1098. 


II07. 
L124. 


II53. 
£165. 
1214. 


1240. 


1285. 


1332. 
1371. 
1390. 
1406. 
1437: 
1460. 
1488, 


1513. 


1542. 
1567. 


746 


SCULLABOGUE. 


SCOTT CENTENARY, celebrated in Londo: 
and throughout Scotland, 9 Aug. 1871. Sir Walte 
Scott was born 15 Aug. 1771. 


SCOTTISH CORPORATION (charitable) 
established 1665. ‘The old hall, Crane-court, Fleet 
street, built by Wren, burnt 14 Noy. 1877; new hal 
inaugurated 21 July, 1880. 


SCOURING oF THE WHITE HORSE, se 


Ashdown. 
SCREW, was known to the Greeks. Th 


pumping-screw of Archimedes, or screw-cylinde 
for raising water, invented about 236 B.c., is stil 
in use. It is stated that with the assistance of th 
screw, one man can press down or raise up as muc. 
as 150 men can do without it.—The Screw-PrRo 
PELLER consists of two or more twisted blades 
like the vanes of a windmill, set on an axis, run 
ning parallel with the keel of a vessel, and revolvin 
beneath the water at the stern. It is driven b 
a steam-engine. The principle was shown. b 
Hooke in 1681, and since by Du Quet, Bernouill: 
and others. Patents for propellers were taken ou 
by Joseph Bramah in 1784; by Wm. Lyttelton i 
1794; and by Edward Shorter in 1799. But thes 
led to no useful result. In 1836 patents were ob 
tained by Francis Pettit Smith (knighted July 
1871; died, 12 Feb. 1874) and captain John Eries 
son, and to them the successful application of th 
screw-propeller must be attributed. The first vessel 
with the screw were the Archimedes, built on th 
Thames in 1838 by H. Wimshurst, and the Rat/le: 
built in the United States (1844), and tried i 
England in 1845. Double screw-propellers ar 
now employed. A new form of screw-propelle 
invented by col. W. H. Mallory, of U. 8. A. army 
was tried on the Thames and reported successfu 
Aug. 1878. 


SCRIBLERUS CLUB, a literary clut 
founded: by Swift in 1714, included amongst i1 
members, Bolingbroke, Pope, Gay, and Arbuthno 


SCRIPTURE KNOWLEDGE INSTI 
TUTION, Bristol, was founded by George Miille1 
a Prussian (born in 1805). He came to Bristol as 
minister of the ‘‘ Brethren”’ in 1832, and on 5 Marck 
1834, founded this institution, the objects of whic 
are: I. Assistance of schools giving instruction o: 
scriptural principles; 2. Circulation of the scrip 
tures; 3. Assistance to missions; 4. Circulation ¢ 
tracts ; Provision for destitute orphans, se 
Orphan-houses. Without application, Mr. Mille 
since he began, up to 1868, had received by volun 
tary contribution, 430,000/. : 


SCROFULA, see King’ s-evil. 
SCRUTIN (French for ballot). In serutin d 


liste the voter writes on his paper as many nanie 
as there are persons to be elected, for instance fo 
the whole department. In serutin @ arrondissement 
the members are elected separately. The adoption 
of one of these modes was much discussed in Frane 
in 1875. The conservatives prefer the latter, th 
radicals the former. See France, Noy. 1875. Th 

scrutin de liste was adopted in the elections o 

1848, 1849, 1871, and 1875. 

M. Bardoux’s bill for adopting the serutin de liste (warml 
advocated by M. Gambetta), was passed by the cham 
ber of deputies (243-235), 18 May, 1881 ; rejected b 
the senate (148-114), 9 June, 1881 ; again rejected, Jan 


1882. 

M. Welbeck Rousseau’s bill for the serutin de liste passe 
by the deputies (412-99), 24 March, 1885. 

The scrutin de liste was adopted by the Italian chambei 
14 Feb. 1882, 


SCULLABOGUE, see Massacres, 1798. 


SCULPTURE. 


SCULPTURE is said to have begun with the 
zyptians. Bezaleel and Aholiab built the taber- 
acle in the wilderness, and made all the vessels and 
mnaments, 1491 B.c., and their skill is recorded as 
ne gift of God. Hyxod. xxxi. 3. Dipenus and 
eyllis, statuaries at Crete, established a school at 
icyon. Pliny speaks of them as being the first 
ho sculptured marble and polished it; all statues 
efore their time being of wood, 568 B.c. Alex- 
nder gave Lysippus the sole right of making his 
atues, 326 8B.c. He left no less than 600 pieces, 
»me of which were so highly valued in the age of 
ugustus, that they sold for their weight in gold. 
culpture did not flourish among the Romans, and 
1 the middle ages with some fine exceptions, was 
encrally degraded. With the revival of painting, 
- revived also; and Donato di Bardi, born at Flo- 
ence, A.D. 1383, was the earliest professor among 
he moderns. An institute of sculptors was estab- 
ished in 1861. 


EMINENT SCULPTORS. 


}eidon flourished . fi : Z ; B.C. 869 
fyron . : ‘ : : é 5 F ‘ 480 
»*hidias (the greatest) : S 442 
raxiteles . : : < 363 
4ysippus . : 328 
yhares: . ‘ : : “ : A ne ic tots: 
fichael Angelo Buonarotti . A.D. 1474-1564 
3envenuto Cellini. > « I500-1570 
rovanni L. Bernini . ' - 1598-1680 


(ohn Henry Danneker . 


: - f Mies Dyson 7 An 
ouis Roubiliac (statue of sir I. Newton) . 


. died 1762 


(ohn Bacon 5 ‘ . 1740-1799 
‘homas Banks é - 1735-1805 
Joseph. Nollekens . . 1737-1823 
Antonio Canova - 1757-1822 
fohn Flaxman - 1754-1826 
‘francis Chantrey - 1781-1841 
(bert Thorwaldsen . 1770-1844 
sir Richard Westmacott - 1775-1856 
Yhristian Rauch > 1777-1857 
fohn Thomas . 1813-1862 
Vim. Belines . ; 5 fe + 1790-1864 
3. Kiss * 3 $ : s . 1802-1865 
John Gibson . : : . 1791-1866 
John Henry Foley . 5 5 . 1818-1874 
Alfred Geo. Stevens. A : . . 1817-1875 
Matthew Noble : ‘ f : . 1820-1876 
Thos. Woolner. ; 3 ° : 1825 
Joseph Edgar Boehm - z 1834 


SCUTAGE or EscuaGE. The service of the 
jhield (scutum) is either uncertain or certain. 
Escuage uncertain is where the tenant by his tenure 
s bound to follow his lord; and is called Castleward, 
where the tenant is bound to defend a castle. 
Escuage certain is where the tenant is set at a 
sertain sum of money to be paid in licu of such un- 
sertain services. The first tax levied in England to 
pay an army, 5 Hen. II. 1159. Cowel. 


- SCUTARI, Asiatic Turkey, opposite Constanti- 
aople, of which it is a suburb. It was anciently 
salled Chrysopolis, golden city, in consequence, it 
is said, of the Persians having established a treasury 
aere when they attempted the conquest of Greece. 
Near here Constantine finally defeated Licinius, 323. 
Lhe hospital was occupied by the sick and wounded 
»f the Anglo-French army, in 1854-5, whose suffer- 
mgs were much alleviated by the kind exertions of 
Miss Florence Nightingale and a band of nurses 
inder her, aided by a large fund of money (15,000/.) 
subscribed by the public and placed in the care of 
the proprietors of the Zimes newspaper ; see Times. 
Explosion of powder magazine by lightning, about 


(50 killed, 8 June, 1883. 


SCYTHIA, situate in the most northern parts 
of Europe and Asia. The boundaries were unknown 


‘othe ancients. ‘The Scythians made several irrup- | other admirals. 


747 


SEAS. 


tions upon the more southern provinces of Asia, 
especially 624 B.c., when they remained in posses- 
sion of Asia Minor for twenty-eight years, and at 
different periods extended their conquests in Europe, 
penetrating as far as Egypt; see Zartary. 


SEA. Lieut. Maury first published his ‘¢ Physi- 
cal Geography of the Sea’’ in 1854, and other im- 
portant works since; he died Feb. 1873; see Deep 
Sea. 


SEA BIRDS’ PRESERVATION ACT, 
passed 24 June, 1869. 


SEA FIGHTS, see Naval Battles. 
SEA FISHERIES, see Fisheries. 
SEAHAM, see under Coal, Accidents, 1880. 


SEAL FISHERY ACT, passed 14 June, 1875. 


SEALS or SIGNETS. Engraved gems were used 
as such by the Egyptians, Jews, Assyrians, and 
Greeks; see Exod. xxviii. 14. Ahab’s seal was 
used by Jezebel, 899 B.c. (1 Avngs xxi. 8.) The 
Romans in the time of the Tarquins (about 600 B.C.) 
had gemmed rings. ‘They sealed rooms, granaries, 
bags of money, &c, The German emperor, Frederick 
I. (A.D. 1152) had seals of gold, silver, and tin. Im- 
pressions of the seals of Saxon kings are extant , 
and the English great seal is attributed to Edward 
the Confessor (1041-66). ‘*A seal with armorial 
bearings before the 11th ceritury, is certainly false.”’ 
Fosbroke. The most ancient English seal with arms 
on it issaid to be that of Richard I. or John. White 
and coloured waxes were used. Our present sealing- 
wax, containing shellac, did not come into general 
use in Germany and England until about 1550. 
Red wafers for seals came into use about 1624; but 
were not used for public seals till the 18th century. 
Seal Society, for publication of fac-similes of an- 
cient seals, was established in 1883.—For SEALED 
Lerrers, see Great Seal and Lettres de Cachet. 


SEAMEN. In consequence of the great loss of 
life by wrecks of merchant vessels, attributed to bad 
ships and overloading, a commission of inquiry was 
agreed to by parliament on the motion of Mr. 5. 
Plimsoll (who published ‘‘ Our Seamen: an Ap- 
peal”? ), 4 March, 1873. The duke of Edinburgh 
was on the commission; the duke of Somerset, 
chairman. Mr. Plimsoll has been censured for 
exaggeration. 

The report issued in September tended to justify the 
public apprehensions, but suggested no remedy. The 
report presented to parliament, 2 July, 1874, con- 
demned the present insurance system, and frecom- 
mended increased responsibility of owners and others, 
and strengthening the powers of the Board of Trade for 
investigation. 

The Merchant Shipping Survey Bill was rejected 
(173170) - : ; ; . 24 June, 

After much excitement, an Act was paysed to give 
further powers to the Board of Trade to stop un- 
seaworthy ships F : : ; . 13 Aug. 

Another Merchant Shipping Act (which see) passed 

15 Aug. 

Strong circular issued by the Board of Trade (Mr. 
Chamberlain) ; deaths of the employed in ships 
asserted to be rin 603; in coal mines 1 in 315; 
present system stated to be ineffectual Jan. 1884 


SEAS, SovEREIGNTY OF THE. The claim 
of England to rule the British seas is of very ancient 
date. Arthur is said to have assumed it, and Alfred 
afterwards supported this right. It was maintained 
by Selden, and measures were taken by government 
in consequence, 8 Chas. I. 1633. ‘The Dutch, after 
the death of Charles I., made some attempts to 
obtain it, but were roughly treated by Blake and 
Russia and other powers of the 


1874 


1875 
1876 


SEASONS. 


north armed to avoid search, 1780; again, 1800; 
see Armed Neutrality and Flag. ‘The international 
tule of the road at sea was settled in 1862 (new 
rules were issued in 1879 and 19 Aug. 1884), yet near 
Great Britain alone there have been 13,000 collisions 
in six years. Mr. Wm. Stirling Lacon proposes to 
reduce the rules from 749 words to 144, for sim- 
plicity and security. His form had been nine times 
before parliament, 1873. 


SEASONS. The four natural divisions of the 
year. 

In the north temperate regions in 1884 the spring 
quarter began 20 March, 5 a.m., the summer, 21 June, 
1 a.in., the autumn, 22 Sept. 3 p.m., the winter, 21 Dec. 
io a.m. See Lapland seasons under Year. 

James Thomson’s ‘‘Seasons” published: ‘‘ Winter,” 
1726; “Summer,” 1727; ‘‘Spring,” 1728; ‘* Autumn,” 1730. 

Haydn’s ‘‘ Seasons” first performed, 1801. 


SEATS BILL, see under Reform. 
SEBASTIAN, ST. (N. Spain), was taken by 


the French, under the duke of Berwick, in 1719. 
It was besieged by the British and allied army under 
Wellington. After a most heavy bombardment, by 
which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, it 
was stormed by general Graham (afterwards lord 
Lynedoch), and taken 31 Aug. 1813.—On 5 May, 
1836, the fortified works, through the centre of 
which ran the high road to Hernani, were carried 
by the English auxiliary legion under general 
Kivans, after very hard fighting. ‘he British naval 
squadron, off St. Sebastian, under lord John Hay, 
lent very opportune aid to the victors in this con- 
test.—A vigorous assault was made on the lines of 
general De Lacy Evans, at St. Sebastian, by the 
Carlists, 1 Oct. 1836. Both parties fought with 
bravery. The Carlists were repulsed, after suffer- 
ing severely. The loss of the Anglo-Spanish force 
was 376 men and 37 officers, killed and wounded. 
General De Lacy Evans was slightly wounded. See 
under Leagues. 


SEBASTOPOL or SEVASTOPOL, a town and 
once a naval arsenal, at S.W. point of the Crimea, 
formerly the little village of Aktiar. The buildings 
were commenced in 1784, by Catherine II. after the 
conquest of the country. The town is built in the 
shape of an amphitheatre on the rise of a large hill 
flattened on its summit, according to a plan laid 
down before 1794, which has been since adhered to. 
The fortifications and harbour were constructed by 
an English engineer, colonel Upton, and his sons, 
since 1830. ‘lhe population in 1834 was I5,c00. 
This place underwent eleven months’ siege, by the 
Inglish and French in 1854.and 1855. Immediately 
atter the battle of the Alma, 20 Sept. 1854, the allied 
army marched to Sebastopol, and took up its position 
on the plateau between it and Balaklava, and the 
grand attack and bombardment commenced 17 Oct. 
1854, without success.* After many sanguinary 
encounters by day and night, and repeated bombard- 


* In consequence of the sufferings and disasters of the 
army in the winter of 1854-5, the Sebastopol inquiry 
Committee was appointed, and the Aberdeen administra- 
tion resigned, Feb. 1855. The committee sat from 
1 March to 15 May, lord Aberdeen baing the last person 
examined. Its report was presented 18 June. Mr. Roe- 
buck, the chairman, moved on 17 July that the house 
should pass a vote of severe reprehension on every mem- 
ber of the Aberdeen administration. On 19 July his 
motion was lost by a majority of 107 against it. In 1855 
the government sent sir John M‘Neill and col. Tulloch 
to inquire into the state of the armies in the Crimea. 
Their report was presented to parliament in Feb. 1856. 
A commission was appointed to consider the statements 
in the report (which were very unfavourable to many 
officers), but the substance of the report was unshaken. 


748 


SECULARISM. 


ments, a grand assault was made on 8 Sept. 1855, 
upon the Malakhoff tower and the Redans, the most 
important fortifications to the south of the town. 
The French succeeded in capturing and retaining 
the Malakhoft. The attacks of the English on the 
great Redan and of the French upon the little Redan 
were successful, but the assailants were compelled 
to retire after a desperate struggle with great loss of 
life. The French lost 1646 killed, of whom 5 were 
generals, 24 superior and 116 inferior officers, 4500 
wounded, and 1400 missing. ‘The English lost 385 
killed (29 being commissioned and 42 non-commis- 
sioned officers), 1886 wounded, and 176 missing. 
In the night the Russians abandoned the southern 
and principal part of the town and fortifications, 
after destroying as much as possible, and crossed 
to the northern forts. They also sank or burnt the 
remainder of their fleet. ‘lhe allies found a very 
great amount of stores when they entered the place, 
g Sept. ‘The works were utterly destroyed in April, 
1856, and the town was restored to the Russians in 
July; gen. Todleben, the able defender, died 1 
July, 1884, and was buried here. See Russo- 
Turkish War. 


SECEDERS; SECESSION CHURCH, 


see Burghers. 


SECONDARY oF Lonpon, an ancient 
office, resembling that of under-sheriff in counties. 
The place was purchaseable till early in the present 
century, when it was bought up by the corporation. 


SECRET SOCIETIES, Assassins, Fenians, 
Ribbonism, Vehmic Tribunal, Rosicrucians, Illu- 
minati, Carbonari, Mary-Anne, Nihilists. 


SECRETARIES or Srare. The earliest 
authentic record of a secretary of state is in the 
reign of Henry III., when John Maunsell is de- 
scribed as ‘‘ Secretarius Noster,’ 1253. Rymer. 
Towards the close of Henry VIII.’s reign, two 
secretaries were appointed; and upon the union 
with Scotland, Anne added a third as secretary for 
Scotch affairs ; this appointment was afterwards laid 
aside; but in the reign of George III. the number 
was again increased to three, one for the American 
department. In 1782 this last was abolished by act 
of Parliament; and the secretaries were appointed 
for home, foreign, and colonial affairs. When there 
were but two secretaries, one held the portefewille 
of the Northern department, comprising the Low 
Countries, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, 
Russia, &c.; the other, of the Southern department, 
including France, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, Portu- 
gal, and Turkey; the affairs of Ireland belonging to 
the elder secretary; both secretaries then equally 
directed the home affairs. Beatson. There are now 
five secretaries—home, foreign, colonial, war, and 
(in 1858) India, all in the cabinet. See Adminis- 
trations, and separate articles, Liverpool, &e., to 
Gladstone. 


SECTS, RELIGIOUS, see under Worship, 


and their respective titles. 


SECULAR GAMES (Ludi Seculares), very 
ancient Roman games, celebrated on important 
occasions. Horace wrote his ‘* Carmen Szeculare ’’ 
for their celebration in the reign of the emperor 
Augustus (17). They took place again in the reign 
of Claudius (47), of Domitian (88), and for the last 
time, of Philip (248), believed to be 2000 years after 
the foundation of the city. 


SECULARISM, a name given to the prin- 
ciples advocated by G. J. and Austin Holyoake, 
about 1846, and since by Mr. Bradlaugh. 


SECURITY. 
, central idea is free, not lawless thought, and it con- 
siders scepticism to be scrutiny. It advocates liberty 
of action without injury to others. It is not against 
Christianity, but independent of it. Its standard is 
utilitarian ; it is the religion of the present life only ; 
teaching men to seek morality in nature, and happi- 
ness in duty. Mr. Austin Holyoake and other secu- 
arists repudiated atheism ; Mr. Bradlaugh and others 
profess it. 


SECURITY FroM VIOLENCE ACT, passed 
1863, appointed whipping as part of the punish- 
ent tor attempts at garotting. 


SEDAN, an ancient fortified city in the valley 
the Meuse, N.U. of France, the seat of a princi- 
lity long held by the dukes of Bouillon. On 6 
ly, 1641, a victory was gained at La Marfée, near 
dan, by the count of Soissons and the troops of 
yuillon and other French princes, over the royal 
my supporting Richelieu ; but the count was slain 
23 June, 1642. The duke was arrested in the 
idst of his army, and was made to cede Sedan to 
ecrown. The protestant university was abolished 
ter the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 22 Oct. 
85. Around this place a series of desperate con- 
ets on 29, 30, and 31 Aug. between the French 
my of the north, under marshal MacMahon (about 
0,000 men), and the greater part of the three 
rman armies under the king and crown-prince of 
‘ussia and the crown-prince of Saxony (about 
0,000 men) was brought to a close on I Sept. 1870. 


e battle began with attacks on the French right and 
left about 5 a.m., and was very severeat2p.m. At 4 
p.m, the Germans remained masters of the field, and 
the crown-prince of Prussia announced a complete 
victory, the chief part of the French army retreating 
mto Sedan.” * 

e emperor Napoleon was present during the battle, 
wd, it is said, stood at Iges, near Sedan, exposed for 
four hours to the German grenades. The impossibility 
of further resistance was then evident. The Germans 
aad contracted their circle close round Sedan ; their for- 
nidable artillery held all the heights, from which they 
zould at pleasure wholly destroy the town and the 
uwmmy, and only 2000 men were in a condition to 
cespond to their commander’s call, and to make a 
supreme effort to break through the enemy with the 
ymperor and escape to Montmedy. 

first general de Wimpffen (called to the command 
when MacMahon was wounded) indignantly rejected 
she terms offered by the victor, and the emperor had 
. fruitless interview with count Bismarck to endeavour 
60 mitigate them. 

_2 Sept. the emperor wrote in autograph to the king of 
Prussia, ‘“‘ Mon frére, n’ayant pu mourir a la téte de 
mes troupes, je dépose mon épée au pied de votre 
majesté. NapoLteon.” <A capitulation of Sedan and 
she whole army therein was signed by generals Von 
Moltke and De Wimpffen at the chateau of Bellevue, 
aear Frenois, at 11.30 a.m., and at 2 p.m. an interview 
jook , ee between the king and the emperor, who 
was dow. ast but dignified. 

e conflict was principally carried on by the artillery, 
n which (according to the emperor) the Germans had 
she advantage, not enly in number (600 to 500), but 
iso in weight, range, and precision. The carnage was 
uwvful, and the field the next day was a mass of shat- 
jered bones, torn flesh, and coloured rags. 

out 25,000 French prisoners were taken in the battle, 
ind 83,000 surrendered the next day, together with 
ro mitrailleuses, 400 field-pieces, and 150 fortress guns. 
About 14,000 French wounded were found lying in 
the neighbourhood, and about 3000 escaped into 
Belgium and laid down their arms. The great army 
of the north had ceased to exist. Among the killed 
vas lieut.-col. Pemberton, a correspondent of the 
‘Times, who had approached too near the conflict. 
‘e French emperor and his suite arrived at Wilhelms- 
dhe, a castle near Cassel appointed for his residence, 
formerly inhabited by his uncle Jerome, when king 
f Westphalia), in the evening of 5 Sept. 

1 Sept. the village of Bazeilles was stormed by the 
3avarians and burnt, it was said, because the inhabi- 
ants fired on the ambulances; many women and 


Lod 


( 


49 SELENIUM. 


children perished. The French deniéd the provocation. 
The place had been previously twice bombarded and 
stormed by the maddened combatants. 

In a letter dated 12 May, 1872, the emperor Napoleon 
took upon himself the whole responsibility of the 
surrender of Sedan. 


SEDAN CHAIRS (so called from Sedan), 
were first seen in England in 1581. One used in 
the reign of James I., by the duke of Buckingham, 
caused great indignation, and the people exclaimed 
that he was employing his fellow-creatures to do 
the service of beasts. Sedan chairs came into 
London in 1634, when sir Francis Duncomb ob- 
tained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a 
number of such covered chairs for fourteen years. 
They came into very general use in 1649. 


SEDGMOOR (Somersetshire), where the duke 
of Monmouth (natural son of Charles II. by Lucy 
Walters), who had risen in rebellion on the acces- 
sion of James II., was completely defeated by the 
royal army, 6 July, 1685. The duke was made a 
prisoner in the disguise of a peasant, at the 
bottom of a ditch, overcome with hunger and 
fatigue. He was tried and beheaded on 15 July 
following. 


SEDITION. Sedition acts were passed in the 
reign of George III. The proclamation against 
seditious writings was published May, 1792. The 
celebrated Sedition bill passed Dec. 1795. Sedi- 
tious societies were suppressed by act, June, 1797. 
The Seditious Meetings and Assemblies’ bill passed 
31 March, 1817. In Ireland, during the Roman 
Catholic and Repeal agitation, acts cr proclamations 
against sedition and seditious meetings were pub- 
lished from time to time until 1848. 


SEEDS. An act was passed to prevent the 
adulteration of seeds (a common practice), 11 Aug. 
1869; amended in 1878. 


SEEKERS, see Quakers. 
SEGEDIN, or SZEGEDIN, Hungary. Here 


was concluded a treaty between Ladislaus IV. and 
Amurath II., 12 July, 1444. It was treacherously 
annulled at the instigation of cardinal Julian, who 
with Ladis!aus perished in the fatal battle of Varna, 
10 Nov. 1444. See Varna. 


SEICENTO, see under Italian. 


SEIDLICE (Poland), where a battle was fought 
10 April, 1831, between the Poles and Russians. 
The Poles obtained the victory after a bloody con- 
flict, taking 4000 prisoners and several pieces of 
cannon; but this success was soon followed by fatal 
reverses. 


SEISMOMETER, (from seismos, Greek for 
earthquake), an apparatus for measuring the vio- 
lence of the shocks. One is described by Mr. Robert 


th in his work on earthquakes, published in 
1858. 


SELA, see Petra. 
SELECT-MEN, the earliest officers of the 


townships formed by the first colonists of New 
England about 1635. 


SELECTION, NatuRAL, see Species. 
SELENIUM, a grayish-white elementary sub- 


stance (chemically resembling sulphur), discovered 
in the stone riolite by Berzelius, in 1817. 


The variation in its resistance to the electric current 
when subjected to light was observed by Mr. 
Willoughby Smith in 1873, and utilised in the photo- 
phone (witch see). Dr. C. Wm. Siemens constructed a 
“* selenium eye.” 


SELEUCIA. 
SELEUCIA (Syria), made the capital of the 


Syrian monarchy by its builder, Seleucus Nicator, 
312 B.c. On the fall of the Seleucide, it became a 
republic, 65 B.c. It was taken by Trajan, a.D. 
116; several times given up and retaken; subju- 
vated by the Saracens, and united with Ctesiphon, 
636. 


SELEUCIDES, Era oF THE, dates from 
the reign of Seleucus Nicator. It was used in Syria 
for many years, and frequently by the Jews until 
the 15th century, and by some Arabians. Opinions 
vary as to its commencement. 
era (supposing it to begin 1 Sept. 312 B.c.), sub- 
tract 311 years 4 months. 


SELF-DENYING ORDINANCE, which 
ordained that no member of parliament should hold 
any civil or military office or command conferred by 
either or both of the houses, or by authority derived 
from them, after much discussion, was passed 3 
April, 1645, by the influence of Cromwell, who thus 
removed the earl of Essex and other Presbyterians 
out of his way. A somewhat similar ordinance was 
adopted by the parliament at Melbourne in Aus- 
tralia, in 1858. The name was given to an arrange- 
ment made respecting British naval promotions and 
retirements in 1870. 


SELLASIA (Laconia). Here the Spartans 


under Cleomenes were defeated by Antigonus Doson 
and the Acheans, 221 B.C. 


SELSEY, see Chichester. 
SEMAPHORE, see Zelegraphs. 
SEMATOLOGY (Greek séma, a sign), the 


science of signs, a term proposed by B. H. Smart, 
who died 1872. 


SEMINARA (Naples). Near here Gonsalvo 
de Cordova, the great captain, was defeated b 
the French, in 1495; but defeated them, 21 April, 


1503. 
SEMINCAS see Stmaneas. 
SEMPACH (Switzerland). Here the Swiss 


gained a great victory over Leopold, duke of 
Austria, 9 July, 1386, under Arnold von Winckel- 
ried; the duke and Arnold were slain, and the 
liberty of Switzerland was established. The day 
is still commemorated. 


SEMPER EADEM (‘Always the same’’), 


one of the mottoes of queen Elizabeth, was adopted 
by queen Mary and queen Anne, 13 Dee. 1702. 


SEMPERINGHAM, see Gilbertines. 
SENATE (Senatus). In the ancient republics 


the government was divided between the senatus 
(from senis, old; in Greek, gerousia, from geron, 
old), an assembly of elders, and the popular 
assembly (comitia, Latin; ecclesia, Greek), the 
king being merely the executive. The Roman 
senate, said to have originally been composed of 
100 members, was raised to 300 by Tarquinius 
Priscus ; to about 600 by Sylla, about 81 B.c.; and 
to goo by Julius Cesar. It was reformed and 
reduced to 600 by Augustus; and gradually lost its 
power and dignity under the emperors. The mere 
form existed in the reign of Justinian. A second 
senate, formed at Constantinople by Constantine, 
retained its office till the 9th century. S.P.Q.R. on 
the Roman standard stood for ‘‘Senatus Populusque 
Romanus,’ ‘‘the Roman senate and people.” A 
senatus consultum was a law enacted by the senate. 


The French senate was created by the constitution of the 


ond 


(0 


To reduce it to our | 


0 SEPTEMBER. 


year 8, promulgated 24 Dec. 1799, to watch over thé 
administration of the laws. The number of senator: 
was raised gradually from 60 to 137. The senate wa: 
replaced by the chamber of peers in 1814; re-estab 
lished by Napoleon III. 14 Jan. 1852; and abolished 
5 Sept. 1870. Its re-establishment was proposed in 1873 

Establishment of a senate of 300 voted ; 225 to be electec 
for 9 years by the departments ; 75 (for life) by nationa: 
assembly, 22 Feb. 1875. : 

The 75 elected, 9-21 Dec., 1875. 

The congress of 13 Aug. 1884, ordered the gradual abo: 
lition of life senators as vacancies occurred; new 
senators were to be elected for 9 years by the depart 
ments ; enacted, 5 Noy.; bill passed by the deputie: 
and senate, 4-9 Dec. 1884. See France. 


SENEFFE (Belgium). Near here was fough: 
a severe but indecisive battle between the Dutch. 
under the prince of Orange (afterwards our Willian 
III.), and the French, led by the great Condé, 11 
Aug. 1674. 


SENEGAL, French colonies on the river o 
that name in Senegambia, W. Africa, settled abou’ 
1626; several times taken by the British, bu‘ 
recovered by the French, to whom they were finalls 
restored in 1814. 


SENESCHAL, a high officer of the Frencl 
royal household. In the reign of Philip I. 1059 
the office was esteemed the highest place of trust. 


SENLAG, see Hastings. 


SENONES (see Gazdls), defeated by Camillus 
367 B.c. They defeated Metellus the consul «a 
Arretium, 284, but were almost exterminated by 
Dolabella, 283. They invaded Greece in 279; were 
defeated by Antigonus Gonatas, 278; and sued fo1 
peace. 


SENOVA, near Schipka, in the Balkans 
Here Suleiman Pasha and the Turks were defeatec 
by the Russian general Skobeleff, g Jan. 1878 
This victory virtually closed the war, and openec 
the road to Adrianople. About 26,000 Turks anc 
283 officers were made prisoners, with 4o Krupj 
guns, About 8000 Turks and 2000 Russians wert 
killed or wounded. 


SENTINUM (central Italy). The site of : 
great victory of the Romans over the Samnites anc 
Gauls, whose general, Gellius Egnatius, was slain 
295 B.C. 


SEPARATISTS, a term applied to the Iris! 
National Party, headed by Mr. Parnell, abou. 
1883. In 1884 it vehemently attacked earl Spense 
and the Irish executive.—The name is also assumet 
by a small Christian sect in Dublin, and som 
other places; originated by John Walker, a clas 
sical scholar, somewhat resembling the Glasite 
(Prov. xviii. 1); he died 25 Oct. 1833, aged 66. 


SEPHARDIM, the name given to the descen 
dants of the highly civilised Jews of Spain an 
Portugal, who fled from the persecutions of th 
Inquisition, 1492-1505. The Jews interpret Sepha 
rad, in Obadiah 20, as Spain. 


SEPOYS (a corruption of sipdhi, Hindostane: 
for a soldier), the term applied to the native troop 
in India. Under able generals they greatly aide: 
in establishing British rule in India. For thei 
mutinies, see Vellore, 1806; Madras, 1809; an 
India, 1857. 


SEPTEMBER, the seventh Roman mont! 
reckoned from March (from septimus, seventh). I 
became the ninth month when January ans 
February were added to the year by Numa; 71, 
B.c. The Roman senate would haye given thi 


SEPTEMBRIZERS. 


nonth the name of Tiberius, but the emperor 
pposed it; the emperor Domitian gave it his own 
ame Germanicus; the senate under Antoninus Pius 
ave it that of Antoninus; Commodus gave it his 
urname, Herculeus; and the emperor Tacitus his 
wn name, Tacitus.—‘‘ September 4 government,” 
ee France, Sept. 1870. 


SEPTEMBRIZERS. In the French revolu- 
ion a dreadful massacre took place in Paris, 2-5 
ept. 1792. The prisons were broken open, and the 
risoners butchered, among them an ex-bishop, and 
early I00 non-juring priests. Some accounts 
tate the number of persons slain at 1200, others at 
000. The agents in this slaughter were named 
eptembrizers. 


SEPTENNALISTS, the party in France who 
upport the septennate or seven years’ government 
f marshal MacMahon, enacted by the assembly, 
g, 20 Noy. 1873. See France, 1874. 


SEPTENNIAL PARLIAMENTS. Ed- 
vard I. held but one parliament every two years. 
n the qth Edward III. it was enacted, ‘‘that a 
arliament should be holden every year once.” 
‘his continued to be the statute-law till 16th 
tharles I. 1641, when an act was passed for holding 
arliaments once in three years at least; repealed 
11664. The Triennial act was re-enacted in 1694. 
‘riennial parliaments thence continued till the 
Geo. I. 1716, when, in consequence of the allega- 
‘on that ‘*a popish faction were designing to renew 
he rebellion in this kingdom, and the report of an 
avasion from abroad,’’ it was enacted that ‘‘the 
hen parliament should continue for seven years.”’ 
‘his Septennial act, entitled ‘‘ an act for enlarging 
he continuance of parliaments’? (1715 in the 
tatutes, 4to, given as I Geo. I. stat. 2, c. 38), was 
assed 7 May, 1716; see Parliaments. Several 
nsuccessful motions have been made for its repeal ; 
ne in May, 1837. 


SEPTIMANTA, a Roman province, S. France ; 


2e Languedoc. 


SEPTUAGESIMA SUNDAY;; see Quad- 
agesima Sunday,and Week. Septuagesima is the 
»ason between Epiphany and Lent. 


SEPTUAGINT VERSION oF THE BIBLE, 
iade from Hebrew into Greek, 277 B.c. Seventy- 
vo translators were shut up in thirty-six cells; 
ich pair translated the whole; and on subsequent 
3 ee the thirty-six copies did not vary by a 
ord or letter. Justin Martyr. St. Jerome affirms 
iat they translated only the Pentateuch ; others 
iy they translated the whole. Ptolemy Philadel- 
aus gave the Jews about a million sterling for a 
py of the Old Testament, and seventy translators 
nt a million more for the translation. Josephus. 
inished in seventy-two days. Hewlett. The above 
atements are merely traditional ; see Bible, and 
lexandrian Codex. 


SEQUESTRATION of Benefices Act passed 
; July, 1871. 
SERAING, Belgium, on the Meuse, near 
lege, formerly the site of a palace of the prince 
shops of Liege ; now containing great iron works, 
tablished in 1817, by John Cockerill, an English- 
an. His father, who had works at Liege, died 
1813. Nearly the whole town has been built 
Cockerill. 


SERAJEVO, capital of Bosnia and Herzego- 
‘na, with about 50,000 inhabitants, was founded 
1465, by two nobles. It was taken by Mathias, 
“ng of Hungary, in 1480, and by prince Eugene, of 


751 


SERVIA. 


Savoy, in 1698. In pursuance of the treaty of 
Berlin, 13 July, 1878, the Austrians entered Sera- 
jevo, after a sharp conflict with the Bosnians, and 
bombardment of the city, 19 Aug. 1878. By a fire 
8, 9 Aug. 1879 above 20,000 persons were rendered 


| homeless. 


SERAPHINE, a free-reed musical instrument, 
a precursor of Debaine’s harmonium, brought out 
by John Green in London, 1833. 


SERAPIS, TEMPLE oF (near Naples), was 
exhumed in 1750. The investigations of Lyell and 
Babbage into the history of the sinking and burying 
of this temple were of great geological interest. 


SERASKTIER, the Turkish minister of war. 


ESAS see Slavery (note), and Russia, 1861, 
1863. 


SERINGAPATAM (S. India), the capital of 
Hyder Ali, sovereign of Mysore (which see). The 
battle of Seringapatam, called also the battle of 
Arikera, in which the British defeated Tippoo Sahib, 
was fought 15 May, 1791. The redoubts were 
stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Corn- 
wallis, 6 Feb. 1792. After this capture, prelimin- 
aries of peace were signed, and Tippoo agreed to 
cede one half of Mysore, and to pay 33,000,000 of 
rupees (about 3,300,000/. sterling) to England, and 
to give up to lord Cornwallis his two eldest sons as 
hostages.—In a new war the Madras army, under 
general Harris, arrived before Seringapatam, 5 
April, 1799; it was joined by the Bombay army 14 
April; and the place was stormed and carried by 
major-general Baird, 4 May, same year. In this 
engagement Tippoo was killed. See Mysore. 


SERJEANTS-AT-LAW are pleaders from 
among whom the judges are ordinarily chosen, and 
who are called serjeants of the coif. The judges 
call them brothers ; see Coif. Their exclusive rights 
of addressing court of common pleas suspended, 
1834; restored, 1840; abolished, 1846. By the 
Supreme Court of Judicature Act, judges on their 
appointment need not be made serjeants, 1873. See 
Inns of Court. 


SERPENT, an ancient wind instrument, 
parent of the Cornet family. A ‘‘ contra serpent’” 
was shown in the Exhibition, 1851, made by Jor- 
dan, of Liverpool, The ‘‘ serpentcleid’’ was pro- 
duced by Beacham in Jullien’s orchestra about 1840. 


SERPENTINE, see Hyde Park. 
SERVANTS. An act levying a duty on male 


servants was passed in 1777, which was augmented 
in 1781, e¢ seg. A tax on female servants, imposed 
in 1785, was repealed in 1792. The tax on servants 
yielded in 1830 about 250,000/. per annum; in 1840 
the revenue from it had fallen to 201,482/.; in 1850 
it produced about the same sum. ‘The licence duty 
for male servants is now 15s. each. It produced in 
the year 1876-7, 167,004/. ; 1877-8, 154,641. ; 
1878-9, 146,061/. ; 1883-4, 139,631/. The law re- 
specting servants was amended by the Master and 
Servants’ act passed in 1867. 


SERVIA, an independent kingdom, south of 
Hungary, formerly subject to Turkey. The Servians 
are of Slavonic origin. They embraced Christianity 
about 640. The emperor Manuel subjugated them in 
fey but they recovered their independence in 
1180, and were ruled by princes, generally named 
Stephen, till their country was finally subdued by 
the sultan Mahomet II. in 1459. Population in 
1854, 985,000; 1873, 1,338,505; 1876, 1,366,923 ; 
1883, 1,865,683. : 


SERVIA. 


752 


SEVEN CHURCHES. 


An empire founded by king Duschaw, 1340; Lazar, 
emperor, defeated, 15 June, 1389; country an- 
nexed by Turks. 

A Servian rebellion quelled : ‘ 4 

The Servians aid Austria by free companies 

Again rebel, and capture Belgrade : 5 - 

Kara George, chosen leader, 1801; aided by the 
Russians, establishes a government 

The Turks break a treaty, and Kara George flees 

Their governor Milosch rebels . March, 

Kara George returning, is executed. = 


- 1737 
- 1788-90 


806 


1807-11 
- 1814 


1815 
1816 


Alexander Milosch I. Obrenovitch recognised as. 


hereditary prince by the sultan 15 Aug. 
Milosch becoming despotic, made to abdicate, and 
a new constitution established 13 June, 
His son and successor Milan soon dies, whose bro- 
ther Michael also retires ; Alexander, son of Kara 
George, chosen prince : : 14 Sept. 
Alexander becoming unpopular, made to abdicate 
by the national party; Alexander Milosch re- 
elected prince : 2 A : 23 Dec. 
Plot against Milosch frustrated, 11 July; the 
Servian assembly meets : : 13 July, 
Milosch dies ; succeeded by his son Michael Obre- 
novitch, (born 4 Sept. 1825) ; : 26 Sept. 
Rising movement to render Servia independent of 
Turk Gyn is : i ; ; 2 March, 
Disputes between the Servians and the Turkish 
garrison at Belgrade, which lead to bloodshed ; 
the city bombarded, 15 June ; submits 17 June ; 
the Turkish pacha dismissed : 19 June, 
A conference of the representatives of the great 
powers at Constantinople, Aug. ; the Porte agrees 
to liberal concessions to the Servians, which their 
prince accepts . . : : : - 7 Oet. 
Servians demand withdrawal of Turkish garrisons 
from Belgrade and other fortresses 5 Oct. 
Which are evacuated, March; prince Michael, at 
Constantinople, thanks the sultan 30 March, 
Prince Michael assassinated in Belgrade 10 June, 
Milan IV. grand-nephew of priuce Michael, chosen 
his successor, 22 June ; 14 of the murderers were 
executed . : : - ; : 28 July, 
Constitution affirming the hereditary rights of the 
Obrenovitch family . x ; ‘ “ Ane 
Prince Karageorgevich accused of complicity with 
murder ; imprisoned at Pesth, Jan. ; acquitted, 
May, 
The regents surrender the government to prince 
Milan at Belgrade. : : ; 22 Aug. 
Excitement through insurrection in Herzegovina, 
new ministry hostile to Turkey, formed, about 
gr Aug.; resign; announced, 4 Oct.; peace 
ministry formed : : 2 : - g Oct. 
Marriage of the prince to Natalie Keschko 17 Oct. 
Ristics, premier, opposed to Turkey July, 
See Turkey, for the war declared . x July, 
Milan proclaimed king by Tchernayeff and the army 
at Deligrad ; not approved . : 16 Sept. 
Peace with Turkey ratified ; : 4 March, 
{Servian losses in the war, about 8000 killed, 20,000 
wounded. ] 
Servians again declare war and enter Turkey (see 
Russo-Turkish war) s hay 5) DEC. 
Sultan deposes prince Milan : 22 Dec. 
Servia declared independent, with new frontiers, 
by treaty of San Stefano, 3 March, and of Ber- 
lin $ : ‘ F A : : 13 July, 
Execution of Markovitch and other rioters 
end of May, 
Proclamation of peace and national independence 
at Belgrade : : : : A 22 Aug. 
The ministry re-modelled by Ristics about 15 Oct. 
Resignation of Ristics (virtual dictator) announced 
25 Oct. 
Milan proclaimed king by the Assembly 
about 6 March, 
[Married Natalie Keschko(born 1859), 17 Oct. 1875.] 
Escaped assassination by mad. Markovitch 23 Oct. 
Resignation of the Pirochanitz ministry, 27 Sept. ; 
succeeded by Nicola Christics : =) AIO, 
New military organization leads to insurrection in 
S.E. Servia ; soon suppressed announced 
5-10 Nov. 
Insurgents defeated about 10 Nov. 


18 members of the Radical committee arrested Nov. 
General tranquillity reported . . SAxSuNoV: 


1829 


1839 


1842 


1858 
1860 


99 


1861 


1862 


> 


1866 


1867 
1868 


9? 


? 
” 


1880 
1882 


? 


ct. 1883 


18 rebel leaders executed, about 19 Nov.; many 
others reprieved : _ : F Dec. 188: 
Rebels enter Bulgaria ; disputes with that country 
ensue ; prospect of war ; i . June, 188. 
M. Garachanine, premier . ‘ A Rees OC 5 
Dispute settled by arrangement . about10o Nov. ,, 


HEREDITARY PRINCES. 

Milosch (Obrenovitch) I., recognised by Turkey, 
15 Aug. 1833; abdicates 13 June, 1839. 

Michael II., son ; dies 1840. 

Michael III., brother ; abdicates 1842. 

Alexander (Kara-Georgevitch), son of Kara George 
chosen, 14 Sept. ; deposed 23 Dec. 1858 ; died - 
May, 188s. 1 

np (Obrenovitch), re-elected, 23 Dec.; dies, 
1600. 

Michael III., son ; succeeds, 26 Sept. ; assassinated, 
ro June, 1868. 

Milan (Obrenovitch) IV., 
proclaimed, 2 July, 1868. 

Heir ; Alexander, born 14 Aug. 1876. 


SERVILE WARS insurrections of slaves 
against their masters. Two were quelled in Sicily, 
after much slaughter, 132, 99 B.c.; see Spartans. 


SESSION COURTS in England were ap- 
pointed to be held quarterly in 1413, and the time: 
for holding them regulated in 1831; see Quarter 
Sessions, and Court of Session. 'The kirk session in 
Scotland consists of the minister and elders of each 
parish. They superintend religious worship and 
discipline, dispense money collected for the poor, &c. 


SESTUS, on the Thracian Chersonesus; see 
Hellespont. Near Sestus was the western end of 
Xerxes’ bridge, across the Hellespont, 480 B.c. 
Sestus was retaken from the Persians by the Athe- 
nians, 478, and held by them till 404, giving them 
the command of the trade of the Euxine. 


SETTLED ESTATES ACT 40 & qr Vict. 
c. 18, consolidates and amends the law relating to 
their leases, sales, &c. (passed 28 June, 1877). 
Other acts passed, 1882 and 1884. 


SETTLEMENT, Act or, for securing the 
succession to the British throne, to the exclusion 
of Roman catholics, was passed in 1689. This name 
is also given to the statute by which the crown, 
after the death of William III. and queen Anne, 
without issue, was limited to Sophia, electress of 
Hanover, grand-daughter of James I., and her heirs 
being protestants, 1702. The Irish act of settle- 
ment, passed in 1662, was repealed in 1689; see 
Hanover. 


SETTLEMENT, Law of, of the poor, the 
subject of many statutes since 1535, was somewhat 
changed by the poor law act of 1834. 


SEVEN BISHOPS, see Bishops, 1688. 


SEVEN BROTHERS, martyrs at Rome, 
under Antoninus; their feast is kept 10 July. 


SEVEN CHURCHES or ASIA, to the 
angels (ministers) of which the apostle John was 
commanded to write the epistles contained in the 
2nd and 3rd chapters of his Revelation, viz., Ephesus, 
Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, 
and Laodicea, 96. 


1. Ephesus (which see). Paul founded the church here, 
57- In 59, he was in great danger from a tumult created 
by Demetrius ; to the elders ef this church hedelivered 
his warning address, 60 (Acts xix. xx.). Ephesus was 
in a ruinous state even in the time of Justinian (527), 
and still remains so. 

2. Smyrna. An ancient Greek city, claiming to be the 
birth-place of Homer; was destroyed by the Lydians ; 
about 627 B.c. rebuilt by Antigonus and Lysimachus. 
Its first bishop, Polycarp, was martyred here about 
169. It has been frequently captured. It was sacked 


1829. 
18309. 
1840. 
1842. 
1858. 
1860. 


1868. grand-nephew ; agairz 


by Tamerlane in 1402; and finally taken by the Turks, 
1424. It is now the chief city of Asia Minor, and the 
seat of the Levant trade. Earthquake, above 2000 
perish, 12 May, 1875. Great fire; about 7oo houses 
destroyed, 18 July, 1882. 

Pergamos. Capital of the kingdom of the same name, 
founded by Phileterus, whom Lysimachus, one of 
Alexander’s generals, had made governor, 283 B.c. He 
‘was succeeded by Eumenes I., 263; Attalus (who took 
the title of king), 241; Eumenes II. (who collected a 
great library), 197; Attalus II., 159; Attalus III., 138. 
He bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, 133. It 
revolted, was subdued, and made the Roman province, 
Asia. Pergamos is still an important place, called 
Bergamo. Parchment is said to have been invented 
here. The explorations of the ancient citadel, insti- 
tuted by the German government in 1878, resulted in 
the discovery of Greek marble statuary, which has 
been deposited in the museum at Berlin. 

Thyatira. _Now a mean town of 2000 houses, called 
Ak-hissar, ‘‘ White Castle.” 

Sardis. Formerly the capital of Lydia, the kingdom 
of Croesus (560 B.c.); taken by Cyrus, 548; burnt by the 
Greeks, 499; it flourished under the Roman empire ; 
was taken by the Turks; and destroyed by Tamerlane 
about 1462; it is now a miserable village, named Sart. 

Philadelphia was built by Attalus (III.) Philadelphus, 
king of Pergamos (159-138 B.c.); was taken by Bajazet L., 
A.D. 1390. It is now called Allah Shehr, ‘‘The city of 
God,” and is a miserable town of 3000 houses. 

: Laodicea. In Phrygia, near Lydia; has suffered much 
from earthquakes. It is now a deserted place, called 

Eske-hissar, ‘The old castle.” 


SEVEN DAYS’ WAR, see Army, 1871. 


SEVEN-SHILLING PIECES in gold were 
\thorised to be issued 29 Nov. 1797. 


‘SEVEN SLEEPERS. According to an early 
igend seven youths, in 251, commanded to worship 
‘statue set up in Ephesus by the emperor Decius, 
fused, and fled to a cavern in the mountain, where 
ey were enclosed, and slept, according to Durandus, 
rv 300 years. Other writers give shorter periods, 
-id various accounts of the incidents which accom- 
‘ied the awakening. A festival in their honour 
kept by the Roman church on 27 July. 


SEVEN WEEKS’ WAR, see Prussia, 1866. 
“SEVEN WONDERS, see Wonders. 
SEVEN YEARS’ WAR, the conflict main- 


-ined by Frederick II. of Prussia against Austria, 
jussia, and France, from 1756 to 1763; see Battles. 
-e gained Silesia; see Hudertsburg. 


| SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS, sce article 


thbatarians, &e. 
| SEVERN, see under Tunnels. 
_ SEVERNDROOG, see Savandroog. 
SEVERUS’S WALL, see Roman Walls. 
SEVILLE (S.W. Spain), the Hispalis of the 


hoenicians, and the Julia of the Romans, was the 
pital until Philip IL. finally established his court 
| Madrid, 1563. It opened its gates to the Saracens 
712, and was tuken from them by the Christians in 
47, after an obstinate siege. ‘The peace of Seville 
»tween England, France, and Spain, and also a 
| fensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signed 
| Nov. 1729. In the peninsular war, Seville sur- 
/ ndered to the French, 1 Feb. 1810; and was taken 
} assault. by the British and Spaniards, after the 
ttle of Salamanca, 27 Aug. 1812. It was besieged 
it not taken by Expartero, July, 1843. Visit of 
tince of Wales, 20 April, 1870. 


_SEVRES, see Porcelain. 


‘SEWERS, see Cloaca Maxima. An act was 
jssed in 1847 enforcing the conveyance of the 


} 


SEVEN DAYS’ WAR. 7 


3 SHAFTESBURY PARK. 


sewage of houses in London into the public sewers. 
The commissioners of sewers in Jondon were super- 
seded by the metropolitan commissioners of sewers, 
nominated by the government ‘They abolished the 
large brick sewers, introducing pipe drains, and 
turned the contents of 30,000 cesspools into the 
river ‘Ihames. ‘The necessity for purifying the de- 
filed river led to the construction of a new system 
of drainage, under the superintendence of the 
Metropolitan Board of Works (which see). The 
main drainage (the plan of Mr. J. W. Bazalgette) 
consists of the Northern High-level, Middle-level, 
and Low-level, and Southern High-level and Low- 
level. On 14 March, 1865, the works were said to 
be completed, except the low-level sewer on the 
north side, which was waiting for the completion 
of the Thames embankment, &e. On4q April, 1865, 
the prince of Wales started the engiies which com- 
menced lifting the waters of the southern outfall, at 
Crossness Point, near Erith.* Tne main drainage 
works of the metropolis (82 miles), were finally 
completed Aug. 1875. The sewage is carried 14 
miles down the river. Total cost, 4,500,000/. See 
Carbolie Acid. 

Royal commission on the Metropolitan Sewage dis- 
charge (lord Bramwell, sir John Coode, prof. A. W. 
Williamson and others), appointed 22 June, 1882; re- 
ports on the great contamination of the Thaines at the 
outfalls, and need of change; approves of the combina- 
tion of chemical precipitation with filtration through 
earth, June and Dec. 1884. 


SEWING-MACHINE, | It is said that 
Thomas Saint patented one for boots and shoes in 
a0. Similar inventions are ascribed to Duncan 
(1804); Adams and Dodge (American, 1818) ; 
Thimonnier (French, 1834); and Walter Hunt 
(1834). The first really practical sewing-machine 
was the invention of Kiias Howe, an American 
mechanic, of Cambridge, in Massachusetts, about 
1841, who died at Brooklyn, 2 Oct. 1867, aged 47. 
It is now known under an improved form as 
Thomas’s shuttle machine, by whom it was intro- 
duced into England in 1846. Many improvements 
have been since made. 


SEXAGESIMA SUNDAY, see Quadra- 
gesima Sunday, and Week. 


SEX TANT, an instrument used like a quadrant, 
containing sixty degrees, or the sixth part of a 
circle, invented by Tycho Brahe, at Augsburg, in 
1550. The Arabian astronomers are said to have 
had a sextant of fifty-nine feet nine inches radius, 
about 995. 


SEYCHELLES ISLES (Indian Ocean), 
settled by the French about 1768; captured by the 
British, 1794; ceded to them, 1815. 


SFAXEHRS, see Tunis. 

SHAFTESBURY’S ACT, Lorn, 18 & 19 
Vict. c. 86 (1855), relates to religious worship. 

SHAFTESBURY PARK ESTATH, near 


Wandsworth, London, §8.W., a model village, and 
termed ‘a workman’s city ;’’ built here for clerks, 


* The utilisation of disinfected sewage as manure is now 
much advocated. Great success is said to have been 
attained at Edinburgh, Carlisle, Croydon, and other 
places. Much hot controversy has arisen respecting this 
disposal of the London sewage. On 15 Nov. 1864, the 
Metropolitan board accepted a contract for its disposal 
from Messrs. Hope and Napier. Sewage Utilisation acis 
were passed in 1865 and 1867, and the Metropolitan 
Sewage and Essex Reclamativ: acts were passed in June, 
1865. The sewage farm, near Barking, Essex, was re- 
ported to be flourishing in 1863: good grass and corn 
crops raised. 3 

c 


SHAKERS. (6 


4 SHEEPSHANKS’ DONATIONS. — 


artizans, and labourers, by a company, was opened 
by the earl of Shaftesbury, 3 Nov. 1873, and 18 
July, 1874. 


SHAKERS, an English sect, now chiefly found 
in America, arose in the time of Charles I., and 
derived its name from their voluntary convulsion. 
It existed for a short time only, but was revived by 
James Wardley in 1747, and still more by Ann Lee 
(or Standless), expelled quakers, about 1757. The 
sect emigrated to America, May, 1772, and settled 
near Albany, New York, 1774. They denounce 
marriage as sinful, regard celibacy as holy, oppose 
war, disown baptism and the Lord’s supper, and 
use dancing as part of their worship. Marsden. 
One of their elders, Fred. W, Evans, lectured in 
London, Aug. 1871. 


Above a hundred of them settled in the New Forest, 
near Lymington, Hampshire, on property obtained for 
them by a Miss Wood; not paying the interest of 
a mortgage they were ejected in severe weather, and 
suffered much; end of Dec. 1874. They are called 
‘* Bible Christians,” and Girlingites, from Mrs. Girling, 
a leader among them. 

Goods seized for debt, about 27 July ; expelled, 22 Aug. ; 
permitted to remain in the neighbourhood, Oct. 1878. 

Miss Wood was confined as a lunatic, 27 Feb. 1875. 

20 men and 4o women half-starved in the New Forest ; 
will not work for hire, Jan. 1884. 


SHAKSPEARE’S PLAYS. WilliamShak- 
speare was born at Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwick- 
shire, 23 April, 1564, and died on his birthday, 1616. 
The first collected edition of his works is dated 1623 
[a facsimile of this edition was published, 1862-5] ; 
the second, 1632;* the third, 1664; the fourth, 
1685; all in folio. Critical editions of the text, 
edited by Alexander Dyce, were published in 1857 
and ee Boydell’s edition, with numerous 
plates, was published in nine vols., folio, in 1802. 
Ayscough’s Index to Shakspeare was published in 
1790; , Twiss’s Index, in 1805, and Mrs. Cowden 
Clarke’s Concordance, 1847 ; ‘* Key to Shakspeare,”’ 
1879; Shakspeare-Lexicon, by Alexander Schmidt, 
1874-5. 

SHAKSPEARE’S GLOBE THEATRE, London, built, 1594, 
situated near the spot still called Bankside. Shak- 
speare was himself part proprietor; here some of his 
plays were first produced, and he himself performed in 
them. It was of a horse-shoe form, partly covered 
with thatch. After it was licensed, the thatch took 
fire, through the negligent discharge of a piece of 
ordnance, and the whole building was consumed, 29 
June, 1613. The house was crowded to excess, to 
witness the play of Henry VIII., but the audience 
escaped unhurt ; see Globe. 

SHAKSPEARE’S JUBILEE, projected by David Garrick, 
was celebrated at Stratford-on-Avon, 6-8 Sept. 31760. 
A similar festival was kept 23 April, 1836. The tercen- 
tenary of Shakspeare’s birth was celebrated, with 
many festivities, at Stratford-on-Avon, 23-29 April, 
1864. 

SHAKSPEARE’S House. In 1847, a number of persons of 
distinction interested themselves for the preservation 
of the house in which Shakspeare was born, then 
actually put up for sale: they held a meeting at the 
Thatched-House tavern, London, 26 Aug. in that year, 
and took measures for promoting a subscription set on 
foot by the Shakspearian Club at Stratford-on-Avon ; 
and a committee was appointed to carry out their 
object. In the end Shakspeare’s house was sold at 


* In 1849, Mr. J. P. Collier, editor of.an edition of 
Shakspeare, purchased a copy of the second folio, on 
which was written in pencil, a number of corrections, 
supposed to have been made soon after the time of pub- 
lication. At first he thought little of these marks; but 
in 1853 he was induced to publish ‘‘ Notes and Emenda- 
tions” derived from this volume. Much controversy 
ensued as to the authenticity of these corrections ; and 
in 1259 it was generally agreed that they were of modern 
date, and consequently of little value. Mr. Collier died 
aged g4, 17 Sept. 1883. 


the Auction Mart in the city of London, where it wa 
“knocked down” to the United Committee of Londo. 
and Stratford for the large sum of 3000!. 16 Sept. 1847 
In 1856, a learned. oriental scholar, John Shakspear 
(no relation of the poet), gave 2500/1: to purchase th 
adjoining house, that it might be pulled down, i 
order to ensure the poet’s house from the risk ¢ 
fire. 

SHAKSPEARE Funp, established in Oct. 1861, to pw 
chase Shakspeare’s garden, birth-place estate, and t 
erect and endow a public library and museum 4 
Stratford-on-Avon. The catalogue of the library an 
museum was published, Feb. 1868. 

The SHAKSPEARE LIBRARY, at Birmingham, was founde 
in 1864, and formally opened, 23 April, 1868 ; burnt 1 
Jan. 1879. 

SHAKSPEARE FORGERIES, See Ireland. 

SHAKSPEARE GALLERY, see Boydell. 

SHAKSPEARE MEMORIAL THEATRE, Stratford (capable « 
holding 800); foundation laid by lord Leigh, 23 Apri 
1877 ; opened with ceremonies, 23 April 1879. 

SHAKSPEARE SOCIETY, issued 20 volumes, 1841-53. 

NEw SHAKSPEARE SOCIETY issues works, 1874, et seq. 

SHAKSPEARIAN SHOw at the Royal Albert Hall, 30 Ma: 
1884. 


SHAMROCK. It is said that the shamroc 
used by the Irish was adopted by Patric 
M‘Alpine, since called St. Patrick, as a simile of th 
Trinity, about 432. 


SHANGHAE, or SHANGHAT (China 
captured by the British, 19 June, 1842; by the Tae 
ping rebels, 7 Sept. 1853; retaken by the imperia 
ists, 1855. Therebels were defeated near Shanghz 
by the English and French, allies of the emperor, 
March, 1862; see China. 


SHARPSBURG (Maryland), see Anteetam. 


SHAWLS, of oriental origin, were introduce 
into Paris after the return of Napoleon Bonapart 
from Egypt, 1801. The manufacture was intrc 
duced by Barrow and Watson, in 1784, at Norwicl 
It began at Paisley and Edinburgh about 180: 
Ure. 


SHEEP were exported from England to Spaiz 
and, the breed being thereby improved, produce 
the fine Spanish wool, which proved detrimental 1 
our woollen manufacture, 1467. Anderson. The 
exportation was prohibited on pain of fine and in 
prisonment, 1522. The number of sheep in th 
United Kingdom has been variously stated—by som 
at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by mor 
at 60,000,000, in 1840. In 1851 there were importe 
into England 2a Se sheep and lambs; in 1858 
184,482; in 1864, 496,243. See under Cattle. In Aug 
and Sept. 1862, many sheep in Wiltshire died ¢ 
smallpox ; and on Sept. 11, government declared i1 
intention of enforcing the act for the prevention ¢ 
contagion. The evil soon abated. In April, 1866 
when the disease reappeared, the preventive regu 
lations were re-issued. 

Mortality amongst sheep through flukes, &c., April, 18§ 
In 1865, 914,170 Sheep and lambs were imported ; 

in 1868, 341,155 ; in 1871, 916,799 ; 1874, 758,915 + 

1875, 985,052; 1876, 1,041,329 ; 1877, 874,055 5 1878, 

892,125; 1879, 944,888; 1880, 941,121; OBI, 

935,144; 1882, 1,124,391; 1883, 1,116,115. For 

number in Great Britain, see under Cattle. 


SHEEPSHANKS’ DONATIONS. On 
Feb. 1857, Mr. John Sheepshanks, bya deed of gif 
presented to the nation his valuable collection « 
paintings and drawings, valued at 60,000/. In ac 
cordance with the donor’s directions, the picture 
were placed in the South Kensington Museum. Th 
collection is rich in the works of Mulready, Land 
seer, and Leslie. He died 5 Oct. 1863.—On 2 De 
1858, the trustees of his brother, the late rey 
Richard Sheepshanks, presented 10,000/. stock t 


| SHEERNESS. 
) 

Trinity college, Cambridge, for the promotion of 
the study of astronomy, meteorology, and mag- 
‘oetism. 


SHEERNESS (N. Kent), a royal dockyard, 
dlanned by Charles II. in 1663, was taken by 
che Dutch, under De Ruyter, 9 June, 1667. Im- 
oroved since 1815; new fortifications still in pro- 
sess. ; 
the old dock church burned ; 3 persons killed, 

26 Nov. 1881 


SHEFFIELD, on the river Sheaf, West 
Xiding, Yorkshire; renowned for cutlery, plated 
‘oods, &c. Sheffield thwytles are mentioned by 
syhaucer, in the time of Edward III. Sheffield in 
he time of the Conqueror was obtained by Roger de 
suisli, and has since been held by the Lovetots, 
T evils, Talbots, and Howards. See Population. 


t. Peter’s church built temp. Henry I. 

fospital and almshouses erected by the earl of 
Malmesbury ‘ : ; : ( A eee LOLO 
utlers’ company incorporated A : , . 1624 

he castle (built in the 13th century) was taken by 


the parliamentarians, and demolished. : 1048 


utlers’ hall built E . 1726 
late assay office established el 773 
fade a borough by the Reform act. wro32 
Tesley college opened . : 3 : . 1838 
heffield and Manchester railway opened . 1845 
thenzum and Mechanics’ Institution opened . . 1849 


ohn A. Roebuck (grandson of Dr. Roebuck of 
Sheffield), M.P. for Sheffield May, 1849-68 
‘mbankment of the Bradtield water reservoir broke 
down, and flooded Sheffield and the country 120r 
14 miles round ; about 250 lives were lost ; many 
_ buildings and much property destroyed ; esti- 
_ mated loss, 327,000l. : é - 11 March, 
17510. collected for the sufferers by 29 April, 
“ae Surrey music hall burnt : 25 March, 
,ouse of Fearnehough, a non-unionist saw-grinder, 
_ blown up, attributed to unionists (no deaths), . 
: 8 Oct. 
‘reat excitement ; meetings held; subscriptions 
made; a Sheffield manufacturers’ protection 
society formed ; and rewards offered, 12 Oct, &e. ,, 
commission (headed by Mr. Overend) to enquire 
into trade outrages met 3 June-8 July, 
everal murders and outrages (including the above) 
-contessed to by Crookes, Hallam, and others, 
instigated and paid by Wm. Broadhead, secretary 
to the saw-grinders’ union ; indemnity granted. ] 
meeting of workmen expresses abhorrence, 8 July, ,, 
_t. Roebuck loses his election (through opposing 


1864 
1865 


1866 


1867 


rattening) : é : . : : Nov. 1868 
‘eat loss of life and property by storm of wind 
16 Dec. 1873 


ir. Roebuck re-elected M.P. ’ 5 - web. 31874 
ve board schools opened by the abp. of York, 

Mr. Roebuck, Mr. Forster, and others, 18 Aug. ,, 
‘ince and princess of Wales open Firth park, the 
‘gift of Mark Firth, the mayor; most enthusiasti- 
cally received Py eee ; 16 Aug. 1875 
tblic museum and hall opened . 6Sept. ,, 
ghteenth Church Congress heldhere, 1-4 Oct. 1878 
eat distress through stoppage of work, winter, 1878-9 
stitution for the blind, endowed by Mr. Daniel 
Holy ; opened A PANS es : . 24 Sept. 1879 
rth College, built by Mr. Mark Firth, for 20,000l. ; 
/-ndowed by the town; inaugurated by prince 

Leopold. : 2 a : ‘ m™20,0ct; —,; 
' ath of Mr. Roebuck, M.P. for Sheffield, 30 Nov. ,, 
| skin Museum of Art, &c. founded by Mr. John 
Ruskin, by gifts of historical sculpture, paintings, 
, d00ks, &c. “ - < . ; : : ; 
Ww corn exchange, built by the duke of Norfolk, 
208t 55,000l., opened . rec. 
| iskin Society formed . 2 : : Feb. 
eat conservative demonstration (marquis of Salis- 
oury and others) ‘ f : 22 July, 1884 


SHELBURNE ADMINISTRATION, 
‘med at the death of the marquis of Rockingham, 
ly, 1782; terminated April, 1783; the ‘ Coali- 
m’’ adininistration followed. 


1881 


bP) 
1882 


755 


SHIP-BUILDING. 


The earl of Shelburne* (afterwards marquis of Lans- 
downe), jirst lord of the treasury. 

William Pitt, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Lord (afterwards earl) Camden, president of the cowncil. 

Duke of Grafton, privy seal. 

Thomas, lord Grantham, and Thomas Townshend (after- 
wards lord Sydney), secretaries. 

Viscount Keppel, adiniralty. 

Duke of Richmond, ordnance. 

Lord Thurlow, lord chancellor. 

Henry Dundas, Isaac Barré, sir George Yonge, &c. 


SHELLS, see Bombs. 


SHERIFF, or shire-reve, governor of a shire 
or county. London had its sheriffs prior to 
William I.’s reign; but some say that sheriffs were 
first nominated for every county in England by 
William in ‘1079. According to other historians, 
Henry Cornhill and Richard Reynere were the first 
sheriffs of London, 1 Rich. I., 1189. The nomina- 
tion of sheriffs, according to the present mode, took 
Say in 1461. Stow. Anciently sheriffs were 

ereditary in Scotland, and in some English coun- 
ties, as Westmoreland. The sheriffs of Dublin (first 
called bailiffs) were appointed in 1308, and obtained 
the name of sheriff by an incorporation of Edward 
VI. 1548. Thirty-five sheriffs were fined, and 
eleven excused in one year, rather than serve the 
office for London, 1734; see Bailiffs. The high 
sheriffs of the counties of England and Wales, ex- 
cept Middlesex and. Lancaster, are nominated on the 
morrow of St. Martin, Nov. 12. This somewhat 
vice-regal office, of Saxon origin, has gradually 
lost much of its importance. 


SHERIFFMUIR, see Damblane. 
SHERIFEF’S FUND, see Prison. 
SHETLAND ISLES, see Orkneys. 


SHIBBOLETH, the word by which the fol- 
lowers of Jephthah tested their opponents the 
Ephraimites, on passing the Jordan, about 1143 
B.c. Judges xii. The term is now applied. to any 
party watchword or dogma. 


SHIITES, the Mahometan sect predominating 
in Persia; see Mahometanism. 


SHILLING. The value of the ancient Saxon 
coin of this name was fivepence, but it was reduced 
to fourpence about a century before the conquest. 
After the conquest the French solidus of twelve 
pence, in use among the Normans, was called 
shilling. 'The true English shilling was first coined, 
some say, in small numbers, by Henry VII., 1504. 
Ruding. A peculiar shilling, value nine pence, but 
to be current at twelve, was struck in Ireland, 
1560; and a large but very base coinage in England 
for the service of Iveland, 1598. Milled shillings 
were coined 13 Chas. II. 1662; see Coins. 


SHILOH, see Pittsburg. 
SHIP-BUILDING. The first ship (probably 


a galley) was brought from Egypt to Greece, by 
Danaus, 1485 B.c. Blair. The first double-decked 
ship was built by the Tyrians, 786 B.c. Lenglet. 
The first double-decked one built in England was of 
1000 tons burthen, by order of Henry VII., was 
called the Great Harry, and cost 14,0007. Stow. 
Port-holes and other improvements were invented 
by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the 
reign of Louis XII., about 1500. Ship-building 


* William Petty, ear] of Shelburne, born 1737 ; secre- 
tary of state under lord Chatham, July, 1766; premier, 
1782-3; created first marquis of Lansdowne, 1784 ; died, 
7 May, 1805. 

3c 2 


SHIPKA. 


was first treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. A 
74-gun ship was put upen the stocks at Van Die- 
men’s Land, to be sheathed with India-rubber, 1829. 
Iron is now greatly used in ship-building; see 
Navy, Steam, Carrack, &e. 


SHIPKA, see Schipka. 
SHIP-MONEY was first levied about 1007, to 


form a navy to oppose the Danes. 


and led to the revolution. 
seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men; York- 
shire in two ships, of 600 tons or 12,000/.; Bristol 
in one ship of 100 tons; Lancashire in one ship, of 
400 tons. Among others, John Hampden refused 
to pay the tax; he was tried in the Exchequer in 
1636. The judges declared the tax legal, 12 June, 
1637. Ship-money was included in the grievances 
complained of in 1641. ‘The five judges, who had 
given an opinion in its favour, were imprisoned. 
Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with 
prince Rupert, at Chalgrove, 18 June, and died 
24 June, 1643. 


SHIPPING, BrirTIsu. 


Shipping was first 


756 


This impost, | 
levied by Charles I. in 1634-6, was much opposed, | 
He assessed London in | 


SHOES. 


registered in the river Thames in 1786; an 
throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle o 
the 18th century, the shipping of England was bu 
| half-a-million of tons—less than London now. IT 
_ 1830, the number of ships in the British empir 
was 22,785. The merchant shipping act of 185, 
_ was amended in 1867; see Navy, and Navigatio. 
| Acts. 
Shipwrights’ Company International Exhibition, 
opened at Fishmongers’ Hall, London, by the 
duke of Edinburgh. : : 2 May, 188 


NUMBER OF VESSELS REGISTERED IN THE BRITISH 
EMPIRE ON JAN. 1, 1840. 


Country. Vessels. Tonnage.  Seaien 
England . - 15,830 1,983,522 114,59 
Seotland 3,318 378,194 25,90 
Treland ; , 1,889 169,289 11,28 
Guernsey, Jersey, and 

Man 3 633 39,630 454 
British Plantations 6,075 497,798 og 

Total - 27,745 3,068,433 =: 191,28 

The following are the numbers of the Registere: 
Sailing and Steam Vessels (exclusive of Rive 
Steamers) of the United Kingdom, engaged in th 


' home and foreign trade :— 


|| 
1849. 186r. | 1871. 1877. 1883. 
e 55%. | 
| ¥ 
i Vessels*| Tonnage. | Vessels?) Tonnage. || Vessels {] Tonnage. || Vessels §) Tonnage. || Vessels|j| Tonnage. 
Sailing 17,807 2,988,021 || 19,288 3,918,511 19,650 45343,558 17,101 4,138,149 14,159. 343695959 
Pee 414| 108,321 || 997} 441,184 2,557 | 1,290,003 3,218 | 1,977,489 || 4,753 | 3,656,103 
| Total 18,221 | 3,096,342 2085, 4,359,695 || 22,207] 5,633,561 || 20,319 | 6,115,638 || 18,912 | 7,026,062 
pi 53] AFL le SL: | a 
* Men employed—sailing vessels, 144,165; steamers, 8,446; total, 152,611. 
+ ” ” > ” 141,035; ” 58,703 5 »» 199,738. 
t » ” ” ” 144,949; ” 27,008 ; ” 171,957: 
§ oy ” >  123,5033 55 72,9093» 196,562. 
il ” ” ” ” 95,306 5 ” 105,421 5 993 200,727. 


SHIP-RAILWAY, see under Mexico. 
SHIPWRECKS, see Wrecks. 
SHIRES, see Counties. 


SHIRTS are said to have been first generally 
worn in the west of Europe early in the 8thcentury. 
Du Fresnoy. Woollen shirts were commonly worn 
in England until about 1253, when linen, but of a 
coarse kind (fine coming at this period from abroad), 
was first manufactured in England by Flemish 
artisans. Stow. 


SHODDY, a kind of soft woollen goods, manu- 
factured from old woollen rags, or the refuse, to 
which new wool is added, is stated to have been first 
manufactured about 1813, at Batley, near Dews- 
bury, Yorkshire. 


SHOEBLACK SOCIETY Brigades (Blue, 
Red, and Yellow) were established at various times, 
especially in 1851, by the Ragged School Union 
(which see), founded 1844. In 1855, 108 boys had 
cleaned 544,800 pairs of boots and shoes, and thus 
earned 2270/.; of which 1235/. had been paid to the 
boys, 519/. to their bank, and 516/. to the society. 
The brigades earned 4548/. in 1859; 11,031¢. in 
1871; 10,939/. (in nine districts) in 1875. 


SHOEBURYNESS (Essex). Some ground 
here, purchased in 1842 and 1855, by an act of par- 
liament in 1862 was set apart as ‘‘ranges for the use 
and practice of artillery,’’ and a school for gunnery 
was established; see Cannon, note. Experiments 
with Mr. Whitworth’s projectiles on 12 Noy. 1862, 


showed their great improvement in form and mate 
rial. Shells were sent through 53 inch plate an 
the wood-work behind it. It was objected, the 
they might not do this with ships in motion. Th 
National Volunteer Artillery Association bega 
their annual meetings here in July, 1865. 


During shell experiments with a new sensitive fuse, co 
Francis Lyon (the inventor) col. Fox-Strangway: 
capt. Francis M. Goold-Adams, and four others wer 
killed, 26 Feb. 1885. 


_SHOKS, among the Jews were made of leathei 
linen, rush, or wood. Moons were worn as orné 
ments in their shoes by Jewish women. Jsaiah ii 
18. Pythagoras would have his disciples wear shoe 
made of the bark of trees; probably that they migl 
not wear what were made of the skins of animals, ¢ 
they refrained from the use of everything that ha 
life. The Romans wore an ivory crescent on the’ 
shoes; and Caligula enriched his with preciov 
stones. In England, about 1462, the people wor 
the beaks or points of their shoes so long that the 
encumbered themselves in walking, and were force 
to tie them up to their knees; the fine gentleme 
fastened theirs with chains of silver or silver gil 
and others with laces. This was prohibited, on th 
forfeiture of 20s. and on pain of being cursed by th 
clergy, 7 Edw. IV. 1467; see Dress. Shoes, as ¢ 
present worn, were introduced about 1633. Th 
buckle was not used till 1668. Stow ; Martine: 
The buckle-makers petitioned against the use + 
shoe-strings in 1791. <A strike of London shox 
makers respecting wages, April, 1884. 


o>. 
sey 


SHOOTING STARS. 


mors 


SICILIAN VESPERS. 


SHOOTING STARS, see Meteorites. 
SHOP-TAX enacted in 1785; caused so great 


commotion, particularly in London, that it was 
eemed expedient to repeal it in 1789. Thestatute 
rhereby shoplifting was made a felony, without 
enefit of clergy, was passed 10 & 11 Will ITI. 1699. 
‘his statute has been some time repealed. 


SHORE, JANH, the mistress of Edward IV. 
nd afterwards of lord Hastings. She did public 
enance in 1483, and was afterwards confined in 
sudgate; but upon the petition of Thomas Hymore, 
yho agreed to marry her, king Richard III., in 
484, restored her to liberty; and sir Thomas More 
1entions having seen her. Harleian MSS. 


SHORT-HAN D, see Stenography. 


““SHORT- LIVED” ADMINISTRA- 
(LON—that of William Pulteney, earl of Bath, 
ord Carlisle, lord Winchelsea, and lord Granville, 
xisted from 10 Feb. to 12 Feb. 1746. 


SHOT. In early times various missiles were 
hot from cannon. Bolts are mentioned in 1413; 
nd in 1418 Henry V. ordered his clerk of the ord- 
ance to get 7000stone shot made at the quarries at 
faidstone. Since then chain, grape, and canister 
hot have been invented, as well as shells; all of 
vyhich are described in Scoffern’s work on ‘ Pro- 
ectile Weapons of War, and Explosive Compounds,”’ 
858; see Bombs and Cannon. 


SHREWSBURY ADMINISTRATION. 
Yharles, duke of Shrewsbury, was made lord trea- 
urer, 29 July, 1714, two days before the death of 
jueen Anne. His patent was revoked soon after the 
ecession of George I., 29 Oct. following, when the 
arl of Halifax became first lord of the treasury ; see 
Yalifax. The office of lord treasurer has been exe- 
uted by commissioners ever since. 


SHREWSBURY (Shropshire), arose after the 
uin of the Roman town Uriconium (see Wroveter), 
nd became one of the chief cities of the kingdom, 
iaving a mint till the reign of Henry III. Here 
tichard IT. held a parliament in 1397.—On 23 July, 
403, was fought asanguinary battle at Hately field, 
ear Shrewsbury, between the army of Henry IV. 
nd that of the nobles, led by Perey (surnamed 
Jotspur), son of the earl of Northumberland, who 
1ad conspired to dethrone Henry. Henry was seen 
n the thickest of the fight, with his son, afterwards 
Jenry V. The death of Hotspur by an unknown 
iand gave thevictory to the king. Heme.—Shrews- 
ury grammar school was founded by Edward VI. 
n1I551, endowed by Elizabeth, and opened 1562. 
ts arrangements were modified by the public school 
ct, 1868. 


- SHROPSHIRE, BATTLE oF, in which the 
3ritons were completely subjugated, and Caractacus, 
he renowned king of the Silures, became, through 
he treachery of the queen of the Brigantes, a 
risoner to the Romans, 50. 


| SHROVE TUESDAY, the day before Ash- 
Wednesday, the first day of the Lent Fast; see 
Jarnival. 


SIAM, a kingdom in India, bordering on the 
}urmese empire. Siam was re-discovered by the 
ortuguese in I5I1, and a trade established, in 
vhich the Dutch joined about 1604. <A British 
hip arrived about 1613. In 1683, a Cephalonian 
reek, Constantine Phaulcon, became foreign min- 
ster of Siam, and opened a communication with 
Yrance; Louis XLV. sent an embassy in 1685 with 
-yiew of converting the king, without effect. After 


several ineffectual attempts, sir John Bowring suc- 

ceeded in obtaining a treaty of friendship and com- 

merce between England and Siam, which was 

signed 30 April, 1855, and ratified ’ April, 1856. 

Two ambassadors from Siam arrived in Oct. 1857, 

and had an audience with the queen; they brought 

with them magnificent presents, which they de- 
livered crawling, on 16 Noy. ‘They visited Paris 
in June, 1861. Byatreaty with France, the French 
protectorate over Cambodia was recognised ; signed 

15 July, ratified 24 Oct. 1867. The king Khoula- 

lonkorn, born 21 Sept. 1853, has reigned since 

I Oct. 1868; the king was entertained at Calcutta, 

7-12 Jan. 1872; a political constitution was decreed, 

8 May, 1874. Queen Victoria receives the order of 

the White Elephant from the Siamese minister at 

Windsor, 2 July, 1880. Population of Siam (1885) 

about 6,300,000. 

King: Khoulalonkorn (born 21 Sept. 1853); succeeded 
his father Mongkout, 1 Oct. 1868. 

Various changes and political reforms were begun by the 
king, 16 Nov. 1873. On 9g Oct., 1874, he invited astro- 
nomers to Bangkok to view the eclipse of 5 April, 1875. 

Death of the able ex-regent Somdetch Chau, 19 Jan. 
1883. 

Telegraphic communication with France opened, 14 July, 
1883. 

SIAMESE Twins. Two persons born about 1811, enjoy- 
ing all the faculties and powers usually possessed by 
separate and distinct individuals, although united to- 
gether by a short cartilaginous band at the pit of the 
stomach. They were named Chang and Eng, and were 
first discovered on the banks of the Siam river by an 
American, Mr. Robert Hunter, by whom they were 
taken to New York, where they were exhibited. Cap- 
tain Coffin brought them to England. After having 
been exhibited for several years in Britain, they went 
to America, where they settled on a farm, and mar- 
ried two sisters. In 1865 they were in North Carolina 
in declining health. Their exhibition in London 
began again 8 Feb. 1869. Their death in America, 
within two hours of each other, took place 16, 17 Jan. 
1874. 


SIBERIA (N. Asia). In 1580 the conquest was 
begun by the Cossacks under Jermak Timofejew. In 
1710 Peter the Great began to send prisoners thither. 
An insurrection broke out among the Polesin Siberia 
in June, 1866, and was soon suppressed. 


SIBYLS, Sibyllz, women believed to be in- 
‘spired, who flourished in different parts of the 
world. Plato speaks of one, others of two, Pliny 
of three, lian of four, and Varro of ten. An Ery- 
threan sibyl is said to have offered to Tarquin II. 
nine books containing the Roman destinies, de- 
manding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied 
her; whereupon the sibyl threw three of them into 
the fire, and asked the same price for the other 
six, which being still denied, she burnt three more, 
and again demanded the same sum for those that 
remained ; when Tarquin conferring with the pon- 
tiffs was advised to buy them. Two magistrates 
were created to consult them on all occasions, 531 
B.c.; see Quindecemvirs. 


SICILIAN VESPERS, the term given to the 
massacre of the French (who had conquered Sicily, 
1266), commenced at Palermo, 30 March, 1282. 


On Easter Monday conspirators assembled at Palermo ; 
and while the French were engaged in festivities, a 
Sicilian bride passed by with her train. One Drochet, 
a Frenchman, used her rudely, under pretence of 
searching for arms, A young Sicilian stabbed him 
with his own sword; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French 
were instantly murdered. The populace ran through 
the city, crying out, ‘‘ Let the French die!” and, with- 
out distinction of rank, agd, or sex, slaughtered all of 
that nation they could find, to the number of about 
8000. Even the churches proved no sanctuary, and 
the massacre became general throughout the island. 


SICILY. 


SICILY (anciently Trinacria, three-cornered). 
The early inhabitants were the Sicani, or Siculi, a 
people of Spain, and Etruscans, who came from Italy 
about 1294 B.c. <A second colony, under Siculus, 
arrived eighty years before the destruction of Troy, 
1284 8.c. The Phoenicians and Greeks settled some 
colonies here (73 5-582). Itis supposed that Sicily 
was separated from Italy by an earthquake, and 
that the straits of the Charybdis were thus formed. 
Its government has frequently been united with 
and separated from that of Naples (which see); the 
two now form part of the kingdom of Italy. Popu- 
lation of Sicily in 1856, 2,231,020; 1871, 2,565,323 ; 
1875, 2,698,672; 1881, 2,927,901. 


, Syracuse founded. Fusebius, . - aboutB.c. 732 
Gela founded. Thacydides. x . : 680 OY 713 
Agrigentum founded . 582 
Je halaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, put to death. See 

Brazen Bull. ; 3 ; é - 549 
Law of Petalism instituted . 460 
Athenian expedition fails . G 413 
War with Carthage : : : : <ge - 409 
Dionysius becomes master of Syracuse, makes 

peace with the Carthaginians and reigns 406-367 
Dionysius II. sells Plato for a slave, who is ran- 

somed by his friends b : 360 
Dionysius expelled by Timoleon . 343 
Who governs well; and dies 337 
Agathocles usury S sovereign pow er at. Syracuse, 

317; defeated at Himera by the Carthaginians, 

310; poisoned : Bey “uiete 
Py rrhus, king of Epirus, invades Sic ily; expels the 

Carthaginians from most of their settlements, but 

returns to Italy ; is 278s 277 
The Romans enter Sicily (see Punic rur's) 264 
Agrigentum taken by the Romans : é 4 262 
Palermo besieged by the Romans - 4. 
Archimedes flourishes . about 236 
Hiero II. defeated by the Romans, 263; becomes 

their ally, and reigns till ‘ 216 
The Romans take Syracuse, and ‘make all Sicily 

a province; Archimedes slain . : ee ous 
The Carthaginians lose half their possessions, op 

all the remainder : i A : Bs 


The Servile wars ; much slaughter 2135; 134, 132 
Tyrannical government of Verres (for which he was 


accused by Cicero) . 73-71 
Sicily held by Sextus Pompeius, son of the great 
Pompey, 42; defeated; expelled . ; ; ce le 
* * % * * * 


Invaded* by the Vandals, A.D. 440; by the Goths, 

493; taken for the Greek emperors by Belisarius, 

A.D. 535 

Conquered by the Saracens . . 832-78 

The Greeks and Arabs driven out by a Norman 
prince, Roger L., son of Tancred, 1058; who takes 

the title of count of Sicily . 1061-1090 
Roger II., son of the above- named, unites Sicily 
with Naples, and is crowned king of the Two 


Sicilies : sae gE DST 
Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, “king of 

France, conquers Naples and Sicily, deposes the 

Norman princes, and makes himseif king “12206 
The French massacred (see Sicilian Vespers) . 1282 


Sicily seized by a fleet sent by the kings of Aragon ; 
Naples remains to the house of Anjou. = ee 

Alphonso, king of Aragon, takes possession of 
Naples 1435 

The raodate of Naples and Sicily united to the 
Spanish monarchy under Ferdinand the Catholic 

Victor, duke of Savoy, by the treaty of Utrecht, 
made king of Sicily 

Which he gives up to the emperor Charles VL; and 
becomes | king of Sardinia 

Charles, son of the king of Spain, becomes king of 
the Two Sicilies 


1501 


1713 


1720 


1735 
The throne of Spain becoming vacant, Charles, who e 
is heir, vacates the throne ‘of the Two Sicilies, in 
favour of his third son Ferdinand, agreeably to 
treaty 1759 
Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicily, which 
destroys 40,000 persons 1783 
The French conquer Naples (which see); Ferdinand 
TV. retires to Sicily . » £806 
Political disturbances é - : / - 1810 


758 


“STOCK MAN.” 


New constitution granted, under British auspices . 
The French expelled; kingdom of Two Sicilies re- 
established ; Ferdinand returns to i aan ; abol- 
ishes the constitution 
Revolution at Palermo suppressed : 
The great towns in Sicily rise and demand the con- 
stitution ; ; a provisional government proclaimed 
12 Jan. 
The king nominates his brother, the eoant of Aquila, 
viceroy, 17 Jan.; promises a new constitution 
2g Jan. ,, 
The Sicilian parliament decrees the exclusion of the 
Bourbon family, 13 April; and invites the duke 
of Genoa to the throne Pi Uy, 55 
Messina bombarded and taken by the Neapolitans 
7 Sept. ,, 
Catania taken by assault, 6 Agee Syracuse sur- 
renders 23 April; and Palerm 15 May, 
Insurrections suppressed at Palermo, Messina, and 
Catania, 4 April et seg. ; the rebels retire into the 
interior : . - 21 April et seq. 
Garibaldi and his followers (2200 men) embark at 
Genoa, 5 May; and land at Marsala, 11 May; he 
abandons his ships ; and assumes the dictatorship 
in the name of the king of Sardinia May, ;; 
He defeats the royal troops at Calatafimi, 15 May; 
storms Palermo, 27 May; which is bombarded by 
the royal fleet, 28 May ; an armistice agreed to 
31 May, ,, 
A. provisional government formed at Palermo, 
3 June; which is evacuated by the Neapolitans 
6June, ,, 
Garibaldi defeats the Neapolitans at Melazzo, 
20, 21 July, ,, 
Convention signed, by which the Neapolitans agree 
to evacuate Sicily (retaining the citadel of Mes- 
sina) . ; 30 July, ,, 
New Sicilian constitution proclaimed be BANS. aes 


181 


Garibaldi embarks for Calabria (see Negias 
19 Augi\, 
Professor Saffi (late of Oxford), a short time dic- ” 
tator ; Sept. ,, 


The Sicilians by. universal ‘suffrage vote for annexa- 


tion to Sardinia (432,054 against 667) a1 Oct): $5 
Victor-Emmanuel visits Sicily ; = TOC. axe 
Citadel of Messina blockaded, 28 Feb.; surrenders 

to general Cialdini 13 March, 1861 


King Victor-Emmanuel Ww armly received at Messina 


May, 1862 
Imprudent speeches of Garibaldi at Marsala, 19 
July; he enters Catania, and establishes a pro- 
visional government, 19 Aug.; embarks for Italy 
24 Aug. ,, 
Sicily placed under blockade ; removed in Sept.; 
tranquil . OGt: a5 
Insurrection in Palermo, attr ibuted to the priests 
and brigands, 16 Sept.; suppressed with blood- 
shed by “Ttalian tr oops . 21-26 Sept. 1866 
Revival of brigandage and murder : P MEADS AT By 2 
Martial law established in some places . Sept. 1874 
Aliano, a brigand, tried at Potenza, for numerous 
murders, and other crimes . , Novas, 
Capraro, great brigand, killed during capture 
about 2 Oct. 1875 
Mr. Forester Rose carried off by brigands, 3 Nov. ; 
ransomed for about 4oool. Nov. 1876 
Leone and other ripen surrounded ‘and shot 
1 June, 1877 


Five chief brigands surrender; abatement of 
brigandage announced - about 6 Nov. ,, 
Successful visit of the king and queen ; arrive at ' 
Palermo : 4 Jan. 1880 
Explosion in sulphur mine at Gessolungo, near 
Caltanissetta, about 30 killed / . 12 Noy. 1881 
Violent cy clone in Catania,about 27. killed; peste 
damage : . : : - 7 Oct. 1884 


SICK CHILDREN, HOosPITAL FoR, Great 
Ormond-street, London ; ” established 1851. The 
princess of Wales laid the foundation of new build- 
ings, 11 July, 1872. A branch has beens set at 
Highgate. 


“STICK MAN,” an epithet applied to Turkey : 
by the czar Nicholas, 14 Jan. 1854; see Russo- 
vis urkish War, note. 


a ¥ ue 
fr, ON 


‘, SICYON. 


SICYON, an ancient Grecian kingdom in the 
eloponnesus, founded, it is said, about 2080 B.c. 
ts people took part in the wars in Greece, usually 
upporting Sparta. In 252 it became a republic 
nd joined the Achwan league formed by Aratus. It 
yas the country of the sculptors Polycletes (436) 
nd Lysippus (328 B.c.). 


SIDEROSTAT (from sidus, Latin for a star), 
n apparatus constructed by M. Leon Foucault, 
hortly before his death, 11 Feb. 1868, for observing 
he light of the stars in precisely the same way in 
yhich the light of the sun may be studied in the 
amera obscura. It consists of a mirror moved by 
lockwork, and a fixed objective glass for concen- 
rating the rays into a focus. 


SIDON or Zimon (Syria), a city of Phoenicia, 


759 


SIEGES. 


to the north of Tyre. It was conquered by Cyrus 
about 537 B.c.; and surrendered to Alexander, 332 
B.c.; see Phenicia. The town was taken from the 
pacha of Egypt by the troops of the sultan and of 
his allies, assisted by some ships of the British 
(uadra, under commodore Charles Napier, 27 Sept. 
1840; see Syria, and Turkey. 


SIEGES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psam- 
metichus the Powerful, held out for nineteen years. 
Usher. It held out for twenty-nine years. Hero- 
dotus. This was the longest siege recorded in the 
annals of antiquity. The siege of Troy was the 
most celebrated, and occupied ten years, 1184 B.C. 
The following are the most memorable sieges since 
the 12th century ; for details of many of them see 
separate articles. 


cre, 1192, 1799, 1832, 1840. 
Jgesiras, 1341. 
digiers, 1681 (Bomb vessels first used 
by a French engineer named Rena) ; 
1816. 
dkmaer, 1573. 
Imeida, 27 Aug. 1810. 
Iiens, 1597. 
nceona, 1174, 1799, 1860. 
htwerp, 1576, 1583, 1585, 1746, 1832. 
ITas, 1640. 
ZOff, 1736. 
adajoz, 1z March, 1811; 6 April, 
1812. 
iagdad, 1258. 
arcelona, 1697, 1714. 
ielgrade, 1439, 1456, 1521, 1688, 1717, 
1739, 1789. 
elie-Isle, 176r. 
ergen-op-Zoom, 1622, 1747, 1814. 
erwick, 1333, 1481. 
ethune, 1710. 
‘ilbao by Carlists, 1874. 
ois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794. 
ologna, 1512, 1796, 1799. 
ommel: the invention of the covered 
way, 1794. 
onn, 1672, 1689, 1703. 
ouchain, 1711. 
oulogne, 1544. 
reda, 1625. 
rescia, 1238, 1512, 1849. 
reslau, 1807. 
risac, 1638, 1704. 
russels, 1695, 1746 
omarsund, 1854. 
uda, 1541, 1686. 
urgos, 1812, 1813- 
diz, 1812. 
ulais 1347 (British historians affirm 
that cannon were used at Cressy; 
(1346, and herein 1347. First’ used 
here in 1388. RYMER’S Fa@p.), 1558, 
1596. 
ulvi, 1794. 
undia: the largest cannon then known 
in Europe, used here by the Turks, 
1667. 
ithagena, 1706-7, 1740, 1873-4. 
aalus, 11g9Q. 
narleroi, 1693. 
narleston, U.S., 1864-5. 
hartres, 1568. 
herbourg, 1758. 
judad Rodrigo, 1810, 1812. 
olchester, 1648. 
omorn, 1849. 
ompiegne (Joan of Arc), 1430. 
ondé, 1676, 1793, 1794. 
oni, 1691, 1744. 
onstantinople, 1453. 
openhagen, 1658, 1801, 1807. 
orfu, 1716. 
ourtray, 1646. 
tacow, 1702. 
-remona, 1702. 


Dantzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1813, 1814. | Newark, 1644-5. 


Delhi, 1857 

Douay, 1710. 

Dresden, 1756, 1813. 

Drogheda, 1640. 

Dublin, 1500. 

Dunkirk, 1646, 1793 

Famagosta, 1571. 

Flushing, 15 Aug. 1809. 

Frederickshald: Charles XII. killed, 
1718. : 

Gaéta, 1435, 1734, 1860-1. ' 

Genoa, 1747, 1800. 

Gerona, 1809. 

Ghent, 1708. 

Gibraltar, 1734, 1779, 1782-3. 

Glatz, 1742, 1807. 

Gottingen, 1760. 

Graves, 1674. 

Grenada, 1491, 1492. 

Groningen, 1594. 

Haerlem, 1572, 1573. 

Harfleur, 1415. 

Heidelberg, 1688. 

Herat, 1838. 

Humaita, 1868. 

Ismail, 1790. 

Kars, 1855. 

Khartoum, 1884. 

Kehl, 1733, 1796. 

Landau, 1702 et seg., 1792. 

Landrecy, 1712, 1794. 

Laon, 988, ggt. 

Leipsic, 1757 e¢ seq., 1813. 

Leith, 1560. 

Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1810. 

Leyden, 1574. 

Liége, 1408, 1688, 1702. 

Lille, 1708, 1792. 

Limerick, 1651, 1601. 

Londonderry, 1689. 

Louisbourg, 1758. 

Luxemburg, 1795. 

Lyons, 1793. 

Maestricht, 1579, 1673; Vauban first 
came into notice; 1676, 1748. 

Magdala, 1868. 

Magdeburg, 1631, 1806. 

Malaga, 1487. 

Malta, 1565, 1798, 1800. 

Mantua, 1797, 1799. 

Marseilles, 1524. 

Menin, 1706. 

Meutz, 1689, 1793. 

Messina, 1282, 1719, 1848, 186t. 

Metz, 1552-3, 1870. 

Mons, 1691, 1709, 1792. 

Montargis, 1426. 

Montauban, r6er. 

Montevideo, Jan. 1807. 


New Orleans, 1814. 

Nice, 1706. 

Novogorod, 1478. 

Nieuport, 1600. 

Olivenza, 1801, 1811. 

Olmutz, 1758. 

Orleans, 1428, 1563. 

Ostend, 1601, 1798. 

Oudenarde, 1706. 

Padua, 1509. 

Pampeluna, 1813. 

Paris, 1420, 1594, 1870, 1871. 

Parma, 1248. 

Pavia, 1524, 1655. 

Perpignan, 1542, 1642. 

Phalsbourg, 1814, 1815, 1870. 

Philipsburg, 1644, 1676, 1688, first ex- 
periment of firing artillery & ricochet, 

"1734s 1799: 

Plevna, 1877. 

Pondicherry, 1748, 1793- 

Prague, 1741-1744. 

Quebec, 1759-60. 

Quesnoy, 1793-1794- 

Rheims, 1359. 

Rhodes, 1521. 

Richmond, U.S., 1864-5. 

Riga, 1700, 1710. 

Rochelle, 1573, 1627. 

Rome, 1527, 1798, 1849. 

Romorantin; artillery first used in 
sieges (VOLTAIRE), 1356. 

Rouen, 1419, 1449, 1591. 

Roxburgh, 1460, 

St. Sebastian, 1813. 

Saragossa, 1710, 1808, 1809; the two 
last dreadful. 

Sebastopol, 1854-5. 

Schweidnitz: first experiment to reduce 
a fortress by springing globes of com- 
pression, 1757-1762. 

Scio (see Greece), 1822. 

Seringapatam, 1799. 

Seville, 1247-8. 

Silistria, 1854. 

Smolensko, 1632, 1812. 

Soissons, 1870. 

St. Quentin, 1557. 

Stralsund : the method of throwing red- 
hot balls first practised with certainty, 


1715. 2 
Strasburg, 1870. 
Tarragona, 1811. 
Temeswar, 1716. 
Thérouenne, 1513. 
Thionville, 1792. 
Thorn, 1703. 
Tortosa, 1811. 
Toulon, 1707, 1793. 


Mothe: the French, taught by a Mr. | Toulouse, 1217. 
Muller, first practised the art of| Tournay, 1340, 1513, 1583, 1667, £709 


throwing shells, 1634. 

Namur, 1692, 1746, 1794. 

Naples, 1435, 1504, 1557s 1792, 1799, 
1806. 


(this was the best defence ever draumn 
from counter mines), 1792. 

Tréves, 1635, 1673, 1765. 

Tunis, 1270, 1535; 


SIENNA. 


760 


SILK. 


Turin, 1640, 1706. 

Valencia, 1705, 1707, 1712. 
Valenciennes, 1677, 1793, 1794. 
Vannes, 1342. 


Verdun, 1792. 


Vienna, 1529, 1683. 
Wakefield, 1460. 
Venice, 1879. Warsaw, 1831. 
Venloo, 1702. Xativa, 1246. 

SIENNA (formerly Sena Julia), Italy, in the 
middle ages a powerful republic rivalling Florence 
and Pisa, weakened through intestine quarrels, was 
subjugated by the emperor Charles V., and given 
to his son in 1555, who ceded it to Cosmo of 
Tuscany, 1557. It was incorporated with France, 
1808-14. 


SIERRA LEONE (W. Africa), discovered in 
1460. In 1786, London swarmed with free negroes 
living in idleness and want; and 400 of them, with 


Vicksburg, U.S8., 1863. 


sixty whites, mostly women of bad character and 
in ill-health, were sent out to Sierra Leone, at the 
charge of government to form a settlement, 9 Dec. 
1786. The settlement was attacked by the French, 
Sept. 1794; by the natives, I’eb. 1802. Sir Charles 
Macarthy, governor of the colony, was defeated and 
killed by the Ashantee chief, 21 Jan. 1824.—16 & 17 
Vict. c. 16, relates to the government, &c., of this 


colony. It was made a bishopric in 1852; see 
Ashantees and West Africa, 


SIGNALS are alluded to by Polybius. FEliza- 
beth had instructions drawn up for the admiral 
and general of the expedition to Cadiz, to be an- 
nounced to the fleet in a certain latitude; this is 
said to have been the first set of signals given to 
the commanders of the English fleet. A system 
for the navy was invented by the duke of York, 
afterwards James II. 1665. Guthrie; see Fog- 
signals. 


SIGNBOARDS were used by the Greeks and 
Romans. A ‘* History of Signboards,’ by Jacob 
Larwood and John Hotten, was published in 1866. 


SIGNETS, see Seals. 
SIGN MANUAL, ROYAL, a stamp, imitat- 


ing the royal signature, employed when the sove- 
reign was so ill as to be unable to write: in the 
case of Henry VIII. 1547; James I. 1625; and 
George IV., 29 May, 1830. Rosse. 


SIKHS, a people of N. India, invaded the 
ie empire, 1703-8; see Punjab, and India, 
1849. 


SILCHESTER, Hants. Here are the remains 
of the Roman town Calleva (built on the site of the 
British Caer Segeint or Segont) ; including walls of 
excellent masonry, a basilica and forum, private 
dwellings, &c. Many discoveries have been made 
during excavations made under the patronage of 
the duke of Wellington, since 1863. Coins of 
Claudius I. and later emperors have been found. 


SILESIA, formerly a province of Poland, was 
invaded by John of Bohemia, 1325, and ceded to 
him, 1355. It was taken by the king of Hungary, 
1478, and added to the Austrian dominion, 1526. It 
was conquered and lost several times during the 
Seven years’ war by Frederick of Prussia, but was 
retained by him at the peace in 1763. The emperor 
William was most enthusiastically received during 
his visit, Sept. 1875. 


SILICON or S1nicrum (from silex, flint), a 
non-metallic element, next to oxygen the most 
abundant substance in the earth, as it enters into 
the constitution of many earths, metallic oxides, 
and a great number of minerals. The mode of pro- 
curing pure silicon was discovered by Berzelius in 
eat Gmelin. See Water-glass, and Ransome’s 
ALONE, 


Xeres, 1262. 
York, 1644. 
Yprés, 1648. 
Zurich, 1544. 
Zutphen, 1586. 


SILISTRIA, a strong military town in Bul 
garia, Kuropean Turkey. It was taken by th 
Russians, 30 June, 1829, and held some years\ b 
them as a pledge for the payment of a !arge sum b 
the Porte; but was eventually returned. In 185. 
it was again besieged by the Russians, 30,000 stron¢ 
under prince Paskiewitch, and many assaults wer 
made. ‘The Russian general was compelled to re 
tire in consequence of a dangerous contusion. O1 
2 June, Mussa Pacha, the brave and skilful com 
mander of the garrison, was killed. On g June 
the Russians stormed two forts, which were retaken 
A grand assault took place on 13 June, under prine 


| Gortschakoff and general Schilders, which wa 


vigorously repelled. On the 15th, the garrison as 
sumed the offensive, crossed the river, defeated th 
Russians, and destroyed the siege works. ‘The sieg 
was thus raised, and the Russians commenced thei 
retreat as Omar Pacha was drawingnear. The gar 
rison was ably assisted by two British officer: 
capt. Butler and lieut. Nesmyth, the former of whon: 
after being wounded, died of exhaustion. The 
were highly praised by Omar Pacha and lord Ha: 
dinge, and lieutenant Nasmyth was made a major. 


SILK. Wrought silk was brought from Pers: 
to Greece, 325 B.c. Known at Rome in Tiberius 
time, when a law passed in the senate prohibitin 
the use of plate of massive gold, and also forbiddin 
men to debase themselves by wearing silk, fit on] 
for women. Heliogabalus first were a garment 
silk, A.D. 220. Silk was at first of the same vah 
with gold, weight for weight, and was thought — 
grow in the same manner as cotton on trees. Sill 
worms were brought from India to Europe in tl 
6th century. Charlemagne sent Offa, king | 
Mercia, a present of two silken vests, 780. Tl 
manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king» 
Sicily, at Palermo, 1146, when the Sicilians n 
only bred the silk-worms, but spun and wove tl 
silk. ‘The manufacture spread into Italy and Spai 
and also into the south of France, a little befo 
the reign of Francis I. about 1510; and Henry I' 
propagated mulberry-trees and silk-worms throug} 
out the kingdom, about 1600. In England, si 
mantles were worn by some noblemen’s ladies at 
ball at Kenilworth castle, 1286. -Silk was worn |} 
the English clergy in 1534. Manufactured in En; 
land in 1604; and broad silk wove from raw S81 
in 1620. Brought to perfection by the Fren: 
refugees in London at Spitalfields, 1688. A sil! 
throwing mill was made in England, and fixed 
at Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant — 
London, modelled from the original mill then - 
the king of Sardinia’s dominions, about 1714. f 
obtained a patent in 1718, and died 3 Jan. 173 
Six new species of silk-worm were rearing in Franc 
1861.* 

Sinkworm Disrase. In 1853 the annual preduce 
sericulture in South France was estimated at abo 
4,680,o00l. Soon after a disease broke out in t 
worms, which reduced the value of the silk erop » 
about one-third that amount. In 1858 a commissi 
was appointed to inquire into the nature of the diseas 
then termed pébrine; and M. Quatrefages, in 15¢ 
proved that it is hereditary, contagious, and infectio 

eee 

* In 1858, M. Guérin-Méneville introduced into Fran 
a Chinese worm termed the Cynthia Bombyaz, which fee 
on the Ailanthus glandulosa, a hardy tree of the oak kin 
The cynthia yields asilk-like substance termed Ailantiz 
It was brought to Turin by Fantoni in 1856. 


' SILURES. 7 


Te eee 
M. Filippi discovered in the blood of the deceased 
worms a multitude of cylindrical corpuscles, since 
named panhistophyton, which Pasteur, who took up 
the study in 1865, has demonstrated to be parasitical, 

and the eause of the disease. He has since devised a 
way by which, it is hoped, the organic germs nay be 
got rid of, and the disease extirpated. 


SILURES, 2a British tribe, occupying the 
counties of Monmouth and Hereford, was subdued 
oy the Roman general Ostorius Scapula, 50; see 
Shropshire. From this tribe is derived the yeolo- 
rical term ‘‘ Silurian strata,” among the lowest of 
the palesozoic or primary series, from their occur- 
sence in the above-mentioned counties. Murchison’s 
“ Siluria’’ was published 1849. 


SILVER exists in most parts of the world, and 
is found mixed with other ores in various mines in 
Great Britain. ‘The silver mines of South America 
are far the richest. A mine was discovered in the 
district of La Paz in 1660, which was so rich that 
the silver of it was often cut out with a chisel. In 
1749, One mass of silver weighing 370 lbs. was sent 
to Spain. From a mine in Norway, a piece of silver 
was dug, and sent to the Royal Museum at Copen- 
hagen, weighing 560 lbs., and worth 1680/. In 
England silver-plate and vessels were first used by 
Wilfrid, 2 Northumbrian bishop, a lofty and am- 
oitious man, 709. Tyrrell. Silver knives, spoons, 
and cups, were great luxuries in 1300; see Mirrors. 
In 1855p 561,906 0z., in 1857, 532,866 0z., in 1865, 
724,856 0z., in 1870, 784,502 0z.; in 1876, 483,422 
oz.; in 1882, 372,544 oz. were obtained from mines 
in Britain. Pattinson’s process for obtaining silver 
from lead ore was introducedin 1829. See Bullion, 
‘Coins, Goldsmiths, Mirrors, Plate, India, 1876, 

United States, 1878. 

Fall in price of silver through introduction of gold 
coinage in Germany, and increased produce from 
South American mines . ‘ : spring, 1876 

The report of a commission on the subject was 
issued in t : ‘ : ; July, = 5; 

Average price in London, 1845-9, 594. anda fraction 

per 02. ; 1850-72, 61d. ; 1871, 6074. 5 z 


1875, 565d. ; 
1880, 522d. ; 1883, 50;%d. ; price 4gid. 7 May, 1885 


SILVER BOOK (Codex Argenteus), see under 


Bible. 
SIMANGCAS (Castile, Spain). Near it Rami- 


rez Il. of Ueon, and Fernando of Castile, gained a 
great victory over Abderahman, the Moorish king of 
Cordova, 6 Aug. 938. 


SIMLA CASH, sce India, 1866. 


3 Saat CONSPIRACY, sce Redellions, 
| 1486. 


SIMONASAKTI, see Japan, 1864. 


- STMONTANS, 2 sect named after the founder, 
' Simon Magus, the first heretic, about 41. A sect of 

social reformers called Sv. SIMONIANS sprang up in 
| France in 1819, and attracted considerable attention ; 
the doctrines were advocated in England, particu- 
larly by Dr. Prati, who lectured upon them in 

London, 24 Jan. 1834. St. Simon died in 1825, 
and his follower, Pére Enfantin, died 1 Sept. 1864. 


STMONY (trading in church offices), derives its 
- name from Simen desiring to purchase the gift of 
the Holy Spirit (dets viii. 18, 19). It is forbidden 
in England by the canon law, and by statute 
1 Eliz. c. 6, “for the avoiding of simony and cor- 
ruption in presentations, collations, and donations 
of and to benefices,’”’ &c., 1588-9; and by statute of 
12 Anne 2, stat. 12 (1713). The rev. James John 
 Merest was convicted of simony, 26-29 Nov. 1869, 
and deprived. 


SION COLLEGE. 


The bishop of Peterborough (Dr. Magee), moved for 
a committee on the laws relating to simony ; ap- 
pointed 5 : ax April, 1874 


SIMPLON, 4 mountain road, leading from 
Switzerland into Italy, constructed by Napoleon in 
1801-7. It.winds up passes, crosses cataracts, and 
passes by galleries through solid rock, and has eight 
principal bridges. ‘The number of workmen em- 
ployed at one time varied from 30,000 to 40,000. 


SINAI, MOUNT. Here the ten command- 
ments were promulgated, 1491 B.c. Exod. «xx. 
After much investigation and discussion by many 
persons, Dr. Beke stated that he had discovered the 
true Sinai, Feb. 1874. 


SINALUNGA or ASINALUNGA (near Sienna, 
Italy). Here Garibaldi, when about to enter the 
papal territory, was seized and conveyed to Ales- 
sandria, 23 Sept. 1867; see Italy. 


SINDE (N. W. India), was traversed by the 
Greeks under Alexander, about 326 B.c.; conquered 
by the Persian Mahometans in the 8th century A.D. ; 
tributary to the Ghaznevide dynasty in the 11th 
century ; conquered by Nadir Shah, 1739; reverted 
to the empire of Delhi after his death, 1747; after 
various changes of rulers, Sinde was conquered by 
the English, and annexed, March, 1843. 


SINGAPORE, sce Stracts Settlements. 
SINGING, see Alusic, and Hymns. 
SINKAT, see under Soudan, 1884. 


SINKING FUND. First projected by sir 
Robert Walpole to redeem the debt to the bank of 
England; act passed in 1716. The act establishing 


| the sinking fund of Mr. Pitt, devised by Dr. Price, 


was passed in March, 1786. A then estimated sur- 
plus of 900,000/. in the revenue was augmented by 
new taxes to make up the sum of 1,000,000/. which 
was to be invariably applied to the reduction of the 
national debt. The fallacy of the scheme was 
shown by Dr. Hamilton in 1813. In July, 1828, 
the sinking fund was limited to one-fourth of the 
actual surplus of revenue. 
A new sinking fund was established by Act passed 
2 Aug. 1875. The annual charge of the national debt 


of the year ending 31 March 1877 to be 27,700,000l. ; 
subsequent years to be 28,000, 000l, 


SINOPE, an important Greek colony on the 
Euxine, after resisting several attacks was con-~ 
quered by Mithridates IV., king of Pontus, and 
made his capital. It was the birth-place of 
Diogenes, the cynic philosopher. On 30 Noy. 1853, 
a Turkish fleet of seven frigates, three corvettes, 
and two smaller vessels, was attacked by a Russian 
fleet of six sail of the line, two sailing vessels, and 
three steamers, under admiral Nachimoft, and 
totally destroyed, except one vessel, which con- 
veyed the tidings to Constantinople. Four thou- 
sand lives were lost by fire or drowning, and Osman 
Pacha, the Turkish admiral, died at Sebastopol of 
his wounds. In consequence of this act (considered 
treacherous) the Anglo-French fleet entered the 
Black Sea, 3 Jan. 1854. 


SION COLLEGE AnpD HospPITAL, situated 
on the site of a nunnery, which, having fallen to 
decay, was purchased by William Elsynge, a citizen 
and mereer, and converted into a college and hos- 
pital, called from his name Elsynge Spital. In 
1340 he changed it to an Austin priory, which was 
afterwards granted by Henry VIII. to sir John 
Williams, master of the jewel-oflice, who, with sir 
Roland Hayward, inhabited it till its destruction 


SIRENE. 


762 


SLAVERY. 


by fire. In 1623, Dr. Thomas White having be- 
queathed 3000/. towards purchasing and building a 
college and alms-house on the ancient site, his 
executors erected the present college. It is held by 
two charters of incorporation, 6 Chas. I. 1630 and 16 
Chas. IT. 1664. It contains a valuable library (easily 
accessible to the public), and an almshouse for ten 
men and ten women. New buildings erecting on 


the Thames Embankment; memorial stone laid 21 
April, 1885. 


SIRENE, an instrument for determining the 
velocity of aérial vibrations corresponding to the 
different pitches of musical sounds, was invented 
by baron Cagniard de la Tour of Paris in 1819. 
The principle was shown in an apparatus exhibited 
ee Hooke before the Royal Society, 27 July, 
1681. 


SISTERHOODS in the English church were 
begun by Lydia Priscilla Sellon about 1846, in 
Devonshire ; she died, Noy. 1876. 


SISTERS OF CHARITY, an order for the 
service of the sick poor, was founded by Vincent de 
Paul, in 1634. Their establishment in London 
began in 1834. 


SIX ACTS, a term given to certain acts, also 
named ‘‘ Gagging Acts,”’ 60 Geo. III. and 1 Geo. IV. 
cc. I, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, passed in 1819 to suppress sedi- 
tious meetings and publications. 


SIX ARTICLES, see Articles. 
SIX CLERKS, officers of the court of chan- 


cery, who were anciently clevict or clergy. They 
were to conform to the laws of celibacy, and forfeit 
their places if they married; but when the consti- 
tution of the court began to alter, a law was made 
to. permit them to marry; statute 24 & 25 Hen. 
VIII. 1533. The six clerks continued for many 
years officers of the chancery court, and held their 
offices in Chancery-lane, London, where proceed- 
ings by bill and answer were transacted and filed, 
and certain patents issued. Law Dict. The six 
clerks were discontinued by § & 6 Vict. c. 103, 1841. 


SIXTEEN (seize), a large French political 
club, in the reigns of Henry III. and IV., sixteen 
members of which took charge of the sixteen 
quarters of Paris. They at first supported the 
catholic league, and attempted to overthrow Henry 
III. in 1587, but vacillating in their policy, and 
committing many crimes, their power was annihi- 
lated by Mayenne in 1591, and several of them 
were executed. 


SKALITZ (Bohemia), was stormed by the 
Prussian general Steinmetz, 28 June, 1866; whereby 
the junction of the divisions of the Prussians was 
greatly facilitated. : 


SKATING (with blunt skates) is said to have 
been practised in prehistoric times by northern 
nations. See Pinks. 


Mentioned by the Danish historian Saxo Gramma- 

EICUS! ay. 2 ; 7 5 : : . about 
William FitzStephens speaks of it in London, about 
Figures of skates in Olaus Magnus’s history, printed 
Blade-skates, probably introduced from Holland, 

about 1660, were seen in St. James’s-park by 
_ Evelyn and Pepys : : . x Dec. 1662 
Robert Jones’s ‘Art of Skating,” published . 


T1134 
1180 


1555 


- I 2 
An Edinburgh club established . ‘ . 3 re 
London Skating club, 1830; Oxford elub - 1838 
Severe frost, much skating . : : Jan. 1880 
International skating contest at Vienna Jan. 1882 


SKIERNIEVICEH, Poland; see Russia, 15, 16 
Sept. 1884. 


SKINS. The raw skins of cattle were usually 


suspended on stakes and made use of instead of 
kettles to boil meat, in the north of England and 
in Scotland, 1 Edw. III. 1327. Leland. 


SKUPTSCHINA, the 


assembly. 
SKYE, Isiz or, N.W. Scotland. See Crofters. 


SLADE PROFESSORSHIP or FINE 
ART, Cambridge, established in pursuance of the 
will of Felix Slade, 24 June, 1869, sir Matthew 
Digby Wyatt, the first professor, 1869-73; Sidney 
pees 1873; re-elected fifth consecutive time, 
1885. 


Servian legislative 


SLATE. Fifteen persons were killed by the fall 
of a mass of rock and rubble at the Delaboll slate 
quarries, Cornwall, 21 April, 1869. 


Great strike at lord Penrhyn’s slate quarries 
Bethesda, Wales, in Sept.-Oct. ; end . . Nov. 1874 


SLAUGHTER HOUSES ACT for the 
metropolis, passed 7 Aug. 1874. 


SLAVERY. The traffic in men came from 
Chaldcea into Egypt, Arabia, and all over the Kast. 
In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of 
war were treated as slaves. The Lacedemonian 
youths, trained up in the practice of deceiving and 
butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose 
upon them to show their proficiency; and once, for 
amusement only, murdered, it is said, 3000 in one 
night, see Helots. Alexander, when he razed Thebes, 
sold the whole people for slaves, 335 B.c. There 
were 400,000 slaves in Attica, 317 B.c. In Rome 
slaves were often chained to the gate of a great 
man's house, to give admittance to the guests in- 
vited to the feast. By one of the laws of the XII. 
Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, 
and keep them in their houses, till by their services 
or labour they had discharged the sum they owed. 
C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave him the slightest 
offence into his fish-ponds, to fatten his lampreys, 
42 B.C. Cecilius Isidorus left to his heir 4116 
slaves, 12 B.c. The first Janissaries were Christian 
slaves, 1329. 

Slavery abolished in the French colonies by the 
ageney of M. Schelcher : : x z - 1848 

Serfdom was abolished by Frederick I. of Prussia 
in 1702; by Christian VII. of Denmark in 1766 ; 
by Joseph II. eniperor of Germany, in his heredi- 
tary states in 1781; by Nicholas I. of Russia in 
the imperial domains in 1842; and by his suc- 
cessor, Alexander II. throughout his empire, 

3 March, 186r. 

Slavery ceased in the Dutch West Indies’on x July, 
1863. 

It was decreed in Brazil in 1867 that all children 
born to slaves henceforth were to be free, and all 
slaves were to be free in 20 years from that time. 

In Nov. slaves of the state became free when 

made soldiers. Slavery was ordered to be abo- 

lished gradually (Rio Branco), 27 Sept. 1871. 

The law nullified by the planters ; liberal agitation 
increases ; stronger emancipation bill of Senor 
Dantas rejected by the assembly; ministerial 
crisis ; : . 7 ; . Aug. Sept. 1884 

Slavery abolished in Porto Rico 23 March, 1873 

Immediate suppression of slavery in the colonies 
of St. Thomas, &c. by Portugal, announced, Feb. 1876 

Gradual emancipation in Cuba; bill passed in 
Spanish senate, 24 Dec. 1879; by deputies, 21 Jan. 
promulgated... ‘ 5 . «. 318 Feb. 1880 

Slavery to be abolished in Egypt end of July, 1821 


SLAVERY In ENGLAND. Laws respecting 
the sale of slaves were made by Alfred. The English 
peasantry were commonly sold for slaves in Saxon 
and Norman times; children were sold in Bristol 
market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent 
to Ireland and to Scotland. Under the Normans 


e ae hey 
Le 
Yea a 


Cis 


SLAVERY. 763 


SLAVE TRADE. 


the vassals (termed villeins, of and_pertaining to 
the wil) were devisable as chattels during the 
feudal times. 


Severe statutes were passed in the reign of Richard 
II., 1377 and 1385; the rebellion of Wat Tyler, 
1381, arose partly out of the evils of serfdom. 

‘A statute was enacted by Edward VI. that a runa- 

' way, or any one who livedidly for three days, 
should be brought before two justices of the 
peace, and marked V with a hot iron on the 
breast, and adjudged the slave of him who bought 
him for two years. He was to take the slave and 
give him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse 
meat, and cause him to work by beating, chain- 
ing, or otherwise; and, if within that space, he 
absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked 
onthe forehead or cheek, by a hot iron, with an 
S, and be his master’s slave for ever; second de- 
sertion was made felony. It was lawful to put 
a ring of iron round his neck, arm, or leg. A 
child might be put apprentice, and, on running 


_ away, become a slave to his master . : wee eT 547 
Queen Elizabeth ordered her bondsmen in the 
western counties to be made free at easy rates . 1574 


Serfdom was finally extinguished in 1660, when 
tenures in capite, knights’ service, &c., were 
abolished. 

4 slave named Somerset, brought to England, 
was, because of his ill state, turned adrift by 

: his master. By the charity of Mr. Granville 
Sharp he was restored to health, when his mas- 
ter again claimed him. A suit was the con- 
sequence, which established, by decision of the 
Court of King’s Bench, in favour of Somerset, 
that slavery could not exist in Great Britair. 

22 June, 1772 

Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the 
British colonies, and for the promotion of in- 

. dustry among the manumitted slaves, and for 
compensation to the persons hitherto entitled to 

_ the services of such slaves by the grant from 
parliament of 20,000,000l. sterling, passed 

28 Aug. 1833 

slavery terminated in the British possessions ; 
770,280 slaves became free é ; . 1 Aug. 1834 

‘Slavery was abolished in the East Indies 1 Aug. 1838 

British and Foreign anti-slavery society established, 1839 

In 1853 John Anderson, a runaway slave, killed 
Septimus Digges, a planter of Missouri, who at- 
tempted to arrest him, and escaped to Canada. 
The American government claimed him as a mur- 
derer. The Canadian judges deciding that the 
law required his surrender, Mr. Edwin James, 
Q.C. (x5 Jan.), obtained a writ of habeas corpus 
for his appearance before the court of queen’s 
bench. Anderson was discharged on technical 
grounds. F ; . : 16 Feb. 

Cirenlar from the Admiralty concerning the sur- 
rendering fugitive slaves on board British ships 
to their owners, dated 31 July ; much censured 
by the public, Sept., Oct. ; withdrawn Nov. 

‘A revised circular issued near end of Dec., 1875 ; 
met with much adverse criticism . Jan. 
yovernment commission appointed (the duke of 
Somerset, chief justice Cockburn, sir Henry 8, 
Maine, and others), Feb. ; report unfavourable to 
the circulars ; published - rg DUNC} eo, . 
New admiralty instructions : fugitive slaves to be — 

{ received and not given up ; action left to captain’s 

' discretion; breach of international faith and 

: comity to be avoided ; issued : ro Aug. ,, 
Jubilee meeting to celebrate the abolition of slavery 
in the British colonies at Guildhall, London, the 
prince of Wales in the chair 5 ; r Aug. 1884 


SLAVERY In UNITED STATES. Before the 
war of independence all the states contained slaves. 
‘{n 1783 the statement in the Massachusetts Bill of 
Rights, ‘‘All men are born free and equal,’’ was 
‘leclared in the supreme court at Boston to bar 
‘laye-holding in that state. Slaves in the United 
States in 1790, 697,897; in 1810, 1,191,364; in 
(820, 2,009,031; in 1850, 3,204,313; im 1860, 
1,002,996. In 1870, 4,889,193, free coloured persons. 
Jongress passes unanimously the celebrated ordin- 


1861 


ance ‘‘for the government of the tcrritory to the 
N.W. of the Ohio,” which contained an “wnaltera- 
ble” article, forbidding slavery or involuntary servi- 
tude in the said state, 13 July, 1787; after 1800, 
several of the states prayed, without effect, to 
be relieved from this prohibition. 
Louisiana purchased, which was considered by 
many as fatal to the constitution . ‘ ‘ F 
The enormous increase in the growth of cotton,in 
the southern states (see Cotton) led to a corre- 
sponding increase in the demand for slave labour. 
The Missourt Compromise (drawn up by Henry 
Clay, by which slavery was permitted in that 
state, but was prohibited in all that part of it to 
the north of 36° 30 N. lat.), carried Feb. 
Contest between the slave-holders and their oppo- 
nents at the annexation of Texas; a similar 
division to that of Missouri obtained 25 Dec. 
Another compromise effected ; California admitted 
as a free state: but the Fugitive Slave act passed 
(which see) z : - - ‘ : 
The Missouri compromise was abrogated by the 
admission of Nebraska and Kansas as slave- 
holding states; civil war ensued (see Kansas) . 
Dred Scot’s case (see United States) . ; ; é 
John Brown’s attempt to create a slave rebellion in 


1803, 


Virginia failed (see United States) . Nov. 1859 
Abraham Lincoln, the anti-slavery candidate, 
elected president of the United States 4 Nov. 1860 


Secession of South Carolina (see United States), Dec. ,, 
Slavery abolished in the district of Colombia 
16 April, 
President Lineoln proclaims the abolition of 
slavery in the southern states, if they have not 
returned to the union on r Jan. 1863 22 Sept. ,, 
The total abolition of slavery in the United States 
officially announced : c ‘ TS) DOG sn 45 
Mr. William Lloyd Garrison, a fervent champion for 
emancipation, entertained at St. James’s-hall, 
London (he started the Liberator in 1831, and 
had suffered much for his zeal) . 29 June, 
A negro judge present in a court at New Orleans, 
18 Sept.- ,, 
Negro equality with the whites completely recog- 
nised . wa RED. 1876 


1867 


See United States, 1860- ist 
SLAVE TRADE. Theslave trade from Con- 


gou and Angola was begun by the Portuguese in 
1481. The commerce in man has brutalised a tract 
fifteen degrees on each side of the equator, and forty 
degrees wide, or of 4,000,000 of square miles; and 
mén and women have been bred for sale to the 
Christian nations during the last 250 years, and 
war carried on to make prisoners for the Christian 
market. ‘he Abbé Raynal computed (1777) that, at 
the time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been 
consumed by the Europeans. The slave-trade is 
now approaching extinction. 
In 1768 the slaves taken from Africa amounted to 
104,100. In 1786 the annualnuniber was about 100,000. 
In 1807 it was shown by documents, produced by govern- 
ment, that.since 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 Africans 
had been torn from their country, and had either per- 
ished*on the passage or been:sold in the West Indies. 
SLAVE TRADE OF ENGLAND: begun by sir John Hawkins. 
His first expedition, with the object of procuring 
negroes on the coast of Africa, and conveying them 
for sale at the West Indies, took place in’Oct. 1562 ; 
see Guinea, and Assiento. 
England employed 130 ships and carried off 42,000 slaves, 
1786. 
Thos. Clarkson, at a spot in Wadesmill, Hertford, de- 
votes his life to the abolition of the slave-trade, June, 


1785. 

The * Society for the Suppression of the Slave Trade,” 
founded by Clarkson, Wilberforce, and Dillwyn, 1787. 

Slave-trade question debated in parliament, 1787. 

The debate for its abolition ; two days, April, r7or. 

Mr. Wilberforce’s motion lost by a majority of 88 to 83, 
3 April, 1798. 

The question introduced under the auspices of Lord 
Grenville and Mr. Fox, then ministers, 3r March, 1806. 

The trade abolished by parliament, 25 March, 1807. 


| Thomas Clarkson, died, aged 85, Sept. 1846. 
| An obelisk as a memorial of Thos. Clarkson, erected by 


SLAVONIA. 


Mr. Arthur Giles Puller, at Wadesmill, inaugurated 9 
Oct. 1879. 

A statue unveiled at Wisbeach, Cambridge, 11 Nov. 188r. 

FOREIGN COUNTRIES: the trade was abolished by Austria 
in 1782; by the French convention in 1794; by the 
United States in 1808. 

The allies at Vienna declared against it, Feb. 1815. 

Napoleon, in the hundred days, abolished the trade, 29 
March, 1815. 

Treaty for its repression with Spain, 1817; with the 
Netherlands, May, 1818; with Brazil, Nov. 1826; pro- 
hibition, 1831 ; not effected till 1852. 

Its revival was proposed in the congress of the United 
States of America, 14 Dec. 1856, and negatived by 183 
votes to 58. 

In June, 1857, the French government gave permission to 
M. Regis to convey free negroes from Africa to Guada- 
loupe and Martinido, French colonies. ; 

This having led to abuses and consequent troubles (see 
Charles et Georges), was eventually given up in Jan. 


1859. 

It is said that about 40,000 slaves were landed at Cuba in 
1860. 

A treaty between Great Britain and the United States for 
the abolition of the slave trade, was signed 7 April; 
ratified 20 May, 1862. 

The Spanish government denounce the slave trade as 

_ piracy, Nov. 1865. 

Sir Samuel Baker headed an expedition to put down 
slave-trading on the Nile (see Egypt), Jan. 1870 ; reported 
to be partially successful, 30 June, 1873. He pub- 
lished ‘ Ismailia,” a history of the expedition, 1874. 
He estimates that at least 50,000 are captured and 
sold as slaves, Nov. 1874. 

A species of slave trade has lately risen in the South 
Seas; the natives being enticed on board certain 
British vessels and shipped to Queensland, Australia, 
and the Fiji isles ; the subject was brought before par- 
liament (see Melanesia), 1871-2. 

The ship Carl (owner, Dr. James P. Murray; master, 
Joseph Armstrong) left Melbourne for South Sea isles ; 
it anchored off Malokolo, Solomon’s and Bougainville 
isles and kidnapped many natives as labourers for the 
Fiji isles ; while about 20 miles from land, the prisoners 
rose and attempted to set fire to the ship; were fired 
on; about so killed and 20 wounded were cast into the 
sea. At Melbourne Murray gave evidence, and Arm- 
strong was committed for trial, 16 Aug. ; the master 
and mate sentenced to death, Nov. 1872. 

Sir Bartle Frere went to Zanzibar on a mission to suppress 
the East African slave trade ; see Zanzibar, 1872-3. 

An act of parliament for consolidating with amendments 
the acts for carrying into effect treaties for the more 
effectual suppression of the slave trade (36 & 37 Vict. 
c. 88), was passed, 5 Aug. 1873. . 

Several African kings and chiefs, at Cape Coast Castle, 
agreed to give up slave trade, at an interview with 
governor Strahan, 3 Nov. 1874. 

The slave-trade on the Gold Coast abolished, by procla- 
mation of governor Strahan, 17 Dec. 1874. 

Convention with Ezypt forbidding the traffic, 4 Aug. 
1877; col. Gordon’s efforts in the Soudan reported suc- 
cessful, 1879. 

Slave trade prohibited at West African conference, 7 Jan. 
1885. 


SLAVONTA or ScLAVONTA, a province of 
Austria, derives its name from the Slaves, a Sarma- 
tian people who replaced the Avars in Pannonia 
early in the gth century. In 864 Cyril and Metho- 
dius, Greek missionaries, preached here, and adapted 
the Greek alphabet to the Slavonian language; the 
letters of which have since been a little altered. 
The country, after having been held at times by the 
Greeks, Turks, and Hungarians, and the cause of 
sanguinary conflicts, was ceded finally to Hungary 
in 1699, at the peace of Carlowitz. Deputies from 
the Slavonian provinces of Austria were entertained 
at Moscow and St. Petersburg, May, 1867. The 
Croatian-Slavonian diet, at Agram, was dissolved, 
May, 1867. It protested against incorporation with 
Hungary. The Slavonian family of languages in- 
eludes Russian, Polish, Servian,» Bohemian, Bul- 
garian, Wendic, Slovak, and Polabic. For the war, 
see Turkey, 1875-6. 


764 


SMALLPOX. 


Estimated number of Slavs in Europe in 1875 : 90,365,633 : 
Russians and Ruthenians, 66,129,590; Serbo-Croats, 
5,940,539; Bulgarians, 5,123,952 ; Slovenes, 1,260,000 ; 
Slovaks, 2,223,830; Czechs, 4,815,154; Poles, 9,492,162. 

Lord Ilchester’s bequest to promote the study of Slavo- 
nian literature at Oxford; lectures first given, May, 
1876. 

Agitation against the Germans in Slayonie provinces o! 
Austria, Aug. Sept. 1883, 


SLESWIG, see Holstein. 
SLIDING-SCALEH, see Corn Laws. 


SLING. In Judges xx. 16, is mentioned the 
skill of the Benjamite slingers (about 1406 B.c.), 
and with a sling David slew Goliath 1063 B.c. (1 
Sam. xvii.) The natives of the Balearic isle: 
(Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica) were celebrated 
slingers, and served as mercenaries in the Cartha- 
ginian and Roman armies. Slings are said to hav: 
been used by the Huguenots at the siege of San 
cerre, in 1672, to economise their powder. 


SLOANE’S MUSEUM, see British Museum 


SLOUGH, near Eton, Bucks, Mrs. Ann Reville 
a butcher’s wife, was barbarously murdered early 
in evening, 11 April, 1881. Alfred Payne, a lad. 
was tried and acquitted, same month. 


SLUYS (Holland), near which Edward II] 
gained a signal naval victory over the French. The 
English had the wind of the enemy, and the sun at 
their backs, and began this sanguinary action. Tw 
hundred and thirty French ships were taken; thou- 
sands of Frenchmen were killed, with two of thei 
admirals; the loss of the English was inconsider-. 
able: 24 June, 1340. 


SMALCALD (Hesse), TREATY OF, entere: 
into between the elector of Brandenburg and th« 
other princes of Germany in favour of Protestantism 
31 Dec. 1530; see Protestants. The emperor, ap 
prehensive that the kings of France and Knglan« 
would join this league, signed the treaty of Passau 
31 July, 1532, allowing liberty of conscience. 


SMALLPOX, variola (diminutive of varus, ; 
pimple), a highly contagious disease, supposed t 
have been introduced into Europe from the East b) 
the Saracens. Rhazes, an Arabian, described 1 
accurately, about 900. From Europe it was carrie 
to America, soon after its discovery, and raged ther 
with great severity, destroying the Indians by thou. 
sands. In 1694, queen Mary of England died o 
small pox, as did in 1711 and fae the emperor 0 
Germany, the dauphin and dauphiness of France an: 
their son, in 1730 the emperor of Russia, in_174. 
the queen of Sweden, and in 1774 Louis XV. o 
France. It is stated that in the middle of the las 
century two millions perished by it in Russia. Ir 
London in 1723 one out of fourteen deaths wa 
caused by small pox, and in France in 1754 the rat. 
was one inten. For the attempts to alleviate thi 
scourge, see Inoculation, introduced into Englan: 
in 1722, and Vaccination, announced by Dr. Jenne 
in 1798. Smallpox Hospital, established 1746 
Smallpox raged in parts of London, an 
thousands died, 1870-1; a temporary hospital wai 
established at Hampstead (which see). The Anti 
Vaccination society has been active, and many 
parents have been fined for digs the vaceina- 
tion of their children, 1879-6. In Sept. and Oct 
1862, a great many sheep died of smallpox in the 
West of England, till successful preventive measure 
were resorted to. Many cases In London, 1876-8 ; 
deaths principally of unvaccinated persons. 


Small-pox prevalent in London, 88 deaths 1—7 May; 10: 
deaths 15—21 May; diminishing July, 1881. 


f cease . 


- Oh) 
é 
‘oF » > a 
fh) q ‘ + 
a 


SS nl fie ee =x 


SMALL TENEMENTS ACTS. 765. 


SNUFE-TAKING. 


eaths, June, 1880—June, 1881, 1532 deaths, 637 not 


yaccinated ; in N.E. London, May, deaths, about 36 a 
‘week, June, 1884; deaths decreasing reported, 24 
July ; reappears, but subsides, Dec. 1854. 

See Vaccination. 


‘SMALL TENEMENTS ACTS (59 Geo. III. 

12, 1819) ; 1850 (13 & 14 Vict. c. 99), provided 
ir owners paying rates of houses instead of the oc- 
piers. This was annulled by the new Reform 
at, 30 & 31 Vict. c. 102, s. 7 (1867). 


SMECTYMNUUS, the initials of certain non- 
onformist writers against episcopacy in the seven- 
senth century: Stephen Marshall, Edmund Cala- 
iy, Thomas Young, Matthew Newcomen, William 

urstow. They were answered by bishop Hall in 
is “ Divine Right of Episcopacy,’’ 1640. 


-SMITH’S CHARITY (FoR POOR KIN). 
ilderman Henry Smith, by will dated 26 April, 
647, left 1ooo/. for relief of captives held by 
‘urkish pirates, and 100o/. for his poor kinsmen. 
‘he former object having become obsolete, an act was 
passed in 1772 to divert all the property to the poor 
_kinsmen. In 1868 these were 412 in number. The 
value of the property is now 14,o00/. a year, (1885). 
The master of the rolls decided in Dec. 1877, 
that the funds should be applied to general chari- 
table purposes. On appeal, the decision was in favour 
of the ‘‘ poor Smiths,” 12 Feb. 1878. 


SMITHFIELD, WEST, in the heart of 
jondon, was once a favourite walk of the London 
itizens, outside the city walls. Sir W. Wallace 
vas executed here, 23 Aug. 1305. On 15 June, 
381, Wat Tyler was met by Richard IT. at this 
place, and was stabbed by Walworth the mayor. 
Many tournaments were also held here. In the 
eign of Mary (1553-8), many persons perished by 
ire; and Bartholomew Leggatt, an Arian, was 
yurnt here, 18 March, 1612.—Bartholomew fair was 
eld here till 1853.—This place is mentioned as the 
site of a cattle market as far back as 1150. The 
space devoted to this purpose was enlarged from 
ibout three acres to four and a half, and in 1834 to 
six and a quarter. ‘The ancient regulations were 
salled the ‘statutes of Smithfield.’”’ In one day 
there were sometimes assembled 4000 beasts and 
30,000 sheep. The annual amount of the sales was 
about 7,000,000/. 
‘Sold\ ere 226,132 beaSts, 1,593,270 sheep and lambs, 
26; 56 calves, 33,531 pigs. (About 160 sales- 
me. ee ee oe 
The Datel space of the market, the slaughter- 
ing places adjoining, and many other nuisances, 
gave ground to much dissatisfaction, and after 
| investigation, an act was passed appointing 
metropolitan market commissioners with powers 
to provide anew market, slaughtering places, &c. ; 
_. and to close the market at Smithfield rt Aug. 
Smithfield was used as a cattle market for the last 
time on 11 June ; and the new market in Copen- 
 hagen-fields was opened on 13 June (see Metro- 
— politan Market) LSS se 
A dead-meat and poultry market ordered to be 
erected in Smithfield, and Newgate market to 


1846 


K : : , : : : pars COX 
A tender for its erection, from designs by Horace 


_, Jones, accepted from Messrs. Browne and Robin- 
son for 134,460l. . > F é . . Nov. 
The market inaugurated by the lord mayor Law- 
rence, 24 Nov. ; opened to the public 1 Dee. 


1866 
1868 


New poultry market, inaugurated by lord mayor 


‘aeCotton . = 
' New central fruit 


; ; : A . 30 Noy. 
and vegetable market determined 
14 July, 1879 


1875 


f on . F . . . Py 
_ The Smithfield Club, to promote improvements in the 


breed of cattle, was established 17 Dec. 1798 ; first pre- 
sident, Francis, duke of Bedford ; first secretary, 
Arthur Young. The members established an annual 
cattle show, held first in Dolphin-yard, Smithfield, Dec. 
31799 ; next in Barbican, 1805 ; in Goswell-street, 1806 ; 


removed to Baker-street, 1839; and to the new Agri- 
cultural hall, Liverpool-road, Islington, 1862. 

The show, suspended in Dec. 1866, on account of thé 
oper was partially resumed Dec. 1867; wholly, Dec. 
186 


Three of the highest prizes were awarded to the queen ; 
110,000 Visitors, ro-14 Dec. 1883. 


_ SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, “for the 
increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,”’ 
a handsome building at Washington, U.S., was 
founded in 1846, by means of a legacy of above 
100,000/. bequeathed for the purpose to the United 
States government by James Smithson, illegitimate 
son of sir Hugh Smithson, who became duke of 
Northumberland in 1766. It publishes and freely 
distributes scientific memoirs and reports. The 
library was burnt on 25 Jan. 1865. Professor 
Joseph Henry, the first secretary, died, 13 May, 
1878 ; succeeded by Mr. Baird. 


SMOKE NUISANCE. An act was passed in 
1853 to abate this nuisance, proceeding from chim- 
ney shafts and steamers above London bridge. In 
1856 another act, obtained for its further application 
to steamers below London bridge, and to potteries 
and glass-houses previously exempted, came into 
operation, 1 Jan. 1858; enactments have been made 
for all the kingdom. 

Mecting at Mansion-house for the abatement of smoke ini 

London, 7 Jan. 1881. 

An exhibition of appliances for this purpose in the 

Royal Albert Hall, opened 30 Nov. 1881; closed 14. 
_ Feb, 1882 ; opened at Manchester, 17 March, 1882. 
Smoke Abatement Institute founded, and Mr. W. E. R. 

Coles appointed smoke inspector, autumn, 1882. 
Smoke abatement fund opened, 1883. 


SMOLENSKO (Russia). The French in most 
sanguinary engagements here were three times re- 
pulsed, but ultimately succeeded in entering Smo- 
lensko, and found the city, which had been bom- 
barded, burning and partly in ruins, 16, 17 Aug. 
1812. Barclay de Tolly, the Russian commander- 
in-chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor 
Alexander because he retreated after the battle, and 
Kutusoff succeeded to the command. 


SMUGGLERS. The customs duties, institu- 


‘ted to enable the king to afford protection to trade 


against pirates, afterwards became a branch of 
public revenue, and gave rise to much smuggling. 
The Smugglers’ act was passed in 1736, and its 
severity was mitigated in 1781 and 1784. A re- 
vision of these statutes took place 1826 and 1835. 


SMYRNA, see Seven Churches. 
SNEEZING. The custom of saying ‘God 


bless you”’ to the sneezer originated, according to 
Strada, among the ancients, who, through an 
opinion of the danger attending it, after sneezing 
made a short prayer to the gods, as ‘‘ Jupiter, help 
me.” The custom is mentioned by Homer, the 
Jewish rabbis, and others, and is found among 
sayages. Polydore Vergil says it took its rise at 
the time of the plague, 558, when the infected fell 


down dead sneezing, though seemingly in good 
health. 


SNIDER GUN, see under Firearms. 
SNUFE-TAKING took its rise in England 


from the captures made of vast quantities of snuff 
by sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo in 1702, 
and the practice soon became general. In 1839 
there were imported 1,622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which 
196,305 lbs. were entered for home consumption ; 
the duty was. 88,263/.; see Tobacco. In 1858, 
2,573,925 lbs. of snuff and cigars, in 1861, 2,110,430 


SOANE MUSEUM. 


ibs. ; in 1871, 3,852,236 lbs.; 1877, 3,762,831 lbs.; 
1883, 3,121,174 lbs. were imported. 


SOANE MUSEUM, &c.No.1 3, Lincoln’ s-inn- 
fields, was gradually for med by sir Joun Soane, the 
architect, who died in 1837, after making arrange- 
ments for its’ being open to the public by an act 

passed in 1833. It contains Egyptian and other 
vtaie valuable paintings, "1 rare books, &c. 
1507. are distributed annually to distressed archi- 
tects or their widows and children. 


SOAP is a salt, a compound of a fatty acid with 
an alkali, soda or potash. The Hebrew bdrith, 
translated soap, is merely a general term for 
cleansing substances. Job ix. 30; Jer. li. 22. 
Pliny declares soap to be an invention of the Gauls, 
though he prefers the German to the Gallic soap. 
Nausicaa and her attendants, Homer tells us, 
washed clothes by treading upon them with their 
feet in pits of water. Ody yssey, book vi. The 
Romans used fuller’s earth. Savon, the French 
word for soap, is ascribed to its having been manu- 
factured at Savona, near Genoa. The manufacture 
of soap began in London in 1524, before which 
time it was ‘supplied by Bristol at one penny per 
pound. The duty upon soap, imposed in 1711, 
after several reductions from 3d. per pound, was 
totally repealed in 1853. It then produced, accord- 
ing to the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Glad- 
stone, about 1,126,000. annually. 


SOBRAON (N.W. India). The British army, 
35,000 strong, under sir Hugh (afterwards viscount) 
Gough, attacked the Sikh foree on the Sutlej, 10 
Feb. 1846. The enemy was dislodged after a 
«lreadful contest, and all their batteries taken ; ; and 
in attempting the passage of the river by a floating 
bridge in their rear, the weight of the masses that 
crowded upon it caused it to break down, and 
thousands of Sikhs were killed, wounded, or 
‘drowned. The British loss was 2 338 men. 


SOCIALISM was warmly advocated in Lon- 
don, 24 Jan. 1834, by the celebrated Robert Owen. 
He ‘had, beginning at New Lanark, in Scotland, 
about 1801, established a settlement at New Har- 
mony in America in 1824. He died 17 Noy. 1858, 
aged go. The French socialists, termed Communists, 
became a powerful political body in that country, 
were implicated in the revolution of 1848, and 
made an insurrection at Paris, 1871. See France, 
Positive Philosophy, and Working- men (who, in 
Great Britain, have received by legislation nearly 
all they require). 

The Rev. Charles Kingsley, Mr. Thomas Hughes, 

and others, endeavoured to set up Christian 

Socialism, about ; . 1855-60 
Communist manifesto issued by Carl Marx, 1848 ; 

(he died 14 March, 1883). 

Social democratic party organised by Ferdinand 

Lassalle ; est G08 
International workmen's association formed . - 1864 
- “Gotha programme” (exalting labour) - 1875 
A grand congress of socialists met at Ghent, Sept. sey 
Socialism said to be increasing in Germany 
Stringent bill to repress it passed i in the parliament ; 

socialists expelled from Germany by decree, Nov. 

many papers suppressed, Nov., Dec., 1878. Ex- 

pulsions renewed Scum 1880 


SOCIAL SCTENCE. The National Asso- 
ciation for the Promotion of Social Science origin- 
_ated in a meeting at lord Brougham’s in May, 1857. 
Its object is to promote improvements in the 
administration of law, in education, in public 
health, and in social economy. It holds annual 
meetings, and publishes its proceedings. 

Mr. Wm. Ellis and Mr. John Stuart Mill began to 

promote the study c ; ‘about 1823 


766 


SOCIETIES. 
Birmingham, meeting opened . . - x2 Oct. 185 
Liverpool ; i - 1x Oct. 185 
Bradford . A * > 4 to Oct. 185 
Glasgow fs ; : ' . es SEPu . 186 
Dublin A ‘ . 5 . ° 14 Aug. 186 
London . é : : ¢ . - - 6 June, 186 
Edinburgh . 4 - 7 Oct. 186 
York 4 * 3 . 5 ¢ . 22S8ept. 186 
Sheffield. f c : . - 4 Oct. ‘186 
Manchester . . . 3 A at ez OCt, 186 
Belfast : ; 2 5 A > - 18 Sept. 186 
Birmingham . : ¢ - - - 30Sept. 186 
Bristol : < - : . 29 Sept. 186: 
Newcastle-on- Tyne 3 2 : - - 2x Sept. 187 
Leeds ; : - : 5 pea OCt. 187: 
Plymouth . 5 , . 5 MeeIEOeDL. 187: 
Norwich . “ . 6 : ‘ : xr Oct. 187 
Glasgow : é 5 “ 30 Sept. 187. 
Brighton . A : a * 6 Oct. 187: 
Liverpool 4 . : : 2 eeELOCt.. 157! 
Aberdeen . = - - - 19 Sept. 187° 
Cheltenham . ; : zi > peas CL. . 187) 
Manchester : . < ° . SaeeE OCL, “187: 
Edinburgh . . : . ° 5 Oct. 188¢ 
Dublin : A : : ° eect, 188: 
Nottingham . : 4 4 . aeezopept, 7188: 
Huddersfield . : - 5 : 4 3 Oct. 188- 
Birmingham 17! “Sept. 188. 


SOCIAL WARS, see Abeta ola Marsi. 


SOCIETIES Anp Institutions, LITE: 
RARY AND SCIENTIFIC, in Great Britain 
Further details of many of "these will be foun 
under their respective heads. All in the list below 
are in London, except otherwise stated. An ac! 
was passed 11 Aug. 1854, “‘to afford facilities for 
the establishment of institutions for the promotior 
of literature and science,’ by grants of land, &c. 
and for their regulation. The Royal and Londo 
Hedaprs were exempted from the operation o 
the act 


Royal Society , - r Charter 166: 
Christian Knowledge Society F 169° 
Society of Antiquaries . - = * (Charter 1751) aa 


Society of Dilettanti . 173- 
Society of Arts. : "(Charter 1847) 175. 
Bath and West of England Society é ea 
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society . - 178) 
Royal Society of Edinburgh (Charter 1783) 178: 
Highland Society . 5 2 178: 
Royal Irish Academy Charter 178 
Linnean Society . (Charter 1802) 178% 
Neweastle Literary and Philosophical Society . . 1709: 
Royal Institution (Act of parliament, 1810) Charter 180 
Royal Horticultural Society (Charter 1809) 180. 
Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society 


(Charter 1834) 180: 
London Institution . 


Geological Society . - . - (Charter 1826) 180; 
Russell Institution : P 1808 
Swedenborg Society . 

Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society A 


Roxburghe Club 285, 
(Charter 1828) 1818 


. 181¢ 
sche 


Institution of Civil Engineers 
Leeds Literary and Philosophical Society 
Egyptian Society . 

Cambridge Philosophical Society 
Royal Astronomical Society. ‘ 
Medico-Botanical Society . . 1821 
Hull Literary and Philosophical Society | RiELS 22 
Yorkshire Philosophical Society  . * es » 
Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society a5 
Royal Society of Literature ‘a Chater 1826) 182- 
Royal Asiatic Society . 5 Charter 1824) ,, 
Bannatyne Club, Edinburgh . ° » . “a Gs 
Mechanics’ Institution, London . : . »» 
Atheneum Club : . s 5 . 1824 
Western Literary Institution A 7 2 oe I O26 
Eastern Literary Institution . . : ar >> 
Zoological Society : 1826 
Incorporated Law Society .”. (Charter 1831) 1827 
Society for Diffusion of Useful Knowledge . ; 


REG 
. (Charter 1832) ,, 
CRE 1831) 182c 


” 
Ashmolean Society, Oxford . . : + 1828 
Maitland Club, Glasgow - “ P os 
Royal Geographical Society . : . 183¢ 


SOCIETIES. 


}aelic Society i 
Royal United Service Institution .  .  . . 1831 
Royal Dublin Society . A : . ; ne are 


Harveian Society . A . Ei Re ore 
British Association ; : ‘ 45 Sa Ee 
Marylebone Literary Institution — . : . 1832 
Entomological Society . 2 : c , a 1833 
Statistical Society . - 1834 


Westminster 7 Institution j Zé ; f : : 55 
Surtees Society, Durham . 


Royal Institute of British Architects (Charter 1837) ‘ 


Leicester Literary and Philosophical avid 1835 
Abbotsford Club, Edinburgh 1835-7 
Numismatic Society 2 - , . 1836 
Jrnithological Society .. “ - : 1837 
lectrical Society . A A 2 “ 5 1837-8 
Kitching Club. 7 1838 
Snglish Historical Society . - . 1838-56 
Royal Agricultural Society : . 1838 


Jamden Society . ; ‘ ; , fs ied te 38 
Royal Botanical Society é s 
Microscopical Society (Royal, 1866) : $ Rites © 53 


Zeclesiological Society . ; 5 a) ee 
Spalding Club, Aberdeen. “ . a ue 
Royal Botanical orate of London . = s ees 
Parker Society  . - A - 1840-55 
Perey Society c + 1840-52 

rish Archeological Society, Dublin ; 1840 
“Sondon Library : ‘ 2 F “ ~ ay 
shakespeare Society . ‘ : : : A. ae 
Sheniical Society - : - - ‘ 1841 
2harmaceutical Society : 5 : - en t's 
WVodrow Society, Edinburgh . : . - 1841-7 
?hilological Society . A - : - 1842 
‘Elfric Society . A - ° . . 1843-56 
‘Shetham Society, Manchester . Z 1843 


spottiswoode Society, Edinburgh , : . ass 


‘Archeological Association . é = Epa ee 
Royal Archeological Institute “ - 4 ak ss 
sydenham Society A 7 4 . é ty as 
Sthnological Society x ‘A A ‘ 5 A aes 
aw Amendment Society . . “ - : ne 
Handel Society . < ; : . - 1844 
syro-Egyptian Society A és a F fi ess 
Ray Society A ; - - - » “ 
Jaxten Society. - : 0 alee 1844-54 
Jeltie Society, Dublin -. A z 1845-53 
Pathological Society 1846 


‘Sussex Archeological Society, Lewes _ A - aan 
Jambrian AY chological Association . . Sit «eos 
Javendish Society . 2 > F . see 33 
‘dakluyt Society . A A . : ‘ 


aleeontographical Society 1847 
-nstitute of Mechanical Engineers (Birmingham) as 
nstitute of Actuaries - ~ 1848 
Arundel Society : 


British) Meteor ological Society . (Charter 1866) 18 50 
-dpidemiological Society x cn 
North of England Institute of Mining Engineers, 


,_ Newcastle 3 ‘ - 4 an IS5L 
*hotographic Society. ‘ ; : f° : 5 1852 
hilobiblon Society . C : z A ; 1853 
Juridical Society . ‘ “ - - - 1855 
)dontological Society - - - A 1856 

-Fenealogical Society . 1857 


‘Yational Association for Social Science ; 


orological Institute : 1858 
Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts - 
nstitution of Naval Architecture . e 1860 
Anthropological Society - : 1863 
ipesa ly English Text Society ; began to ‘publish . 1864 

Tictoria Institute. . 24 May, 1865 
Hl eaaen Mathematical Society _ : r Sy are 
\éronautical Society 2 A ‘ + “y2 Jan. 1866 
Jialectic Society . . : 1867 

almmoerGociety =. =... -« -- -  -« a 

| Iolbein Society . - : - 1868 
toyal Historical Society . 2 ‘ : A 

/ron and Steel Institute : A . 1869 
unateur Mechanical Society . fs 5 
Yhristian Evidence Society . 1871 


siblical Archeology Society . = ° 

| Society of Telegraph Engineers . - 
larine Engineers’ Institution . ae 
society for Organization of Academical Study 
.ondon Anthropological Society aly 

, *aleographical Society “ A : 
inglish Dialectic Society a ° ° . AAS 


767 


. 1830 | (New) Shakspeare ee : 


SOFTA. 


Physical Society 
Musical Association ; ; - “ oe 
Public Analysts x “ : : / a 


Psychological Societ B 
Education Society . nes 
Royal Aquarium Society | a 
Mineralogical Society . 1876 
Library Association : 1877 
Index Society ; ; 

Institute of Chemistry of Great t Britain 7 i 
Zetetical Society. . : 1878 
Folk-Lore Society 

Astrological Society 1879 


Society ‘for promoting H ellenic Studies 4 oft a 
Rabelais Club . : ; ; 2 - e ee 
Willoughby Society 
Balloon Society 
Aristotelian Society - c A 2 aes 
Wordsworth Society 5 : P Eat 
Topographical Bocicty of London i 
Ascham Society A 


>? 


Chemical Industry Society . . 188r 
Browning Society. . é . P 
Carlyle Club mae 
Society for Psychical Research . 1882 
Seal Society . 1883 
Marine Biological Association ; 1884 
Society of Authors : é - 
Society of Medallists . | 1885 


Daten ISLANDS, Pacific Ghee dis- 
covered by De aes in 1606; re-discovered by 
capt. Wallis, 1767, who gave Otaheite or Tahiti 
the name of King George’ s Island. Capt. Cook, 
who visited them in 1769 and 1777; named them 
Society Islands in honour of the Royal Society. 
See Otaheite. 


SOCINIANS, persons who accept the opinions 
of Faustus Socinus (died 1562), and his nephew 
Lelius (died 1604), Siennesenoblemen. They held 
—1. That the Eternal Father was the one only God, 
and that Jesus Christ was no otherwise God than 
by his superiority to all other creatures; 2. That 
Christ was not a mediator; 3. That hell will endure 
for a time, after which the ‘soul and body will be 
destroyed ; 4. That it is unlawful for princes to 
make war. Hook. The Socinians established a 
church at Rakow, in Poland, and made proselytes 
in Transylvania, I 563. They were expelled from 
Poland in 1658. e Rakovian catechism was 
published in 1574; see Unitarians. 


SOCOTRA, (Dioscoridis insula), an island in 
the Indian ocean, belonging to the imam of Muscat, 
120 miles E. of’ cape Guardafui, Eastern Africa. 
In the summer of 1878, it was said to have been 
given up to the British. 


SODIUM, a remarkable metal, first obtained 
in 1807 by sir Humphry Davy, from soda (which 

was formerly confounded with potash, but proved 
to be a distinct substance by Duhamel in 1736). 
This metal, like potassium, was obtained by the 
agenc of the electric battery. In consequence of 
Deville’s improved processes, sodium manufac- 
tured by Bell Brothers, of New castle, at 10s. apound 
(1868). Common salt (chloride of sodium) is a 
compound of sodium and chlorine. See Alkalies. 


SODOM AnD GOMORRAH (Palestine), with 
their inhabitants, were destroyed by fire from 
heaven 1808 B.C., Gen. xix. 


SODOR, seta to be derived from Sodor-eys, or 
south isles (the “brides or Hebrides), in distine- 
tion from Orkneys, the north isles. The southern 
or western isles were made an episcopal diocese by 
Magnus, king of Norway, 1098, and joined to the 
isle “of Man about 1113. See Alan. 


SOFIA, a manufacturing town in Bulgaria ; 
founded by Justinian on the ruins of the ancient 


SOFFARIDES DYNASTY. 


768 


SOMBRERO. 


Sardica; became the capital of the new principality. 
A palace and other buildings were in course of 
erection, Aug. 1881. It contains 30 mosques and 
10 churches. 


SOFFARIDES DYNASTY reigned in Per- 
sia, 872-902. 


SOFTAS, Mahometan students devoted to the 
Koran only. See Zurkey, May, 1876. 


SOHO BAZAAR anp THEATRE, see 


Bazaars and Theatres. 


SOISSONS (France), capital of the Gallic 
Suessiones, was subdued by Julius Cesar, 57 B.C. 
It was held by Syagrius, after his father Asgidius, 
till his defeat by Clovis, a.p. 486.. Several councils 
have been held at Soissons (in 744, 1092, 1122). 
Its academy was established in 1674. During the 
Franco-Prussian war, Soissons, after three weeks’ 
investment and four days’ bombardment, surren- 
dered to the Germans under the grand-duke of 
Mecklenburg, 16 Oct. 1870. 99 officers, 4633 men, 


128 guns, &c., were said to be taken. The Germans . 


thus obtained a second line of railway from Chalons 
to Paris. 


SOLAR SYSTEM, nearly as now accepted, 
is said to have been taught by Pythagoras of Samos, 
about 529 B.c. He placed the sun in the centre, 
and all the planets moving in elliptical orbits 
round it—a doctrine superseded by the Ptolemaic 
system (which see). The system of Pythagoras, 
revived by Copernicus (1543), is called the Coper- 
nican system. Its truth was demonstrated by sir 
Isaac Newton in 1687. See Planets. 


SOLDIERS’ DAUGHTERS’ HOME vas 
established at Hampstead, near London, in Aug. 
1857, by the surplus of the money collected by the 
central association in aid of the wives and families 
of soldiers in active service during the Crimean war, 
and opened by the prince consort, 18 June, 1858. 
1t has been much indebted to the exertions of major 
Powys. 

SOLEBAY or SouTHWOLD Bay (Suffolk), 
where a fierce naval battle was fought between the 
fleets of England and France on one side, and the 
Dutch on the other, the former commanded by the 
duke of York, afterwards James II-, 28 May, 1672. 
The English lost four ships, and the Dutch three ; 
but the enemy fled, and were pursued to their 
coasts. The earl of Sandwich was blown up, and 
thousands were killed and wounded. 


SOL-FA SYSTEM, see Music. 


SOLFERINO (in Lombardy), the site of the 
chief struggle on the great battle of 24 June, 1859, 
between the allied French and Sardinian army 
commanded by their respective sovereigns, and the 
Austrians under general Hess; the emperor being 
present. The Austrians, after their defeat at 
Magenta, gradually retreated across the Mincio, 
and took up a position in the celebrated quadrila- 
teral, and were expected there to await the attack. 
But the advance of Garibaldi on one side, and of 
prince Napoleon and the Tuscans on the other, in- 
duced them to recross the Mincio and take the 
offensive, on 23 June. The contlict began early on 
the 24th, and lasted tifteen hours. At first the 
Austrians had the advantage; but the successful 
attack of the French on Cavriana and Solferino 
changed the fortune of the day, ond the Austrians, 
after desperate encounters, were compelled to 
retreat. ‘Ihe French attribute the victory to the 
skill and bravery of their emperor and the generals 


MacMahon and Niel; the Austrians, to the destruc- 
tion of their reserve by the rifled cannon of thei 
adversaries. The Sardinians maintained a fearful 
contest of fifteen hours at San Martino, it is said 
against double their number. Loss of the Austrians, 
630 officers, and 19,311 soldiers; of the allies, ¢ 
generals, 936 officers, and 17,305 soldiers killec 
and wounded. This battle closed the war; pre- 
liminaries of peace being signed at Villa Franca. 
12 July. On 24 June, 1870, on the site of th: 
battle, three ossuaries, containing the bones o: 
thousands of the slain, were solemnly consecratec 
in the presence of representatives of Austria, France 
and Italy. 


SOLICITOR, see Attorney. By the Suprem« 
Judicature Act, attorneys in future are to be stylec 
solicitors; an act for regulating their examination 
was passed, 23 July, 1877. P 


SOLICITOR-GENERAL, the legal office 
next in rank, and deputy to the attorney-general. 
whom he frequently succeeds. 


1839. Sir Thomas Wilde (afterwards lord Truro), 5 Dec. 
1841. Sir William Follett (second time), 6 Sept. 
1844. ir ee: Thesiger (since lord Chelmsford), 1; 
pril. 
Sir Fitzroy Kelly, 17 July. 
Sir John Jervis, 4 July. 
Sir David. Dundas, 18 July. 
Sir John Romilly, April 4, aft. lord Romilly. 
Sir Alex. J. E. Cockburn, rz July. 
Sir W. Page Wood, 28 March, aft. lord Hatherley 
Sir Fitzroy Kelly, Feb. 
Sir Richard Bethell, Dec., aft. lord Westbury. 
Rt. Hon. James Stuart Wortley, Nov. 
Sir Henry Keating, May. 
Sir Hugh M. Cairns, 26 Feb., aft. earl Cairns. 
Sir Henry Keating, 18 June. 
Sir William Atherton, Dec. : 
Sir Roundell Palmer, 27 June, aft. lord Selborne. 
Sir Robert Porrett Collier, 2 Oct. 
Sir William Bovill, 13 July. 
,, Sir John Burgess Karslake, 29 Nov. 
1867. Sir Charles Jasper Selwyn, July. 
1868. Sir Wm. Baliol Brett, Feb. (made judge, Sept.) 
», Sir Richard Baggallay, 14 Sept. 
Sir John Duke Coleridge, r2 Dec., aft. 1d. Coleridge 
Sir George Jessel, Nov. 
Sir Henry James, 26 Sept. 
Sir Wm. Vernon Harcourt, Noy. 
Sir Richard Baggallay, Feb. 
», Sir John Holker, 22 April. 
1875. Sir Hardinge Stanley Giffard, 25 Nov. 
1880. Sir Farrer Herschell, 3 May. 


SOLICITORS’ REMUNERATION ACT 
44 & 45 Vict. c. 44; passed in 1881. 


SOLIFIDIANS (from solus, only, and fides 
faith) a name given to the Antinomians (whtc/ 
see). 


SOLOMON’S TEMPLE, see Temple. 


SOLWAY MOSS (Cumberland, bordering or 
Scotland). On 13 Nov. 1771, it swelled, owing t 
heavy rains. Upwards of 400 acres rose to such + 
height above the level of the ground, that at las' 
it rolled forward like a torrent above a mile, sweep- 
ing along with it houses, trees, &e. It covered 60c 
acres at Netherby, and destroyed about 30 smal! 
villages. Near Solway Moss the Scots were defeated 
by the English, 25 Nov. 1542. 


SOMAJ, see Deism. 
SOMBRERO (West Indies). On this desert 


isle, Robert Jeffery, a British man-of-war's man, 
was put ashore by his commander, the hon. captain 
W. Lake, for having tapped a barrel of beer when 
the ship was on short ailowance. After sustaining 
life for eight days on a few limpets and rain-water, 


1845. 
1846. 


” 
1848. 
1850. 
1851. 
1852. 
1856. 
1857. 
1858. 
1859. 
1861. 
1863. 
1866: 


1871. 
1873. 
1874. 


% 
| 


SOMERSET HOUSE. 


769 


SOUDAN. 


a 


he was saved by an American vessel, 13 Dec. 1807; 
and returned to England. Sir Francis Burdett 
advocated his cause in parliament, and he received 

2. as a compensation from captain Lake, who was 
ed by a court-martial, and dismissed the service, 
(0 Feb. 1810. 


SOMERSET-HOUSE (London), formerly a 
yalace, founded on the site of several churches 
ind other buildings levelled in 1 540» by the pro- 
sector Somerset, whose residence fell to the crown 
ifter his execution, 22 Jan. 1552. Here resided at 
imes queen Elizabeth, Anne of Denmark, and 
Jatherine, queen of Charles II. Old Somerset- 
louse, a mixture of Grecian and Gothic, was de- 
nolished in 1775, and the present edifice, from a 
lesign by sir William Chambers, was erected for 
yublic offices. The Royal Academy of Arts first 
issembled in the apartments given to the members 
yy the king, 17 Jan. 1771. The Royal Society 
net here, 1780-1857; and apartments here were 
Iso held by the Society of Antiquaries and the 
reological Society ; all three now at Burlington 
Touse. Large suites of government buildings were 
rected in 1774. The Navy-office, Pipe-office, 
"ietualling and other offices, were removed here in 

88, and various government departments since. 
‘he east wing forming the King’s College (see 
{ing’s College) was completed in 1833. By an act 
assed in 1854, the offices of the duchy of Cornwall 
rere transferred to Pimlico. 


CHIEF OFFICES AT SOMERSET HOUSE. 
‘robate and Divorce Divi- | Stamp Offices, &c. 
sion of high court of jus- | Excise and Tax-Offices. 
. tice and Registry Offices. | Legacies and Succession 
.ppeals Registry Office. Duty Offices. 
tegister of Births, Deaths, | Inland Revenue Offices. 
and Marriages. Bank Returns Office. 
ixchequer and Audit De- | Laboratory Department. 


partment. Solicitors’ Offices. 
roperty and Income Tax | Companies’Register Offices, 
Offices. &e., &e. 


SOMERSET THE BLACK, see Slavery in 


ingland. 


SOMERS-TOWN, 2 populous district in St. 
‘ancras parish, N. London: named after earl 
omers, whose family acquired the property about 
695. The building began about 1786; and many 
‘rench refugees settled in it. Much of the district 
as been occupied by the railway companies. 


SOMNATH GATES, the gates of an ancient 
‘Lindoo temple at Guzerat, which was destroyed by 
Lahmoud of Ghuznee in 1025. The priests wished 
.) preserve the idol; but Mahmoud broke it to 
‘ieces and found it filled with diamonds, &c. He 
uried the gates to Ghuznee. When that city was 

iken by general Nott, 6 Sept. 1842, lord Ellen- 
haat ordered the gates to be restored after an 
_xile of 800 years, and issued a proclamation much 
-nsured at the time. The gates are made of 
mdal wood, and are described and figured in the 
_rcheologia of the Society of Antiquaries, vol. 


* 


Xx. 
» SOMORROSTRO, see Spain, 1874. 
| SONATA (Italian, sound-piece), the highest 


{rm of instrumental music, consisting of three or 
| ux movements, intending to express diverse kinds 
‘human feelings. 

It was developed from the suite, varied dance music 
artini, 1624, and others). The form fixed by Corelli 
653-1713), was adopted and modified by Scarlatti, the 
achs, Handel, Mozart, Haydn, and culminated in the 
| aster-pieces of Beethoven (1770-1827). Fine sonatas 
ive been composed by Dussek, M. Clementi, Weber, 
\shubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Wm. Sterndale 
ennett, Chopin, Liszt, and Rubenstein. 


SONDERBUND, see Switzerland, 1846. 


SONNET, a poem in fourteen lines, with 
rhymes adjusted by rules, was invented, it is said, 
by Guido d’Arezzo, about 1024. The most cele- 
brated sonnets are those by Petrarch (about 1327), 


Shakspeare (1609), Milton (about 1650), and 
Wordsworth (18209 : : aa. 


SONNITES, the orthodox Mahometans who 


now possess the Turkish empire; see Muaho- 
metanism, 


SONS OF THE CLERGY, see Clergy. 
SONTAY, see Tonquin, Dec. 1883. 


SONTHALS, a tribe of Northern India, 
brought to Bengal about 1830, where they pros- 
pered, till, partly from the instigation of a fanatic, 
and partly from the exactions of money-lenders, 
they broke out into rebellion in July, 1855, and 
committed fearful outrages. They were quite sub- 
dued early in 1856, and many were removed to the 
newly-conquered province of Pegu. 


SOPHIA, ST. (in Constantinople). The first 
church was dedicated to St. Sophia (holy wisdom) 
by Constantius IT., 360 ; this having been destroyed, 
the second, the present edifice, was founded by 
Justinian, 531, and dedicated 537. Since the 
Mahometan conquest in 1453, it has been used as 
an imperial mosque. Its length is 269 feet, and its 
breadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green 
jasper, from the temple of Diana, at Ephesus; and 
of porphyry, from the temple of the Sun, at Rome. 
Four minarets were added by Selim II., who reigned 
in 1566. The interior of the dome is beautifully - 
ornamented with mosaic work. 


SOPHIA, see Sojia, 
SOPHISTS, teachers of youth in Athens, who 


were censured by Socrates, and consequently were 
instrumental in causing his judicial murder, 399 
B.C. The controversy against them was carried on 
by Plato and his disciples, 


SORBONNE, a society of ecclesiastics at 
Paris, founded by Robert de Sorbonne in 1252. 
The members lived in common, and devoted them- 
selves to study and gratuitous teaching. They 
soon attained a European reputation as a faculty of 
theology, their judgment being frequently appealed 
to, from the 14th to the 17th centuries. The influ- 
ence of the Sorbonne was declining when the society 
was broken up in 1789. The buildings are now 
devoted to education. 


SORCERERS anp Maaicrans. A_ law 
was enacted against their seductions, 33 Hen. VIII. 
1541; and another statute equally severe was 
passed, 5 Eliz. 1563. The pretension to sorcery 
was made capital, 1 James I. 1603; see Witch- 
craft. 


SORGHUM, see under Sugar. 


SOUDAN or Sousag, the title of the lieu- 
tenant-generals of the caliphs, which they bore in 
their provinces and armies. The officers afterwards 
made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of 
the forces of Noureddin, king of Damascus, was the 
first that took upon him this title in Egypt, 1165, 
after haying killed the caliph Caym. 


SOUDAN or NIGRITIA, a region of Central 
Africa, partly subjected to the Khedive of Egypt 
since 1874,capital Khartoum. It was well governed, 
by col. Gordon, till 1879. See Lyypt. 


3D 


SOUDAN. 770 SOUDAN. 

Insurrection headed by Sheik Mahomed Ahmed of Tokar surrendered, and the rebel garrison fled 
Dongola, declaring himself to be a prophet x March, 188 
(Mahdi or Muhdi, foretold ty Moslem prophets), Osman Digma at Tamanieh . ‘ 3 March, re 

July, 1881 | Several Arab sheikhs come into Suakim, 6,7 March, ,, 

Defeated ; retires up the Blue Nile; crosses White Osman Digma disregards gen. Graham’s proclama- 
Nile with increased army A winter, ,, tion, about 8 March. Osman Digma disdainfully 

Defeats the Egyptians A INOWernss rejects British proposals, and proclaims death to 

Surrounds and massacres 6000 Egyptians under infidels . ‘i a about 10 March, ,, 
Yussuf Pasha, 14 June; occupies Shala, July; Battle of Tamanieb. The British advance to capture 
defeated at Bara, 19 Aug. ; at Duem, 28 Aug. ; Osman Digma’s camp at Tamasi, near El-Teb, 7.20 
repulsed at Obeid, 8, 14 Sept.; defeats the a.m. 5 the British were massed in oblong squares, 
Egyptians, 15 Sept.-24 Oct. ; rebels defeated at one square broken into by a violent onslaught of 
Bara, 4 Nov.; Col. Stewart at Khartoum, hidden Arabs, who creep under and capture the 

16 Dec. 1882 Gatling and other guns, desperate hand to hand 

The Mahdi captures Bara and Obeid, 5 Jan. ; he is conflict ; the British driven back ; no panic ; col. 
repulsed . 23-26 Feb. 1883 Wood with 7oo cavalry charges the Arabs in flank, 

Col. Hicks pasha with an ar my starts for “He Cor- and drives them back, the infantry rally and re- 
dofan ; arrives at Berber, 1 March ; totally defeats cover the guns, the other square perfectly success- 
the Mahdi with great loss ; ; the enemy pursued ful; the camp taken, 12.30 p.m. The British loss, 

29 April, ,, killed, capts. H. G. V. Ford, Walker, and Aitken ; 

The Mahdi defeated at Khartoum about 14 May, ,, lieuts. Montresor, Almack, and Houston Stewart, 

The Sennaar chiefs submit announced 25 June, ,, and 86 men, rrr wounded, and 19 missing; 2000 

Hicks marches up the Nile, 9 Sept.; arrives at of the enemy killed out of above ro,ooo, The 
Duem . 20 Sept. ,, Black Watch and Naval Brigade suffered much 


Surprise and defeat of Egyptian detachment at 
Tokar, near Suakim ; about 150 killed, including 
the brave and able British consul . 6 Nov. 

Battle of El-Obeid, or Kashgal; col. Hicks decoyed 
into a defile ; about rr,00o men attacked by over- 
whelming multitudes, they form squares and 
resist till nearly all are killed, including col. 
Hicks, col. Farquhar, and other European 
officers, only two said to have escaped ; reported 
desertion of some of Hicks’ troops; the Mahdi 
gains cannon and much ammunition 3-5 Nov. 

Egyptian force concentrated at Khartoum under 
‘Col. Coetlogon . Nov. 

General rising throughout the country ; the British 
government sends gunboats to defend Suakim 
and Red Sea ports, about 23 Nov. ; attack on 
Suakim forts, 26 Nov.—r Dee. ; about 720 Egyp- 
tians surrounded and 682 killed (asserted) 2 Dec. 

VY. Baker pasha sent to Suakim with plenary powers 

about 18 Dec. 

Khartoum garrison strengthened about 26 Dee. 

Osman Digma, a ruined slave dealer, commander 
for the Mahdi . Dec. 

General (Chinese) Gordon sent to the Soudan (to 
report) 18 Jan., starts 319 Jan.; appointed 
governor-general of the Soudan by ‘he Khedive 

25 Jan. 

Sinkat closely besieged Nov. 1883—Jan. 

Tokar besieged by rebels; surrenders, 21 Feb. ; 
Baker pasha with 3500 men defeated near Tokar, 
loses about 2250 men (demoralized), with the 
remnant retreats to Trinkitat, 4 Feb. ; received 
by H.M.S. Ranger, 5, 6 Feb. ; reinforcements 
ordered to be sent to adm. Hewett at Suakim, 
6 Feb. ; Baker pasha recalled ; remains ; Suakim 
in state of siege ; adm. Hewett in full command, 
7-9 Feb. ; desper ate sortie of the garrison, headed 


by Tewfik bey, from Sinkat, all killed; women 
and children prisoners, town taken 8 Feb. 
Reinforcements sent to Suakim rr, 12 Feb. 


General Gordon arrives at Berber, 11 Feb. ; enthu- 
siastically received as a deliverer at Khartoum ; 
proclaims the Mahdi sultan of Kordofan ; remis- 
sion of half the taxes, and non- interference 
with the slave ia releases Serge remits 
debts , 8 Feb. 

Restoration of the former sultanate of Darfous 
proposed; Kassala besieged by Osman Digma Feb. 

The Black troops at Suakim mutiny and disperse 
announced ‘ 25 Feb. 

Battle of El-Teb, near where "Baker pasha was 
defeated, 4 Feb. After fruitless attempt at 
negotiation, gen. Gerald Graham, with about 
4000 men (consisting of roth and "roth Hussars, 
Gordon Highlanders, the Black Watch, Lanca- 
shire and Yorkshire battalions, and Marines), at 
Ir a.m., advanced on the rebels, about 12,000, 
who, after a most desperate, heroic resistance, 
were totally defeated with the loss of about 2000 
ret at 2.30 p.m.; the British loss was major 

M. Slade, lieuts. F. H. Probyn, F. A. Free- 
man and Frank RKoyds, and quartermaster James 
Wilkins and 24 men killed, and 142 wounded, 

29 Feb. 


”? 


? 


13 March, 
Osman -Digma’s camp with stores eapbared on 
4 Feb. ; . burnt 14 March 


Gordon defeats rebels and brings off garrison of 
Halfyeh 5 about 1 5 March, 

Thr oan cowardice and tr eachery Gordon’s troops 
(x50) defeated by about 60 rebels with great 
slaughter - 16 March, 

Reward of 5000 dollars offered for capture of 
Osman Digma, alive or dead, 1 5 March ; counter- 


manded from home . 17 March, 
Troops march to Handoub wells” 18 March, 
Friendly sheikhs coming in . ; . 20 March, 


Hassan and Said pashas, Turko-Egyptian generals, 
tried and shot . : 23 March, 
The Mahdi rejects Gordon’ S offers announced 
23 March, 
General Graham advances on Tamanieb ; slight 
skirmish ; the Arabs flee; Osman Digma’s vil- 
lages burnt 27 March, 
Three regiments at Suakim, embark for home, &c. 
29 March, 
March to Berber reported safe : 29 March, 
Gorden contending with the rebels, with varying 
success ; Kassala closely besieged, announced 
30 March, 
Khartoum said to be closely invested ; ie rebels 
frequently defeated : April, 
General Gordon, eol. Stewart, and Mr. Power, the 
Times correspondent, the only British there 


8 April, 
| The Mahdi said to have been twice defeated we the 
Jagalla tribes reported. 6 9 April, 
Egyptian troops arrive at Suakim - ro April, 


Adm. Hewett’s mission well received by Ras Aloola 
about 13 April, 
The Marines depart = ; about 15 April, 
Shendy closely besieged ; 5x Br nF from ‘a killed 
by Arabs announced 1g April, 
Berber said to be closely invested — 20 April, 
Reported evacuation of Berber; troops withdrawn 
to Korosko ; announced ‘ . 26 April, 
The whole country in insurrection ; Egyptian 
troops joining the Mahdi. April, 
The government declining to send help, Gordon 
writes to sir Evelyn Baring, **T shall hold on 
here as long as I can, and if I can suppress the 
rebellion, I will do SO. If I cannot, I shall 
retire to the equator.” 
Col. Stewart and Mr. Power decide to remain with 
him 3 . May, 
Subscriptions proposed to support Gordon . May, 
Adm. Hewett well received by the king of Abys- 
sinia at Adowa; treaty signed about 26 May, 
Fruitless attacks on Suakim checked by Marines, 
27, 28, 31 May, 2, 4, ro June, 
Gordon said to have been opposed by government 
in all his propositions . : April, May, 
Highly successful sally from Khartoum ; ‘major 
Chermside made governor of Suakim ; refugees 
from Korosko arrive-:at Assouan ; reported rise of 
another Mahdi . 2 28 May, 
The Mudir of Dongola said to have defeated the 
rebels... | Ata . at ey, 


fi 


SOUDAN. 


ivance of Egyptian troops 5 : 
ll of Berber announced . - A 
ssouan fortified . 5 : 5 : 
abels defeated at Debbeh with great loss, 
29-30 June, 
livance of the Mahdi said to be checked by another 
Mahdi, announced . A ‘5 : . 2duly, 
3souan occupied by the British 12 July, 
Iditional troops sent to Alexandria from Malta 

: July, 
yrdon dominant and successful at Khartoum re- 
ported * a c : : : 22 July, 
yntinued desertion of Egyptian troops announced 
July; Gordon reports Khartoum and Sennaar 
holding out . i : : é ne. SPAMS. 
udir of Dongola said to have greatly helped Gor- 
don . . duly, Aug. 
m. Gordon to Aug. ; de- 


- 10 June, 
. dune, 


repulses severe attack, 


feats rebels . F : : : 2 12 Aug. 
sman Digma, near Suakim, frequently defeated, 
Aug. 


separation for the expedition to relieve Khartoum, 
gen. Earle commander ; British troops arrive at 
Wady Halfa - ; A . 23 Aug. et seq. 
ie expedition to ascend the Nile in about 800 flat- 
bottomed boats, navigated by Canadian Indians 
(voyagewrs); Sarras : , : . Sept. Oct. 
efeat of the Mahdi’s troops by the Mudir of Don- 
gola at Ambikol ; » F : . 8 Sept. 
en. Earle to be at Wady Halfa; col. Stewart and 
lord Airlie at Dongola ; col. Maurice at Assiout 
Sept. 
nother defeat of Mahdi’s troops reported 15 Sept. 
alegrams from Gordon requiring assistance Sept. 
riendly tribes defeat rebels, and relieve Suakim, 
about 17 Sept. 
ietories of Gordon on 24 July and 30 Aug., and 
raising of the siege of Khartoum reported, 

20 Sept. 
ritish army in Egypt, 13,559 about 22 Sept. 
ord John Hay arrives with the fleet at Alexandria, 

24 Sept. 
everal camel corps start from Woolwich for the 

Soudan ' : 4 é about 25 Sept. 
(r. Power’s journal of the siege of Khartoum, from 
April to 31 July published in the Times, 29 Sept. 
ord Wolseley arrives at Wady Halfa me es Oct: 
hendy taken - : : 3 : + 6 Oct. 
ol. J. D. Stewart, with Mr. Power and M. Herbin, 
and about 4o men in a steamer, wrecked near 
Wady Garna, fifth cataract ; land; massacred by 
Arabs offering guidance, announced about 6 Oct. 
‘ordon defeats rebels and returns to Khartoum, 


announced A 2 : : : ene NOV. 
ord Wolseley arrives at Dongola re gUNOV. 
\ttacks on Suakim repulsed 2 - 3, 4 Nov. 
;crdon reports all well at Khartoum 4 Nov. 
tebels often repulsed . - : ; Nov. 
.bove 200 whalers on the Nile conveying troops, &c. 
15 Nov. 


‘wo steamers disabled by rebels near Khartoum, 
announced : - ; : : .. 18 Nov. 
ord Wolseley’s proclamation to the soldiers and 
sailors issued F 4 F : Fi a Dee: 
‘wo hours’ attack of the rebels on Suakim without 
effect, 3 Dec. ; rebels defeated with loss 8 Dec. 
jord Wolseley arrives at Korti 5 aye 
successful sally of the garrison of Kassala, 26 Dec. 
‘orward movement of the army 28 Dec. 
tapid marches of gen. sir Herbert Stewart . Dec. 
Successful march in the desert 3 Jan. 
ten. Earle proceeding up the Nile, and gen. Stewart 
crossing the desert with troops, towards Metam- 
men... : 5 5 : % : - Jan. 
Near Abu Klea wells, about 120 miles from Khar- 
toum, gen. Stewart, with 1500 men, defeats about 
10,000 Arabs, who retire after a fierce conflict 
within the square, leaving about 800 dead. The 
British lose g officers (cols Fred. Gus. Burnaby, 
majors Atherton, Carmichael, and Gough, capts. 
Law and Darley, lieuts. Pigott, Delisle, and 
Wolfe), and 65 men killed, with 85 pounced 
. 17 Jan. 
Gen. Stewart, marching towards Metammeh, is 
severely wounded by hidden sharpshooters 5 12 
killed, including correspondents of the Morning 
Post and Standard, Thos. St. Leger Herbert, and 


a 


771 


- May, 1884 


>? 


SOUDAN. 


John A. Cameron; sir Charles Wilson takes com- 
mand 7 : f : é : ° 
At Gubat, near Metammeh, fierce Arab onset on 
the British square is repulsed with very heavy 
loss + : : 7 4 : : 19 Jan. 
Message from gen. Gordon received, dated 29 Dec. : 
“Khartoum is all right; could hold out for a 
years: : : & : : about 19 Jan. 
Communications opened with Khartoum . 24 Jan. 
Gen. Earle with army marches to Handoub for 
Berber . ; 3 : & é ° 
Successful skirmishes of gen. Earle. . Jan. 
Gen. Stewart succeeded by sir Redvers Buller Jan. 
Surrender of Khartoum by treachery of Faragh 
Pasha; Gordon and his faithful followers killed, 
early 26 Jan. 

Sir Charles Wilson sails up the Nile. 28 Jan. 
Reconnaissances of gen. Fremantle; heavy Arab 
loss, about 30Jan.; Handoub captured and burnt 
by a party which is intercepted by Arabs, and 
lose 12 men : 3 ; 5 2 « -2¥eb: 
The Italian flag hoisted beside Egyptian at Masso- 
wah F : ‘ : ; d 6 Feb. 
Sir Charles Wilson and party, within 800 yards of 
Khartoum, fired upon; retreats ; his steamer is 
wrecked by treachery of Arab pilots ; lands on an 
island; is rescued from peril by the daring cour- 
age of lord Charles Beresford in face of batteries; 
arrives at Korti F + : : wong) Leb. 
Victory at Kirbekan: the Arabs on a ridge, sur- 
rounded by gen. Earle’s column (the Black 
Watch and Statfordshire regiments), many killed; 
gen. Earle and lieut.-cols. Eyre and Coveney, and 
nine others killed; attack well planned and gal- 
lantly executed; gen. Brackenbury takes the 
command - : : : - 10 Feb. 
Gen. Buller retreats from Gubat to Abu-Klea wells, 
13-15 Feb. 

Death of sir H. Stewart at Gakdul 16 Feb. 
Railway between Suakim and Berber ordered to be 


constructed : : - : ; ened: 
Second Italian expedition arrives at Port Said, 
17 Feb. 


Near Abu Klea, Arabs demoralised by skilful feat of 
major Wardrop, who takes the heights after much 
skirmishing ; Arabs flee. siya deed ay 

Sir Evelyn Wood arrives at Gakdul . . 17 Feb. 

Gen. Gerald Graham, with Coldstream and Grena- 
dier Guards aid others, start for the Soudan; fare- 
well given. by the queen and prince of Wales, 

19-21 Feb. 

Osman Digma massing his forces near Suakim, 

about 21 Feb. 

Rebels’ attack on Kassala garrison defeated with 


great loss announced . “ é ; 22 Feb. 
Gen. Brackenbury’s column reaches Gakdul, 

26 Feb. 

Gen. Buller’s column marches to Korti 1 March, 


Gen. Graham’s staff and r5th Sikhs regiment arrive 

at Suakim 2 : : : . 4 March, 
Successful sally from Kassala announced 4 March, 
The queen’s address of thanks read to the army at 


Korti by lord Wolseley. - ‘ 7 March, 
The 17th Bengal Infantry and the Royal Engineers 
balloon corps arrive at Suakim 7 March, 


Arab raids on Suakim camp; sentries killed 
tr March, 
The bulk of lord Wolseley’s army at Korti, 
12 March, 
Gen. Graham arrives at Suakim with sth Lancers, 
12, 13 March, 
The last of the desert troops arrive at Korti, 
16 March, 
Gen. Graham calls on Osman Digma to surrender, to 
avoid bloodshed about 16 March, 


Battle of Hasheen: Graham, with part of: his 
army, starts at daybreak; several of Osman 
Digma’s positions on the hills taken after con- 
flicts : about 21 British killed : 20 March, 

Gen. McNeil’s brigade unexpectedly attacked by 
about 4500 Arabs, about 6 miles from Suakim ; 
they are repulsed with heavy loss (about 1500), 
after a severe fight; British loss about roo killed, 
including lieuts. Swinton, Seymour, and New- 
man, capt. Romilly and others 22 March, 

Manifesto of the Mahdi claiming the caliphate pub- 
lished. : : 5 : f - March, 


Boop Pe 


18 Jan. 1885 


” 


”? 


SOULAGES COLLECTION. 


Fever at Korti; evacuated by the army, 


about 23 March, 1885. 


Arab attacks repulsed by the guards 24 March, ,, 
Attacks on British convoy repulsed 24-26 March, ,, 
The last Egyptian troops leave Suakim 26 March, ,, 
Zebehr Pasha arrested at request of lord Wolseley, 
14 March 3 sent to Gibraltar . 29 March, ,, 
New South Wales contingent arrives at Suakim 
29, 30 March, ,, 
Graham advances ; finds Tamai deserted ; burns it 
and returns to Suakim : a Beye en, 
The railway to Berber constructing under military 
protection . i : : : eo SADT, UA, 
Handoub (deserted) occupied by the British 
8April, ,, 
Successful raid of capt. Briggs, capturing prisoners, 
cattle, &e. . ; ‘ S . Ee SADE eee 
Numerous night attacks . G : “ April, _,, 
Rebellion against the Mahdi; his troops said to be 
defeated near Cordofan a = Apri; es; 
Lord Wolseley arrives at Suakim wiewMay. vs: 
Takool burnt and cattle captured by gen. Graham ; 
organised force of Arabs dispersed 
midnight, 5-6 May, ,, 
Proposed armed defence of line from Assouan 
' to Wady Halfa announced 3 iz May, ,, 
General Graham with British troops, and the 
Indian (part) and New South Wales contingents, 
quit Suakim F 2 17 May et seg. ,, 


SOULAGES COLLECTION. About 1827, 
M. Soulages of Thoulouse, collected 790 specimens 
of Italian art and workmanship, &c. These were 
bought for 11,0007. by 73 English gentlemen, with 
the view of first exhibiting them to the public, and 
afterwards selling them to the government (who 
gradually purchased them between 1858 and 1865). 
They formed part of the ‘‘ Art Treasures”? exhibited 
at Manchester in 1857. 


SOUND, see Acoustics. 
SOUND DUTIES. Till the year 1857 no 


merchant ship was allowed to pass the Sound (a 
narrow channel separating Zealand from Sweden) 
without clearing at Elsineur and paying’ toll. 
These duties had their origin in an agreement 
between the king of Denmark and the Hanse towns 
-(1348), by which the former undertook to maintain 
lighthouses, &c., along the Cattegat, and the latter 
to pay duty for the same. The first treaty with 
England in relation to this was in 1450; other 
countries followed. In 1855 the United States 
determined to pay the dues no more; and in the 
same year the Danish government proposed that 
these dues should be capitalised; which was 
eventually agreed to, the sum being 30,476,325 rix- 
dollars. In Aug. 1857, the British government 
paid 10,126,855 rix-dollars (1,125,206/.) to the Danes 
as their proportion.—The passage of the Sound was 
effected, in defiance of strong fortresses, by sir Hyde 
Parker and lord Nelson, 31 March, I801; see 
Baltic Expedition. 


SOUNDINGS at SEA. Captain Ross, of 
H.M.S. Cdipus, in 1840, took extraordinary 
soundings at sea. One taken 900 miles west of St. 
Helena, extended to the depth of 5000 fathoms. In 
the latitude 33° S. and longitude 9° W. about 300 
miles from the Cape of Good Hope, 2266 fathoms 
were sounded ; the weight employed amounted to 
450 lbs. On 13 July, 1857, lieut. Joseph Dayman, 
in the North Atlantic Ocean, lat. 51° 9’ N., long. 
40° 2’ W., in sounding, found a bottom at 2424 
fathoms. The deepest sounding known (3875 
faths.) was taken by the Challenger, capt. Nares, 
24 March, 1873, in the North Atlantic, north of St. 
Thomas's. 


SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION, es- 


tablished July, 1881, to promote the commercial 
and social interests of the South African colonies. 


772 


' 3 
~. 


SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 


SOUTH AFRICAN CONFEDER: 
TION: to comprise the three British colonies 
Cape Town, Natal, and West Griqua Land (187 
—and the two Dutch republics, Orange River fr 
state, and the South African or Trans-Vaal repub! 
(1852). ‘The formation was proposed by the ear] 
Carnarvon, colonial secretary, in a despatch to § 
Henry Barkly, governor of Cape Town, 4 May, 187 
and advocated by the historian, J. A. Fronde, on 
visit. It was much opposed at the Cape. § 
Cape. A conference of delegates in London w 
opened, 5 Aug. 1876. 


The South Africa Act ‘‘for the union under one gove! 
ment of such of the South African colonies and stat 
as may agree thereto,” was passed 19 Aug. 1877. 


SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC, nar 
assumed by the Boers in the Transvaal (whi 
sf in 1880-1, and adopted by treaty in Fe 
1884. 


SOUTH AMERICA, see America. 
SOUTHAMPTON, a seaport (S. England), 


county of itself, near the Roman Clausentum a1 
the Saxon Hamtune. It frequently suffered | 
Danish incursions: Canute, when king, occasional 
resided here. The charter was granted by Henry 
and confirmed by Richard I. and John; and the fr 
grammar school was founded by Edward VI. ( 
17 July, 1861, a monument to Dr. Isaac Watt 
a native, was uncovered; and on 15 Oct. 1862, tl 
Hartley institution was opened by lord Pa 
meérston. The prince of Wales laid the foundatic¢ 
of the parish church of St. Mary, built as a mem 
rial of Samuel Wilberforce, bishop of Wincheste 
12 Aug. 1878; consecrated 19 June, 1879. 1! 
British Association met here 1846 and 1882. 


SOUTH AUSTRALIA was visited by cap 
Sturt im 1830, and explored shortly after by cap 
Parker and Mr. Kent, the former of whom w: 
killed by the natives. The boundaries of the pr 
vince were fixed by 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 95 (1834) 
and it was occupied 26 Dec. 1836, by capt. Hin: 
marsh, the first governor. It was colonised accor 
ing to Mr. E. Gibbon Wakefield’s scheme, whic 
was carried out by the South Australian Colonis 
tion Association. The colony for several yea 
underwent severe trials through the great inf 
of emigrants, land-jobbing, building speculation 
&c., which produced almost universal bankrupti 
in 1839. In five years after, the energy of tl 
colonists had overcome their difficulties, and tl 
prosperity of the colony appeared fully establishe: 
In 1842 the highly productive Burra Burra copp 
mines were discovered, and large fortunes we 
suddenly realised; but in 1851 the discovery | 
gold in New South Wales and Victoria almo 
paralysed this province by drawing off a lar; 
part of the labouring population. Very little go 
was found in South Australia; but a reaction toc 
place in favour of the copper mines and agricu 
ture, &c. Before the discovery of gold, litt 
trade existed between Adelaide (the capital « 
South Australia) and Melbourne; but in 18: 
gold was transmitted from the latter to the fornix 
to the amount of 2,21 » 1672. principally for breac 
stuffs, farm produce, &c. ithe bishopric of Ade 
laide was founded in 1847. Sir Dominie Dal: 
appointed governor in Noy. 1861, died 19 Fe! 
1868; succeeded by sir James Fergusson, De 
1868; by Anthony Musgrave, Jan. 1873; Wy Wn 
Wellington Cairns, Jan. 1877; Sir W. F. D. Jer 
vois, June, 1877; sir W. Robinson, Nov. 188: 
Population in 1855, 85,821; in 1865, 156,605 


SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA. 


lod 
( 


73 


SPA-FIELDS. 


1871, 185,626; in 1877, 225,677; in 1882, 
39509. 

SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA, a fanatic, born 
1750, came from Exeter to London, where her 
lowers at one period amounted to many thou- 
ids, the low and ignorant being her principal 
pes. In 1792 she announced herself as the 
man spoken of in Revelation, chap. xii.; and 
isease favoured the delusion that she would be 
» mother of the promised Shiloh. She died 27 
e. 1814. In 1851 there existed in England four 
igregations, professing to expect her return. 
x successor, Mrs. Peacock, died March, 1875, 
2d 103 (?). ; 
SOUTH-EASTERN RAILWAY, from 
ndon to Folkestone, opened, 28 June, 1843; to 
ver, 7 Feb. 1844. 


SOUTHERN CONFEDERATE STATES, 


: Confederates. 


ean was first traversed by Magellan in 1520; 
d explored by Wallis and Carteret in 1766; and 
Cook in 1773 and 1774. Of the southern con- 
ent little more is known than that it is ice- 
und, and contains active volcanoes. It was dis- 
vered in the first instance by capt. John Biscoe, 
27 Feb. 1831, in lat. 65° 57’S., long. 47° 20’E., 
tending east and west 200 miles,—this he named 


iderby Land, after the gentleman who had | 
Capt. Biscoe also _ 


uipped him for the voyage. 
scovered Graham’s Land on 15 Feb. 1832, 
uated in lat. 67° 1’ S., long. 71° 48’ W. The 
essrs. Enderby equipped three other expeditions 
search of the southern continent, the last (in 
nnection with some other gentlemen) in 1838, 
aen capt. Balleny had command, who, ong Feb. 
39, discovered the Balleny Islands, in lat. 67° 
, long. 165° E., and in March, 1839, Sabrina 
ind, in lat. 65° 10'S., long. 118°30’ K. In 1840. 
French expedition, under the command of admiral 
‘Urville, and an American expedition, under the 
mmand of commodore Wilkes, greatly added to 
ir knowledge in respect to the existence of a 
uthern continent, and this was again increased 
+ the expedition which sailed from England in 
39, under the command of capt. sir James 
ark Ross, who discovered Victoria Land in 1841, 
id subsequently penetrated as far south as 
i? 11’. Antarctic expedition proposed by the Ar- 
mtine republic and the Genoese, Sept. 1881; the 
jects collected to be divided. Italian expedition 
ider lieut. Booe, 1881-2. 


SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM, 
‘ar Brompton old church (containing the pic- 
res presented by Mr. Vernon, Mr. Sheepshanks, 
rs. Ellison, and those bequeathed by Turner, 
e great painter, as well as specimens of sculpture 
id art, educational collections, products of the 
timal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, &c.), was 
ened on 22 June, 1857. <A special exhibition of 
orks of art, of immense value, lent for the occasion, 
as opened here in the summer of 1862, and closed 
November. In July, 1873, a testimonial to Mr. 
enry Cole, C.B., was proposed for his exertions 
organizing this museum, and in promoting its 
yjects. ; 
r. John Forster, biographer of Dickens, be- 
queathed his library of books, MSS., paintings, 
and drawings to this museum. He died x Feb. . 1876 
‘ientific Apparatus Loan Exhibition (which see) 
‘opened 13 May, closed . A : sORWeC! 
r. John Jones bequeaths a collection of works of 
art, &c. ; estimated value, 500,o0ol. announced, 
Jan. 1882 


29 


SOUTH-SEA BUBBLE commenced with 
the establishment of the South-sea company in 
1710, which was at first unwisely and afterwards 
dishonestly managed. Itexploded in 1720, ruining 
thousands of families; and the directors’ estates, 
to the value of 2,014,000/., were seized in 1721 and 
sold. Mr. Knight, the cashier, absconded with 
100,000/.; but he compounded the fraud for 
10,0002. and returned to England in 1743. Almost 
all the wealthy persons in the kingdom had become 
speculators; the artifices of the directors having 
raised the shares, originally 1oo/., to the price of 
tooo/. A parliamentary inquiry. took place in 
Nov. 1720, and Aislabie, Riaaellee of the exche- 
quer, and several members of parliament were 
expelled the house in 1721; see Law's Bubble. 


SOUTHWARK (S. London), was governed ie 


its own bailiffs till 1327. The city, however, foun 


_ great inconvenience from the number of malefac- 


' tors who escaped thither, in order to be out of the 
SOUTHERN CONTINENT. The Southern | 


reach and cognizance of the city magistrates ; and: 
a grant was made of Southwark to the city of 
London by the crown, for a small annuity. In , 
Edward VI.’s reign it was formed into a city ward, 
and was named Bridge Ward Without, 1550.— 
Southwark bridge was designed by John Rennie, 
and built by a company, 1815-19, at an expense 
of 800,000/. It consists of three great cast-iron 
arches, resting on massive stone piers and abut- 
ments; the distance between the abutments is 708 
feet; the centre arch is 240 feet span, the two 
others 210 feet each; and the total weight of iron 
308 tons. The bridge was freed from toll on 8 
Nov. 1864, the company receiving a compensation 
from the city. An act for the payment of divi- 
dends to shareholders was passed in 1872.—South- 
wark park was opened, 19 June, 1869. By the 
Seats Act (1885), Southwark is to send three mem- 
bers to parliament. 


SOUTHWELL, Nottinghamshire, an ancient 
Saxon town, where a church was founded by Pau- 
linus, archbishop of York, 627; made collegiate 
before the conquest, refounded by Henry VIIL., 
and made a bishopric by Henry VIII., 1541; dis- 
solved by Edward VI. Collegiate church restored 
by Elizabeth, 1586. Near here Charles I. surren- 
dered himself to the Scotch army in 1646. The 
Bishoprics act, authorising the establishment of a 
see at Southwell, was passed, 16 Aug. 1878. Con- 
stituted (to consist of the counties of Derby and 
Nottingham), 6 Feb. 1884. 


FIRST BISHOP. 
George Ridding, consecrated 1 May, 1884. 


SOUTH WOLD, see Solebay. 
SOVEREIGN, an ancient and modern British 


gold coin. In 1489 223 pieces, in value 20s., “ to 
be called the sovereign,’’ were ordered to be coined 
out of a pound of gold. Ruding. In 1542 ‘sove- 
reigns were coined in value 20s., which afterwards, 
in 1550 and 1552 (4 & 6 Kd. VI.), passed for 24. 
and 30s. ‘‘Sovereigns”’ of the new coinage were 
directed to pass for 20s. I July, and _half-sovereigns 
for 10s. 10 Oct. 1817; see Coin, and Gold. By the 
Coinage act, 1870, the weight of the sovereign is 
fixed at 123'27447 grains troy; specific gravity, 
17°57; (g16°67, gold being 1000) ; half-sovereigns, 
61°63723 grains. The dragon sovereigns were re- 
issued in 1871. 


SPA-FIELDS (N. London). Here about 
30,000 persons assembled to vote an address from 
the distressed manufacturers to the prince regent, 
15 Nov. 1816. Asecond meeting, 2 Dec. following, 


SPAHIS. 174 SPAIN. 
terminated in an alarming riot; the shops of | The kingdom of Granada begun by the Moors, last 
several gunsmiths were att: acked for arms by the refuge from the power of the Christians.” .. 32 


rioters ; and in the shop of Mr. Beckwith, on Snow- 
hill, Mr. Platt was wounded, and much injury was | 
done before the tumult was suppressed. For this | 
riot, Cashman, a seaman, was hanged, 12 March, 
1817 7. Watson, the ringleader, escaped to America. 


SPAHIS, Turkish cavalry. African horsemen, 
under this name, were incorporated by the French 
in Algeria in 1834; three regiments of them came 
to France in 1863. 


SPAIN (the ancient Iberia and Hispania). The 
first settlers are supposed to have been the progeny 
of Tubal, fifth son of Japheth. The Phoenicians 
and Carthaginians (360 B.c.) successively planted 
colonies on the coasts; and the Romans conquered 
the whole country, 206 B.C. Population of Spain 
in 1857, 15,464,078; of the colonies, 6,333,887; 
1883, total 25,022, 880. Revenue: 1822, about 
6,000, 0001. ; 1850, 1 12,722,200/.; 1860, 18,921,000 ; 
1871, about 26,000, oo0l. ; 1883- 4, 32,095,075). 


The Carthaginians) pisiched by the mines of Spain B.c. 


(480 B.c. et seq.) form settlements . 360 
New Carthage (Carthagena) founded by Hasdrubal 242 
Hamilcar extends their dominions in Spain 238-233 
At his death, Hannibal, his son, takes the com- 

mand, 221 ; prepares for war, 220; takes Sagun- 

tum, 219 ; crosses the Alps, and enters Italy 218 
The Romans carry the war into Spain ; two Scipios 

defeated and slain by Hasdrubal 212 
Pub. Cornelius Scipio Africanus takes New Car- 

thage, 210; drives the Carthaginians out of Spain, 

207 ; and annexes it : : 5 oe 
Celtiberian and Numantine war 153-13 
Viriathus, general of the Celtiberians and Lusi- 

tanians, subdued all West Spain, 145; makes 

peace with the consul Fabius Servilianus, 142 ; 

assassinated by order of the Romans . 140 
Insurrection of Sertorius, 78 ; subdued by Pompey, 

and assassinated : menage BG ee: 
Julius Cesar quells an insurrection in “Spain 5 oF 
Pompey governs Spain : = 60-50 
Revolt through the rapacity of Crassus . 48-47 


Era of Spain : conquest by Augustus begun, 1 Jan. 38 
The Vandals, Alani, and Suevi wrest Spain from 


the Romans A.D. 409 
Adolphus founds the kingdom of the Visigoths . 414 
The Vandals pass over to “Africa 427 
Theodoric L yanquishes the Suevi 452 


Assassinated by his brother Euric, who becomes 


master of all Spain 466 


Recared I. expels the Franks ; : - MS ERO 7 
He abjures Arianism, and rules ably ; till 6or 
Wamba’s wise administration ; he prepared a fleet 

for defence against the Saracens 672-677 
The Arabs invited into Spain against king Roderic. 709 
His defeat and death at Xeres . : 71 
Establishment of the Saracens at Cordova 3 “y 
Victorious progress of Musa and Tarik . 12-13 
Emirs rule at Cordova; Pelayo, of Gothic bloods 

rules in Asturias and Leon : 718 
The Saracens defeated at Tours by Charles Martel, 

732 OF 733 

Abderahman the first king at Cordova ° 755 
Invasion of Charlemagne . 5 5 ° 9777-79 
Sancho Inigo, count of Navarre, Ke. 5 673 
Sancho of Navarre becomes king of Castile 1026 
The kingdom of Aragon commenced under Rami- 

rez I. 1035 
Leon and Asturias united to Castile. 1037 
Portugal taken from the Saracens by Henry of 

Besangon (see Portugal) 1095 
The Saracens, beset on all sides by the Christians, 

call in the aid of the Moors from Africa, who seize 

the dominions they came to protect, and subdne 

the Saracens ‘ rogt et seq. 
Exploits of the Cid Rodrigo ; ‘dies. about 1099 
Dynasty of the Almoravides at Cordova + 1094-1144 
The Moors defeated in several battles by Alfonso of 

Leon ; - 1144 
Dynasty of the Almohades at Cordova 144-1225 


taken a Veriinand 


Cordova, Toledo, Seville, &c., 
, 1233748 


of Castile and Leon 


The crown of Navarre passes to the royal family of 

France ; 12 
200,000 Moors arrive to assist the king of Granada. x 3 
| They are defeated at Tarifa by Alfonso XI. of Cas- 


tile with great slaughter . s 7; 
Reign of Pedro the Crueias ° Nt 
His alliance with Edward the Black Prince : 2nd 
Defeated at Montiel and treacherously slain . \1 


Ferdinand II. of Aragon marries Isabella of Castile, 
18 Oct. 1469 ; and nearly the whole Christian 
deminions of Spain are united in one monarcby . 

Establishment of the Inquisition 

Persecution of the Jews 140: 

Granada taken after a two years’ siege ; and the 
power of the Moors is Be eu iatag by Ferdi- 
nand . ANS 4 

Jews expelled A 

Columbus is sent from Spain to explore the western 


-§ 


ocean. - 17 Aprile | 
Mahometans persecuted and expelled . 1499-15 
Death of Columbus . - 20 May, + 
Ferdinand conquers great part of Navarre é 


Accession of the house of Austria to the throne of 


Spain ; Charles I. of Spain 
Able administration of Ximenes ; : “ungratefilly | 
used, 1516; his death oli § 


Charles elected emperor of Germany : A - a 
Insurrection in Castile 1520- 
Philip of Spain marries Mary of England 25 ir uly, 15 
harles abdicates and retires from the world . 15 
War with France ; victory at St. Quentin 10 Aug. Is 
Philip IJ. commences his bloody Seid tebe of the 
protestants : : - «ene 
The Escurial begun building r , 245 
Revolt of the Moriscoes, 1567 ; suppressed . = hag 


Naval victory of Lepanto over the Turks 7 Oct. 15 
Portugal united to Spain by conquest A - oars 
The Spanish Armada destroyed ; see Armada. oar 5 
Philip III. banishes the Moors (goo,000) 1598-1 
Ministry of the duke of Lerma. c « 1598-16 
Ministry of Olivarez - 1621- 


Philip IV. loses Portugal . : iia 6 
Death of Charles II., last of the house of Austtia’ 
accession of Philip V. of the house of Bourbon . 17 
War of the Succession A A 
Gibraltar taken by the English : : 3 -. vee 
Siege of Barcelona. ‘ ‘ BF, 
Able government of cardinal Alberoni ; he re-estab- 
lished the authority of the king, reformed many 


abuses ; and raised Spain to the rank of a first 

power, 1715-20; ordered to quit Spain . Rees ig 
Charles, son of Philip V., conquers Naples. 17 
Charles III. king of the "Two Sicilies, succeeds to 

the crown of Spain . : : 3 AR 
War with England, 1762-3 ; and, . 17 
Battle of Cape St. Vincent 14 Feb. 17 


Spanish treasure-ships, valued at 3,000,000 dollar 


seized by the English . ; 3 Oct. 18 
Battle of Trafalgar (see Trafalgar) A . 2r Oct. 18 
Sway of Godoy, prince of the peace. 18 
The French enter Spain; a Spanish army sent to 

the Baltic 3 18 
Conspiracy of the prince of Asturias against his 

father . - - “ s July, , 
Treaty of Fontainebleau : E 3 a Octa 3 
The French take Madrid : § atone 18 


The prince of peace dismissed . “ 18 March, 
Abdication of Charles IV. in favour of Ferdinand, 


19 March; and at Bayonne, in favour of his. 
‘friend and ally” Napoleon, when Ferdinand 
relinquished the crown. 1 May, , 
Revolution: the French massacred at Mati 
ay, ’ 


The province of Asturias rises en masse . 3 May. , 
Napoleon assembles the notables at Bayonne 
25 May, ,. 
Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as king of Spain, 


12 July ; retires ages, » 
Battle of Vimiera ; French “defeated — 21 Aug. ,. 
Supreme Junta installed Sept. , 


Madrid taken by the Fr ench, and J oseph ak ad 
ec % 
Napoleon enters Madrid : Awec. |, 
The royal family of Spain imprisoned in the acs 
of Chambery in Savoy - Lien. 5, 


SPAIN. 


SPAIN. 


eee eee a a a eae 


he French defeated at Corunna, 16 Jan. ; take 
Ferrol, 27 Jan. ; Saragossa, 21 Feb. ; Oporto, 
29 Feb. ; Cordova and Seville, Noy.; Gerona, 


12 Dec. 
ey takes Ciudad Rodrigo . F A to July, 
ne Spanish cortes meet sped MOpb. | 55 


Tellington defeats Massena at "Fuentes de Onoro, 


| 5 May, 1811 
oult defeated at Albuera . : TG Mayan ss 
onstitution of the cortes (democratic) 8 May, 1812 


Tellington takes Ciudad Rodrigo, 19 Jan. ; storms 
Badajoz, 6 April ; defeats Marmont at Salamanca, 

22 duly, ,, 
te occupies Madrid, and totally defeats the French 
at Vittoria, 2x June; defeats Soult in the Pyre- 
nees, 28 July ; takes St. Sebastian, 31 Aug. ; and 


enters France : : : nae ale 8 Oct. 1813 
erdinand VII. restored (constitution set aside), 

14 May, 1814 
lave trade abolished for a compensation SISI7 
isurrection at Valencia repressed See LOLS 
panish revolution begun by Riego . Jan, 1820 


erdinand swears to the constitution of the cortes, 
8 March, ,, 
he cortes remove the king to Seville, and thence 
to Cadiz ; 2 é ; : March, 
he French enter Spain, 7 April; and invest Cadiz, 
25 June, ,, 
s = 31, AUG... 53; 
dissolved ; execu- 
» 5 SRLOCUAN ss 


iattle of the Trocadero k ‘ 
espotism resumed ; the cortes 
tions of liberals 


tiego put to death c 7 Nov:) 55 
‘he French evacuate Cadiz a1 Sept. 1828 
ladiz made a free port . .24 Feb. 1829 


alique law abolished, 29 March; Carlist and 
Christina parties formed . : : : Sees 
ueen of Spain appointed regent during the king’s 
indisposition ; change in the ministry, 25 Oct. 
Yon Carlos declares himself legitimate successor to 
the king : 5 . : ; . 29 April, 
Jeath of Ferdinand VII. ; his queen assumes the 
title of governing queen until Isabella ITs) her 
infant daughter, attains her majority 2g Sept. ,, 
‘onstitution termed ‘‘Estatuto Real” granted by 
advice of Martinez de la Rosa . : : nes 
‘he royalist volunteers disarmed with some pblood- 
shed at Madrid P ; : : 27 Oct. 55 
Jueen Christina marries Ferdinand Mufioz (after- 
wards duke of Riamzarés) . : : ge DSccH;, 
The quadruple treaty establishes the right of 
Isabella to the throne . ‘ F . 22 April, 
Jon Carlos suddenly appears in Spain. TOC Lyne sy 
the peers vote his exclusion 5 , 3o Aug. ,, 
Wendizabal, prime minister ; Mina and Espartero 
commanded the royalists; the rebel leader, 
Zumalacarregui, killed near Bilbao June, 
Sir De Lacy Evans and others raise a British legion 
for the queen of Spain 


”» 


They defeat the Carlists at St. Sebastian = +1 Oct. 1836 
Espartero gains the battle of Bilbao 25 DEC 5 
jZeneral Evans takes Lrun : 17 May, 1837 
Jonstituent cortes proclaimed . 3 : P A ahs 


Dissolution of the monasteries .. 2 F eee 
The Carlists under Maroto desert Don Carlos and 
conclude a treaty of peace with Espartero, at 


Vergara . : : : - 5 - gr Aug: 1839 
Don Carlos seeks refuge in France 13 Sept. ,, 
Surrender of Morello : 28 May, 1840 


Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to maintain the 
war, enters France . : : t 7 OUly, 5; 
‘The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Sebastian and 
Passages : : : F : Dr AUG i) 
Revolutionary movementat Madrid: the authorities 
triumphant z : : : : STDC bs sy 
Dismissal of the ministry, and dissolution of the 
; cortes . - pitts : ‘ gSept. ,, 
Espartero, minister, makes his triumphal entry into 
Madrid . F : ; : : Ses OCtw a5; 
The queen regent appoints anew ministry, who are 
~~ nominated by Espartero, 5 Oct.; she abdicates 
and leaves the kingdom ; visits France and Sicily ; 
__ returns to France : X : : T2OCtI 55 
Rspartero, duke of Victory, expels the papal nuncio 
29 Dec. ;; 
The Spanish cortes declare Espartero regent during 
the queen’s minority : : zr2 April, 1841 
Queen Christina’s protest . : 19 July, ,, 
Insurrection in favour of Christina commenced at 


Pampeluna by general O’Donnell and Concha, 
2 Oct. 

Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at Madrid ; his 
followers repulsed, and numbers slain by the 
queen’s guards, 7 Oct. ; he is shot at Madrid, 


1841 


Ty OCtay ss 
Zurbano captures Bilbao : ¢ at OCI ys 
Rodil, constitutional general, enters Vittoria, 

BWOOCU My 


Montes de Oca shot . ‘ 2 : 2t Otts 155 
General O’Donnell takes refuge in the French terri- 
tory ; ‘ E 3 : i ar Oct. ,, 
Espartero decrees the suspension of queen Chris- 
tina’s pension . 5 ; 2 i 26 Oct. ,, 
Fueros of the Basque provinces abolished 29 Oct. ,, 
Borio and Gobernado, implicated in the Christina 
plot, put to death at Madrid gNov. ,, 
Espartero enters Madrid ; , é 23 Nov. ,, 
General pardon of all persons not yet tried, con- 
cerned in the events of October . 73) Decw ess 
The effective strength of the army fixed at 130,000 
men. : : 9 i ; 5 . 28 June, 
An insurrection at Barcelona; the national guard 
joins the populace, 13 Noy. ; battle in the streets 
between the national guard and the troops: the 
latter lose soo in killed and wounded, and retreat 
to the citadel P : : : 15 NOV: "55 
Barcelona blockaded, 26 Nov. ; Espartero arrives 
before it, 29 Nov. ; its bombardinent and surren- 
der . , : 2 : ; «3,4 Dec. ,, 
The disturbances at Malaga . ; : 25 May, 
The revolutionary junta is re-established at Barce- 
jona P Z % z 4 F WITT JUNE, 55 
(Corunna, Seville, Burgos, Santiago, and numerous 
other towns, shortly afterwards ‘‘ pronounce” 
against the regent Espartero. ] 
Arrival of general Narvaez at Madrid, which surren- 
ders ‘ : ; : : : veDuUly jy 
Espartero bombards Seville ere Tne) WLW gms 
The siege is raised . R A A 27 July, ;, 
[The revolution is completely successful, and Espar- 
tero flees’ to Cadiz, and embarks on board her 
Majesty’s ship Malabar. ] 
The new government deprives Espartero of his 
titles and rank, 16 Aug. ; he arrives in London, 
23 Aug. ;, 
Reaction suppressed at Madrid - PAUP ICT, 
Isabella IL. x3 years old, is declared by the cortes to 
be of age ; Narvaez (friend of the queen-mother), 
lieutenant-general 7 8 Nov. 


é : : 5H 
The queen-mother returns to Spain . 23 March, 1844 
Zurbano’s insurrection, 12 Nov. 1844; he is shot, 
21 Jan. 1845 
Don Carlos relinquishes his right to the crown in 
favour of his son 5 . 3 18 May, ,; 
Reactionary constitution . : : : : ehh 
England removed from ‘ favoured nation” clause 
(treaty of Utrecht, 171 3) : . é : ap i 
Narvaez and his ministry resign, 12 Feb. ; retumn. 
to power, 17 March ; again resign 28 March, 1846 


Escape of Don Carlos from France . TAMSCD vanes 
Marriage of the queen to her cousin, Don Francisco 
d’Assiz, duke of Cadiz, and marriage also of the 
infanta Louisa tothe duc de Montpensier, 10 Ottis 
[The Spanish marriages disturb the friendly rela- 
tions of the French and English governments. ] 
Amnesty granted to political offenders cris OCtimys 
Two shots fired at the queen by an assassin, La Riva, 
4 May, 
He suffers “death by the cord” 23 June, ;, 
Espartero restored é , : ‘ 4 eyisver Tp 
Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, British envoy, ordered 


to quit Spain in 48 hours ; 17 May, 1843 
Narvaez dismissed and recalled é : : . 1849 
Diplomatic relations with England restored, 

18 April, 1850 


The queen of Spain delivered of a male child, which 
lives but ten minutes : ; rJuly, j, 
The American expeditions under Lopez against 
Cuba‘(see Cuba, and the U nited States) . 1850, 
Resignation of Narvaez . : 4 : TO dalle) 
The infante don Henrique permitted to return to 
Spain A ; : : é 5 SA 2ULe Dames 
Madrid-Aranjuez railway opened. : 9 Reba 53 
Law respecting the public debt (which has since 
excluded Spain from the European money-mar- 


kets) ° tA ug. ”» 


SPAIN. 776 SPAIN. 

Death of Godoy, prince of the peace 4 Oct. 1851 | The annexation of St. Domingo to Spain ratified ; 

The queen pardons the prisoners taken in the slavery not to be re-established » 19 May, 1861 
attempt upon Cuba rE Dec 5, Insurrection at Loja suppressed : ? July, oe 

Her majesty gives birth to a princess 20 Dees "5; The queen said to be governed bythe nun Patrocinio * 

Attempt made on the life of the queen; she is Dec. 
slightly wounded by the dagger of Merino, a Intervention in Mexico (see Mexico) 8 Dec. 3 
Franciscan : . 2F¥eb. 1852 Much church property in course of sale April, 1862 

Gen. Castafios, duke of Baylen, renowned in the José Alhama and Manuel Matamoras, protestant 
French war, ‘dies, aged 95 . : . 23° Sept... 55 propagandists, sentenced to 1o years’ spot 

Narvaez exiled to Vienna| 4 Jan. 1853 ment Oct. ae 

Ministerial changes—Lersundi forms a cabinet, Don Juan de Bourbon renounces his right to the 
rr April ; resigns : Sartorius’s cabinet Sept. 4; throne . 8Jan. 186: 

Birth and death of aprincess . - 5 dan. 1854 | Resignation of the premier, marshal 0’ Donnell, 26 

General O’Donnell, Concha, and others banished, Feb. ; marquis de Miraflores minister 4 March, : 

7 JAD yy Insurrection in St. Domingo ; war ensues (see Do- 

Disturbances at Saragossa, &c. é yableb: ies, mingo) . x Sept. ,; 

Don Francisco (father of the king consor t), marries Empress of France visits the queen A Oct-38 
an ‘unfortunate’ woman : March, ,, Rupture with Peru (which see) ; . April, 186. 

Military insurrection, under O’ Donnell, near Madrid, General Prim exiled for conspiracy 13°Aug, ae 

28 June, ,, Arrazola ministry, Jan. ; Mon formsa ministry, 1 

The movement headed by Espartero ; Barcelona March ; resigns, 13 Sept.; Narvaez forms a cabinet 
and Madrid pronounce against the government ; Sept. j, 
barricades in Madrid : r -17 July, ,, Queen Christina returns to Spain . 26 Sept. +5, 

Triumph of the insurrection ; Se ‘of the English government recognises the insurrection at 
ministry ; the queen sends for Espartero, 1g July, ,, St. Domingo ; Narvaez advises abandonment of 

Peace restored : the degraded generals reinstated, the contest ; the queen refuses; the ministry re- 
&c. ; Espartero forms an administration, 31 J uly, 7 sign ; but resume office > 24-18 Deel oy 

The queen mother impeached ; she quits Spain Peace with Peru, which has to pay aheavy indemnity 

28. AUG .0 5, 27 Jan. 186: 

Ministerial crisis ; Espartero resigns, but resumes The queen orders the sale of crown lands, giving up 
office 2 21-30 Nov. ,, three-fourths to the nation 20 Feb. ,, 

New constitution of the cortes i 13 Jan. 1855 | Student riots at Madrid; several persons killed, 

The cortes vote that all power proceeds from the rte) April, a 
people ; they Sit liber ny of belief, but not of [Bravo Murillo accused of cruelty on this occasion. ] 
worship 4 y A Kebioy,; Decree relinquishing St. Domingo ; 5 May,rie 

Don Carlos dies. : : : . to March, Suppression of a conspiracy at Valencia to eae 

Insurrection of Valencia : 6 April, 1856 Spain and Portugal . ro June, ,j, 

Resignation of Espartero ; new cabinet formed, Resignation of Narvaez, 19 J une ; O’Donnell forms 
headed by marshal O’Donnell ; insurrection in a liberal cabinet . » 22 June, oa 
Madrid, 14 July ; O’Donnell and the government Kingdom of Italy recognised by Spain 26 June, ,, 
troops subdue the insurgents; the national Father Claret dismissed from court . . 20 July; 
guard suppressed . 15-16 July, ,, Dispute with Chili; M. Tavira’s —. (20 

Insurrection at Barcelona and Saragossa quelled by May) disavowed by the government uly;> 3 
O’Donnell, as dictator : 15-23 July, ,, Emperor Napoleon visits the queen at St. Baba 

O’Donnell compelled to resign ; Narvaez becomes tian, 9 Sept. : she visits him at Biarritz, 11 Sept. ,, 
minister A 12 OCU, Disturbances at Sar agossa suppressed. Oct: “3 

Amnesty granted to political offenders 19 Oct. Admiral Pareja, at Valparaiso, insults the Chilian 

Espartero resigns as senator . 1 Feb. 1857 government, 18 Sept.; which declares war, 25 

Insurrection in Andalusia; quickly suppressed ; Sept. ; Pareja declares a blockade . - Oct. 45 
cruel military executions ; 98 insurgents shot (24 The Chilian captain Williams captures the Spanish 
at Seville) 4 June and July,_ "5, vessel Covadonga (Pareja commits suicide) 26 Nov. ,, 

Ministerial changes ; "Armero minister 8 26 OChs mee Intervention fruitless ~ E i ; Dees sae 

Birth of the prince royal ‘ 28 Nov. ,, Claret returns to court. A 25 Dec.” ¥ 

Isturitz, minister, 14 Jan. ; O’ Donnell, minister, New cortes elected ; the great Progresista narty 

IJ uly Ay ey still abstains from action 1 in public affairs ; queen 

Cessation of state of siege at Barcelona, &c. 20 Sept. 185% opens cortes 4 27 Décian, 

Joint French and Spanish expedition against Cochin Military insurrection at Aranjuez, headed by gen. 
China announced. - ree an OTS re FA Prim, 3 Jan. ; martial law in Madrid, 4 Jan. ; 

War with Morocco (which see) ; - Nov.-Dec. 1859 Concha and Zabala march against rebels, 4 dan. ; 

An association for reforming the tariff, &c. formed. ,, &c. ; riots at Barcelona, 9, ro Jan. ; state of siege 

O’Donnell commands thearmy in Africa ; indecisive in New Castile, Catalonia, and Aragon 6-12 Jan. 186 
conflicts reported ; battle at Castillejos ; a Spanish Prim enters Portugal and lays down arms ; the in- 

“‘ Balaklava” charge = . «rdan. 1860 surrection ends ‘ 2zoJan. ,, 

The Moors defeated near Tetuan, which surrenders Queen Victoria, British sloop, seized by a guarda- 

ate ay. costa :| xs/Jianemeee, 

An ineffectual truce » 16-23.Feb. ©; Admiral Mendez bombards Valparaiso, destroying 


The Moors defeated at Guad-el-ras 23 March, 
Treaty of peace signed; 400,000,000 reals to be 
paid by Moors, and Tetuan to be held till paid 
26 Mar. 
General Ortega, governor of the Balearic Isles, lands 
near Tortosa, in Valencia, with 3000 men, and pro- 
claims the comte de Montemolin king, as Charles 
VI. ; his troops resist, and he is compelled to flee, 
with the comte and others, 3 April ; Ortega shot 
1g April, 
The comte de Montemolin and his brother Ferdi- 
nand arrested at Tortosa, 21 April ; renounce their 
claim to the throne : : . 23 April, 
An amnesty proclaimed F 2 May, 
Their brother Juan asserts his right, 5 J une ; and 
they, when at Cologne, annul their renunciation, 
28 J une, 
The emperor Napoleon’s proposal to admit Spain as 
a first-class power is opposed by England, and 
given up Aug. 
The comte de Montemolin and his wife die at Trieste 


14 Jan. 


»> 


>? 


” 


1861 


much property, 31 March ; heis repulsed at Callao 
with loss : 2 May, 
The queen declares the campaign in the Pacific end, 
une 
Great military revolt in favour of Prim at names : 
about 1200 men, headed by non- -commissioned 
officers, with cannon, quelled summarily by mar- 
shals O’Donnell and Narvaez, with much blood- 
shed ; 200 prisoners shot, 22 June; 21 sergeants 


shot 2 26 June, 
Military revolts at Barcelona and at various other 
places 23 June, 


Resignation of O’Donnell as “minister, ‘gdcometid by 
Narvaez and Bravo, who adopt severe measures 
against the liberals July, 

The queen said to be subject to the influence of 
the ‘‘ bleeding nun,” Patrocinio, and the Mie 

Y> 

Freedom of the press abolished, and writers trans- 

ported to the colonies; a “reign of terror,” 
Aug.- Sept. 


| British screw steamer Tornado, com. E. Collier, 


»> 


9? 


>> 


> 


SPAIN. 


sized by Spaniards (charged with aiding Chili), 
ud earried to Cadiz 
sersons condemned to death, many of whom had 
ed . 23 Sept. 
establishment of tranquillity declared at Madrid 
Oct. 

blic instruction placed under the clergy Oct. 
form of the municipal institutions decreed on 
ecount of revolutionary proceedings . Oct. 
w of Tornado detained as prisoners, 31 Oct. 


he case referred tolaw . : : Nov. 
ig and queen visit Lisbon . f 1x Dec 
res for 1867 received in advance Dec. 


» queen dismissed the cortes (and imprisoned 
aany eminent deputies for petitioning against it) 
o Dec. 


Jonnell and his colleagues residing in Paris Jan. 1867 


sision in Tornado case—the ship a prize and the 
rew prisoners of war, 18 Dec. 1866 ; lord Stanley 
rrotests against the proceedings 8 Feb. 
sree for making secret publication of journals 


nd pamphlets penal. : ero ep: 
2 Tornado prisoners released se Feb. 
te of siege raised 7 March, 


2en Victoria sloop declared by Spain Jes have 
een wrongfully seized and reparation to be made, 
21 Sree il, 
inesty to revolters of June 1866 . April, 
1 of duchess of Montpensier born. “ May, 
sempted insurrection in different parts (attributed 
0 Prim) failed through want of organisation, 
“about 1 5 ’Aug. 
surrectionary movements reported in Catalonia 


md Aragon : 3 : July, Aug. 
ite of siege proclaimed 3 5 : . 17 Aug. 
surrection suppressed ; amnesty . Sept. 


ath of marshal O’ Donnell, duke of Tetuan. 5 Nov. 
irtial law annulled . 4 16 Nov. 
rliament opened by the queen in person 27 Dec. 
armament bill adopted by the chamber of de- 
yuties . 
oposed settlement with national creditors at 20 
yer cent. of the debt A 5 Jan. 
neral amnesty proclaimed . 7 ee 2a al. 
ath of marshal Narvaez, duke of Valencia feced 67) 
23 April, 
‘w ministry formed by Gonzalez Bravo Murillo, 
24 April, 
uriage of prineess Isabella, the queen’s eldest 
laughter, to the count of Girgenti, brother of ex- 
king of Naples é - |r3 May, 
w enacted abolishing normal schools and eabject 


ng education to the ‘priests E 5 2 June, 
nisterialchanges . - . 16 June, 
ike and duchess of Montpensier arrested and 
exiled . . 6July, 


irshal Serrano, general Dolee, ‘and others exiled 
about ro July, 
surrection begins in the fleet, 18 Sept. ; ; Joined by 
the garrison and city of Cadiz, 19 Sept. ; accepted 
by nearly all Spain . : 19-30 Sept. 
‘im arrives at Cadiz, 17 Sept. ; ‘announces a provi- 
sional government - sf} Leero Nept. 
ie ministers resign, 19, 20 Sept. ; - José panekh be- 
comes president of the council, 22 Sept. ; Bravo 
Murillo and his colleagues flee to ‘Bayonne 23 Sept. 
oyalist leaders: José Concha, marquis de Havaia, 
Manuel Concha, marquis de Duero, at Madrid ; 
the marquis de Pezuela at Barcelona ; Eusebio 
de Calonge in the north; Pavia y Lacy, marquis 
de Novaliches in ‘Andalusia. J 
ovaliches, the royalist general, defeated at Alcolea 
by Serrano, 27 Sept. ; surrenders 28 Sept. 
le queen flies to Bayonne and thence to Pau, and 


protests c 29, 30 Sept. 

ie deposition of the queen. declared at Madrid, 
29 Sept. 

‘national guard organised A A . 30 Sept. 


on Juan, son of Don Carlos, renounces his heredi- 
tary rights in favour of his son, Carlos, 3 Oct. 
rrano enters Madrid, 3 Oct.; Serrano, Prim, 
and Olozaga constitute a provisional government 
5 Oct. 

tim enthusiastically received at Madrid 7 Oct. 
‘he education law of 2 June annulled ; the Jesuits 
‘and other religious orders suppressed ; the laws 
expelling the Jews abr ogated ; freedom of reli- 
gious worship decreed about 12, 13 Oct. 


V7 


. 21-22 Aug. 1866 


”» 


” 


” 


22 Jan. 1868 


? 


” 


SPAIN. 


All the local juntas dissolved by manifesto Ah) the 
provisional government ; o Oct. 
The provisional government recognised by the 
United States, 13 Oct. ; by England, France, and 
Prussia, 25 Oct. ; by Austria, Sweden, and Belgium 
about 31 Oct. 
Manifesto of the government declaring for universal 
suffrage, and free press and education 26 Oct. 
Prim created a marshal about 6 Nov. 
The queen arrives at Paris EO NGY, 
The joint electoral committee at Madrid declare in 
favour of a limited monarchy : 14 Nov. 
Decree for formation of a citizen force of the Volun- 
teers of Freedom ; - . 18 Nov. 
Loan of 20,000,000l. proposed by Figuer oa, minister 
of finance ; 4,000,000l, said to be undertaken by 
Rothschilds ; ; about 2,000,000 subscribed in 
Spain. é . about 25 Nov. 
Insurrection against the provisional government 
breaks out at Cadiz, 5 Dec. ; murderous conflicts, 
6 Dec. ; the city invested ; "surrenders ; entry of 
general Caballero de Roda, general of the army of 
‘Andalusia epr2 bet. 
Peaceful elections for constituent cortes, 19, 20 Dec. 
Manifesto of the duc de Montpensier, justifying his 
recent entry into Spain dated 19 Dec. 
Violent insurrection at Malaga suppressed with 
much slaughter E : eegr Dec 
Election of members for the cortes 
The Spanish envoy at Rome not received 23 Jan. 
Gutierez de Castro, civil governor of Burgos, mur- 
dered in the presence of priests while taking an 
inventory of the artistic treasures of the cathedral 
24 Jan. 
Feb. 


Insurrection in Cuba increasing 
Meeting of the cortes, x11 Feb. ; Rivero elected 
president . 13 Feb. 
The provisional government resign ; Serrano re- 
appointed head of the government with same 
ministry 25, 26 Feb. 
Riots at Xeres on account of conscription, 16 March, 
Spanish Protestant religious service at Madrid 
28 March, 
Insurrection in Cuba fomented by Americans April, 
61st anniversary of the Madrid revolution and mas- 
sacre of the French (1808) : . 2 May, 
The cortes vote for a monarchy (214 to 71), 21 May, 
The new, constitution promulgated June, 
Marshal Serrano elected regent by the cortes, 15 
June ; sworn . : . 18 June, 
New ministry under Prim about 18 June, 
Carlist risings in La Mancha and at Ciudad Real, 
suppressed July-Aug. 
United States’ overtures respecting Cuba indig- 
nantly rejected . about 18 Sept. 
Candidature of the duke of Genoa discussed Sept., Oct. 
Republican risings at Tarragona, Barcelona, and 
other places, suppressed with bloodshed, Sept. ; 
republicans defeated near Reus, 4 Oct. 5 Saragossa 
cannonaded, 8 Oct. ; Valencia surrender ed, 16 
Oct. ; tranquillity generally restored 20 Oct. 
Warm discussions respecting the election of a king 
Topete, minister of marine, resigns 2 Noe 
General Dulce dies F . 23 Nov. 
Powerful republican speech ‘of Castelar in the ‘oorten 
about 18 Dec. 


Resignation of Prim and the ministry on the Italian 
government opposing the nomination of the duke 
of Genoa as king of Spain . 4dan. 

Prim resumes office with Topete and Rivero fe Jan. 

Majority in the assembly for Prim against the com- 
bined unionists and liberals 3 April, 

Conscription riots at Barcelona ; soon eigprcsead 

7, 8 April, 

The duc de Montpensier, after great provocation, 
kills don Enrique de Borbon, brother of the ex- 
king, in a duel, r2 March ; tried, condemned, and 
fined . Hs é 12 April, 


The offered crown declined iy Espartero . May, 
Bill for gradual abolition of slavery in the colonies 
presented to the cortes 28 May, 
Two Englishmen of Gibraltar seized by brigands ; 
ransomed for 520ol. ; brigands afterwards attacked 
by the Spanish civil guard ; several of them killed, 
and part of the ransom recovered . . June, 
Rojo Arias carries a resolution requiring an abso- 
lute majority in the cortes for any proposed sove- 


17 Jan. 1 


1868 


9? 


. ‘ , a | 
SPAIN. 778 SPAIN. 
reign (179 out of 356); this excludes all present duke of Madrid; Diaz de Rada, his general 
candidates June, 1870 | about 20 April, 3 


Isabella IL. abdicates in favour of her son Alfonso, 
25 June, 
Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen nomi- 
nated king, accepted by the regent and ministry, 
6 July ; this justified by the government in a cir- 
cular, 7 July ; on the strong opposition of France 
he resigns ‘ 12 July, 
Neutr ality i in the war announced F 27 July, 
Renewed agitation for a republic about 9 Aug. 
Amnesty for all political offences since 29 Sept. 1868, 


published . . 10 Aug. 
Irruption of Carlists into Navarre, 27 Aug. : ; defeated 
28 Aug. 

The Basque provinces put into a state of siege, 
28 Aug. 
The French republic warmly recognised Sept 
Ministerial crisis ; - 15 Sept 
Claret, the ex-queen’s confessor, dies . Oct. 


Amadeus, duke of Aosta (born 30 May, 1845), accepts 


the candidature for the crown 20 Oct. 
Elected by the cortes by 191 votes : (63 for a repub- 

lic ; 27 for the due de Montpensier) . xe Nov. 
Proclaimed king 7 Noy. 


The ex-queen, on behalf of her son Alfonso, or “sleet 
against the election 21 Noy. 
The duke accepts the crown from a deputation of 
the cortes at Florence, and says ‘‘ that his honesty 
should rise above the struggle of parties, and that 
he had no other object than the peace and pros- 
perity of the nation” ed sen 
Stormy session in the cortes respecting arrange- 
ments for the new king, 19 Dec. ; Rivero, the pre- 
sident, resigns ; - 25 Dec. 
Prim fired at and wounded in his carriage by six 
men, who escaped ; great indignation at Madrid, 
27, Dee. ; Topete rejoins the ministry ; vote of con- 
naoeaen in it : ; 728 Dee: 
Prim dies in the evening (aged 56); the king received 
by Topete at Cartagena 30 Dec. 
Funeral of Prim . aT UEC 
The king enters Madrid, visits the e body of Prim, 
and takes the oath : 2Jan. 
New ministry under Serrano . 5 Jan. 
Warm reception of the queen at Madrid “49 March, 
New cortes opened; the king’s speech much ap- 
plauded =. 3 April, 
Del Castillo and other Alfonsists recognise the 


king April, 
Olozaga elected president of the cortes 4 April, 
The Tornado difficulty settled (Aug. Nov. 1866) 


compensation to be paid by the Spanish govern- 


ment May, 
Ministerial crisis through financial affairs : settled 
by the king June, 


Marshal Serrano fails in forming a cabinet, 23Jduly ; 
a ministry formed by Zorrilla. 24 July : 
The king visits the provinces; warmly received, 
1 Sept. et seg. ; welcomed by Espartero at Logrofio, 
30 Sept. 
Cortes opened, 1 Oct. ; Sagasta elected president in 
opposition to Rivero (123-113), 3 Oct. ; the Zorrilla 
ministry resigns, 4 Oct.; Maleampo forms a 
ministry . 5 Oct. 
Republican meeting at Madrid ; strong sepabalicns 
passed. 15 Oct. 
Defeat of the ministry in the cortes; iiesointiog, 
24, 25 Nov. 
Angulo, the finance minister, proposes to tax the 


foreign national creditors 18 per cent. 27 Noy. 
Suicide of the count of Girgenti - 27 Noy. 
Ministry formed under Sagasta : 2x Dec. 


Espartero, duke of Victory, made prince of Vergara, 
Jan. 

Resignation of Sagasta and the ministry for a 
trifling defeat ; refused by the king, dissolution 
of the cortes; much excitement; “troops under 
arms 25, 26 Jan. 
Ministry reconstituted by Sagasta and Topete, 
20 Feb. 

Union of the opposition against the ministry, who 
determine to support the throne, about 8 Mar ch, 


Elections ; majority of about 100 for ministers ; 
Madrid elects for the opposition 4-6 April, 
Insurrection of Carlists incited by priests in 
Navarre, Leon, &c.; manifesto of don Carlos, 


1872 


| The new cortes opened; the king says, ‘‘ I willnever 


impose myself on the Spanish people, but neither 
will I allow myself to be accused of deserting the 
post which I occupy by their will ” . 24 April, 
Navarre, &c., in state of siege 25 April, 
Marshal Serrano enters Navarre with an army; 
don Carlos, calling himself Carlos VII., crosses 
the frontiers near Véra, and takes the command, 
Rada retiring, 2 May; totally defeated at Oro- 
quieta (which see) 4 May, 
The Carlists surrender by hundreds, or Riper se, 
8, 9, 2v, 21 May, 
Reported small-defeats at Onate, &c. . 13, 20 May, 
Resignation of the Sagasta ministry . 2 May, 
Band of Carlists defeated near Gerona, about 22 May, 
New ministry (supported by Serrano), adm. Topete 
president 25 May, 
Serrano offers amnesty ‘to Carlists who pubheniie 
25 May; it is accepted, 27 May; he is censured, 
but exonerated by the cortes, 8 _ une ; he assumes 
the presidency of the ministry 4 June, 
Carlism increases; the ministry propose martial 
law; the king opposes it; the ministry resign, 
12 June, 


Ruiz Zorrilla (who had just retired from political. 


life) becomes president of a new ministry, 14 June, 


Letter of the due de Montpensier advocating the . 


rights of prince Alfonso, 17 April ; published, June, 
Dissolution of the cortes : 29 June, 
Attempted assassination of the king and aueet by 
about 15 men; one assassin killed, two taken; a 
little after midnight of 18-19 J uly, 
Don Carlos calls on Catalonia, Arragon, and Valen- 
cia, to rise, promising to restore their ancient 
liberties. 2 16 July, 
The king’s popular ‘visit to the pr ovinces, travelling 
nearly 2000 miles j . 26d uly-24 Aug. 
Elections for the cortes ; highly favourable to the 
Zorrilla ministry . 25 Aug. et seq. 
The cortes opened by the king with a ahe “speech, 
15 Sept. 
Republican rising at Ferrol; red flag displayed ; 
1500 men under Montojo and Bozas, 11 Oct. ; 
town captured by the captain-general of yee 
13 Oc 
The insurgents disperse or surrender; about 500 
prisoners. 17 Oct. 
Impeachment of the Sagasta ministry for financial 
corruption pr oposedin the cortes ; much agitation, 
end of Oct. 
The country disturbed by Carlists and republicans, 
Noy.-Dec. 
Gen. Hidalgo appointed to a military command ; 


the artillery officers resign: punished . Nov. 
Outbreak in Madrid suppressed rz Dee. 
Changes in the ministry announced . 20 Dec. 


Bill for abolition of slavery in Porto Rico, for com- 
pensation, brought into congress . 24 Dec. 
Carlist bands defeated and several generals killed, 
an 

King Amadeus’ message to the cortes, announcing 
his abdication ; he states that he sees Spain in a 
continual struggle, the era of peace more distant ; 
he sought for remedies within the law, and did 
not find them ; his efforts were sterile. The two 
chambers combine as the sovereign cortes of 
Spain, and vote for a republic (126- 32) 
Reported success of the Carlists; agitation for the 
duc de Montpensier among the Orleanists in 


France . ‘ f . /xe' Feb: 
New ministry under Fi ener as 2 ; 12 Feb. 
King Amadeus arrives at Lisbon. .| 23 Feb, 


Irruption of Carlists; they hold part of Catalonia ; 
demonstrations in favour of a federal republic, 
22, 23 Feb. 
Ministry reconstituted ; Figueras chief, 24, 25 Feb. 
Powerful cireular to Eur opean powers from Castelar, 
foreign minister 27 Feb. 
Appointment of a permanent committee of the 
cortes z 22 March, 
Great dissensions betw een ‘the radicals and _repub- 
licans; fighting with Carlists in the provinces, 
early in March, 
Slavery in Porto Rico abolished 23 March, 
Proclamation of the government calling fer volun- 
teers against the Carlists 25 March, 


. rz Feb. * 


SPAIN. 


atinous spiritinthe army . . 
ne Carlists beaten in several encounters; don 
‘Alfonso de Bourbon re-enters France 23 April, 
ye old ‘‘monarchical volunteers” take possession 
of the bull-ring at Madrid; are disarmed and dis- 
persed by the government troops ; the ‘‘ perma- 
nent committee” dissolved by the government, 
which assumes supreme power . 26 April, 
‘rrano and Sagasta have left Spain 29 April, 
ore defeats of the Carlists; Madrid tranquil, 

29, 30 April-4 May, 
lections for the cortes commence; monarchists 
abstain from voting : ; - . 10 May, 
r. Bradlaugh, the English republican, entertained 
at Madrid . F 4 : i ‘i 24 May, 
ore Carlist defeats reported ; their alleged cruelties 
denied by the Carlist committee May, June, 
ae Intransigentes or Irreconcilables (extreme re- 


publicans) very powerful : . ; June, 
ae new cortes opened; a speech by Figueras, 
1 June, 


he federal republic voted by the cortes (210-2) and 
proclaimed, 8 June ; Pi y Margall, president of a 
new ministry, rejected ; Figueras and his ministry 
resume office. - : = : 9 June, 
arlists besieging tun. 2 : 7 oUne} 
inisterial crisis renewed, 1o June; Piy Margall 
becomes minister; Figueras quits Spain, 11 June, 
arlists defeat Castafion near Murieta . 26 June, 
adiz, Seville, Malaga, and Valencia very insub- 
ordinate . ‘ é s : ‘ 29 June, 
he Intransigentes withdraw from the cortes, 1 July, 
efeat and death of Calvinety by Carlists ; insur- 
rection at Alcoy, promoted by Internationalists ; 
the mayor and others killed, announced, 11 July 
ion Carlos (as Carlos VII.) enters Spain, ‘‘ to save 
the country ” 3 ; : - ee ES ULY, 
esperate fighting at Igualada, Catalonia 
17, 18 July, 
‘our prevailing parties :—1. The government,highly 
democratic ; 2. The Intransigentes, or irreconcil- 
ables: extremely democratic; 3. The Interna- 
tional, or communists; 4. The legitimists, 
Carlists. 
{urcia and Valencia proclaim themselves federal 
eantons . : : : ; . 18 July, 
‘i y Margall compelled to resign ; Salmeron forms 
a ministry opposed to the Intransigentes, 18 July, 
gualada taken by the Carlists under Don Alfonso, 
19 July, 
‘he government determine to put down insurrec- 
tion : 4 , ; F . 24 duly, 
Jon Carlos enters Biscay . 31 July, 
farlists hold chief of N. Spain é 5 Aug. 
nsurgents repulsed in their attack on Almeria; 
beaten in fights at Seville, 28-30 July ; gen. Pavia 
warmly received . : “ i 31 July, 
‘adiz surrenders to him . i : ee aA: 
‘roops attack Valencia, 26 July ; it surrenders, 
| : 8 Aug. 
Tew constitution printed, 27 July; discussed, Aug. 
118 Articles; includes separation of church and 
state ; free religious worship ; nobility abolished ; 
15 states in and near peninsula; 2 in the Antilles ; 
certes (senate and congress) to have legislative 
power ; one deputy to 50,000 souls ; cortes to be 
renewedin 2 years; members to be paid ; execu- 
tive: president and ministry; president elected 
for 4 years. ] 
3ombardment of Malaga stopped by the British 
and German admirals. : - Lea UL. 
illeged Carlist victories at Elgueta, &c. 5-10 Aug. 
Reported total defeat of the insurgents at Chin- 
chilla, while marching on Madrid . . ro Aug. 
Jartagena, held by Intransigentes, besieged, 22 Aug. 
‘he Deerhound, English yacht, conveying stores to 
Carlists, seized by the Spaniards, 114 miles off 
Biarritz ; crew imprisoned, and captain sent to 
| Ferrol . ; ; : : ‘ 13 Aug. 
Japt. Werner, of German ship, Friedrich Karl, cap- 
tures Almanza and Vittoria, Spanish ironclads, 
- held by rebels, gives them up to adm, Yelverton, 
' who prepares for action against Intransigentes, 
Claiming them, and sends them to Gibraltar un- 
_™molested . f : ; x Sept. 
Jarlists defeat republicans at Arrichulegui, near 
Renteria, many killed . 21 Aug. 


April, 1873 


> 


” 


779 


SPAIN. 


They take Estella after a conflict at Dicastillo, 


25 Aug. 1873 


Castelar elected president of the cortes . 26 Aug. 
The ministry propose abolition of capital punish- 
ment in the army, defeated in the cortes ; resign 
Sept. 

Castelar heads a ministry; proposes calling out 
150,000 men, to end the war . 7, 8 Sept. 


Carlists successful ; yet do not advance . 5-8 Sept. 
Salmeron elected president of the cortes _g Sept. 
Castelar made virtually dictator . 15 Sept. 


Ferdinand Mufioz, duke of Rianzares, husband of 
queen Christina, dies at Havre . 12 Sept. 
The Deerhownd and crew given up; announced 
about 18 Sept. 
Reported victories of Loma over Carlists 18 Sept. 
Speech of Castelar, the cortes to be closed 2 Jan. 
1874 : : é ‘ ; . 18Sept. 
Carlist attack on Tolosa repulsed by Loma, 19 Sept. 
The cortes prorogued : : 5 . 21 Sept. 
The Carlist Merendon killed andhis band dispersed 
about 26 Sept. 
The Vittoria and Almanza given up to the Spanish 
government : ; : . 26 Sept. 
The Intransigentes’ ironclads, Mendez Nunez and 
Numancia, bombarding Alicante, repulsed 
28 Sept. 
Carlists in Navarre defeated by Moriones, 27 Sept. 
Combination of parties to support Castelar, 
about 6 Oct. 
Battle at Maneru, near Puenta de la Reyna, in 
Navarre, between republicans, under Moriones, 
and Carlists, under Ollo ; both claim a victory 
advantage with Carlists : 4 6 Oct. 
Carlists said to be repulsed at La Junquera, in 
Catalonia é i ? : about 8 Oct. 
Battle of Escombrera bay ; the Intransigentes’ ships 
attempt to break blockade of Cartagena ; repulsed 
by admiral Lobo A ; : . 11 Oct. 
Many Carlists escape into France about Oct. 
Lobo declines to fight, and retires, pursued by the 
Intransigentes, 13 Oct. ; justifies himself at 
Madrid _. : : : ; 3 . 22 Oct. 
Collision of the Intransigentes’ vessels Nwmancia 
and Fernando del Catolico, the latter sunk and 
66 drowned . : é : 18 Oct. 
Unsuccessful sortie at Cartagena ° ‘ 21 Oct. 
Tristany, with 2,500 Carlists, defeated by Salamanca 
25 Oct. 


Death of Rios Rosas, statesman 3 Nov. 


|The Murillo (see Wrecks, 1873), captured ; con- 


demned to be sold by the British court of ad- 
miralty . Novy. 


| Indecisive conflicts at Monte J urre and Monjardin, 


. 7, 8, 9 Nov. 


victories claimed by Carlists 
. 26 Nov. et seq. 


Cartagena bombarded 
Reported victory of Moriones near Tolosa, 7 Dec. 
Lopez Dominguez becomes commander before 
Cartagena : : : 3 s pe isebe: 
Tetuan, insurgent vessel, at Cartagena, blew up 
(? purposely) . - - . eesOLDEG, 
Pronunciamento :—Meeting of the cortes ; speech 
of Castelar ; vote of confidence in him lost by 20 ; 
he resigns ; Salmeron attempts toform a ministry, 
2-3 Jan.; Pavia, captain-general of Madrid, 
forcibly dissolves the cortes : . 3 dan. 
Marshal Serrano made president of a new ministry, 
including Topete ; the national guard of Madrid 
disarming = 5 : A . Jan. 
Insurrection at Saragossa, suppressed with blood- 
sheain: ; : ; ; ; . 4dan, 
The new government issue a moderate manifesto, 


9, 10 Jan. 
Cartagena captured by Lopez Dominguez, 12 Jan. 
Insurrection at Barcelona quelled . 12, 13 Jan. 


Numancia ironclad, with Intransigentes leaders and 
convicts, escapes; they land at Mers el Kebir, 
near Oran, on the African coast; are interned 
by the French. : : é : 12 Jan. 

Blockade of the coast of Spain announced 31 Jan. 

The Carlists besiege Bilbao ; Moriones defeated at 
Somorrostro : : F : é 25 Feb. 

Marshal Serrano resigns presidency of the ministry, 
and becomes chief of the executive, succeeded 
by Zabala; Serrano proceeds to Bilbao, 

28 Feb. et seq. 

Serrano assumes command . . about 8 March, 

The blockade of the coast (31 Jan.) raised 2 March, 


»» 


SPAIN. 


Asserted victory of the Carlists at San Felice, 
Burgos : 15 March, 
Three “ days’ conflict at Somorrostro, near Bilbao ; 
the Carlists defeated, but retain’ their positions 
(about 2000 killed and wounded on both sides) 
25, 26, 27 March, 
Armistice for three days 28 Mar ch, 
General Manuel da Concha joins Serrano at 
Santander about 8 April, 
Great national effort to relieve Bilbao; union of 
parties ; hostilities resumed 20 April, 


780 


1874 


a 3) 
After several days’ conflict, Carlists retreat ; marshal 


Concha enters Bilbao, which is much injured by 


long bombardment : 2 May, 
A battle at Prats de Llusanés, indecisive 6 May, 
New ministry formed under Zabala . 13 May, 


Carlists repulsed in severe attack at Ramales, 
about 20 May, 
Carlists defeated at Gondesa about 6 June, 
Republicans repulsed before Estella~. 25-27 June, 
Concha killed (succeeded by Zubala) 27 June, 
Carlists accused of butchering prisoners, J ae and 
uly, 
Alleged Carlist victories at Petia Mura (or Plata), 
near Abarzuza . 25-27 June, 
Schmidt, a German cor respondent, shot as a spy by 
Carlists A about 28 June, 
German intervention for killing of Soe Schmidt 
by Carlists July, 
Carlists hold and 
Alara. July, 
The Carlists capture Cuenca (about 80 miles from 
Madrid) . - 13 July, 
Don Carlos’s manifesto promising bonstitutlonal 
government 16 July, 
Massacre of 86 republican pr isoners by Carlists 
under Saballo at Valfogona : 17 July, 
All Spain placed under martial law ; levy of 125,000 
men about 18 July, 
Government circular to for eign courts respecting 
Carlist atrocities 29 July, 
The government appeals to the French government 
respecting French assistance to Carlists ; ; justifi- 
catory reply 3 Aug. 
The British Mediterranean squadron under ee | 
Drummond sails from Malta for Barcelona, 4 Aug. 
Don Carlos appeals to the chief powers not to inter- 
vene ; justifies Dorregaray’s severities, and the 
execution of Schmidt 6 Aug. 
Mcriones’ alleged defeat of Mendiri and. Canlists at 
Gteiza , . 12 Aug. 
Duty of sd. a ton on imported iron est to 
Bilbao for repairs : 3 Aug. 
Serrano’s government recognised by Great Britain, 
Germany, France, and other powers (not by 
Russia) . ’ about 14 Aug. 
Letter of sympathy and encouragement from the 
comte de Chambord to don Carlos Aug. 
185 prisoners of war at Olot said to be shot by 


Navarre, Guipuscoa, Biscay, 


Carlists Aug. 
Puycerda vigorously besieged by Carlists, 

Aug.-Sept. 

Zabala resigns; ministry formed under Sagasta, 

4 Sept. 


Carlists fire on German gunboats N vnctitins 
Albatross near San Sebastian ; the Germans fire 
shells into the town . about 5 Sept. 

Lopez Dominguez said to have defeated Carlists five 
times, and relieved Puycerda about 6 Sept. 

Carlists fire on German and Austrian gets cage 
on the road to Madrid 6 Sept. 

Carlists defeated by Lopez Pinto near Mor a, about 
g Sept.; by Moriones at Barasoam near Tafalla, 

about 25 Sept. 

The ruthless Carlist general Dorregaray retires to 
Bayonne ; said to have been superseded by Men- 
diri : : Oct. 

Pavia super seded by J ovellar. in Valencia, 

early i in Oct. 

Note sent to French government complaining of 
neglect respecting the Carlists on the frontiers, 

early in Oct. 

Carlists said to have been defeated at Fortuna, in 
Murcia, 11 Oct.; and at Villa Fortuna, 30 Oct. 

Carlists begin to bombard Irun, 4 Nov.; repulsed, 

1o Nov. 

Serrano commander of the army in the north, Nov. 

Prince Alfonso issues a manifesto in reply to 


and 


\ 


SPAIN. 


address, declaring himself tobe “‘a true Spaniard, 
catholic, and liberal ” 5 x Deg; 
The army at Murviedro pronounces in fivour of 
Alfonso ; he is proclaimed king by gen. Martinez 
Campos, 29 Dec.; recognised by the other armies 
and the navy, 30 Dee.; “proclaimed by gen. Primo 
da Rivera at Madrid ; Antonio Canovas del Cas- 
tillo head of a royal ministry ; 1 Dec. 
The president marshal Serrano So wataleawe to es 
1 Jan 
Alfonso XII. recognised throughout Spain; well 
received at Bar celona, g Jan. ; enters a, 
an. 
Proclamation of Carlos against Alfonso . é Jan. 
Orders of knighthood re-established ; payments to 
clergy to. be renewed . Jan. 
Increased barbarities of the Carlists reported, Jan. 
Alfonso reviews 30,000 troops near Tafalla, 22 Jan.; 
issues proclamation to northern provinces, pro- 
mising amnesty, and respect to local rights, 22 Jan. 
Serrano returns to Madnd Feb. 
Carlists surprise and defeat royalists at aos : 
eb. 
Carlists retreat from Pampeluna ; entered iy the 
king, 6 Feb.; he exchanges decorations with 
Espartero at Logroiio ; Pang LeDs 
Resignation of generals Moriones, Loma, 
Blanco; Concha sent for from Cuba . Feb. 
Serrano received by the king ; . 8 March, 
Cabrera, an old Carlist general (see 1840) publishes 
an address, declaring for Alfonso XII., 11 March, 
Several professors seized and exiled for liberal 
Be Spee i = March, oi 


ptt H . 
Papal nuncio received by the king | i . 
Aguirre, Carlist general, joins the royalists, 

about 9 May, 
Jovellar, commander of royal army, about 7 June, 
Martinez Campos said to have taken fortress of 

Miraveti . 24June, 
Vigorous action of the government troops ; Carlists 

expelled trom Castile; stringent measures or- 

dered against those who favour them July, 
Carlists defeated by Quesada and others .31 July, 
Strong citadel at Urgel surrendered by Carlists to 

Campos, after a gallant defence ; the bishop and 

the brave general Lizarraga captured, 26 Aug. 
New conscription ordered, 12 Aug; reported suc- 


cessful. < Sept. 
Resignation of “conciliation ministry, ” xx Sept; 
liberal cabinet headed by gen. Jovellar, 12 Sept. 


The papal nuncioissues a circular against toleration, 


about 13 Sept.: 


Dorregaray said to be nominated tothe chief com- 
mand ; declaration from don Carlos stating that 
his mission is ‘‘ to quell the revolution, and that 
it will die” . . Sept. 

Bombardment .of San Sebastian, 28 "Sept. -2 Oct. ; 

resumed, 11 Oct. 

The government declare the civil war at an end, 
and purpose summoning the cortes to assist the 
king in re-organising the country, early in Oct. 

Reported defection of Mendiri from the Carlists, 
and trial of Dorregaray and Caballi for miscon- 


duct ; and Carlist successes onGhs 

Reported interference of United States respecting 

Cuba . Oct., Nov. 
Alleged victories of Quesada, near Pennacerada, 

4, 5, Nov. 

Correspondence of ministry with the pope respect- 

ing ecclesiastical affairs . Nov. 


Letter from Don Carlos to the king proposing a 
truce, and offering help if war occurs with the 
United States (not answered) 9 Nov. 

Formation of a new constitutional party “ander 
Sagasta : A : 3 x . Nov. 

New proclamation of don Carlos to ane his 
supporters ov. 

Serrano and Sagasta gr eet the king on his Ditthday, 

ov, 

Ministry reconstructed under Canovas del Castillo, 

ov. 

Cortes elected, 364 nominal ministerialists out yey 


Cortes opened by the king .. 35, Feb. 
Carlists defeated at Estella, Vera, “and Toloza, by 
Quesada and Moriones Feb. 


> 


SPAIN. 


ie king assumes command ; Estella surrenders to 
Primo da Rivera: severe loss f ate wed: 
»ported letter from the pope recommending Carlos 
to retire from the contest . - 22 Heb, 
any Carlists submit or flee into Fr ance, 24-26 Feb. 
jn Carlos with general Lizarraga and ‘five batta- 
lions surrender to the governor of Bayonne, at 
St. Jean Pied de Port, 27 Feb. ; he with some 
officers lands at Folkestone, and proceeds to 
‘London A 4 March, 
‘jumphal entry of Alfonso XII. into nena 

20 March, 
raft of new constitution submitted to the cortes, 

28 March, 
le pope Opposes moderate religious toleration in 
Art. 11 of the constitution . . April, 
ie Jews (expelled in 1492) petition for peng iueaon 

April, 

ie prince of Wales at Madrid by invitation, 

25-30 ‘April, 
itbreaks in the Basque provinces reported ; mar- 
tial law . about 27 May 
mg debate i in the cortes : confidence in ministry 
voted (211-26) ; the constitution passed; cortes 
adjourns . : about 21 July, 
1een Isabella received by the king at Santander ; 
declares that ‘‘ her share in public affairs i ¢ at an 


end ” 1 July, 
»pression ‘of public worship of etaents by 
authority : Sept. 


t-queen Isabella quietly: received at Madrid, 13 Oct, 
leged federalist conspiracy of Ruiz Zorrilla and 
Salmeron ; about rs0 arrests . : see era 
ate of siege in Old Castile raised ee i Pep: 
eaty favoured nation clause in regard to England 
abrogated - 
yyal progress in the provinces ; the king well re- 
ceived . March, 
meral amnesty to Carlists and others surrender- 
ing April, 
reting of the new cortes ; cheerful royal speech, 
25 April, 
.e cortes suddenly closed . : Le oY, 
rw tariff passed ; customs duties raised in respect 
to Great Britain, France, and United States, 
17 July, 
e ex-queen, after visiting her son, qageerises 
of his proposed marriage, and associates with don 
Carlos in Paris, who ‘is privately forbidden to 
remain, and goes to England; she is forbidden to 
return to Spain; her pension stopped, end of Dec. 


ie king married to his cousin Mercedes, daughter ' 


of the duc de Montpensier . : 23 Jan. 
id of the insurrection in Cuba announced, 21 Feb. 
‘ath of queen Mercedes, deeply lamented, 263 une, 
idget receipts, 30,025,208., expendit. 30,127,114. 
anounced . 3 . Aug. 
‘ath of the queen dowager Christina . 2x Aug. 
e king fired at (not injured) by Juan Oliva Mon- 
sasi, a member of the International Society, aged 
23 2 A é . ee 5 NOCh: 
yncasi executed ; ‘ 4 Jan. 
partero, duque de Victoria, ‘dies. - 8Jan. 
stillo ministry (1874) resigns ; marshal Campos 
‘orms 2 ministry . : . 3 March, 
e cortes dissolved, 16 March ; to meet, xJune, 
‘avy rains, 14 Oct.; consequent disastrous inun- 
lations in the provinces of Malaga, Almeria, 
3ranada, Seville, and especially in Murcia and 
Alicante ; about 1oco persons perish; about 
{0,000 houseless . 15-17 Oct. 
ash storms and inundations ; : ar persons drowned 
it Vera, in Almeria . 29, 30 Oct. 
e king married to the archduchess Mara. Chris- 


ina of. Austria . - 29 Nov. 


1es attacked by phylloxera i in “Malaga, &e. * oy. 
-signation of the Campos TEnISIEY 5 ; Canovas del 
Jastillo forms a cabinet . PeeOLLec. 
tempted assassination of the king ‘and queen by 
*rancisco Otero y Gonzalez by shooting, 30 Dec. 
omulgation of law for gradually “abolishing 
ilavery in Cuba é - 18 Feb. 
nifesto from 279 senators and deputies claiming 
iberty of religion, the press, &c., and education, 
‘miversal suffr age, &¢. : c 6 April, 
ero executed . 14 April, 
“signation of ministry ; Sag gasta forms a ministry 


781 SPAIN. 


” 
” 


liberal), 8 Feb..; the chambers adjourned, 9 Feb, 1881 


Calderon centenary, Madrid, begins . 23 May, 
Conference of advanced radicals at Biarritz to or- 
ganize the party . : 13dune, 
Permission said to be given to about 60,000 Rus- 
sian Jews to come to ‘Spain F . June, 
Don Carlos expelled from France for expr essing Sym- 
pathy with legitimists (goes to London) 17 TJ uly, 
Elections ; majority for the ministry . AUS, 
The cortes opened by the king ; 5 eye Sept. 
Consolidation of the National debt (60,000,000l.) 
proposed, Sept. ; law published 5 o Dee. 
The king invested with the order of the Garter +7 Oct. 
The kings of Spain and Portugal open a new rail- 
way between Madnid and Lisbon . 8, OCE: 
Great agitation against the free trade policy of the 
minister Camacho, in Catalonia, &e. (see Bar- 
celonu) 
Treaty with France passed by the cortes (237- 65), 
22 April, 
Continued disputes with England respecting tariff, 
Aug. et seq. 
‘Dynastic Left,” a new party formed by marshal 
Serrano and other 8, constituted (dividing the 
liberals) . « 27 Oct. 
Gen. Maceo and five Cuban insurgent leaders sur- 
rendered at Gibraltar to the Spaniards (they had 
escaped from Cadiz, 20 Aug.); they petition 
queen Victoria to ask for their release ; applica- 
tion made for inquiry; gen. Baynes, colonial 
secretary at Gibraltar, and Mr. Blair, the chief 
inspector of police, dismissed for exceeding their 


authority, announced. < 4 Dec. 
The ‘‘ Dynastic Left” in cortes pronounce in favour 

of advanced liberalism : 5 Dec. 
Majority for government in elections for coinedis 

general . : 3 m7 Dece 
Resignation of the ministry é A . 6Jan. 


New cabinet formed by Sagasta ; rs 8 Jan. 
Socialist and anarchist disturbances in Seville, &ec. 
Feb. 

A secret society, entitled the ‘‘ Black Hand (Mano 
Negra),” reported; arrests, 28 Feb.; total sup- 


pression reported - 4 March, 
Release of two Cuban refugees ; " Maceo retained, 
March, 


The king and queen of Portugal at Madrid, 22 May, 
Temporary republican military insurrection at 
Badajoz, said to be planned by Ruiz Z orrilla, 
on the approach of troops; mutineers enter Por- 
tugal, and are disarmed : 4, 5, 6 Aug. 
Brief military outbreaks near Logrofio and at Bar- 


celona, 8 Aug. ; Seo-de-Urgel . b - g Aug. 
Spain reported tranquil . 13 Aug. 
The king’s military tour, Valencia, Bare elona, Sara- 
gossa, ~&e. well received - - 17 Aug. et seq. 
He visits Vienna, 10 Sept. ; Berlin, Homberg, and 
‘Brussels. 27 Sept. 


The king honourably received by pr esident Gre evy; 
put hissed and reviled by the Paris mob (on 
account of his having been made a colonel of 
Uhlans by the emperor William); behaved with 
dignity and courage . - 29, 30 Sept. x Oct. 

Resignation of Sagasta and his ministry ; succeeded 
by Posada Herrera and others. 11-13 Oct. 

The crown prince of Germany arrives at Madrid, 

23 Nov. 

Amnesty granted to insurgent soldiers aganiive ed, 

27 Nov. 

Treaty for new commercial tariff signed. ! Dec. 

The king opens the cortes, with speech promising 
important reforms 15 Dec 

Treaty with England condemned by the council of 
state ; freetraders indignant . Jan. 

Government defeated in the cortes (221- 126) 17 Jan, 

Ministry resigned; Canovas del Castillo (conser- 
vative) forms a ministry “ 0 : 18 Jan, 

Dissolution of the cortes . 5 5 31 March, 


Suspected military insurrection ; about 25 persons 
arrested, about 17 March; 7 of 15 condemned ; 
Black Hand conspirators garrotted at Xeres, 14 
June; Commander Fernandez and lieut. Telles 
shotasrebels . 3 5 : 28 June, 

Fall of the Alcudia railway bridge near Badajoz, 
great loss ‘of life (said to be 90); believed to be 
due to criminal work of republicans . 26 April, 


New cortes (three-fourths conservative) meets, 20 
May ; business begun 2 - : 10 June, 


1881 


SPAIN. 


SPAIN. 


Last section of the Great Asturian railway opened 
by the king ? re Aug: 

Indiscreet speech of Sen. Pidal Y. Mon, minister 
of instruction, causes revival of agitation in 
favour of the Pope; resented by Italy 3 apology 
made. : . Aug. Sept. 

Speech of professor Moraytor ‘against clericals ; 
university students at Madrid for rbidden to attend 
his lectures by Sen. Pidal, resist ; conflict with 
the police ; many wounded, 20 Nov. ; ; professors 
and students expelled from the univer sity ; many 
liberal newspapers suspended ; other uniy ersities 


agitated Noy. 
Passive resistance of the students r Dec. et seq. 
Much sufferings by Earthquakes, which see, 
25-31 Dec. 

National subscription proclaimed by the "Tate 
3 Jan 


The king visits the afflicted districts, ae Jan. 
liberal subse riptions in London 1 Jan. 
Protocol restoring Great Britain to pasion of 
most ‘favoured nation” in regard to commerce 
(lost since 1845); wine duties ‘modified ; signed 
at Madrid, at Dec. 1884; gazetted 6 Feb. 
Commercial | treaty with England ratified by the 
deputies, rr March; by the senate, 28 March; 
by the king . ti April, 
Failure of the negotiations “for the tr eaty eat 
8 May 


SOVEREIGNS OF SPAIN. 


GOTHIC SOVEREIGNS. 
41x. Ataulfo; murdered by his soldiers. 
415. Sigerico; reigned a few days only. 

> Valia, or Wallia. 
420. Theodoric (Ox 

against Attila. 

Thorismund, or Torrismund ; assassinated. 
Theodoric IL; assassinated by 
Euric, the first monarch of all Spain. 
Alaric II. ; killed in battle. 
Gesalric; his bastard son. 


451. 
452. 
466. 
483. 
506. 
Sit. 
531. 
548. 
549- 
554- 
567. 
568. 


Theudisela, or Theodisele ; murdered. 
Agila; taken prisoner, and put to death. 
Atanagildo. 

Liuva, or Levua I. 


in 568 ; ; and sole king in 572. 
Recaredo I. 
Liuva II. ; assassinated. 
Vitericus ; also murdered. 
Gundemar. 
Sisibut, or Sisebuth, or Sisebert. 
Recaredo IT. 
Suintila; dethroned. 
Sisenando. 
Chintella. 
Tulga, or Tulca. 
Cindasuinto; died in 652. 
Retesuinto ; associated ; 
Vamba, or Wamba; 
monastery. 
Ervigius, or Ervigio. 
Egica, or Egiza. 
698. Vitiza, or Witiza, associated ; in 7or sole king. 
7ix. Rodrigo, or Roderic; slain in battle. 
Six independent Survic kings reigned 409-4609 ; 


586. 
601. 
603. 
610. 
612. 
621. 
631. 
636. 
40. 
642. 
649. 
672. 


680. 
687. 


Two VANDALIC kings: Gunderic 409-425 ; his successor 


killed in a battle, which he gained, 


Amalric, or Amalaric ; legitimate son of Alaric. 
Theudis, or Theodat; assassinated by a madman. 


Leuvigildo ; : associated on the throne with Liuva, 


in 653 became sole king. 
dethroned, and died in a 


and 


Genseric with his whole nation passed over to Africa. } 


MAHOMETAN SPAIN. 


CORDOVA. 
ig pa first, Abdelasis; the last, Yussuf-el-Tehri : 
714-755 
Kings. "The jirst, Abderahman I. ; the last, Abu Ali; 
755-1238. 
GRANADA. 
Kings. The first, Mohammed I.; the last, Abdalla; 
1238-1492. 


CHRISTIAN SPAIN. 
KINGS OF ASTURIAS AND LEON. 
718. Pelagius, or Pelayo; 
checked their conquests. 
737. Favila; killed in hunting. 
739. Alfonso the Catholic. 


overthrew the Moors, and 


757. Froila; murdered his brother Samaran, in revenge 


768. 
774: 
788. 


791. 
842. 


850. 
866. 


gro. 
QI4. 
923. 
. Alfonso IV., the Monk; abdicated. 

. Ramiro II., killed in battle. 

. Ordono IIT. 

. Ordofio IV. 

. Sancho L., the Fat; voteoned with an apple. 
. Ramiro II. 

. Veremundo IT. (Bermuda), the Gouty. 

. Alfonso V.; killed in a siege. 

. Veremundo III. (Bermuda) ; killed. 


1035. 
1065. 


1072. 
I109Q. 
1126. 
T1572 
1158. 


1188, 
1214. 
1217. 


1252. 


1284. 
1295. 
1312. 
1350. 


1369. 
1379. 
1390. 
1406. 


| 1454. 


. Sancho Iitigo. 

. Garcia I., king. 
. Sancho Garcias; a renowned warrior. 

. Garcias II., surnamed the Trembler. 

. Sancho II., surnamed the Great (king of Cas 


for which he was murdered by his brother, : 
successor, 

Aurelius or Aurelio. 

Mauregato, the Usurper. 

Veremundo (Bermuda) I. 

Alfonso II., the Chaste. 

Raniro I. : he put 70,000 Saracens to the swor 
one battle. Rabbe. 

Ordofio II. 

Alfonso III., surnamed the Great ; relinquished 
crown to his son, 

Garcias. 

Ordofio II. 

Froila IT. 


KINGS OF NAVARRE. 
Cownt. 


through his wife). 


. Garcias ITI. 
. Sancho III. 
. Sancho IV., 
. Peter of Aragon. 

. Alfonso I., of Aragon. 

. Garcias IV., Ramirez. 

. Sancho V., surnamed the Wise. 

. Sancho VI., surnamed the Infirm. 

. Theobald I., count of Champagne. 

. Theobald II. 

. Henry Crassus. 

. Joanna; married to Philip the Fair of France, 1: 
. Louis Hutin of France. ~ 

. John; lived but a few days. 


Ramirez, king of Aragon. 


Philip V., the Long, of France. 


. Charles I., the IV. of France. 

. Joanna II., and Philip, count d’Evreux. 

. Joanna alone. 

. Charles II., or the Bad. 

. Charles III., or the Noble. 

. Blanche and her husband John II., afterwards k 


of Aragon. 


. Eleanor. 


Francis Pheebus de Foix. ‘ 


. Catherine and John d’Albret. 
. Navarre conquered by Ferdinand the Catholic, : 


united with Castile. - 


KINGS OF LEON AND CASTILE. 


Ferdinand the Great. 

Sancho IL., the Strong, son of Ferdinand ; Alfo 
in Leon and Asturias, and Garcias in Galicia. 

Alfonso VI., the Valiant, king of Leon. 

Uraca and Alfonso VII. 

Alfonso VII., Raymond. 

Sancho III., surnamed the Beloved. 

Alfonso VIII., the Noble. 

[Leon is separated from Castile under Fe! 
nand II., 1157-88.] 

pene IX., of Leon. 

Henry I 

Ferdinand III., the Saint and the Holy. By I 
Leon and Castile were permanently united. 

Alfonso X., the Wise (the Alphonsine Tables w 
drawn up under his direction). 

Sancho IV., the Great and the Brave. 

Ferdinand IV. 

Alfonso XJ. 

Peter the Cruel: deposed ; reinstated by Edw: 
the Black Prince of England ; ; slain by 
natural brother and successor, 

Henry II., the Gracious ; poisoned by a monk. 

John I. ¢ he united Biscay to Castile. 

Henry IL, the Sickly. 

John II., son of Henry. 

Henry IV., the Impotent. 


€ 


Le 


5 


w 


w 


, 


’ 


-PuBLic founded, 


SPAIN. 7 


83 


SPARTA. 


Isabella, sister (had married Ferdinand of Aragon, 
18 Oct. 1469). 

Joanna (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella), and 
Philip I. of Austria. On her mother’s death 
Joanna succeeded, jointly with her husband 
Philip ; but Philip dying in 1506, and Joanna 
becoming imbecile, her father Ferdinand con- 
tinued the reign; and thus perpetuated the 
union of Castile with Aragon. 


KINGS OF ARAGON. 


- Ramiro I. 


Sancho Ramirez (IV. of Navarre). 


. Peter of Navarre. 

. Alfonso I., the Warrior, king of Navarre. 

. Ramiro II., the Monk. 

. Petronilla, and Raymond, count of Barcelona. 
. Alfonso II. 


Peter II. 

James I. ; succeeded by his son, 

Peter III. ; conquered Sicily (which see) in 1282. 
Alfonso III., the Beneficent. 

James II., surnamed the Just. 


. Alfonso IV. 
. Peter IV., the Ceremonious. 


John I. 
Martin. 


. [Interregnum. ] 

. Ferdinand the Just, king of Sicily. 

. Alfonso V., the Wise. 

. John II., king of Navarre, brother of Alfonso ; died 


1479. 
. Ferdinand II., the Catholic, the next heir; by 


marriage with Isabella of Castile (styled the 
Catholic kings), the kingdoms were united. 


SPAIN. 


. Ferdinand V. (of Castile), the Catholic; having 


conquered Granada and Navarre, became king 
of all Spain. 


. Charles I., grandson, son of Joanna of Castile and 


Philip of Austria (emperor of Germany, as Charles 
V., in r5r9); resigned both crowns, and retired 
to a monastery. : 


. Philip IL, son, king of Naples and Sicily ; a merci- 


less bigot; married Mary, queen-regnant of 
England ; died covered with ulcers. 


. Philip IIL, son, drove the Moors from Granada 


and the adjacent provinces. 


. Philip IV., son: wars with the Dutch and French ; 


lost Portugal in 1640. 


. Charles II., son; last of the Austrian line; nomi- 


nated, by will, as his successor 


. Philip V., duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. 


of France: hence arose the ‘‘war of the Succes- 
sion,” terminated by the treaty of Utrecht in 
1713; resigned. 


. Louis I., son; reigned only a few months. 


Philip V. again. 


. Ferdinand VL., the Wise, son ; liberal and beneficent. 
. Charles III., brother, king of the Two Sicilies, which 


he gave to his third son, Ferdinand. 


. Charles IV., son; the influence of Godoy, prince of 


the Peace, reached to almost royal authority in 
this reign; Charles abdicated in favour of his 
son in 1808, and died in 1819. 


. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon of France also 


forced to resign. 
Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon ; forced to 
abdicate. 


. Ferdinand VII. restored ; married Maria Christina 


of Naples, rx Dec. 1829; died 29 Sept. 1833; 
succeeded by 


. Isabella II., daughter (born, ro Oct. 1830) ; declared 


of age, 8 Nov. 1843; married her cousin, Don 
Francis d’Assisi, 10 Oct. 1846; deposed 30 Sept. 
1868; separated from her husband, March, 
1870; and abdicated, 25 June, 1870, in favour of 
her son, Alfonso, prince of Asturias (born, 
28 Nov. 1857). 


. Amadeo I. (duke of Aosta, son of Victor-Emanuel IT. 


king of Italy); born, 30 May, 1845; married 
Maria Victoria of Pozzo della Cisterna, 30 May, 
1867; accepted the crown offered him by the 
cortes, 4 Dec. 1870; abdicated 11 Feb. 1873. 

11 Feb. 1873. Very unsettled, 


1873-4. 


KING, 


1874. Alfonso XII. son of Isabella II. (born 28 Nov. 
1857); proclaimed 30 Dec. 1874; married 1st, 
his cousin Mercedes, daughter of the duc de 
Montpensier (born 24 June, 1860), 23 Jan. 1878 ; 
she died 26 June, 1878 ; 2nd, archduchess Maria 
Christina of Austria (born 21 July, 1858), 29 
Nov. 1879. 

Heiress: Maria Mercedes Isabella, born rz Sept. 1880. 


CARLIST LEGITIMIST PRETENDERS. 
(See above 1833 et seq.) 
Carlos V., brother of Ferdinand VII., born 29 March, 
1788 ; died, ro March, 1855. 
Carlos VI., his son (conde de Montemolin), died 14 Jan. 


1861. 

Carlos VII. (son of don Juan, brother of Carlos VI., 
who renounced his right, 8 Jan. 1863); born, 
30 March, 1848; see above 1873-6. 


SPALATO (Dalmatia), the ancient Spalatum, 
and Salona. At his palace here, Diocletian spent his 
last nine years, and died July, 313. R. Adam pub- 
pie the ‘* Antiquities of Diocletian’s Palace,”’ 
1764. 


SPANISH AMERICA, ARMADA, &c., 


see America, Armada, and Eras. 


SPANISH GRANDEES, the higher 
nobility, at one time almost equal to the kings of | 
Castile and Aragon, and often setting their autho- 
rity at defiance, were restrained on the union of the 
crowns by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella 
in 1474, who compelled several to relinquish the 
royal fortresses and domains which they held. 
Charles Y. reduced the grandees to sixteen tamilies 
(Medina-Sidonia, Albuquerque, &c.), dividing them 
into three classes. 


SPANISH LANGUAGE (Lengua Castel- 
lana), is a dialect of Latin largely intermingled 
with Arabic, which was the legal language till the 
14th century. Spanish did not become general till 
the 16th century. 

EMINENT SPANISH AUTHORS. 


é Born Died 
Garcilasso de la Vega . TBO 1536 
Boscan . : : , - 1496 1543 
Jorge de Montemayor . - 1520 1562 
Las Casas . - 1474 1566 
Ercilla . . - ‘ 2 ; a) Sa eeia) 1505 
Cervantes (author of Don Quixote). BI 547 1616 
Mariana — : : < - 20536 1623 
Herrera ~. PESOS 1625 
Gongora : . : err 1627 
Alarcon y Mendoza . : 1634 
Lope de Vega : - 1568 1635 
Quevedo . g 1570 1647 
Gabriel Tellez SOS 1648 
Calderon . - I601r 1682 
Solis . 1610 1686 
Feyjos « I970L 1765 
Yriarte = E750 1798 


Leandro F, Moratin  . - 1760 1828 


SPANISH REFORMED CHURCH, con- 
stituted at Gibraltar, 25 April, 1868. By permission 
of general Prim its missionaries entered Spain soon 
after the revolution, in Sept. following. 


SPANISH SUCCESSION an - 
RIAGES, see Spat, 1700, and 10 bat neiea 


SPARTA, the capital of Laconia, or Lace- 
dzemon, the most considerable republic of the Pelo- 
ponnesus, and the rival of Athens. Though without 
walls, it resisted the attacks of its enemies by the 
valour of its citizens for eight centuries. Lelex is 
supposed to have been the first king. From Lace- 
demon the fourth king, and his wife Sparta, who 
are also spoken of as the founders of the city, it 
obtained names. The Lacedzwemonians were a na- 


SPARTA. 7 


84 SPEAKING-TRUMPET. 


tion of soldiers, and cultivated neither the arts, 
sciences, commerce, nor agriculture. The early 
history is traditional. 


Sparta founded. Pausanias. . - : B.C. 1490 
Tyndarus marries Leda: Helen born - 1388 
Helen stolen by Theseus, king of Athens, but re- 

covered by her br others . 5 eerste! 
The princes of Greece demand Helen in marriage ; 

she makes choice of Menelaus of Mycene . : eo 
Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, carries off Helen 1204 
The Trojan Ware ae . 1194 


After a war of ten years, and a disastrous voyage of 
nearly eight, Menelaus and Helen return to Sparta 1176 


The kingdom seized by the Heraclide . - - I104 
Establishment of two kings, Eurysthenes and 
Procles, by their father Ar istodemus 2 . *. IIOO 


Rule of Lycurg eus, who establishes the senate, and 
enacts a code of laws. Eusebius. (My thical) 884-850 
Charilaus declares war against Polymnestor, king 


of Arcadia “ 848 
Alcamenes, known by his apophthegms, makes war 

upon the Messenians 813 
Nicander succeeds his father, Charilaus ; war with 

the Argives . 3 - 800 


Theopompus introduces the Ephori, “about : 757 
War declared against the Messenians, and Amphia 


taken 743 
The pr ogeny of the Partheniz, the sons of Virgins . 733 
Battle of Ithome; Messenians beaten . : 730 
Ithome taken ; the Messenians become vassals to 

Sparta, and the war of nineteen years ends . 724 
Conspiracy of the Partheniz with the Helots to 

take Sparta : 707 
The Parthenia colonise Tarentum . 706 


The Messenians revolt, and league with Elis, Argos, 
and Arcadia, against the Lacedemonians. [This 


war lasted fourteen years. ] : F : Aree Meets 
Carnian festivals instituted . : : 2 OTS 
The Messenians settle in Sicily 669 
War with the Argives, and celebrated battle "be- 

tween 300 select “heroes of each nation. “ 547 
War with Athens - 4 - 505 
The Spartans resist the king of Persia K - 491 


The states of Greece unite against the Persians. 482 
Leonidas, at the head of 300 Spartans, withstands 
the Persian arms at the defile of Thermopyle (see 


Thermopyle) . 480 
Persians defeated by Pausanias, king of Sparta, at 

Platewa 479 
He is put to death for treason; the Grecian armies 

choose an Athenian general . 472 
An earthquake at Spar ta destroys 30,000 persons 

rebellion of the Helots . ~ 466 
Sparta joins Macedon against Athens . F RASA. 
Platza taken by the Spartans . 428 
‘The Spartans, under Agis, enter Attica, and lay 

waste the country . 426 
Agis (king 427) gains a great victory over the Ar. gives 

‘and the Mantineans. 418 
The Lacedemonian fleet, under Mindarus, defeated 

at Cyzicum, and Mindarus slain. 410 


The Spartans, defeated by land and at sea, sue for 
peace, which is denied by the Athenians . + 409 
Reign of Pausanias E 408 
The Athenians defeated at Egospotami by Lysander 405 
Athens taken by him; end of Peloponnesian war . 404 
Agesilaus (king 398) enters Lydia F 396 
The Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians 
enter into a league against the Spartans, which 
begins the Corinthian * war . : 5 aS 
Agesilaus defeats the allies at Coronea 394 
The Lacedemonian fleet, under Lysander, defeated 
by Conon, the Athenian commander, near Cnidos; 


Lysander ‘killed in an engagement ; 4 ais 
Peace of Antalcidas : Weekes 
The Thebans drive the Spartans from Cadmea as 
The Spartans lose the dominion of the seas; their 

fleet totally destroyed by Timotheus . : - 376 
The Spartans defeated at Leuctra ; 371 
Epaminondas, heading 50,000 Thebans, appears ‘be- 

fore Sparta 369 
Battle of Mantinea; the Thebans victors. 27 5 une, 362 
Philip of Macedon overcomes Sparta . . . fh oad 
Pyrrhus defeated before Sparta z . 204 
Agis IV. endeavours to revive laws of Lycurg ous - 244 
Leonidas II. vacates the throne, and flies. - 243 


Reealled; becomes sole sovereign ; Agis killed — add 


Reign of Cleomenes III. the son of Leonidas 

He re-establishes most of the laws of Lycurgus 

Antigonus defeats Cleomenes, and enters Sparta 3 

Cleomenes retires to Egypt A : R 

The Spartans murder the Ephori 

Machanidas ascends the throne, and abolishes the 
Ephori. 

He is defeated and slain by Philopeemen, pretor of 
the Acheean league *' ; 5 

Cruel government. of Nabis 

The Romans besiege Sparta ; Nabis sues for peace 

The Aitolians seize “Sparta : Nabis assassinated 

The laws of Lycurgus abolished 

Sparta, under the protection or rather subjugation 


of Rome, retains its wrt for a short time 
Taken by Alaric : i : z WALD: 
Taken by Mahomet II. . 


Burnt by Sigismund Malatesta 
Rebuilt at Misitra ; it is now called Sparta, and is 
part of the kingdom of Greece. 


SPARTACUS’S INSURRECTION 
Servile War). Spartacus was a noble Thrac 
who served in an auxiliary corps of the Ro: 
army. Having deserted and been apprehended 
was reduced to slavery and made a gladiator. V 
some companions he made his ears collecte 
body of slaves and gladiators, 7 »> rava 
southern Italy; and defeated the eran fo 
under the consuls sent against him. Knowing 
impossibility of successfully resisting the repul 
he endeavoured to conduct his forces into Sic 
but was defeated and slain by Crassus, 71 B.c. 


“SPASMODIC. SCHOOL” of poetry 
name sarcastically given to Alex. Smith, Syd 
Dobell Adied in Aug. 1874), Gerald Massey, 
others (precursors of Morris, Algernon Swinbu 
and Rossetti, sarcastically termed the “ fle: 
school”’), ridiculed by professor Aytoun in 


“¢ Firmilian,” published 1854. 


SPEAKERS oF THE HovsE oF Commo 
Peter de Montford, afterwards killed at the ba 
of Evesham, was the first speaker, 45 Hen. I 
1260; Sir Thos. Hungerford is said to h 
been the first named ‘“‘ Speaker,” 1372; 
sir Peter de la Mare is supposed to have been 
first regular speaker, 50 Edw. III., 1376. ' 
king refused his assent to the choice of 
Edward Seymour, as speaker, 6 March, 1678; 
serjeant William Gregory was chosen i in his ro 
Sir John Trevor was expelled the chair and 
house for taking a gratuity after the act for 
benefit of orphans had passed, 12 March, 1694-5 
deputy speaker was appointed Aug. 1853. 

RECENT SPEAKERS. 

1789. Henry Addington (aft. viscount Sidmouth), 5 Ji 

z8o0r. Sir John Mitford (aft. baron Redesdale), 15 Fel 

1802. Charles Abbot (aft. lord Colchester), 10 Feb. 

1817. Charles Manners Sutton (afterwards viscount ( 
terbury), 2 June. 

1835. James Abercromby (afterwards baron Dunfe 
line), 19 Feb. 

1839. Charles Shand Lefevre (afterwards viscount Ey 
ley), 27 May. 

1857. John Evelyn Denison, 30 April (afterwards visco 
Ossington). 

1872. Sir HenryWm. Bouverie Brand (afterwards Visco 

Hampden), 9 Feb.-25 Feb. 1884. 
1884. Arthur Wellesley Peel, 26 Feb. 


SPEAKER’S COMMENTARY, a na 
given to an edition of the Bible with a revised t 
and a commentary hy several bishops and ot 
theologians edited by F. C. Cook. The und 
taking originated, it is said, chiefly with Mr. J« 
Evelyn Denison, speaker of the house of comme 
with the view of opposing the interpretations of . 
Colenso, and was announced in Noy. 1863. 1 
publication, begun in 1871, was completed in 18 


SPEAKING-TRUMPET, used by ships 


, gt A ah _ 
ier 


a - 
* 
igs 
. 


SPECIAL CONSTABLES. 


785 


SPINNING. 


»a. One is said to have been used by Alexander, 
35 B.c. One was constructed from Kircher’s de- 
xiption by Saland, 1652; philosophically explained 
nd brought into notice by Morland, 1670. 


SPECIAL CONSTABLES are sworn in for 
1e preservation of the public peace when disturb- 
nees are feared. The laws relative to their ap- 
ointment were amended in 1831 and 1835. Louis 
‘apoleon, afterwards emperor, aided as a special con- 
ible in London, 10 April, 1848; see Chartists, and 
iondon, Dec. 1867. Instructions for their organisa- 
on were issued, 13 Jan. 1868. On 28 Jan. 52,974 
ithe metropolis, and 113,674 in the United King- 
om, had been sworn in. ‘Their services were net 
quired, and they were honourably dismissed by an 
sder issued 31 March, 1868. 


SPECIES. Much controversy among natural- 
ts arose in consequence of the publication, in 1859, 
f Mr. Charles Darwin’s ‘‘ Origin of Species,” in 
hich he suggests that all the various species of 
gimals were not created at one time, but have 
xen gradually developed by what he terms ‘‘natural 
ection,’ and the struggle for life in which the 
rong overcome the weak; and which Herbert 
pencer terms ‘‘ the survival of the fittest.” 

he idea was put forth by Lamarck in his ‘‘ Philosophie 
Zoologique,” 1809. Similar views appear in the 
“*Vestiges of Creation,” 1844. Mr. Darwin says, that 
he infers ‘‘ from analogy that probably all the 
organic beings which have ever lived on the earth 
have descended from some one primordial form, into 
which life was first breathed by the Creator.” See 
Development and Evolution. 


‘SPECIFIC GRAVITIES. See under 
Veights. 


SPECTACLES, unknown to the ancients, are 
merally supposed to have been invented by Alex- 
ider de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, about 
285. According to Dr. Plott, they were invented 
y Roger Bacon, about 1280. Manni attributes 
tem to Salvino, who died 1317. On his tomb at 
lorence is the inscription, ‘*‘ Qui giace Salvino 
gli Armati, inventore degli occhiali: Dio gli per- 
mi le peccata’”’ (‘‘ Here lies Salvino degli Armati, 
ventor of spectacles: May God pardon his sins’’). 


SPECTATOR. The first number of this peri- 
lical appeared on I March, 1711; the last was 
0.635, 20 Dec. 1714. The papers by Addison have 
ie of the letterscL10at the end. The most of 
e other papers are by sir Richard Steele, a few by 
ughes, Budgell, Eusden, Miss Shephard, and 
hers.—The Spectator newspaper (philosophical, 
nig), begun 5 July, 1828. 


SPECTRUM, the term given to the image of 
e sun or any other luminous body formed on a 
ul or screen, by a beam of light received through 
small hole or slit, and refracted by a prism. The 
lours thus produced are red, orange, yellow, green, 
ue, indigo, andviolet. The phenomena were first 
feted by Newton, whose ‘‘ Optics’? was pub- 

ed in 1704. Several of these colours are con- 
lered to be compounds of three primary ones: by 
ayer (1775), red, yellow, and blue ;—by Dr. Thos. 
mung (1801), red, green, and violet;—by Prof. 
erk Maxwell (1860), red, green, and blue. As 
2 colour of a flame varies according to the sub- 
imce producing it or introduced into it, so the 
sctrum varies. This led to the invention of a 
sthod of chemical analysis by professors Bunsen 
d Kirchhoff (1860), by which they have discovered 
oO new metals, and have drawn conclusions as to 


2 nature of the atmosphere of the sun and stars, - 
d of the light of the nebulz, by comparing the | 


spectrum with that produced by flames into which 
iron, sodium, and other substances have been intro- 
duced. For the invisible rays of the spectrum, see 
Calorescence, and Fluorescence. 


Fraunhofer’s Lines. In 1802 Dr. Wollaston observed 
several dark lines in the solarspectrum ; in 1815 Joseph 
Fraunhofer not only observed them, but constructed a 
map of them, giving 590 lines or dark bands. By the 
researches of Brewster and others the number observed 
is now above 2000. 

Mr. Fox Talbot observed the orange line of strontium in 
the spectrum in 1826; and sir David Brewster ob- 
served other lines, 1833-42-3. In 1862-3 Mr. William 
Huggins analysed the light of the fixed stars and of 
the nebule ; and in 1865 Dr. Bence Jones, by means of 
spectrum analyses, detected the presence of minute 
quantities of metals in the living body, introduced only 
a few minutes previously. 

A spectroscopic society in Italy published a journal early 
in 1872. 

H. Schellen’s ‘‘Spectralanalyse” published 1870; new 
edition 1883. 

H. Roscoe’s *‘ Spectrum Analysis” published 

Lecoq de Boisbaudran’s ‘‘ Spectres Lumineux” 

Oxygen detected in the solar spectrum by Mr. 
Draper : ; ‘ : : Pe LOTT, 
SPECULATIVE SOCIETY, [Edinburgh 

(which had included among its members David 

Hume), celebrated its hundredth anniversary on 

14 Oct. 1863; see Philosophy. 
“SPELLING-BEHS,” meetings to test the 

proficiency in correct spelling; introduced into 

London from the United States of America; the 

first at Holloway, London, N., in the autumn of 

1875. Gecographical, musical, and other bees 

followed, and all soon ceased. 


SPELLING REFORM. A resolution in 
favour of it was adopted by the London School Board, 
in 1877; a conference and public meeting were held 
at the Society of Arts, 29 May, 1877. 

A Spelling Reform Association formed ; Dr. Temple, 
bishop of Exeter, Robert Lowe, KE. B. Tylor, and 
Max Miller were among the members . - 

Mr. T. B. Sprague’s article on a Marriage and Mor- 
tality Table, in the Journal of the Institute of 
Actuaries, is printed according to phonetic spelling 


July, ,;, 
SPHERES. 


1867-73 
1874 


1879 


The celestial and terrestrial 
spheres and sun-dials are said to have been in- 
vented by Anaximander, 552 B.c.; and the armil- 
lary sphere by Eratosthenes, about 225 B.c. The 
planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 
212 B.c. Pythagoras maintained that the motions 
of the twelve spheres must produce delightful 
sounds, inaudible to mortals, which he called the 
music of the spheres. 

SPHYGMOGRAPH (from the Greek, sphyg- 
mos, a pulsation), an instrument for investigating 
disease, by showing the state of the pulse, invented 
by M. E. J. Marey, of Paris, and described by him 
in 1863. 

SPICES. Imported into Great Britain: cinna- 
mon and other spices, exclusive of pepper; 1846, 
1,910,584 lbs..5° 1856, %.4;154,1607 lbs.; 1867, 
12,831,953. lbs. + 1877, 17,186,572 lbs.; 1879, 
19,340,817 lbs.; 1883, 24,344,895 lbs. 

SPICHEREN, sce Saarbruck. 


SPINET, a clavichord or keyed instrument, 
used, in the 17th century, a modification of the 
virginals, which see. Bull, Gibbons, Purcell, and 
especially Domenico Scarlatti composed for this 
instrument. 

SPINNING was ascribed by the ancients to 
Minerva, the goddess of wisdom. Arcas, king of 
Arcadia, taught his subjects the art about 1500 B.c. 
Tradition reports that Lucretia with her maids was 


3 E 


SPIRES. 


786 


SPORTING NEWSPAPERS. 


eee 


found spinning, when her husband Collatinus paid 
a visit to her from the camp, that the wife of 'Tar- 
quin was an excellent spinner, and that a garment 
made by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was pre- 
served in the temple of Fortune. Till 1767, the 
spinning of cotton was performed by the hand 
spinning-wheel, when Hargreaves, an ingenious 
mechanic, near Blackburn, made a spinning jenny, 
with eight spindles, and also erected the first card- 
ing machine, with cylinders. Arkwright’s machine 
for spinning by water was an extension of the prin- 
ciple of Hargreaves; but he also applied a large 
and small roller to expand the thread, for which he 
took out a patent in 1769. At first he worked his 
machinery by horses; but in 1771 he built a mill 
on the stream of the Derwent, at Cromford. In 
1774-9, Crompton invented the mule (which see). 


SPIRES (Gn Bavaria). The emperors held 
many diets at Spires since 1309, and it was the seat 
of the imperial chamber till 1688, when the city 
was burned by the French, and not rebuilt till after 
the peace of Ryswick, in 1697. The diet to con- 
demn the reformers was held at Spires, called there 
by the emperor Charles V. 1529; see Protestants. 


SPIRIT-LEVEL. The invention is ascribed 
to J. Melchisedec Thevenot, who died 1692. 


SPIRITS, see Diéstitlation. In all nations 
spirituous liquors have been considered as a proper 
subject of heavy taxation for the support of the 
state; see Alcohol, Brandy, Methylated Spirits, &e. 
In 1840 England made about ten millions of gallons of 

spirits, Scotland about seven millions of gallons, and 

Ireland about nine millions of gallons. 

In 1851 the number of gallons on which duty was paid 
for home consumption was 23,976,596. The total 
amount paid was 6,017,218/., of which 3,758,186/. were 
paid by England, 1,252,297/. by Scotland, and 1,006,7351. 
by Ireland. 

The total duty on home consumption paid in 1853 was 
6,760, 4221. 

In 1858, 9,195,154l. were paid as duty on 27,370,934 
gallons. 

In 1855, methylated spirits of wine, for use in the arts and 
sciences, were made duty free. 

In 1850, 27,657,721 gallons of spirits were distilled in the 
United Kingdom. The uniform duty of 8s. per gallon 
was paid on 24,254,403 gallons for home consumption, 
producing 9,701,764l. In the year 1865-6 the tax pro- 
duced about 13,955,000l., being the largest sum then ever 
raised by indirect taxation. In 1871-2, 16,798,344l. 
(customs and excise); in 1875-6, 21,295,663/ ; in 1877-8, 
20,675,928l. 5 in 1883-4, 18,435,9571. 

In 1861 an act was passed repealing wholly or in part 
26 previous acts, and embodying all regulations for the 
guidance of manufacturers and dealers in spirits. 

In 1870, about 89,000,000l. spent in spirits ; 58,000,000l. 
by working classes. 

Proof spirits distilled in the United Kingdom in 1873, 
36,479,648 gallons (England, 9,531,058; Scotland, 
16,421,701; Ireland, 10,526,889); in 1874, 35,352,232 
gallons ; duty paid, ros. a gallon. 


SPIRITS ACT (43 & 44 Vict. c. 24), passed 
26 Aug, 1880, consolidated and amended the law 
relating to the manufacture and sale of spirits. 


SPIRITUALISM or SPIRIT-RAPPING. 
Spiritual manifestations (so called) began, it is said, 
in America about 1848, and attracted attention in 
this country about 1851, in the shape of rapping, 
table-turning, &c. Many inquisitive or credulous 
persons visited Mr. Daniel Dunglas Hume or Home 
and Mr. Forster, noted ‘‘spiritual mediums.”’ Mr. 
Home, secretary of the Spiritual Atheneum, Sloane- 
street, Chelsea, published, in 1863, ‘‘ Incidents of 
my Life,’’ in which he states that the only benefit 
he derived from the ‘gift’? was the convincing 
many unbelievers of the certainty of a life to come ; 
see Zrials, April, May, 1868. The ‘Spiritual 


Magazine”’ began Jan. 1860; the ‘ Spiritualist,” 
) Noy. 1869. The London Dialectical society pul- 
ished a report on spiritualism in Noy. 1871. Mr. 

W. Crookes, in 1871, investigated the phenomena, 

and ascribed them to ‘‘ psychic force” (‘ Quarterly 

Journal of Science,’’ July and Oct. 1871). Mis 

Kate Fox, said to be the earliest American medium 

(about 1852) was married to Mr. H. D. Jencken, in 

London, Dec. 1872. 

In 1874 Messrs. Maskelyne and Cooke, and Dr. Lynn. 
exhibited tricks by which they said they demonstrate 
the imposture of spiritualism. 

Spiritualism discussed by a section of the British Asso: 
ciation at Glasgow (supported by Messrs. Wm. Crookes, 
A. Russel Wallace, and other eminent men), withow 
result, 12 Sept. 1876. 

20 spiritualist journals publishing, 1876. 

Dr. Henry Slade, a medium, and Geoffrey Simmons, his 
assistant, charged at Bow-street by prof. E. Ray Lan 
kester and others, with ‘‘unlawfully using ecertair 
subtle and crafty means and devices to deceive” 
dealt with under Vagrant Act; 2, 10, 20 Oct.; Sim 
mons discharged, Slade sentenced to 3 months’ im 
prisonment with hard labour, 31 Oct. 1876; appea 
to sessions ; sentence quashed for a technical error 
29 Jan. 1877. 

Wim. Lawrence sentenced to 3 months’ imprisonment for 
receiving money as a ‘‘medium,” 16 Jan. 1877. 


See Trials, 1881. 


SPITALFIELDS (East London), so name 
from the priory of St. Mary Spittle, dissolved 1534 
Here the French protestant refugees settled anc 
established the silk manufacture in 1685. In con- 
sequence of commercial changes the weavers en- 
dured much distress about 1829. 


SPITHEAD, a roadstead near the Spit, a sand- 
bank between Portsmouth and the Isle of Wight 
See Naval Reviews, under Navy of England. 


SPITZBERGEN, an archipelago in_ th: 
Arctic ocean, discovered in 1553 by sir Hugh Wil- 
loughby, who called it Greenland, supposing it t¢ 
be a part of the western continent. In 1595 it wa: 
visited by Barentz and Cornelius, two Dutchmen. 
who pretended to be the original discoverers, anc 
called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from th« 
many sharp pointed and rocky mountains witl 
which it abounds; see Phipps. 


SPITZCAP, see Majuba. 
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION of th 


human body, declared by most chemists to be im- 
possible, although many cases have been recorded 
The case of the countess of Goérlitz, 1847, disprovec 
by confession of her murderer, March, I8s5o. 


SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. Th 
origin of the germs of infusorial animalcules deve- 
loped during putrefaction, &c., has been warm} 
debated by naturalists. Spallanzani (about 1766). 
and especially M. Pasteur and others assert that these 
germs are really endowed with organic life existing in 
the atmosphere. Needham (about 1747), and espe- 
cially M. Pouchet and his friends in our day, assert 
that these germs are spontaneously formed out 0: 
organic molecules.—Pouchet’s ‘* Heéterogenie”’ ap- 
peared in 1859. Bastian’s ‘ Beginnings of Life,” 
1872. Theresearches of professor Tyndall, supporting 
Pasteur, and opposing Bastian, were published 
1876-8. 

“Spontaneous generation” (also termed generatio equt- 
voca and epigenesis), has been still further disproved 
by the laborious microscopic investigations of the Rev. 
W. H. Dallinger, 1875-8. He found germs to stand a 
much greater heat than perfect organisms. 


SPORTING NEWSPAPERS: Bell’s Life 
in London, began 1820; Sporting Life, 16 March, 
1859; Sporting Gazette, 1862; Sporting Times, 


rere 


SPORTS. 


65; Sportsman, Aug. 1865; The Field, 1853; 
lustrated Sporting and Dramatic News, 1874 ; 
eferee, 1877. 


SPORTS. The first ‘Book of Sports,’ under 
e title of ‘The King’s Majestie’s Declaration to 
s Subjects concerning Lawful Sports to be used ”’ 
| Sundays after evening prayers, was published by 
ng James I., 24 May, 1618. ‘The second ‘‘ Book 
Sports,’’ with aratification by his majesty Charles 
is dated 18 Oct. 1633. On the publication of the 
st ‘‘ Book of Sports,’ there arose a long and 
olentcontroversy among English divines on certain 
ints; see Sabbatarians, Sunday, &e.—The book 
is ordered to be burnt by the hangman, and the 
orts were suppressed by the parliament. The 
ortsman’s annual exhibition, at the Agricultural 
all, London, began in 1882. 


SPOTTSYLVANIA (Virginia), see United 
ates, May, 1864. 


SPRINGFIELD (Missouri), near which was 
ight the desperate battle of Wilson’s Creek, in 
uich the federals had the advantage over the con- 
lerates, but lost their brave general, Nathaniel 
‘on, 10 Aug. 1861. 


SPURS. Anciently the difference between the 
ight and esquire was, that the knight wore gilt 
urs (eques auratus), and the esquire silver ones. 
vo sorts of spurs seem to have been in use at the 
ae of the Conquest, one called a pryck, having 
ly a single point, the other a number of points of 
isiderable size. Spurs nearly of the present kind 
ne into use about 1400; see Plating. 


SPURS, BATTLE oF. Henry VIII. of Eng- 
id, the emperor Maximilian, and the Swiss, in 
(3, entered into an offensive alliance against 
mee. Henry VIII. landed at Calais in the 
nth of July, and soon formed an army of 30,000 
n. He was joined by the emperor with a good 
ps of horse and some foot, the emperor as a mer- 
ary to the king of England, who allowed him a 
adred ducats a day for his table! They invested 
‘olilenne with an army of 50,000 men; and the 
» de Longueville, marching to its relief, was 
aally defeated on the 16th of August, at Guine- 
e. This battle was called the battle of Spurs, 
ause the French used their spews more than they 
their swords. The English king laid siege to 
unay, which submitted in a few days. Hénault. 
Courtrat, for another ‘battle of spurs.’’ 


5. 8., see Collar. 


TABAT MATER, a Latin hymn, by Jaco- 
e, 14th century, sung during Passion week in 
holic churches. Rossini’s music to this hymn 
12) is often performed. 


TADE DUES. Ata castle near the town of 
ie, in Hanover, certain dues on goods were 
rged by the Hanoverian government. The 
ash government settled these dues in 1844. 
y were resisted by the Americans in 1855, 
were abolished in June, 1861. Great Britain 
| 160,000/. as her share of the compensation 
00,000/.). 
TADTHOLDER, see Holland. 
TAFF COLLEGE (Sandhurst), for pro- 
“ng an education to qualify military officers for 


duties of the staff. The foundation stone was 
by the duke of Cambridge on 14 Dec. 1859. 


TAGE COACHES, s0 called from the stages 
mms at which the coaches stopped to refresh 


187 


STANDARD. 


and change horses. Bailey. The stage-coach duty 
act passed in 1785. ‘These coaches were made sub- 
ject to salutary provisions for the safety of passen- 
gers, in 1810; to mileage duties, 1815. The acts 
were consolidated in 1832, and amended in 1833 and 
1842. See Mail Coaches, Ke. 


STAGYRITE, properly Stagirite, see Aris- 


totelian. 


STAMFORD BRIDGE (York). In 1066 
Tostig, brother of Harold II., rebelled against his 
brother, and joined the invading army of Harold 
Hardrada, king of Norway. They defeated the 
northern earls and took York, but were defeated at 
Stamford-bridge by Harold, 25 Sept., and were both 
slain. The loss by this victory no doubt led to his 
defeat at Hastings, 14 Oct. following. 


STAMP-DUTIES. By 22 & 23 Charles II. 
(1670-1) duties were imposed on certain legal docu- 
ments. In 1694 a duty was imposed upon paper, 
vellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on news- 
papers was commenced in I7II, and every year 
added to the list of articles upon which stamp-duty 
was made payable. 


Stamp act, which led to the American war, passed 


22 March, 1765; repealed in . - 1766 
Stamp duties in Ireland commenced . Ld. 
Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in rEzo2 


The stamp-duties produced in England, in 1800, a 
revenue of 3,126,535/. 

Many alterations made in 1853 and 1857. In J une, 
1855, the stamp-duty on newspapers as such was 
totally abolished ; the stamp on them being hence- 
forth for postal purposes. 

Tn July and Aug. 1854, 19,115,000 newspaper stamps 
were issued; in the same months, 1855, only 
6,870,000. 

Drafts on bankers to be stamped : A oie 

Additional stamp duties were enacted in 1860 (on 
leases, bills of exchange, dock warrants, extracts 
from registers of births, &c.); in 1861 (on leases, 
licences to house-agents, &c.). 

Stamp-duties reduced in 1864, 186s. 

All fees payable in the superior courts of law, after 
31 Dec. 1865, are to be collected by stamps, by an 
act passed in June, 1865. Also in Public Record 


1858 


office e c ; : ¢ : : - 1868 
144,623,014 inland revenue penny stamps sold, be- 
sides other stamps 1869 


By the Stamp acts, 10 Aug. 1870, newspaper stamps 
were abolished after : z i t Oct. 1870 

New stamp duties imposed ; came into effect 1 Jan., 1871 

1d. receipt and postage stamps used for each other 
after A : = ss : zr June, 188r 


AMOUNT OF STAMP DUTIES RECEIVED IN THE 
UNITED KINGDOM. 


1840 . - £6,726,817| 1876. - &11,023,374 
1845 * | 75710,083 | 1880. ‘ - I1,306,914 
1850 . 6,558,332 | 1881 s * 12,933,104 
1855 é A 6,805,605 | 1882 . + 12,348,175 
1860 (to 31 Mar.) 8,040,09 | 1883*. . - 11,691,025 
T3654 - + 9,542,645 | 1884 . - 11,681,431 
To 70%". 9,288,553 


* Fee and patent stamps now omitted. 


STANDARD for gold and silver in England 
fixed by law, 1300. Standard gold is 22 parts out 
of 24 of pure gold, the other two parts or carats 
being silver or copper. The standard of silver is 
II oz. 2 dwts. of fine silver alloyed with 18 dwts. of 
copper, or 37 parts out of 4o pure silver, and three 
parts copper. In 1300 these 12 oz. of silver were 
coined into 20 shillings; in 1412 they were coined 
into 30 shillings; andin 1527 into 45 shillings. In 
I 45 Henry VIII. coined 6 oz. of silver and 6 oz. of 
alloy into 48 shillings; and the next year he coined 
4 02. of silver and 8 oz. of alloy into the same sum. 
Elizabeth, in 1560, restored the old standard in 
60 shillings; and in r6or in 62 shillings. The 
average proportions of silver to gold at the royal 


3 E2 


STANDARD. 788 STARS. 


mint are 153 to1. The standard of plate and silver 
manufactures was affirmed, 6 Geo. I. 1719 et seq.; 
see Gold, Goldsmiths, Silver, and Coinage. 


STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE, see North- 


_ allerton. 


STANDARD MEASURES. In the reign 
of Edgar a law was made to prevent frauds arising 
from the diversity of measures, and for the esta- 
blishment of a legal standard measure to be used 
in every part of his dominions. The standard 
vessels made by order of the king were deposited in 
the city of Winchester, and hence originated the 
well-known term of ‘‘ Winchester measure ”’ of the 
time of Henry VII. Aer! The bushel so made 
is still preserved in the museum of that city. 
Henry I. also, to prevent frauds in the measure- 
ment of cloth, ordered a standard yard of the length 
of his own arm to be made and deposited at Win- 
chester, with the standard measures of king Edgar. 
The Guildhall contains the standard measures of 
succeeding sovereigns. Camden.— The standard 
weights and measures were settled by parliament 
in 1824. The pound troy was to be 5760 grains, 
and the pound ayoirdupois 7000 grains. The 
‘¢ Standard yard of 1760,’’ in the custody of the 
clerk of the house of commons, was declared to be 
the Imperial Standard yard and the unit of mea- 
sures of extension. This standard having been 
destroyed by the fire in 1834, a new commission 
was appointed to reconstruct it, and researches for 
this purpose, in conformity with the act, which 
directed the comparison of the standard with a 
pendulum vibrating seconds of time in the latitude 
of London, were begun by Francis Baily (died in 
1844), continued by the rev. R. Sheepshanks. till 
his death in 1855, and completed by G. B. Airy, 
astronomer royal. In 1855 was passed ‘‘an act for 
legalising and preserving the lost standards of 
weights and measures.”’ The parliamentary copies 
of the standard pound and yard are deposited at 
the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. The standard 
weights and measures act was. passed Aug. 1866. 
The Standard Commission published reports, 1866 
ét seq. 


“STANDARD,” conservative newspaper ; 


begun, morning, 1827; evening, 29 June, 1857. 


STANDARDS, see Banners, Flags, &. The 
practice in the army of using a cross on standards 
and shields is due to the asserted miraculous appear- 
ance of a cross to Constantine, previously to his 
battle with Maxentius; Eusebius says that he re- 
ceived this statement from the emperor himself, 
312. The standard was named LaBarum. For 
the celebrated French standard, see Aaiflamme.— 
STANDARD OF MAHOMET; on this ensign no infidel 
dared look. Christians have been massacred by the 
Turkish populace for looking on it.—The British 
IMPERIAL STANDARD was first hoisted on the Tower 
of London, and on Bedford Tower, Dublin, and 
displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the 
kingdoms, I Jan. 1801. 


STANFORD COURT, Worcestershire, the 
ancient mansion of sir Francis Winnington, burnt 
5-7 Dec. 1882; valuable portraits, books, MSS. 
&e., destroyed. 


STANHOPE ADMINISTRATION was 
formed by James (afterwards earl) Stanhope and 
the earl of Sunderland, 15 April, 1717. Stanhope 
was premier and chancellor of the exchequer; lord 
(afterwards earl) Cowper, lord chancellor; earl of 
Sunderland and Joseph Addison, secretaries of 
state, &c. In March, 1718, Addison resigned, and 
the earl of Sunderland became premier. 


toe neh eh DEMONSTRATOR, | se 
ogie. 


STANNARY COURTS of Devon and Corn 
wall for the administration of justice among th 
tin miners, whose privileges were confirmed b 
33 Edw. I. 1305. They were regulated by parlia 
ment in 1641, and at many times since. <A “ Stan 
neries act’’ was passed in 1869. 


STAPLE (literally that which is fixed). Th 
chief English staple commodities which were trade 
in by privileged merchants, and on which custom 
were levied, were wool, skins, leather, tin, lea 
and sometimes cloth, butter, and cheese; certai 
towns were appointed for the collection of th 
duties ; statutes relating to the staple were passe 
by Edward III., Richard IL., and. Henry V1 
Edward III.’s ‘‘ordinacio stapularum”’ (ordinanc¢ 
of the staple) was enacted in 1353. 


STARCH. is a sediment produced at the bottoa 
of vessels wherein wheat has been steeped in wate1 
it is soft and friable, easily broken into powde 
and is used to stiffen and clear linen, with blue 
its powder is employed to powder the hair. The a 
of starching linen was brought into England by Mr 
Dinghein, a Flemish woman, 1 Mary, 1553. Stou 
Patents for obtaining starch from other substance 
have been taken out: from potatoes by Samu 
Newton and others in 1707; from the horse-chest 
nut by Wm. Murray in 1796; from rice by Thoms 
Wickham in 1823; from various matters by Orland 
Jones in 1839-40. ; 


STAR-CHAMBER, Court oF. So calle 
haply from its roof being garnished with stars. Cok 
This court of justice was called Star-Chamber, ni 
from the stars on its roof (which were obliterate 
even before the reign of queen Elizabeth), but fro 
the Starra, or Jewish covenants, deposited there b 
order of Richard I. No star was allowed to t 
valid except found in those repositories, and hei 
they remained till the banishment of the Jews b 
Edward I. The court was instituted or revive 
3 Hen. VII. 1486, for trials by a committee of th 
privy council, which was in violation of Magn 
Charta; as it dealt with civil and criminal caus 
unfettered by the rules of law. In Charles I. 
reign it exercised its power upon several bold innc 
vators, who gloried in their sufferings, and cor 
tributed to render government odious and cor 
temptible. It was abolished in 1640. There wer 
in this court from 26 to 42 judges, the lord char 
cellor having the casting voice. The judicial com 
mittee of the privy council is the Star-chambe 
revived under another name. 


STAR OF INDIA, 2 new order of knight 
hood for India, instituted by letters patent 23 Feb 
gazetted 25 June, 1861, and enlarged in 1866, 1] 
comprised the sovereign, the grand master, 2 
knights (Europeans and natives), and extra ¢ 
honorary knights, such as the prince consort, th 
prince of Wales, &c. The queen invested sever: 
knights on 1 Noy. 1861. The prince of Wales hel 
a grand chapter at Calcutta, 1 Jan. 1876. 


STARS, THE FIxED. They were classed int 
constellations, itissupposed, about12008.¢. Hiceta: 
of Syracuse, taught that the sun and the stars wer 
motionless, and that the earth moyed round them 
about. 344 B.c. (this is mentioned by Cicero, an 
perhaps gave the first hint of this system to Cope1 
nicus). Job, Hesiod, and Homer mention severa 
of the constellations. The Royal Library at Pari 
contains a Chinese chart of the heavens, mad 
about 600 B.c., in which 1460 stars are correct] 


i 9 ee 
4 

7 

¥ 


STARVATION. 


789 


STATUES. 


serted. Theaberration of the stars was discovered 
’ Dr. Bradley, 1727; see Astronomy, and Solar 
ystem. Maps of the stars were published by the 
wiety for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in 
39, and a set of Celestial Maps, issued under the 
perintendence of the Royal Prussian Academy, 
as completed in 1859. 

yssel discovered the annual parallax of star 
6x Cygni (hence he calculated its distance from 
the earth to be about 60 billions of miles) 12 Feb. 
ruve made it 4o billions [supported by Briinnow 
and R. 8. Ball] : : 3 : 7 5 

ie calculations o T. Henderson (at the Cape) 1832 
supported by D. Gill and others showed that pro- 
bably a Centauri, is the star nearest to the earth 1883-4 


STARVATION: Deaths attributed to it in 
e metropolitan districts, 1873, 107; 1875, 46; 
79, 80. See Abstinence. 


STATE PAPER OFFICE was founded in 
78, now merged into the Public Record Office. 
. 1856 the British government began the publica- 
m of Calendars of State Papers, invaluable to 
ture historians. . 


STATES-GENERAL or FRANCE. An 
cient assembly of France, first met, it is said, in 
02 to consider the exactions of the pope. Pre- 
ous to the Revolution, it had not met since 1614. 
1e states consisted of three orders, the clergy, 
bility, and commons. They were convened by 
yuis XVI., and assembled at Versailles, 5 May, 
89 (308 ecclesiastics, 285 nobles, and 621 deputies 
teers état, third estate). A contest arose whether 
e three orders should make three distinct houses, 
‘but one assembly. The commons insisted upon 
e latter, and assuming the title of the National 
sembly, declared that they were competent to 
oceed to business, without the concurrence of the 
‘o other orders, if they refused to join them. 
ie nobility and clergy found it expedient to con- 
de the point, and they all met in one hall; see 
ational Assembly. 


STATES oF THE CHURCH, see Pope, and 


me. 


STATIONERS. Books and papers were 
merly sold only at stalls; hence the dealers were 
lled stationers. The company of stationers of 
mdon is of great antiquity, and existed long 
fore printing was invented, yet it was not in- 
rporated until 3 Philip & Mary, 1557. ‘Their old 
relling was in Paternoster-row. 


STATISTICS, the science of the state, political 
owledge, is said to have been founded by sir 
m. Petty, who diedin 1687. The term is said to 
ve been invented by professor Achenwall of 
ttingen in 1749. The first statistical society in 
gland was formed at Manchester in 1833; the 
-atistical Society of London, which publishes a 
_arterly journal, was established 15 March, 1834, 
> the purpose of procuring, arranging, and pub- 
hing ‘‘ facts calculated to illustrate the condition 
d prospects of society;” similar societies have 
-en established on the continent. International 
atistical Congresses are now held occasionally. 
ie Ist at Brussels, chiefly through the agency of 
. Quetelet, in 1853; 2nd at Paris, 1855; 3rd at 
enna, 1857; 4th at London, under the presidency 
the prince consort, 16-21 July, 1860; 5th at 
~rlin; 6th at Florence; 7th at the Hague; 
-o at St. Petersburg, was opened 22 Aug. 1872; 
fh at Pesth, 31 Aug. 1876. The eminent statis- 
dan, Dr. Wm. Farr, died 14 April, 1883. Sta- 
‘tiéal Abstracts have been published annually by 
e government for many years. 


1841 


1853 


STATUHS, see Sculpture, &c. Phidias, whose 
statue of Jupiter passed for one of the wonders of 
the world, was the greatest statuary among the 
ancients, 440 B.c. He had previously made a statue 
of Minerva at the request of Pericles, which was 
placed in the Parthenon. It was made of ivory 
and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Acilius 
raised a golden statue to his father, the first that 
appeared in Italy. Lysippus invented the art of 
taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he 
afterwards cast models in wax, 326 B.c. Michael 
Angelo was the greatest artist among the moderns. 
The first equestrian statue erected in Great Britain 
was that of Charles I. in 1678.* By 17 & 18 Vict. 
c. 10 (10 July, 1854), public statues are placed 
under the control and protection of the Board of 
Works. The following are the chief public statues 
in London :— 

Achilles, Hyde-park, in honour of the duke of Wel- 


lington, by the ladies of Great Britain 18 June, 1822 
Albert, prince consort, Royal Exchange, 1850 ; Hor- 
ticultural Society gardens, 1863; Holborn circus, 1873 
Anne, queen, St. Paul’s Churchyard JeLZEE 
Barry, sir Charles, Westminster . . 1865 
Bedford, duke of, Russell-square' . ‘ : . 1809 
Bentinck, lord George, Cavendish-square after 1848 
Burns ¢ Thames embankment 26 July, 1884 
Byron, lord, Hamilton-place, Hyde-park, 24 May, 1880 
Canning, Geo., New Palace-yard, Westminster . . 1832 
Carlyle, Thos., embankment, Chelsea Oct. 1882 
Cartwright, major, Burton-crescent . : 7 Look 
Charles I., Charing-cross . 1678 
Charles II., Soho-square Oak hel 
Clyde, lord, Waterloo-place . wee) TOO 
Cobden, Richard, Camden-town June, 1868 
Cumberland, duke of, Cavendish-square . - 1770 
Derby, Edward, earl of, Parliament-square LO. 
Disraeli, Benj., lord Beaconsfield, Parliament- 
square - : ‘ ; 3 1g April, 1883 
Elizabeth, queen, St. Dunstan’s, Fleet-street . . 1586 
Faraday, Michael, Royal Institution . . 1876 
Fox, Charles James, Bloomsbury-square . _ 1816 
Franklin, sir John, Waterloo-place 1866 
George I., Grosvenor-square 4 1726 
George III., Somerset-house . - 1788 
George III., Cockspur-street ; . 1836 
Havelock, sir Henry, Trafalgar-square 2 2 OO 
Herbert, lord, Pall Mall F 3 June, 1867 
Hill, Rowland, Royal Exchange : - - 1882 
Howard, John; first erected in St. Paul’s . . 1796 
James II., Whitehall . : : : i 4 . 1687 
Jenner, Edward, Trafalgar-square, 1858 ; removed 
to Kensington-gardens ‘ : on ie LOO: 
Lawrence, lord, Waterloo-place (a new statue since) 
April, 1882 
Macgregor, sir James, Chelsea hospital : . 1865 
Mill, John Stuart, Thames Embankment, 26 Jan. 1873 
Myddelton, sir Hugh, Islington-green . - a £e02 
Napier, gen. sir Chas. J., Trafalgar-square - 1856 
Nelson, lord, Trafalgar-square [the lions at the base, 
designed by sir E. Landseer, were uncovered 31 
Jan. 1867] . ‘ A : - ‘ - 5 ich Aver ie: 
Outram, sir James, Thamesembankment 17 Aug. 1871 
Palmerston, viscount, Parliament-street . 29 Jan. 1876 
Peabody, George, Royal Exchange : : . 1869 
Peel, sir Robert, Cheapside, 1855 ; near Westminster 
abbey, 1868 ; Parliament-square LST 7, 
Pitt, William, Hanover-square . . 1831 
Prince of Wales, Temple-bar site . : ; cele) aaciete) 
Queen Victoria, Royal Exchange, 1845 ; Temple-bar, 
site’ «. : : . ‘ A : : =e Looe 
Raikes, Robert, Thames embankment . 3 July, 1880 
Richard Coeur de Lion, near Westminster abbey . 1860 


* This statue is of brass, cast by Le Sueur, in 1633, 
at the expense of the Howard-Arundel family. During 
the civil war, the parliament sold it to John River, a 
pbrazier, in Holborn, with strict orders to break it to 
pieces; but he concealed it underground till the Restora- 
tion, when it was erected, in 1678, on a pedestal executed. 
by Grinling Gibbons. The first equestrian statue of 
bronze, founded at one cast, was that of Louis XIV. of 
France, 1699; it was elevated about 1724. 

+ By sir John Steell, the gift of Mr, John Gordon 
Crawford, . 


STATUTES. 


Shakespeare, &c., Leicester-square . 1874 

Stephenson, Robert, Euston-road, near L. & N.W. 
station : ; 

Tyndale, Wm., Thames embankment 

Wellington, duke of, Royal Exchange 

Wellington, duke of, arch, Hyde- park- corner, 1846; 
equestrian statue, height 27 feet, weight 40 tons, 
chiefly gun metal (cannon taken by. the duke) 
designed by Matthew Cotes Wyatt, set up xz Oct. 
1846; taken down, 24 Jan., 1883; set up at 
‘Aldershot camp : 5 . 1884 


Pex ogic 
. 1884 
- 1844 


William III., St. James’s- -square me 7u7, 
William IV., ’ King William-street . 1845 
York, duke of, Waterloo-place : - 1834 


STATUTHS, see Acts of De hana cia 
Merton, &c. Statute Law Revision acts ‘were passed 
in 1863-1876-1883. Statute Law Revision and Civil 
Procedure act, 44 & 45 Vict. c.59, passed 27 Aug. 
1881. “Statutes: Revised Edition: (1325-1868),” 
in 15 volumes, published 1870-8. 


STATUTORY DECLARATIONS. By5& 

6 Will. IV. c. 62 (1835), persons objecting to oaths are 

permitted to make declarations before magistrates, 

judges, &c.; commencing: ‘‘I ——, do solemnly 
and sincerely declare that’’—an indulgence some- 
times abused. 

Mr. Alexander Chaffers having made a declaration 
against the character of Lady Twiss, wife of sir 
Travers Twiss, was prosecuted for libel. She with- 
drew during the examination, and the prosecution 
ceased : but Chaffers was severely censured by the 


magistrate, and of the Se test in parlia- 
ment : = March, 1872 


STEAM C ARRIAGE (for ordinary roads), 
invented by the earl of Caithness, was said to be 
successful in 1860. It travels over rough roads at 
the rate of 8 miles an hour, at a cost of less than 1d. 
per mile. His lordship made a journey of 140 miles 
in two days; see Road Steamers. 


STEAM ENGINE* ann NAVIGATION. 
Hero of Alexandria, in his ‘‘ Pneumatics,’’ describes 
various methods of employing steam as a power; 
and to him isascribed the Molopile, which, although 
a toy, possesses the properties of the steam- -engine : 
he flourished about 284-241 B.c. Roger Bacon ap- 
pears to have foreseen the application of steam- 
power; see Lailways, Locomotives, Road Steamers, 
&e. 


Solomon de Caus, a French protestant, publishes a 
work which Arago on insufficient grounds considers 
to have contained the germs of the steam-engine. 

The marquis of Worcester describes his steam-engine 
in his ‘‘ Century of Inventions ” F - 1663 

Papin’s digester invented 1681-2 

Captain Savery’s engine constructed for raising 
water . 1698 

Papin’s engine exhibited to the Roy al Society about 1699 

{He is said to have made a steamboat which was 
destroyed by boatmen of the Weser. ] 

Thomas Newcomen, of Dartmouth, is stated to have 
constructed ‘‘ the first self-acting steam-engine ;” 
(used for nearly a century without alteration or 
amendment) . 

[He died in London while endeayouri ing to obtain 
a patent, 1720. | 

First idea of steam navigation set forth in a patent 
obtained by Jonathan Hulls. 

Watt’s invention of performing condensation in a 
separate vessel from the cylinder . 

His first patent, 1769 ; his engines erected in manu- 
factories, and his patent renewed by parliament . 


1615 


1712 


5 BORE 
- 1765 


1775 


Thomas Paine proposes steam navigation in America 1778 
Engines made to give arotary motion . - Byres 
Watt's expansion engine . Be 


Double- action engines proposed by Dr. Falck on 
Newcomen’s pr inciple 


177 
Watt’s double engine and his first patent for it 


6 hte 


* «The best known mechanical arrangement for con- 
yerting heat into work.” A. Rigg, 1878. 


790 


STEAM ENGINE. 


Hornblower’s double- -cylinder engine . one 
Claude comte de Joutfroy constructed an engine 
which propelled a boat (pyroscaphé) on the Sadne. 17’ 
Wm. Patrick Miller patented paddle-wheels « /ty' 
{He and Mr. Symington are said to have constructed 
a small steamboat which travelled at. about 4 miles 
an hour soon after. ] 
W. Symington made a passage on the Forth and 
Clyde canal . 7 
First steam-engine erected in Dublin by Henry 


Jackson 17 
First experiment with steam navigation — on the ~ 

Thames 2 . - 18< 
Trevethick’s high-pressure engine ‘ f 
Woolf's double-cylinder expansion engine con- 

structed . 3 ; 3 - 18 
Manufactories war med by steam : 18 
Fulton’s steamboat Clermont on the Seine, 9 Aug. 

1803; at New York, 1806; started a steamboat 

on the river Hudson, America . 18« 
Steam power to convey coals on a railway employed 

by Blenkinsop . 184 
Comet, built by Henry Bell, sailed on the Clyde 

[John Robertson, who made the engine, died 

20 Noy. 1868, aged 86] 18 Jan. 181 
[The Comet sailed from Glasgow to Greenock three 

times a week ; fares, 3s. and 48. ; speed; 74 amies 

an hour. } 
Steam applied to printing in the Times office (ste 

Printing machines) . 181 


There ees five steam-vessels in Scotland (Parl. Re- 
turns . 
First steam-vessel on the Thames, brought by Mr. ° 
Dodd from Glasgow s 
First steamer built in England (Parl. Returns) a 
hising Sun, a steamer “built by lord Cochrane, 


crossed the Atlantic 181 
The Savannah steamer, of 350 tons, came from New 
¥ork to Liverpool in 26 days I 15 J ee 181 
First steamer in Ireland : “ 3 . 182 
Steam-gun, invented by Perkins 182 
Steam-jet applied by George Stephenson, 18145 : by 
Timothy Hackworth, about 182 
Captain Johnson obtained 10,0001. for making ‘the 
first steam voyage to India, in the Enterprise, 
which sailed from Falmouth 16 Aug.as5, 
The locomotive steam-carriages on railways at Liver- 
pool . ‘ ~ » Ocbr82 
The railway opened (see Liver pool) A 283 
Capt. Ericsson’s serew steamer, ‘‘ Francis Bogden,” 
speed 10 miles an hour, constructed : see Screw- 
Propeller. 183 
The Gr cat Western sails from Bristol to New York, 
being her first voyage . ‘ A 8-23 April, 183: 


War- steamers builtin England . 5 

War-steamers built at Bir kenhead, named the Ne- 
mesis and Phlegethon, carrying each two thirty-two 
pounders, sent by government to China 

Hall’s method of economising fuel introduced about f 

The Cunard steamers began to sail * Ss oulysee, § 
[Sir Sam. Cunard died 28 April, 1865, aged *8. J 

Peninsular and Oriental Steam Company began : 
[They possessed 53 steamers and a fleet of tugs, 

Dec. 1866. ] 


The Great Britain sailed from the Mersey 26 July, 
[She arrived at New York ro Aug. During her 
second voyage, she ran aground in Dundrum 
bay, Ireland, 22 Sept. 184 46. Her passengers 
were landed ; and she was extricated with 
little injury, after long-continued and strenu- 
ous efforts, by I. Brunel, jun. and Bremner, 

27 Aug. 1847.] 
The Collins stoners began ; 6 
Inman Company : began by Wm. Taman, first vessel 
City of Glasgow, 1850; the company became the 
Liverpool, New York, and Philadelphia company, 
1857; City of Richmond, sailed from Liverpool 


185° 


ta Since then many ¢ reat steamers have been wrecked 
or burnt: viz., Governor Fenner, 19 Feb., 1841; Presi: 
dent, March, 184r 5 ; Ocean Monarch, Aug. 1848; St. 
George, 24 Dec. 1852; George Canning, r Jan. 1855; 
Pacific, 1856 ; Austria, 13 Sept., 1858; Indian, et Noy.., 
18593 Hungarian, Feb., 1860 ; Anglo-Saxon, 27 April, 
1863; City of Boston, Feb., 1870 ; Germania, 21 Dec., 
1872; Atlantic, April, 1873; Ville de Havre, 22 Nov., 
1873; Cashmere, 5 July, 1877; Eten, 15 July, 1877, &¢ 


STEAM ENGINE. 


791 


STEAM HAMMER. 


6fp.m: 15 July, arrived at New York 12.30 p.m. 
July, 1875. (Apparent time 7 days, 19 hours, 
minutes ; average 365 miles a day, 15 knots an 


ific crosses the Atlantic in 9 days, 19 hours, 

25 minutes, arriving at Holyhead 20 May, 1851 
‘anchester Steam-Users Association established about 1855 
beam packets leave Galway for America . Se Oe ERSISCS) 
he merits of an attacking vessel termed a steam- 
ram, advocated by sirG. Sartorius, discussed — 1859-60 
iffard’s valuable steam-injector invented about 1859 
n iron-plated frigate, La Gloire, completed in 
France (see Navy, French) . E é P . 1860 
he Warrior, an iron-plated vessel, launched 29 Dec. _,, 
he Far East, avessel with two screws, launched at 
Millwall uss . ‘ : ar Otis 
cigar ship, a steam yacht, designed by Mr. Winan, 
built by Hepworth, launched on the Thames 

19 Feb. 
rial trip of the Nawtilus, with a hydraulic propeller 
worked by steain, Ruthven’s patent ; no paddle or 
screw required . : 3 Z . 24 March, ,, 
uecessful trial trip of the Water-witch, a govern- 
ment hydraulic propeller iron-clad gun-vessel 

(Ruthven’s patent), on the Thames rq Octs ;; 

r. Ruthven patented his system in 1849, and exhibited 
his machinery at the International Exhibition in 1851. 
His object is to increase speed and save fuel. In the 
Water-witch a steam-engine gives the power of absorb- 
ing and expelling the water, and no screw or paddle is 
required. The water-wheel is 14} feet in diameter. 

rial trip of H.M. gun-boat Thistle ; explosion of 
boiler, 8 killed 2 : f é 3 Nov. 1869 

hannel Steamers: ‘‘ Twin-ship” Castalia, steamer (two 
hulls, separated by 26 feet), 290 feet long ; invented by 
capt. W. T. Dicey, for the English Channel steam com- 
pany, to prevent sea-sickness when crossing the 
Channel ; (really a single ship, with the middle part of 
her bottom raised out of the water throughout her 
whole length); launched, 2 June; tried in calm wea- 
ther ; reported successful but slow, 2 Aug, 1875 ; suc- 
cessful, June, 1876; sold Nov. 1876. 

essemer, saloon steamer, designed by Mr. Bessemer and 
E. J. Reed; built by the Earles company ; launched 
at Hull, 24 Sept. 1874; first voyage from Hull to 
Gravesend, 5 March, 1875 ; sailed to Calais, 10 April, 1875. 
[Success doubtful, 1876.] Modified by Mr. E. J. Reed ; 
trial near Hull, reported successful, 26 March, 1877. 

‘xpress, twin steamer; built by A. Leslie, of Newcastle ; 
sailed from the Tyne to Coquet Island, 224 miles, 
in rh. 22m., reported satisfactory, 13 March, 1878. 

‘olkestone, twin steamer, launched at Hull, 23 March, 1878. 

izarro, steamer (the first built of Siemens-Martin steel), 
340 feet long by 4o feet broad, 3400 tons, launched at 
Napier’s yard, Govan, near Glasgow, 5 Aug. 1879. 

jivadia, a turbot-shaped steam yacht (broad and flat), 
built by Elder & Co. of Glasgow for the czar of Russia, 
launched on the Clyde, 7 July, 1880. 

‘araday, steam-ship (for laying electric cables, 
360 feet long, 52 feet wide, 36 feet deep, 5000 tons 
register ; to varry 6000 tons dead weight) ; next 
in size to (Great Eastern; built for Messrs. 
Siemens by Messrs. Mitchell, at Newcastle ; 
launched (much employed, 1881) . 17: Keb. 
rient, steamer, built by Elders of Glasgow, for 
Australian traffic; length, 460 feet; breadth, 
46 feet ; depth, 373 feet; sailed from Greenock 
to West India Dock, London 10-12 Sept. 

ervia, Cunard ‘royal mail steamer, 530 feet long, 
52 feet broad, 44 feet depth ; gross tonnage, 8500 

tons; 5 decks and promenade ; next in size to 
Great Eastern ; launched in the Clyde, 1 March, 
ervia, sailed from America to Liverpool (by long 
route) in 7 days, 8 hours, 15 min. quickest 
passage hitherto made : ; : 26 Jan. 
ity of Rome, mail steamer, length 586 feet, breadth 
52 feet, left the Clyde . : . 28 Sept. 

\laska, Guion mail steamer crossed the Atiantic, 
6 days, 22 hours. 5 2 31 May-6 June, 1882 
he Guion steamer Arizona, left Queenstown at 

2.10 p.m. Sept. rz, and reached Sandy Hook at 
6.20 p.m. on the 18th, which, including the dif- 

‘ference in time, 4 hours, 22 min., makes the 

passage 7 days, 8 hours, r2 min. On the return 
passage she made the voyage in 7 days, 7 hours, 

48 min. 
the Guion steamer Alaska arrived at Sandy Hook on 
Sunday, in 7 days, 17 min. 3 ; St willys. 9s, 


1863 


1866 


1874 


1879 


1881 


1882 
1881 


| Black Star Line of steamers between Grimsby and 


America c : : 3 : 2 . 1882 
Steam vessels belonging to the British empire in 1814, 6 ; 
IM 1815, 10; iN 1820, 43; in 1825, 168; in 1830, 315; in 
1835, 545; in 1845, roo1; in 1850, 1187; in 1864, 2490; 
In 1871, 3382 ; in 1875, 4170 ; in 1877, 4564; in 1879, 50273 
in 1883, 6260. 
See Navy, and Shipping. 


LARGE STEAM VESSELS OF ENGLAND. 


Long. Broad. 
Great Western . 236 feet 35 feet 
Duke of Wellington . 240 feet 60 feet 
British Queen . 275 feet 61 feet 
Great Britain . . 322 feet 51 feet 
Himalaya . 370 feet 43 feet 
Persia - 390 feet 45 feet 
Servia : ‘ : A - 530 feet 52 feet: 
GREAT HAsTeRN, for a short time 
(2857-8) called Leviathan : . 692 feet 83 feet 


florse Power :— Paddles, rooo ; screw, 1600 : 
Weight of ship, 12,000 tons; ordinary light 
draught, 12,000 tons. 

She was designed by Mr. I. K. Brunel [who died 15 Sept. 
1859], and built by Messrs. Scott Russell and Co., at 
Millwall ; launching lasted from 3 Nov. 1857, to 3x Jan. 
1858. 

The capital subscribed having been all expended, a new 
company was formed to fit her for sea. 

On 7 Sept. 1859, she left her moorings at Deptford for 
Portland-roads. On the voyage an explosion took place 
(off Hastings), through some neglect in regard to the 
casing of one of the funnels, when ten firemen were 
killed and many persons seriously injured. After re- 
pairs she sailed to Holyhead, arriving there 10 Oct. ; 
she endured the storm of 25-26 Oct. well; and pro- 
ceeded to Southampton for the winter, 4 Nov. 

She was fitted up to convey 5000 persons from London 
to Australia, a distance of 22,500 miles, with accon- 
modation for 800 1st class passengers, 2000 2nd class, and. 
1200 3rd class. Her able captain (Harrison) was 
drowned in the Solent 22 Jan. 1860, deeply regretted. 
She sailed for New York 17 June, under command of 
captain Vine Hall, and arrived there 28 June. After 
being exhibited she left New York 16 Aug. and returned 
to England 26 Aug. 

Owing to a lawsuit in April, the ship came into the hands 
of sheriff’s officers ; but was released and sailed for New 
York on 1 May, 1861. On 12 Sept. she suffered much 
loss through a violent gale. 

In 1862 she performed several voyages to and from New 
York ; but in Aug. ran on a rock near Long Island and 
injured her bottom. 

She was repaired and arrived at Liverpool 17 Jan. 1863, 
and sailed to New York (16-27 May). 

She was bought by Glass, Elliot, and Co. in March or 
April, 1864, and was chartered to convey the Atlantic 
telegraph cable; sailed from Sheerness 15 July; and 
returned 19 Aug. 1865 ; see under Electric Telegraph. 

She sailed for New York, prepared for 2000 passengers, 
26 March, and returned with 191. She was seized by 
the seamen, claiming their wages, May, 1867 ; and the 
case was carried into Chancery in July. 

At the meeting of the shareholders 10 Feb. 1868, no divi- 
dend was declared. 

She conveyed the French Atlantic telegraph cable, 
successfully laid : : ; ; 2 FOCk 

Arrived at Bombay with Bombay and Suez cable, 
27 Feb. ; returned to Sheerness June, 

Sailed with the fourth Atlantic telegraph cable 
8 June; which was completely laid 3 July, 

Sailed with the fifth Atlantic telegraph cable: 
laid . : 4 r : - Aug., Sept. 

Put up for sale at 30,0001. ; not bought 19 Oct. 

(John Scott Russell died, aged 74] ; 8 June, 

Proposed to be employed as a coal hulk in Gibraltar 
Bay : ‘ April, 1884 


STEAM GUN;; suggested by Wm. Murdoch, 
1803. One patented by Messrs, Perkins, in 1824, 


was ineffectual. 
In Oct. 1870, Mr. H. Bessemer proposed the application 
of steam power to artillery. 


STEAM HAMMER, invented by Mr. James 
Nasmyth in 1838, and patented by him 18 June, 
1842. Its main feature is the absolutely direct 
manner by which the elastic power of steam is 


1869 
1870 
1873 


1874 
1881 
1882 


STEAM MAN. 792 STENOGRAPHY. i 


employed to lift up and let fall the mass of iron 

constituting the hammer, which is attached direct 

to the end of a piston-rod passing through the 
bottom of an inverted steam cylinder placed imme- 
diately over the anvil. 

In 1842, Mr. Nasmyth applied his steam-hammer to 
driving piles, which has importantly assisted in the 
execution of great public works. Owing to its vast 
range of power, forged iron-work can now by its means 
be executed on a scale, and for a variety of purposes, 
with an ease and perfection not previously possible. 
Parts of gigantic marine steam-engines, anchors, and 
Armstrong guns, as well as the most minute details of 
machinery, as in Enfield rifles, are executed by the 
steam-hammer. 

A steam-hammer, said to be the then largest in the 
world, completed at Woolwich: the falling portion 
weighs 40 tons, and when used with top steam (51 tons) 
has the force of 91 tons, April, 1874. -One at Schneider’s 
works, Creuzot, France; weight between 75 and 80 tons, 
Dec. 1877. 


STEAM-MAN. A figure constructed to drag 
a phaeton received this name in New York in 
March, 1868. 


STEAM NAVIGATION, see under Steam. 


STEAM-PLOUGHS were patented by G. 
Callaway and R. A. Purkes, 1849; H. Cowing, 
1850; and others. John Fowler’s of 1854 is much 
approved. 


STEAM-RAM (to be used in naval warfare), 
was invented by Mr. James Nasmyth in 1836, and 
communicated to the Admiralty in 1845. Steam- 
rams built by Mr. James Laird of Birkenhead for 
the Confederates in N. America, were stopped and 
eventually bought by the British government, 1864. 


STEAM-WHISTLES and STEAM- 
TRUMPETS, used in factories to summon or dismiss 
workmen, prohibited by an act passed Aug. 1872. 


STEARINE (from stear, suet), that part of 
oils and fats which is solid at common temperature. 
The nature of these substances was first made 
known by Chevreul, in 1823, who showed that they 
were compounds of peculiar acids, with a_ base 
termed glycerine; of these compounds the chief are 
stearine, margarine, and elaine; see Candles. 


STEEL, metal, a compound of iron and carbon, 
exists in nature, and has been fabricated from the 
earliest times. It was certainly used by the Egyp- 
tians, Assyrians, and Greeks. It now largely 
replaces cast iron in ship building, &e. 

Reamur discovered the direct process of making 
steel by immersing malleable iron in a bath of 
cast iron . 2 c . . : : é : 

A manufactory for cast steel is said to have been 
set up by Benjamin Huntsman at Handsworth, 
near Sheffield . : ; é ; A fe 

The manufacture of shear steel began in Sheffield, 

about 

German steel was made at Newcastle previously by 
Mr. Crawley. 

The inventions of Mushat (1800), Lucas (1804), and 
Heath (1839), were important steps in this manu- 
facture ; see Engraving. 

Reipe patented his ‘‘ puddled steel” . - 1850 

Mr. H. Bessemer made steel by passing cold air 
through liquid iron, 1856. By this method 20 tons 
of crude iron have been converted into cast steel 
in 23 minutes. * 

Tungsten steel was made in Germany, 1859; and M. 
Fremy made steel by bringing red+hot iron in con- 
tact with carbonate of ammonia ; ‘ A 

Mr. Krupp exhibited an ingot of steel weighing 
4500 Ibs. in 1851, and one weighing 20 tons in 

The subject much investigated by M. Caron, 1861-5 ; 


1722 


1740 


1800 


r86t 
1862 


* For this invention he had received by royalties 


1,057,748. up to 1879; also many foreign honours,; 
knighted June, 1879. 


much attention was excited by cutlery made from 
a metallic sand, brought from Taranaki or New 
Plymouth, in New Zealand . eos : 
A steel bridge, in connection with the exhibition, 
constructed at Paris by M. Joret . i - 186€ 
Mr. John Heaton published his process 1867-£ 
Dr. Siemens, by means of his ‘‘ regenerative gas 
furnaces,” produced excellent steel, cheaply, in 
large masses . ; e . 5 : 1876, et seq, 
Cutlers’ Company, London, opened an exhibition, 
1 May, 187¢ 
Messrs. Bolchow, Vaughan & Co. of Middlesborough, 
by Thomas and Gilchrist’s process, convert Cleve- 
land iron ore into Bessemer steel, by lining the 
furnace with radial bricks of magnesian limestone 
and adding cold basis material, phosphorus being 
thereby removed . é : : ee 
The process reported successful . Oct. 1838¢ 
Mr. J. 8. Jeans published his important work, 
‘*Steel: its History, Manufacture, Properties, 
and Uses” . i | : F , - Feb. 
The Garfield, a steel sailing ship, 2,220 tons, 292 ft. 
length, 24 ft. gin. depth, 41 ft. breadth, launched 
at Belfast . : E : . . - 7 Jan. 
Umbria, Cunard liner, above 8,ooo0 tons, 520 ft. long, 
57 ft. 3 in. broad, 41 ft. deep, launched on the 
Clyde. : Sept. 1884 


1862 


See under Steam. 


STEEL PENS. ‘Iron pens” are mentione¢ 
by Chamberlayne in 1685. Steel pens, made long 
before, began to come into use about 1820, when the 
first gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale fo: 
7d. 48. In 1830 the price was 8s., and in 1832, 6s. 
A better pen is now sold for 6d. a gross. Birming- 
ham in I 58 produced about 1000 million pens pet 
annum. omen and children are principally em- 
ployed in the manufacture. Perry, Mitchell, and 
Gillott are eminent makers. Joseph Gillott, origin- 
ally a mechanic, made a large fortune by steel-pen 
making. He died 5 Jan. 1872, aged 72. 


STEEL-YARD. An ancient instrument, the 
same that is translated balance in the Pentateuch.. 
The Statera Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is men- 
tioned in 315 B.c.—The STEEL-YARD or STILI- 
YARD Company, London merchants, who had the 
steel-yard in Thames-street assigned to them by 
Henry III., about 1232, were Flemings and Ger- 
mans, and the only exporters, for many years after. 
of the staple commodities of England. Anderson 
The company lost its privileges, finally, in 1578 : 
and the merchants were expelled from England ir 
597. 

STEENKIRK, see Znghien. 


STEFANO, SAN, a small village on the sez 
of Marmora, S.W. of Constantinople; here the 
grand duke Nicholas established his head quarters 
24 Feb.; and here was signed a treaty of peace 
with Turkey, 3 March, 1878, much moditied by 
the treaty of Berlin, signed 13 July, following. 
The Russians quitted San Stefano, 22 Sept. 1878. 
It established independence of Montenegro, Servia, anc 

Roumania; constituted Bulgaria a tributary princi- 

pality ; required a heavy indemnity from Turkey fo1 

Russia, who was to gain a port on the Black Sea and 

Kars ; to exchange the Dobrudscha for Bessarabia ; te 

obtain rights for Christians; to open the Bosphorus 

and Dardanelles in peace and war; &ce. 


STELLA-LAND, see Zrans-vaal and Bee/i- 


wana-land. 
STENOCHROMY, see Printing im Colours. 
STENOGRAPHY (from stenos, narrow), the 


art of short-hand, said to have been practised by 
the ancients. Its improvement is attributed to the 
poet Ennius, to Tyro, Cicero’s freedman, and still 
more to Seneca. The Ars Scribendi Characteris, 
written about 1412,.is the oldest system extant. 


STEPHEN’S CHAPEL. 7 


93 


STICKLESTADT. 


. Timothy Bright’s “ Characterie, or the Art of 
ort, Swift, and Secret Writing,’ published in 
88, is the first English work on short-hand. 
ter Bales, the famous penman, published on 
nography in 1590; and John Willis published 
3 ‘* Stenographie’’ in 1602. ‘There are now 
merous systems : John Byrom’s (1767), T. Gur- 
’s (1710), ‘‘ Brachygraphy,”’ based on Mason’s 
0), “‘a Shorthand Dictionary’ (1777), Taylor’s 

6), Mavor’s. (1789), Pitman’s (phonographic), 
37: 


e Shorthand Society met . 4 é rt Noy. 1881 
*kwick Papers in shorthand, first of a series, 
yublished by Mr. Pitman ‘ t May, 1883 
, A. Michela’s stenographic machine for the 
sraphic representation of phonetic sounds (about 
oo Words per minute); like a harmonium with a 
<ey-board, exhibited at the Turin exhibition of 
884, successfully adopted by the Italian Senate. 


STEPHEN’S CHAPEL, ST. (Westminster), 
ilt by king Stephen, about 1135. It was rebuilt 
Edward III. in 1347, and by him made a col- 
riate church, to which a dean and twelve secular 
iests were appointed. Soon after its surrender to 
ward VI., about 1548, it was applied to the use of 
rliament; see Parliament. It was destroyed by 
e, 16 Oct. 1834. The Society of Antiquaries pub- 
hed memorials of it about 1810; and Mr. Mac- 
nzie’s work appeared in 1844. The restoration of 
e beautiful crypt was complete in Jan. 1870. 


STEPNEY, 2 parish, E. London, the Steben- 
le of Domesday book. Edward I. summoned a 
rliament here, 1299. Stepney suffered severely 
the plague, 1625 and 1665. Stepney-green was 
stored and opened as a park by the Metropolitan 
ard of Works, Aug. 1872. 


STEREOCHROMY, a mode of painting in 
ich water-glass (an alkaline solution of flint, 
ex) serves as the connecting medium between the 
lour and the substratum. Its invention is ascribed 
Von Fuchs, who died at Munich on 5 March, 
6. Fine specimens of this art by Kaulbach and 
: a exist in the Museum at Berlin, and also at 
unich. 


STEREOMETER, by which is compassed the 
t of taking the contents of vessels of liquids by 
uging, invented abeut 1350. Anderson. M.Say’s 
sreometer, for determining the specific gravity of 
juids, porous bodies, and powders as well as solids, 
is described in 1797. 


STEREOSCOPE (from stereos, solid, and 
opein, to see), an optical instrument for repre- 
nting in apparent relief natural objects, &c., by 
iting into one image two plane representations 
these objects asseen by each eyeseparately. The 
st stereoscope by reflection was constructed and 
hibited by professor Charles Wheatstone in 1838, 
ho had announced its principle in 1833. Since 
54 stereoscopes have been greatly improved. 


STEREOTYPH, 2 cast from a page of mov- 
le printing-types, so named by the Parisian 
inter, Didot, 1798. It is said that stereotyping 
isknown in 1711. It was practised by Wm. Ged 

Edinburgh, about 1730. Some of Ged’s plates 
e atthe Royal Institution, London. A Mr. James 
tempted to introduce Ged’s process in London, 
it failed, about 1735.* Nichols. Stereotype print- 
@ was in use in Holland, in the last century ; and 
quarto Bible and a Dutch folio Bible were printed 
ere. Phillips. It was revived in. London by 
ilson in 1804. Since 1850 the durability of stereo- 


y 
/ 
‘ 


* It was hotly opposed by the journeymen printers. 


types has been greatly increased by electrotyping 

them with copper or silver. Stereotyping used for 

printing the Zimes, 1856, et seq. 

In the library of the Royal Institution is an edition of 
Sallust, with this imprint: ‘‘Edinburgi, Gulielmus 
Ged, auri faber Edinensis, non typis mobilibus, ut 
vulgo fieri solet, sed tabellis seu laminis fusis, excude- 
bat. 1744.” (Printed at Edinburgh by William Ged of 
Edinburgh, goldsmith, not with moveable types, as is 
commonly done, but with cast tablets or plates.) 


STERLING (money). Ducange says (1733), 
‘¢‘Ksterlingus, sterlingus, are English words re- 
lating to money, and hence familiar to other 
nations, and applied to the weight, quality, and 
kind of money.” ‘ Denarius Angliz, quo vocatur 
sterlingus,”’ stat. Edw. I. (The penny of England, 
which is called sterling.) Camden derives the word 
from easterling or esterling, observing that the 
money brought from Germany, in the reign of 
Richard I., was the most esteemed on account of 
its purity, being called in old deeds ‘‘nemmié easter- 
ling.’ Others derive the word from the Easterlings, 
the first moneyers in England. 

STETHOSCOPE. In 1816 Laénnec, of Paris, 
by rolling a quire of paper into a kind of cylinder, 
and applying one end to the patient’s chest and the 


‘other to his own ear, perceived the action of the 


heart in a much more distinct manner than by the 
immediate application of the ear. This led to his 
inventing the stethoscope, or ‘‘breast-explorer,” 
the principle of which, now termed ‘‘auscultation,”’ 
was known by Hippocrates (357 B.c.), and by 
Robert Hooke, 1681. 


STETTIN (Pomerania), an ancient city, for- 
merly held by the Sidini and Venedes, was taken 
by Boleslas of Poland in 1121. . After being con-~ 
quered by the Swedes, Russians, and French, it was 
awarded to Prussia in 1814. 


STEWARD or EneiAnp, Lorp HicH. 
The first grand officer of the crown. This office 
was established prior to the reign of Edward the 
Confessor, and was formerly annexed to the lord- 
ship of Hinckley, Leicestershire, belonging to the 
family of Montfort, earls of Leicester, who were, In 
right thereof, lord high stewards of England; but 
Simon de Montfort, the last earl of this family, 
haying raised a rebellion against his sovereign, 
Henry III., was attainted, and his estate forfeited 
to the king, who abolished the office, 1265. It is 
now revived only pro hdc vice, at a coronation, or 
the trial of a peer. The first afterwards appointed 
was Thomas, second son of HenryIV. ‘The first for 
the trial of a peer was Edward, earl of Devon, on 
the arraignment of the earl of Huntingdon, in 1400. 
The last was lord Denman at the trial of the earl of 
Cardigan, 16 Feb. 1841. The duke of Hamilton 
was lord high steward at the coronations of 
William IV. 1831, and Victoria, 1838. 


STEWARD or THE HovsEHOLD, LorD 
(an ancient office), has the sole direction of the 
king’s house below-stairs; he has no formal grant 
of his office, but receives his charge from the 
sovereign in person, who, delivering to him a white 
wand, the symbol of his office, says, *¢ Seneschal, 
tenez le baton de notre maison.” ‘This officer has 
been called lord steward since 1540; previously to 
the 31st of Henry VIII. he was styled grand master 
of the household. His function as a judge was 
abolished in 1849. 


STICKLESTADT (Norway). Here Olaf II, 


aided by the Swedes, was defeated in his endeavours 


| to recover his kingdom from Canute, king of Den- 


STIPENDIARY MAGISTRATES. 7 


94 


STOCKS. 


mark, and slain, 29 July, 1030. He was after- 
wards sainted, on account of his zeal for Christianity. 


STIPENDIARY MAGISTRATES, sce 


Magistrates. 


STIRLING (8. Scotland). The strong castle 
was taken by Edward I. of Kngland, 1304. Here 
James II. stabbed the earl of Douglas, 13 Feb. 1452, 
and here James VI. was crowned, 24 July, 1567. 
Stirling surrendered to Monk, 14 Aug. 1651. The 
statue of king Robert Bruce unveiled, 24 Nov. 1877. 


STIRRUPS were unknown to the ancients. 
Gracchus fitted the highways with stones to enable 
the horsemen to mount. Warriors had projections 
on their spears for the same purpose. Stirrups 
were used in the 5th century, but were not common 
even in the 12th. 


STOCKACH, a town in Baden, near which 
the Austrians, under the archduke Charles, de- 
feated the French, 25 March, 1799; and Moreau 
defeated Kray, 3 May, 1800. 


STOCKHOLM, capital of Sweden (built on 
holmen, or islands), was fortified by Berger Jarl 
about 1254. Here the Swedish nobility were mas- 
sacred by Christian II. in 1520; see Sweden. 

Peace of Stockholm, between the king of Great 

Britain and the queen of Sweden, by which the 

former acquired the duchies of Bremen and Ver- 


den as elector of Brunswick : . 20 Nov. 1719 
Treaty of Stockholm, between Sweden and Russia, 
in favour of the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 

24 March, 1724 

Another between England and Sweden .. 3 March, 1813 
And one between England, France, and Sweden, 

21 Nov. 1855 


STOCKINGS of silk are said to have been first 
worn by Henry IT. of France, 1547. In 1560 queen 
Elizabeth was presented with a pair of knit black 
silk stockings, by her silk-woman, Mrs. Montague, 
and she never wore cloth ones any more. Howell. 
He adds, ‘‘ Henry VIII. wore ordinary cloth hose, 
except there came from Spain, by great chance, a 
pair of silk stockings; for Spain very early abounded 
with silk.”” Edward VI. was presented with a pair 
of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir 
Thomas Gresham; and the present was then much 
taken notice of. Jdem. Others relate that William 
Rider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of 
an Italian merchant a pair of knit worsted stockings 
from Mantua, made a pair like them, the first made 
in England, which he presented to the earl of Pem- 
broke, 1564. Stow. The art of weaving stockings 
in a_ frame was invented in England by the rey. 
Mr. Lee, of Cambridge, in 1589, twenty-five years 
after he had learnt to knit them with wires or 
needles. Cotton stockings were first made in 1730 ; 
see Cotton. Digitated stockings (like gloves), in- 
troduced 1882, 


STOCKPORT (in Cheshire) has become emi- 
nent on account of the cotton trade. Heaton 
Norris, in Lancashire, is united to it by a bridge 
over the river. Here the Manchester blanketeers 
were dispersed, 11 March, 1817; and here was a 
serious religious riot, when two Roman catholic 
chapels were destroyed, and the houses of many 
Roman catholics gutted, and their furniture and 
other contents smashed or burnt, 29 June, 1852. 


STOCKS, in which drunkards were placed. 
The last in London was removed from St. Clement 
Danes, Strand, 4 Aug. 1826. 


STOCKS. The public funding system originated 
in Venice, about 1173, and was introduced into 


Florence in 1340. The English funding syster 
may be said to have had its rise in 1690. See Panic. 


** Bulls” are persons who buy stock and thus eaus 
the market to rise ; ‘‘ Bears” those who sell and ¢aus 
it to fall. 

Act to prevent stock-jobbing passed March, 1734; 
repealed “ : : ; 5 . ‘ 

The foundation of the Stock Exchange, in Capel- 
court, the residence of the lord mayor, sir Wm. 
Capel, in 1504, was laid on 18 May, 1801. It was 
stated on the first stone that the public debt was 
then 552,730,924l. Members, 1864, about 1100; 
above 2009 in . ; 5 c i : - a 

The memorable Stock Exchange hoax, for which ad- 
miral lord Cochrane (afterwards lord Dundonald), 
Johnstone, and others, were convicted, 22 Feb. 
1814. Lord Cochrane was in consequence expelled 
the house of commons. His innocence was after- 
wards proved, and he was restored to his rank by 
king William IV., and to the honours belonging 
to it by queen Victoria. 

Stock-exchange coffee-house destroyed by fire, 11Feb. 131 

Royal Commission (lord Penzance, justice Black- 
burn, Mr. Spencer Walpole, and others) to ex- 
amine into the constitution and management of 
the London stock exchange, agreed to, 20 March, 
1877 ; report issued; the majority recommend 


186 


187 


incorporation and other changes ; signed 31 July, 137 
The number of stock-holders in 1840 amounted to 
337,481. ’ 
Three per cent. annuities created 172 
Three per cent. consols created 173 
Three per cent. reduced . : : : c - 174 
Three per cent annuities, payable at the South Sea- 
house Fi ; f : : : : 175 
Three-and-a-half per cent. annuities created 175 
Long annuities 3 “ 3 : 4 176 
Four per cent consols : - 176 
Five per cent. annuities ; 1797 and 180 
Five per cents. reduced to four ‘ o¢ \GeeEeg 
Old four per cents. reduced to three-and-a-halfin 182 
Further reductions made in 1825, 1830, 1834, 1841, 
and 1844; the maximum being now three per cent. 
Messrs. Thomas and Co., bankrupts, for above 
8,oool., suspected frauds = 31 Jan. 188 


Three per cents. convertible into 23, and 23 per 
cent. by Act of 2 Sept., 1884. 

By a return of the average price of the public fund 

by the Commissioners for the reduction of th 

national debt, it appears that Consols (7. e., consoli 

dated annuities, paying 3 per cent. per annum 

averaged in the year— 


1749 - £100 0 o| 1815 F £58 13 
x780 63 13 6| 1820 hy 68 12 © 
1785 68 6 | 1825 90 Oo 
1790 Jz 2 "6830 89 15 
1795 74 8 6/ 1840 89 17 
1798 59 To o| 1845 93 2 =| 
1800 66 3 .3 | 1848 86 15 | 
1805 58 14 0} 1850 . «+ g62b | 
1810 67 16 3) 1852(Dec. rorl.108.)99 12 | 


The price of £100 stock varied in 


1853, from £101 to £g0$ | 1870, average g24 ,, 92 
1854, ” 96 5, 85¢| 1871, ” 925 » 92 
18555 ” 93% 9, 862} 1872, ” 927 9, 92 
1856, »” 963 5, 872 | 1873, ” 925 x 92 
1857, 55 958 », 865] 1874, 4, Q2y 59 92 
1858, 5 983 » 94 | 1875, 45 93% » 93 
1859, »” 975 »» 89 1876, ;, 95 » 94 
1861, 55 94% 5, 80$| 1877, 55 953 9» 94 
1862, 5, 94% 5, 908 | 1878, 5 9510 9» 95: 
1863, 55 94 5, 90 | 1879; 45 972 1» 97: 
1864, 55 QI 5, 874] 1880, — ,, 985 98 
1005s mG) 87% 5, 864] 131881,  ,, TOG) Gar t00 
1866, average 88 June 86} | 1882, ,, TOO} yy 100 
1867, 55 93 »> 94% | 1883, 4, TOIPs 33 100 
1868, .,, 93% June 94% | 1884, highest 1023 ; lowest 
1869, x” 92% ”» 923 3 Dec. g8tt 


‘‘During the greatest crisis ever developed in th 
history of the world the funds remain day after da; 
without a fractional movement.” Times, 11 Oct. 1870. 

Purchase of stock for rol. legalised, 1880. " 
H. C. Burdett’s ‘‘ Official Intelligence of British 
American, and Foreign Securities,” published under th 
| sanction of the Stock Exchange Committee, 1882-84. 


STOICS. 79 


5 STORMS. 


STOICS, disciples of Zeno, the philosopher 
bout 290 B.c.) ; obtained the name because they 
tened to his instructions ina porch (Greek, stoa) 
Athens. Zeno taught, that man’s supreme hap- 
hess consisted in living agreeably to nature and 
ison, and that God was the soul of the world. 
anley. 


STOKE, East (near Newark, Nottingham- 
ire). Near here, on 16 June, 1487, the adherents 
Lambert Simnel, who personated Edward, ear] 
Warwick, and claimed the crown, were defeated 
‘Henry VII. John de la Pole, the earl of 
neoln, and most of the leaders, were slain. 
mnel was afterwards employed in the king’s 
usehold. 


STONE. Stone buildings erected in England by 
medict Biscop about 670. A stone bridge built at 
.w, in the 11th or 12th centuries, is accounted the 
st; but a bridge exists at Crowland, which is said 
have been built in 860; see Bridges. ‘The first 
me building in Ireland was probably a round 
wer; see Building. Stone china-ware was made 
‘Wedgwood in 1762. Artificial stone for statues 
is manufactured by a Neapolitan, and introduced 
to England, 1776. Stone paper was made in 
76; see Ransome’ s Artificial Stone, and Lithotomy. 
r stone implements, see Flints, and Piano-forte. 
1orchestra composed of wind instruments made of 
rra-cotta appeared in London in 1874. 


STONEHENGE (on Salisbury Plain, Wilt- 
ire) is said to have been erected on the counsel of 
erlin, by Aurelius Ambrosius, in memory of 460 
‘itons, who were murdered by Hengist the Saxon 
out 450. Geoffrey of Monmouth. Erected asa 
pulchral monument of Ambrosius, 500. Polydore 
erg. An ancient temple of the Britons, in which 
e Druids officiated. Dr. Stukeley. The Britons 
e said to have held annual meetings at Abury and 
onehenge, when laws were made and _ justice 
ministered. The cursus near Stonehenge was 
scovered by Dr. Stukeley, 6 Aug. 1723. The 
igin and object of these remains are still very 
secure. See W. M. Flinders Petrie’s “ Stone- 
mge: Plans, Description, and Theories.” 1880. 


STONEWALL BRIGADE, United 
ates, 1862, note. 

STORM-WARNINGS, see under Meteor- 
gy. . 

STORMS, see Meteorology, and Cyclones. ‘The 
llowing are recorded :— 

London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, 


see 


raayaral parts of England, the sky being very dark, 
the wind coming from the 8.W.; many churches were 
destroyed ; and in London 500 houses fell, 5 Oct. 1ogt. 
1 the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais and 
several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist 
king John against the barons, perished, 1215. Holin- 
shed. 

thundered rs days successively, with tempests of rain 
and wind, 1233. 

orm with violent lightnings ; one flash passed through 
a chamber where Edward J. and his queen were con- 
versing, did them no damage, but killed two of their 
attendants, 1285. Hoveden. 

olent storm of hail near Chartres, in France, which 
fell on the army of Edward III. then on its march. 
The hail was so large that the army and horses suffered 
very much, and Edward was obliged to conclude a 
peace, 1339. Matt. Paris. 

hen ‘Richard II.’s queen came from Bohemia, on her 
setting foot on shore an awful storm arose, and her 
ship and a number of others were dashed to pieces in 
the harbour, Jan. 1382. Holinshed. R 

chard’s second queen also brought a storm with her to 


the English coasts, in which the king’s baggage was 
lost, and many ships cast away, 1396. Holinshed. 

Hurricane, throughout Europe, which did very con- 
siderable damage, on 3 Sept. 1658, the day that 
Cromwell died. Mortimer. 

Storm on east coast of England : 200 colliers and coasters 
lost, with most of their crews, 1696. 

The “Great Storm,” one of the most terrible that ever 
raged in England. The devastation on land was im- 
mense ; and in the harbours and on the coasts the loss 
in shipping and in lives was still greater, 26-27 Nov. 
1703. The loss sustained in Loncon alone was calcu- 
lated at 2,000,co0l. sterling. The number of persons 
drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and 
lost on the coast of Holland, and in ships blown from 
their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought. 
to have been 8000. Twelve men-of-war, with more than 
1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their 
own shore. Trees were torn up by the roots, 17,000 
of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house 
was destroyed, and in it the ingenious contriver of it, 
Winstanley, and the persons who were with him. The 
Bishop of Bath and Wells and his lady were killed in 
bed in their palace in Somersetshire. Multitudes of 

“cattle were also lost: in one level 15,000 sheep 
were drowned. 

Snow-storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, it is said, 
perished upon the mountains, in their march to attack 
Drontheim, 17109. 

One in India, when many hundreds of vessels were cast 
away, a fleet of Indiamen greatly damaged, and some 
ships lost, and 30,000 persons perished, 11 Oct. 1737. 

Dreadful hurricane at the Havannah: many public 
edifices and 4048 houses were destroyed, and 1000 
inhabitants perished, 25 Oct. 1768. 

Awful storm in the north of England, in which many 
vessels. were destroyed, and four Dublin packets 
foundered, 29 Oct. 1775. 

One at Surat, in the East Indies ; destroyed 7000 of the 
inhabitants, 22 April, 1782. 

One hundred and thirty-one villages and farms laid waste 
in France, 1785. 

One general throughout Great Britain : several hundred 
sail of shipping destroyed or damaged, 6 Oct. 1794. 

One which did vast damage in London, and throughout 
almost the whole of England, 8 Nov. 1800. 

A tremendous storm throughout Great Britain and 
Ireland, by which immense damage was done, and 
many ships wrecked, 16-17 Dec. 1814. 

An awful gale, by which a great number of vessels were 
lost, and much damage was done to the shipping in 
general on the English coast, 31 Aug. 1816. 

Dreadful hurricane, ravaged the Leeward Islands, from 
the zoth to the 22nd Sept. 1819. At the island of 
St. Thomas alone, 104 vessels were lost. 

Great ‘storm along the coast from Durham to Cornwall ; 
many vessels lost, Nov. 1821. 

In Ireland, particularly in the vicinity of Dublin, many 
houses were thrown down, and vast numbers unroofed, 
2 Dec. 1822. 

Awful storm on the coast of England : many vessels lost, 
and 13 driven ashore and wrecked in Plymouth alone, 
12-13 Jan. 1828. 

At Gibraltar, where more than 1oo vessels were de- 
stroyed, 18 Feb. 1828. 

Dreadful storm at the Cape of Good Hope, where 
immense property was lost, 16 July, 1831. 

A hurricane visited London and its neighbourhood, 
which did great damage to the buildings, but without 
the destruction of human life, though many serious 
accidents occurred, 28 Oct. 1838. 

Awful hurricane on west coast of England, and in 
Jreland. The storm raged through Cheshire, Stafford- 
shire, and Warwickshire; 20 persons were killed in 
Liverpool, by the falling of buildings, and 100 were 
drowned in the neighbourhood ; the coasts and har- 
bours were covered with wrecks, the value of two of 
the vessels lost being nearly half-a-million sterling. 
In Limerick, Galway, Athlone, and other places, more 
than 200 houses were blown down, and as many more 
were burnt, the winds spreading the fires. Dublin 
suffered dreadfully ; London and its neighbourhood 
scarcely sustained any damage, 6-7 Jan. 1839. 

[The winter of 1852-3 (Dec. and Jan.) was one of storms, 
many of which were very destructive. ] 

Great storm in the Black Sea, 13-16 Nov. 1854, causing 
much, loss of life, shipping, and stores sent for the 
allied armies in the Crimea, 


STORMS. 7 


Great storm on N. coast of Europe, &¢ , 31 Dec. 1854. 

Great storm on N.E. coast of Scotland ; 42 fishermen 
lost, 23 Nov. 1857. 

Dreadful storm on the night 25-26 Oct.; the Royal 
Charter totally lost, and many other vessels ; another 
storm, 31 Oct. and 1 Nov. 1859. 

Great storm in the channel, causing much loss of life 
and property, 1 Jan. 1860. 

Dreadful gales, doing much mischief, 26, 27, 28 Feb. ; 
28 May; and 2 June, 1860. 

Great storm; part of the Crystal Palace blown down ; 
Chichester cathedral steeple fell, 20-21 Feb. 186r. 

Great storm on British coasts, 143 wrecks, 28 May, 186r. 

Storm on the north-east ; 50 wrecks, 13-14 Nov. 186r. 

At Market Laverton, &c.; much damage to crops by 
hail, 2 Sept. 1862. » 

Storm on British coasts; many wrecks, 19, 20 Oct. 1862. 

There were severe gales, doing much damage, and loss of 
life, r9 Jan. &c. 1863; and 14 Jan. &e. 1865 (See under 
Wrecks). 

Dreadful hurricane in the Indian Ocean, &c. (see Cyclone, 
Calcutta), 5 Oct. 1864. 

Hurricane at Lisbon, causes much damage, worst for 
many years, 13 Dec. 1864. 

Severe gales; many vessels and lives lost (see Wrecks), 
6-11 Jan. 1866; 2-4 Dec. 1867; 22 Jan. and 31 Jan. and 
1 Feb. 1868; 11-12 Sept. 1869. 

Severe storm; much damage; 
24 Jan. 1872. 

After several days’ intense heat, violent storms, and 
deluges of rain in midland and southern counties; 
several persons killed, 24-26 June, 1872. 

Very stormy in July and August, 1872. 

Violent gale; much destruction (wind, greatest velocity 
57 miles an hour), 8 Dec. 1872. 

Awful storms in Scotland, and N. England ; loss of life, 
and much damage, 22, 23 July; in Lancashire and 
Yorkshire, 16 Dec. 1873. 

Awful storm, N. E. London ; several persons killed ; 
churches and buildings fired; railways flooded, 11 
July, 1874. 

Violent gales, with destruction of life and property, 2x 
Oct. ; Nov. 29; 7, 8, 10, 11 Dec. 1874. : 

Much destruction by typhoon at Macao, Hong Kong, &e., 
22 Sept. 1874. : 

Severe snowstorms in Scotland, several lives lost, 1, 3 
Jan. 1875. 

Destructive storms at Buda-Pesth, about 200 killed, 
26 June, 1875. 

On coast of Texas: Galveston, Indianapolis, and other 
places much injured ; villages washed away by the 
sea; great loss of life, 15-18 Sept. 1875. 

Severe snowstorm, south England; destruction of life 
and property ; telegraph wires broken, 12 March, 1875. 

Severe storms; great loss ofshipping, 11-13 Nov. ; 2, 3, 
and 22-24 Dec. 1876. 

Most violent gale; great destruction of property on land 
and shipping throughout England, with loss of life, 
14, 15 Oct. 1877. 

Again ; much damage on §.E. coast, &c., 24, 25 Nov. 


barometer very low, 


1877. 

Storm and heavy rain in London; inundations, ro, rr 
April, 1878. 

Many thunderstorms, destroying life and property in 
England, Aug. 1878. 

At Kew and neighbourhood, 2, 3 Aug. ; in Cheshire and 
Wales, 16, 17 Aug. 1879. 

Violent gale ; Tay bridge (which see) blown down, 28 Dee. 
18709. 

Dastinetive tornadoes, &c., western states North, Ame- 
rica; great loss of life and property, about 18 April, 


1880. 

Many thunderstorms in England, July, 1880. 

Severe storms in England, with much destruction by in- 
undations, 27, 28 Oct. 1880. 

Severe snowstorm ; railways and other traffic largely 
stopped ; great loss of life at sea, 17-21 Jan. 1881. 

Violent hurricane in England: great destruction of life 
and property : houses thrown down or unroofed ; large 
trees torn up by the roots ; telegraph wires and poles 
blown down ; about 130 wrecks (105 British), &¢., 14- 
19 Oct. 1881. 

Many wrecks on south and west coasts of England with 
much loss of life, 19-20 Oct. 1881. 

Great destruction of life and property by gales, 26, 27 
Nov. 1881. 

Lighthouse, Calf Rock, in Bantry Bay destroyed, 27 Nov. 
1881. 


STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 


Six men left on the rock got off, 9 Dec. 1881. | 

By a typhoon in Haifong, &c., China, about 300,000 per 
sons perished, 8 Oct. 1881. 

Destructive gales in England, &c.; many wrecks andlcs 
of life by sea and land, 17-21 Dec. 1881. | 

Severe gale; much destruction in England and Scotland 
6 Jan.; another, 29 April, 1882. 

Tornado in Iowa, &c., Grinnell and other towns near 
destroyed ; great loss of life, about 16 June, et seq. 
1882. 

Violent gale with damage, 22, 23 Aug. 24 Oct, 1882; 26 
27, 28 Jan., 10 Feb., 6 March, 1883. 

Tornadoes in southern states, U.S.A., about 150 killed 
April, 1883. ' 

Violent gale in British channel, &c.; many wrecks, 1- 
Sept. 1883. 

Destructive gale on the Scotch and Irish coasts, 26 Sept 
1883. 

Another with great loss of life and damage in Londo 
and other parts of Britain, morning, 12 Dec. 1883. 

Violent 8.W. gales; destruction of life and property 
23-24 Jan. 1884; very severe; many disasters, 26, 2: 
Jan. 1884. 

Tornadoes in southern states, U.S.A. ; about 600 killed 
abont 18 Feb. 1884. 

Storm in Catania, Sicily (see Sicily), 7 Oct. 1884. 

Destructive snowstorms in Piedmont (see Italy), 16 Jan 
et seq. 1885. 

See Waterspouts. 


STORTHING, the Norwegian parliament 
said to have been first held at Bergen by Haco VY 
in 1223. 


STOVES. The ancients used stoves whicl 
concealed the fire, as the German stoves yet do 
They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the 
middle of the room, the roof being open. Apart- 
ments were warmed by portable braziers. Stoves 
on this old principle, improved, continue in use i 
many houses and public establishments in England. 
and generally on the continent. Dr. Franklin an¢ 
count Rumford pointed out the waste of fuel in ow 
open fires; and Dr. Neil Arnott patented his ‘‘im- 
provementsin the production and agency of heat,” 
14 Noy. 1821. See Chimneys, and Cottage’: 
Stove. Dr. C. William Siemens described his 
smokeless stove in “ Nature” for 11 Nov. 1880. 


STOWMARKET EXPLOSION, see Guv- 


Cotton, 1871. 


STRAIGHT-OUT DEMOCRATS, 2 party 
which advocated limiting the powers of a gover- 
ment to police purposes arose in the United States 
of America in Boal and nominated Charles O’ Connor 
for the presidency. A state convention was con- 
voked to meet at Harrisburg, 16 Oct. 1872. 


STRAITS SETTLEMENTS, including 
Malacca, Penang or Prince of Wales island, and 
Singapore, secured to Great Britain in 1824, were 
made a separate dependency in 1853, and placed 
under the governor-general of India. They were 
separated from India, and constituted an indepen- 
dent settlement by an act passed 10 Aug. 1866, 
which took effect April, 1867. Governor, sir Harry 
St. George Ord, 1867; sir Andrew Clarke, 1873; 
sir William F. D. Jervois, Oct. 1875 ; sipavnte 
Robinson, 1877; sir Frederick A. Weld, 1880. 


Traders complained to Sir H. Ord, governor, who 
said they must submit to theirrisks . meee 
Sir Andrew Clarke made a treaty establishing Ab- 
dullah as sultan in place of Ismail, and 4 
British resident as his adviser, with plenary 
powers at Perak d ‘ 7 . Jan, 
Mr. J. W. Birch, the resident, issues a proclama- 
tion, 1 Noy. ; is suddenly attacked and killed, 
2 Nov. 

The Malays'rise, and besiege the residency, which 
is relieved by Capt. Innes, 6Noy. He is killed in 
attacking a stockade : ‘ 4 . 15 NOY. 5, 


1872 


1874 


1875 


at “= - ‘ 
Oe et qi es 
‘y . » 
iy HS : 


ao ae 


STRALSUND. 


yurnt : : : : ‘ : 4 Jan. 1876 
nail surrenders, about 21 March ; Birch’s assassin 
anged sg .20 May, , 


sat prosperity of the settlement reported, Aug. 1884 


STRALSUND (Pomerania), a strongly fortified 
inse-town, built about 1230. It resisted a fierce 
ge by Wallenstein in 1628; was taken by Frede- 
k William, of Brandenburg, in 1678; restored to 
2 Swedes, 1679; re-captured by the Prussians and 
air allies, Dec. 1715. Itsurrendered to the French 
der Brune, 20 Aug. 1807; wasawarded to Prussia, 


15. 
STRAND (London). Houses were first built 
ion the Strand about 1353, at which period it was 


e court end of the town, or formed the communi- 
tion between the two cities of London and West- 
inster, being then open to the Thames and to the 
lds. Somerset and other palaces were erected 
47-1605.—Stow. The Strand bridge was com- 
enced II Oct. 1811; see Waterloo bridge. The 
rand improvements were commenced in 1829. 


STRANGERS in house of commons; see Par- 
wment, May, 1875. 


STRASBURG, the Roman Argentoratum, the 
pital of Alsace. Here Julian defeated the Ale- 
anni, 357, who captured it, 455. It was annexed 
Germany, 870. Louis XIV. seized it 28 Sept. 
)81, and retained it by the treaty of Ryswick, 1697. 
he citadel and fortifications, which he constructed, 
ave been so much augmented that Strasburg may 
> considered one of the strongest places in Europe. 
“was confirmed to France by the peace of Ryswick 
_ 1697, but captured by the Germans, 28 Sept. 1870, 
1d retained at the peace, May, 1871. The cathe- 
‘al, an epitome of Gothic art, was founded by 
loyis, and reconstructed by Pepin and Charle- 
agne. After destruction by lightning, 1007, it was 
‘incipally rebuilt by Erwin de Steinbach and his 
min the 14th century. The lofty tower was com- 
eted in 1439. ‘The celebrated astroncemical clock, 
ter a long stoppage, was repaired by M. Schwil- 
1é, and inaugurated 1 Jan. 1843. 
n attempt at insurrection in the city was made by 
prince Louis Napoleon (afterwards president of 
the French republic, and emperor), aided by two 
officers and some privates 3 30 Oct. 
was instantly suppressed by their arrest, and the 
| prince was shipped off to America by the French 
government. 
wrasburg invested by the Germans, principally from 
Baden, during the Franco-Prussian war ro Aug. 
‘en. von Werder assumed the command of the be- 
siegers, and the bombardment began 14 Aug., 
and a vigorous sally was repulsed 16 Aug. ,, 
en. Uhrich, the commander, declared that he 
| would not surrender except upon a heap of 
ashes; but after a heroic resistance, and when a 
breach had been made and an assault was im- 
pending, notice was given, and the place surren- 
dered at 2 A.M.; at 8 A.M. 17,150 men and 400 
officers laid down their arms . 27 Sept. ,, 
he German loss was said to be go6 men, of whom 
43 were Officers . , ; : : 28 Sept. ,, 
he Germans entered Strasburg on the anniversary 
of its surrender to the French in 1681 by a sur- 


1836 


prise x f i : g : . 30 Sept. ,, 
hrich received the grand cross of the legion of 
- honour Oct; 


he invaluable library was destroyed and the cathe- 

dral much injured. About 400 houses were de- 

stroyed, and 8000 persons rendered homeless. 

isit of the emperor of Germany well received 3 
but France is still there 19 Sept. 1879 


STRIKES. 
STRATFORD -UPON-AVON (Warwick- 


shire), see Shakspeare. : 


STRATHCLUYD, a kingdom formed by the 
Britons, who retired northward after the Saxon con- 
quest, about 560. It extended from the Clyde to 
Cumberland. The Britons in it submitted to Ed- 
ward the Elder, in 924. 


STRATHCLYDE CASH, see Wrecks, 1876. 
STRATHFIELD-SAYH, in Hampshire, in 


which is situate the estate bought of lord Rivers 
by the nation for 263,000/., and presented to the 
duke of Wellington, 1817. An act to provide a 
suitable residence for his grace and his heirs was 
passed 11 July, 1815. 


STRATHMORE ESTATES. . Miss Bowes, 
of Durham, the then richest heiress in Europe, 
whose fortune was 1,040,000/., with vast additions 
on her mother’s death, and immense estates on the 
demise of her uncle, married the earl of Strathmore, 
25 Feb. 1766, Having, after the earl’s death, mar- 
ried Mr. Stoney, she was forcibly carried off by him 
and other armed men, 10 Noy. 1786. She was 
brought up to the King’s Bench by habeas corpus 
and released, and he committed to prison, 23 Noy. 
The lady recovered her estates, which she had as- 
signed to her husband under the influence of terror, 
in May, 1788. 


STRATTON-HILL, BATTLE OF, in Corn- 
wall, 16 May, 1643, between the royal army under 
sir Ralph Hopton, and the forces of the parliament 
under the earl of Stamford. The victory was gained 
over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in 
killed and wounded. 


STRAWBERRY, see Lruits. 
STRAWBERRY-HILL, Surrey, the Gothic 


villa of Horace Walpole, constructed 1750, at Twick- 
enham, near London. In April and May, 1842, his 
collection of pictures and articles of taste and 
virtu were sold by auction for 29,6157. 8s. 9d. 
The villa was enlarged by Mr. Chichester For- 
tescue, created lord Carlingford, and the countess of 
Waldegrave, daughter of John Braham, the singer. 
She died 5 July, 1879. The place bought by baron 
H. de Stern, July, 1883. 


STREET MUSIC. | An act was passed in 
1864 for the better regulation of street music in the 
metropolitan police districts. 


STREET RAILWAYS, see Tramways. 


STRELITZ, the imperial guard of Russia, 
established by Ivan LV. about 1568. Becoming fre- 
quently seditious, it was suppressed by Peter the 
Great; great numbers were put to death, many by 
the ezar’s own hand, 1698-1704. 


STRIKES, see under Agriculture, Preston, 
London, 1859-61; Newcastle, and Trials, Aug. 
1867. 

The tailors of London struck for increase of wages ; 
they yield : : ; : : ; April, 
The strike of the calico printers of Glasgow : 
Staffordshire potters strike; obtained an advance 
after much loss ‘ Nov. 1834-March, 
The strike of the amalgamated engineers took place 
Strike of the London cabmen . 27-30 July, 
Builders’ strike . et : Aug.-Oct. 
A strike among the silk-workers at Coventry came 
to an end . ; ; : 30 Aug. 
An unsuccessful attempt to get up a strike in the 
building trade began . Z : 23 March, 
A strike of the puddlers in the iron trade occurred 

in the spring of (see Iron, and Railways) » 1865 


1834 


2? 


1835 
1852 
1853 
1859 


1860 
1861 


STRIKES. 


Strike of London west-end tailors (about 2000), 
lasted =. ‘ é F : . 22 April-Oct. 
Great strike of colliers near St. Helens, April, 1867; 
about 40,o00 men on strike ; ; ep veG atl b 
Colliery strike at Thorncliffe, near Sheffield ; dread- 
ful riots and devastation : : a ere ans 
Strike of 10,ooo0 miners at Le Creuzot, Burgundy, 
the property of M. Schneider; soon over Jan. 
Engineers’ strike at Newcastle (see Newcastle) 
May-Oct. 
Strike of builders employed by Messrs. Brass and 
Jackson & Shaw, for a 9 hours’ day, at od. an 
hour, x June; after negotiation led to a lock-out 
by the masters, beginning ; : 1g June, 
The lock-out of the masons ceased, the carpenters 
going on, g July ; arrangements were made, and 
strike ceased . ; : Pi . about 27 Aug. 
Strike of London journeymen bakers, 23 Sept.-9 Oct. 
Strike of firewood cutters. . Sept. 


Lock-out of miners in Wales for their excessive 
demands 4 Z : a 5 3 Oct. 
Strike of London gas-stokers (see Gas) eee: 


Strike of about 60,000 colliers in 8. Wales, refusing 
to submit to ro per cent. reduction in wages, 
rJan. Strikeended _. about 25 March, 

Powerful speech of earl Fitzwilliam to his colliers 
of Low Stubbin after a strike . : 5 June, 

Strike of about 50,o00 miners, South Wales, 2 Jan. ; 
led to a lock-out, 1 Feb. ; given up; gradual re- 
turn of men to work end of . “ ~ May, 

Strike of Warwickshire miners . . May-Aug. 

Strikes at Oldham and Dundee July-August 

Strike of earl Fitzwilliam’s colliers on account of 
the compulsory use of safety lamps; he closes 
his mines and rejects their submission ». Dec. 

Erith, strike of workmen of Eastons and Anderson, 
engineers, in opposition to piece-work, 18 Dec. ; 
supported by amalgamated engineers, Dec., 1875 ; 
on trial for conspiracy, the men plead guilty; no 
sentence passed . - , 3 14 July, 

Strike of 1600 miners against 15 per cent. reduction 
of wages, Bolton : : : z4 Aug. 

*‘ Operative Spinners’ Association ” of N. and N.E. 
Lancashire propose to set aside the ‘‘ standard 
list of prices” after 1 Nov. The masters there- 
upon announced a lock-out of about 80,000 men 
(after 23 Nov.), 26 Oct. The association submits 

18 Nov. 

Strike of Doulton’s bricklayers respecting employ- 
ment of others on terra-cotta work (settled) Oct. 

Great strike and lock-out of about 10,000 ship- 
wrights, &c., on the Clyde, May ; closed, Oct. ; 
the arbitrator, lord Moncrieff, decided against 
the men ; : . ‘ ; PRN Ove 

Northumberland miners (about 12,000), began, 29 
May ; over about é ; 2 : 12 June, 

Great railway strike, see United States. July, 

Bolton cotton workers strike, about 1 Sept.; closed 


by agreement : A : ; . - : 
Railway strike on Great Southern and Western line, 
Ireland, about ; : 14-22 Sept. 


18x strikes, result mostly against workmen . . 
Lock-out of about 8000 miners in Northumberland, 
about 15 Dec. 1877; closed. - See BUEN OF 
Strike of masons of London (employed on the law 
courts, &c.), demanding increased pay and less 
working hours, 3: July ; some firms yield, about 
20 Sept. ; Germans and others engaged, Oct.— 
Dec. 1877. Strike ends (cost about 60,000l. ) 
14 March, 
Strike and lock-out of cotton spinners in N. and 
N.E. Lancashire (about 120,000 men); masters 
required reduction of ro per cent. on wages ; be- 
gan about 18 April; ended by the men submit- 
ting to arrangements about 17 June, 
Partial strike and lock-out of labourers in Kent and 


Sussex. 5 , § ; : Oct. Dec. 
Cotton strike at Oldham, at reduction of wages 5 
per cent., 25 Nov. ; submission . ; 28 Dec. 
277 strikes in the year : 


Midland railway ; sudden strike of goods guards 
3-20 Jan. 
London engineers, 18 firms, against reduction of 
wages, began about 7 Feb. ; closed. 4 Oct. 
Durham coal miners, against reduction of wages, 
began 5 April; stoppage of Cleveland and other 
iron works ; about 70,ooo men unemployed, April ; 
settled by arbitration  . ; about 16 May, 


798 STYLE. 


Bristol builders 2 months’ strike ends 30 July, 18: 
Strike of cotton-workers at Blackburn, 15 Mayet seg, ,, 
Strike of Lancashire miners ; about 40,000 out, r2 
Jan. ; rioting with loss of life near Bolton, 25-28 
Jan. ; strike reported over 5 3 21 Feb. 18¢ 
Strike in the potteries, 7o firms and 30,000 men, be- 
gun : ; : 4 : - about 25 Nov. ,, 
The men agree to arbitration . : - 6 Dee; 
Ironworkers’ strike at Hopton and Darlington, 
j 2 Feb.-9 June, 18€ 
Strike of Staffordshire colliers, about 8000, 12 May, 
ends . s ; : ; - about 3 Sept. 18¢ 
Great strike of South Staffordshire ironworkers at 
recuction of wages . ; 5 . about 5 July, ,, 
Many submit, about 17 July ; strike closed, 
. 24 July, ,, 
Cotton weavers on strike, about 15,000, 5 Jan.; men 
yield under conditions - about 8 Feb, 188 
Strike in the cotton trade; mass meeting at Burn- 
ley reject the masters’ terms >, 16d ubyene Jy 
Determined to maintain the strike against reduction — 
of wages : : “ : s - 24 JUL 
End of Barnsley coal miners’ long strike 23 Dee. ,, 
Strike of about 2000 miners in west Cumberland, 
16 March, 188 
Strike of about half the colliers in 8. and W. York- 
shire 2 ; 3 - xz April e seg. ,, 


STROME CASH, see Zrials, 1883. 
STRONTIUM. The native carbonate o 


strontia was discovered at Strontian, in Argyle 
shire, in 1787. Sir Humphry Davy first obtaine: 
from it the metal strontium in 1808. 


STRYCHNIA, a poisonous vegetable alkaloid 
discovered in 1818 by Pelletier and Caventou in th 
seeds of the strychnos Ignatia and nux vomica, an 
also in the upas poison. Half a grain blown int 
the throat of a rabbit occasions death in fow 
minutes ; its operation is accompanied by lock-jaw 
Much attention was given to strychnia in 1856 
during the trial of William Palmer, who was exe. 
cuted for the murder of Cook, 14 June, 1856. 


STUART, HovusE oF, see under Scotland 
England ; and Pretenders. © 


STUCCO WORK was known to the ancients 
and was much prized by them, particularly by the 
Romans, who excelled in it.—Lenglet. It was re- 
vived by D’Udine, about 1550; and in Italy, France 
and England in the 18th century. , 


STUD Company, to improve the breed of British 
horses, held its first annual meeting, 20 Sept. 1873. 


STUHM (W. Prussia). Here Gustavus Adol- 
phus of Sweden defeated the Poles, 1628. — 


STUNDINSTS, a puritan sect in south Russia, 
said to be descendants of Russian soldiers converted 
from the Greek church by. German missionaries ; 
some were cruelly persecuted by the bigoted pea- 
santry of Vossnessensk in Kherson in 1879; thirteen 
es the ringleaders were tried for the crime, 8 Noy. 
1879. 


STURGES BOURNE’S ACT, 58 Geo. UI. 


c. 69 (1818), relates to parish vestries. 
STUTTGARD (Wiirtemburg), first mentioned 


in 1229, was made his residence by count Eberhard, 
1320; enlarged by Ulric, 1436; and made capital of 
the state, 1482. It has been greatly adorned during 
the last and present centuries. International rifle 
meeting here, 1 Aug. 1875. 


STYLE, see New Style. 


STYLE Royat, see England, King, Majesty, 
and Titles. ‘The styles of the English sovereigns 
are given in the later editions of Nicolas’s ‘* Chron- 


av, 
ne: 
ia | 
4 


STYLITES. 7 


99 


SUEZ CANAL. 


ry of History.” The Royal Style and ‘Titles Act, 
ing power to add to the queen’s titles “‘empress 
India,” after much opposition in the commons, 
rived royal assent 27 April; proclamation issued 
April; announced in India, by the viceroy, 19 
x, 1876. 


(TYLITES, see Monachism. 


ITY RIA (Austria), part of the ancient Noricum 
. Pannonia, was held successively by the Romans, 
rogoths, and Avars. It was conquered by Charle- 
me, and divided among his followers, styled 
nts, among whom the count of Styria, about 
, was the most powerful. The count became 
‘grave about 1030; and Ottocar VI., in 1180, was 
le duke. Athis death, 1192, Styria was annexed 
the duchy of Austria. In 1246 it was acquired 
Bela LV. of Hungary; in 1253, by Ottocar II. of 
emia; after whose defeat and death, at March- 
, in 1278, it reverted to Rudolph of Austria, and 
: annexed to his possessions. 


UBMARINE LAMP, one invented by 
ye and Gorman, has been in use since 1850, 
»cially at Cherbourg. Heinke and Davis’s lamp 
; exhibited, 1871. 


UBMARINE TELEGRAPH, see TZele- 
ph (under Electricity). 


UBSCRIPTION ACT, see Clerical Sub- 
ption Act. 


‘UBSIDIES to the kings of England were 
nerly granted in kind, particularly in wool; 
300 sacks were voted to Edward III. on account 
she war with France, 1340.—Anderson. Subsi- 
3 were raised upon the people of England by 
aes I. 1624; but they were included in a bill for 
redress of grievances, 1639. Four subsidies (the 
) were granted to Charles II. in 1663.* 


‘'UCCESSION ACTS, see Settlement. 


'UCCESSION, WAR OF (1702-1713), distin- 
shed by the achievements of the duke of Marl- 
ough and the earl of Peterborough, and their 
rofitable results, arose on the question whether 
Austrian prince or a French prince should suc- 
1 to the throne of Spain. The British court 
osed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious ; but 
allies withdrew one after another, andthe French 
ice succeeded; see Spain, and Utrecht. 


\UCCESSION DUTY ACT (16 & 17 Vict. 
51), after much discussion, was passed 4 Aug. 
3. By this act the legacy duty was extended to 

estate, and was made payable on succession to 
‘1 landed and personal property. 


UDBURY, in Suffolk, was disfranchised for 
very in 1844. 

UEVI, a warlike Gothic tribe, which, with the 
ni and the Visigoths, entered Spain about 408, 
e overcome by the latter, and absorbed into their 
xdom about 584. 


-UEZ CANAL. The caliph Omar about 640 
-osed cutting the isthmus. A plan for a canal 
veen the head of the Red Sea and the bay of 
‘usium was brought forward by M. Ferdinand de 
seps in 1852. He undertook to cut a canal 
ugh go miles of sand, to run out moles into the 
literranean; to deepen the shallow waters; to 
ite ports to receive the ships from India and 


England granted subsidies to foreign powers in seve- 
vars, particularly in the war against the revolutionists 
rance, and against Bonaparte. 


Australia, and to adapt the canal to irrigation. The: 


consent of the Egyptian, ‘Turkish, Russian, French, 


and Austrian governments was gradually obtained, 
but not that of the British. A company was formed 
for the purpose, and the work commenced in 1858 
by Mr. Daniel Lange (knighted 1870). The cost 
was estimated at 8,000,000/. Engineer, M. L. 
Monteit. 


Mc Delacour, a French engineer, after viewing the 
works which were ‘‘employing 25,000 men in the 
desert,” expressed his conviction that they would 
be completed in four or five years 7 Nov. 

The waters of the Mediterranean admitted into a 
narrow channel communicating with Lake Tim- 
sah . j : : ; , : f . Dec. 

The new town Timsah named Ismaila 4 March, 

The works visited by the Sultan and by Mr. Hawk- 
shaw . : : : ; : 3 : ae 

The company compelled by the' Egyptian govern- 
ment to give up employment of compulsory 
labour ; litigation ensued. : SEA UP teas 

M. de Lesseps reported that a vessel containing 30 
persons had been tugged along the canal the 
whole distance between the two seas Feb. 

Delegates from the British chambers of commerce 
visited the works, and reported that the success 
of the scheme was only an affair of time and 
money . : : : : : Hy eyo abl ae 

The flood gates of the smaller Suez canal were 
opened, the fresh water of the Nile admitted ; a 
coal vessel passed from the Mediterranean to the 
Red Sea . F ; : : : EGU es 

The Primo, 80 tons burden, passed through the 
canal from the Mediterranean into the Red Sea, 


17 Feb. 1867 
A loan raised in France : : 3 : beri ear 
French and English vessels enter the canal Nov. 1868 
Mr. John Fowler, the engineer, reported the canal 
as suitable for steamers and mail traffic, but not 
for vessels requiring tugs 5 Feb. 1869 


Water of the Mediterranean admitted to the salt 
lakes : : ; ; : Tovar Gh ys 
The works visited by the prince and princess of 
Wales . : : : ; 23 March, . ;, 
The canal successfully opened in the presence of the 
emperor of Austria, the empress, of the French, 
the viceroy of Egypt, and others . z7 Nov. 45 
M. de Lesseps entertained in London 4 July, 1870 
Traffic in 1870-1 doubled : : : 1872-3 
Charges upon vessels passing through the canal in- 
creased 50 per cent. ; the British appeal for a 
national conference : 4 : ; Aprils 
International conference on Suez dues met at Con- 
stantinople; 21 sittings; report dated 18 Dec. 
Proposals of the sultan accepted by European 
powers . : ; : * : c Dec: 
M. de Lesseps protests ; the lords of the admiralty 
informed (by D. A. Lange) that the canal will be 
closed unless the old dues are paid, 22 April; he 
gives way about : - : 26 April, 
Col. Stokes, after a survey, reported to the earl of 
Derby that the canal generally was in a satisfac- 
tory state : : ; : : . 20 April, 
British government authorise Messrs. Rothschild to 
buy for 4,080,o00l. the Khedive’s shares (176,602 
shares of 2ol., out of 400,000) in the canal; (5 per 
cent. to be paid till 1 July, 1894, after which divi- 
dends will be received) , A Se NOV. 
M. de Lesseps in a circular says he regards ‘‘as a 
fortunate circumstance the powerful union be- 
tween English and French capitalists for the 
purely industrial and necessarily peaceful work- 
ing of the universal maritime canal.” 29 Nov. 
The subject discussed in the commons, 14 Feb. ; 
money (4,080,o00l.) voted, 21 Feb.: act passed 
15 Aug. 1876 
Neutrality of the canal claimed by Great Britain 
May, June, 1877 
Freedom of the canal secured by settlement of 
Egypt = : é 7 A ; c - 1882-3 
Receipts about 5,000,000 franes, 18703 60,523,815 


1874 


9? 


1875 


9 


francs; : 5 c : : : ? 1882 
Second canal determined on by British shipowners ; 
syndicate appointed . to May, 1883 


Arrangements made by the government for the con- 
struction of the canal and advancement of capital, 


SUFFRAGAN BISHOPS. 


to be virtually under control of De Lesseps’ com- 
pany, announced, 11 July; great dissatisfaction 
and opposition in England, 12 July ; the proposed 
convention withdrawn by the government, 
23 July, 
Sir Stafford Northcote’s resolution against De Les- 
seps’ monopoly negatived (284-185) ST iLL easy 
De Lesseps visits London ; agrees with the steam 
shipowners to enlarge the present canal; or 
create a new one, giving additional power and 
influence in the direction of the company, and to 
reduce dues, &c. : : : , 20uNOVe ass 
The agreement approved by the British government, 
25 Feb.; the shareholders at Paris protest against 
it, but ratify it (2608-556) : : =) 20) May, es 
The widening of the present canal decided on, after 
investigation by commission, Dec. 1884; plans 
adopted by the commission ni . 9 Feb. 
International commission sits at Paris ; English and 
French schemes discussed Aprii—May, ,, 
Parts of these schemes incorporated in treaty, 


1883 


May, 33 

Traffic passed through canal : 
Year anes \Gross Tonnage.! Gross Receipts. 
1870 486 435,911 £255,488 
1871 765 761,467 464,091 
1872 1,082 1,439,169 758,659 
1873 1,173 2,085,073 971,882 
1874 1,264 2,423,672 1,029,492 
1875 | 15494 2,940,709 1,204,387 
1876 1,457 3,072,107 1,229,157 
1877 1,663 3418,950 1,337,017 
1878 1,593 3291,535 1,272,435 
1879 1,477 3,236,942 1,214,443 

Total” ) eu 

royears. J, 12454 | 231705535 | £9,737,651 
1880 2,026 453445519 1,672,836 | 
r88x | 2,727 537945401 2,187,047 | 
TOS2-pal + B,1OS. 9 | 7,122,725 | 
1883 35307 8,051,307 
1884 8,319,967 2,480,000 | 


Mr. Gladstone said that the country had gained 
from the canal, 4,700,000l. A April, 1881 


SUFFRAGAN BISHOPS. Power to ap- 
point them was given by parliament in 1534 to 
Henry VIII. as head of the church; see Bishops 
and Supremacy. 


SUGAR* (Saccharum officinarum) is supposed 
to have been known to the ancient Jews. Found in 
the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, 
325 B.c.—Strabo. An oriental nation in alliance 
with Pompey used the juice of the cane asa common 
beverage.—Lucan. It was prescribed as a medicine 
by Galen, 2nd century. Brought into Europe from 
Asia, A.D.625 ;—in large quantities, 1150. Attempted 
to be cultivated in Italy; not succeeding, the Portu- 
guese and Spaniards carried it to America about 
ISI0. 

The sugar-cane transported from Syria to Cyprus 
about 1148 ; from Madeira about 1420 ; and to the 

West Indies ‘ about 1506 


* Sugar, long considered a neutral substance, without 
congeners, has of late years become the head of a nume- 
rous family, viz. : Cane-sugar (sucrose, from the sugar- 
cane ; boiled with dilute acids it becomes glucose); Fruit- 
sugar (from many recent fruits); Grape-sugar (glucose, 
from dried fruits and altered starch); sugar of milk ; 
Melitose (from eucalyptus, by Berthelot in 1856); sorbin 
(from the berries of the mountain ash, by Pelouze) ; inosite 
(from muscular tissue, Scherer) ; dulcose (by Laurent) ; 
mannite (from manna, obtained from the fraxinus ornus, 
a kind of ash) ; quercite (from acorns) ; to these have been 
added mycose, by M. Mitscherlich, and melezetose and 
trehalose, by M. Berthelot. 


800 


SUICIDE. 


It is not known at what date sugar was introduced 
into England, but it seems to have been prior to 
the reign of Henry VIII. Mr. Whittaker, in the 
History of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an instance in 

A manuscript letter from sir Edward Wotton to 
lord Cobham, dated Calais, advertises him that 
sir Edward had taken up for his lordship twenty- 
five sugar-loaves at six shillings a loaf, ‘‘whiche 
is eighte pence apounde” . : . 6 March, 

Sugar first taxed (by James II.) . v “ aan 

Duties on free and slave-grown sugars equalized, 
Aug. 

. Sept. 


Duties reduced-and regulated . 
Duty increased (war) ; Hen : Be «| 
Reduced, 1857, 1864; modified, 1867; greatly re- 
duced, 1 Aug. 1870; further reduced, May, 1873; 
abolished from ’ ‘ > TNE 
Sugar industries committee recommend a protective 
duty on the import of sugar from certain coun- 
tries *% : ‘ A : A . . Aug, 
Sugar-refining was made known to Europeans by a 
Venetian, 1503, and was first practised in England 
in 1659, though some say we had the art a few 
years earlier. The invaluable vacuum-pan was 
invented by Howard, 1812. Dr. Scoffern’s pro- 
cesses were patented in 1848-50, but not adopted 
in Britain. 
Sugar largely manufactured from sorghum in 
Illinois, U.S. : - : Sear - eUCES 
Manufacturers and colonies protest strongly against 
French and German bounties on beet sugar 8 
Raw SUGAR IMPORTED INTO UNITED KINGDOM. —1853, 
7,284,290 cWwts.; 1860, 8,817,277 cwts.; 1865, 
10,250,524 Cwts. ; 1871, 12,126,508 cwts. 3. 1875, 
16,264,711 Cwts.; 1877, 16,620,944 Gwts. ; in 1879, 
17,734,223 Cwts.; in 1883, 20,366,627 cwts. 
See Beet-root. 


SUICIDE (from sw, self; c@dere, to kill), 
slayer of himself. ‘lhe first instances recorded 
Jewish history are those of Samson, about 1 
and Saul, 105 5 B.c. The Greek and Roman phil 
phers deemed it a crime, and burned the offenc 
hand apart from the rest of the body. In the r« 
of Tarquin I., the Roman soldiers, thinking th: 
selves disgraced by being ordered to make comr 
sewers, destroyed themselves, 606 B.c. Cato ce: 
mitted suicide, 46 B.c.* In the Roman cath 
church, in the 6th century it was ordained that 
commemoration should be made in the Eucha 
for such as committed self-murder. This eecles: 
tical law continued till the Reformation, whet 
was admitted into the statute law of England by 
authority of parliament, with the confiscatior 
land and goods. Till 1823 the body of the suit 
was directed to be buried in a ¢ross-road, ai 
stake to be driven through it. A new act, supp! 
sing the barbarous customs, was passed in 1882. 
is now usually buried in consecrated ground w’ 
out a religious cerémony. Dr. Henry Mors 
published ‘* Suicides: an Essay,’”’ 1881. - 


MEMORABLE RECENT CASES OF SUICIDE. 


Gen. Pichegru +: seine 
Miss Champante . SOR 15 Aug. 
Sellis, valet of the duke of Cumberland 31 May, 3 


Abraham Goldsmid, an eminent merchant . vats 
Williams, supposed murderer of the Marr family 


and others * : ‘ » <5 Dee. “x 
Lord French . A : ’ . - . 9 Dec 3 
Marshal Berthier 3 : A ~ xJdune, 1 


* Three instances of self-destruction by fire: the ph 
sopher Empedocles threw himself into the crater of Mo 
Kitna; a Frenchman .threw himself, in 1820, into 
crater of Vesuvius; and an Englishman, who jum 
into the furnace of a forge about the year 1811. Pluta 
relates that an unaccountable passion for suicide sei 
the Milesian virgins, from which they could not be ] 
vented by the tears and prayers of their friends; bi 
decree being issued that the body of every young m 
who did self-murder should be drawn naked through 
streets, a stop was soon put to the extraordinary frex 


SUICIDE. 


uel Whitbread, esq. i . 6duly, 
Richard Croft : ‘ 13 Feb. 
fir Samuel Romilly. ; 2 Nov. 
Jhristophe, king of Hayti 8 Oct. 
(dm. sir George Campbell . . 23 June, 
farquis of Londonderry . r2 Aug. 


Zon. colonel Stanhope : 26 Jan, 
wir. Montgomery in Newgate (see Prussic Acid), 


4 July, 

Liss Charlotte Both . : . Jan, 
yord Greaves. ; ¢ 7 Feb. 
Jolonel Brereton 13 Jan. 
fajor Thompson 13 June, 
ir. Simpson, the traveller 24 July, 
jord James Beresford : . 27 April, 
yen. sir Rufane Shaw Donkin . t May, 
the earl of Munster . . 20 March, 
bord Congleton . 8 June, 
aman Blanchard ark a Feb. 
Jolonel J. Gurwood, editor of “ walliigton'a De- 
spatches” .° A . 25 Dec 


. 18 March, 
22 June, 


tear-admiral Collard : 
{aydon, the eminent painter 
fount Bresson . 2 Nov. 
‘olonel King, in India . 12 July, 
Valter Watts, lessee of Olympic theatre, 13 July, 
tev. Dr. Rice . j 20 Jan. 
deut.-col. Layard 7 Dec. 
tev. T. Robinson (threw himself off Shakepacws 
Cliff, Dover) . ee ro AUS, 
yr. Franks, late editor of the Allgemeine Zeitung, 
after killing his son . 3 Nov. 
ohn Sadleir, M.P. (in 1852, a lord of the tr easury), 
by prussic ‘acid ; on Hampstead Heath. (He was 
found to have been guilty of enormous frauds upon 
the Tipperary bank, &e.) 16 Feb. 
Sinart, a watchmaker, threw himself from the 
“whispering-gallery i in St. Paul’s 14 March, 
‘harles Russell, esq., late chairman a Great 
Western Railway May, 
Tugh Miller, pepiopist, author of The Old Red Sand- 
stone (insane, through overwork) , 23 Dec. 
Tajor-gen. Stalker, C. B. , of Indian army (14 March), 
and commodore Ether sey, of the Indian navy. 
| (Both through physical and mental depression 
while on the expedition against Persia: see 
Bushire) . 17 March, 
jajor Warburton, M.P. for Harwich, brother of 
Eliot, lost in the Amazon : 23 Oct. 
lenry M. Witt, a promising y oung chemist, at the 
Government School of Mines . : 19 June, 
r. Sadleir, Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, 


July, 
tey. G. Martin, chancellor of the diocese of Exeter, 
27 Aug. 

ord Forth, son of earl of Perth + 8-Oct. 
Yin. G. Prescott, banker . g April, 


\dmiral Robert Fitz-Roy (sce New Send: and 
| Meteorology) . 30 April, 
‘oL Hobbs (¢ onnected with the suppression aa 
_ Jamaica outbreak) on his way to England, 9 May, 

r. W. Green, merchant, jumped off Clifton poaes 
sion bridge . 14 May, 

Dr. A. W. Warder, muiderer of his w ife, at Brighton, 

12 July, 

‘hos. Lee, threw himself from the north tower of 
the Crystal palace. 18 Feb. 
‘theodore, emperor of Aby ssinia . : 13 April, 
Tr. Stephenson, bettor on races ; the ‘leviathan 


_ book- maker” 9 Feb. 
t H. Townsend, historical scholar . 25 Feb. 
cord Cloncurry 3 April, 


‘ir Robert H. J. Harv ey, Norwich banker, r July ; 
died : July, 
{. Prévost-Paradol, "the accomplished yt h 
minister at Washington, fo tanerly a correspondent 
forthe Times _. 19 July, 
i Robert K. Bowley, 15 "years manager of the 
‘Crystal palace company ; ea SAIC. 
Jr. Augustus Matthiessen, eminent chemist, pro- 
» fessor at St. Bartholomew’s hospital 6 Oct. 
ord Walsingham r Jan. 
ie James Shaw Willes, justice of common Ppleas 
l ee wrought mind) r Z 2 Oct. 
larl Delawarr (insane) . . 4 22 oar 
key. Arthur Holmes, dean of Clare College, Cam- 
bridge, a great scholar ; (ov erwrought mind) 
17 April, 


i 


1815 


” 
1818 
1820 
1821 
1822 
1825 


1828 
1830 


” 
1832 
1840 
1841 

” 
1842 
1845 
1846 
1847 
1850 


1853 


1854 
1855 


1856 


| that Great Britain alone imported 38,654 tons. 


SULPHUR. 
George Lord Lyttelton, eminent scholar; tempo- 
rary insanity ; 18 April; died . tg April, 1876 


Abdul Aziz, sultan.of Turkey, deposed 29 May ; said 
to have committed suicide (see TJ'wrkey, 1881), 
June, 


Dr. Sam. Butcher;bishop of Meath ; insane, 29 July, 1876 
Harriet Mary, dowager countess Howe; insane 
through grief 29 Jan. 1877 
Raphael Brandon, architect — ae SeOCia i. 
J. W. Stevens, insane ; threw himself from bibsiad Ze 
ing gallery, St. Paul’s OYA Oe 
E: M. Ward, genre painter ; insane . ee Jan. 1879 
Isaac Fletcher, MEP ea te tvs eyyeyoratls 1A 
Rev. W. Gunson, able tutor of Christ’ s Caitee: 
Cambridge (insane) 30 Sept. 1881 
er Engel ‘(nusic al archeologist) 18 Nov. 1882 
» William Whittield Edwar ds, surgeon at ees 
aioe - 7 Dec: 5; 
Count Wimpffen, Austrian ambassador i Parla, 
30 Dec. 
Morris Simeon Oppenheim, barrister . 3 Jan. 1883 
Joseph Dimsdale, Gutter Lane, E.C. ee £3") OTe se 
Sir John Savage, formerly mayor of Belfast, 
rs June, ,, 
Rey. Alexr. Taylor, preacher of Gray’s Inn rz April, 1884 


H. T. Edwards, dean of Bangor a CEM E nha 


INQUESTS ON SUICIDES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 


Males. Females. Total. 
1856 919 395 1314 
1858 909 366 1275 
1860 961 396 1357 
1861 g61 363 1324 
1862 938 346 1284 
1863 1048 337 1385 
1304 978 359 1337 
1865 1028 369 1307 
1866 973 387 1360 
1867 985 371 1356 
1868 1138 408 1546 
1869 1165 397 1562 
1870 1135 382 1517 
1871 1073 391 14604 
1872 1057 398 1455 
1873 1099 382 1481 
1874 1166 383 1549 
1875 1170 407 1577 
1876 1270 443 1713 
1877 1253 383 1636 
1878 1279 430 1709 
1879 1461 480 I94I 
1880 1450 480 1930 
1881 1440 478 1918 
1882 1388 502 1890 
1883 1437 5°7 1944 


SUITORS’ FUND (in the court of chancery), 
in 1862 amounted to 1,290,000/. As this money has 
no specific owner, a proposal was made by govern- 
ment to apply it to the building of new law-courts, 
payment of all legal claims being guaranteed, which 
was directed by the “Courts of Laws Fees” act, 
passed 20 Aug. 1867. 


SULPHUR has been known from the earliest 
times. Basil Valentine mentions its production 
from green vitriol. Sulphuric acid (vitriol), pro- 
duced by him from burning sulphur, was introduced 
into England about 1720. Sulphur has been the 
object of research of many eminent chemists during 
the present century, and many discoveries have 
been made, such as its allotropic condition, &c. It 
is the inflamm able constituent in zunpowder, and a 
deleterious ingredient in coal gas. The sulphur 
mines of Sicily have been wrought since the 16th 
century, but the exportation was inconsiderable till 
about 1820; in 1838 the trade increased so much 
In 
that year the Neapolitan government was induced 
to grant a monopoly of the trade to a French 
company; but a firm remonstrance from the British 
government led to a discontinuance of this impolitic 
restriction in 1841,which, however, gave a great and. 
lasting impetus to the British sulphur manufacture, 


3F 


SULTAN. 


802 


SUNDAY. 


In 1871, only 937,049 tons were imported into the 
united kingdom. 


SULTAN, or ruler, a Turkish title, from the 
Arabic, given to the grand signior or emperor of 
Turkey. It was first given to the Turkish princes, 
Angrolipez and Musgad, about 1055.—Vatteer. It 
was first given, according to others, to the emperor 
Mahmoud, in the 4th century of the Hegira. 


SUMATRA, an island in the Indian ocean, 
called Java Minor by Marco Polo, and visited by 
Nicolo di Conti prior to 1449. Mainly on account 
of the pepper trade, the Dutch formed a settlement 
at Padang about 1649, and the British at Bencoolen 
about 168: 5. The Dutch possessions with Java were 
acquired by the British in 1811; but were restored 
in 1816. In 1824 the Dutch acquired -all the British 
settlements in Sumatra, in exchange for Malacca 
and some possessions in India.  Kestrictions on 
their pregress in Sumatra were removed by treaty 
Feb. 1872. Severe fighting between the Dutch and 
the Achinese natives with varying results, mostly in 
fayour of the Dutch, April 1873 to 1879. Dutch 
successful in war, peace announced, Aug. 1879. 
New war; great victory of the Dutch, 13 Sept. 
1882. Sumatra sutfered much by the volcanic 
eruptions and earthquakes of 26-27 Aug. 1883. See 
Java. 


SUMMARY JURISDICTION Act, 42 & 
43 Vict. c. 49, 11 Aug. 1879. It amends the law 
respecting the Jur isdiction of magistrates, in regard 
to fines, imprisonments, &c. It came into operation 
1 Jan. 880. Amended 1881 and 1884. 


SUMPTUARY LAWS restrain excess in 
dress, furniture, eating, &c. Thelaws of Lycurgus 
were severe against luxury, probably about 881 B.c. 
Those of Zaleucus ordained that no sober woman 
should go attended by more than one maid in the 
street, or wear gold or embroidered apparel, 450 B.c. 
—Diog. Laert. The Lex Orchia among the Komans 
(181 B.c.) limited the guests at feasts, and the 
number and quality of the dishes at an entertain- 
ment; and it also enforced that during supper, 
which was the chief meal among the Romans, 
the doors of every house should be left open. The 
English sumptuary laws, chiefly of the reigns of 
Edward III. and Henry VIII., were repealed in 
1856; see Dress. 


SUN.* Pythagoras taught that the sun was one 
of the twelve spheres, about 529 B.c. The relative 
distances of the sun and moon were first calculated 
geometrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the 
stability of thesun, about280B.c. Numerous theories 
were ventured during fifteen centuries, and astronomy 
lay neglected till ‘about A.D. 1200, when it was 
brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and 
Spain. The Copernican system was made known in 
1530; see Copernican System, and Solar System. 
Galileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an 
igneous globe. The transit of Mercury was observed 


* The estimated diameter is 840,000 miles, and the dis- 
tance from the earth, till lately give as 95,000,000 miles, 
has been recently corrected to 94,000,000, by the result of 
the experiments and calculations of MM. Fizeau and 
Foucault (1864). ‘‘The error corrected corresponds to 
the apparent breadth of a human hair at r25 feet, or of a 
sovereign 8 miles off.”—Herschel. Distance computed 
by sir G. B. Air y from results of the observation of tran- 
sit of Venus (9 Dec. 1874), 93,321,000 miles, Oct. 1877; 
92,600,000, June, 1878. The sun is now described as 
consisting of a solid or liquid nucleus, surrounded by a 
luminous” envelope (photosphere) over "which is a dense 
atmosphere, containing the vapours of various metals 
and other elements ; see Spectrum. 


by Gassendi. For recent discoveries, see Eclipse 
Spectrum, and Venus. 


By the observations of Dr. Halley on the spot which 
darkened the sun’s disc in July and August, 1676, 
he established the certainty of its motion round 
its own axis. 

Parallax of the sun, Dr. Halley . 17 

Solar spots were observed by Fabricius and Harriot 
in 1610. A macula three times the size of the earth , 
passed the sun’s centre, 2x April, 1766, and fre- 
quently since. 

Dr. Wilson observed the motion of a spot 17 

Herschel measured two spots, whose length together 
exceeded 50,000 miles . 19 “April, 

Schwabe discovered that a cycle of phatices (from 
maximum to minimum and minimum to maxi- 
mum) in the number of spots occurs in rz years, 
confirmed by Wolf and others 1826- 

Mr. Warren de la Rue took two photographs at the 
time of total obscuration . . 18 July, 218 

Mr. James Nasmyth discovers the lenticular: -shaped 
objects on the sun (termed by him ‘ willow- 
leaves,” by Stone ‘‘rice-grains ” 28 Aug. , 

Red flames, or protuberances, during an eclipse of 
the sun, observed by capt. Stannyan, 1706; by 
Halley, 1715; by F. Baily (hence termed ‘“ Baily’s 
beads,”) 1842. 

Determined by M. Janssen to be due to the aceu- 
mulated hydrogen of the photosphere, at the solar 
eclipse (see Eclipses) : 18 Aug. 18 

Mouchot construeted a solar boiler for distillat ion, 
&e. , Oct. 18 

Mr. Ericsson proposed condensation of the sun’s 
rays and their employment as a motive power, 

Oct. 18 

The observations of the eclipse of 22 Dec. 1870 and 
12 Dec. 1871 led to the opinion that an unknown 
substance (represented in the spectrum by line 
1474) existed in the sun. 

“* Solar physics” especially studied by Messrs. War- 
ren de la Rue, Balfour Stewart, &. : : 186. 

Apparatus for cooking by the condensed solar rays 
in the Paris exbibition *. A 

Solar eclipse well observed in ‘the United States ; 
the corona much brighter than in 1871 ; 29, 30d uly, j 

M. Mouchot at Algiers, by a mirror, collected solar 
rays, and boiled water, drove an engine, &c., 

March, 18 

Intensely red sunsets and after-glow, and very red 
sun-rises, seen in England and other parts of the 
globe, Nov. and Dec. 1883; attributed by Dr. 
Meldruin, Dr. Norman Lockyer and others, to 
the votcanic dust projected by the eruptions of 
Krakatoa (see Java, Aug. 1883), Dec. 1883 ; other 
causes were suggested. Similar sunsets in the 
autumn . , a8 

Interesting photographs of the sun’s corona “exhi- 
bited by Dr. Huggins at the Royal Institution, 

20 Feb. 18 


SUNCION, TREATY OF, between gene 

rquiza, dir ector of the Argentine confederatio 
and CU. A. Lopez, president of the republic of Pai 
guay, recognising the independence of Paraguay, 
July, 1852. 


SUNDA ISLES, include Java and Sumat 


(whieh see). 
SUNDAY was the day on which, ancient. 


divine adoration was paid to the Sun. Amo 
Christians it is commonly called Dies Dominica, 
Lord’s day, on account of our Saviour’s appearan 
on that day, after his resurrection. ‘The first ci 
law that was issued for the observance of this dé 
combined it with that of the seventh-day Sabba 
and other festivals (Husebius, Life of Constantin 
and it was followed by several imperial edicts, 
favour of this day, which are extant in the body 
Roman law, the earliest being that of Constanti 
the Great, dated 7 March, 321. See Sabbath, Sa 
batarians, Sports, Book of, &c.—For SunND. 
LErrTeR, see Dominical Letter. 

The ceanen of Orleans prohibited country labour . : 
The Sabbath-day was ordained to be kept holy in 


Lal 
™~) 


” SUNDAY LECTURE SOCIETY. 


803 SUPREME COURT. 
England, from Saturday at three in the afternoon , ho. Abe 
to Monday at break-of-day, 4th Canon, Edgar 960 SUNDERLAND, seaport, N.E. Dw ham, 


ict of parliament, levying one shilling on every 
' person absent from church on Sundays, 3 James I. 
ames I. authorised certain sports after divine ser- 
vice on Sundays (see Sports). : - ay LOLS 
ict restraining amusements, 1 Charles I. : PEtO25 
iet restraining the performance of servile works, 
and the sale of goods except milk at certain hours 
and meat in public-houses, and works of necessity 
and charity, on forfeiture of five shillings, 29 
Charles II. . ; : : ‘ P : mh 
‘he Sunday act (of bishop Porteus) 21 Geo, III. 
-@. 49, passed x : x . s ; : 
rd Robert Grosvenor (since lord Ebury), in- 
troduced a bill to suppress Sunday trading. (It 
met with much opposition and was withdrawn), 
April-July, 
‘he Jews released from the compulsory observance 
of Sunday . ; : : began 28 May, 
unday act (1676) amended : ie LF OAUS.§ 5 
ypening of public museums and galleries on Sun- 
day often proposed in parliament; negatived 
(271-68), 19 May, 1874 ; (229-87) 8 June, 
‘Sunday Society” established to promote the 
movement, 1875. Annual meeting; Dr. A. P. 
Stanley, the dean of Westminster, professors 
Tyndall and Huxley, &c., present TOV AVE. 5 
‘he Brighton Aquarium Company fined for opening 
on Sunday, 27 April ; much agitation ; petitions 
to government for and against, May ; an act was 
passed to enable the Home Secretary to remit 
the penalties, 13 Aug., 1875; the company again 


1606 


fined : ; : : ; 2 BBN DYE. 3, 
ly . ] + 

trosvenor gallery and other collections opened on 
Sundays, summer . : 1878 


ict for clusing public-houses in Ireland on Sun- 
days, passed ‘ : : ; ; TOMA eae 
‘ree libraries opened on Sundays at Manchester 
and other places : . : ‘ . sept. 
‘roposed opening of museums and galleries in Lon- 
don, negatived in the lords (67-59), 5 May, 1879; 


9 


(34-41), 22 Feb. 18803 (91-67) . : May, 1883 
ypening of Guildhall library on Sundays, negatived 

by the common council : - 16 Oct. 1879 
Velsh Sunday Closing Act passed . 1881 


Jexandra Palace religious services on Sundays for 
atime . . : ef nue Sept.-Oct. ,, 
SUNDAY LECTURE SOCIETY was 

yunded 25 Nov. 1869. It began its proceedings by 
lecture delivered by Dr. W. B. Carpenter at St. 

teorge’s-hall, Regent-street, 16 Jan. 1870. Its 
uecess was reported at the first annual meeting, 
July, 1870. See Recreative Leligionists. 


SUNDAY NEWSPAPERS, see Newspapers. 
“SUNDAY SCHOOLS. Cardinal Sr. Charles 


jorromeo introduced Sunday instruction of children 
t Milan, about 1580; in the nextcentury his example 
vas followed in England by the rev. Joseph Alleine; 
y rev. David Blair, at Brechin, about 1760 ; by the 
Peer es Lindsey, at Catterick, Yorkshire, 
‘bout 1763; and more especially organised by 
‘obert Raikes, an eminent printer of Gloucester, 
mjointly with rev. Thos. Stock, 1780. Ludweek 
lacker set up a Sabbath school at Ephrata, Penn- 
ylvania, between 1740 and 1747. 
unday-school buildings exempted from rates - 1869 
hurch of England Sunday-school Institute . - 1843 
‘unday-school union was founded in 18023 it sup- 
ported 4204 schools ; : ; : : . 1878 
‘fonument in memory of twelve originators of Sun- 
day-schools, Essex-street, Strand (uames_ in- 
seribed, xst., cardinal Borromeo, Milan, 1580; 
last, rev. Thomas Stock and Robert Raikes, 
Gloucester, 1780) ; inaugurated by Henry Richard, 
‘M.P., the Italian ambassador, and others 26 June, 1880 
“ational centenary celebration of the establishment 
* of Sunday-schools, in London, &c., promoted by 
‘the royal family, archbishop of Canterbury, the 
lord mayor, and others 27 June—3 July, ,, 
rand reception of scholars at Lambeth palace-gar- 

dens by the archbishop ; prince and princess of 
Wales, &c., present. . ; F 3 July, 

- Bee Edweation, and Sabbath Schools. 


ie 


anciently South Wearmo’, made a borough by Re- 

form Bill, 1832. The magnificent bridge over the 

Wear, designed by Wilson, 236 feet in span, was 

built 1793-6. 

On 16 June, 1883, 186 children were crushed to death 
against a doorway whilst rushing down from a gallery 
in Victoria Hall to obtain toys given away by Fay, a 
conjuror, at the close of his performances. 

Great distress of the unemployed, Sept. et seg. 1884. 


SUNDERLAND ADMINISTRATION, 
formed in 1718, arose out of a modification of the 
Stanhope ministry. After various changes, it was 
broken up in 1721. 

Charles, earl of Sunderland, first lord of the treasury. 
Earl Cowper, lord chancellor. 

Karl Stanhope and Mr. Craggs, secretaries. 

Mr. Aislabie, chancellor of the exchequer, &e. 


SUNDERLAND LIBRARY, see under 


tbraries. 


SUN DIALS, see Dials. 


SUNNITES, or SonNITES (which see). 
SUNSHINE RECORDER, a sphere of 


glass so disposed as to char a marked picce of paper, 
by concentrating the sun’srays. The instrument 
(invented by Mr. J. F. Campbell in 1857), in its 
present form was devised by prof. G. G. Stokes, 
and made by Mr. R. J. Lecky (1880). A more deli- 
cate form of instrument for recording photometri- 
cally the duration and intensity of sunshine has 
been invented by Mr. J. B. Jordan, 1884. 


SUPERANNUATION ACTS for the Civil 
Service were passed in April, 1859, and Aug. 1866. 


SUPPER, see Lord’s Supper. 


SUPREMACY over the church was claimed 
by pope Gelasius I. as bishop of Rome, 494. On 
I5 Jan. 1535, Henry VIII. by virtue of the act 26 
Hen. VIII. c. 1, formally assumed the style of ‘‘on 
earth supreme head of the church of England,’’ 
which was retained by Edward VI., Mary I. (for a 
time), but was refused by Elizabeth, and has never 
been revived by succeeding sovereigns. The 
bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and the ex-lord 
chancellor (sir Thomas More) and many others 
were beheaded for denying the king’s supre- 
macy in 1535; and in 1578, John Nelson, a priest, 
and Thomas Sherwood, a young layman, were 
executed at Tyburn for the same offence. The “ act 
of Supremacy,” repealed by 1 & 2 Phil. and Mary, 
ce. 8 (1554), was re-enacted I Eliz. c. I (1559). 


SUPREME COURT OF JUDICATURE 
was constituted by the Judicature Act 36 & 37 
Vict. c. 66, passed 5 Aug. 1873, to come into opera- 
tion 1 Nov. 1874. In 1874 this was deferred to 
1 Nov. 1875. 


The existing courts were to be united into one 
Supreme Court, divided into the High Court of 
Justice and the Court of Appeal. The High Court 
to consist of the lord chancellor, the two lord chief 
justices, the vice-chancellors, and the other 
judges: (hereafter the court to consist of 21 judges.) 

Five divisions: 1. Chancery, 2. Queen’s Bench, 3. 
Common Pleas, 4. Exchequer, and 5. Probate, 
Divorce, and Admiralty ; subject to alteration. 

The Court of Appeal to consist of five ex-officio 
judges (viz., lord chancellor, two lord chief jus- 

. tices, lord chief baron, master of the rolls), and 
such others as may be appointed (§§ 20, 21, 22). 

Appeals to the house of lords or the judicial com- 
mittee of the privy council to be discontinued. 

Law and equity to be concurrently administered ; 
law terms abolished ; and sittings in vacation pro- 
vided for. See under Terms. 

The act passed rr Aug., 1875, suspended §§ 20, 21, 
and 55, converted the proposed court of appeal 


3 F 2 


SUPREME COURT. 


into an intermediate court till 1 Nov., 1876. (See 
below). 

The Supreme Court of Judicature (comprising the 
High Court of Justice, Chancery division, Queen’s 
Bench, Common Pleas, and Exchequer subdivi- 
sions, Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty division 
(all which see) began : 4 : 2 NOV 

After one term, it was said in the Times, ‘‘ Its opera- 
tion has tended to economise judicial power and 
to prevent delay of justice ” : : 29 Nov. ,, 

By'the Appellate Jurisdiction Act (1876) the house 
of lords retains its powers as a court of ultimate 
appeal; the court to consist of the lord chancel- 
lor, two lords of appeal (to be created peers for 
life, with 6oool. salary) and any peers who are or 
have been lawyers. Act to come into opera- 
tion . : : - ‘ - : 1 Nov. 

The court may sit during prorogation of parliament. 
The statute relating to the judicial committee of 
the privy council and to the intermediate court 
of appealis amended . : : : : ‘ 

By this act also the Queen’s Bench, Common Pleas, 
and Exchequer divisions of the Supreme Court 
are converted into 15 courts of first instance or 
primary courts. 

Additional judge for chancery division appointed. 

Style of ordinary judges :—of the court of appeal to 
be, ‘‘lord justices of the appeal;” other judges, 
“justices of the high court;” by act passed 


1875 


1876 


24 April, 1877 
An amendment act (42 & 43 Vict. c. 78), relating to 
offices, fees, &c., passed. : 15 Aug. 1879 


At a meeting of the judges it was resolved to recom- 
mend the abolition of the exchequer and common 
pleas, and their consolidation into one, termed the 
*‘queen’s bench division,” under the lord chief 
justice of England, 30 Noy. ; order in council 

16 Dec. 

Carried into effect ; old divisions at an end; judi- 
cature act carried out for the first time 7 March, 

Further changes made by the act 44 & 45 Vict. sec. 
68, passed 27 Aug. 1881, by it the master of the 
rolls was made a judge of appeal only, and the 
chief justice of England was endowed with the 
powers of the chief justice of common pleas and 
the chief baron of the exchequer. 

New code of rules of procedure issued about 9 
July ; come into force 24 Oct. 1883. See Circuits. 
Amendment act passed (combining other acts) 

14 Aug. 1884 
SUPREME COURT OF JUDICA- 

TURE FOR IRELAND constituted by act 

passed 14 Aug. 1877. 

CouRT OF APPEAL: ez-officio members, lord chancellor, 
lord chief justice of Ireland,4master of the rolls, lord 
chief justice of common pleas, and lord chief baron of 
exchequer. Ordinary members, two lords justices of 
appeal. 

Hicu Court oF Justice: Chancery division, lord chan- 
cellor, master of the rolls, vice-chancellor, and two 
land judges. 

Queen's Bench division: lord chief justice, and three 
judges. 

Common Pleas division : 
judges. 

Exchequer division: lord chief baron, and two judges. 

Probate and Matrimonial division: one judge. 

See under Chancery and the other divisions. 


SURAT (E. Indies). Before the English East 
India company obtained possession of Bombay, the 
presidency of their affairs on the coast of Malabar 
was at Surat; and they had a factory here estab- 
lished under captain Best in 1611. The Great 
Mogul had here an officer who was styled his ad- 
miral. An attack of the Mahratta chief Sivajee, 
on the British factory, was defeated by sir George 
Oxenden, 1664. The English were again attacked 
in 1670 and 1702, and often subsequently. The 
Kast India company, in 1759, fitted out an arma- 
ment, which dispossessed the admiral of the castle ; 
and, soon after, the possession of this castle was 
confirmed to them by the court of Delhi. Surat 
was vested in the British in 1800 and 1803. 


1880 
1881 


lord chief justice, and two 


804 


wi ‘tie Zz Ks oe yh 
; vy be 


SURREY CHAPEL. 


SURGEONS. Barbers andsurgeons were unit 
in one company in 1540; but it was enacted that “: 
person using any shaving or barbery in London sh: 
occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matt 
excepting only the drawing of teeth.” In 17, 
the surgeons and barbers of London were made di 
tinct corporations. The college of surgeons obtain 
charters in 1745, 1800, and 1843 (when it was sty] 
the “‘ Royal College of Surgeons of England’’), 185 
and 1859. Since that period, various legislative a1 
other important regulations have been adopted 
promote their utility and respectability; and no pe 
son is legally entitled to practise as a surgeon in t. 
cities of London and Westminster, or within sev 


miles of the former, who has not been examined attl 
college. The college in Lincoln’s-inn-fields w 


re-modelled in 1836, and the interior completed 
1837. The premises were enlarged in 1852-3. 'T. 
museum began with the Hunterian collection, 180 
and the library was founded in 1801. See A» 
tomy, Physic, and. Medical Council. a 


SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hi 
pocrates that diseases were made a separate stu 
from philosophy, &¢c., about 410 B.c. Hippocrat 
mentions the amde, the ancient instrument wi 
which they reduced dislocated bones. Celsus flou 
ished about A.D. 17; Galen, 170; Aétius, 50 
Paulus Agineta, in 640. The Arabians reviy 
surgery about 900; and in the 16th century a ne¢ 
era in the science began; between these perio 
surgery was confined to ignorant priests and ba 
bers. Anatomy was cultivated under Vesalius, t! 
father of modern surgery, in 1538. Surgeons a1 
doctors were exempted from bearing arms or servi 
on juries, 1513, at which period there were on 
thirteen in London; see Physic. 


SURGICAL AID SOCIETY, found 


1862; supplies the poor with instruments, wate 
beds, &e. 


SURINAM (Dutch Guinea), discovered | 
Columbus, 1498. The factories established by t! 
English in 1640 were occupied by the Portugues 
1643; by the Dutch, 1654; taken by the Britis 
1799, 1804; and restored to the Dutch, 1802, 181. 


SURNAMES were introduced into England | 
the Normans, and were ‘adopted by the nobili 
about 1100. The old Normans used Fitz, whi 
signifies son, as Fitz-herbert. The Irish used ( 
for grandson, O’Neal, O’Donnell. The Seottis 
Highlanders used Mac, as Macdonald, son of Donal 
The northern nations added the word son to tl 
father’s name, as Williamson. Many of the mo 
common surnames, such as Johnson, Wilson, Dyso: 
Nicholson, &c., were taken by Brabanters and oth 
Flemings, who were naturalised in the reign | 
Henry VI., 1435. M. A. Lower’s ‘‘ Dictionary 
English Surnames’”’ was published in 1860. 


SURPLICES were first worn by the Jewis 
priests, and are said to have been first used | 
churches in the fourth century, and encouraged t 
pope Adrian, 786. ‘‘ Every minister saying publ 
prayers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves, 
Canon 58. 'The garb prescribed by stat. 2 Edw. V 
1547; again I Kliz. 1558; and 13 & 14 Chas. L 
1062; see Ritualisin. 


SURREY CHAPEL, Blackfriars-road, w: 
built for Calvinistic dissenters in 1783; the re 
Rowland Hill, their minister, who died in 183 
was buried in a vault here. The congregatio 
under the rey. Newman Hall removed to Chri 
Church, in Westminster-road, July, 1876. Se 
Lincoln Tower. ; 


SURREY ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS 
mear London) were established in 1831, by Mr. 
Hdward Cross, who brought hither the menagerie 
ormerly at Exeter change. Various picture models 
save been exhibited here since 1837, viz., Vesuvius, 


‘celand, &c., accompanied by fireworks. In 1856, 
i company which had taken the gardens, erected a 
arge yet elegant building for concerts; the archi- 
ect being Mr. Horace Jones. On 19 Oct. 1856, 
when the hall contained about 9000 persons, attend- 
ng to hear the rev. C. H. Spurgeon, seven were 
cilled and thirty seriously injured, by a false alarm 
if fire. It was burnt 11 June, 1861; see Fires. 
{n 1862 the hall was temporarily taken for the re- 
eption of the patients of St. Thomas’s hospital. 


~SURTEES SOCIETY for publishing MSS. 
‘lating to the northern counties, established 1834 ; 
76 volumes have been published, 1884. 


“SURVEY ACT, passed 12 May, 1870. See 


Ordnance Survey. 


SURVEYORS, INSTITUTION OF, Lon- 
lon, founded in 1868, to promote the “knowledge 
which constitutes the profession of a surveyor.” 
About 350 members in 1873. 


_ SUSA, or SHUSHAN, capital of Susiana, a pro- 
ince of Persia, was taken by Alexander the Great, 
331 B.c. 


SUSPENDING POWER, see Dispensing 


Power. : 


SUSPENSION BRIDGES are ancient in 
Jhina. The Hungerford (or Charing-cross) suspen- 
ion bridge, opened May 1, 1845, was removed to 
Jlifton and opened there, 8 Dec. 1864. Parliament 
empowered the commissioners of woods to erect 
‘among other improvements there) a suspension 
midge at Battersea, Sept. 1846; and many bridges 
of similar construction have been erected in various 
yarts of the kingdom. . Lambeth and Westminster 
suspension bridge was opened 10 Noy. 1862; see 
Menai Strait, Hungerford, Clifton, &c. 


SUSPENSORY BILL, the name given to 
‘a bill to prevent for a limited time [to I Aug. 
(869] new appointments in the church of Ireland ; 
md to restrain, for the same period, in certain 
‘espects, the proceedings of the Ecclesiastical Com- 
nissioners for Ireland.”’ 

‘nto the commons by Mr. Gladstone, 14 May, and 
-yassed through committee, 5 June; rejected by the 
ords (192 to 97), 30 June, 3 A.M., 1868. 


| SUSSEX, see Britain. 

. SUTLEJ, a river in N.W. India, the ancient 
‘Hyphasis or Hypana, on the banks of which were 
ought the desperate battles of Aliwal, 28 Jan., and 
Sobraon, 10 Feb. 1846 (which see). 
L 


SUTTER, the burning of widows. This cus- 
‘om began in India from one of the wives of 
‘Bramah, the Son of God,’’ sacrificing herself at 
‘his death, that she might attend him in heaven. 
Seventeen widows have burnt themselves on the 
Mineral pile of a rajah; and in Bengal alone, 700 
have thus perished in a year. The English govern- 
‘ment, after long discouraging suttees, formally 
‘abolished them, Dec. 1829; but they have since 
Hoceasionally taken place. The wife of the son of 
the rajah of Beygoon thus perished, June, 1864, and 
several wives of sir Jung Bahadoor, minister of 
Nepaul, 1 March, 1877. 


SWABLIA, a province in 8. Germany; was con- 
te by Clovis, and incorporated into the king- 
dom of the Franks, 496. After various changes of 


m 


This bill was introduced 


| rulers, it was made a duchy by the emperor Conrad | 


SWEDEN. 


I., in 912, for Erchanger; according to some, in 
916, for Burckhardt. The duchy became hereditary 
in the house of Hohenstaufen in 1080. Duke 
Frederick III. became emperor of Rome, com- 
monly styled of Germany as Frederick I. (usu- 
ally styled Barbarossa, red beard), in 1152. 
Conradin his descendant, was defeated at the 
battle of Tagliacozzo (which see), in 1268, and 
beheadéd shortly after. The breaking up of the 
duchy gave rise to many of the small German 
states; part of Swabia is included in Wiirtemberg 
and Switzerland. Swabia was made a circle of the 
empire in 1387 and 1500. A league, composed of 
Swabian cities and states, about 1254, was the germ 
of the great Swabian league, formed for the preser- 
vation of the peace of Germany, under the auspices 
of the emperor Frederick, in 1488. 


SWAN RIVER SETTLEMENT, see 
Western Australia. 


SWANSEA, Glamorganshire, an ancient 
Welsh town; seat of the copper trade since 171g. 
New dock opened by the prince of Wales, 18 Oct. 
1881. 


SWAT, or Svat, a river, N.W. India. The 
Akhond, Abdul Ghafur, originally an austere Ma- 
hometan fanatic, about 1822, gradually obtained 
temporal power over the tribes in the hills near . 
Afghanistan, dying in high reputation, about 1878, 


SWEABORG, @ strong fortress in Finland, the 
Gibraltar of the north, 3} miles south of Helsing- 
fors; it is situated on seven rocky islands; the 
fortifications were commenced by the Swedesin 1748, 
and completed after Finland was united to Russia 
in 1809. On 6 Aug. 1855, the English and French 
fleet anchored off Sweaborg, and bombarded it by 
mortar and gun-boats from the 9th to the 11th, 
causing the destruction of nearly all the principal 
buildings, including the dockyard and arsenal. Few 
casualties and no loss of life ensued in the allied 
squadron, but this success was not followed up. 


SWEARING oN THE GOSPELS, first used 
about 528, and introduced in judicial proceedings 
about 600.—Rapin. PROFANE SWEARING made 
punishable by fine ; a labourer or servant forfeiting 
Is., others 2s. for the first offence; for the second 
offence, 4s.; the third offence, 6s.; 6 Will. IIL, 
1695; see Oaths. 


SWEATING SICKNESS, see Plague. 
SWEDEN (N. Europe). The ancient inhabi- 


tants were the Fins, now the modern inhabitants of 
Finland, who retired to their present territory on 
the appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who 
have ever since been masters of Sweden; see 
Scandinavia. The internal state of this kingdom 
is little known previous to the 11th century. By 
the union of Calmar in 1397, Sweden became a 
province of Denmark, and was not wholly rescued 
from this subjection till 1521, when Gustavus Vasa 
recovered the kingdom from the Danish yoke. He 
became king in 1523, and his descendants ruled till 
1809. The government of Sweden is a limited 
monarchy. ‘The diet consists of four orders, the 
nobles, the clergy, the peasants, and the burghers, 
and meet every three years. The king is, as in 
Britain, the head of the executive. ‘here are two 
universities, Upsal and Lund; and Sweden can 
boast, among its great men, Linnzus, Celsius, 
Scheele, Bergman, Berzelius, Thorwaldsen, and 
Andersen. Population (31 Dec. 1883) of Sweden, 
4,603,595; of Norway (1875), 1,806,900. 
Odin said to arrive in the-north, and died 


é + Bes 7o 
His son Skiold reigns 


49° 


SWEDEN. 


806 


SWEDEN. 


The Skioldungs reign till Olaf the infant is baptized, 
and introduces Christianity among his people, 


about A.D. 1000 
Waldemar I. of Denmark subdues Rugen, and de- 
stroys the pagan temples : : : - 1168 
Stockholm founded 1260 
Magnus Ladules establishes a " regular form of 
government 1279 
The crown of Sweden, which had been hereditary, 
is made elective; and Steenchel Magnus, sur- 
named Smeek, or the foolish, king of Norway, is 
elected . ; £319 
Waldemar lays Gothland waste 7) 230% 
Albert of Mecklenburg ¢ reigns 1363 
Treaty or union of Galmar (which see), by which 
Sweden is united to Denmark and Norway, under 
Margaret . ; a F er 307, 
University of Upsal founded 1476 
Christian II. of Denmark, ‘‘ the Nero of the North, 
massacres the Swedish nobility . 1520 
The Swedes delivered from the Danish y oke by the 
valour of Gustavus Vasa : : ; ce L5ST 
Gustavus Vasa raised to the throne . 7 1523 
He introduces Lutheranism and religious liberty E527 
Makes the crown hereditary 1544 
Gustavus Adolphus heads the protestant cause in 
Germany . ; . 1628 
He takes Magdeburg and Munich, 1630 ; ; slain at 
Lutzen : 4 16 Noy. 1632 
Rugen ceded to Sweden. by Denmark . : ee LOAG 
Abdieation of Christina : : 16 June, 1654 
Charles X. overruns Poland 4 3 - 1655 
Arts and sciences begin to flourish . 1660 
University of Lund founded ; 1666 
Charles XII. ‘‘the Madman of the North, a begins 
his reign ; he makes himself absolute ; abolishes 
the senate, 1699; and defeats the Russians at 
Narva . 30 Nov. 1700 
Battle of Pultowa, where Charles is defeated by the 
ezar of Russia (see Pultowa) : 8 July, 1709 
He escapes to Bender, where, after three years’ pro- 
tection, he is made a prisoner by the Turks . yrs 
He is restored ; and after ruinous wars, and fighting 
numerous battles, is killed at the siege of Frede- 
rickshald tir Deca 
Queen Ulrica abolishes despotism ; Shy Ade’ 
Bremen and Verden ceded to Hanover . Nowe. 
Royal Academy founded by Linnzeus : 1741 
Conspiracy of counts of Brahe and Horne, who are 
beheaded 1756 
The Hats and Caps (French and Russian parties), 
1738-57: put down by Gustavus III. 2 > 1770 
Despotism re-established . 5 tr yf 
Order of the Sword instituted : e 
Assassination of Gustavus III. by count Anker- 
striém, ata ball, 16 March ; he expired 29 March, 1792 
The regicide was scourged with whips of iron 
thongs three successive days; his right hand 
was cut off, then his head, and his body impaled, 
18 May, -,, 
Gustavus IV. dethroned and the government as- 
sumed by his uncle the duke of Sudermania 
(Charles XIII.) 13 March, 1809 
Representative constitution established . 7 JUNeC,: 5, 
Sweden cedes Finland to Russia TP epi ase 
Marshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte Corvo (one 
of Bonaparte’s generals), chosen the crown prince 
of Sweden 21 Aug. 1810 
Gustavus IV. arrived in London . - 12 Nov. = 
Swedish Pomerania seized by Napoleon . g Jan. 1812 
Alliance with England re wARO RES os 
Sweden joins the ‘grand alliance against Napoleon, 
13 March, 1813 
Norway is ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel, 
14 Jan. ; carried into effect -. Nov. 1814 
Bernadotte king, as Charles John XIV. 215 eDasrs 
Canals and roads constructed ; 1822 
Treaty of navigation between Great Britain and 
Sweden , 19 May, 1826 
Death of Charles John ; his son Osear I. king, 8 Mar. 1844 
Alliance with Eugland and France 21 Nov. 1855 
Banishment decreed against catholic converts from 
Lutheranism . . Oct. 1857 
Demonstration in favour of Italy . 17 Dec: x859 
Increased religious toleration : May, 1860 
The king visits England and France . . Aug. 1861 
He is warmly received in Denmark 17 July, 1862 
Treaty of commerce with Italy, signed .14 June, ,, 


Demonstration in favour of Poland 


Inauguration of free trade . r dan. 
Sweden protests against the occupation. of Sleswig 
by the allies’ 22 Jan. 
Excitement throughout the country ; ; March: pre- 
paration for war ; (no result) April, 
Foundation of a “ National Scandinavian Society” 
at Stockholm to obtain by legal means a confede- 
ration of the three kingdoms for military and 
foreign affairs, reserving independent interior ad- 
ministration , < "WER 
New constitution passed by the chambers, 4- -8 Dee. 
Commercial treaty with France approved Feb. 
Severe famine in North Sweden Oct. -Dee. 
Resignation of ministers, 9 April; new ministry 
under M. Wachtmeister 4 June, 
Princess Louisa was married to Frederic, crown- 
prince of Sweden 28 July, 
Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war was pro- 
claimed . 4 Aug. 
The queen dies ee ES March, 
Prince Oscar visits England ; lays foundation of a 
Scandinavian church at Rotherhithe 27 July, 
Re-organization of the army DEOLOwER Aug. ; nega- 
tived é : . (Oct 
Death of king Charles XV. . 18 Sept. 
The diet opened by king Oscar II. 20 Jan. 
The king and queen crowned. A . 12 May, 
Ministry under baron de Geer : , 11 May, 
The king and queen visit Copenhagen and Berlin ; 
warmly received . ‘ : a 28 May, 
Ministry under Dr. Forssell . 5 : 9 April, 
The king with the queen at Bourtieniouth “tor his 
health  . May, 
Ministry of count Posse defeated on the army bill, 
resigns . >» 25 May, 
M. Thy selius appointed premier i 13 June, 
The crown prince made viceroy of Norway 
1g March, 
M. O. R. Themptander appointed premier 16 May, 
The king visits Britain, owe Aug. 1884 ; at Con- 
stantinople 4 : : - -- gd April, 


KINGS OF SWEDEN (previously Kings of Upsal). 


Ioo!l. 
is styled king, rors. 

Edmund Colbrenner. 

Edmund Slemme. 

Stenkill. 

Halstan. 

Ingo I. the Good. 

Philip. 

Ingo IT. 

Swerker or Suercher I. 

St. Eric IX. 

Charles VII. ; made prisoner by his successor. 

Canute, son of Eric I. 

Swerker or Suercher II. ; killed in battle. 

Eric X. 

John I. 

1222. Eric XI. the Stammerer. 

1250. Birger Jarl, regent. 
», Waldemar I. 

1275. Magnus I. Ladules. 

1290. Birger II. 

1319. Magnus II. Smeek ; 

1350. Eric XII. 

1359. Magnus restored ; deposed 1363. 

PROG. Albert of Mecklenburg : : 


1026. 
IO5I. 
1056. 
1066. 
I0go. 
I1I2. 
1118. 
1129. 
II55. 
I161. 
1167. 
L199. 
I2I0. 
1216. 


dethroned. 


April, 18 


18! 


3 


18 


’ 


1¢ 


Olaf Schotkonung, or Olif Pohetkonene the Infa1 


his tyranny causes a | 


volt of his subjects, “who invite Margaret of De 


mark to the throne. 
1389. 
of Denmark, and Krie XIII. 
1397- 
are united under one sovereign. ] 
Erie XIII. governs alone ; deposed. 
Christopher Ill. 
Charles VIII. Canuteson, king of Sweden only. 
[Interregnum. ] Sten Sture, Protector. 
John II. (1. of Denmark). 
[Interregnum. ] 
Swante Sture, Protector. 
Sten Sture, Protector. 
Christiern, or Christian IT, 


1412. 
1440. 
1448. 
1471. 
1483. 
1502. 
1503. 
Tatas 
1520. 


Margaret, queen of Sweden and Norwoy now a 


[Union of Calmar, by which the three kingdo: 


of Denmark, sty 


the “Nero of the N orth ; 7 deposed for his cru 


ties. 


1523. 
delivered from the Danish yoke. 


Gustavus I. Vasa; by whose valour the Swedes : 


4 SWEDENBORGIANS. 


560. Eric XIV., son ; dethroned and slain by 

569. John IIL, brother. 

592. Sigismund HI., king of Poland, son; disputes for 
the succession continued the whole of this 


reign. 

Charles IX. brother of John ITI. 

Gustavus If. Adolphus, the Great, son ; fell at the 
battle of Lutzen, 16 Noy. 1632. 


604. 
(611. 


(632. [Interregnum. ] 
(633. Christina, daughter of Gustavus. Resigned the 


crown to her cousin, 16 June, 1654; died at 
Rome in 1689. 

Charles X. Gustavus, son of John Casimir, count 
palatine of the Rhine 

Charles XI.,son ; thearts and sciences flourished in 
this reign. 

Charles XII., son ; styled the ‘‘ Alexander,” and the 
“Madman of the North ;” killed at Fredericks- 
hald, 1x Dee. 1718. 

Ulrica Eleanora, sister, and her consort, Frede- 
rick I. landgrave of Hesse Cassel. Ulrica relin- 
quishes the crown, and in 

Frederick reigned alone. 

Adolphus Frederick of Holstein Gottorp, descended 
from the family of Vasa. 

Gustavus III. Adolphus, son; assassinated by 
count Ankerstré6m at a masked ball, 16 March ; 
died 29 March, 1792. , 

Gustavus IV. Adolphus, son; dethroned, and the 
government assumed by his uncle, the duke of 
Sudermania. 

Charles XIII. duke of Sudermania. 

[Treaty of Kiel (1814) by which Norway falls under 
the sovereignty of Sweden. ] 

Charles (John) XIV. Bernadotte, the French prince 
of Ponte Corvo; died 8 March, 1844. 

Oscar I.,son ; born 4 July, 1799; died 8 July, 1850. 

Charles XV., son; born 3 May, 1826 ; died 18 Sept. 
1872; a poet; brave and impulsive; much be- 
loved, 

Osear IL., brother; born 21 Jan. 1829; married 
princess Sophia of Nassau, 6 June, 1857. 

Heir: Gustavus, son, born 16 June, 1858; married 

to Victoria of Baden, 20 Sept. 1881. 


SWEDENBORGIANS, or New Jerusalem 
Church, are those who adopt the theological teach- 
ings of Emanuel Swedenborg (born at Stockholm, 
29 Jan. 1688; died in London, 29 March, 1772). 


He claimed to have had his spiritual sight opened, and 
to have been introduced into heaven and hell by the 
Lord that he might disclose their true nature and the 
science of correspondences by which the internal sense 
of Scripture, which is the Word as it exists in the 
heavens, may be known to men: this he did in the 
Arcana Celestia and other works. 

His disciples first meet as an organized body in London 
in 1788. 

There were 70 churches in Great Britain in 1879. 

Their belief is that the sole deity is centred in Jesus 
Christ, in whom is a trinity of essentials ; that salva- 
tion is effected by faith and works combined ; that as 
man’s soul is a spiritual body he will never resume the 
material body ; that the Last Judgment was effected 
in the spiritual world during Swedenborg’s lifetime ; 
and that the Lord’s Second Coming has taken place 
through the revelation of a new system of truth from 

| the inner sense of Scripture. 

The Swedenborg Society instituted, 1810. 

(ees, Missionary and Tract Society of the New Church, 
1821. 


1654. 
1660. 
1697. 


1718. 


1741. 
751. 
771. 
1792. 


1809. 


1818. 


1844. 
1859. 


1872. 


Centenary of the establishment of the New Jerusalem | 


church celebrated in London, 13 Aug. 1883. 


SWEET-BAY, Zaurus nobilis, was brought to 


these realms from Italy before 1548. Laurus indica, 
or Royal Bay, was brought from Madeira in 1665. 
‘The Sweet-lern bush, Comptonta asplenifolia, came 
from America, 1714. Laurus aggregata, or the 
*Glaucous Laurel, came from China in 1806. 


SWIMMING. Leander is said to have swum 
across the Hellespont, between Sestos and Abydos, 
about one mile; and Lord Byron, and lieut. Kken- 
head did the same, 3 May, 1810. On 24 Aug., 1872, 
, Mr. Johnson, styled the ‘‘hero of London-bridge,” 


i. 


807 


SWITZERLAND. 


and swimming champion of the world, attempted to 
swim from Dover to Calais, but was prevented by 
cold. He was said to have swum seven miles in 
about sixty-five minutes. 
Publie swimming bath on the Thames opened, 
6 July, 1875 

Capt. Matt. Webb swam from Blackwall to Graves- 

end, 20 miles, in 4 hours 53 minutes, 3 July; and 

from Dover to Calais (223 miles) in 23} hours, 24-25, 

Aug. 1875; drowned while attempting to cross 


the rapids of Niagara ‘ 2 24 July, 1882 
Agnes Beckwith, aged 14, swam from London 


bridge to Greenwich, 5 miles, in 1h. 8 min.1 Sept. 
Emily Parker, aged 15,swam from London bridge 
to Blackwall, 7 miles, in 1 h. 35 min. 4e Ds ess 

Mr. Cavill swam from Dover to Calais in 12 hours 
20, 21 Aug. 

Miss Beckwith swam 30 continuous hours 

7,8 May, 
Taylor wins the amateur swimming championship 
of Great Britain at Birmingham 1g Aug. 


Boyton’ s apparatus, see under Life Boat. 
SWING. Between 1830 and 1833 many hay- 


stacks and barns were fired in the rural districts of 
England, and attributed to an imaginary person 
named “*Swing.’? Many persons were caught and 
punished. ‘The probable cause was disputes between 
the farmers and their deluded labourers. 


SWISS GUARDS, Royal, in France, formed 
in 1616; massacred while defending the Tuileries, 
10 Aug. 1792; re-organised Sept. 1815; defeated 
during the insurrection, 28 July, 1830; dismissed 
by Charles X. Aug. 1830. 


SWITHIN’S DAY, ST., 15 July. St. Swithin 
lived in the 9th century; and, having been the 
preceptor to king Ethelwulf, was made bishop of 
Winchester in 852, and died 2 July, 862. ‘The 
tradition states that it rained forty days in conse- 
quence of the proposed removal of his remains from 
the churchyard to the cathedral. 


SWITZERLAND, the ancient Helvetia, was 
conquered by the Romans, I5 B.c.; and was suc- 
cessively subject to the Burgundians, Germans, and 
Franks, The canton of Schweitz was peopled by 
the Cimbrians, who, leaving their original habita- 
tion in Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were de- 
feated by the Roman general Marius; and fled into 


1875 


1877 
1880 


1882 


| Helvetia, about 1008.c. This canton has given name 


to the whole confederacy.—The present national 
council is elected every third year, at the rate of 
one member for 2000 persons. The revised 
federal constitution was voted 19 April, 1874.— 
Population, Dec. 1860, 2,507,170; 1870, 2,669,147; 
1880, 2,846,102. 


SWISS CONFEDERATION OF 1815. 


Uri, 1307 first con- Freiburg 
Schweitz } federa- Solothurn 
Unterwalden tion. Basle 
Zurich Grisons 
Berne Aargau 
Lucerne Thurgau 
Schaffhausen Tessins 
Appenzell Pays de Vaud 
St. Gall Valais 
Glaris Neufchatel 
Zug Geneva 


The Helvetians invading Gaul, severely defeated by 


Julius Cesar . : A : ; : 22 BCL aso 
The Helvetians converted to Christianity by Irish 

missionaries 7» Nyt é ‘ A Dea Ore 
Helvetia ravaged by the Huns . 909 
Becomes subject to Germany E 3 . 1032 
Friburg built by Berthold IV. . 1179 


Berne built : : : ; : j oe 

Tyranny of Gesler, heroism of William Tell, and re- 
volt (demonstrated to be mythical), dated . 1306 

Confederation against Austria ; declaration of Swiss 
independence : . 4 Nov. 1307 


IIgl 


SWITZERLAND. 


88 


SWITZERLAND. 


A malignant fever carries off, in the canton of Basle, 
I1o0o persons 

Form of government made perpetual . : 

Leopold of Austria defeated at Morgarten, 15, Nov. 


EEG UA) 
» 1315 


” 


Lucerne joins the confederacy . 1335 
The canton of Zurich joins and becomes head of the 
league : . : ; rosso 
Berne, Glaris, and ‘Zug join : eels 
Leopold IL of Austria defeated and slain at Sempach, 
g July, 1386 
The Austrians defeated at Niifels, o aaah 1388 ; 
make peace : ‘ A Seetetsie) 
The Grisons league (see ‘Caddee) ep diters: 
Second league of the Grisons 7 Tf24 
The third league of the Grisons ; 5 Peete 
Battle of St. Jacobs on the Birs, near Basle "(2600 
Swiss resist 30,000 French, and are all killed, the 
enemy losing 10,000) . 26 Aug. 1444 
The Swiss defeat’ Charles the Bold at Granson, 5 
March ; and at Morat 22 June, 1476 
And aid the duke of Lorraine at Nancy, where 
Charles is slain . 2 5 Jali A77 
Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay of France, 
under Louis XI... - 1480 
Fribourg and Soleure join ; : confederation formed . 1481 
Maximilian I. emperor, acknowledges Swiss inde- 
pendence - 1499 
Schaffhausen and Basle j join ‘the union . 1501 
The Swiss invade Milan and defeat the French at 
Novara : : . 6 June, 1513 
Defeated by them at Marignano spay Sept. I515 
The Swiss confederacy acknowledged by tance and 
other powers . - 1516 
The Reformation begins at Basle ; the bishop com- 
pelled to retire er ot 
The Reformation adopted by some cantons ; battle 
of Cappel, Zwingli killed and reformers defeated, 
T2 Oct. 153% 
The Grison leagues join the Swiss eae as 
allies : - 1544 
Appenzel joins the other Cantons 1597 
Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts Geneva by sur- 
prise, scales the walls, and penetrates the town, 
but in the end is defeated 602 
(This circumstance gave rise to an annual festival 
commemorative of their escape from tyranny. ] 
Independence of Switzerland recognised by the 
treaty of Westphalia (see JI vestphulia) - 1648 
Peace of Aargau, end of religious war s AUR IEr7 TZ 
[From this period until the “French revolution the 
cantons enjoyed tranquillity, disturbed only by 
the changes arising out of their various constitu- 
tions. ] 
Alliance with France . . 2 May, 1777 
Strife in Geneva, between the aristocratic An demo- 
cratic parties ; France interferes 
1ooo fugitive Genevese seek an asylum in Ireland 
(see Geneva) : rL7S2 
Swiss guards ordered to quit France 1792 
Helvetic confederation dissolved ; its subjugation 
by France A : - 1798 
Helvetian republic formed . 
Switzerland the seat of war : 790° 1802 
The number of cantons increased to 19} the federal 
government restored ; anda landamman appointed 
by France . Spe CBU Wy ae 
Uri, Schweitz, and Underwald ‘separate from the 
republic : TS) UL Ye eee 
Switzerland joins France Ww vith Koes men 24 Aug. 1811 
The allies entered Switzerland in the spring of . 1814 


The number of cantons increased to 22, and the in- 
dependence of Switzerland secured by the treaty 


of Vienna -P1OLs 
Revision of the constitution of the cantons. - 1830 
Law to make education independent of the clergy . 1839 


leads to dissensions between the catholics and 
protestants 
ispute about the convents of Aargau, 1844 3 to put 


education into the hands of the Jesuits, &e, ; Op- 
position of the protestant cantons 
Lucerne, Uri, Schweitz, Unterwalden, Freiburg, 


Zug, and Valais (Roman catholic cautons), form 
separate league (Sonderbund) to support educa- 
tion by the Jesuits, &e. 
Insurrection at Geneva against Jesuit teaching ; a 
temporary provisional “government established, 
7 Oct. 


1840-4 


1846 


>? 


The diet declares the Sonderbund illegal, and dis- 
solves it, 20 July ; the seven cantons protest, 22 
July ; the diet orders the expulsion of the Jesuits, 
3 Sept. ; communal assemblies held to resist it, 
26 Sept.; 3, ro Oct.; appeal to arms at Oct. 

The dic t prepares to repress the Sonderbund, 4 
Noy. ; Friburg surrenders, 14 Nov.; civil war ; 
the Sonderbund defeated by gen. H. Dufour, near 
Lucerne, 23 Nov.; end of the Sonderbund ; it sub- 
mits to the expulsion of the Jesuits, and the secu- 
larisation of monastic property . 29 Noy. 

New federal constitution . - 12 Sept; 

Dispute about Neufchatel (which see) . j 

Declaration of neutrality in the coming Italian war, 

14 Mar ch, 

Mutiny and punishment of the Swiss mercenary 
troops at Naples ; the confederation forbid foreign 
enlistment . . July and Aug. 

Swiss government protests against the annexation 
of Sav oy to France : . 15 March, 

150 Swiss attempt to enter Sav oy ; stopped by 
Genevese government : A 30 March, 

M. Thorel, a | Swiss, obtains a prize at the national 
shooting match at Wimbledon July, 

The government forbid the Swiss to enlist in foreign 
‘service without permission . 30 July, 

Proposed European congress to preserve Swiss 
neutrality, put off . é } July, 

Glarus destroy ed by fire ’ 3 May, 

French troops occupy Vallée des “Dappes, 28 Oct. 
the Swiss announce the violation of their territory, p 

Ov. 

Treaty of France settles the question of the Vallée 
des Dappes by mutual cession of territory ; no 
military works to be constructed on territory 
ceded ; signed . 8 Dec. 

Serious election riots at Geneva, with bloodshed, 


22 Aug. ; federal troops ‘arrive 23 Aug. 
Federal troops quit Geneva : rr Jan. 

| International Social Science Congress meets at 
Berne . 28 Aug: 
Revision of the ‘constitution ; “deliberations Megs 
et 


Nearly all the revised articles of the federa conate 
tution rejected by the vote of the Swiss burgesses 
14 Jan. 

J. J. Stehlen elected president 2 < uty Tee) LYS 
Workmen’s international congress at Lausanne, 


2-7 Sept. 
Meeting of the federal assembly 6-25 July, 
Queen Victoria visits Lucerne Aug. Sept. 


International peace and liberty congress, at Geneva, 
g-12 Sept. 1867; at Berne, 22-26 Sept. . 
Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian War proclaimed, 
July, 
New constitution adopted by Zurich . 18 April, 
The French army under Clinchant (84,000), crosses 
the frontiers and is disarmed x Feb. 
The French soldiers interned at Zurich, and oppose 
German demonstrations g-12 Mar. 
Extraordinary session of the federal incense to 
revise the constitution 6 Nov. 
Plebiscite respecting a new constitution, re-organ- 
izing the army, and promoting uniform educa- 
tion, &e. rejected by majority. of 4907 out of 
509, 2 May, 
M. Wavee re engaged to construct a tunnel ‘ingen St. 
Gothard in 8 years, for 2,000,000. . 8 Aug. 
The papal nuncio, Mermillod, expelled . 16 Jan. 
Revised federal constitution yoted (321, 870 for, 
177,800 against) . - 19 April, 
Swiss national catholic church constituted : about 
June, 
19 Catholic priests deprived for refusal to take 
constitutional oath .; . 5 Sept. 
International postal congress at Berne, Ls Sept. ; 
protocol signed (see postal convention) 9 Oct. 
Civil marriage law and registration adopted by uni- 
versal suffrage (212 854-204, Joo) . 23 May, 
President of the national council for three ane: 
J. Philippin, elected . . June, 
Continued deficit in revenue, announced about 
16 March, 
Death of James Fazy, eminent statesman, 6 Noy. 
National voting for St. Gothard, railway and tunnel 
(161,000 majority) : - 19 Jan. 
Suicide of Herr Anderw ert, the president elect, 
27 Dee. 


1847 


” 


1864 


” 


‘\ SWORDS. 

{ : Rete < 
pening of St. Gothard railway from Milan to 

_ Lucerne : : 20, 21 May, 1882 


avasion of the salvation army (which see), autumn, 
-1884,much resisted at Berne,Geneva, &c. ,Jan.ct seq. 183 
‘he watch-tool making village, Vallorbes, almost 
destroyed by fire : : , OAT ril ess 
Jational exhibition at Zurich . 1 May—27 Dec. _,, 
[. Schenck elected president - - . Dec. 1884 
illage of Mulligan, Aargau,destroyed by fire,23April, 1885 


| SWORDS were formed of iron taken from a 
iountain by the Chinese, 1879 B.c.— Univ. Ilist. 
the Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inches long. 
he broadsword and scimitar are of modern adoption. 
lamascus steel swords were most prized; the 
ext the sword of Ferrara steel. The Scotch 
fighlanders, from the artificer Andrea di Ferrara, 
alled their swords Andrew Ferraras. The large 
word shown at Dumbarton castle as Wallace’s is 
sserted to be one of Edward IVth’s (1872). The 
roadsword was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh 
1 1724. 


SYBARIS, a Greek colony in S. Italy, founded 
hout 720 B.c.; destroyed by the Crotonians about 
10 B.c. The people were greatly addicted to luxury; 
ence the term Sybarite. 


SYCAMORE, or SYCOMORE TREE, 
n Mrs. Jameson’s ‘‘ Memoirs of Female Sove- 
aigns’’ we are told that Mary queen of Scots 
rought over from France a little sycamore tree, 
yhich she planted in the garden at Holyrood, and 
hat from this have sprung all the beautiful groves 
f sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. 


SYDNEY, capital of New South Wales; 
ounded by governor Phillip, on a cove on Port 
ackson, 26 Jan. 1788, as a British settlement for 
he colony of convicts originally intended for Botany 
ay. It was named after lord Sydney, secretary 
or the colonies. See Australia, New South Wales, 
Yonvicts, Population, &c. 

. legislative council first. held 13 July, 1829 
ydney erected into a bishopric (afterwards an arch- 


bishopric) ; : : : : : : . 1836 
iit with gas, the first place so lit in Australia, May, 1841 
Jniversity founded ; : : ; 5 Soe 
toman Catholic cathedral burnt, and valuable pro- 

perty destroyed : : 2 29 June, 1865 
Tisited by the duke of Edinburgh Feb. 1868 


\t Port Jackson he narrowly escaped assassination ; 
O'Farrell, a Fenian, who shot hii in the back on 
12 March, was convicted on 31 March, and executed 

at April, 

‘he duke sailed for England 4 April, and arrived 

; : 26 June, ,, 

Yew cathedral consecrated ‘ 201 NOV... 5; 

7oundation of capt. Cook’s monument laid by the 


” 


duke of Edinburgh : ; . 28 March, 1869 
\ eonference of delegates from the Australian 

colonies met here for customs, postal and railway 

purposes, without effect : ; : . dan. 1873 
ixhibitions opened here, April, 1873, and 11 April, 1874 
Japtain Cook’s statue uncovered 2 Feb. 1878 
nternational exhibition opened by the governor, 

lord A. Loftus j : : ; + «7 sept. 1879 
Direct railway to Melbourne completed June, 1883 


tJanon Barry consecrated bishop of Sydney and 
metropolitan : , zr Jan. 1884 


SYLLABUS OF ERRORS in modern times. 
30 paragraphs divided into 10 chapters, issued by 
ope Pius 1X., with an encyclical letter, 8 Dec. 
(864. It condemned heresy, modern philosophy, 
ind liberalism in politics; was forbidden to be read 
n French churches, and was generally opposed, but 
was adopted by the council at Rome 1870. 


SYMPHONIES. Short pieces of instru- 
mental music between songs in operas; early in the 
17th century. These were gradually developed by 
the great masters, such as Lulli, into independent 


809 


SYRIA. 


pieces ; of these the symphonies of Corelli, Handel, 
Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven are eminent 
examples. 


_ SYMPIESOMETER, a species of barometer 
invented by Adie of Edinburgh in 1819. 


SYNAGOGUE (literally an assembly), a con- 
eregation of the Jews, and the place where such 
assembly is held for religious purposes. When 
these meetings were first held is uncertain; some 
refer them to the times after the Babylonish cap- 


tivity. In Jerusalem were 480 synagogues. In 
1851 there were in London I0 synagogues, mM 


England and Wales, 53. A magnificent synagogue 
was consecrated at Berlin, 5 Sept. 1866; see Jews. 


SYNOD. The first general synods were called 
by emperors, and afterwards by Christian princes ; 
but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of 
his legates usually presiding; see Councils. The 
first national synod held in England was at Hert- 
ford, 673; the last was held by cardinal Pole in 
1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but by royal 
authority, 25 Henry VIII. 1533; see Dort, and 
Thurles. 


SYNONYM, a word having the same or 
nearly thé same meaning as another, as valour, 
courage. Books of Greek and Latin synonyms were 
early compiled. G. Crabbe’s dictionary appeared, 
1816; Dr. P. M. Roget’s excellent ‘Thesaurus of 
English Words and Phrases,” 1852. 

SYPHILIS, a disease said to have been intro- 
duced into Europe at the siege of Naples, 1495; but 
was probably known to the ancients. 


SYRACUSE, S. E. Sicily, founded by Archias, 
734 B.C.3 732 B.C. Lusebius ; 749 B.c. Univ. Hist. 
see Sicily. 


Gelon becomes supreme B.C. 485 
Succeeded by Hiero 478 
Republic established : : 467 
Becomes predominant in Sicily : : ; 3 £453 
Athenian expedition against Syracuse, under Nicias 415 
Gylippus the Lacedemonian succours Syracuse ; 
defeats Nicias : ; : : ; ; ahs) 
Government of Dionysius the elder, 406: he receives 
Plato well ; : ‘ 2 : Rect s1°) 
Dionysius, the younger, succeeds , : sores elo), 
Opposed by Dion, 361 ; who is banished, and Plato, 
who endeavoured to reconcile them, is sold for a 
slave . : é ? : P F ; - 360 
Dion returns with a Greek army and fleet, and 
expels Dionysius, 356; rules Syracuse, 355; 
assassinated by Calippus : . : bareari og 
Dionysius recovers his authority, 347; but is 
banished to Corinth by Timoleon, 343; who 
governs well till his death —. : A ’ ey, 
Agathocles usurps power, 317; defeated at Himera 310 
He is poisoned by Hicetas, and the republic re- 
stored : : 7 Z : : : hn ae ar acls\ 
Hiero, preetor of Syracuse, 275; elected king, 270; 
rules in peace till his death, 216; Hieronymus, 
his grandson, succeeds, 216; murdered E aoLal 
Syracuse declares against Rome, 215; besieged by 
Marcellus, 214, and taken ; Archimedes, the illus- 
trious mathematician, slain : Bal emis, 
Syracuse taken by the Saracens . A.D. 669 
Retaken by count Roger, the Norman : . 1088 
Destroyed by earthquakes in 1542, Jan. 1693; and 
nearly destroyed ‘ : : 6 ANGST 757 
In the insurrection, Syracuse surrendered to the 
Neapolitan troops . 8 April, 1849 


SYREN, see Sirene. 
SYRIA. The capital was originally Damascus ; 
but after the battle of Ipsus, Seleucus founded 
Antioch. 
Alliance of David king of Israel and Hiram king of 


Syria . : 3 : B.C. 1049 
Syria conquered by David . 1040 


. . 


SYRIA. 


Liberited by Resin .- . . "we geo] Desolated ty tie Garnet J by Rezin B.C. 

Benhadad, king of Syria, makes war on the Jews 

Benhadad II. reigns : about 

Syria subjugated by Tiglath- Pileser, king of eg 

Syria conquered by Cyr us : ¢ 

And by Alexander 

Seleucus Nicator enters Babylon x 

fra of the Seleucide: (which see) : 

Great battle of Ipsus; death of Antigonus, defeated 
by Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Ly simachus 

The city of Antioch founded 

Antiochus, son of Seleucus, falling i in love with his 
father’s queen, Stratonice, he pines away nearly 
to death; but the secret being discovered, she is 
divorced ‘by the father, and married by the son 

Battle of Cyropedium ; Ly simachus slain by Seleu- 
OTE 

Seleucus foully assassinated by Ceraunus : 
ochus I, king . : 

Antiochus I. (Soter, or Saviour ,) defeats the Gauls . 


Antiochus II. surnamed by the Milesians 'heos 
(God) king : 

Poisoned by Laodice 

Seleucus IT. (king, 246) makes a treaty of alliance 
with Smyrna and Magnesia : : : 

Seleucus II. Ceraunus (or Thunder), king 

Antiochus IIT. the Great (king, 223), conquers Pales- 
tine, but is totally defeated at Raphia 

Again conquers Palestine, 198; but gives it to 
‘Ptolemy 

Enters Greece, 192; defeated by the Romans at 
Thermopyle, 191; and at Magnesia 

Makes peace with the Romans, giving up to ‘them 
Asia Minor * : 

Seleucus Philopator, king. 

Antiochus IV. king, who assumes the title of Theos- 
Epiphanes, or the illustrious God 

He sends Apollonius into Judea; Jerusalem is 
taken; the temple pillaged; 40,000 inhabitants 
destroy ed, and 40,000 more sold as slaves. 

Antiochus V. Eupator (king, 164), murdered by De- 
metrius Soter, who seizes the throne 

Demetrius is defeated and slain by his successor 
Alexander Bala, 150; who is also defeated and 
slain by Demetrius Nieator 

Antiochus VI. Sidetes (son of Demetrius Soter) 
rules during the captivity of his brother Deme- 
trius Nicator (after slaying the usurper Trypho) . 

Antiochus grants peace to the Jews, and placates 
the Romans, 133; invades Parthia, 129; and is 
defeated and slain . : : 

Demetrius Nicator restored . 

Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son Seleucus w ith 
her own hand 

Her son Antiochus VII. Grypus (king, 125), whom 
she attempts to poison; but he ‘conipels his 
mother to swallow the deadly draught herself 

Reign of Antiochus VIII. Cyzicenus “at Damascus, 
and of Grypus at Antioch . : 

Seleucus, king 

Antiochus IX. Eusebes, king 

Dethroned by Philip : 

Tigranes, king of Armenia, acquires § Syria ; 

Antiochus X. Asiaticus, solicits the aid of the 
Romans . 

Defeat of Tigranes by Lucullus, 69; he submits to 


Anti- 


Pompey, who enters Syria, and dethrones Anti- 
ochus Asiaticus : 
Syria made a Roman province : ; : 
* * * 
Syria oe by pe Parthians AND: 


By the Persians 

Violent earthquakes . 

Invaded by the Saracens, 497, 502, 529; by the Per- 
sians . : A 

Conquered by the Saracens _ : 

Conquest of Syria by the Fatimite caliphs : 

Revolt of the emirs of Damaseus 

The emirs of Aleppo revolt . 

The erusades commence (see Cr usades) 


810 Dc 000 
980 | Desolated by the Crusades (which see) 1096-127 
898 | Noureddin conquers Syria ‘ - 116 
830 | Saladin dethrones the Fatimite dynasty | a elie 
740 | The Tartars overrun all Syria met 25 
537 | The sultans of Egypt expel the Crusaders , ot 26 
333 | Syria overrun by Tamerlane - I40 
312 | Syria and Egypt conquered by the Turks . 1516-1 
53 Syria continued in possession of the Turks till the 
invasion by the French, 1799; Bonaparte overruns 
301 the country, Gaza and J afta taken March, 179 
299 | Siege of Acre begun by the French, 16 March: 
raised 20 May, » 
Bonaparte returns to France from Egypt 23 AUS, J 
Egypt and Syria evacuated by the French army, 
207 10 Sept. 180 
Mehemet Ali attacks and captures Acre, and over- 
281 runs the whole of Syria 183 
Ibrahim Pacha, his son, defeats the army of the 
280 grand signior at Konieh 1 Dec. 183 
275 Numer ous “battles and conflicts follow npith Srotaus 
success; the European powers intervene, and 
261 peace is made. 6 Ma ay, 183 
246 | The war renewed, May; Ibrahim defeats “the’ Turks 
at Nezib . . 24 June, 183 
243 | The Turkish fleet deserts to Mehemet Ali, and ar- 
226 rives at Alexandria 14 July, 
The five powers unite to support the Porta” July, 
217 | Death of lady Hester Stanhope 2 23 June, 184 
Treaty of London (not signed by offended Veaneay 
193 rs July, ,, 
Capture of Sidon (see Sidon) . » 27 Sepii we, 
190 | Fall of Beyrout (see Beyrout) 4 , r0/Ochaae, 
Fall of Acre (see Acre) : 3 Nov. ,, 
188 | Long negotiations; the sultan er ants hereditans 
187 rights to Mehemet, who gives up Syria Jan. 184 
The Druses said to have destroyed 151 Christian 
175 villages and killed 1000 persons (see Druses), 
29 May tox July, 186 
The Mahometans massacre Christians at Damascus; 
168 about 3300 slain; many saved by Abd-el-Kader, 
9g July, &c. ,, 
162 | The English and French government intervene; a 
convention signed at Paris; ; 12,000 men to be sent 
by France | ~ 3, AUS. tee. 
146 | Vigour of Fuad Pacha; he punishes the Stahomes 
tans implicated in the massacres at Damascus 
very severely; 167 of all ranks, including the 
137 governor, executed P - 20-.ANQ., eb Seg: 5, 
4000 French soldiers, under general Hautpoul, land 
at Beyrout . ; : 22 Aug. 4, 
128 | Lord Dufferin, the British commissioner in Syria, 
2 arrives at Damascus >» 6 Sepia 
The French and Turks advance against Lebanon ; 
124 14 emirs surrendered ; « . Oetaeme., 
Pacification of the country effected & Novae 
The French occupation ceases 5 June, 186 
*23 | Prince of Wales visits Syria. : April, 186 
r1x | Insurrection of Joseph Karam, Maronite, in Le- 
95 banon; suppressed March, 186 
94 | Another suppressed ; Karam flies to Algeria, } 
85 31 Jan, 186 
83 | Midhat Pasha appointed governor-general “to in- 
augurate reforms, Noy. 1878 ; ; experiences great 
75 difficulty, Oct: resigns, but continues, 
Oct. 1879-June, 188 
Hamed Pasha, governor of Smyrna, and Midhat 
65 Pasha change places . Z . , . ATS ee, 
63-| Midhat Pasha, charged with complicity in the 
murder of the sultan Abdul Aziz, surrenders 
ee (see Turkey, 1881) .) . about 17 May, 183: 
25 
341 SYSTON, see under Libraries. 
607 | SZEGEDIN (Hungary), on the Theiss at it 
638 | junction with the Maros, the seat of revolutionar ) 
th government, 1849. Rebuilt under superintendenc 
woth of Ludwig Tisza, Grand festival, the empero’ 
rog5 | present, 16 Oct. 1883. See Inundations, 1879. 


i i 


: - TABERNACLE. 


 TANAGRA. 


TABERNACLE, the Holy Place of the Israel- 
es, till the erection of Solomon’s temple, was con- 
rueted by Divine direction, 1491 B.c. The taber- 
_acle set up at Shiloh by Joshua, 1444 B.c. was 
»placed by the temple erected by Solomon, 1004 
.c. The chapel erected for George Whitefield in 
loorfields in 1741, being of a temporary nature, 
aceived the name of ‘Tabernacle, which was after- 
ards given to their chapels by the Calvinistic 
fethodists. Whitefield’s Tabernacle in Totten- 
am-court-road was erected in 1756, and enlarged 
11760. His lease expired in 1828; and the chapel 
‘ras opened by the Independents in 1830. A large 
ietropolitan tabernacle, erected for the ministra- 
ions of Mr. C. H. Spurgeon, a Baptist, near the 
' Elephant and Castle,’’ Kennington-road, Surrey, 
vas opened on 31 March, 1861. 


TABINET, see Poplin. 
TABLES, see Decemvirs. 


_ TABLET, Roman Catholic weekly paper, esta- 
rlished 1840. 


TABLE TURNING. This delusion, which 
vame from America, and was popular in 1853, was 
ittributed by Faraday and others to involuntary 
nechanical action. See Spirit-Rapping. 


TABOR, in Bohemia, was founded by Ziska in 
) a, Ys 

(420, and became a chief seat of the Hussites; see 
Hussites. 

| 


TADMOR, see Palmyra. 
TAEPINGS, see China, 1851, note. 


TAFFETY, an early species of silken manu- 
facture, more prized formerly than now, woven 
very smooth and glossy. It was worn by our 
alder queens, and was first made in England by 
John ‘l'yce, of Shoreditch, London, 41 Eliz. 1598. 
—Stow’s Chron. 


TAGLIACOZZO, in the Abruzzi mountains, 
S. Italy, where, on 23 Aug. 1268, Charles of Anjou, 
the usurping king of Naples, defeated and made 

risoner the rightful monarch, young Conradin 
(the last of the Hohenstaufens, and grandson of the 
emperor Frederick II.), who had been invited into 
[taly by the Ghibelline or Imperial party; their 
opponents, the Guelfs, or papal party, supporting 
Charles. Conradin was beheaded, 29 Oct. fol- 
lowing. 


TAGLIAMENTO, a river in Lombardy, N. 


Italy, near which the Austrians, under the arch- 


duke Charles, were defeated by Bonaparte, 16 | 


March, 1797. 

TAHERITHS, a dynasty of Persia, 813-872. 
TAHITI. The French abbreviated name for 
Otaheite ; see Otaheite. ; 


TAILLEBOURG (W. France). Near here 
Henry III. of England was defeated and nearly 
captured by Louis IX. of France, 20 July, 1242. 


_ TAKU FORTS, China, taken by the allies, 
21 Aug. 1860. 


TALAVERA DELLA REYNA (central Spain), 
was taken from the Mahometans by Ordofio, king 
of Leon, 913. Here a battle was fought 27, 28 
July, 1809, between the united British and Spanish 
armies under sir Arthur Wellesley, and the French 


army commanded by marshals Victor and Sebas- 
tiani. After a conflict on the 27th, both armies 
remained on the field during the night, and the 
French at break of day renewed the attack, and 


} were again repulsed by the British with great 


slaughter. At noon Victor charged the whole 
British line, was repulsed at all points, and retreated 
with a heavy loss. As Soult, Ney, and Mortier 
were in the rear, the British retired after the 
victory. 


TALBOTYPH, see Photography. 
“TALISMAN ”’ affair, see Peru, 1874-6. 
TALKING-MACHINE, see Automatons. 
TALLY OFFICE in the Exchequer took its 


name from the French word taidler, to cut. A tally 
is a piece of wood written upon both sides, contain- 
ing an acquittance for money received; which, 
being cloyen asunder by an ofticer of the exchequer, 
one part, called the stock, was delivered to the 
person who paid, or lent, money to the government ; 
and the other part, called the counter-stock, or 
counter-foil, remained in the office, to be kept till 
called for, and joined with the stock. This manner 
of striking tallies is very ancient.— Beatson. The 
practice was ordered to be discontinued in 1782. 
See Hxchequer. On 16 Oct. 1834, the houses of 
parliament were burnt down by too many of these 
tallies being used in heating the stoves in the house 
of lords. 


TALMUD (from /amad, to teach), the compen- 
dium of ancient Jewish oral or unwritten law, as 
distinguished from the Pentateuch, or written law ; 
its origin is coeval with the return from the Baby- 
lonish captivity, 536 B.c. Its compilation in 
Hebrew was begun by the Scribes, and by their 
successors the work was carried on till 220 B.c. It 
is composed in prose and poetry, and contains two 
elements, legal and legendary. ‘The morality 
resembles that of the New ‘lestament, and the 
philosophy is rather Platonic than Aristotelian. 
The Mischna, comprising the work of the rabbis, termed 

Thanaim, was compiled by Jehuda Hanassi, in the 

middle of the second century, A.b., and forms the 

Jerusalem Talmud, written at Tiberias, in Palestine, 

about 230. The Babylonian Talmud contains also the 

Gemera or Ghemara, the work of the rabbis termed 

Amoraim, criticisms and comments on the Mischna- 

The part named Halacha, is dogmatic, legal, and 

doctrinal; the Agaba, is illustrative, narrative, and 

legendary. 

After being almost universally condemned, and the MSS. 
often burnt, the defence of the Talmud was undertaken 
by the German reformer Reuchlin, in the 16th century, 
and between 1520,and 1523, the ‘‘ Talmud Babyloni- 
cum,” in 12 vols. fol., and the ‘* Talmud Hierosolyta- 
num,” in one yol. fol., were printed at Venice. A 
discourse on the Talmud was given at the Royal Insti- 
tution, 15 May, 1868, by Mr. Emanuel Deutsch, whose 
article in the ‘‘Quarterly Review,” Oct. 1867, had 
attracted much attention. 


TAMANIEB, or TAMASI, battle of, 13 


March, 1884; see Soudan. 
TAMATAVHEH, see Madagascar, 1883. 
TAMMANY FRAUDS, see New York, 1871. 


TANAGRA (Beeotia). Here the Spartans 
defeated the Athenians 457 B.c., but were defeated 
by them in 456 and in 426, when Agis II. headed 
the Spartans and Nicias the Athenians. 


TANCRED’S CHARITIES. 812 TARPEIAN ROCK. 


TANCRED’S CHARITIES. Valuable ex- 
hibitions for students at Cambridge are maintained 
by Christopher Tancred’s endowment, 1721; esta- 
blished by chancery, 1757. 


TANDY ARREST. James Napper Tandy 
proposed a plan of reform in 1791. In the French 
expedition against Ireland he acted as a general, 
Aug. 1798. After its failure he fled to Hamburg, 
and was there delivered up to the English, 24 Nov.; 
for which Bonaparte declared war upon Hamburg, 
15 Oct. 1799. ‘Tandy was liberated after the peace 
of Amiens in 1802. 


TANGIER (Morocco, N. W. Africa), besieged 
by prince Ferdinand of Portugal, who was beaten 
and taken prisoner, 1437. It was conquered by 
Alfonso V. of Portugal in 1471, and given as a dower 
to princess Catherine, on her marriage with Charles 
II. of England, 1662; who, in 1683, caused the 
works to be blown up, and the place abandoned. 
‘Tangiers afterwards became a piratical station. 


TANISTRY (in Ireland), the equal division of 
lands, after the decease of the owner, amongst his 
sons, legitimate or illegitimate. If one of the sons 
died, his son did not inherit, but a new division was 
made by the tanist or chief. Abolished 1604. 
Davies. 


TANJORE (W. India). About 1678, Vencajee, 
a Mahratta chief, brother of the great Sevajee, 
made himself rajah. In 1749 a British expedition 
endeavoured to restore a deposed rajah without 
success; the reigning prince bought them off by the 
cession of territories. Much intervention ensued. 
In 1799 the company obtained possession of the 
country, engaging to support the rajah with nominal 
authority. The last is suid to have died in 1855. 


TANNENBERG (E. Prussia). Here Ladis- 
laus V. Jagellon of Poland defeated the Teutonic 
knights with great slaughter, the grand master being 
among the slain, 15 July, 1410. The order never 
recovered from this calamity. 


TANNING leather with the bark of trees was 
early practised. Tan was introduced into Great 
Britain from Holland by William III. for raising 
orange trees about 1689. It was discontinued until 
about 1719, when bananas were first brought into 
England. Great improvements have been recently 
inade in tanning by means of chemical knowledge. 


TANTALUM, a rare metal, discovered in an 
American mineral by Hatchett, in 1801, and named 
by him columbium ; and in a Swedish mineral b 
Kkeberg, who gave it its present name. Wollaston 
pointed out the identity of the two metals in 1809; 
and Berzelius prepared pure metallic tantalum in 
1824. In 1846 Rose discovered that tantalum was 
really a mixture of three metals, which he named 
tantalum, niobium, and pelopium.—Gimelin. 


TANZIMAT, see Turkey, 1839-44. 
TAPESTRY. An art of weaving borrowed 


from the Saracens, and hence its original workers in 
France were called Sarazinois. The invention of 
tapestry hangings belongs [the date is not men- 
tioned] to the Netherlands.—Gwiectardint. Manu- 
factured in France under Henry IV. by artists 
invited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought 
into England by William Sheldon; and the first 
manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by 
sir Francis Crane, 17 James I. 1619.—Salmon. 
Under Louis XIV. the art of tapestry was much 
improved in France; see Gobelin Tapestry. Very 
early instances of making tapestry are mentioned by 
the ancient poets, and also in Scripture ; so that the 


Saracens’ manufacture is a revival of the art. Fo 
the tapestry said to have been wrought by Matilda 
queen of England, see Bayeux Tapestry. 

Tapestry manufactory established at Windsor by Mr. H 
Henry, supported by the royal family, and others ; ex 
hibition opened in the town-hall, 6 December, 1878. 

Manufacture revived by Messrs. Trollope of London, 

1882-: 
TAPIR, the American water-hog, a pachyder. 
matous animal. The first born in England at Zoo. 

logical Gardens, London, 12 Feb. 1882, 


TAR: The chemist Becher first proposed to mak 
tar from pit-coal—the earl of Dundonald’s patent 
1781. The mineral tar was discovered at Colebrook 
dale, Shropshire, 1779; and in Scotland, Oct. 1792 
Tar-water was first recommended for its medicina 
virtues by the good Dr. Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne 
about 1744. From benzole, discovered in coal-tar 
many brilliant dyes are now produced; see Aniline 


TARA, 2 hill in Meath, Ireland, where the earl 
kings of Ireland were inaugurated. Near here, o1 
26 May, 1798, the royalist troops, 400 strong 
defeated the insurgent Irish (4000 men), 500 killed 
On 15 Aug. 1843, Daniel O’Connell held a monste 
meeting here (250,000 persons said to have beci 
assembled). 


TARBES (S. France, near the Pyrenees) 
capital of Bigorre, the property of the English king 
in the middle ages. The French, under Soult 
were forced from their position at Tarbes, with con. 
siderable loss, by the British army commanded by 
Wellington, 20 March, 1814. See Toulouse. 


TARENTUM (now Taranto, 8. Italy), wa 
founded by the Greek Phalantus, B.c. 708. Th 
people of Tarentum. assisted by Pyrrhus, king 0 
Epirus, supported a war which had been undertake 
B.C. 281 by the Romans, to avenge the insults thy 
Tarentines had offered to their ships when new 
their harbours; it was terminated after ten years 
300,000 prisoners were taken, and Tarentum becam: 
subject to Rome. Except the citadel, Tarentun 
was captured by the Carthaginians, 212, but re 
covered by Fabius, 209 B.c. ‘Tarentum has share 
in the revolutions of Southern Italy, and only ruin 
remain. 

TARGUMS or EXPLANATIONS, names givet 
to certain ancient Chaldee paraphrases of the Ol 
Testament. The most remarkable are those o 
Onkelos, Jonathan-ben-Uzziel, and Joseph the Blind 
The Targum of Onkelos is referred by some writen 
to the first century A.D. 


TARIFA (S. Spain), the ancient Joza and Juli: 
Traducta, where Muza landed when invading Spain 
712. It was taken from the Moors by Sanche IV 
of Castile, 1291 or 1292; and was relieved, whe 
besieged by them, after a great victory over tlu 
kings of Morocco and Granada, by Alfonso XI. 0 
Castile and Alfonso IV. of Portugal, 28 or 30 Oct 
1340. The conflict is called the battle of Salado 
having been fought on the banks of that river 
Tarifa was taken by the French in 1823. 

TARIFF (said to have been derived fron 
Tarifa, where duties were formerly collected), : 
book of duties charged on goods exported or imported 
Our tariff in 1840 comprised 1042 articles; th 
number was reduced (by sir Robert Peel) in 184: 
and 1847. It comprised 439 articles in 1857; thi 
number was greatly reduced in 1860. 


TARPEIAN ROCK (Rome), owed its nam 
to the tradition that Tarpeia, daughter of th 
keeper of the Roman citadel, was here erushed t 
death by the shields cast on her by the Sabines 


re 
Ww 


" 
e 


TARRAGONA. 


hom she treacherously admitted, having bargained 
r the gift of what they wore on their left arms, 
ieaning their bracelets; about 750 B.c. 


TARRAGONA (N.E. Spain), occupied as a 
aval station by the British before their capture of 
ibraltar in 1704. It was stormed and sacked by 
ie French under Suchet, 29 Jan. 1811, and the 
habitants put to the sword. 


TARTAN or HIGHLAND PLAID, the dress of 
ie Scottish Highlanders, said to have been derived 
om the ancient Gauls, or Celt, the Galli non 
raceatt. 

TARTARIC ACID is said to have been the 
rst discovery of the eminent chemist, Scheele, 
tho procured it in a separate state by boiling tar 
ith lime, and in decomposing the tartrate of lime 
ius formed by means of sulphuric acid, about 1770. 
a 1859 baron Liebig formed tartaric acid from 
ther sources. 


TARTARY (Asia). The Tatars, or Tartars, or 
fongols, or Moguls, were known in antiquity as 
eythians. During the decline of the Roman 
mpire, these tribes began to seek more fertile 
»gions; and the first who reached the frontier of 
taly were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern 
[ongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this 
ast country was the famous Genghis Khan. His 
mpire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all 
entral Asia (1206-27), became one of the most 
wrmidable ever established; but it was split into 
arts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again 
onquered Persia, broke the power of the Turks in 
ia Minor (1370-1400), and founded the Mogul 
ynasty in India, which began with Baber in 1525, 
nd formed the most splendid court in Asia till the 
lose of the 18th century; see Golden Horde. The 
falmucks, a branch of the Tartars, expelled from 
shina, settled on the banks of the Volga in 1672, 
ut returned in 1771, and thousands perished on the 
ourney. * 


TASIMETER, see Micro-tasimeter. 
TASMANIA, the name now given to the 


sritish settlement in Van Diemen’s Land (which 
ee). 


TATTERSALL'S, see Races.’ 


TAUNTON (Somerset), was taken by Perkin 
Varbeck, Sept. 1497 ; and here he was surrendered 
o Henry VII. Oct. following. The duke of 
onmouth was proclaimed king at Taunton, 20 
‘une, 1685; and it was the scene of the ‘* bloody 
ssize’’ held by Jeffreys upon the rebels in August. 


TAVERNS may be traced to the 13th century. 
‘In the raigne of king Edward the Third, only 
hree taverns were allowed in London: one in 
Yhepe, one in Walbrok, and the other in Lombard- 
treet.’—Spelman. The Boar's Head, in Kast- 
theap, existed in the reign of Henry IV., and was 
he rendezvous of prince Henry and his dissolute 
ompanions. Shakspeare mentions it as the resi- 
lence of Mrs. Quickly, and the scene of Falstatt’s 
nerriment.—Shakspeare, ‘* Henry IV.” The White 
Hart, Bishopsgate, established in 1480, was rebuilt 
n 1829. ‘Taverns were licensed in 1752. 

[averns were restricted by 7 Edward VI. 1552-3, to 40 in 
London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3 in Westminster, 6 
in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 
in Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 
3in Hereford, 3 in Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in 
Canterbury, 3 in Ipswich, 3 in Winchester, 3 in Oxford, 
4in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne. 

TAXES were levied by Solon, the first Athenian 


813 


| borough. Engineer, sir Thomas Bouch. 


TCHERNAYA. 


legislator, 540 B.c. The first class of citizens paid 
an Attic talent of silver, about 55/. of our money. 
Darius, the son of Hystaspes, levied a land-tax by 
assessment, which was deemed so odious that his 
subjects styled him, by way of derision, Darius the 
Trader, 480 8.c.—D’ Hon. Taxes in specie were 
first introduced into England by William I., 1067, 
and he raised them arbitrarily; yet subsidies in 
kind, as in wool, leather, and other products of the 
country, continued till the accession of Richard IL., 
1377-—Cainden ; see Revenue and Income Tax. 
‘TAXES ON KNOWLEDGE” (see Advertisement 
Duty, Newspaper Stamp, and Paper Duty), For his 
exertions in repealing these, a testimonial was pre- 
sented to Mr. ‘I’. Milner Gibson in 1861. The as- 
sessed taxes now include land tax, house duty, and 
property and income tax. 'The Taxes Management 
Act, 43 & 44 Vict. c. 19, passed 6 Aug, 1880 (see 
below). Mr. Stephen Dowell’s ‘‘ History of Taxa- 
tion and Taxes in England,” published in 1884. 
Receipts from general taxation, 1884-5, 73,796,000/. 
Assessed Taxes. Land Tax. 


1800 . 3,468,131 | 1800 . . SI, 307,941 
1805 - 4,508,752 | 1805 - 1,596,481 
1810 . 6,233,101 4, 1010" « 1,418,337 
1815 6,524,766 / 1815 1,084,255 
1820 . 6,311,346 | 1820 . 1,192,257 
1825 5,176,722 | 1825 1,288,303 
Togas 5,013,405 | 1830 1,189,214 
1835 3733997 1835 1,203,579 
1840 3,866,467 1840 1,298,622 


Assessed Taxes.—Gross Amount. 


1851 (to Jan. 5) : - £4, 365,033 


1855 (year end March 31) . 3,160,641 
1860 a ae ; 3,232,000" 
1865 rf “6 3,292,000 
1866 “5 55 3,350,000 
1867 ap nc 3,468,000 
1868 5 Af 3,509,000 
1869 ” ” 3»494,000 
1870 % ty , A 7 + 4,500,000 
1871 4 Land tax and house duty only, ; 2,725,000: 
1872 see Licences. 2, 330,000 
1873 : ’ 4 ; , : 2,337,000 
1874 : 2,324,000 
1875 2,440,000 
1876 2,496,000 
1877 2,532,000 
1878 2,670,000 
1879 2,720,000 
1880 - ; i - A - - 2,670,000: 
1883 - A - ‘ x - = : 2,843,154 
1884 : 2,899,223 


TAY BRIDGE at Dundee, above two miles 
across the Tay; act passed 1870, work begun June, 
1871; Mr. De Bergue, first contractor, died, suc- 
ceeded by Messrs. Hopkins, Gilke & Co., of Middles- 
It was 
much injured by a gale, 4 Feb. 1877; completed, 
30 Aug.; tried, 25 Sept. 1877; opened, 31 May, 
1878. Length, 10,612 feet; it consists of 85 
spans, some above 90 feet above water level; cost 
said to be 350,000/. Above 20 lives lost during its 
construction. 

The bridge was partly destroyed by a gale, while a 
N. British mail-train was passing over it ; a gap 
of about 3,000 feet was made; between 75 and go 
persons perished ; about 7.15 P.M. Sunday, 28 Dec. 

46 bodies were recovered up to 27 April, 

Liberal collections were made for sufferers by the 
loss of relatives. 

After the Board of Trade inquiry, Mr. H. C. Rothery, 
in the report, stated ‘‘that the bridge had been 
badly designed, badly constructed, and badly 
maintained” - A : - 3 July, 

Sir Thomas Bouch died ; - 30 OCtsa 

Mr. Barlow’s plans for a new bridge approved, May, 1881 

Plans for new bridge approved : Jan. 1882 

Three piers erected . - 5 ; . Sept. 1883 


TCHERNAYA, 2 river.in the Crimea. On 


1879 
1880 


” 


THA. 


814 


3329 slain, 1658 wounded, and 600 prisoners. 
brunt of the attack was borne by two French 
regiments under general D’Herbillon. The loss of 
the allies was about 1200; 200 of these were from 
the Sardinian contingent, which behaved with great 
gallantry, under the command of general La Mar- 
mora. The Russian general Read, and the Sardinian 
general Montevecchio, were killed. The object of 
the attack was the relief of Sebastopol, then closely 
besieged by the English and French. 


TEA was brought to Europe by the Dutch, 1610. 
It is mentioned as having been used in England on 
very rare occasions prior to 1657, and sold for 6/. 
and even 10/. the pound. Price of inferior kinds, 
1801, 4s. 23d. the pound; in 1871, 1s. 10d. For 
Théine, see Cafvine. 

Samuel Pepys records his first ‘‘cup of tea,” 
25 Sept. 

A duty of 8d. was charged upon every gallon of tea 
made for sale (r2 Ch. II. ¢. 13) _ . * 5 Re ay 
The East India Company firstimportit  . = arog 
Brought into England in 1666, by lord Ossory and 
lord Arlington, from Holland: and being admired 
by persons of rank, it was imported from thence, 
and generally sold for 60 shillings per pound, till 
our Kast India Company took up the trade. — 

Anderson. 

Green tea began to be used : : 
Price of black tea per tb. 13s. to 20s. ; 
to 308. : : ; A ; 7 4 ants 
The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767: this tax 
occasioned the destruction of 17 chests at New 

York, and 340 at Boston, Dec. 1773, and ulti- 

mately led to the American war (see Boston). 
The tea-plant brought to England . ; about 
Tea-dealers obliged to have sign-boards fixed up, 

announcing their sale of tea. E a ee 
Commutation act for reducing the duty on tea from 

50 to 123 per cent. ; taxing windows in lieu, June, 
** Millions of pounds’ weight of sloe, liquorice, and 

ash-tree leaves, are every year mixed with Chinese 

teas in England.”—Report of the House of Commons, 
“<“The consumption of the whole civilised world, 
exclusively of England, is about 22,000,000 of 
pounds, while the annual consumption in Great 
Britain is 30,000,000.”—Evidence in House of 


1660 


: : ELT LS 
of green, ras. 
1728 


1768 
1779 


1784 


1818 


Commons 3 : : : 4 ; se O30 
The first tea-sale in London on. the abolition of the 

exclusive privilege of the East India Company 

took place in Mincing-lane . : . 19 Aug. 1834 
New duties were charged, 1796; the duty was 96 and 

roo per cent., made 2s. 1d. per pound . AveEELORO 
The duty derived from the import of tea in 1850 

amounted to 5,471,461l.; and the amount was 

5)902,433l. 8. F : : 3 in 1852 
Various changes made in 1854, 1855 and 1856 
Duty of 1s. 5d. per pound begun : April, 1857 
Duty upon tea gradually reduced from 2s. 23d. to 

1s. per pound; reduced to 6d. per pound, xr June, 1865 
Licences to sell tea abolished : ; : - 1869 
Tea duty 6d., continued 2 : : ot py ledethe 
Produced, 3,709,450l. year 1875-63 4,002,210. 

1877-8 5 4,268,734/. ; 5 7 é . 1883-4 

TEA IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND. 

1726. - Ib 700,000; 186r . Ib 95, 577238 
1766 7,000,000 | 1864 . : - 124,359,243 
1792 9T3,1G5;009)|"1S00 9. + 139,610,044 
1800 - 23,723,000 | 1867 « - 128,028,726 
1805 - 24,133,000 | 1868 . + 154,845,863 
18to - 25,414,000 | 1869 « - 139,223,298 
1815 - 26,368,000 | 7870 . « 141,020,767 
1820 - 25,662,474 | 1871. - 169,898, 303 
1825 - 24,803,668 | 1872 . - 184,927,128 
1830 - 30,544,404 | 1873. - 163,765,269 
1835 - 44,360,550] 1874 . - + 162,782,810 
1840 - 38,068,555 | 1875. . + 197,505,316 
1845. + » 44,193,433} 1876 . - 185,536,371 
1850 govt. retis. 50,512,384 | 1877. . 187,515,284 
1856. - 86,200,414 | 1878 + 204,872,809 
1858 7524325535 | 1879 - 184,076,472 


TELEGRAPHS. 
1880 . - 206,971;570 | £oo2) +  » 210,663,713 
1881. . 209,801,522 | 1883. . + 222,262,43 


The importation of tea grown in India has very 
greatly increased. 

TEACHERS, NarionaL Union or ELE 
MENTARY (about 20,000 certificated and 30,00 
pupil teachers), held their fourth annual conference 
April 1874. The Teachers’ Association held thei 
3rd annual conference at University College, Lon 
don, 9 Jan. 1878. The Teachers’ Guild held its firs 
ye meeting, Mr. Mundella in the chair, 23 Jan 
1884. 


““TEARLESS VICTORY,” was won by 
Archidamus III., king of Sparta, over the Arcadian 
and Argives, without losing a man, 367 B.C. 


TEA-ROOM MEETING of members of th 
house of commons, 8 April, 1867. See Reform, 1867 


TEB, Battle of, 29 Feb. 1884. See Soudan. 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION, see Zduea 


tion. 'The first real practical technical school wa 
formed in the Chester Diocesan Training College 
by the rev. Arthur Rigg, principal, 1839-69. 
Central Institution of City and Guilds Institute, 
South Kensington ; foundation laid by the prince 
of Wales : : : : 18 July, 
A royal commission (Mr. B. Samuelson, prof. H. E. 
Roscoe (since knighted) &e.) to inquire as to 
technical instruction in foreign countries Aug. 
Technical education reported highly successful in 
Britain; much aided by the London city com- 
panies . : 2 2 c - “ . 1883- 
TK DEUM, a song of praise used by the Romis! 
and English churches, beginning ‘* Ze Deum Lau 
damus—We praise thee, O God,” supposed to be th 
composition of Augustin and Ambrose, about 390 
The original music is very ancient, 


TEETOTALER, a term applied to an ab 
stainer from all fermented liquors, originated wit 
Richard Turner, an artisan of Preston, who, con 
tending for the principle at a temperance meetin. 
about Sept. 1833, asserted ‘‘ that nothing but te-te 
total will do.” The word was immediately adopted 
He died 27 Oct. 1846. These facts are taken frox 
the ‘‘Staunch Teetotaler,’’ edited by Joseph Live 
sey, of Preston (an originator of the movement i 
1832, he died, aged 90, 2 Sept. 1884), Jan. 1867 
See Lneratites, Good Templars, Temperance, an 
United Kingdom. 


TEFLIS, see Zijfiis. 


TEGYRA, Beotia. Here Pelopidas defeate 
the Spartans, 375 B.c. 


TEHERAN became capital of Persia about 1795 
TELEGRAPHS (from the Greek, #éé, afar 


and grapho, I write). A&schylus, in his Agamemno1 
(B.C. 500), describes the communication of intel 
ligence by burning torches as signals. Polybius 
the Greek historian (who died about 122 B.c.), call 
the different instruments used by the ancients fo 
communicating information, pyrsie, because th 
signals were always made by fire. In 1663, a pla 
was suggested by the marquis of Worcester, and : 
telegraph was suggested by Dr. Hooke, 1684. M 
Amontons is also said to have been the inventor o 
telegraphs about this period. James II., while duk 
of York, originated a set of navy signals, whic! 
were systematised by Kempenfeldt in 1780; and : 
dictionary was compiled by sir Home Popham 
M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first use 
by the French in 1792, and two were erected ove 


188 


188 


_the Admiralty-office, London, 1796. The sema 


phore was erected there 1816. The nayal signal 


TELEKOUPHONON. 815 TELESCOPES. 


‘telegraph enabled 400 previously concerted sen- | 


neces to be transmitted from ship to ship, by 
ying the combinations of two revolving crosses, 
sts relating to telegraphs were passed in 1863 and 
66. The telegraph act, passed 31 July, 1868, 
abled the postmaster-general to purchase existing 
ectric telegraphs (not less than Is. for a telegram, 
words). Mr. Scudamore was appointed director, 
m. 1872. The principle of a 6d. telegram adopted 
the Commons, 29 March, 1883, and enacted to 
me into operation I Oct. 1883; deferred; bill in- 
oduced 30 March, 1885. The Society of Telegraph 
igineers held first general meeting, 28 Feb. 1872, 
las. Wm. Siemens, president. See Llectric Tele- 
aph, under Electricity, and Telegraphs, under 
st Office, 1869, et seg. The Telegraphic Journal 
gan 15 Noy. 1873. 


TELEKOUPHONON, or speaking  tele- 
aph, consisted of piping of gutta percha, 
outchouc, glass, or earthenware, with a terminal 
outhpiece of ivory, bone, wood, or metal. It was 
ed for dockyards and large establishments. It 
is described by Mr. Francis Whishaw at the 
eeting of the British Association at Swansea, 
ugust, 1848. 


TEL-EL-KEBIR, Egypt, the site of the en- 
snched camp of the rebel general, Arabi Pasha, 
s force being about 17,500 regular infantry, 2,500 
valry, 6000 Bedouins and other irregulars, and 70 
ins ; captured by the British 13 Sept. 1882. 


‘Garnet Wolseley broke up his camp at Ismailia on the 
night of r2 Sept. and began his advance at 1.30 a.m., 
his force being about 11,000 infantry, 2000 cavalry, and 
jo guns ; the troops marched rapidly in the dark, each 
regiment endeavouring to be first. At daybreak they 
‘rrived at the camp. The surprised Egyptians filled 
the trenches and fought well under cover ; but when 
the British scaled the parapets, they at first resisted 
bravely, but afterwards fled, being hotly pursued by 
the British cavalry, leaving all their guns, ammuni- 
nition, &c. in the hands of the victors. ‘Thousands 
were killed or made prisoners. Arabi Pasha fled to- 
wards Cairo, Among our killed were majors Colville, 
Underwood, and Somervell, and lieut. McNeill. The 
British general’s masterly plans of the campaign were 
thus successfully carried out by his efficient staff and 
tallant army, which included many young soldiers. 
fhe Irish and Highland regiments and the Guards 
being specially distinguished. Arabi Pasha’s army 
was completely broken up, and the British entered 
Cairo the next day, 14 Sept. British killed about 52, 
ind 380 wounded; Egyptian killed and wounded about 
r500. The Highlanders bore the brunt of the action. 


TELEPHONE (from Greek, tee, afar, phone, 
ice, sound), a name now given to apparatus for 
msmitting articulate and musical sounds, by 
eans of wire, vibrating rods, threads, or magneto- 
ctricity. See Electrophone, in article Electricity, 
lonograph, Microphone. 
bert Hook conveyed sounds to a distance by dis- 
bended wire : - P : : : ae L007, 
heatstone conveyed the sounds of a musical-box 
rom a cellar to upper rooms by means of a deal 
‘od (termed ‘‘ Enchanted Lyre ’’) A ; 4 
ge produced galvanic musical tones by magnetis- 
ing and demagnetising an iron bar . ; elt 
€ principle advanced by De la Rive - - 1843 
ofessor Pepper Jectured on Wheatstone’s tele- 
phone before the queen at the Polytechnic, ro May 1855 
ilip Reis exhibited a partially articulate electric 
elephone at Frankfort . 3 p . 25 April 1861 
omwell Varley produced a musical one, 1870; 
played on at the Queen’s theatre, Long Acre 

12 Feb. 1877 
isha Gray improved Reis’s telephone, and is said 
to have auticipated prof. Bell’s discovery . - 1873 
ofessor A. Graham Bell’s articulating telephone 
produced : (he employs a thin disk of iron vibrat- 
ing in front of a permanent magnet, surrounded 


1821 


by a coil of insulated copper wire; the sound 
or voice causes the vibration ot the disk, thereby 
generating a current of electricity which, sent 
round a similar coil ona distant magnet, sets 
Vibrating another disk, and thus the sound is re- 
produced; sound is converted into electricity 
and electricity reeonverted into sound 3) experi-* 
ments at Boston and Salem, United States (18 
miles apart); speech, music, singing, laughing, 
&¢,., distinctly heard —. : : . 12 Keb. 1877 
This telephone exhibited by Mr. W. H. Preece before 
the British Association, Plymouth, 23 Aug, 1877 ; 
before the queen at Osborne, Isle ot Wight 
14, 15 Jan. 1878 
Debates in the House of Commons, reported by it 
for Daily News (unsuccessful) : . 22 Jan. 
Telephone company established . summer 
Edison’s carbon ‘loud speaking” telephone ; con- 
versation heard between London and Norwich ; 
115 miles of wire : : . 3 ir Noy. 
Mr. Frederick Allen Gower improves Bell’s tele- 
phone ; shown at Royal Institution, London 
20, 21 March, 1879 
Telephone. Exchange (Edison’s system), Lombard- 
street ; ten offices connected ; private conversi- 
tiom between two persons in either a loud or low 
tone carried on; successfully tried - 6Sept. 
The Bell and Edison companies become the United 


Telephone Company ; announced. 26 July, 1880 
The telephone tried by lord Elphinstone in his 
coalmines near Carberry, Scotland J meptr ss. 


Telephone communication established between 
Liverpool and Manchester; exchange of mes- 


sages between the mayors . : ; OLNOVe es 
20,000 Gower-Bell telephones said to have been 
ordered by the post office : A c Deer ey; 


The attorney-general applies for injunction against 
the Telephone company and the Edison telephone 
company ; case deferred ; the companies directed 
to keep accounts, 20 Jan. 1880; decision that 
the Telephone company is an infraction of the 
electric telegraph monopoly bought by the act of 
1868, 20 Dec. 1880; legal arrangements with the 
company . : 5 . : : rz April, 1881 

The postmaster-general now grants licences 

Professor Dolbear of Tuft’s college, Massachusetts 
announced a new system, with improved tele- 
phone receiver (an articulating air condenser), 
different to Bell’s and Edison's . 2 . Aug. 

Opera at Royal Comedy theatre, Panton street, 
London, heard at Bristol hotel, Burlington 
Gardens ; : : : : 3 21 Dec. 

National Telephone company 2nd annual meeting, 
report gross revenue 30 June, 1881, 15,050l. ; 
30 June, 1882, 26,996/.; net proposals 4,2171., 


dividend 6 per cent. announced . : . Aug. 1882 
Telephonic communications between Brighton and 


London established . : : : = feanid DYstey 

The system largely developed in Europe and 
America 1882. 

United Telephone company v. Harrison, Cox, 
Walker & Co., for infringements of patents 
(Gordon, Bell and Edison) ; verdict for plaintiffs 
onappeal . 5 : - ¢ - . 6 Feb. 1883 

Distinct communication between New York and 
Chicago rooo miles (by steel wire coated with 
copper) - < - “ : . 24 March, 

Sermons at churches and chapels transmitted at 
Bradford : 7 5 5 , . . Aug. 

The Post office makes large concessions to the 
companies , : ; A : . Sept. 1884 
TELEPHOTOGRAPHY, a process for 

transmitting to a distance images of objects by the 


agency of electricity and selenium, was invented by 
Mr. Shelford Bidwell, early in 1881. 


TELERADIPHONH, an arrangement of 
apparatus in which M. Mercadier has adapted prof. 
Graham Bell’s photophone to telegraphy, announced 


Jan. 1882. 
TELESCOPES. Their principle was de- 


scribed by Roger Bacon about 1250, and Leonard 
Digges (who died about 1573) is said to have 
arranged glasses so that he could see very distant 
objects. 


+B) 


TELL, WILLIAM. 


816 


TEMPLE. 


Telescopes constructed by John Lipperhey and 
Zacharias Jansen, spectacle-muakers of Middle- 
burg, and James Metius of Alkinaer . . about 1608 

Galileo (from a description of the above) constructed 
telescopes (May, 1609), gradually increasing in 
power, till he discovered Jupiter’s satellites, &c., 

Jan. 1610 

The telescope explained by Kepler . : LOE 

Huyghens greatly improved the telescope; dis- 
covered the ring and satellites of Saturn, &c. 1655-6 

Telescopes improved by Gregory, about . 1663 

Reflecting telescope invented by Newton . 1668 

Achromatic telescopes made by Chester More Hall, 
about 1723; re-invented by John Dollond . 

Sir Wm. Herschel (originally an organist at Bath) 
greatly improves telescopes, and discovers the 
planet Uranus (which see), 21 March, 1781, anda 
volcanic mountain in the moon, in 1783 ; he com- 
pletes his forty-feet focal length telescope in 
1789, and he discovers two other volcanic moun- 
tains ; he lays before the Royal Society a cata- 
logue of 5000 nebulee and clusters of stars . 1802 

A telescope made in London for the observatory of 
Madrid, which cost r1,000l., in. 5 : BAe 

Telescopes improved by Guinand and Fraunhofer, 


1758 


The great telescope taken down, and one of twenty- 
feet focal length erected by sir John Herschel 
(who afterwards took it to the Cape of Good 
Hope, and made with it his observations) 

The earl of Rosse erected at Parsonstown, in Ire- 
land, a telescope (at a cost exceeding 20,000l.) 

6 feet in diameter, and 54 feet in length; it is 
moved with ease ; : : : . 1828-45 

Mr. Lassell constructed a telescope by which he 
discovered the satellite of Neptune, 1846; and the 
eight satellites of Saturn E j : : . 1848 

One of gigantie size, 85 feet in length (very imper- 
fect), completed at Wandsworth by the rev. John 
Craig . : P : 2 A : : ier 

Magnificent equatorial telescopes set up at the 
national observatories at Greenwich and Paris 

M. Foucault exhibits at Paris a reflecting telescope, 
the mirror 313 inches in diameter; the focal 
length 17} feet : ; : ; : : 

Mr. Newall’s telescope (with object glass 25 inches 
diameter; tube nearly 30 feet), set up at Gates- 
head by Cookes of York . ; P eee 

One at United States Observatory, Washington ; 
object-glass, 26 inches diameter, 33 feet length. 

Mr. A. Ainslie Common’s reflecting telescope ; spe- 
culum 373 inches diameter ; length, 20 feet ; said 
to be the most powerful in” existence; Eal- 
ing, Middlesex ; completed - ‘ Sept. 

The largest refracting telescope yet made; by 
Howard Grubb at Dublin (for Vienna) ; approved 
by the commissioners ; 16 March, 1881 


TELL, WILLIAM. The popular stories re- 
specting him were demonstrated to be mythical by 
Professor Kopp of Lucerne, 1872. 


TELLERS, see under Lxcheguer. 
TELLURIUM, a rare metal, in its natural 


state containing small quantities of iron and gold, 
was discovered by Miller of Reichenstein, in 1782, 
and named by Klaproth. 


TELODYNAMIC TRANSMITTER, in- 


1879 


vented by M. Hirn, is an arrangement of water-. 


wheels, endless wires, and pulleys, for conveying 
and using the power of water-falls at a distance, 
and has been much used since 1850. ‘The apparatus 
was shown at Paris in 1862. 


TELPHERAGEH, an application of electrical 
motion, invented by Mr. Fleeming Jenkin, aided by 
professors Ayrton and Perry, for conveying heavy 
goods, 2d. a ton per mile, 4 miles an hour, shown 
at Millwall, 1884. 


TEMESWAR (Hungary), capital of the Banat, 
often besieged by the Turks. On Io Aug. 1849, 
Haynau totally defeated the Hungarians besieging 
this town, and virtually ended the war. 


1805-14 | 


. 1822 | 


TEMNOGRAPH, an instrument desizned 1 
plot to any accurate scale a section of the groun 
over which it travels. It works by friction: 
motion governed by two pendulous weights. Ip 
vented by A. M. Rymer-Jones in 1879. 


TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES originate 
with Mr. Calhoun, who, while he was secretary « 
war in America, in order to counteract the habitu; 
use of ardent spirits among the people, prohibite 
them altogether in the United States’ army, 181! 
See Teetotaler, and Permissive Bill. 

The first public temperance society in America was 


projected in 1825, and formed - 13 Feb, 18: 
Many temperance societies immediately afterwards 
formed in America, England, and Scotland. 
British and foreign temperance society formed, 
2o June, 18: 
The ‘‘Rechabites” (see Jer. xxxv.) began . about 13: 
| In Ireiand, the rey. Dr. Edgar, of Belfast, published 
upon temperance in 1829-31; and rather Mathew, 
a Roman catholic clergyman, affirmed that he had 
made more than a million of converts to temper- 
ance . . : % ‘ A £ : «haat Oe 
| Father Mathew arrived in America in July, 1849; 
was notso successful there ; he died, aged 66, 8 Dee. 13: 
| In England, the National temperance society, . 
formed z ns F 3 3 % . 184 
' London temperance league . : : : SE 
The United Kingdom alliance for the legislative 
suppression of the sale of intoxicating liquors, 
1 June, 18: 
Mr. J. B. Gough lectures in-London, &c. ‘ Jae 
The National union for suppression of intemperance 
by means of ‘‘few houses, shorter hours, and 
better provisions,” established end of . 5 Aa 
Church of England temperance society inaugurated 
by the archbishop of Canterbury and others at 
Lambeth : : . : : . 18 Feb. 187 
A Temperance hospital, where no alcoholic drinks 
are to be given for disease, was opened 6 Octae 
British Women’s temperance association inaugu- 
rated at Newcastle-on-Tyne . A . April 187 


Mr. J. B. Gough lectures in London, 
Sept. 1878 ; Oct. 187 


| London Temperance Hospital, Hampstead-road, 


London, building (21,0001. out of 30,0c001. sub- 

seribed) . A 4 . : . Sept: &,3 
International exhibition of objects connected with 

temperance opened at the Agricultural hall, Is- 


lington A f : : ; ; 22 Aug. 188 
The Green and Blue Ribbon Armies of persons advo- 
eating temperance was prominentin . $ . 188 


A Yellow Army of moderate drinkers proposed (gen. 
Hicks) ‘ a : ‘ - about Sept. ~,, 

National Temperance Jubilee at the Crystal Palace; 
above 50,000 present F ; - . 3 Sepiaae 

International temperance conferences: Brussels, 
1880; London 4 . : . 168 


TEMPERED GLASS, see Glass. 


TEMPLARS. The military order of ‘ soldier 
of the ‘lemple,’’ to protect pilgrims, was founde 
about 1118 by Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem 
confirmed by pope Honorius II., 1128. The Tem 
plars were numerous in several countries, and cami 
to England before 1185. Their wealth having ex: 
cited the cupidity of. the French kings, the orde 
was suppressed by the council of Vienne, and par 
of its revenues was bestowed upon other orders abou 
1312. Numbers of the order were tried, condemned 
and burned alive or hanged in 1308-10, and i 
suffered much persecution throughout ones 6§ 
knights were burnt at Paris, 1310. Pope Clemen 
V. abolished the order, April, 1312. The granc 
master Molay was burnt alive at Paris, 18 March. 
1314. Their property in England was given to th 
Hospitallers, and the head of the order in Englanc 
died in the Tower. See Good Templars. 


TEMPLE (London), the dwelling of the 
Knights ‘lemplars, consecrated by Heraclius, patri. 
arch of Jerusalem, 1185, at the suppression of the 


++ 
sa 
e 
u 
’ 


TEMPLES. 


ler, was purchased by the professors of the. 


nmon law, and cenverted into inns, 1311, after- 
rds called the Inner and Middle Temple. Essex 
use, also a part of the house of the Templars, 
is called the Outer Temple, because it was 
uated without Temple-bar. 


e Tenvple hall was builtin. : ; : me 
Mary’s, or the Temple Church, situated in the 
nner Temple, is a Gothic stone building, erected 
yy the Templars in 1240, and isremarkable for its 
ireular vestibule, and for the tombs of the 
rusaders, who were buried here. The church 
vas recased with stone by Mr. Smirke in . 1828 
e new Middle Temple library was opened by the 
ince of Wales : : , : . 3r Oct. 1861 
w Inner Temple hall opened by princess Louise, 

14 May, 1870 
niversary of cousecration, celebrated by Mr. EK. 
. Hopkins A Z . 10 Feb, 1885 
MPLE BAR, erected outside the gates; ordered to 
ve rebuilt 27 June, 1669; erected by sir C. Wren; 
ompleted March 1672-3; cost 13971. 10s.; room 
‘bove contained books of Child and Co. for 200 
ears; reported dangerous March, 1868; began 
o sink 30 July; shored up . ee ; - 1868 
removal voted by the common council, 27 Sept. 
876; the removal began 2 Jan., 1878 ; last stones 
emoved, 13 June, 1879 (set up in Epping Forest). 
@ memorial to mark the site (including statues 
f the queen and prince of Wales); cost about 
1,550l.; inaugurated by prince Leopold, 8 Noy. 
‘emple” at Paris, formerly an asylum for debtors, 
nda prison during the republic, was made the 
ite of a market in 1809, and rebuilt in 1864. 
2 “City Temple,” a dissenters’ chapel (minister, 
Jr. Parker), near Holborn Viaduct, was opened, 

19 May, 1874 
[TEMPLES originated in the sepulchres built 
the dead.— Eusebius. The Egyptians were the 
it who erected temples to the gods.— Herodotus. 
e first erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion. 
Apollonius. 
e temple of Jerusalem built by Solomon, ror2 B.c. ; 
onsecrated 1004; pillaged by Shishak, 971; repaired 
yy Joash, 856; profaned by Ahaz, 740; restored by 
dezekiah, 726; pillaged and fired by Nebuchadnezzar, 
88, 587; rebuilt, 536; pillaged by Antiochus, 170; 
ebuilt by Herod, 18 ; destroyed by Titus, a.p. 70. 
2 temple of Apollo, at Delphi, first a cottage with 
joughs, built of stone by Trophonius, about 1200 B.¢. ; 
yurnt by the Pisistratidze, 548; a new temple raised by 
he family of the Alemzonidze, about 513. 
nple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times ; planned 
yy Ctesiphon, 544 B.c.; fired by Eratostratus or 
lerostratus, to perpetuate his name, 356 B.c.; to re- 
tuild it employed 220 years; destroyed by the Goths, 
.D. 260. 
2 temple of Piety was built by Acilius, on the spot 
rhere once a woman had fed with her milk her aged 
ather, whom the senate had imprisoned, and excluded 
rom all aliments.—Val. Maa. 
nple of Theseus, built 480 B.c., is at this day the most 
erfect ancient edifice in the world. 
st of the heathen temples were destroyed throughout 
ie Roman empire by Constantine the Great and Theo- 
Osius, 331-392, See separate articles. 


TENANT, see Rent. Bills to amend the posi- 
iof Irish tenants in relation to their landlords 
‘e brought into parliament by Mr. Sharman 
~wford, 1835, sir Joseph Napier, 1852, Mr. Card- 
1, 1860, Mr. Chichester Fortescue, 1866, Lord 
as, 1867. ‘The Irish land bill settling the ques- 
1 passed 8 July, 1870. See Ulster. 


TENASSERIM (N.E. India), ceded by Bur- 
/h to the British, 24 Feb. 1826. 

TENERIFFE (Canaries, N.W. coast of Africa). 
» peak of Teneriffe, 15,396 feet above the level of 
Sea, was ascended in 18 6 by professor C. Piazzi 
yth for astronomical observations. An earth- 
_ke in this island destroyed several towns and 
‘ay thousands of people in 1704. See Santa Cruz. 


2 


1880 


817 


TEST ACT. 


TEN MINUTES’ BILL, see Reform. 
TENNESSEE, a southern state of North 


America, was settled about 1760, and admitted into 
the union 1 June, 1796. An ordinance of secession 
from the union was passed—it is asserted illegally 
—on 6 May, 1861. On 23 Feb. 1862, the federal 
general Nelson entered Nashville, and in March, 
Andrew Johnson (afterwards the president of the 
United States) was made military governor over a 
large part of Tennessee. In Sept. 1863, Rosencrans 
expelled the confederate government. The repre- 
sentatives of Tennessee were re-admitted to the 
congress, July, 1866. 

TENNIS. This game, brought from France, 
became fashionable in England in the reign of 
Charles II. 1660-85; see Jeu de Paume. ‘Lawn 
Tennis’? became fashionable in 1877, replacing 
croquet. Julian Marshall's ‘‘ Annals of Tennis ’”’ 
published June, 1878. 


TEN TABLES, see Decemvirs. 
TENTERDEN’S ACT, Lorp, 2 & 3 Will. IV. 


c. 71, for shortening the time of prescription in 
certain cases (such as rights of way, and use of 
light), passed 1 Aug. 1832. 


TEN THOUSAND, see Retreat. 
TENTHS, see Zithes. 
TENURES, the mode in which land is held. 


Military tenures in England were abolished in 
1660. Lyttelton’s book on Tenures is dated 1481. 


TERBIUM, a metal sometimes found with 
yttrium (which see). 


TERCEIRA, see Azores. 


TERMS or Law AND VACATIONS. They 
were instituted in England from the Norman usage, 
the long vacation being suited to the time of the 
vintage in France, 14 Will. I. 1079.—Glanville de 
Leg. Anglic. They were gradually formed,—Spel- 
man. 'The terms were fixed by statute 11 Geo. IV. 
and I Will. IV. 22 July, 1830: Hilary Term to 
begin 11 Jan. and end 31 Jan.; Haster, 15 April, 
to end 8 May; Trinity, 22 May, to end 12 June; 
Michaelmas, 2 Nov. to end 25 Nov. This act was 
amended 1 Will. IV. 15 Nov. 1830. New law terms 
(now sittings) were appointed under the Supreme 
Court of Judicature Act, passed 5 Aug. 1873. 
Michaelmas sittings: 2 Nov. to 21 Dec. 

Hilary: 11 Jan. to Wednesday in Passion week. 

Easter : Thursday in Easter week to Friday before Whit- 
Sunday. 

Trinity: Tuesday after Whit-Sunday to 8 Aug. 

The new legal vacations ordered to be as follows :— 
Christmas: 24 Dec. to 6 Jan. Easter: Good Friday 
to Easter-Tuesday. Whitsun: Saturday before Whit- 
Sunday to Whit-Tuesday. Long vacation: ro Aug. to 

- 24 Oct. 


TERNOVA, see Tirnova. 
TERRA DEL FUEGO, see Missions. 


TERRITORIAL WATERS JURISDIC- 
TION ACT, passed, 16 Aug. 1878. It regulates 
the law relating to the trial of offences committed 
on the sea within a certain distance of the coasts of 
her majesty’s dominions. 


TERROR, see Reign of. 
TEST ACT, directing all officers, civil and mili- 


tary, under government, to receive the sacrament 
according to the forms of the church of England, 
and to take the oaths against transubstantiation, 
&e.; enacted 29 March, 1673. The Test and Cor- 
ee acts were repealed, 9 May, 1828. See 
niversity Tests. 
3G 


TESTAMENT. 


TESTAMENT, see Bidles, and Mills. 


TESTER, testone, a silver coin struck in France 
by Louis XII. 1513; and also in Scotland in the 
time of Francis II. and of Mary, queen of Scots, 
1559. It was so called from the head of the king, 
stamped upon it. In England the tester was of 12d. 
value in the reign of Henry VIII., afterwards of 
6d. (still called a tester). 


TESTRI (N. France). Pepin d’Heristal, in- 
vited by malcontents, here defeated and captured 
Thierry III., king of Austrasia, and established 
himself as duke, 687. 


TETTENHALL (Staffordshire). It was pre- 
bably at this place, then named Teotenheal, that 
the Danes were defeated by the Saxon king, Edward 
the Elder, 6 Aug. gIo. 


TETUAN (Morocco) was entered by the Span- 
iards 6 Feb. 1860, after gaining a decisive victory 
on 4 Feb. The general O'Donnell, was made a 
grandee of the first class. 


TEUTOBERG FOREST (the Teutobergiensis 
saltus, Tacitus), probably situate between Detmold 
and Paderborn, where Hermann, or Arminius, and 
the Germans defeated the Romans under Varus, 
with very great slaughter, A.D.g. Varus and many 
of his officers preferred suicide to captivity. This 
defeat was regarded at Rome as a national calamity, 
and Augustus, in agony, cried, ‘‘ Varus, give me 
my legions !”’ 


TEUTONES, a people of Germany, who with 
the Cimbri made incursions upon Gaul, and cut to 
pieces two Roman armies, 113 and 105 B.c. They 
were at last defeated by the consul Marius at Aix, 
and a great number made prisoners, 102 B.C. (see 
Cimbri), with whom authors commonly join the 
Teutones. The appellation came to be applied to 
the German nation in general (hence Deutsche). 


TEUTONIC ORDER, military knights estab- 
lished in the Holy Land about 1191, through the 
humanity of the Germans (Teutones) to the sick 
and wounded of the Christian army in the Holy 
Land, under Guy of Lusignan, before Acre. The 
order was confirmed by a bull of pope Cceles- 
tine III. On their return to Germany, the knights 
were invited to subdue and christianise the country 
now called Prussia and its neighbourhood, which 
they gradually accomplished. Their territories were 
invaded, and their army was defeated, with great 
slaughter, near Tannenberg, in East Prussia, by 
Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, 15 July, 1410, when the 
grand master and many of the knights were slain. 
A large part of their possessions was incorporated 
into Poland in 1466, and into Brandenburg about 
1521. In 1525, the grand master was made a 
prince of the empire, and the order much weakened. 
Its remaining possessions were seized by Napoleon I. 
in 1809. See Prussia, &c. 


TEWKESBURY (Gloucestershire), where Ed- 
ward IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lan- 
castrians, 4 May, 1471. Queen Margaret, the consort 
of Henry VI. was taken prisoner and her son killed. 
The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, 
where king Henry expired soon after this fatal engage- 
ment; being, as is generally supposed, murdered 
hy the duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III. 
‘The queen was ransomed in 1475 by the French 
king, Louis XI., for 50,000 crowns. See Roses. 

The abbey, founded by Robert Fitz-Hamon, cousin of 
William I., completed and consecrated 1123 ; grandly 
altered, 14th century ; a monastery destroyed by 
Henry VIII. ; the abbey spared ; restored by G. G. 
£eott, 1877-9. 


818 


THAMES. 


TEXAS (N. America) was settled by the French, 
1687, who were expelled soon after. It revolted 
from Mexico in 1835; was helped by the Americans 
in 1836. Its independence was acknowledged in 
1840. Its proposed annexation led to war between 
Mexico and the United States. It was admitted 
into the Union by the latter in 1846; seceded from 
it in 1861; submitted in 1865; re-admitted to state 
rights, March, 1870. The coast was desolated by a 
great storm, 15-18 Sept. 1875. See Storms. 


TEXEL (at the mouth of the Zuyder Zee, Hol- 
land). Its vicinity has been the scene of memorable 
naval engagements. An engagement between 
the English under Blake, Dean, and Monk, and 
the Dutch under Van Tromp and De Ruyter, in 
which the latter were worsted and admiral Van 
Tromp was killed, 31 July, 1653. Again, in the 
mouth of the Texel a sharp indecisive action took 
place between the allied English and French fleets 
under prince Rupert and comte d’Estrees, and the 
Dutch fleet under De Ruyter, 11 Aug. 1673. The 
Dutch fleet was vanquished by admiral Dunean 
on II Oct. 1797; see Camperdown. ‘The Dutch fleet 
of 12 ships of war and thirteen Indiamen surren- 
dered to admiral Mitchell, who, entering the Texel, 
possessed himself of them without firing a shot, 30 
Aug. 1799. 


THALLIUM, a metal, occurring in the sulphu- 
ric acid manufacture, discovered by Mr. Wm.Crookes, 
by means of the spectrum analysis, March, 1861. 


THAMES (London), the Roman Tamesis or 
Tamesa, Saxon Temese, Temesa, rises in four 
springs, at Ullen farm, near Coates, Gloucestershire. 
The head of the river in Wiltshire is about 170 
miles from London bridge, and its whole course 
from source to mouth about 220 miles. See London 
and London-bridge. 

The river rose so high at Westminster that the 

lawyers were brought out of the hallin boats. . 1235 
It rose to a great height, 1736, 1747, 1762 Sy ; I 
The conservation of the Thames was given to the 

mayors of London . 3 2 5 : . 1489 
The Thames was made navigable to Oxford . 1624, 
It ebbed and flowed twice in three hours, 1658 ; 

again, three times in fours hours, 22 March, 1682; 

again, twice in three hours . . 24 Nov. 19777 
An act of parliament gave the conservation of the 

Thames to the corporation of London ; twelve 

conservators were to be- appointed—three by the 

government F ; : j : : -e 
In consequence of the great contamination of the 

Thames by the influx of the sewage of London, 

and the bad odours emanating from it in the 

summer of 1858, an act was passed empowering 
the Metropolitan Board of Works (which see) to 
undertake its purification by constructing new 

drainage . : ; : 5 : ; : a 
The Thames Angling Preservation Society (estab- 

lished about 1838) is revived in « 3 ae 
Mr. Leach, engineer of the conservators, reported 

that ‘‘ the river is dreadfully mismanaged from its 
source to its mouth ” : - 23 July, 55° | 
The Thames navigation acts, appointing five more 
conservators, &c., and prohibiting pollution by 
sewage, &c., passed : : - : Aug. 
The powers of the act extended up to Staines 
New bDye-laws to protect the fish in the Upper : 

Thames passed by the conservators 14 June, 
Highest tide known for many years; river over- 

flowed from Gravesend to its tidal limit; great 

damage and distress in Blackfriars and Lambeth ; 

Woolwich arsenal flooded and suffered; river 

said to have risen above 29 feet 15 Noy., 
The lord mayor and others (with carriages and 

horses) cross by ferry from Rotherhithe to Wap- 

ping. : . : : . “rNOWS” 5, 
Thames Steam Ferry ; first pile of a landing-place at 

Wapping struck by Lord Mayor Stone, 11 Oct., 

1875; first steam ferry boat, Jessie May, 

launched ae ow) oe 8 SORGII 2s 876 


1858 
1863 


- 


THAMES. 


| consequence of the wreck of the saloon steamer 
Princess Alice, by collision with the Bywell Castle, 
3 Sept., a committee appointed by the Board of 
Trade to inquire into matters connected with 
safety of navigation, &c., in the river Sept. 
oods on the south side, through heavy rains and 
high tides, 2, 3, Jan. 1877; during severe frost, 
18, 19 Jan. 
ary high tide, 19 Feb. ; another, very destructive, 
Charing Cross pier carried away . 28 Oct. 
ppointment of committee to inquire into the acts 
for preserving the Thames for recreation agreed 
to . - : ; - A A rz March, 


AMES TUNNEL. One proposed, 1799; shaft 
sunk, 1804. The present one proposed by I. K. 
Brunel to form a communication between 
Rotherhithe and Wapping, 1823. The bill re- 
ceived the royal assent : : Seman Une. 
1e shaft was begun, and the first brick laid by Mr. 
Smith, 2 March; the excavation commenced, 1 
April; the first horizontal excavation in Dec. 
3a distance of 544 feet from the shaft, the tirst 
irruption took place : ; : 18 May, 
ie second irruption, by which six workmen 
perished P ‘ . ; : ; 12 Jan. 
1e tunnel was opened throughout for foot-passen- 
gers, 25 March, 1843. [The length of the tunnel 
is 1300 feet ; its width is 35 feet ; height, 20 feet ; 
slear width of each archway, including foot-path, 
about 14 feet; thickness of earth between the 
erown of the tunnel and the bed of the river, about 
15 feet. ] 

ie Thames Tunnel Company was dissolved in 
ie tunnel, transferred to the East London railway 
company, was closed cS - . 21 July, 
ie Tower subway, an iron tube tunnel beneath the 
Thames, constructed by Messrs. Barlow, was 
begun 16 Feb. 1869, and privately opened, April, 
1870. It was said to have cost only 16,o00l. 
tubular Thames tunnel, chiefly for workmen, be- 
sween North and South Woolwich, begun 23 Aug., 


‘AMES EMBANKMENT : recommended by sir 
Jhristopher Wren, 1666, and by Wm. Paterson, 
‘ounder of the bank of England, about 1694. The 
sorporation embanked a mile in 1767. It was 
‘urther recommended by Gwynne, 1767; by sir 
frederick Eden, 1798 ; by sir Frederick Trench, 
‘824; by James Walker; by the duke of New- 
vastle, 1844; and by John Martin the painter, 
1856. In 1860, the Metropolitan Board of Works 
‘ecommended that the north bank of the Thames 
thould be embanked, whereby the bed of the 
‘iver would be improyed; a low-level sewer 
‘ould be easily constructed beneath a broad 
 dadlway docks to be constructed within the 
mbankment wall ; the expense to be defrayed by 
he city duties on coal, and by means provided by 
‘overnment. The principle of this recommenda- 
ion Was approved by parliament, and a committee 
‘vas appointed, which sat for the first time, 
30 April, 
act for “‘embanking the North side of the 
koe from Westminster bridge to Blackfriars 
ridge, and for making new streets in and near 


eres passed 7 Aug. ; the work begun in Nov. 


st stone of the northern (Victoria) embank- 
rent laid by Mr. Thwaites near Whitehall stairs, 
‘oJuly, 1864; the footway opened to the public, 
-o July, 1868 ; the roadway opened by the prince 
fWales — : . ; : 13 July, 
'} proposal to build public offices upon the re- 
) laimed land negatived by the house of apne 
July, 

leopatra’s Needle ” (see Obelisk), set up on the 
| mbankment 2 é : : . r2Sept. 
| J. W. Bazalgette presented a report, with a 
lan for embanking the Sowth side of the Thames, 

' Nov. 1862; act for carrying it out passed, 
~ 28 July, 
‘thern (Albert) Embankment. First stone laid by 
[r. (aft. sir Wm.) Tite, 28 July, 1866 ; partially 
‘pened : , ; : : : 24 Nov. 
lsea (Victoria) Embankment. Authorised by 
‘arliament, 13 July, 1868; commenced 5 Aug., 
871, opened by. the duke of Edinburgh 9 May, 


819 


. 1866 


1876 


1861 


1862 


1869 


1874 


THEATRES. 


Savoy theatre opened 
Avenue theatre opened 5 - 
Thames Mystery. See London, 1873. 


THANE, a Saxon title of nobility, abolished in 
England at the conquest, upon the introduction 
of the feudal system, and in Scotland by king Mal- 
colm III., when the title of earl was adopted, 1057. 


THANET (Kent) was the first permanent 
settlement of the Saxons, about 449. The Danes 


ge a part of it, 853-865, and ravaged it 980, 988 
et seq. 


THANKSGIVINGS, special national, were 
offered up at St. Paul’s cathedral for the defeat of 
Spanish Armada, queen Elizabeth present, 8 Sept. 
and 24th Nov. 1588; for Marlborough’s victories, 
12 Nov. 1702, and 7 Sept. 1704; for George III.’s 
recovery from illness, 23 April, 1789; for Duncan’s 
and other naval victories, 19 Dec. 1797; and for 
the recovery of the prince of Wales, 27 Feb. 1872. 


THAPSUS (N. Africa). Near here Julius 
Cesar totally defeated the army of the party which 
supported the policy of Pompey, Feb. 46 B.c. The 
suicide of Cato followed soon after. 


THEATINES, a religious order, the first who 
assumed the title of regular clerks, founded by 
Caraffa, bishop of Theate, or Chieti, in Naples 
(afterwards pope Paul IV.), 1524, to repress heresy. 
They first established themselves in France, ac- 
cording to Hénault, in Paris, 1644. The Theatines 
vainly endeavoured to revive among the clergy the 
poverty of the apostles. 


THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, 
built by Philos, 420 B.c., is said to have been the 
first erected. Marcellus’ theatre at Rome was 
begun by Cesar, and dedicated by Augustus, 12 
B.C. Theatres were erected in most cities of Italy. 
Most of the inhabitants of Pompeii were assembléd 
at a theatre on the night of 24 Aug. 79, when an 
eruption of Vesuvius covered the city. Scenes were 
introduced into theatres, painted by Balthazar 
Sienna, A.D. 1533. See Drama, Plays, &e. 


THEATRES 1n ENGLAND. The first royal 
licence for a theatre in England was in 1574, to 
master Burbage and four others, servants of the 
earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bank- 
side; see Globe. The prices of admission in the 
reign of queen Elizabeth were—gallery, 2d. ; lords’ 
rooms, Is.; see Drama, Drury Lane, and other 
theatres. The theatres were closed by parliament, 
1642-60. Introduction of the queue, as at French 
theatres, by Mr. Doyly Carte, at the Savoy, 29 Dec. 
1882. 

The first play-bill was dated 8 April, 1663, and 
issued from Drury-lane ; it runs thus: ‘By his 
Majestie his company of Comedians at the New 
Theatre in Drury-lane, will be acted a comedy 
called the Humovrous Lievtenant.” After detailing 
the characters, it concludes thus : “ The play will 
begin at three o’clock exactly” —, . 8 April, 

Lincoln’s-inn theatre (the duke’s theatre) opened by 
sir Wm. Davenant’s patent, 25 April, 1662; 
rebuilt : : : : - : : 

Acts for licensing plays and play-houses (placing 
them under the lord chamberlain) 10 Geo. II. 


to Oct. 1881 
1z March, 1882 


1663 


1695 


Cc. 28 . waits : : : : . ceo: Ayey) 
Act for regulating theatres (6 & 7 Vict. c. 68), 
22 Aug. 1843 
See Trials, 1843. 
Marionettes or Puppets produced at the Adelaide 
Gallery ; Z " ? ; : ‘ Cake 
Several of the theatres first opened on Sunday 
evenings for religious worship, and filled . Jan. 
Lord Chamberlain warned managers against inde- 
cent dances and scanty dresses 28 Jan. 1869 and 
21 Dec. 1874 
Ga 2 


1852 
1860 


THEATRES. 8 


0 THEATRES. 


Theatres in Great Britain, 166; in London, 33, 
summer of 1868; in London, 45, Jan. 1876; in 
London, 57, ¢ capable of holding 126,100 persons 


June, 1878 ; in London, 43 . Jan. 1885 
DRURY LANE. 

Killigrew’s patent 25 April, 1662 

Opened . 8 April, 1663 

Nell Gwynn performed : . 1666 

Theatre burnt down with 60 houses Jan. 1672 


Rebuilt by sir C. Wren, and nee 26 aes 


Cibber, Wilkes, Booth . 


Garrick’ Ss début here » 1742 
Garrick and Lacy’s tenure (revival of Shakspeare) . 1747 
Theatrical fund founded a Mr. Garrick, 1766 ; in- 
corporated . 2 1775 
Interior rebuilt by Adams ; 4 opened 23 ‘Sept. 5p 
Garrick’s farewell ‘ ro June, 1776 
Sheridan’s management Q Bevin hs 
Mrs. Siddons’ début as a star - to Oct. 1782 
Mr. Kemble’s début as Hamlet . 30 Sept. 1783 


The theatre rebuilt on a large scale, and re-opened, 
12 March, 


Charles Kemble’s first appearance (as Malcolm in 


Macbeth) 2TeADTIL, ees 
Dowton’s first appearance (as Sheva in the Jew), 
rr Oct. 1796 
Hatfield fired at George III. . 11 May, 1800 


The theatre burnt 24 Feb. 


‘ 1809 
Rebuilt by Wyatt, and re- -opened with a petioeue 


by lord Byron . - zo Oct. 1812 
Edmund Kean’s appear ance (as Shylock) 26 Jan. 1814 
Mr. Elliston, lessee 3 Oct. 1819 
Madame Vestris’s first appearance 19 Feb. 1820 
Real water introduced in the Cataract of the Ganges, 

27 Oct. 1823 
Mr. Price, lessee July, 1826 
Bllen Tree’s appearance (as Viola nte) ZEVISIIIN Gs 
Charles Kean’s appearance (as Norval) 1 Oct. 1827 


Mrs. Nisbet's first appearance (as the Widow Cheerly) 

9 Oct. 1820 

Mr. Alexander Lee’s and captain Polhill’s cia 

ment . 4 F r . 1830 

Mr. Alfred Bunn, lessee . 1831 
Mr. Forrest’s first appearance (as Spartacus), 


17 Oct. 1836 
Mr. Hammond’s management P : Ae pss, 
German operas commenced here rat 5 are 1841 
Mr. Macready’s management ; " 
Mr. Bunn, again lessee. . 1843 
Miss Clara Webster burnt on ‘the stage, 14 Dec.; 
and died . ; 4 16 Dee. 1844 
Mr. Anderson’s management . . 1849 
Mr. Macready’s farewell 26 Feb. 1851 
Mr. Bunn, lessee and manager . . 1852 
Mr. E.T. Smith. + 1853-9 
English opera (Mr. Harrison and Miss Pyne) « . 1858 
Italian opera, part of - 1859-78 


Opened by Mr. E. T. Smith . - 15 Oct. 1860 
Suddenly closed 20 April, 186z 
Mr. G. V. Brooke appears (as Othello) 27 Oct. ,, 

[Drowned in the London: see Wrecks, rx Jan. 1866.] 
Mr. Falconer Dec. 1862-1865 
Messrs. Falconer. ‘and Chatterton, managers, Jan. 1866 
Re-opened with Halliday’s King o’ Scots, 26 Sept ,, 
Re-opened with Antony and Cleopatra 20 Sept. 1873 
Balfe’s posthumous Talisman produced sr June, 1874 

Balfe’s statue uncovered . 25 Sept. 4; 
Salvini as Othello 1 April ; 31 May, 1875 
Wagner’s Lohengrin - r2dune, 
Boucicault’s new drama the Shaughrawn produced 
4 Sept. ,, 

- 1876-78 


as H amlet 


? 


Manager and lessee, F. B. Chatterton . 
Re- opened with Richard III. 23 Sept. 1876 
Mr. Wills’s Charles II: . 24 Sept. 1877 
Theatre suddenly closed ; ‘strike of actors, &e. 
4 Feb. 1879 

Saxe-Meiningen Court Company (Germans), talide 
Cesur 30 May et seg. 1881 
Mad. Ristori as Lady Macbeth . - July, 1882 
Mr. Augustus Harris, lessee and manager Sept. 1879-85 


Carl Rosa’s Opera company, part of - 1883-5 
COVENT GARDEN, 

The theatre opened by Rich. 7 Dec. 1732 

Beef-steak Society, founded by Rich and Canbens 1735 

Theatrical fund instituted #760; ote - 1764 

Mr. Harris’s tenure . - 1767 


Lewis’s first appearance (as Belcowr) 15 Sept. 1773 
Miss Reay killed by Mr. Hackman, coming from 
the house 7 April, 


1779 
Jack Johnstone’s first appear ance in Irish eae acters 


3 Oct. 1783 
Munden’s appearance 2 Dec. 1790 
Fawcett’s first appearance (as Caleb) : 21 Sept. 170% 
G. F. Cooke’s appearance ae Richard III.), 31 Oct. 1800 
Brahain’s appearance < 9 Dec. 1801 
Mr. Kemble’s management . 1802 


Appearance of Master Betty, the Infant “Roscius, 


t Dee. 1804 
Lewis’s last appearance (as the Copper Captain, 

8 May, 1808 
Theatre burnt down . 20 Sept. ,, 


Rebuilt by R. Smirke, R. Xr ‘and re- -opened with 


Macbeth ? : 18 Sept. 1809 
The O. P. Riot (which see) . . 18 Sept. to ro Dec. ,, 
Horses first introduced ; in Bluebeard 18 Feb. 1811 


The farewell benefit of Mrs. Siddons (immense house) 

2g June, 1812 
Mrs. Siddons performed once afterwards, in June, 

1819, for Mr. and Mrs. C. Kemble’s benefit. 
Miss Stephens’ first appearance (as Mandane), 
Sept. 1873 

Miss Foote’s appearance here (as Amanthis), 

26 May, 1814 
Miss O’Neill’s appearance (as Juliet) 6.Octhias, 
Miss Kelly fired at by George Barnet, in the house, 


7 Feb. 1816 
Mr. Macready’s first appearance (as Oreste 
16 Sept. ,, 
Mr. J. P. Kemble’s farewell (as Coriolanus), 
23 Juné, 1817 
Henry Harris’s management = i é oan ES 
Charles Kemble’s management 1823 
Miss Fanny Kemble’s gies (as Fuliet), P Oct. 1829 
Mr. Fawcett’s farewell . : 1 May, 1830 
Charles Young’s far ewell . * * oe are » 1832 
Mr. Macready’s management : s 3 - 1837 
Madame Vestris’s management 5 1839 
Miss Adelaide Kemble’s appearance (as Norma), 
2 Nov. 1841 
Charles Kemble again , : - - itoSept. 1842 
Mr. Laurent’s management . 26 Tec. 1844 
Opened by F. Gye for Italian opera 6 April, 1847 
Destroyed by fire (during a bal masqué, conducted 
by Anderson the Wizard) . : 5 March, 1856 
New theatre (by Barry) opened by Mr. F. tye (Les 
Huguenots) . May, 1858 
English opera (Miss Pyne and Mr. Haresont Oct. 1859 
All principal actors perform parts of plays for the 
benefit of the Dramatic College 29 March, 186c 
Balfe’s Bianca brought out 6 Decm 
Italian opera (Mr. Gye) April, 1861 
Last appearance of Grisi . » “3 Ang F 
English opera (Pyne and Harrison) - . 31 OCk® Ff 
Italian opera (Mr. Gye). April, 1862 
English opera (Pyne van Harrison) | 25 Aug. ;, 
Italian opera (Mr. Gye) 7 April, 186: 
Gounod’s Faust . - Ulyee se 
English opera (Pyne and Harrison) . 12 Oct & 
Italian opera (Mr. Gye) . April, 1864 
English opera, &c. (Opera Company, Limited), . 
P17 Otte F 
Italian opera (Mr. Gye) 28 April, 186: 
Becomes the property of a company, Mr. a 
manager ae ” 
Reopened (Mr. Gy e) April, 1866 ; a2 April, 186 
_ 3x March, ; 1868 
Opened by Mr. Mapleson’s company . 24 Oct. ‘a 
Opera season (Gye and Mapleson) 29 May, 186¢ 
Mr. Dion Boucicault lessee and manager 29 Aug. 187: 
Italian opera. 1873°! 
Mr. F. Gye, many years lessee, died through acci- | 
dent with gun P e P : 5 Dec. 187! 


A. & 8. Gatti, managers “ c c - » Deer 5, 
Mr. Lionel Gye, lessee 6 1878-8 
** Royal English Bay "under Mr. T. H. Friend ; 

short season. ae Jan. 188. 
Sig. Salvini’s company, " Othello, &e. 28 Feb. ,, 
Grand International cirque 26 Dec. et seq. 4, | 
William Holland, lessee and manager . . . 1884-, 


ITALIAN OPERA-HOUSE, OR HER MAJESTY'S THEATRE. : 
Opera-house opened. Pennant.’ (See Opera-house). 170 
The theatre was enlarged . 2 : 172 
Buntdown ,  . «> a  « « a7dume, 178 


7 _. |. i 
a ¥ . 
P mm * s 7 
oe 


5 


THEATRES. 821 THEATRES. 

built, and reopened F : . 22S8ept. 1791 | Peep o’ Day brought out 9 Nov. 1861 
terior improved by Mr. Nash . P . . 1818 | Mr. Fechter : Io Tens 1863 et seq. 
1e rilievo by Mr. Bubb : . . 182x | Japanese troupe . . Spring, 1868 
adame Rachel’s appearance to May, 1841 | Lord Lytton’s Rightful ‘Heir br ought out 3 Oct. ip 
r. Lumley’s management : P : 1842 | Mr. H. Irving as Hamlet (long ru) . 31 Oct. 1874 
nny Lind’s first appearance 4 May, 1847 5S Macbeth 25 Sept. 1875 
sociation formed for conducting financial ea Othello ; 14 Feb. 1876 
of the house é : . 1852 Tennyson’ Ss Queen Mary per formed to April, ,; 
llien’s concerts . ct. 1857 | Mr. H. L. Bateman, lessee and manager 1873- 
stive performances on the marriage “of the prin- Mrs. Bateman, ditto : 1876-8 
cess royal : . Jan, 1859 | Mr. H. Irving, lessee Sept. 1878-85 
acfarren’s Robin Hood brought out . 11 Oct. 1860 | Reopens with Hamlet . . 30 Dec. 1878 
[Not opened in 186r. ] Mr. Chippendale’s benefit (68 y ears on the stage), 

lian opera (Mr. Mapleson) . ; a - 1862-67 24 Feb. 1879 
int down ; great loss 6 Dec. 1867 | Much Ado about Nothing ; grand scenery . xx Oct. 1882 
‘built—its affairs in Chancery — . 1872 | Mr. Irving’s company visit United States 1883-4 


ld for 31,0001... ° 
[Lease to earl Dudley, till 1891. | 
ened for Italian opera by Mr. Mapleson 1877 et seq. 
Tl Rosa’s company, Wagner’ s operas, &e.,part of 1879-80 
rl Rosa, Wagner’s Lohengrin - 14 Jan. et seq. 1882 


20 "May, 1874 


a, x, Rossi as Lear A § é P . toJune, ,, 
HAYMARKET. 

ult : i + 1702 

ened by French comedians . " 29 Dec. 1720 

elding’s Mogul company 1734-5 


French company prohibited from acting by the 
uudience . ; a : A ; 1738 


. Foote’s patent : LTA 7, 
e Bottle-conjuror’s dupery (see Bottle Conjur or), 

16 Jan. 1748 

e theatre rebuilt . 4 x . 1767 

, Colman’s tenure 1 Jan. 1777 


ss Farren’s appearance here (afterwards countess 
of Derby) . ” 
yal visit—great crowd—16 persons killed and 


many wounded 3 Feb. 1794 
. Elliston’s début here : : 24 June, 1796 
‘st appearance of Mr. Mathews ‘(as Lingo) 16 May, 1803 
. Morris’s management. ; 1805 
ypearance of Mr. Liston (as Sheepfece) 8 une, re 
e tailors’ riot TeeAUg os; 
ypearance of Mr. Young (as Hamlet) 22 June, 1807 
Miss F. Kelly (as Floretia) : 12 June, 1810 
esent theatre rebuilt by Nash; opened 4 July, 1821 
ss Paton’s (Mrs. Wood) appearance (as Susannah), 
3 Aug. 1822 
. Webster’s management . 12 June, 1837 
Charles Kean’s appearance here 1839 
Webster's management (16 years) terminated 
vith his farewell appearance 14 March, 1853 
“st appearance of Owr American Cousin (said to be 
xy Tom Taylor, and to have been acted 800 times 
n America), Mr. Sothern, Lord Dundreary (played 
196 nights) an Z é . 11 Noy. 1861 
. Buckstone’s management . : 1853-76 
John 8. Clarke A eee Toze 
“opened ; pit removed, and other changes ; tem- 
oorary riot. : - : 31 Jan. 1880 
. & Mrs. Bancroft . 2 : : : 1879-85 
. ENGLISH OPERA-HOUSE, NOW LYCEUM. 
ilt by Dr. Arnold . : 1794-5 
nsor experiments with gas-lighting . ‘ 1803-4 
ened as the Lyceum in . , . 1809 
ypearance of Mr. Wrench (as Belcour) — mC CU AEE s 


-opened with an address by Miss Kelly 15 June, 1816 
yuse destroyed by fire : 346) Feb. 1830 
built, and re-opened 4 : 14 July, 1834 
uestrian performances. f A C a2 Jan. 1844 
's. Keeley’s management SES EAT, ey 
dame Vestris and Mr. C. Mathews’ management, 
Oct. 1847-56 
tirement of Mr. C. Mathews . : March, 1855 
jpearance of Madame Ristori. . June, 1856 
ken by Mr. Gye for Italian opera for for ty nights, 
14 April, 1857 


ened for English opera by Miss Louisa Pyne and 

Vir. Harrison ; 21 Sept. ,, 

ife's opera, Rose of Castile, produced ee OCiouare 
.G. Webster and Mr. Falconer, July, 1858 ; closed, 


April, 1859 
hed by Madame Celeste Noy. 1859, and Oct. 1860 
e “ Savage.Club” oe im before the queen and 
ace ; 4 A 7 March, ,, 
Tian opera . . S§June, 186r 
» Falconer, manager (English comedy) 19 Aug. ue 


lag 


Miss M. Anderson and American actors 


ADELPHI THEATRE. 
Formerly called the Sans Pureil, opened under the 
management of Mr. and Miss Scott . . 27 Nov. 1806 
Under Rodwell and J ones, who gave it the present 
name : . ‘ 2 1820-21 


. zr Sept. 1883 


Terry and Yates : : par O25 
Messrs. Mathews and Yates’ management join 
(Mathews at Home) . aes . 1828 


New front A we Todo 
Madame Celeste’s management 30 Sept. 1844 
Rebuilt and opened, with improved arrangements, 

27 Dec. 1858 


Colleen Bawn represented to Sept. 1860 
{Immense run; above 360 nights. ] : 
Miss Bateman appears as Leah, t Oct. 1863, to 
ir June, 1864 
Messrs. F. B. Chatterton and Mr. B. Webster, 
lessees ; . 1844- 73 
Messrs. Gatti, lessees and managers 1878-8 


ST. JAMES’S, LATE PRINCE’S. 
This theatre was built by and opened under the 
management of Mr. Braham . 14 Dee. 1835 
German. operas performed here under ‘the manage- 
ment of Mr. Bunn . . 1840 
Mr. Mitchell’s tenure ; per formance of French plays, 


22 Jan. 1844 
German plays : 4 : . 1852 
Mrs. Seymour’s tenure ~ . ‘22 Oet. 1854- ce 
French plays . * 2 ; : « 1857 
Neapolitan buffo- -opera ‘ , A ‘ . Noy. 
Italian plays . : A : 18 58 
French operas . s Jan. 1859 
French plays. Maye ss 


English comedy, under Mr. F. Chatterton, manager, 


Oct. Ri 
French plays . : ; 3 é - 28 May, 1860 

English plays a ; ; 3 et SEU 
Mr. Wigan, manager 3 : : 1860-2 
French plays “ , May, : 1868, “April, 1869 
French plays 1871-3 
The Iron Master Shey, ‘April, 1884 
Messrs. Hare & Kendal, lessees and managers - 1885 

PRINCESS’S THEATRE, OXFORD STREET. 
First opened for concerts . ‘ 3 Sept. 1840 
Sold for 16,400. Fi . 9 Sept. 1841 
Opened for plays by Mr. J. Maddox « 26 Dec. 1842 
Mr. Bartley’s farewell here - 18 Dec. 1852 
Mr. Charles Kean’s management, 1850; closed, 

29 Aug. 1859 

Mr. A. Harris’s management ; ake: 29 Sept. 4, 
Zouave Crimean company . , 23 July, 1860 
Mr. Fechter appears (as Hamlet) . 20 March, 1861 
’Mr. Harris, lessee . : - 1860-1 
Mr. Lindus, manager : 20 Oct. 1862 
Mr. G. Vining, lessee and manager. May, 1863-66 
Mr. F. B. Chatterton, lessee - 1872-78 
Carl Rosa’s Opera company : eee LOS 
Mr. Walter Gooch, lessee and manager 1878-81 


Closed for rebuilding, 19 May; rebuilt ; opened (1st 
appearance of Edwin Booth) ‘ . 6 Noy. 1880 


G. R. Sims’ Lights 0’ London Sept. 188r 
Mr. Wilson Barrett, lessee and manager . . Aug. 1883 
Claudian, by Herman and Wills. 6 Deer as 
OLYMPIC, 
Erected by the late Mr. Astley, and opened with 
horsemanship 18 Sept. 1806 


Here the celebrated Elliston ‘(181 3), and afterwards 
Madame Vestris, had managements; the latter 
until 3 é : : : : 


THEATRES. 822 THEATRES. 
Mr. George Wild’s tenure . 2 ‘: ‘ ws LO408 | OTHER THEATRES. 
Miss Davenport's tenure tr Nov. 1844 | Queen’s Theatre, Tottenham-court-road 132! 
Mr. Watts’s management 1848 | Garrick Theatre, Goodman’s-fields 8 RI 
The theatre destroyed by fire 29 March, 1849 | f ; i we a 
| City Theatre, Norton-Folgate 183° 
Rebuilt and opened—Mr. Watts resumes his man- Miss Kelly’s Theatre (since named Soho and Newt © 
agement ZO UGCHaEs. 
Mr. William Farren’s management 3 . 1850 Mar ebens, opened 8s ; , ; , ar ae 
Lessee and manager, Mr. A Wigan 17 Oct. 1853-7 Standard Theatre, built 1854; burnt, 2x Oct. 1866 ; j 
Messrs. Robson and Embden’s management, rebuilt : ; 1°65 
Nir Horace W loan muon Ang. pee Pavilion Theatre burnt . 23 Feb. x85¢ 
€ ge ger I fi Be } g 2 na at 
Teccte ro Wobater 368 Pe Dene peri square, vena, 1858 5 puri 
z : 2; and re-opened : ates Dec. 188< 
Lessee and manager, Miss Ada Cavendish peravon new Royalty (Soho) 31 Aug. 166: 
7 2 a 5 “s 
ain ee : Buckingha um produced. - =D ssi: 1875 Holborn Theatre (afterwards called the Mike or, and 
shee vig melee 4: . . - 1073-7 the Duke’s), opened, 16 Oct. 1866; burnt, 4 July, 188 
Mrs. A. Conover, present lessee (1885) | Royal Amphitheatre (for horses, "&e. hy Holborn, | 
opened : 25 May, 186; 
STRAND THEATRE. , ; 
N 
First opened—Mr. Rayner and Mrs, Waylett . —. 1831 | « oy Mast London a St. Martin's 2 all . 
Mr. William Farren’s management : - 1849 oF 
opened by Alfred Wigan . : aed Oct. 
Lessee, Mr. F. Alleroft ; manager, Mr. T. Pay ne . 18 55 | St. George’s Opera-house, Langham-place opened 4 
Lessee, Miss Swanborough : : ; - 1858-61 by Mr. “German Reed Gouna 20 ee Bee y | 
ae oe sen. ee tts Globe, Strand, opened 5 ne Be Now 1 66 
hae g : 1e Gaiety, Strand, opened 2x Decne! 
Rebuilt ; re-opened . ‘18 Nov. 1882 Charing Cross, opened . . . .. 19 JUMe; ZS6¢ 
Vaudeville, opened 16 April, 1&7c 
ASTLEY S AMPHITHEATRE. Opéra Comique, 299, Strand, opened. (for Malle. 
Built by Philip Astley, and opened . 1773 Déjazet) . 29 Oct.” ,, 
Destroyed by fire, with numerous adjacent houses, Court Theatre, Chelsea, opened 25 Jan. 1671 
17 Sept. 1794 | Royal Alexandra Theatre, Park- street, Camden 
Rebuilt . tare ie town, opened, 31 May, 1873; burnt . 10 Sept. 1881 
Burnt again, with forty “houses xr Sept. 1803 | Criterion, Regent's Circus, Piccadilly, opened by 
Ducrow’s management . : cehy, Sees Spiers and Pond, 21 March, 1874; closed, Feb. 
‘Again destroyed by fire . . .  . 8 June, 184r 1883 ; re-opened 4 Oct. 1884 
Rebuilt and re-opened by Mr. Batty 17 April, 1843 | National Opera House (wh ich see), founded 7 Sept. 
Lessee and manager, Mr. W. Cooke . 1855-60 and 16 Dee. 1875 
Mr. W. Cooke’s farewell benefit . 30 Jan. 1860 alae 2 ee pag ag as the “Folly” . 16 Oct. 187€ 
A man killed by a lion Jan. 1861 | ‘‘ Imperial theatre,” at Westminster Aquarium 1678 
Opened by Mr. Batty . 26 Dee wae Holborn theatre reopened as the ‘‘ Hay Connaught 
Opened by Mr. Boucicault, as the THEATRE Roy AL, theatre”. 1 Nov. 1879 
WESTMINSTER Crane ts Dec. 1862 | H.M.S. Pinafore, by W. ice "Gilbert, music tris 
Horsemanship and opera “(under Mr. E. T. Smith), Sullivan, muc h performed, 1878-9- 803 The Pirates 
June, 1865 of B enzance, by the same, at Opera Comique ; A 
Sold by auction... . a's ey sernoe 3 April, 1&80 
Savoy Theatre opened (which see) . 10 Oct, 1881 
CIRCUS, NOW SURREY THEATRE. Avenue Theatre, Thames Embankment, opened, j 
{Originally devoted to equestrian exercises, under Prince’s Theatre, Coventry Street One sai .? 
Mr. Hughes] : : 4 Nov. 1782 : . : oe 
Opened for performances 4 Nov. 1783 en Alnarites Theatre opened .  . 4 Deo ‘F 
Destroyed by fire ; : Aug. 18 : . aie | 
Mr. llist ae mataeacantage nie “s et Empire Theatre, formerly Pandora, opened 14 April, 1084 
Mr. Elliston again ay J une, 1827 DUBLIN THEATRES 
Mr. Davidge’s ‘tenure. 5 bles. : 
Mr. Shepherd and Mr. Anderson, managers, Werburg-street, commenced ere 
a8 Sept. 1863-5 Orange-street, now Smock-alley Y : ‘ - 1663 
Destroyed, by fire, 31 Jan.; rebuilt and opened, Aungier-street (Victor) . > oe aun 7a 
Ditto, management of Mr. Hitchcock . 2 - 1732 
ae Dete 2865 Crow-street Music-hall . 173) 
COBURG, NOW VICTORIA. Swept rs et Theatre : A : Re ty - . 13 73% 
[The erection was commenced under the patronage Fisharaple- Brrwiie cae : i ¥ > 
of the late princess Charlotte and the prince Leo- Capel-street Theatre : : : , tae 
1 of Saxe-Coburg] Bi ie | ene weenie es ; al. re 
oes Wan opeien Baris hae ow-street, Theatre Royal . : E eae 7b 
c . x P _ », ‘ 2 
Messrs. Egerton and Abbott had the ‘management i in 1833 Bet das oe oot, Thaxee Feel Sa ke 
Mr. Osbaldiston’s tenure . 1849 | Destroyed by fire 2 i . . g Feb. 188 
Alarm of fire, sixteen persons killed 99 Dec. 18 58 | Queen’s Theatre, Branswicl etree : ' ‘ , 1h 4e 
SADLER’S WELLS. 
EDINBURGH THEATRES. 
Opened as an orchestra : é A - - 1683 | Theatre of Music . 1672 
Present house opened 1765 | Allan Ramsay's. . «° %-) G s a 
Eighteen persons trampled to death on a false The Caledonian Theatre .  . s.: ume Ge 
x alarm of fire f Mis. W. dMr. Phel 5 Oct. 1807 | Adelphi Theatre burnt down F 24 "May, 185: 
[anagement of Mrs, Warner and Mr. ae Sap ass Royal Theatre burnt down (several lives lost), 
Management of Mr. Josephs . - 25 March, 18€1 13 Jan, 2665) 3eoa naps 875 
Re-opened by Mr. Phelps . - . 7 Nepts we, 
Lessee, Miss C. Lucette 27 Sept. 1862 FIRST OR LAST APPEARANCES. 
Miss Marriott, manager 5 Sept. 1863—20 May, 1864 | Quin’s first appearance . : zi c set 77C 
Miss C. Lucette, for opera . . 1865 | Macklin at Lincoln’s-inn- -fields . . 1725 
Miss Marriott, legitimate drama (with intervals) 7868-8 Garrick’s at Goodman’s-fields, as Richard I Ti 
Miss Hazlewood, Miss Marriott, and others 1868-73 19 Oct. 1741 
Opened by Mrs. Bateman as New Sadler’s Wells, Miss Farren (afterwards countess of Dea first ap- 
9 Oct. 1879 pears at Liverpool 1772 
Mrs. Bateman dies (Miss I. Bateman peice Garrick’s last appearance . Io June, 177¢ 
i 3 Jan. 1881 | Mrs. Robinson, Perdita: her last appearance, 24 Dec. 177¢ 
Opened by Miss Roze de Vane . 12 ana 1884 | Brahaim’s first appearance at the Royalty, 20 April, 1787 


THEATRES. 823 THEFT. 
Madame Storace ; her first appearance in London, Mr. Vandenhoff died . 4 Oct. 1861 
24 Noy. 1789 | M. Tree (Mrs. Bradshaw) died . . Feb. 1862 
{neledon’s first appearance 1790 | Subscription testimonial (value 2000l.) presented to 
Miss Mellon, her first appearance as Lydia Langu ish, C. J. Kean: Mr. Gladstone in the chair, 22 March, ,, 
31 Jan. 1795 | Sheridan Knowles died . SOnNO Vanes 
Master Betty (infant Roscius) début in London, en- Mrs. Wood (Miss Paton) died ar July, 1864 
_ thusiastically received 1 Dec. 1804 | Mr. F. Robson died Tip A Wes 
Liston’s first appearance in London rt June, r805 | Madame Pasta died, aged 66 zr April, 1865 
Miss F. M. Kelly’s first appearance . : ; . 1807 | Charles J. Kean died : 23 Jan. 1868 
Romeo Coates appears as Lothario to April, 181z | Robert Keeley died, aged 74 3 Feb. 1869 
Mrs. Jordan’s last appearance, as Lady Teazle, Madame Grisi died 25 NOVamess 
1 June, 1814 | Wim. Brough, burlesque- -writer, died, aged 44, 13 Mar. 1870 
Miss O'Neill, as Juliet 6 Oct. 5, Paul Bedford died . F iz Jan. 1871 
Mr. Macready’s first appearance at “Bath, as Romeo, T. W. Robertson, dramatist, died . Sr eames 
Zo WUeCa 5, Lady Wrixon Becher (Miss 0 Neill, Juliet), aie 
Booth’s first appearance . 12 Feb. 1817 9g Oct. 1872 
W. Farren’s first appearance , . 1818 | William C. Macready died . eke ril, 1873 
Munden’s last appearance . . May, 1824 | Wm. Hy. West Betty (the Infant Hose) died, 
Fanny Kemble’s first appearance. 5 Oct. 1829 aged 82 F Aug. 1874 
Edmund Kean’s last appearance, as Othello, Charles James Mathews died 24 June,. 18738 
25 March, 1833 | Alfred Wigan died . 29 Nov. of 
Liston’s last appearance . : 31 May, 1838 | Frederick Gye, died (accidentally shot), neal 30 
Adelaide Kemble’s first appearance 2 Nov. 1841 years lessee and manager of Royal Italian Opera, 
Jenny Lind’s first appearance 4 May, 1847 Covent Garden : Ss DeGGam is 
Mrs. Glover’s farewell . r2duly, 1850 | Wm. H. Schofield Pay steels King of Pantomime” 
Mr. Bartley’s farewell 18 Dee. 1852 (aged 70), died . : POUICCS rss 
Mr. W. Farren’s farewell 1855 | Mrs. Wybrow Rousby died - 19 April, 1879 
Clara Novello’s farewell . 1 Nov. 1860 | J. B. Buckstone died. 31 Oct. He 
Adelina Patti’s first appearance at Covent Careen, Mrs. Charles Kean (Miss Ellen Tr ee), died se Aug. 1880 
14 May, 1861 | Countess of Essex, formerly Miss Stephens, died, 
Miss Bateman appears as Leah . r Oct. 1863 22 Feb. 1882 
Her farewell at H.M.’s theatre . 22 Dee. 1865 | Benjamin Nottingham Webster died sidhalbiz, a, 
Madile. Nillson’s first appearance at H.M.’s theatre Miss Francis M. Kelly, aged 92, died . 6 Dec. ,, 
as Violetta 2 8 June, 1867 | Grand dinner to Mr. H. Irving : . 4July, 1883 
Miss Kate Terry’s last appearance (Juliet at the New Miss Mary Anderson’s debut... : zr Sept. 4, 
Adelphi). Sr Ao. | 35 Sig. Giuseppe Mario, aged 75, died 11 Dec. ,, 
Madlle. Kelloge’ Ss début at Drury- Jane 2 are He lala Byron, author, died . . 5 Tt April, 1884 
Mr. Bandmann’s debut 7 Feb. 1868 


Mr. Paul Bedford’s farewell at New Queen’ S Shade, 


16 May, 
Madlle. Marimon’s début, as Amina 6 May, 
Mario’s farewell in La Favorita at Italian opera, 
1g July, 
Miss Isabella Bateman’s début . 12 Sept. 


Mr. and Mrs. Alfred Wigan’s last appearance (at 
Drury Lane) . 6 July, 
Mr. H. Irving first appears as "Hamlet, 31 Oct. 1874, 

2ooth performance . . 29 June 
Our Boys by H. J. Byron, rst time 16 Jan. 1875 
(at the Vaudeville); 1350th, 1 April; and last 
18 April, 


Mr, Byron’s The Girls, 1g April, 


MEMORANDA. 
David Garrick died 4 e s A 
Charles Macklin died . - 
Mr. Palmer died on the stage at Liverpool, 2 , Aug. 
Bannister retired from the stage 5 : : EN 
John P. Kemble died 3 2 
Talma died in Paris u 2 : ; 
Weber came to London. . Feb. 
The Brunswick theatre fell, owing to the weight of 
a newly-erected roof, and numbers of persons 
were wounded and some killed . 29 Feb. 
Sarah Siddons died . E 
Edmund Kean died : : : : 
Charles Mathews died : : 
Madame Malibran died at Manchester . 23 Sept. 
Paganini died 27 May, 
Power lost in the President steamer, about 1 3 March, 


rst performance 


28 June, 


Elton lost in the Pegasus : 18 July, 
Theatres’ Registry Act passed . A 22 Aug. 
Madlle. Mars died at Paris . ¢ . 23 March, 
‘Madame Catalini died at Paris . 13 June, 
W. C. Macready retired 26 April, 
Alexander Lee died g Oct. 
Mrs. Warner died 5 Sept. 
Charles Kemble died ‘12 Nov. 
John Braham died : . 17 Feb. 
“Madame Vestris died : . . 8 Aug. 
‘Madile. Racheldied =. 4 Jan. 
Mrs. Nisbet (lady Boothby) died — 16 Jan. 
Louis Lablache (buffo singer) died . 23 Jan. 
John Pritt Harley died 22 Aug. 
Flexmore, celebrated clown, died . 20 Aug. 
Mrs. Yates died F eo Oct: 
Alfred Bunn died . . 20 Dec. 


William Farren died . 5 ; A ; 5 


25 Sept. 


THEATRICAL FUNDS. The Theatrical 
fund of Covent Garden was established in 1760, 
incorporated 1774; that of Drury Lane by Garrick 
1766; incorporated 1775. ‘They grant pensions to 
members and their families. ‘The General Thea- 
trical fund was established in 1839, incorporated 


1853. 
THEBAN LEGION, according to tradition, 


was composed of Christians, and submitted to martyr- 
dom rather than attack their brethren during the 
persecution of the emperor Maximin, or sacrifice 
to the gods, about a.p. 286. Their leader Maurice 
was canonised. 


THEBES or Luxor, in Egypt, called also 
Hecatompylos on account of its hundred gates, and 
Diospolis, as being sacred to Jupiter. In the time 
of its splendour (1600- -800 B. a it is said to have 
extended about thirty-three miles. Thebes was 
ruined by Cambyses, king of Persia, 525 B.c., and 
by the foundation of Alexandria, 332 5.034 it re- 
belled and was taken by Ptolemy Lathyrus, 86 B.c., 
and few traces of it were seen in the age of 
Juvenal; see Memnoneiwm. After centuries of neg- 
lect, it has been greatly visited since the explora- 
tions of Belzoni, 1817.—THEBES, N. Greece (the 
capital of the country successively called Aonia, 
Messapia, Ogygia, Hyantis, and Bootia) was called 
Cadmeis, from Cadmus, its founder, 1493 B.c. It 
became a republic about 1120 B.c., and flourished 
under Epaminondas 378-362 B.c. The “ sacred 
band” formed by him, 377 B.c., was revived in 1877. 
Thebes’ seven gates are mentioned by Homer. See 
Beotia and Greece. 


THEFT was punished by heavy fines among 
the Jews; by death at Athens, by the laws of Draco ; 
see Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominally punished 
theft with death, if above 12d. value; ; but the 
criminal could redeem his life by aransom. In the 
gth of Henry I. this power of redemption was 
taken away, 1108. The punishment of theft was 
very severe in England, till mitigated by Peel’s 


THEINE. 


824 


THESAURUS. 


acts 9 & 10 Geo. IV. 1829. The laws respecting | (born about 1224), a standard Roman catholic work 


theft were consolidated in 1862, 
THEINE, see Cafeine. 


THEISTS (Theos, God), a name given to deists 
about 1660.—Dean Martin. See Deism, Unitarians, 
and Voysey. 


THELLUSSON’S WILL, a most singular 
document. Mr. Peter Isaac 'Thellusson, a Gene- 
vese and an affluent merchant of London, left 
100,000/. to his widow and children; and the re- 
mainder of his property, more than 600,000/., he 
left to trustees, to accumulate during the lives of 
his three sons, and the lives of their sons; then 
the estates, directed to be purchased with the pro- 
duce of the accumulated fund, were to be conveyed 
to the eldest lineal male descendant of his three 
sons, with the benefit of survivorship. Should no 
heir then exist, the whole was to be applied, by 
the agency of the sinking fund, to the discharge of 
the national debt. It is said that Mr. Thellusson 
held much property in trust, and that he desired a 
sufficient interval of time to elapse for the appear- 
ance of just claimants. He died 21 July, 1797. 
His will incurred much public censure, and was 


contested by the heirs-at-law, but finally estab- | 


lished by a decision of the house of lords, 25 June, 
1805. ‘he last surviving grandson died in Feb. 
1856. A dispute then arose whether the eldest male 
descendant or the male descendant of the eldest 
son should inherit the property. The question was 
decided on appeal by the house of lords (9 June, 
1859), in favour of the latter, lord Rendlesham 
and Charles 8. Thellusson confirming the decision 
of the Master of the Rolls in 1858. In consequence 
of the legal expenses the property is said not to ex- 
ceed greatly its value in the testator’s lifetime. On 
28 July, 1800, the Thellusson act was passed, re- 
straining testators from devising their property for 
purposes of accumulation for longer than 21 years 
after death ; any other direction to be void. 


THEOCRACY, government by God, existed 
among the Israelites till Saul was made king, about 
1095 B.c. (Sam. viii. 7-) 

THEODOLITH, an instrument for measuring 
horizontal angles, used in surveying, consists of a 
telescope and a divided circle. It was probably 
first constructed in the 17th century. Jesse Rams- 
den, in 1787, completed the great theodolite em- 
ployed in the trigonometrical survey of England and 
Wales by general Roy. 


THEODOSIAN CODE, see Codes. 
“THEOLOGIA GERMANICA,” or 


“*Teutsche Theologey’’ (printed 1528; Latin and 
French editions, 1558), a German mystical work, 
written about the 14th century. In it the ‘‘good 
man,’ disgusted with the corruptions in church 
and state, is led to seek for God in the temple of 
the heart. Luther is said to have placed the work 
next to the Bible and St. Augustin. 


THEOLOGY (from the Greek Zieos, God), 
the science which treats of the nature and attributes 
of God, of his relations to man, and of the manner 
in which they may be discovered. It is generally 
divided into two heads. 1. Inspired, including the 
Holy Scriptures, their interpretation, &e. 2. 


Natural; which lord Bacon calls the first part of: 


philosophy. — Butler's ‘Analogy of Religion” 
(1736) and Paley’s ‘‘Natural Theology”? (1802) 
are eminent books on the latter subject.—Abelard 
(died 1142) wrote ‘‘Theologia Christiania.’”’? The 
“Summa Totius Theologie’’ by Thomas Aquinas 


; : : : j 
was printed with commentaries, &e., in 1596. 


; 


THEOPHILANTHROPISTS (lovers of God 
and man), a sect formed in France in 1796; and 
headed by one of the five directors, Lepaux, in 
1797; was dissolved in 1802. 


THEOSOPHISTS, followers of Paracelsus in 
the 16th century. 

The Theosophical Society was founded in America by 
Madame Blavatsky, aided by colonel Olcott, about 
1875-6. Aims at universal brotherhood and the study 
of Eastern philosophy. It has*a station in London, 
and many branches in India and other parts. 


THERMIDOR REVOLUTION. On the 
gth Thermidor of the 2nd year (27 July, 1794), 
the Convention deposed Robespierre, and on the 
next day he and twenty-two of his partisans were 
executed. 


THERMO-ELECTRICITY, see under Eiec- 
tricity, and Heat. 


THERMOMETER. Freezing point: Fah. 
2°; #.0°; C. 0°. Boiling point: Fah. 212°, 2. 
0, C. 100. 

Invented by Galileo, before 1597. Libri. 

Invented by Drebbel of Alemaer, 1609. Boerhaave. 

Invented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609. Fulgentio. 

Invented by Sanctorio in 1610. Borelli. 

Fahrenheit’s thermometer invented about 1726; Réau- 
mur’s and Celsius’s (the latter now termed centigrade) 
soon after. [Fahrenheit’s scale is usually employed in 
England, and Réaumur’s and the centigrade on the 
continent. ] 

The mode of construction by substituting quicksilver fon 
spirits was invented some years subsequently. Halley 
proposed it in 1697. 

Mr. L. M. Casella issued a minimum thermometer in 
Sept. 1861. It registers degrees of cold by means of 
mercury. 

Negretti and Zambra’s registering minimum thermo- 
meters, adapted for deep sea purposes, made known 
early in 1874. 

THERMOPHONE, in which sonorous vibra- 
tions are produced by the expansion of heated bo- 
dies connected with an electro-magnet. The appa- 
ratus was constructed by Theodor Wiesendanger, 
and described by him in October, 1878. 


THERMOPYL Zi (Doris, N. Greece). Leoni- 
das, at the head of 300 Spartans and 700 Thes- 
pians, at the defile of Thermopylae, withstood the 
‘whole force of the Persians during three days, 7, 
8, 9 Aug. 480 B.c., when Ephialtes, a Trachinian, 
pertidiously leading the enemy by a secret path 
up the mountains, brought them to the rear of the 
Greeks, who, thus placed between two assailants, 
perished gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered 
foes. One Greek only returned home, and he was 
received with reproaches for having fled.* Here 
Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, was defeated 
by the Romans, IgI B.c. : 


THERMUM, TuHERMUS, or THERMA 
(Greece), a strong city, the Acropolis of Astolia, N. 
Greece, was captured and ravaged by Philip Y. 
of Macedon, 218 and 206 B.c., on account of its 
favouring the Romans. 

THESAURUS (treasury), a title given in the 
‘17th and r8th centuries to large collections of small 
works on history and archeology. ‘The most cele- 
brated are— 


* The distich, in the Greek Anthology, by Simonides, 
their contemporary, is thus translated by Bowles :— 
“Go, tell the Spartans, thou that passest by, 
That here, obedient to their laws, we lie. 


" tell 
- ca : if 
' ¥ ‘ 


= 


THESPIA. 


Thesaurus Antiquitatum Greecorum,” by J. Grono- 


vius. x13 vol. fol. : 2 : 20907-2702 
Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanorum,” by J. G. 
Greevius. 12 vol. fol. 1694. 


Thesaurus Antiquitatum et Historicum Italive, 
Sicilize,” &c., by G. Grevius and P. Burmannus. 
45 vol. fol. : : : : : ; hie 
Thesaurus Antiquitatum Sacrarum,” by B. Ugo- 
jmpus., 34 vol. fol. . F 


THESPLA, a city of Bootia, N. Greece. 
‘its citizens perished with Leonidas at Thermo- 
le, Aug. 480 B.c. It suffered through the jealousy 
‘the Thebans, who destroyed its walls in 372 B.c. 


THESSALONICA (now Salonica), a city in 


1725 


‘acedonia, N. Greece, originally Therme, but re- | 


ult by Cassander, and said to have been named 
ter his wife, Thessalonica, daughter of Philip, 
ter 315 B.c. Here Paul preached, 53; and to the 


vurch here he addressed two epistles in 54. In | 


msequence of seditions, a frightful massacre of 


. 1744-69 
700 | 


ie inhabitants tock place in 390, by order of the | 


nperor Theodosius. ‘lhessalonica partook of the 
anges of the Eastern empire. Thessalonica was 
iken by the Saracens, with great slaughter, 30 
aly, 904; by the Normans of Sicily, 15 Aug. 1185; 
ad after various changes was taken from the 
enetians by the Turks under Amurath, 1430. 

young Bulgarian Christian girl, said to be an unwilling 
convert to Mahometanism, was rescued from the Turks 
and taken to the American consul’s, 5 May; riots en- 
sued on 6 May; the German and French consuls, 


Abbott and Moulin, were murdered; the Western | 


powers intervened ; reparation was ordered by the 
Sultan; several murderers were executed 16 May; 
other persons were imprisoned ; and 4o,oo00l, said to be 
‘paid to the families of the victims, Aug. 1876. 


THESSALY (N. Greece), the seat of many of | 


1e adventures described by the poets. The tirst 
ing of whom we have any certain knowledge was 


lellen, son of Deucalion, from whom his subjects | 


‘ere called Hellenists, a name afterwards extended 
» all Greeks. From Thessaly came the Achzans, 
ie A®tolians, the Dorians, the Hellenes, &c. ‘The 
wo most remarkable events in the early history 
fthis country are the deluge of Deucalion, 1548 B.c., 
nd the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263 B.C. ; 
2¢ them severally. Thessaly long aimed at neu- 
rality in Grecian affairs, but became involved 
arough its rulers, the tyrants of Phere ;—Lyco- 
hron, about 404 B.c.; his son Jason, 374, assassi- 
ated 370; Alexander, the most eminent, defied 
thens and Thebes; assassinated 359. Philip of 
Lacedon, after a defeat (353 B.c.), gained a victory 
ver the tyrants, 352; and subjugated the country 
rholly, 343 The Romans gave a nominal freedom 
9 Thessaly after their victory at Cynoscephala, 
97. It is now included in the kingdom of Greece 
iy the treaty of 24 May, signed 2 July, and occu- 
ied Aug. — Sept. 1881. Railway from Volo to 
warissa opened by the king, 4 May, 1884. See 
nundations, 1883. 


THETFORD (Norfolk), said to have been the 
toman Sitomagus, and an important Saxon town, 
ras a bishopric from 1075 to 1091, when the see 
ras removed to Norwich. 
ishopric by Henry VIII.; the power given him 1534. 


THIBET or TIBET (central Asia), is said to 
ave been a kingdom 313 B.C., conquered by 
tenghis Khan 1206, and gradually subdued by and 
nnexed to China, 1255-1720. Buddhism became 
he dominant religion about 905; and the Lamas 
‘aye absolute power in religious affairs. Thibet was 
isited by Marco Polo, 1278; by Jesuits about 
661-2; Bogle and Hamilton, 1774; and Thomas 
fanning, 1810. An astronomical survey was car- 


It was made a suflragan . 


| Montgomerie, 1865-7. 


THISTLE. 


ried on surreptitiously by two pundits of semi- 
Thibet origin, under the superintendence of capt. 
War with Nepaul, May; 
pence, June, 1884. Hon. Colman Macaulay’s ex- 
pedition to Lachen valley, to promote commerce ; 
well received, announced 30 Noy. 1884. 


THIEVES’ ISLAND, see Ladrones. | 
THIEVES’ SYNOD, at Ephesus, 349 or 449, 


where the doctrines of Eutyches respecting Christ’s: 
incarnation were approved, received the name 
because his opponents were silenced or excluded. 


THIMBLES are said to have been found at 
Hereulaneum, and long ago used by the Chinese. 
The bi-centenary of their invention in Europe by 
Nicolas van Benschoten was celebrated at Amster- 
dam, Dec. 1884. The art of making them was 
brought to England by John Lofting, a mechanic, 
from Holland, who set up a workshop at Islington, 
near London, and practised the manufacture in 
various metals with profit and success, about 1695. 


THIONVILLE, the ancient Zheodonis villa, 
a fortified city on the Moselle, N. E. France. It 
was the occasional residence of Charlemagne and 
his successors, and on the extinction of his race it 
was successively held by private lords, the counts 
of Luxemburg, the dukes of Burgundy, the house 
of Austria, and the kings of Spain. It was taken 
by the duke of Guise, 23 June, 1558, after an 
obstinate defence, and returned to Philip II. by the 
peace of Chateau Cambresis. It successfully resisted 
the marquis de Feuquiéres in 1637, but was taken 
after four months’ siege by the duc d’Enghien, 10 
Aug. 1643, and remained with France. It success- 
fully resisted the Austrians in 1792, and the Prussians 
in 1814. It was invested by the Germans in Aug. 
1870, and after bombardment, being in flames, 
surrendered 24 Noy. following. 


THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES, see Articles. 
THIRTY TYRANTS, 2 term applied to the 


governors of Athens, in 404 B.c., who were ex- 
pelled by Thrasybulus, 403; and also to the 
numerous aspirants to the imperial throne of Rome 
during the reigns of Gallienus and Aurelian, A.D, 
259-274- 

THIRTY YEARS’ WAR, in Germany, 
between the catholics and protestants. It began 
in Bohemia in 1618, and ended with the peace of 
Westphalia in 1648. It is renowned for the 
victories of Wallenstein and Gustavus Adolphus 
of Sweden, and for its history by Schiller, published 
1790-93. See Battles, 1618-48. 


THISTLE,* ORDER OF THE, SCOTLAND, 
founded by James V. 1540. It consisted originally 
of himself, as sovereign, and twelve knights, in 
imitation of Christ and his twelve apostles. In 
1542, James died, and the order was discontinued, 
about the time of the Reformation. The order was: 
renewed by James VII. of Scotland and IT. of Eng- 
land, by making eight knights, 29 May, 1687; 


* Some Scottish historians make the origin of this. 
order very ancient. The abbot Justinian says it was 
instituted by Achaius I. of Scotland, 809, when that 
monarch made an alliance with Charlemagne, and then 
took for his device the thistle. It is stated that the king: 
Hungus, the Pict, had a dream, in which St. Andrew 
made a midnight visit, and promised him a sure victory 
over his foes, the Northumbrians ; and that the next 
day St. Andrew’s Cross (x) appeared in the air, and the 
Northumbrians were defeated. On this story, it is 
said, Achaius framed the order more than 7oo years be- 
fore James V. 


THISTLEWOOD’S CONSPIRACY. 826 


increased to twelve by queen Anne in 1703; to 

sixteen by George IY. in 1827. The original knights 

of 1687 were 

George, duke of Gordon. 

John, marquis of Athol. 

James, earl of Arran, afterwards duke of Hamilton; 
killed in a duel, 1712. 

Alexander, earl of Moray. 

James, earl of Perth ; attainted. 

Kenneth, earl of Seaforth; attainted. 

George, earl of Dumbarton. 

John, earl of Melfort; attainted. 


THISTLEWOOD’S CONSPIRACY, see 


Cato-street Conspiracy. 


THOMAS’S HOSPITAL, ST. (Southwark), 
was founded as an almshouse by Richard, prior of 
Bermondsey, in 1213, and surrendered to Henry 
VIII. in 1538. In 1551 the mayor and citizens of 
London, having purchased of Edward VI. the 
manor of Southwark, including this hospital, 
repaired and enlarged it, and admitted into it 260 
poor, sick, and helpless objects; upon which the 
king, in 1553, incorporated it, together with Beth- 
lehem, St. Bartholomew’s, &c. It was rebuilt in 
1693. In 1862, the site was sold to the South- 
eastern railway company, and the patients were 
removed to the Surrey music hall. The foundation 
stone of the new hospital, erected at Stangate, near 
the Surrey side of Westminster-bridge, was laid by 
the queen, 13 May, 1868; and the new hospital 
was opened by her majesty, 21 June, 1871. 


The appointment of a paid resident treasurer, instead of 
an honorary one, and other changes recommended by 
committees, were negatived by the general committee, 
Nov. 1877. 

Establishment of wards for paying-patients, settled 

20 Nov. 1878 


THOMAS, ST., see Virgin Isles. 
THOMISTS, see Scotists. 
_ THOMITES or Tomires, a body of enthu- 


slasts who assembled at Boughton, near Canter- 
bury. An insane Cornish publican named John 
Nicholls, called Thom, or Tom, assumed the name 
of sir W. Courtenay, knight of Malta and king of 
Jerusalem, came into Kent,was an unsuccessful can- 
didate for parliament, and incited the rabble against 
the Poor Law act. On 31 May, 1838, a farmer of 
the neighbourhood, whose servant had joined the 
crowd which attended Thom, sent a constable to 
fetch him back; but on his arrival on the ground 
he was shot dead by Thom. The military were then 
called out, and lieut. Bennett proceeded to take the 
murderer into custody; but Thom advanced, and, 
firing a pistol, killed the lieutenant on the spot. 
One of the soldiers fired at Thom, and laid him dead 
by the side of leut. Bennett. The people then 
attacked the military, who were compelled to fire, 
and eight more persons were killed before the mob 
dispersed. 


THORACIC DUCT, discovered first in a 
horse, by Eustachius, about 1563; in the human 
body, by Ol. Rudbec, a Swedish anatomist. Thomas 
Bartholine, of Copenhagen, and Dr. Joliffe,. of 
England, also discovered it about 1654. See 
Lacteals. 


THORINUM, a very rare metal (a heavy gray 


powder), discovered by Berzelius in 1828. 


THORN (on the Vistula, Poland) was founded 
by the Teutonic Knights in 1231. Here they 
acknowledged themselves to be vassals of Poland in 
1466. Thorn was taken by Charles XII. of Sweden 
in 1703. Many protestants were slain here (after a 


THRASHING-MACHINES. 


religious riot) at the instigation of the Jesuits, 


| 1793; taken by the French in 1806; restored { 
| Prussia at the peace in 1815. 


- 


Dec. 1724. Thorn was acquired by the Prussians 


THOROUGH. ‘The name given by Tho: 
Wentworth, earl of Strafford, to his unsuccessfy 
scheme for making Charles I. an absolute monarel 
He was attainted and beheaded, 12 May, 1641. \ 


THORPE, see Railway Accidents, 1874. 
THOUGHT READING. In 1881 Mr. W 


Irving Bishop professed to be able to read a person’ 

thoughts by touching some part of the skin. 0 

June II in the presence of Mr. G. J. Romanes, pro 

fessor EK. Ray Lankester, Mr. I’. Galton, and others 

he was successful with some persons, and faiie 

with others (Nature, No. 608). 

In 1883 he was challenged by Mr. Labouchere, M.P., t 
operate, under certain conditions, at St. James's Hal 
on 12 June, but virtually declined the tests. Othe 
experiments by Mr. Bishop, 3, 4 June, 1884 ; succes 
doubted. 

Mr. Bishop sentenced to pay r10,o00l. damages to Mi 
Maskelyne for libel in Truth (July, 1883), 15 Jan.; ap 
peal disallowed, 28 Jan. 1885. 

Experiments by Mr. Stuart Cumberland reported success 
ful on the prince of Wales and others, 19 July, 1884. 


THRACE (now Rowmelia, in Turkey) derive 
its name from Thrax, the son of Mars.—Aspin. Th 
Thracians were a warlike people, and therefor 
Mars was said to have been born and to have ha 
his residence among them.—Zuripides. Se 
Odryse. 
Byzantium, the capital, founded by the Megarians, 

about B.c. 67 
Invasion of Darius I. 513; ‘Thrace subdued by 


Megabazus : : : : : ; eee 
Xerxes marches against Greece through Thrace, and 

retreats . : ° “ : ; : : . 48 
Other Greek colonies established . 50-40: 


fs : 4 
Wars between Macedon and the Odryse (which see) 
| 429-34. 

Philip IT. acquires Amphipolis, 358 ; and gradually 
all the Greek colonies : : 4 4 357-34 
Death of Alexander ; Thrace allotted to Lysima- 


chus, 323; who builds Lysimachia - <53o 
Lysimachus defeated and slain by Seleucus at Coru- 

pedion : : : : < z : eee 
Thrace overrun by the Gauls. “ 4 z =e os 
Lysimachia and the chief towns seized by the fleet 

of Ptolemy Euergetes 4 : ea, es) 2: 
Recovered by Philip V. of Macedon ‘ - 205-201 
Lost by him to the Romans : 19! 


Seized by Antiochus III. of Syria, who is defeated 
at Magnesia, 190 ; and surrenders Thrace + eS 
Perseus defeated in his attempt to regain Thrace, 


171-16 

The Thracian kings rule nominally under the Romans 
148 et seq 
Rebellion of Vologeesus quelled : : : I. 
Rheemetalees II. last king. : os ASDA. 8 


Thrace made a Roman province, about . é Sie, 4) 
Invaded by the Goths : : . 5 By EL. 
Settled by Sarmatians . < 4 3 4 334-37! 
Ravaged by Alaric, 395; by Attila . E : u ' 
Conquered by the Turks, who made Adrianople 
their capital ‘ F i. : 3 ; 1341-5: 
Constantinople captured by Mahomet II., 20 May, 145, 


THRASHING-MACHINES. The flail wa: 
the only instrument formerly in use for thrashing 
com. The Romans used a machine ealled the 
tribulum, a sledge loaded with stones or iron. 
drawn over the corn-sheaves by horses. ‘The firs 
machine attempted in modern times was inventec 
by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, about 1732 
Andrew Meikle invented a machine in1776. Many 
improvements have been since made, and stean 
is employed. An act for the prevention of accident: 
by these machines was passed in 1879. 


= 
H THRASYMENE. 


| THRASYMENE or TRASIMENE (N. Italy). 
4 most bloody engagement took place near the 
rasimene lake between the Carthaginians under 
f{annibal and the Romans under Flaminius, 217 
4.¢. No less than 15,000 Romans were left dead 
‘n the field of battle, and 10,000 taken prisoners ; 
‘ry, according to Livy, 6000; or Polybius, 15,000. 
“he loss of Hannibal was about 1500 men. About 
0,000 Romans made their escape, all covered with 
‘younds.—Livy; Polybius. On the same day, an 
arthquake occurred, which desolated several cities 
-n Italy. 


THREATENING LETTERS. Sending 
etters, whether anonymously written, or with a 
ictitious name, demanding money, or threatening 
-o kill a person, or fire his house, was made punish- 
ible as a felony, without benefit of clergy, by the 
Black Act, in 1722. Persons extorting money by 
hreatening to accuse others of such offences as are 
ubjected to death, or other infamous punishments, 
‘vere to be adjudged imprisonment, whipping, or 
ransportation, by 30 Geo. II., 1756, and other acts ; 
he latest 24 & 25 Vict. cc. 96, 97 (1801). 


THREE DENOMINATIONS, see Denomi- 


cations. 


THREE CHOIRS (Gloucester, Worcester, 
‘and Hereford). Festivals held in 1724, if not 
rarlier, at Gloucester, for the performance of cathe- 
‘Jral music on a grand scale for charitable purposes, 
still continued. 


THREE F.’§, see F. 
THROAT AND EAR DISEASES, a 


hospital for them opened near Gray’s-inn-road, 
March, 1874; foundation of a new building laid by 
madame Adelina Patti, marchesa de Caux, 16 Sept. 


1875. 


THUGS, organised secret fanatical murderers 
in India, who considered their victims to be sacri- 
fices' to their goddess Kali or Bhowain. The English 
commenced suppressing them about 1810, but did 
not succeed till about 1830, when a plan for the pur- 
pose was adopted by lord Wm. Bentinck. 


THUMB-SCREV, an instrument used in the 
first stages of torture by the Spanish inquisition. 
In Great Britain, rev. Wm. Carstares, a presbyterian 
‘minister, was the last who suftered by it, before 
the Scotch privy council, to make him divulge 
secrets entrusted to him, which he firmly resisted. 
After the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw was 
presented to him by the council. King William 
‘expressed a desire to see it, and tried it on, bidding 
the doctor to turn the screw ; but, at the third turn, 
he cried out ‘‘ Hold—Aold! doctor: another turn 
would make me confess anything.”’ 


THUNDERER, see Navy of England, 1872, 
1876, 1879. 

THUNDERING LEGION. During a con- 
test with the invading Marcomanni, the prayers of 
some Christians in a Roman legion are said to 
have been followed by a storm of thunder, light- 
‘ning, and rain, which tended greatly to discomfit 
the enemy; and hence the legion received the 
mame, 174. 


| THURII or THurIvM, 2 Greek city, S. Italy, 
‘founded after the fall of Sybaris, about 452 B.c. 
It suffered from the incursions of the Lucanians, by 
‘whom the Thurians were severely defeated, 390 
B.c. It became eventually a dependent ally of 
‘Rome; was ravaged by the troops of Hannibal, 
204; was established as a colony by the Romans, 


827 


TIBER. 


194; and was captured by Spartacus in the Ser- 
vile war, who levied upon it heavy contributions, 
92. 

THURINGIA, an early Gothic kingdom in 
central Germany, was overrun by Attila and the 
Huns, 451; the last king, Hermanfried, was 
defeated and slain by Thierry, king of the Franks, 
who annexed it to his dominions, 530. It formed 
two duchies, 630-717, and 849-919; a margrayiate, 
g60-1090; landgraviate and county, 1130-1247 ; 
and was, after various changes and many conflicts, 
absorbed into Saxony in the 15th century. In 1815 
it was surrendered to Prussia. 


THURLES (S. Ireland). Here was held a 
synod of the Roman catholic archbishops, bishops, 
inferior clergy, and religious orders, under the 
direction cf archbishop Cullen, the Roman catholic 
primate, 22 Aug. 1850. It condemned the Queen's 
Colleges, and recommended the foundation of a 
Roman catholic university, 10 Sept. following. The 
acts were forwarded to Rome for approval of the 
pope, Pius IX., and published, 1 Jan. 1852. 


THUROT’S INVASION. Thurot, an Irish 
commodore in the French service, became a terror 
to all the merchant-ships of this kingdom. He had 
the command of a small armament, and landed 
1000 men at Carrickfergus in Ireland, and plun- 
dered the town. He reached the Isle of Man, and 
was overtaken by captain Elliot, with three frigates, 
who engaged his little squadron, which was taken, 
and the commodore killed, 28 Feb. 1760. Thurot’s 
true name was O’Farrell. His grandfather had 
followed the fortunes of James II.; but his mother 
being of a family of some dignity in France, he 
assumed her name.—bwiis. 


THURSDAY, the fifth day of the week, named 
from Thor, the most valiant son of Odin, a deified 
hero worshipped by the northern nations, particu- 
larly by the Scandinavians and Celts. His autho- 
rity was said to extend over the winds, seasons, 
thunder and lightning, &e. Thursday is in Latin 
dies Jovis, or Jupiter’s day. 

THYATIRA (Asia Minor), the place assigned 
for the battle at which the rebel Procopius was 
defeated by the army of the emperor Valens, 3606. 
See Seven Churches. 


THYMBRA (Asia Minor). Here Cyrus the 
Great defeated the confederate army aiding Croesus, 
and obtained supremacy in Asia, B.c. 548. 


TIARA, head ornament of the ancient Persians. 
The name is given to the triple crown of the pope 
(anciently called regnum), indicative of his civil 
rank, as the keys are of his ecclesiastical jurisdic- 
tion. The right to wear a crown is said to have 
been granted to the bishops of Rome by Constantine 
the Great, and by Clovis, founder of the French 
monarchy. Their ancient tiara was a high round 
cap. Pope Damasus II. first caused himself to be 
crowned with a tiara, 1048. ‘Boniface VIII. 
encompassed the tiara with a crown; Benedict 


XII. added a second; and John XXIII. a third.” 


—Rees. 


TIBER (central Italy), the river on whose 
banks Rome was built. In the flourishing times of 
the city the navigation of the river was enormous. 
Livy states that the Tiber was frozen over, 368 
B.c. A commission was appointed to dredge the 
bed of the river near Rome. Dec. 1871. Garibaldi’s 
scheme for improving the river, making a new port, 
&e., laid before the Italian parliament, 25 May, 1875; 
works begun, March, 1877. 


TIBERIAS. 
TIBERIAS, a city in Palestine, built by 


Herod Antipas, and named after the emperor 
Tiberius, 39. Near it Guy de Lusignan, king of 
Jerusalem, and the crusaders, were defeated by 
Saladin, 3, 4 July, 1187; and Jerusalem fell into 
his hands. 


TIBET, see Zhidet. 


TIBUR (now Tivoli), a Latin town more ancient 
than Rome, and frequently at war with it. The 
‘Tiburtines were defeated 335 8.c., and the subjec- 
tion of all Latium followed; for which Furius 


Vamillus obtained a triumph and an equestrian 
statue in the forum. 


TICHBORNE CASH, see Trials, 1871-4. 
Dr. Kenealy, the claimant’s counsel, elected M.V. 
for Stoke, moves for a royal commission to inquire 
into the trial; rejected, 433 to 3 (Dr. Kenealy, Mr. 
Whalley, and the O’Gorman); 26 April, 1875. 
See Englishman. 

TICINO or TzEsstn, a Swiss canton south of 
the Alps, conquered by the Swiss early in the 16th 
century; made a separate canton in 1815. It 
suffered by internal disputes 1839 and 1841. 


TICINUS, a river, N. Italy. Here Hannibal 
defeated the Romans, 218 B.c. 


TICKETS OF LEAVE, see Transportation, 


and Crime. : 

TICONDEROGA (N. America). The French 
fortress here was unsuccessfully besieged by Aber- 
cromby in July, 1758; taken 26 July, 1759. The 


Americans took, it 10 May, 1775, but retired 
July, 1777. The British retired from it shortly 
after. 


TIDES. Homer is the earliest profane author 
who ‘speaks of the tides, Posidonius of Apamea 
accounted for the tides from the motion of the 
moon, about 79 B.c. ; and Caesar speaks of them in 
his fourth book of the Gallic war. The theory of 
the tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler, 
1598; but the honour of a complete explanation of 
them was reserved for sir Isaac Newton, about 
1683 ; seeThames. Sir Wm. Thomson, at the Royal 
Institution, 9 April, 1875, described a valuable 
tide-calculating machine. 


TIEN-TSIN, see China, June, 1858-Jan. 1861, 
and 1870. 


TIERRA DEL FUEGO, see Missions, note. 
TIERS-ETAT, sce States-General. 


TIFLIS (Asiatic Russia), built about 469 by 
Vakhtang ; became the capital of Georgia. It wis 
taken by Genghis Khan in the 12th century; by 
Mustapha Pacha, 1576; by the Persians, 1796; and 
by the Russians, 1801, who have made it the capital 
of their Trans-Caucasian possessions. 


TIGRANO-CERTA, capital of Armenia, 
built by ‘Tigranes the Great, and taken by Lucullus 
and the Romans, after a great victory, B.c. 69. 


TIGRIS, a river forming the eastern boundary 
of Mesopotamia, celebrated for the cities founded 
on its banks: Nineveh, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and 
Bagdad. It was explored by an English steamer 
in 1838. Colonel Chesney, in 1850, published an 
account of his survey in 1836-7. 

TILBURY (Essex). The camp formed here 
in 1588 to resist the Spanish invasion was visited 
by queen Elizabeth. 


TILES are said to have been first made in 


828 


TIMES NEWSPAPER. 


England about 1246. They were taxed in 1784 
The number of tiles taxed in England in 1820 was 
81,924,626; and in 1830, 97,318,264. The tax was 
repealed in 1833. 


TILSIT (on the Niemen), on which river, on a 
raft, the emperors of France and Russia met, 25 June, 
1807. By a treaty concluded between France and 
Russia, signed 7 July, Napoleon restored to tlie 
Prussian monarch one-half of his territories, aud 
Russia recognised the Confederation of the Rhine, 
and the elevation of Napoleon’s three brothe:s, 
Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones of Naplcs, 
Holland, and Westphalia. 


TILTS, see Tournaments. 


TIMBER. The annual demand of timber for 
the royal navy, in war, was 60,000 loads, or 40,000 
full-grown trees, a ton each, of which 35 will stand 
onan acre; in peace, 32,000 tons, or 48,000 loa. 
A 74 gun ship consumed 3000 loads, or 2000 
tons of trees, the produce of 57 acres in a century. 
—Alinutt. Iron is now largely used in pre- 
ference to timber. In 1843 we imported 1,317,645 
loads of timber (cut and uncut); in 1857, 2,495,9¢ 
loads; in 1866, 3,638,344 loads; in 1871, 4,4 Ae! 
loads; in 1875, 5,092,394 loads; in 1877, 6,788,759 
loads ; in’ 1883, 6,609,942 loads. In 1866, we im- 
ported 53,458 tous of mahogany; in 1871, 29,256 
tons; in 1875, 80,705 tons; im 1877, 53,600 ton: ; 
in 1883, 50,1538 tons. ‘he duties on timber were 
modified in 1851. 


TIMBER BENDING. Apparatus was in- 
vented for this purpose by Mr. ‘I’. Blanchard, of 
Boston, U.S., for which a medal was awarded at 
the Paris Exhibition of 1855.. A company was 
formed for its application in this country in 1856. 


TIMBUCTOO (N. Africa), a city built by 
Mansa Suleiman, a Mahometan, about 1214, 
and frequently subjugated by the sovereigns of 
Morocco. Since 1727 it has been partially inde- 
pendent. 


TIME. See Hour, Day, Month, Year, Goedes,/, 
Dials, Clocks and Watches. 


TIMES NEWSPAPER. On 1 Jan. 1783, 
Mr. John Walter published the first number of the 
Daily Universal Register, price 24d., printed on the 
logographic system (invented by Henry Johnson, a 
compositor), In which types containing syllables 
and words were employed instead of single letters. 
On x Jan. 1788, the paper was named the Times. 

In 1803, when Mr. Walter gave up the paper to his son, 
the circulation was about 1000; that of the Morning 
Post being 4500. 

Dr. Stoddart (satirised as Dr. Slop by Moore the poet) 
became editor in 1812, but five years after retired and 
set up in opposition the New Times, an unprofitable 
speculation. Thomas Barnes became next editor. He 
died 7 May, 1841, and was succeeded by his assistant 
John Thaddeus Delane (son of W. F. A. Delane, 
financial manager) who retired in 1877, and died 22 
Noy. 1879. 

On 28 Noy. 18z4, the Times was first printed by steam 
power (the invention of F. Kénig), 1200 per hour, 
afterwards increased to 2000 and 4000, 

Itis asserted that the Times.was termed the “‘Thunderer ” 
in consequence of an article by Edward Sterling in 
which are the words, ‘‘ We thundered forth articles 
on reform, &c.” when Barnes was editor. 

On 19 Jan. 1829, the first double number appeared. 

In July, 1834, an attack of Mr. O’Connell in the house.of 
commons on the correctness of the reports of the 
debates in the 7'imes was signally defeated. 

Shortly after began the convenient summary of the de- 
bates, written in the first instance by Mr. Horace 
Twiss. ; 

In 1841 the Times was instrumental in detecting and expos- 


\ TIN. 82 


9 TITHES. 


| 
‘ng a scheme organised by Allan George Bogle and 
others, to defraud by forgery all the influential bankers 
of Europe. This brought on the proprietors an action for 
‘ibel (in the case Bogle v. Lawson). The jury found the 
tharge to be true, givinga verdict of onefarthing damages, 
out the judges refused costs. Subscriptions were set on 
oot at the Mansion-house and in all parts of Europe to 

‘eimburse the proprietors for the immense outlay in 
lefending the action. This they firmly declined ; and 
she money was expended in establishing Times Scholar- 
ships at Oxford and Cambridge, and at Christ’s Hospital, 
ind other schools; a marble tablet also,commemorating 
she event, was set up in the Royal Exchange and at the 
Times office. These were the greatest honours ever 
sonceded to a newspaper. 

Oct. 1845, the Times express was for the first time 
sonveyed to India overland, by the agency of lieut. 
Waghorn. 

the number of the Times containing the life of the 
juke of Wellington for 19 Nov. 1852, 70,000 were sold— 
the ordinary number being then 36,000; the circula- 
tion is stated to vary from 50,000 to 60,000 (1868). 
ie Times (a slip) announcing permission to relax_re- 
striction of issue of bink-notes, published 24 Oct. 
1847. 

1854, the proprietors sent Mr. W. H. Russell as their 
special correspondent to the seat of war in the Crimea ; 
in 1857 to India. 
mes Fund.—On the rath of Oct. 1854, sir Robert Peel 
originated by a letter in the Times a subscription for 
the sick and wounded in the Crimean war, and in less 
than a-fortnight 15,o00l. were sent to the Times office 
to be thus appropriated. Mr. MacDonald was sent out 
by the proprietors as special commissioner to adminis- 
ter the fund, from which large quantities of food and 
clothing were supplied to the sutferers, with inestimable 
advantage ; see Scutari, and Nightingale. 

. Dee. 1858, the Times drew attention to the state of the 
houseless poor of London; and in a few days 8000l. 
‘were subscribed for their relief. 

'. 1851, 13,000,000 copies were sold ; in 1857, 16,100,000 ; 
in 1859, 16,900,000 ; in 1860, 16,670,000. 

n 2x June, 1861, the Times consisted of 24 pages, con- 
taining 4076 advertisements (about 1810 it contained 
150 advertisements). 

ereotypes from papier-miché moulds introduced, 
1856; much improved 1860. 

he ‘Walter press “invented by John Cameron Mac- 
Donald & Joseph Calverley, prints about 15,000an hour, 
perfected, 1862-71. 
list of the contents, inserted over the first leader, ap- 
peared first, 3 Feb.-1869. 

; pages tables of metropolitan charities appeared 
rz Feb. 1869. 

pecial train for conveying the Times, North-Western 
Railway, began to run, 4.55 a.m., 16 Feb. 1875. 

nnual summaries, 1851-75, reprinted, price 1s. (type 

set-up by composing-machines). 

2,000 perfect sheets per hour printed by ‘* Walter 
Press,” Jan. 1876. 

Teekly issue, price 2d., began, 5 Jan. 1877. 

he Rapieff electric lamp adopted in the machine-room, 

_ Nov. 1878. 

Ir. Palmer’s ‘‘ Index to the Times” begun 1867; now 
printing for Times before 1856 and continuing 1885. 
ummary of the Times published daily, 13d. about 26 

. July, 1883. 

Jeath of Thomas Chenery, six years editor, long cor- 
respondent, 11 Feb.; succeeded by G. E. Buckle, Feb. 

1884. 


‘he Times again consists of 24 pages, 14 June, 1884. 
Jeath of Chas. Ross, aged 84, 63 years a parliamentary 
- reporter and 30 years a chief, 6 Dec. 1884. 


TIN. The Pheenicians traded with England for 
nore than 1100 years before the Christian era. 
Jnder the Saxons, our tin mines appear to have 
een neglected; but under the Normans, they pro- 
‘uced considerable revenues to the earls of Corn- 
‘yall, particularly to Richard, brother of Henry 18 iy 
\ charter and various immunities were granted 
yy Edmund, earl Richard’s brother, who framed the 
‘Stannary Laws (which see), laying a duty on the 
in. Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their 
mivileges, and erected Cornwall into a dukedom, 


vith which he invested his son, Edward the Black 


Prince, 1337. Since that time the heirs-apparent 
to the crown of England, if eldest sons, have en- 
joyed it successively. Tin mines were discovered 
in Germany, which lessened the value of those in 
England, till then the only tin mines in Europe, 
1240.—Anderson. Discovered in Barbary, 1640; 
in India, 1740; in New Spain, 1782. In 1857, 
9783 tons; in 1860, 10,462 tons; in 1864, 10,108 
tons; in 1865, 10,039 tons; in 1870, 10,200 tons ; 
in 1874, 9942 tons; in 1876, 8500 tons; in 1879, 
9532 tons of metallic tin were procured from British 
mines; 1882, 9158 tons. Of tin plates we exported 
in value, in 1847, 484,184/. ; in 1854, 1,075,531/. ; in 
1860, 1,500,812/.; in 1864, 1,263,246/.; in 1866, 
1,896,192¢.; in 1871, 2,900,625/.; in 1873, 3,953,042 5 
in 1877, 3,033,120/.; in 1879, 3,507,977/.; Iu 1383, 
45705,403/. 

TINCHEBRAY (N. W. France), where a 
battle was fought between Henry I. of England 
and his brother Robert duke of Normandy. KEng- 
land and Normandy were reunited under Henry, 
at the decease of William Rufus, who had already 
possessed himself of Normandy by a mortgage from 
his brother Robert, at his setting out for Pales- 
tine. Robert, on his return, recovered Normandy 
by an accommodation with Henry; but having 
afterwards quarrelled, Robert was defeated in the 
battle of Tinchebray, 28 Sept. 1106, and Normandy 
was annexed to the crown of England.—Hénault. 


TIPPERMUIR (near Perth). Here the mar- 
quis of Montrose defeated the covenanters under 
lord Elcho, 1 Sept. 1644. 


TIRNOVA on the Jantra a tributary of the 
Danube, capital of the ancient kingdom of Bulgaria. 
It was occupied without resistance by general 
Gourko, 6, 7 July, 1877, and made the Russian 
head-quarters. 


TITANIUM, arare metal, discovered by Gregor 
in menakite, a Cornish mineral, in 1791, and in 
1794 by Klaproth. 


TITHES or TENTHS, were commanded to be 
given to the tribe of Levi, 1490 B.c. (Lev. xxvii. 
30). Abraham returning from his victory over the 
kings (@en. xiv.), gave tithes of the spoil to 
Melchisedek, king of Salem, priest of the most 
high God (1913 B.C.) _ For the first 800 years of 
the Christian church they were given purely as 
alms, and were voluntary.— Wickliffe. ‘I will 
not put the title of the clergy to tithes upon any 
divine right, though such a right certainly com- 
menced, and I believe as certainly ceased, with the 
Jewish theocracy.’’— Blackstone. ‘They were estab- 
lished in France by Charlemagne, about 800, and 
abolished 1789. Tenths were confirmed in the 
Lateran councils, 1215.—Rainailda. 'The payment 
of tithes appears to have been claimed by Augustin, 
the first archbishop of Canterbury, and to have been 
allowed by Ethelbert, king of Kent, under the term 
‘*God’s fee,’’? about 600. 

The first mention of them in any English written law 
is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly 
enjoining tithes, 786. 

Offa, king of Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes of 
all his kingdom, to expiate the death of Ethelbert, 
king of the East Angles, whom he had caused to be 

’ basely murdered, 794. 

Tithes were first granted to the English clergy in a gene- 
ral assembly held by Ethelwold, 844. Henry. 

In England, in 1545, tithes were fixed at the rate of 2s. od. 
in the pound on rent; since then, many acts have 
been passed respecting them. 

The Tithe Commutation act, passed 13 Aug. 1836. It 
was amended in 1837, 1840, 1846, 1860, and 1878, 

A rector is entitled to all the tithes ; a vicar to a small 
part only, frequently to none. 


TITHING. 


Several acts relating to tithes in Ireland have been passed 
in 1832-47, altering and improving the tithe system. 

Tithe redemption trust appointed, 1846. 

Agitation against ‘‘extraordinary tithes,” rz Aug. et seq. 
1881. 

An Anti-Extraordinary Association existed in 1882. 


TITHING. The number or company of ten 
men with their families knit together in a society, 
all of them being bound to the king for the peace- 
able and good behaviour of each of their society; 
of these companies there was one chief person, who, 
from his office, was called (toothingman) tithing- 
man; but now he is nothing but a constable, 
formerly called the headborough. Cowel. 


TITLES ROYAL. Henry IV. had the title 
of ‘‘Grace’”’ and ‘‘ My liege,’”? 1399. Henry VL., 
‘‘ Excellent Grace,’’ 1422. Edward IV., ‘* Most 
High and Mighty Prince,” 1461. Henry VIL, 
“¢ Highness,”? 1485; Henry VIII. the same title, 
and sometimes ‘‘ Grace,’’ 1509 e¢ seg. Francis I. of 
France addressed Henry as ‘*‘ Your Majesty’’ at their 
interview in 1520; see Field of the Cloth of Gold. 
Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was 
styled ‘‘ Dread Sovereign.’”’ James I. coupled to 
“* Majesty ”’ the present ‘‘ Sacred,” or *‘ Most Ix- 
cellent Majesty.’ ‘* Majesty”? was the style of 
the emperors of Germany ; the first king to whom 
it was given was Louis XI. of France, about 1463. 


TITLES TO LAND CONSOLIDATION 
sae es eee passed 31 July, 1868, and amended 
in 1869. 


TIVOLI, see Trdur. 


TOBACCO,* Nicotiana tabacum, received its 
name from Tabacco, a province of Yucatan, New 
Spain ; some say from the island of Tobago, one of 
the Caribbees; others from Tobasco, in the Gulf of 
Florida. Itis said to have been first observed at St. 
Domingo, in Cuba, 1492; and to have been used 
freely by the Spaniards in Yucatan in 1520. 
Tobacco was either first brought to England in 
1565, by sir John Hawkins; or by sir Walter 
Raleigh and sir Francis Drake, in 1586. It was 
manufactured only for exportation for some years. 
Stow’s Chron. The Pied Bull inn, at Islington, is 
said to have been the first house in England where 
tobacco was smoked. In 1584 a proclamation was 
issued against it. James I. published ‘‘ A Counter- 
blaste against Tobacco,” and the star-chamber 
ordered the duties to be 6s. 1od. per pound, 1614. 
Its cultivation was prohibited in England by 
Charles II., 1684. Act laying a duty on the im- 
portation was passed 1684. ‘The cultivation was 
allowed in Ireland, 1779. The tax was increased 
and put under the excise, 1789. -Anderson ; Ashe. 
Various statutes have passed relative to tobacco. 
Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of 
tobacco in Ireland passed 2 Will. IV., Aug. 1831. 
Act directing that tobacco grown in Ireland be pur- 
chased in order to its being destroyed, 24 March, 
1832. ‘The quantity consumed in England in 1791 
was nine millions anda halfof pounds, and in 1829 
about fifteen millions of pounds. We imported in 
1850, 35,166,358 lbs., and 1,557,558 lbs. manufac- 
tured (cigars and snuff); in 1855, 36,820,846 Ibs., 
and 2,651,544 lbs. manufactured; in 1860, 48,936, 
471 lbs., and 2,110,430 lbs. manufactured; in 1864, 
61,042,667 lbs., and 6,578,707 lbs., manufactured ; 
in 1866, 54,374,800 lbs., and 3,171,906 lbs. manu- 
factured ; in 1871, 73,042,305 lbs., and 3,852,236 | 


830° 


* British Anti-Tobacco Crusade, originated by the late | 
Thos. Reynolds in 1853. 60,000 of its publications had | 
been circulated gratuitously in 1876. | 


TOLERATION ACT. 


manufactured; in 1876, 76,81 lbs., and: 
3,818,682 lbs. manufactured; fa Be 861,220bs. : 
and 3,591,558 lbs. manufactured; in 1883, 56,475,199. 
Ibs., and 3,121,174 lbs. manufactured. “he tobacco 
duties were modified in 1863 ; raised April, 1878, 
2d. a lb. extra duty on cigars added, April, 1879. 
Net erie duties paid for tobacco and snuff in the: 
year 1575-6, 7,744,9770.; 1877-8, 8,006,836/. ; 1882-4. 
Sosa aee »79144,977 77795 0; 793 #1) 374 


TOBAGO (West Indies), discovered by Colum- 
bus in 1498; settled by the Dutch 1642. “Taken by 
the English, 1672; retaken, 1674. In 1748, it was. 
declared a neutralisland; but in 1763 it was ceded. 
to the English. ‘Tobago was taken by the French 
under De Grasse in 1781, and confirmed to them 
in 1783. Again taken by the English, 14 April, 
1793, but restored at the peace of Amiens, 6 Oct. 
1802. The island was once more taken by the 
British under general Grinfield, 1 July, 1803, and. 
was confirmed to them by the peace of Paris, in 
1814. Population in 1871, 17,054. Tobago is one 
of the Windward isles. 


TOBITSCHAU (Moravia). Ina sharp action. 
here, on 15 July, 1866, the Austrians were defeateck 
by the army of the crown prince of Prussia with 
the loss of 500 killedand wounded and 500 prisoners, 
and seventeen guns. - 


TOISON D’OR or GoLDEN FLEECE (which 


see). 


TOKENS, BANK, silver pieces issued by the: 
Bank of England, of the value of 5s., 1. Jan. 1798. 
The Spanish dollar had a small profile of George III. 
stamped on the neck of the Spanish king. They 
were raised to the value of 5s. 6d. 14 Noy. 1811. 
Bank tokens were also current in Ireland, where: 
those issued by the bank passed for 6s. and lesser 
sums until 1817. They were called in on the reyi- 
sion of the coinage. ‘I'radesmen were permitted to: 
issue tokens as small coins from 1648 till 16 Aug. 
1672, when their circulation was prohibited by roya- 
proclamation. These tokens are figured and de- 
scribed in a work by Wm. Boyne, 1858. 


TOKIO, the name given to Jeddo, the capital of 
Japan, about 1869. See Jeddo. 


TOLBIAC (now Zutricn), near the Rhine, 
where Clovis totally defeated the Allemanni, 496. 


TOLEDO, the ancient Toletum (Central Spain), 
made capital of the Visigothic kingdom by Athana- 
gild, 554; taken by the Saracens, 712. ‘loledo was 
taken after the war begun 1081, by Alfonso I, of 
Castile, 25 May, 1085. In 1088 the archbishop was 
made primate of Spain. ‘The university was founded 
in 1499. ‘Toledo sword-blades have been famed 
since the 15th century. 


TOLENTINO (Italy, formerly in the Papal 
states), where a treaty was made between the pope 
and the French, 19 Feb. 1797. Here Joachim Murat, 
having resumed arms against the allies, was de- 
feated by the Austrians, 3 May, 1815, taken pri- 
soner, and shot. 


_TOLERATION ACT, passed in 1689, to re- 
leve Protestant dissenters from the church of Eng- 
land. Their liberties were, however, greatly en- 
dangered in the latter days of queen Anne, who 
died on the day that the Schism bill was to become 
a law, 1 Aug. 1714. 

The toleration granted was somewhat limited. It 
exempted persons who took the new oath of allegiance 
and supremacy, and made also a declaration against 
popery, from the penalties incurred by absenting 
themselves from church and holding unlawful conven- 
ticles ; and it allowed the quakers to substitute an 


| TOLLS. 


‘ffirmation for an oath, but did not relax the provi- 
‘ions of the Test act (which see). The party spirit of 
‘he times checked the king in his liberal measures. 


TOLLS were first paid by vessels passing the 
ide on the Elbe, 1109. They were first demanded 
the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 1341; see 
we, and Sound. Tollbars nm England originated 
1267, on the grant of a penny for every waggon 
it passed through a certain manor; and the 
it regular toll was collected a few years after for 
nding the road in London between St. Giles’s 
1Temple-bar. Gathered for repairing the high- 
ys of Holborn-inn-lane and Martin’s-lane (now 
ersgate-street), 1346. Toll-gate or ternpikes 
re set up in 1663. In 1827, 27 turnpikes near 
ndon were removed by parliament; 81 turnpikes 
1 toll-bars ceased on the north of London on 
uly, 1864; and 61 on the south side, ceased on 
Oct. 1865; and many others on the Essex and 
ddlesex roads ceased on 31 Oct. 1866; the re- 
Ander on the north of London ceased 1 July, 1872. 
e tolls on the Commercial roads, London, L., 
re abolished 5 Aug. 1871. The tolls on Waterloo 
d other metropolitan bridges abolished, 1878-9. 
e high road from Brighton to London free from 
1, 31 Oct. 1881. See Wales, 1843. 


TOLOSA. On the plain named las Navas de 
losa, near the Sierra Morena, 8. Spain, Alfonso, 
ig of Castile, aided by the kings of Arragon and 
varre, gained a great victory over the Moors, 
July, 1212. This conflict is sometimes termed 
> battle of Muradal. 


TONGA ISLES, Pacific Ocean. The king, 
‘orge I., concluded a treaty with Germany, I 
wv. 1876; with Great Britain, 29 Nov. 1879. 


TONIC SOL FA SysTEM. See Music. 


TONK, Rajpootana, India. The nawab and his 
nister, for a massacre of Hindoo chiefs, 1 Aug. 1867, 
re deposed by the British. In 1872 he demanded 
vestigation, and his case came before parliament 
thout any issue. 


TONNAGE. The Tonnage Act of 1694 esta- 
shed the Bank of England (which see). See 
mnage. 


TONOMETER, a delicate apparatus (consist- 
x of 52 forks) for tuning musical instruments, by 
wking the number of vibrations, was invented by 
Scheibler of Crefeld, and described in his ‘ 'Ton- 
»sser,’”’ 1834. It received little notice till M. 
enig removed some of the difficulties opposed to 

successful use, and exhibited it at the Inter- 
tional Exhibition of 1862. 


TONQUIN, S.E. Asia, the delta of the river 
ngkoi, a province of Annam, subject to China. 
are a French missionary bishop, Melchior, was 
urdered with great barbarity 27 July, 1858: the 
bé Neron. was also murdered, 3 Noy. 1860; see 
nnam. 
ecessful attack and death of lieut. Garnier . 
csomdink captured by the French announced, 
iz April, 1883 
n-Yang-Fu declares war against French aggres- 
sors, 8 May; a new expedition voted for 15 May, ,, 
mmander R. T. Riviere (French), and 32 others 
vesieged by the Black Flags* at Hanoi; captured 
ind killed in a sortie : 3 - 20May, ,, 


= 5973 


* The Black Flags originated with Li-Hung-Chang, 

able leader of the Canton rebels, who about 1863 with 
+ followers took refuge in Tonquin, where he was at 
‘st tolerated by the emperor of Annam, but afterwards, 
ing strengthened by many adherents, established an 
lependent despotic government. He strenuously op- 
sed the French. 


831 


TONQUIN. 


[He was buried at the Madeleine, Paris, 30 Jan. 188s. ] 
Gen. Bouet arrives 7 June ; fortifies Hanoi 16 June, 1883 
China firmly opposed to French aggression; Tu 
Due, emperor of Annam, opposed to the French. 
Proclamation of capt. Morel Beaulieu offering pro- 
tection to the people, deserted by Anna, an- 
nounced : : é - : - 20July, 
Successful French sortie from Nam Din; much 
slaughter . : : : ‘ . 19 July 
The Black Flags severely defeated 7 Aug. of 
French advance,’ under gen. Bouet, checked at 


Cachao 3 5 ‘ : : T5AURS A ss 
Bombardment and capture of the Hué forts, great 


slaughter of natives . , : - 18-20 Aug. 
Armistice granted, submission of the Annamite 
government; treaty signed, recognising French 
protectorate, ceding province of Bin Huam, &e. 
25) AUG. M,, 
The Black Flags defeated at Phokhai by gen. Bouet 
with great loss, the French suffer severely 1-2 Sept. 
Negotiations of Jules Ferry and Mandarin Tseng re- 
specting the protectorate of Tonquin . Sept. 
Disbandment of the Annamite troops yellow flags 
opposed to the French 4 - about 15 Sept. 
Gen. Bouet replaced by adm. Courbet as commander 
of the French forces - announced 20 Sept. 
Admiral Courbet begins actual occupation of 
Tonquin » : - : . about 3 Noy. 
Ninh-Binh and Kuang Yen occupied by the French 
without resistance . : - announced 4 Nov. 
The Black Flags repulsed ina violent attack on the 
French gun-boat Carabine and on Haidzuong, 
E7eNOVER > 

The Yellow book on Tonquin, published . 5 Dec. 
The French take forts onthe Red river opposite % 
Sontay . yh thA : 7 - about 16 Dec. 
Sontay captured, the Black Flags retire, alleged 
French loss, about 77 killed, 23: wounded 


Sontay fortified and left s 5 : - Dec. 
The unarmed native Tonquinese suffer on all sides 
by the war . : : : : - Aug.-Dec. ,, 
Namdinh attacked by pirates, houses burnt, people 
killed 2 3 : ; 3 “1,2 Jan. 
Arrival of Chinese troops to defend Hainan against 
the French . Oye: : . about 20 Jan. 
Gen. Millot (successor in command to adm. Courbet) 
captures Bacninh, after hard fighting Chinese 
flee, 25 French killed ‘ - - 12 March, 
Gen. Briere de L’'Isle captures citadel of Thai- 
Nguyen . 4 ‘ A ° - 22 March; 5; 
Rainy season = . : 3 March— Oct. 
Honghoa fired by the Chinese and quitted 
about 9 April, 
Treaty signed by capt. Fournier and Li-hung- 
Chang at Tientsin ; French protectorate of Ton- 
quin and Annam recognised ro Mays ;, 
The Chinese garrison of Langson resist capt. Du- 
genne anda French column (700), (unauthorised), 
advancing to occupy it; 10 killed; a violation 
of the treaty of 11 May. “ - 23 June, 
The French appeal to Pekin for indemnity ; the 
Chinese deny the ratification of the treaty about 
x July; but order the evacuation of Langson and 


other places, announced . : ° 18 July, ,; 
Gen. Millot resigns, succeeded by gen. Briére de 

VIsle 5 ~ 5 . é 30 Aug 

F 5 2 3° ” 
Fighting resumed - 4 Oct. 


Chinese regulars, attacks, repulsed with great loss ; 
French suffer little (at Kep); gen. Négrier in 
coinmand : : : ; 3 SOnoOCiaue 

Victory of col. Donnier, great Chinese loss; 20 
French killed = ° ‘ = TO; Li OCU suey, 

Chinese hold strong camps with reinforcements ; 
their attacks repulsed at Tuguen Quan-hung with 
great loss : 3 - : J irs, OCiwe. 

Fighting: the Black Flag defeated about 20 Nov. 

Chinese pirates said to be severely defeated, an- 
nounced . F “ 3 5 - : Dec. 

Gen. Négrier defeats 12,000 Chinese E. of Chu, 
annonnced 2 . “ C - 6Jan. 

Dong Song camp captured by the French after 
severe conflict 3 A A 4 : 5 Feb. 

Several forts captured : é Io-25 Jan. 

Severe conflict with about 10,000 Chinese, who are 
compelled to retreat 12 Feb.; the French flag 
placed on the captured citadel of Langson 13 Feb. 


TONSURE. 


Mutiny on the Bayard on account of deficient 
rations, &c.; r2 sailors shot ; announced 
end of Jan. 
39 French killed and many wounded g-12 Feb. 
Chinese 18 days’ siege of Thuyen-Quan raised after 
18 desperate assaults : ; : 2 March, 
The Chinese defeated by col. Duchesne, 4-7 March, 
French attack Dong-dang, successful 22 March, 
Heavy Chinese attack on French positions ; gen. 
Négrier wounded, compelled to retreat; Lang- 
son evacuated ; 5 ‘ 28 March, 
Preliminaries of peace signed at Pekin; Tonquin 
to be abandoned by the Chinese, ce. 5 April, 
Luh Vinh Phuoc, chief of the Black Flags, re- 
warded for his services by the Chinese govern- 
ment : 4 : 5 ‘ A(T tates 
The Chinese troops retiring May, ,, 


TONSURE, the clerical crown, adopted, it is 
said, in imitation of St. Peter, or of Christ’s crown 


of thorns, was disapproved of in the fourth century | 
as pertaining only to penitents, and not made | 
essertial till the end of the fifth or beginning of the | 


sixth century. 


TONTINES, loans given for life annuities with 
benefit of survivorship, invented by Laurence Tonti, 
a Neapolitan. They were first set on foot at Paris 
to reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarin’s 
government, by amusing them with the hope of 
becoming suddenly rich, 1653. Voltaire. Tontidied 
in the Bastile after seven years’ imprisonment. A 
Mr. Jennings was an original subscriber for a 100/. 
share in a tontine company; and being the last 
survivor of the shareholders, his share produced 
him 3000/7. per annum. He died aged 103 years, 
19 June, 1798, worth 2,115,244/.; see Alexandra 
Park. , 

TOPLITZ (Bohemia). Here were signed, in 
1813, two treaties—one between Austria, Russia, 
and Prussia, 9 Sept.; and one between Great Britain 
and Austria, 3 Oct. 


TOPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY or Lon- 


DON was founded 1879; inaugurated at the Man- | 
DON was foun 79 gurate I | 26 May. 48904 


sion-house, 28 Oct. 1880. 
TORBANEHILL MINERAL. Mr. Gil- 


lespie, of ‘lorbanehill, granted a lease of all the 
coal in the estate to Messrs. Russell. In the course 
of working, the lessees extracted a combustible 
mineral of considerable value as a source of coal- 
gas, and realised a large profit in the sale of it as 
gas-coal. The lessor then denied that the mineral 
was coal, and disputed the right of the lessees to 
work it. At the trial in 1853 there was a great 
array of scientific men and practical gas engineers, 
and the evidence was most conflicting. One side 
maintained the mineral to be coal, the other that 
it was a bituminous schist. The judge set aside the 
scientific evidence, and the jury pronounced it to 
be coal. The authorities in Prussia have since 
pronounced it ot to be coal. Percy. 


TORDESILLAS (near Valladolid). Here was 
signed, 7 June, 1494, a treaty modifying the 
boundary line which pcpe Alexander VI. had as- 
signed, in May, 1493, in his division of the new 
world between Spain and Portugal. 


TORGAU (Saxony, N. Germany), the site of a 
battle between Frederick II. of Prussia and the 
Austrians, in which the former obtained a signal 
victory; the Austrian general, count Daun, being 
wounded, 3 Nov. 1760. He had, in 1757, obtained 
a great victory over the Prussian king. Torgau 
was taken by the allies in 1814; and given to 
Prussia, 1815. 

TORIKS, a term given to a political party 
about 1678; see Whig. Dr. Johnson defines a Tory 


832 


| 


| Church of England. 


TOTNES. 


as one who adheres to the ancient constitution o 
the state, and the apostolical hierarchy of the 
The Tories long maintained 
the doctrines of ‘‘divine hereditary indefeasible 
right, lineal succession, passive obedience, prero- 
gative,’ &e. Bolingbroke ; see Conservatives. For 
the chief Tory administrations, see Pitt, Perceval, 
Liverpool, Wellington, Peel, Derby, and Disraeli. 
For Tory Democracy see Fourth Party. 


TORNADOS. See Storms. 


TORONTO, the capital of Canada West, 
founded in 1794 as York; it received its present 
name in 1834. It was made a bishopric in 1839. 
Opera-house burnt, 8 Feb. 1883. 

Industrial exhibition opened by marquis of Lorne, 12 

Sept. 1883. 

Dynainite cartridges found under the parliament-house ; 

much excitement, 30 April, 1884. 


TORPEDO SHELLS, a name given tree 


| plosives placed under ships, an invention ascribed 


| to David Bushnell, an American, in 1777. His at- 


| tempt to destroy H.M.S. Cerberus failed. 


The 
action of Fulton’s torpedoes was successful in 
Britain 1805; but their use was declined by the 
government. Torpedo shells ignited by electricity 
were successfully employed in the war in the 
United States, 1861-5. On 4 Oct. 1865, Messrs. 
M‘Kay & Beardslee tried them at Chatham before 
the duke of Somerset and others. An old vessel, 
the Terpsichore, was speedily sunk. The pre- 
liminary arrangements are considered rather coni- 
plicated. Magneto-electricity was employed. Tor- 
pedoes, made by professor F. Abel, of Woolwich, 
were tried in May, 1866. A torpedo invented by 
Mr. Wightman and an Austrian, tried and reported 
successful at Sheerness; an old hulk was sunk, 
8 Oct. 1870. Torpedoes to be ignited from a dis- 
tance by an electric battery are now made at 
Woolwich. A Turkish monitor in the Danube was 
blown up by a torpedo (see Russo- Turkish war, IT.), 
Whitehead’s fish torpedoes, pro- 
jected by compressed air from a boat at the rate of 
22 miles an hour; very destructive if skilfully 
directed ; described Nov. 1884. 


TORRES STRAIT, dividing Australia from 
Papua or New Guinea, was discovered by Torres, 
a Spaniard, in June, 1606. 


TORRES VEDRAS (a city of Portugal). 
Near here Wellington, retreating from the French, 
took up a strong position, called the Lines of Torres 
Vedras, 10 Oct. I810. 


TORTOLA, see Virgin Isles. 
TORTURE was only permitted by the Romans 


in the examination of slaves. It was applied to 
heretics by the Roman catholic clergy, and was 
used in Kngland so late as 1640 (when Archer, 
who took part in an attack on Laud’s palace, was 
racked), and in Scotland until 1690. The trial by 
torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776; in France, 
by Louis XVI., in 1789; and in Sweden by Gus- 
tavus III., 1786. General Picton was convicted of 
allowing the torture to be applied to Louisa Cai- 
deron, in Trinidad, in accordance with the old law 
of the island, at his trials, 21 Feb. 1806, and 11 
June, 1808. 


TOTAL ABSTINENCE, see Zvetotaler. 


TOTNES (Devon): thought to be the Roman 
Ad Durium Amnem. It was held by Judhael de 
Totneis, who built the castle about 1085. It was 
disfranchised for gross corruption and bribery, by 
the Reform act, 15 Aug. 1867. 


TOUGHENED GLASS. 


833 


TOWERS. 


TOUGHENED GLASS, sce Glass. 


TOUL, the Roman Tudli Leucorum, a fortified 
vn on the Moselle, N.E. France, one of the most 
‘cient in the empire. The city and diocese ac- 
‘ired great privileges from Charles the Simple, 
‘5, when it was united with the German empire. 
was reunited with France, I 59? The fortitica- 
‘ns, begun in 1238, were rebuilt and enlarged in 
90, according to the plans of Vauban. After a 
rorous resistance to the Germans, commencing 
Aug. 1870, Toul surrendered with its garrison of 
20 men, 23 Sept., when the town was burning in 
enty-three places. The Germans thus acquired 
uninterrupted railway communication to Paris. 


TOULON, the ancient Telo Martius (S. France), 

important military port. It was taken by the 
istable of Bourbon, 1524, and by the emperor 
/arles V. in 1536. In 1707 it was bombarded by 
-zallies, both by land and sea, by which almost 
l whole town was reduced to a heap of ruins, and 
‘reral ships burned ; but the allies were at last 
stiged to raise the siege. It surrendered 27 Aug. 
93, to the British admiral, lord Hood, who took 
‘ssession both of the town and shipping, in the 
‘me of Louis XVII., under a stipulation to assist 
) restoring the French constitution of 1789. A 
‘flict took place between the English and French 
‘ces, when the latter were repulsed, 15 Nov. 1793. 
ulon was retaken by Bonaparte, 19 Dec., when 
eat cruelties were exercised towards such of the 
aabitants as were supposed to be favourable to 
2 British.—A naval battle off this port was fought 
Feb. 1744, between the English under Mathews 
d Lestock, against the fleets of France and Spain: 
this engagement the brave captain Cornewall 
nD ‘The victory was lost by a misunderstanding 
tween the English admirals. Mathews was after- 
wds dismissed for misconduct. See Cholera, 1884. 


‘TOULOUSE, the ancient ToLosa (S. France), 
mded about 615 B.c.; was the capital of the 
sigothic kings in A.D. 419; and was taken by 
ae in 508. The dukes of Aquitaine reigned 
re, 631-761. A university was established here, 
2g, and a parliament, 1302. The inquisition was 
tablished here to extirpate heretics, 1229. The 
yubadours, or rhetoricians of Toulouse, had their 
‘igin about 850, and consisted of a fraternity of 
: ets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, 
_d gaye rise to the Italian and French poetry; 
2 Troubadours. The allied British and Spanish 
‘my entered this city on 12 April, immediately 
ter the BarrLE or TovuLovuseE, fought between 
‘e British Peninsular army under lord Welling- 
a, and the Frengh led by marshal Soult, 10 April, 
vk The French were forced to retreat, after 


‘elve hours’ fighting. Neither of the com- 
anders knew that Napoleon had abdicated the 
-rone of France. 


‘TOULOUSE. The county was created out of 
e kingdom of Aquitaine by Charlemagne, in 778. 
enjoyed great prosperity till the dreadful war of 

e Albigenses (which see), when the count Ray- 

‘od VI. was expelled, and Simon de Montfort 

‘came count. At his death, in 1218, Raymond VII. 

‘tained his inheritance. His daughter Jane and 
r husband, Alphonse (brother of Louis IX. of 

‘ance), dying without issue, the county of l'oulouse 

‘4s united to the French monarchy in 1271. A 

rge part of Toulouse destroyed by an inundation 

‘the Garonne ; St. Cyprien like a sepulchre; 23 

Me, 1875. 

TOURAINH, the garden of France, was con- 

‘ered by the Visigoths about 480. It was ceded 


to Geoffroy count of Anjou, 1044, and thus became 
the property of the Plantagenet kings of England. 
It was seized by Philip Augustus in 1203, and was 
made a duchy by John 1360. It was finally united 
to Bes. crown on the death of the duke of Anjou, 
1584. | 

TOURNAMENTS or Jovusts, were martial 
sports of the ancient cavaliers. ‘Tournament is 
derived from the French word fourner, ‘‘to turn 
round.’’ ‘Tournaments were frequent about 890; 
and were regulated by the emperor Henry I., about 
g19. Tournaments were introduced into England 
early in the 12th century; prohibited by Henry II., 
but revived by Richard I., hisson. Solemn tourna- 
ments were held by Edward III., 25 Sept. 1329, in 
London; and 19 Jan. 1344, at Windsor; and by 
Richard II. in Smithfield, London, I0 Oct. 1319; 
and also by Henry VIII., in May 1513. The 
Lateran council published an article against their 
continuance in 1136. Henry II. of France, in a 
tilt with the comte de Montgomerie, had his eye 
struck out, an accident which caused the king’s 
death in a few days, 29 June, 1559. ‘Tournaments 
were then abolished in France.—A magnificent 
feast and tournament, under the auspices of Archi- 
bald, earl of Eglintoun, took place at Eglintoun 
castle, 29 Aug. 1839, and the following week: 
many of the visitors (among whom was the late 
emperor of the French) assumed the characters of 
ancient knights, lady Seymour, aft. duchess of 
Somerset, being the ‘‘ Queen of Beauty.’’ She died 
a Dec. 1884. Among the festivities at the marriage 
of prince Humbert, at Turin, was a tournament, 
24 April, 1868. Tournaments held at the Agricul- 
tural hall, London, N. (for benetit of soldiers’ 
widows, &c.), 21 June et seg. 1880, and 25 June eé 
seq. 1881; 12-17 June, 1882; 16 June, 1884, and 
since. The “ Royal Military Tournament,’’ as an 
institution for development of skill in arms in the 
army, was organised Oct. 1883. 


TOURNAY (S. Belgium) was very flourishing 
till it was ravaged by the barbarians in the Sth 
century. It has sustained many sieges. Taken by 
the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria 
by the treaty of Utrecht; but the Dutch were 
allowed to place a garrison in it, as one of the 
barrier towns. It was taken by the French under 
general La Bourdonnaye, 8 Nov. 1792. Several 
battles were fought near Tournay in May, 1793, 
and May, 1794. 

TOURNIQUET (from tourner, to turn), an 
instrument for stopping the flow of biood into a 
limb, by tightening the bandage employed in ampu- 
tations, is said to have been invented by Morelli at 
the siege of Besancon, 1674. J. L, Petit, in France, 
invented the screw tourniquet in 1718. ~ 


TOURS, an ancient city, central France, near 
which Charles Martel gained a great victory over 
the Saracens, and saved Europe, 10 Oct. 732, and 
from which he acquired the name of Martel, signi- 
fying hammer. This conflict is also called the battle 
of Poitiers. When Paris was invested by the Ger- 
mans, M. Crémieux and several of the members of 
the French government of defence went to Tours, 
together with the representatives of foreign powers, 
18 Sept., 1870. On 9 Oct. these were joined by 
Gambetta, minister of the interior, afterwards of 
war (who escaped from Paris by a balloon, 7 Oct.). 
In consequence of the defeat of the army of the 
Loire near Orleans, the government removed to 
Bordeaux, II Dec. 


TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we 
read, built in the plains of Shinar (Gen. xi.) 2247 
Big 


jo-. |. 


TOWER. 


834 


TRADES’ UNIONS. 


The Tower of the Winds at 
Athens, built 550 B.c. The Tower of Pharos (see 
Pharos), 280 B.c. The rownd towers in Ireland 
were the only structures of stone found at the 
arrival of the English, 1169, except some buildings 
in the maritime towns founded by the Danes. 
These towers are tall hollow pillars, nearly cylin- 
drical, but narrowing towards the top, pierced with 
lateral holes to admit the light, and covered with 
conical roofs. Fifty-six of them still remain, from 
50 to 130 feet high; see Pisa. 


TOWER oF Lonpon. The tradition that 
Julius Cesar founded a citadel here (about 54 B.C.) 
is very doubtful. <A royal palace, consisting of no 
more than what is now called the White Tower, 
which appears to have been first marked out by 
William the Conqueror, 1076, was commenced in 
1078, and completed by his son, William Rufus, 
who, in 1098, surrounded it with walls and a broad 
deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made addi- 
tions to it, and king Edward ILI. built the church. 
In 1638, the old White Tower was rebuilt; and 
under king Charles II., it was thoroughly repaired, 
1680-5, and a great number of additional build- 
ings made to it. Here are the Armoury, Jewel- 
office, and various other divisions and buildings of 
peculiar interest. Here took place many executions 
of illustrious persons, and many murders (king 
Henry VI., 1471; king Edward V. and his brother, 
1485; sir Thomas Overbury, 1613). The armoury 
and 280,000 stand of arms, &c., were destroyed by 
fire, 30 Oct. 1841. The ‘‘New Buildings” in the 
Tower were completed in 1850. See Blood ; for 
Tower-Subways, see Thames. The more recent 
constables of the Tower have been the duke of Wel- 
lington, lord Combermere, and sir John Burgoyne. 
Sir George Pollock, constable Oct. 1871, died 6 
Oct. 1872; sir Wm. Gomm, 31 Oct. 1872, died 15 
March, 1875 sir Charles Yorke, April, 1875, died 
20 Nov. 1880; sir W. Fenwick Williams, April, 
1881 ; gen. sir R. J. Dacres, Aug. 1881. 

The menagerie, long here, was removed to the Zoological 


Gardens, 1831; the state papers were removed to the 
Record Office, 1857. 

Opened free to the public (Mondays and Saturdays) from 
3 April, 1875. 

Lanthorne Tower rebuilt and other restorations, 1884-5. 

The White Tower and other parts greatly damaged by an 
explosion of dynamite; about 16 visitors seriously 
hurt, about 2 p.m. 24 Jan. John Gilbert Cunningham 
and Harry Burton apprehended, 24 Jan. ; committed 
for trial, 27 March, 1885. See Trials. 


TOWNLEY MARBLES, in the British 


Museum, were purchased in 1805 and 1814. 


TOWTON (Yorkshire), where a sanguinary 
battle was fought, 29 March, 1461, between the 
houses of York (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry 
VI.), to the latter of whom it was fatal, and on 
* whose side more than 37,000 fell. Edward issued 
orders to give no quarter, and the most merciless 
slaughter ensued. Henry and his queen, Margaret, 
fled to Scotland; and Edward IV. was settled on 
the throne. 


TOXOPHILITES (from tovon, a bow, and 
philos, a lover), a society established by sir Aston 
Lever in 1781. The Toxophilites formed a division 
of the Artillery Company about 1784-1803. In 1834 
ney took grounds in the inner circle of Regent’s- 
park, and built the archery lodge. They possess a 
very curious piece of plate, given by Catherine, queen 
of Charles II., to be shot for by the Finsbury archers, 
of whom the Toxophilites are the representatives. 


TRACT SOCIETIES. The Society for Pro- 


moting Christian Knowledge was founded in 16983 


B.c.; see Babel. 


the Religious Tract Society, London, in 1799; a1 
other similar societies since. 


TRACTARIANISM, a term applied to certa 
opinions on church matters propounded in t 
‘* Tracts for the Times,’”’ of which ninety numbe 
were published, 1833-41. The principal writ: 
were the revs. Dr. E. Pusey, J. H. Newma 
J. Keble, J. Froude, and I. Williams—all of ¢: 
university of Oxford; see Puseyism. The tra 
(specially No. 90) were condemned by the a 
thorities at Oxford, 15 March, 1841. 


TRACTION-ENGINES were used on co) 
mon roads in London in 1860, but afterwards 1 
stricted. In Aug. 1862 one of Bray’s tractio 
engines conveyed through the city a mass of ir 
which would have required 29 horses; see Roa 
steamers, and Railways. 


TRADE oF GREAT BRITAIN, see Z 
ports and Imports. In 1861 the value of the ty 
amounted to 377,017,522/. ; in 1871 to 614,590,180 
in 1875 to 655,551,900/. ; in 1877, to 040,705,702! 
in 1879, 611,775,239/.; in 1881, 694,105,264/. ; 
1883, 732,328,649/. See Commerce. | 
Trade with the United States doubled in value in t 

years. 1877, 77,805,000l. ; 1878, 89,070,000l. 


TRADE AND PLANTATIONS, Boat 
OF. Cromwell seems to have given the first notio 
of a board of trade: in 1655 he appointed his s 
Richard, with many lords of his council, judg 
and gentlemen, and about twenty merchants 
London, York, Newcastle, Yarmouth, Dover, & 
to meet and consider by what means the trade ai 
navigation of the republic might be best promote 
Thomas’s Notes of the Rolls. Charles II., on t 
restoration, established a council of trade for kee 
ing a control over the whole commerce of tf! 
nation, 1660; he afterwards instituted a board 
trade and plantations which was remodelled | 
William III. This board was abolished in 178: 
and a new council for the affairs of trade on | 
present plan was appointed, 2 Sept. 1786. 

The parliamentary recommendation in 1880 to appoint 


‘‘minister of trade and commerce,” was dropped | 
Mr. Gladstone in March, 1881. 


TRADE CONGRESSES, see Working me 


TRADE MARKS REGISTRATIO. 
ACT, passed 13 Aug. 1875. The registration offic 
Quality-court, Chancery-lane (Mr. H. Reader Lac 
registrar), was opened 1 Jan. 1876; a similar a 
passed in the United States, 1881. 


TRADES’ MUSEUMS. The formation 
one was undertaken in 1853, jointly by the con 
missioners of the Great Exhibition of 1851, and 1] 
Society of Arts. The animal department was open 
17 May, 1855, when a paper on the mutual rel 
tions of trade and manufactures was read by pr 
fessor E. Solly. The contents of this museum we 
removed to the South Kensington Museum, whit 
was opened 24 June, 1857. The French “ Co: 
servatoire des Arts et Métiers,’’ was establish 
1795. . 

TRADES’ UNIONS. By 6 Geo. IV. ¢. 1: 
(1825), the combination laws were repealed, a1 
other provisions made. As trades’ unions form 
for maintaining the rate of wages, &c., are n 
recognised by law, a commission (including lo 
Elcho, Thomas Hughes, and others, with sir W1 
Erle as chairman) was appointed to inquire in 
their constitution, 14 Feb. 1867, and an act 
facilitate their proceedings was passed 5 April fc 
lowing. Their reports were issued during the yea 


TRAFALGAR. 


ielosing the existence of murderous practices, 
th great intimidation; see Sheffield, and Man- 
ester. An act to protect union funds from em- 
gzlement was passed in 1869. A trade union act 
assed 29 June, 1871, amended by act passed 30 
ne, 1876. To counteract the influence of trades’ 
dons, the National Federation of Employers was 
med Dec. 1873; see Employers, and Working 
". 


TRAFALGAR (Cape S. Spain), off which a 
gat naval victory was gained by the British, under 
‘Ison, over the combined fleets of France and 
iain, commanded by admiral Villeneuve and two 
ianish admirals, 21 Oct. 1805. The enemy’s force 
is eighteen French and fifteen Spanish vessels, 
. of the line: that of the British, twenty-seven 
ips. After a protracted fight, Villeneuve and the 
rer admirals were taken, and nineteen of their 
ips captured, sunk, or destroyed. Nelson was 
‘led, and admiral Collingwood succeeded to the 
mmand. Nelson’s ship was the Victory; and his 
it signal was, ‘‘ England expects every man will 
his duty;’’ see Nelson. 'TRAFALGAR-SQUARE, 
mdon, begun 1829; completed 1845. Grand 
tel opened by Lord Mayor, 29 May, 1880. 


TRAFFIC in the metropolis is now regulated 
ae Metropolitan Streets act, passed 20 Aug. 
fs 


TRAGEDY, see Drama. 
TRAINING SCHOOLS, begun by the Na- 


malSociety, 1811. One was founded at Battersea in 
qo, by sir J. Kay Shuttleworth, and Mr. E. C. 
ifnell; the latter, who was then in the Poor Law 
mmission, devoting a year’s salary towards the 
penses. Mr. Mann stated, in 1855, that there 
‘re about forty of these schools in different parts 
the country. 


TRAINING SHIPS, 
d Chichester. 


TRAJAN’S COLUMN (in Rome), erected 
4, by the Roman senate and people, to com- 
smorate his victories, and executed by Apollo- 
rus. It was built in the square called the Forwm 
‘ayjanum; it is of the Tuscan order, and from 
_ base, exclusive of the statue and pedestal, is 
73 feet high. 


TRAM-ROADS: as Mr. Benjamin Outram, 
ther of sir James, the Indian general, in 1800, made 
iprovements in the system of railways for common 
hicles in the north of England, the name is 
cribed to him, but it is said to have existed 
Derbyshire before. The iron tram-road from 
‘oydon to Wandsworth was completed on 24 July, 
OI. Street railways or tramways for omnibuses 
awn by horses, previously established by Mr. Train 
New York, were opened by him at Birkenhead, 
1eshire, 30 Aug. 1860, and at Bayswater, London, 
March, 1861. (See Jreland, 1868.) A street rail- 
vy bill was rejected by the house of commons in 
wril, 1861. Several of these railways existed for a 
ne in various parts of the metropolis in 1861, but 
‘re all taken up in 1862. An act to facilitate the 
nstruction of tramways passed 9 Aug. 1870. Tram- 
iys from Brixton to Kennington, and from White- 
apel to Bow, were opened g May, 1870; and 
aers since. Their introduction into the city was 
ich recommended but opposed, March- May, 
73- Dividend of the North Metropolitan tram- 
ys company, 8 per cent. Aug. 1876. The use of 
sam locomotives proposed: approved in Paris, 
ly, 1876. : 
evated street railways erected in New York, 1877-8. 


see Marine Society 


835 


TRANSPORTATION. 


233 ee of tramways constructed in England and Wales, 
1870-80. 

Steam cable tramway on Highgate Hill, N. London (the 
first in Europe), opened 29 May, 1884. 

Steam employed by the North London Tramways Com- 
pany, x April, 188s. 


TRANQUEBAR, (East Indies), the Danish 


settlement here, founded in 1618, was purchased by 
the English in 1845. 


TRANSFIGURATION. The change of 
Christ’s appearance on Mount Tabor, in the pre- 
sence of Peter, James, and John, a.p. 32 (Matt. 
xvil.). The feast of the Transfiguration, kept on 
6 Aug., was instituted in the East before 700, and 
seems to have been observed in the West as early as 
450. Pope Calixtus III. in 1456 issued a bull 
making it a “ feast of obligation” to be generally 
observed in honour of the defeat of the Turks at 
Belgrade in that year. 


TRANSFUSION OF BLOOD, see Blood, 
TRANSIT, see Venus. 
TRANSLATION To HEAVEN. The trans- 


lation of Enoch to heaven at the age of 365 years, 

o17 B.c. The prophet Elijah was translated to 

eaven in a chariot of fire, 896 B.c.—The possibility 
of translation to the abode of eternal life has been 
maintained by some extravagant enthusiasts. The 
Irish house of commons expelled Mr. Asgill from 
his seat, for his book asserting the possibility of 
translation to the other world without death, 1703. 


TRANSPADANE REPUBLIC, comprising 
Lombardy and part of the Venetian territories, was 
established by Bonaparte after his victory at Lodi, 
10 May, 1796. With the Cispadane republic, it 
merged into the Cisalpine republic, Oct. 1797. 


TRANSPORTATION, see Banishment. 
Judges were given the power of sentencing offenders 
to transportation ‘‘into any of his majesty’s domi- 
nions in North America,” by 18 Charles IT. c. 3 
(1666), and: by 4 Geo. I. c. 11 (1718). Transporta- 
tion ceased in 1775, but was revived in 1786. The 
reception of convicts was successfully refused by the 
Cape of Good Hope (in 1849) and by the Australian 
colonies (1864). Transportation, even to West 
Australia, where labour is wanted, ceased after a 
few years, through the fierce opposition of the 
eastern colonies. In consequence of the difficulty 
then experienced in transporting felons, 16 & 17 
Vict. c. 99 was passed to provide other punishment, 
namely, penal servitude, empowering her majesty 
to grant pardon to offenders under certain condi- 
tions, and licences to others to be at large: such 
licences being lable to be revoked if necessary ; 
and many have been. These licences are termed 
‘‘ tickets of leave.’’ The system was much assailed 
in Oct. and Nov. 1862, on account of violent crimes 
being traced to tichet-of-leavers ; see Crime. 

John Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced to 
transportation for stealing a few quires of paper. 
—Phillips . F : 2, : : 1 Nov. 17712 

The Rey. Dr. Halloran, tutor to the earl of Chester- 
field, was transported for forging a frank (10d. 
postage) . ‘ ; ; = ; - 9 Sept. 

The first transportation of felons to Botany Bay was 
in May, 1787; where governor Phillip arrived 
with about 800 on 20 Jan. 1788; convicts were 
afterwards sent to Van Diemen’s Land, Norfolk 
Island, &c. 

Returning from transportation was punishable with 
death until 5 Will. IV. c. 67, Aug. 1834, when an 
act was passed making the offence punishable by 
transportation for life. 

A shipment of convicts to West Australia (which 
had already received 10,000) in 1867. 2 

H 


1818 


Gore 


TRANSUBSTANTIATION. 
TRANSUBSTANTIATION, the doctrine of 


the ‘‘real presence.’? That the bread and wine in 
the Eucharist are changed into the very flesh and 
blood of Christ by the consecration, was broached in 
the days of Gregory III. (731), and accepted by 
Amalarius and Radbertus (about 830), but rejected 
by Rabanus Maurus, Johannes Scotus Erigena, 
Berengarius, Wicliffe, and others. In the Lateran 
council, held at Rome by Innocent III., the word 
«‘ Transubstantiation’’ was used to express this 
doctrine, which was decreed to be incontrovertible ; 
and all who oppused it were condemned as heretics. 
This was confirmed by the council of Trent, 18 Jan. 
1562. John Huss, Jerome of Prague, and other 
martyrs of the reformation, suffered for denying 
this dogma, which is renounced by the church of 
England (28th article), and by all protestant dis- 
senters. ‘lhe declaration against transubstantia- 
tion, invocation of the saints, and the sacrifice of 
the mass, on taking any civil office, was abolished 
by an act passed 25 July, 1867; see Sacrament. 
Luther maintained the doctrine of con-substantiation, 
viz., that after consecration the body and blood of 
Christ are substantially present in the bread and wine. 
He was opposed by Bucer, Carlstadt, Zwingle, and 
others (termed sacramentarians), who asserted that the 
Lord’s supper is only a commemorative rite. 


TRANSVAAL REPUBLIC (South Africa), 
founded by Dutch Boers (farmers) in 1848, after 
several years’ severe conflict with the natives. Its 
independence was declared 17 Jan. 1852; and its 

constitution proclaimed 13 Feb. 1858; capital Pre- 
toria. President for four years, T. F. Burgers, 27 
May, 1872. Population about 38,000 Boers, 5000 
English settlers, 770,000 blacks (1881). 
War with the Kaffirs begun ; Cetywayo, king; Seco- 
coeni (Sickakuni), an eminent chief July, 
Republican government blamed ; its troops defeated ; 

Sir Theophilus Shepstone sent to mediate Sept. 
Dutch boers assisted by the Amazwasies, a warlike 

tribe, who check Katffirs : : Rept. +, 
Severe dispatch of the earl of Carnarvon, censuring 


1876 


Burgers for aggression on Kaftirs Octia, 
Secocceni threatening Leydenburg INOVitaees 


Schlickman, the Dutch general, killed in an attack 
17 Nov. 

Sir T. Shepstone well received; a desire expressed 
for federation, Feb. ; opposition to it March, 
Anarchy in the ‘I'ransvaal; annexation of the 
Transvaal(for protection) to the British dominions 
proclaimed by sir T. Shepstone, x2 April; he is 
sworn in as administrator : : 30 May, 
Conflict with Secocceni (disapproved) ; some volun- 


teers killed : : : : 17 June, 1878 
Sir Wm. Owen Lanyon made governor of the 
Transvaal March, 1879 


Great opposition to the British rule; appeased 
after much discussion : é ~ a2 Aprika., 
Sir G. Wolseley appointed governor of Natal, &¢e., May 
War with Secocceni continues Aug. et seq. 
His stronghold captured by col. Baker Russell 
(under sir Garnet Wolseley), with British and 


native troops 28 Nov. ,, 
Secocoeni surrenders 3 : 2 Dec: |; 
The Transvaal declared a crown colony Det. te, 


The Boers meet and claim independence ; Bok, 
Kruger, and Pretorius arrested for signing a 
document issued by the Boer committee 

Dec. 1879, and Jan. 

‘The Boers seize Heidelberg, 16 Dec. ; establish the 

South African republic, Paul Kruger president 
T7,WeC: 

A party of Boers stop at Bronker’s Spruit about 250 s 
British troops of the 94th regiment, who resist ; 
some killed or wounded; others disarmed and 
dismissed . ‘ 4 ZolDeCoses 

Potchefstrom seized by Boers, who retire when 
the place is shelled; col. Bellairs besieged in it 

27 Dec. et seg. ,, 

Capt. J. M. Elliot said to be treacherously killed 

while fording the Vaal 29 Dec. ,, 


836 


TRANSYLVANIA. 


The South African Republic proclaimed by a trium- 
virate ; Kruger, Joubert, and Pretorius 30 Dee. 
Troops sent from Britain, &c., Dec., 1880, and Jan. 


Sir George P. Colley (appointed governor of Natal. 


1880) takes command in the war Jan. 
Gen. Colley’s attack on Laing’s Nek, a pass, re- 


pulsed with heavy loss ; col. Bonar Millet Deane, - 


majors Ruscombe Poole and Wm. Hunt Hin- 
geston killed : : 28 Jan. 


Severe conflict on the Ingogo river ; the British 12 


hours under fire; repulsed with heavy loss, 


8 Feb. 
Sir Evelyn Wood arrives with reinforcements and 
joins gen. Colley . - 17: Feb: 


The Orange Free State proclaim neutrality and 
mediation , : A * about 22 Feb. 
Gen. Colley marches in the night to Majuba hill 
(which see); defeated and killed after a desperate 
conflict . : ; : 5 i 26-27 Feb. 
Gen. sir F. Roberts sent to Africa 28 Feb. 
Armistice proposed by the Boers ; accepted for 6-14 
March ; armistice extended, 14 March; Boers 
agree to British terms, 21, 22 March; peace pro- 
claimed ; the Boers disperse ; gen. Roberts recalled 
24 March, 

Potchefstrom surrenders with honours of war, 21 
March ; given up as occupied by mistake April 
Vote of censure on the Government policy in the 
Commons negatived (314-205) 25, 26 July, 
Commissioners to carry out treaty of peace ap- 
pointed 5 April, agree to convention ceding virtu- 
ally all the territory to ‘‘ The TRANSVAAL STATE” 


on 8 August, subject to suzerainty of the Queen, _ 


and a British resident; with debt of about 
420,8671., &c.; independence of the Swazies 
guaranteed; signed by Royal commissioners and 
Martin W. Pretorius and Peter J. Joubert, 
(Stephen J. P. Kruger not present), 3 Aug.; 
effected c . 8 Aug. 


Meeting of the Volksraad,2x Sept.; treaty confirmed, 


25 Oct. 
Mr. G. Hudson appointed first British resident, 


Departure of the British troops 


Noy. 
about 28 Dec. 
Fighting with the natives : ‘eb: 


Secocceni killed by a rival chief . Ae =, Aug 
War with the insubordinate chief Mapoch . Oct. 
Renewed troubles with the natives . Sept.-Oct. 


Fighting with the natives, who are repulsed, under 


their chief Mapoch 16-17 Nov. 

Again defeated . : : aie . + Jals 

Combination of chiefs against the Boers announced, 

March, 

Negotiations for peace begun by Mapoch announced, 

5 April, 

Paul Kriiger, president 9 May, 
Peace concluded Jul 


: : ; < . y; 
Transvaal deputies, Paul Kvriiger and others re- 
ceived by lord Derby . ee ; 7 Nov. 
Definite proposals submitted to the government, 
22 Dec.; amended boundary lines accepted, 
2 Feb. : convention signed, the republic to be 
styled the ‘‘South African Republic” under 
British suzerainty  . . < > 27 Feb. 
The convention adopted by the Transvaal nena 


8 Aug. 

The filibustering settlers of Goshen and Stélla-land, 

break the convention ; seize and annex Montsioa’s 

lands in Bechuana-land ; sanctioned by a pro- 
clamation ; withdrawn on remonstrance, 

Sept., Oct. 

Sir H. Robinson’s ultimatum from Cape Town, 

requiring protection of the frontiers about 

14 Oct. 


Joubert resigns his presidency about 21 Oct. 


TRANSYLVANIA, an Austrian provine 


was part of the ancient Dacia (which see). 


I 


1526, John Zapoly rendered himself independent « 
the emperor Ferdinand I. by the aid of the Turk 
His successors ruled with much difficulty till Jar 
1699, when the emperor Leopold I., by the treat 
of Carlowitz, finally incorporated Transylvani 
into the Austrian dominions. The Transylvania 


deputies did not take their seat in the Austria 


parliament till 20 Oct. 1863. A decree for 


th 


TRAPPISTS. 


837 


TREATIES. 


nyocation of the Transylvanian diet was issued 
Sept. 1865. The inhabitants are about 1,100,000 
norant Roumans, 1,500,000 Saxon colonists, and 
0,000 Magyars, the last being the ruling class. 
1e union of Transylvania with Hungary in 1848, 
1ich has caused much discontent, was ratified by 
e Transylvanian diet, 25 Dec. 1866. 


PRINCES OF TRANSYLVANIA. 
John Zapoly. 
John Sigismund, 
Stephen Zapoly I. Bathori. 
Christopher Bathori. 
Sigismund Bathori. 
Emperor Rodolph. 
Stephen II. Bottskai. 
Sigismund Ragotzski. 
Gabriel I. Bathori. 
Gabriel II. (Bethlem Gabor). 
George I. Ragotzski. 
George II. Ragotzski. 
1660. John Kemin. 
1662. Michael I. Abaffi. 
1690-99. Michael II. Abaffi. 


TRAPPISTS. The first abbey of La Trappe 
Normandy was founded, in 1140, by Rotrou, 
mte de Perche. The present order of Trappists 
ves its origin to the learned Jean le Bouthillier 
la Rancé (editor of -Anacreon when aged 14), 
ho renounced the world, and sold all his property, 
ving the proceeds to the abbey of La Trappe, to 
rich he retired in 1662, to live there in great 
isterity. After several efforts he succeeded’ in 
forming the monks, and in establishing a new 
le, which commands silence, prayer, reading, and 
anual labour, and which forbids study, wine, fish, 
e. Rancé was born in 1620, and died in 1700. 
1e Trappists’ new building was consecrated in 
ug. 1833. 
number of these monks, driven from France in the 
revolution of 1790, were received by Mr. Weld, of Lul- 
worth, Dorsetshire, who gave them some land to culti- 
vate and a habitation, where they remained till 181s. 
This order was charged with rebellion and conspiracy 
in France, and sixty-four English and Irish Trappists 
were shipped by the French government at Paimbeeuf, 
19 Nov., and were landed from the Hebé, French 
frigate, at Cork, 30 Nov. 1831. They established them- 
selves at Mount Melleray, county of Waterford. 


TRASIMENEH, see Thrasymene. 
TRAUTENAU (Bohemia). On 27 June, 1866, 


e first corps of the army of the crown-prince of 
russia seized Trautenau, but was defeated and 
pulsed by the Austrians under Gablenz; on the 
th, the Prussians defeated the Austrians with 
‘eat loss. 


TRAVELLERS’ CLUB (Pall-mall), estab- 
shed in 181 5 A member must have “ travelled 
it of the British islands to a distance of at least 
10 miles from London, in a direct line.”’ 


TRAVELLING IN ENGLAND. In 1707 it 
ok in summer one day, in winter-nearly two days, 

travel from London to Oxford (55 miles). In 
117 the journey was accomplished in six or seven 
urs. By the Great Western Railway express (63 
iles) it is done in 13 hour. In 1828, a gentleman 
avelled from Newcastle to London (273 miles) 
side the best coach in 35 hours, at an expense of 
. 158. 3d. or 6d. per mile (including dinner, &c.). 
11857, the charge of the Great Northern railway 
753 miles) first-class express (6 hours) was 
8. Od. 


TRAWLING. Deep-sea fishing with a boat 


ometimes driven by steam) having a very large 


1526. 
1540. 
TST. 
1576. 
1581. 
1602. 
1605. 
1607. 
1608. 
1613. 
1631. 
1048. 


net attached to it, and thereby catching the fish 

which mostly live at the bottom of the sea; princi- 

pally practised on the N.E. coast of Britain. 

Commissions reported in 1864 and since, that trawling 
was not injurious to the supply of fish as suggested ; 
but another commission, with scientific advice, re- 
ported in Feb, 1885, that there was some ground for 
the fishermen’s complaints. 


TREAD-MILL, an invention of the Chinese, 
to raise water for the irrigation of the fields. The 
complicated tread-mill introduced into the prisons 
of Great Britain is the invention of Mr. (afterwards 
sir William) Cubitt, of Ipswich. It was erected at 
Brixton gaol, 1817, and soon afterwards in other 
large prisons. 


TREASON, see High Treason. PETTY 
TREASON (a term abolished in 1828, defined by 
the statute of 25 Edw. III. 13 52) was a wife’s mur- 
der of her husband; a servant’s murder of his mas- 
ter; and an ecclesiastical person’s murder of his 
prelate or other superior. 


TREASON-FELONY. By the Crown and 
Government Security Act, 11 Vict. c. 12 (1848), 
certain treasons heretofore punishable with death 
were mitigated to felonies, and subjected to trans- 
portation or imprisonment. The Fenians in Ire- 
land were tried under this act; see Trials, 


1865. 


TREASURER oF ENGLAND, LorpD HicH, 
the third great officer of the crown, a lord by virtue 
of his office, having the custody of the king’s trea- 
sure, governing the upper court of exchequer, and 
formerly sitting judicially among the barons. The 
first lord high treasurer in England was Odo, eark 
of Kent, in the reign of William I. This great 
trust is now confided to a commission, and is vested. 
in five persons, called ‘‘lords commissioners for 
executing the office of lord high treasurer,’ and of 
these the chancellor of the exchequer is usually 
one; the first lord being usually the premier; see 
Administrations, for a succession of these officers. 
A third lord of the treasury (Mr. Stansfeld) was 
appointed, Dec. 1868, succeeded by Mr. W. H. 
Gladstone, Dec. 1869. 

The first of this rank in IRELAND was John de St. John, 
Henry III. 1217; the last, William, duke of Devon- 
shire, 1766; vice-treasurers were appointed till 1789 ; 
then commissioners till 1816, when the revenues of 
Great Britain and Ireland were united. 

The first lord high treasurer of ScoTLAND was sir Walter 
Ogilvie, appointed by James I. in 1420; the last, in 
1641, John, earl of Traquair, afterwards commissioners 
were appointed. 


TREASURER OF THE CHAMBER, for- 
merly an officer of great consideration, and always 
a member of the privy council. He discharged the 
bills of all the king’s tradesmen, and had his office 
in Cleveland-row, in the vicinity of the royal 
palace. His duties were transferred and the office 
suppressed at the same time with the offices of 
master of the great wardrobe and cofferer of the 
household in 1782. Beatson. 


TREATIES. The first formal and written 
treaty made in England with any foreign nation 
was entered into at Kingston between Henry IIT. 
and the dauphin of France (then in England and 
leagued with the barons), 11 Sept. 1217. The first 
commercial treaty was with Guy, earl of Flanders, 
2 Edw. 1274: the second with Portugal and Spain, 
1308. Anderson. The chief treaties of the nations 
of Europe will be found described in their respec- 
tive places: the following forms an index; see 
Coalitions, Commerce, Leagues, &c. 


TREATIES. 
Abo, peace 7 Aug. 1743 
Adrianople, peace F bs aes 1829 
Aix-la-Chapelle May, 1668 


Aix-la-Chapelle, peace , 
Akermann, peace ; 4 Sept. 
Allahabad (Bahar, &c., dpded to 


1748 
1826 


E. I. Company) ; 1765 
Alt Radstadt, peace 24 ‘Sept. 1706 
America, peace . 3 Sept. 1783 
Amiens, peace : 25 Mar. 1802 
Ancon (Chili and Peru) 20 Oct. 1883 
Anglo-Turkish convention 

4 June, 1878 

Antwerp, truce . 4 April, 1609 
Armed Neutrality, eM a Se 

Dec. 1800 

Arras 22 Sept 1435 

Arras . é - 1482 

Augsburg, league of . 1686 
Austria with ‘England, conven- 
tion; the latter agrees to 
accept 2,500,0001. as a compo- 
sition for claims on Austria, 
amounting to 3°, 000,000. ster- 

ling . : 1824 
Baden, peace . Se pt. L714 
Bagnalo (Venice, N aples, &e. : . 1484 
Balta Liman - 1838 and 1849 
Barcelona (France and Spain) . 1493 
Barrier treaty - 25 NOV, 1715 
Barwalde (France and Sweden). 1631 


Basel, peace (France and Spain) 
22 July, 1795 

Bassein (Great Britain and Mah- 
rattas) AMG ab astoy 
Bayonne “s May, 1808 
Belgrade, peace 18 Sept. 1739 
Berlin, peace - 28 June, 1742 
Berlin, decree 29 Nov. 1806 

Berlin, peace (Prussia & Barony) 
21 Oct. 1866 
Berlin convention - 5 Noy. 1808 
hee ao Nien see Turkey: 

& 


13 July, 1878 
Beyara 31 Aug. 1839 
Breda, peace 25d uly, 1667 
Bretigny, peace 8 May, 1360 
Bucharest 28 May, 1812 
Cambray, league to Dec. 1508 
Cambray, peace . 5 Aug. 1529 
Campo Formio 17 Oct. 1797 
Canton : - 29 Aug. 1842 
Capua, convention . 20 May, 1815 
Carlowitz, peace 26 Jan. 1699 
Carlsbad, congress of 1 Aug. 1819 
Chateau- -Cambresis, peace. = 5550 
Chaumont. : zt Mar. 1814 
Chefoo, convention a Sept. 1876 
Chunar, India . 1781 
Cintra, convention 22 Aug. 1808 


Closterseven, convention 8 Sept. 


1757 
Coalition, first, against France 


26 June, 1792 
Coalition, second 22 June, 1799 
Coalition, third 8 Sept. 1805 
Coalition, fourth 6 Oct 1806 
Coalition, fifth 9 April, 1809 


Coalition, sixth . I March, 
Commerce (Great Britain and 
Turkey) 16 Noy. 
Commerce (Great Britain and 
the Two Sicilies) 25 June, 
Concordat, with France, 15 J uly, 
Conflans 


1813 


1839 


1845 
1801 


1465 


Constantinople, peace, 16 Apr il, 1712 
Constantinople ; ‘ July, 1833 
Constantinople : 3 May, 1854 
Constantinople (Russia and Tur- 

key, definitive) . 8 Feb. 1879 


Constantinople (settling boun- 
daries of Greece) 


24 May and 2 July, 1881 


Copenhagen, peace . 27 May, 1660 
Copenhagen’ (composition for 
Sound ae - 14 March, 1857 
Crecy . ‘ ; paraae 
Dover ‘ 3 1670 
Dresden, peace 25 Dee. 1745 


838 


Egypt, viceroy and admiral Cod- 
rington, convention 6 Aug. 
Eliot convention April, 
England, convention with Aus- 
tri ia, Russia, Prussia, and Tur- 
key, for settlement of the East 
15 July, 

England and ‘United Btates 


convention yea ouNOVE 
Evora Monte . 26 May, 
Family Compact . 15 Aug. 


Fommanah (Ashantee ae 


13 Feb. 
Fontainebleau, peace _—2 Sept. 
Fontainebleau 8 Nov. 


Fontainebleau, concordat 25 Jan. 
France and England, convention 
respecting the slave trade 
29 May, 
France and Italy, convention 
respecting the occupation of 
Rome . 15 Sept. 
Frankfort (peace between Ger- 
many and France) to May, 
French commercial treaty, 


23 Jan. 
Friedwald : 5 Oct. 
Fuessen, peace . April, 


Gandamak (with Afghanistan), 


6 May, 
Gastein convention a Aug. 
Ghent, pacification 8 Nov. 
Ghent, peace aie 24 Dec. 
Golden Bull 
Grand alliance 12 “May, 
Hague 21 May, 
Hague May, 
Halle . ‘ f 
Hamburg, peace . 2 May, 
Hanover. 3 Sept. 
Hanover and England 22 July, 
Holy alliance 26 Sept. 
Hubertsburg, peace 15 Feb. 
Hué (France ‘and Annam) 
a5 Ge 
“Interim ” 5 May, 
Japan and Great Britabe: 26 Aug. 
J yay ’s treaty Nov. 
Kaynardji, or Rontndiones -Kay- 
nardji . 21 July, 
Kiel 14 Jan, 
Laybach, congress" 6 May, 
League, holy . é 4 
Leipsic, alliance . April, 
Leoben, peace 
Lisbon, peace ; 3 Feb. 
London (settlement of Gr eece) 
6 July, 
London _ (separating Bele 
from Holland) I5 N Ov. 


London (convention respecting 
Belgium) A Sa) April, 
London (Turkey and Egypt) 
15 July, 
London (succession to ov n of 


Denmark) 
London (neutrality of Luxem- 

burg settled) A 11 May, 
Lubeck, peace 22 May, 
Luneville, peace - 9 Feb. 
Madrid, concord : 
Methuen treaty ; : 
Milan decree a 7 6G 
Milan (Austria and Sardinia) 

6 Aug. 

Munster, peace 24 Oct. 
Nankin, peace 29 Aug. 
Nantes, edict . 13 April, 
N. aumberg : , 
Nice : : 
Nimeguen, peace to Aug. 
Noyon 16 Aug. 
Nuremberg 2 Aug. 
Nystadt 30 Aug. 
Oliva, peace : 3 May, 
Paris, peace Paris) > | ro; Feb, 
Paris : - 2oJune, 
Paris . 15 May, 


1828 
1835 


1810 


1826 


1834 
1761 


1874 
1679 
1785 
1813 


1845 


1864 
1871 


1860 
I551 
1745 


1879 
1865 
1576 
1814 
1356 
1689 
1659 
1669 


. 1610 


1762 
1725 
1834 
1815 


1763 


1883 


1548 
1858 


1794 


1774 
1814 


1821 


1576 


1631 
1668 
1829 
1831 
1839 
1840 
1852 
1867 


1629 
1801 


- 1526 
- 1703 


1807 


1849 
1648 
1842 
1598 


- 1554 
Shares 


1678 
I516 
1532 
1721 
1660 
1763 
1784 
1796 


TREATIES. 
Paris, peace See 6 Jan. 1810 
Paris. rr April, 1814 
Paris . - Io June, 1817 
Paris April, 1856 
Paris (settlement of Neufchatel } 
affair) 26 May, 1857 
Partition, first rz Oct. 1698 
Partition, second 7 Ole 
Passarowitz, peace . 13 Mar. r7:8 
Passau : . 2 Aug. 1552 
Pekin, peace 24 Aug. 1860 ; 
5 April, 1855 
Persia, peace . 3 March, 1857 
Petersburg, St., peace 5 May, 1762 
Petersburg, St. 3 5 Aug. 1772 
Petersburg, St. . 8 April, 1805 
Peterswald, convention 8 J uly, 1813 
Pilnitz, convention 20 July, 1791 
Poland, partition . 25 Nov. 1795 
Pragmatic sanction - - 1438 
Pragmatic sanction 17 April, 1713 
Prague, peace . - 30 May, 1635 
Prague (peace between rr: 
and Prussia) 23 Aug. 1866 
Presburg, peace . 26 Dec. 1805 
Pretoria (see Transvaal) 3 Aug. 183r 
Public good, league for the . 1464 
Pyrenees, peace. . 7 Nov. 1659 
Quadruple alliance 2 Aug. 1718 
Radstadt, peace 6 March, 1714 
Radstadt, congress 9 Dec. 1797 
Ratisbon, peace 13 Oct. 1630 
Ratisbon’ ' x Aug. 1806 
Reichenbach, treaties . June, 1813 
Religion, peace of A = 8S 
Rhine, confederation . 1 Aug. 1806 
Ryswick, peace 20 Sept. 1697 
St. Cloud, convention 3J oS 1815 
St. Germains, peace - 1570 
St. Germain- -en-Laye, peace 
29 June, 1679 
St. Ildefonzo, alliance 19 Aug. 1706 
San Stefano (peace between Rus- 
sia & Turkey), see Berlin 
3 March, 1878 
Sidrod, peace ' - 6 OS 
Sistowa, peace . 4 Aug. 1791 
Smaleald, league 31 Dec. 1529 
Spain, pacification . 22 April, 1834 
Spain, convention, satisfying 
British claims . . 26June, 1828 
Stettin, peace 13 Dec. 1570 
Stockholm, peace 20 Nov. 1719 
Stockholm 24 March, 1724 
Stockholm . . 3 March, 1813 
Stockholm, treaty of (Sweden 
and allies) 21 Nov. 1856 
Suncion . 15 July, 1852 
Temeswar, truce 7 Sept. 1664 
Teschen, peace 12 May, 1779 
Teusin, peace 18 May, 1595 
Tien-Tsin, China, peace 26 June, 
Toso F 11 May, 1884 
Tisit, peace 7 July, 1807 
Tolentino 19 Feb. 1793 
Toplitz 9 Sept. 1813 
Triple alliance 28 Jan. 1668 
Triple alliance . Jan. 1717 
Troppeau, congress 20 Oct. 1820 
Troyes : .. 2 May, 1420 
Turin (cession ‘of Savoy and 
Nice): 24 March, 1860 
Turkmauchay, peace 22 Feb. 1828 
Ulm, peace 3 July, 1620 
Unkiarskelessi 8 July, 1833 
Utrecht, union 22 Jan. 1579 
Utrecht, peace rz April, 1713 
Valengay . 8 Dec. 1813 
Verona, congress. 25 Aug. 1822 
Versailles, peace 20 Jan. 1783 
Vienna . 30 April, 1725 
Vienna, alliance . 16 March, 1731 
Vienna, peace 18 Nov. 1738 
Vienna, peace . 14 Oct. 1809 
Vienna, convention 28 ‘soph 1814 
Vienna, 25 March; 31 May; 
g June, 1815 


.. 
ie 


ae a ene Lan aEEEEEE 


TREBIA. 


839 TRIALS. 


nna (Austria and Prussia), Warsaw, alliance . 31 March, 1683 | Westminster, peace _. 19 Feb. 1674 
ommercial 19 Feb. 1853 | Warsaw. : . 24 Feb. 1768 Westminster (with Holland) . 1716 
nna “a fe 30 Oct. 1864 | Washington, reciprocity treaty Westphalia, peace 24 Oct. 1648 
nna (Austria & Great Britain, between Great Britain and the Wilna, treaty of - 156% 
ommercial) . 16 Dec. 1865] United States, respecting New- Linea iy es pi sbi 
Meta [nea foundland fishery, commerce, Leal abi convention four ea MN Ps 
ta - y : 3 Oct. 1866 &e. 3 ; : 2 July, 1854| Zurich (Austria, France, and 

ranca (prelim.) 12 July, 1859 | Washington (settling Alabama Sardinia) - to Nov. 1859 
ssem, peace . 16 Jan. 1673 claims, &c.) . 8 May, 1871 


14th century, and became subject to the archbishop 
in 1585. Councils held here, 385-1423. ‘The arch- 
bishopric is said to have been founded before the 
“th century and to be the oldest in Germany. 
After various changes, Tréves was acquired by 
Prussia, June 1815. In 1844 much excitement was 
occasioned by miracles said to have been wrought 
by a ‘* Holy Coat.” 


aoe itl a JUNCTA IN UNO” (three joined 
in one), the motto of the knights of the military 
order of the Bath, signifying ‘faith, hope, and 
charity ;”’ see Bath. 


TRIAL AT BAR, signifies by the whole court 


or a plurality of judges. This plan was adopted at 


TREBIA, now Trebdia, a river in North Italy, 
ar which Hannibal defeated the Roman consul 
mpronius, 218 B.c.; and Suvarrow, after a 
uggle, defeated the French marshal Macdonald 
d compelled him to retreat, 17-19 June, 1799. 


TREBIZOND, a port of Asia Minor in the 
ack Sea, was colonised by the Greeks, and became 
bject to the kings of Pontus. It enjoyed self- 
yernment under the Roman empire, and when 
e Latins took Constantinople in 1204, it became 
e seat of an empire which endured till 1461, 
ee was conquered by the Turks under Ma- 
met I. 


EMPERORS. 


ss as, 1332. enue! Il. Bristol after the riots in 1832 ; also at O’Connell’s 
3s. John I. : 1340. Irene. trial, 1844; and arranged for the trial of the 
38. Manuel I., great cap- | 1341. Anna. claimant of the Tichborne estates for perjury, 1 
tain. | 1343. John II. April, 1873. 
 Nereegiatem eee wiehesl. | TRIALS. Regulations for conducting trials 
i John U. ate eicbie were made by Lothaire and Edric, kings of Kent, 
'85. Theodora. 1417, Alexis IV. about 673 to 680. Alfred the Great 1s said to have 
we ohn LE 1446. John IV. (Calo-Jo- begun trial by jury; ‘but there is good evidence of 
97. Alexis II. annes). such trials before his time. Arrangements were 
330. Andronicus ITI. 1458-61. David. made for more speedy trials by ‘‘the Winter As- 


sizes Act,’ 1876. See Appeal. 


REMARKABLE TRIALS. 


TRECENTO, see Italian. 


TREES in London. Many were planted by 
ohn Evelyn in the Mall, St. James’s, &c. He re- 
ommended this in his ‘* F umifugium,” published 
661. The planting of rows of trees in suburban 
oads began in 1875. 

REES OF Liperty were planted in Paris and other parts 
of France during the revolutionary eras, 1790 and 

1848. These trees were cut down in Paris in Jan. 

1850, when riots ensued, put down by the military. 
he celebrated tree Février, planted in 1789 near the 

National Library, Paris, was felled early im 1884. 


TRENT (the ancient Tridentum), in the Tyrol, 
longs to Austria. The council held here is 
eckoned in the Roman catholic church as the 18th 
eneral council. Its decisions have been implicitly 
eceived as the standard of faith, morals, and disci- 
line in that church. It first'sat 13 Dec. 1545, 
ind continued (with interruptions) under pope 
aul III., Julius III., and Pius IV. to 4 Dec. 1563; 
ts last sitting (the 25th). A jubilee in relation to 
his council was celebrated in June, 1863. Trent was 
everal times taken during the French war. 

At this council was decreed, with anathemas: the 
‘anon of scripture (including the apocrypha), and the 
‘hurch its sole interpreter ; the traditions to be equal 
with scripture; the seven sacraments (baptism, con- 
irmation, the Lord’s supper, penance, extreme unction, 
wrders, and matrimony); transubstantiation ; purgatory ; 
aes ; celibacy of the clergy; auricular confes- 
sion, &c. 


TRENT STEAMER, see United States, Nov.- 
Dec. 1861. 


TREVECCA, see Cheshunt. 


TREVES, or TRIER, the Roman Treviri, in 
Rhenish Prussia, was a prosperous city of the Gauls 
12B.c. The emperor Gallienus held his court here 
‘The church of St. Simeon dates from the 
Tréyes was made an electorate in the 


A.D. 255. 
4th baticrs: 


King Charles I. : 20 Jan. ; condemned 27 Jan, 1649 
Oates’s Popish Plot: Edward Coleman, convicted, 

27 Nov.; Wm. Ireland and other priests 17 Dec. 1678 
Robt. Green and others, ro Feb. ; Thos. Whit- 
bread and other Jesuits, 13 June; Richard 

Langhorne, counsellor, 14 June; convicted . . 1679 
Sir George Wakeman, the queen’s physician; ac- 

quitted : ; ; : ; 13 July, ;, 
Viscount Stafford: convicted. 30 Nov.-7 Dec. 1681 
Rye House Plot: convicted ; William lord Russell, 

13 July; Algernon Sidney . 21 Nov. 1683 
The Seven Bishops ; acquitted 29 June, 1688 
Captain Porteous, for murder, see Porteous, 

22 June, 1736 
Jenny Diver, for felony, executed 18 March, 1740 
William Duell, executed for murder at Tyburn, but 

who came to life when about undergoing dissec- 

tion at Surgeons’ Hall : : : 24 Nov. 5, 
Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino for high treason 

28 July, 1746 
Mary Hamilton, for marrying with her own sex, 14 
wives Octiamss 


Lord Lovatt, 80 years of age, for high treason ; 
beheaded . : ; 2 é g March, 1747 
Freney, the celebrated Irish robber, who surren- 
dered himself f ; : : . 9 July, 1749 
Amy Hutchinson, burnt at Ely, for the murder of 
her husband . : ; ; é : 5 Nov. 1750 
Miss Blandy, the murder of her father (hanged) 
3 March, 1752 
Ann Williams, for the murder of her husband, 
burnt alive c : ; : < rx April, 1753 
Eugene Aram, for murder at York; executed 
13 Aug. 1759 
Earl Ferrers, for the murder of his steward ; exe- 
cuted . ; : ; : : : 16 April, 1760 
Mr. MacNaughten, at Strabane, for the: murder of 
Miss Knox. ; : : : : 8 Dec. 1765 
Ann Bedingfield, for the murder of her husband ; 
purnt alive . , : ‘ : 6 April, 1763 
Mr. Wilkes, alderman of London, for an obscene 
poem (‘Essay on Woman”)  . : 21 Feb. 1764 
Murderers of captain Glas, his wife, daughter, 
mate, and passengers, on board the ship Earl of 
Sandwich, at sea r : : 4 3 March, 1766 


TRIALS. 


840 


TRIALS. 


Elizabeth Brownrigg, for the murder of one of her 
female apprentices ; hanged 12 Sept. 
Lord Baltimore, the libertine, and his female accom- 
plices, for rape 28 March, 
Great cause between the families of Hamilton and 
Douglas : 27 Feb. 
Great Valencia cause in the house of peers, in ie eland 
18 March, 
Cause of Somerset the slave (see Slavery) 22 June 
Elizabeth Herring, for the murder of her husband ; 
hanged, and afterw ards burnt at Tyburn 13 Sept. 
Messrs. Perreau brothers, bankers, forgery ; do 
17 Jan 
Duchess of Kingston, for marrying two ruetentine 
guilty (see Kin gston) c . 15 April, 
Dr. Dodd, for forging a bond of 4200. in the name 
of the earl of Chesterfield, 22 Feb. (see Forgery ;) 


executed 27 a) une, 
Admiral Keppel, by court- martial ; honour ably ac- 
quitted zz Feb. 


Mr. Hackman, for the murder of Miss Reay, when 
coming out of the theatre- royal, Covent-garden 


16 April, 
Lord George Gordon, on a charge of high treason ; 
acquitted 5 Feb. 


Mr. Woodfall, the celebrated printer, for a libel on 
lord Loughborough, afterwards lord chancellor 
to Nov. 
Lord George Gordon, for a libel on the queen of 
France ; ‘guilty : 28 Jan. 
Mr. Warren Hastings : a trial which lasted seven 
years and three months (see Hastings, Trial of), 
» commenced x ; ers eD; 
The printer of the Times newspaper, for libels on 
the prince of Wales, and dukes of York and Cla- 
rence ; fined 20ol. and imprisoned one year, 3 Feb. 
Renwick Williams, called the Monster, for stabbing 
women in London : . J uly, : 
Barrington, the pickpocket, most extr aordinary 
adept ; transported . 22 Sept. 
Thomas Paine, political writer and ‘deist, for libels 
in the Rights of Man ; guilty . 18 Dec. 
Louis XVI. of France (see France) 
Archibald Hamilton Rowan, for libel; imprisoned 
and fined . Jan. 
Mr. Purefoy, for the murder of colonel Roar in a 
duel: acquitted . 14 Aug. 
Mr. Robert Watt and Dow nie, at Waineteel tor 
treason . 3 Sept. 
Messrs. Hardy, Horne Tooke, ‘Thelw all, and 5 oyce, 


for high treason ; acquitted : 29 Oct. 
Earl of. Abingdon, for his libel on Mr. Ragnar : 
guilty 2 6 Dec. 
Major Semple, alias Lisle, for felony 18 Feb. 
Redhead Yorke, at York, ‘libel . 27 Nov. 
Lord Westmeath v. Bradshaw, for crim. con. ; dam- 
ages, 10,000. aethyl March, 
Lord Valentia Vv. Mr. Gawler, for adultery, damages, 
20001. 16 June, 
Daniel Isaac Eaton, for libels on kingly government ; 
guilty 8 July, 


Sir Godfrey Webster v. lord Holland, for Saito 
damages, 60001. . 27 Feb. 
Parker, the mutineer at the Nore, called Sciairal 
Parker (see Mutinies) : 27 June, 
Boddington v. Boddington, for crim. con. 3; damages, 
10,0608. 4 5 Sept. 
William Orr at Carrickfergus, for high an 
executed 2 . 12 Oct. 
Mrs. Phepoe, alias Benson, ‘murderess 9 Dec. 
The murderers of col. St. George and Mr. Oiienre 
at Cork ; 15 April, 
Arthur O’Conner and QO’ Coigley, at Maidstone, for 
treason ; latter hanged . B20. May, 
Sir Edward Crosbie and others for “high treason ; 
hanged . IJ une, 
Beauchamp Bagenal Harv ey, at Wexford, for high 
treason 2r June, 
Two Messrs. Sheares, at Dublin, for ‘high treason ; 
executed 12 July, 
Theobald Woulffe Tone, by court-martial (he com- 
mitted suicide, died on the roth) to Noy. 
Sir Harry Brown Hayes, for carrying off Miss Pike 
of Cork . . 13 April, 
Hatfield, for shooting at George IIL. ; see Hatfield 
26 J une, 
Mr. Tighe of Westmeath v. Jones, for crim. con. 
damages, 10,000/, : f 2 Dec. 


1767 
1768 
1769 


1772 


Hed 
1773 
1776 


3) 


1781 


1786 
1788 


33 


1792 


1792-3 


1794 
+B) 


o> 


> 


1797 


9? 


Mutineers at Bantry Bay, hanged; see Bantry Fie. 
& Jan. 

Governor Wall, for cruelty and murder, twenty years 

before (tried under 33 Hen. VIII. c. 23) (see Goree) 
20 Jan. 

Crawley, for the murder of two females in Peter’s- 
row, Dublin : 6 March, 
Colonel Despard and his associates, for high treason ; 


180 


hanged on the top of Horsemonger-lane gaol (see \ 


Despurd) . 7 Feb. 
M. Peltier, for libel on Bonaparte, first consul of 
France, in VAmbigue: guilty : . ) er Pepi 
Robert Aslett, cashier at the bank of England, for 
embezzlement and frauds; the loss to the bank, 
320,000l, ; found not guilty, on account of the in- 
validity of the bills . 8 July, 
Robert Emmett, at Dublin, for high treason ; exe- 
cuted next day 1g Sept. 
Keenan, one of the murderers of lord Kilwarden ; 
hanged . 2 Oct. 
Mr. Smith for the murder of the supposed Hanmér- 
smith Ghost ; . 13 Jan, 
Lockhart and Laudon Gordon for carrying off Mrs. 
Lee . 6 March, 
Rev. C. Massy v. marquis of Headfort, for crim. 
con, ; damages, 10,000l. 27 July, 
William Cooper, the Hackney Monster, for odendes 
against females . 17 April, 
General Picton, for applying the torture to Louisa 
Calderon, to extort confession, at Trinidad, tried 
(under 42 Geo. III. e. 85) in the court of King’s 
Bench ; guilty [new trial, same verdict, rz June, 
1808] : 24 Feb. 
" Patch, for the murder of his partner, Mr. 
Bligh . : 6 April, 
Lord “Melville, impeached by the house of com- 
mons ; acquitted . 12 June, 
Hamilton Rowan, in Dublin ; pleaded the King’s 
pardon . : : I July, 
The Warrington ‘for unnatural oneioens 
executed 3 Aug. 
Palm, the bookseller, by a French iuiinge com- 
mission at Brennau 26 Aug. 
Judge Johnson, for a libel ‘on the earl of Hard- 
wicke ; euilty 23 Noy. 
Lord Cloncurry v. Sir John B. Piers, for crim: con. 
damages, 20,000l. 19 Feb, 
Holloway and Haggerty, the murderers of Mr. 
Steele ; thirty persons were crushed to death at 
their execution, at the Old Bailey 20 Feb, 
Sir Home Popham, by court-martial; repri- 
manded . March, 
Knight v. Dr. Wolcot, alias Peter Pindar, for crim. 
COM re 27 June, 
Lieut. Berry, of H.M.S. Hazar es - for an unnatural 
offence 2 Oct. 
Lord Elgin v. Ferguson, for crim. con. ; tone 
10,0001. 2 Dec. 
Simmons, the murderer of the Boreham family, at 
Hoddesdon 4 March, 
Sir Arthur Paget, for crim. con. with Lady Bor- 
rington 14 July, 
Major Campbell, for killing Captain Boydi in ‘ Pe a 
hanged . Aug. 
Peter Finnerty and others, for a libel on the duke 
of York ‘ 9 Nov. 
The duke of York, by inquiry in the bene of 
commons, on charges preferred against him by 
colonel Wardle, from 26 Jan. to 20 March 
bi borane Lord Paget, for crim. con. ; damages, 
0,000l. 12 May, 
The king v. Valentine Jc ones, ‘for breach of duty as 
commissary-general . 26 May, 
Wright v. colonel Wardle, “for Mrs. Mary Ann 
Clarke’ s furniture : zr June, 
The earl of Leicester v. Mor ning Herald, for a libel; 
damages 1oool. . 29 June, 
William Cobbett, for a libel on the German legion; 
convicted . Jul ys 
Hon. captain Lake, for putting Robert Jeftorg! 
British seaman, on shore at Sombrero ; Siam 
the service (see Sombrero). ro Feb. 
Mr. Perry for libels in the Mor ning Chronicle ; ac- 
quitted . i 24 Feb. 
The Vere-street gang, “for unnatural offences ; 
guilty . 20 Sept. j 
Peter Finnerty, for a libel on lord Castlereagh ; 


gang, 


1810 
” 


>> 


31 Jan. 1811 


| TRIALS. 841 TRIALS. 
— 
1e king v. Messrs John and Leigh Hunt, for Ashford, against Abraham Thornton, accused 
ibels; guilty . ; . é : 22 Feb. 1811 of her murder (see Appeal) and acquitted 16 April, 1818 
sign Hepburn, and White the drummer ; both Rev. Dr. O’Halloran, for forging a frank (see T'rans- 
ere executed . : ; z 7 March, ,, portation) . 2 ; 2 : j 9 Sept. ,, 
alter Cox, in Dublin, for libels ; he stood_in the Robert Johnston, at Edinburgh ; his dreadful exe- 
illory . : : : u : t2 March, ,, cution . : 4 2 : ; : 30, Dec. ;; 
ie king v. W. Cobbett, for libels; convicted Sir Manasseh Lopez, for bribery at Grampound 
rm June, 5; (see Bribery). J : : : 18 March, 1819 
wd Louth, in Dublin; sentenced to imprison- Mosely, Woolfe, and other merchants, for conspiracy 
ment and fine, for oppressive conduct as a ma- and fraud . f f 2 ; : 20 April, , 
gistrate . e 2 , 5 : 19 JUNE, * +, Carlile, for the publication of Paine’s Age of 
ne Berkeley cause, before the house of peers, Reason, &e. . : ; : Z 15 Oct: ,, 
concluded . 2 : 3 - " Sor New 55 John Scanlan, at Limerick, for murder of Ellen 
r. Sheridan, physician, on a charge of sedition ; HHantvene ecey ; : : : 14 March, 1820 
acquitted . B : : é ar NOV. "5; Sir Francis Burdett, at Leicester, for a seditious 
ale Jones, for seditious and blasphemous libels ; libel . : A z ' : 4 23 March, ,, 
convicted . : : : : : 26 Noy. 5, Henry Hunt, and others, for their conduct at the 
jlliam Cundell and John Smith, for high treason Manchester meeting ; convicted (see Manchester 
(see High Treason) : E ; ; 6 Feb. 1812 Reform Meeting) : : : 27 March, ,, 
aniel Isaac Eaton, on a charge of blasphemy ; Sir Charles Wolseley and rev. Mr. Harrison, for 
convicted . : 3 : : : 6 March, ,, sedition ; guilty : ; : i TO April, ss 
ellingham, for the murder of Mr. Perceval, prime Thistlewood, Ings, Brunt, Davidson, and Tidd, for 
minister 4 5 - ; : : 15 May, ;, conspiracy to murder the king’s ministers ; cCom- 
he king v. Mr. Lovell, of the Statesman, for menced (see Cato-street) : - 17 April, ,, 
libel; guilty 2 , 4 ; ; 19 Nov. ,, Louvel, in France, for the murder of the duke de 
‘essrs. John and Leigh Hunt, for libels in the Berri . : 2 é : f 7June, ,, 
Examiner ; convicted. : A ‘ Dec. ,, Lord Glerawley v. John Burn, for crim. con. 
arquis of Sligo, for concealing a sea-cdeserter 18 June, ,; 
’ rll BYEXO J Major Cartwright and others at Warwick, for sedi- 
he murderers of Mr. Horsfall; at York; exe- tion : j é : : E : 3 AUG? +55 
cuted . : : : : ; : 7 Jan. 1813 | “‘ Little Waddington,” for a seditious libel; ac- 
r. Hugh Fitzpatrick, for publishing Scully's His- quitted : 4 , ? : : 19 Sept. ,, 
tory of the Penal Laws . : : ; 6 REDs er: Lieutenant-colonel French, 6th dragoon guards, by 
he divoree cause against the duke of Hamilton court-martial . Fs : ; : 19 Sept. 5; 
for adultery u ; ; : TPA DULU sets Caroline, queen of England, before the house of 
ir, John Magee, in Dublin, for libels in the Even- lords, for adultery, commenced 16 Aug. ; it ter- 
ing Post; guilty . = ‘ P 26 July; 5. minated (see Queen Caroline’s Trial) . TON OVAEEss 
‘icholson, the murderer of Mr. and Mrs. Bonar ; The female murderers of Miss Thompson, in 
hanged E é : ‘ 2 : 2t AUR 55 Dublin; hanged 2 x : / 1 May, 1822 
uite, murder of Mr. Goulding; executed 7 Oct. ,, David Haggart, an extraordinary robber, and a man 
he celebrated Mary Ann Clark, for a libel on the of singularly eventful life, at Edinburgh, for the 
right hon. Wm. Vesey Fitzgerald, afterwards lord murder of aturnkey . , ‘ gJune, ,, 
Fitzgerald ein SE Nate . 7 Feb. 1814 | Samuel D. Hayward, the favourite man of fashion, 
ord Cochrane, Cochrane Johnstone, Berenger, for burglary . . ; : r ; § Oct. ,, 
Butt, and others, for frauds in the public funds, The murderers of Mrs. Torrance, in Ireland, con- 
22 Feb. ; convicted (see Stocks) Seo une, = 5, wicted anti banced Dec 
dmiral Bradley, at Winchester, for frauds in ship eg? : _ ; “i ne 
letters . f ; : : . ; Aug. ,, | Cussen, Leahy, and others, for the abduction of 
olonel Quentin, of the roth Hussars, by court- BUS SOTEE og = cll aer el hast tel th 29 July, 1822 
martial. . é , I : } 1 Nov. ,, Barthelemi, in Paris, for the abduction of Elizabeth 
ir John Henry Mildmay, bart., for crim. con. Florence Ne gO th wt, has BOD ess 
with the countess of Rosebery; damages, Cuthbert v. Browne, singular action for deceit 
15,0001. . sj : : é ; : SEL OCAm ty, 28 Jan. 1823 
‘eorge Barnett, for shooting at Miss Kelly, of The famous ‘‘ Bottle Conspirators,” in Ireland, by 
Covent Garden theatre 3 : 8 April, 1816 ex-officio : . : . ‘ ; 23 Feb. ;; 
‘aptain Hutchinson, sir Robert Wilson, and Mr. The extraordinary ‘‘earl of Portsmouth’s case” 
Bruce, in Paris, for aiding the escape of count commenced . :. ; z ; TOMvare heey; 
Lavalette (see Lavalette) : F eAeA Dil ess Probert, Hunt, and Thurtell, murderers of Mr. 
‘Captain Grant,” the famous Irish robber at Mary- Weare; Probert turned king’s evidence; after- 


borough é ; : ; : : 16 Aug. 
‘aughan, a police officer, Mackay, and Browne, for 
conspiracy to induce men to commit felonies to 
obtain the reward; convicted . ; ar Aug. 
‘olonel Stanhope, by court-martial, at Cambray, 
in France . : é ; ; ; 23 Sept. 
Jashman, a seaman, for the Spafields riots and 
outrages on Snowhill ; convicted and hanged (see 


Spafields) . : : : : 20 Jan. 1817 
Jount Maubreuil, at Paris, for robbing the queen 
of Westphalia. ae a, : : 2May, ,, 
Ir. R. J. Butt, for a libel on lord chief-justice 
Hllenborough . : : ; 23 May, ,, 
fr. Wooler, for libels on the government and 
ministers . ; : : , ; 6June, 5, 
‘histlewood, Dr. Watson, Hooper, and others, for 
treason. : : : A : JUNG. ss 
‘he murderers of the Lynch family at Wildgoose- 
lodge, Ireland : : : : TOU y5 ess 
fr. Roger O’Connor, on a charge of robbing the 
mail; acquitted . : : : ‘ Giaskites) A 
3randreth, Turner, and others, at Derby, for high 
| treason . : : : : : To OCt Mes. 
Tone, the bookseller, for parodies; three trials 
before Lord Ellenborough : extemporaneous and 
- successful defence . 3 19; 10,20 DeC#e "5, 
fr. Dick, for abduction and rape of Miss Crockatt 
2t March, 1818 


Appeal of murder case; Ashford, the brother of Mary 


; 


wards hanged for horse-stealing (see Executions) 
Jan. 

Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, banker of London, for for- 
gery ; hanged : 5 : : 30 Oct. 
Foote v. Hayne, for breach of promise of mar- 
riage ; damages, 3000l. : : ‘ 22 Dec. 
Mr. Henry Savary, a banker’s son at Bristol, for 


forgery : : : : 3 : 4 April, 1825 
O’Keefe and Bourke, murderers of the Franks 

family . : : : ; - : 18 Aug. 5, 
The case of Mr. Wellesley Pole, and the Misses 


Long; commenced : : : ; 9 Nov. 
Captain Bligh v. the hon. Wm. Wellesley Pole, for 
adultery . c ; ‘ . : 25 Novy. 
Fisher v. Stockdale, for libel in Harriette Wilson 
zo March, 

Edward Gibbon Wakefield, and others, for abduc- 
tion of Miss Turner : : ; 24 March, 
Rev. Robert Taylor for blasphemy; found guilty 
24 Oct. 

Richard Gillan, for the murder of Maria Bagster, 
at Taunton . : : : : 8 April, 
Mr. Montgomery, for forgery ; he committed suicide 
in prison on the morning appointed for his exe- 


eution . r A - ; : : 4 July, 35 
Brinklett, for the death of lord Mount Sandford 

by akick . : ; : ; ; TOIL See ss 
William Corder, for murder of Maria Marten ; exe- 

cuted . 3 : : 6 Aug. 4, 


TRIALS. 84 


2 TRIALS. 


Joseph Hunton, a a quaker merchant, for forgery ; 


hanged . , 28 Oct. 1828 
Burke, at Edinbur ch, for the Burking murders ; 
Hare, his accomplice, became approver (see 
Burking) = 2A DCCA 
The king v. Buxton, and others, for fraudulent 
mairiage . 21 March, 1829 


J onathan Martin, for. setting fire to York minster 
31 March, ,, 
Stewart and his wife, noted murderers, at Sere 


hanged ’ a uly, ah 
Reinbauer, the Bavarian priest, "for rags of 

women . : AvAUCy sees 
Captain Dickenson, by ‘court-martial, at Ports- 

mouth ; acquitted 26 Aug. ,, 


Mr. Alexander, editor of the “Morni Ng Journal, for 


libels on the duke of Wellington ; convicted 
to Feb. 1830 
Clune, &c., at Ennis, for cutting out the tongues of 
the Doyl es 4 March, Ar 


Mr. Comyn, for burning his house i in the county of 


Clare; hanged . x 5 Oo March a: 
Mr. Lambrecht, for murder of “Mr. Clayton in a 
UCL 2 Aprils. |; 
Captain Moir, for murder of William Maniotn: 
hanged Ore Wyse ues 
Captains Smith and Markham, for ‘killing Mr 
O’Grady in a duel 24 Aus ” ,, 


Captain Helsham, for murder of lieut. ‘ Crowther in 


aduel . r Si/OCta as 
Mr. St. John Long, for manslaughter of Miss 
Cashin (see Quacks) 30, OGti a, 
Polignac, Peyronnet, and ‘others, nigoe of 
France (see France) Pen Byer 3 
Carlile, for a seditious libel, inciting to a riot; 
cuilty ; to Jan. 1831 
Mi DAO: Connell, ‘for breach of pr oclamation ; 
pleaded guilty . 2 Feb. os 
St. John Long, for manslaughter of Mrs. Tord (see 
Quacks) ro Feb. ;, 


Major Dundas, for the seduction ‘of Miss Adams ; ; 
damages, 3000l. . 26 May, ,, 
Rey. Robert Taylor (who obtained the revolting 
distinction of ‘the Devil’s ae a ’), for reviling 
the REDEEMER : convicted . 6July, ,, 
Mr. Cobbett, for a seditious libel ; the jury snad 
not agree z 7July, ,, 
Mr. and Mrs. Deacle v. Mr. Bingham Baring, M.P. 3 
14 JUly; ss 
Bird, a boy of 14 years of age, for the murder of a 
child ; hanged : TeATICUN 
The creat cause, earl of Kingston v. lord Lorton : 
commenced 9 Nov Sr 
Bishop and Williams, for ‘murder of the Telia boy 
(see Burking) Bu ecur a. 
Earl of Mar, in Scotland, for shooting at Mr. 
Oldham A oe e 
Elizabeth Cooke, for murder of “Mrs. Walsh, 
“ Burking” 6 Tan 
Colonel Brereton, by court-martial, at Bristol (see 
Bristol) . g Jan. 
The murderers of Mr. Blood, of Applev ale, county 
of Clare 28 Feb. - ,, 
William Duggan, at Cork, for murder of his wife 
and others 26 March, ,, 
Mr. Hodgson (son of ‘the celebrated Miss Aston) v. 


Greene : 26 July, ,, 
Mayor of Bristol, for neglect of duty in the 
Bristol riots 26 Oct. _,. 


Rev. Mr. Irving, by the Scots church, for heresy 


13 March, 1833 
Lord Teynham, and Dolan, a tailor, for swindling ; 
cuilty . Io May, ” 
Attorney-gener al v. " Shore (lady Hewley’ s charity, 
which is taken from the Unitarians) . 23 Dec. |,, 


Captain Wathen, 15th hussars, by court-martial, at 
Cork ; honourably acquitted ; his colonel, lord 
Brudenell, cashiered 2 Jan. 

Proprietors of the True Sun, for libels; guilty, 6 Feb. 

Mary Ann Burdock, the celebrated murderess, 
at Bristol . ; : to April, 

Sir John de Beauvoir, foreen jury ; acquitted, 29 May 

Fieschi, at Paris, for attempting the life of the 
king, Louis Philippe, by exploding an infernal 

machine (see Fieschi) . 30 Jan. 1836 
fon. G. C. Norton v. lord Melbourne, ‘in court of 
Common Pleas, for crim. con. with the hon. Mrs. 
Norton ; verdict for defendant ; 22 June, ,, 


’ »”» 


Lord de Roos v. Cumming, for defamation, charg- 
ing lord de Roos with cheating at cards ; verdict 
in “favour of Mr. Cumming. ‘ to Feb. 

James Greenacre and Sarah Gale, for the murder of 
Hannah Browne; Greenacre convicted and © 
hanged ; Gale transported é - zo April, ..§ 

Francis Hastings Medhurst, esq., for killing Mr. 


Joseph Alsop : guilty : : 13 April, 1839 
Bolam, for murder of Mr. Millie ; verdict, man- 
slaughter : f 30 July, ,} 
Rev. Mr. Stephens, at. Chester, for inflanimatory 
language 5 Aug. 
John ‘Frost, an ex-magistrate, and others, inf high 
treason ; guilty: sentence commuted to transpor- 
tation (see Newport) 31 Det. am 
Benjamin Courvoisier, for murder of lord William 
Russell ; hanged 18-20 June, 1849 


Gould, for murder of Mr. Templeman ; transported 
22 June, 
Edward Oxford, attempted the life of the queen ; 
adjudged insane, and confined in Bethlehem (see 
Oxford) 9, 10 July, ,, 
Madame Lefarge, in France, for the murder of her 
husband ; guilty . 2Sept. ,, 
Prince Louis N apoleon, for his descent upon ey 
(see France) 6 Octo as, 
Captain R. A. Reynolds, rth hussars, by court- 
nurtial; guilty: the sentence excited oreat popu- . 
lar displeasure against his colonel, lord Cardigan 
20 Oct. ,, 
Lord Cardigan before the house of peers, capitally 
charged for wounding captain Harvey Tucket in 
a duel ; acquitted : 16 Feb. 
The Wallaces, brothers, merchants, for having wil- 
fully caused the destruction of the ship Dryad at 
sea, to defraud the underwriters; transported ; 
4 March, _,, 
Josiah Mister, for attempting the life’ of Mr. 
Mackreth ; guilty : 23 March, ,, 
Bartholomew Murr ay, at Chester, for the aa of 
Mrs. Cook . 5 Aprilia, 
Earl of Waldegrave and ‘captain Duff, for Pay aggra- 
vated assault on a police constable ; guilty : judg- 
ment, six months’ imprisonment, and fines of 


1841 


ecol. and 20l. 3 May, ,, 
Madame Lefarge again, for robbery of dinmeama 
7 Aug. 4, 


The great case, Allen Bogle v. Mr. Lawson: puee 
lisher of the Times newspaper, for an alleged 
libel, in stating the plaintiff to be connected with 
numerous bank forgers throughout Europe in 
their schemes to defraud Messrs. Glyn and Com- 
pany, bankers of London, by means of fictitious 
letters of credit: damages, one farthing. This 
exposure, so honourable to the Times, led to the 
Times Testimonial. 16 Aug. ,, 

Mr. MacLeod, at Utica, America, for taking part 
in the destruction of the Caroline, commenced : 
acquitted after a trial that lasted eight days, 4 Oct. ,, 

Robert Blakesley, for murder of Mr. Burdon, of 
Eastcheap; hanged . r 28 Oct. } 

Mr. Beaumont Smith, for forgery of Exchequer 
bills to an immense ‘amount ; he pleaded guilty, 
and was sentenced to transportation forlife 4 Dec. ,, 

Sophia Darbon v. Rosser; breach of promise of 
marriage ; damages, +600: : 8 Decat..; 

Mr. J ohn Levick and Antonio Mattei, principal and 
second in the duel in which lient. Adams was 
killed at Malta: both acquitted to March, 

Vivier, courier of the Morning Herald, at Boulogne, 
for conveying the Indian mail through France, 
for that journal, contrary to the French regula- 
tions . 13 Apri .5 

Daniel Good, ‘for murder of Jane J ones ; the Roe- 
hampton murder ; found guilty, and sentenced to 
be hanged 13. May, ,, 

John Francis, for ‘attempting to assassinate the 


1842 


queen (see Francis) . 7June, ,, 
Thomas Cooper, for the murder of Daly, tite police- 
man; hanged 4Jduly, ,, 


Nicholas Suisse, valet of the late marquis of Hark 
ford, at the prosecution of that nobleman’s exe- 
cutors, charged with enormous frauds ; acquitted 

6 


y; bed 
M’Gill and others, for abduction of Miss Crellin ; 
guilty 8 Aug. » 
Nicholas Suisse again, upon like charges, and — 
acquitted . : 6 24 Aug. ,, 


, TRIALS. 


843 


TRIALS. 


ian, for pointing a pistol at the queen: 18 months’ 
mprisonment 5 
4 rioters in the provinces, under a special com- 
mission, at Stalford r Oct. 
ie Cheshire rioters, under a special commission, 
fore lord Abinger : é 6 Oct. 
1é Lancashire rioters, also under a special com- 
mission to Oct. 
ice Lowe, at the prosecution of lord. Frankfort ; 
acquitted - 3x Oct. 
r. Howard, attorney, vy. sir William Gctects ser- 
jeant-at-arms 5 Dec: 
r. Egan, in Dublin, for the robbery ‘of a Spank 
parcel ; acquitted , 
ev. W. Bailey, LL.D., for forgery ; guilty : trans- 
portation for life ; t Feb. 
ac Naughten, for the murder of Mr. Drummond, 
secretary to sir Robert Peel: acquitted on the 
ground of insanity . : 4 March, 
ne Rebeccaites, at Cardiff, under a special com- 


mission : : 27 Oct. 
umuel Sidney Smith, for forgery ; sentenced to 
transportation for life 29 Nov. 


dward Dwyer, for the murder of his child at 
Southwark ; guilty t Dee. 
r. Holt, of the Age; libel on the duke of Bess 
wick ; cuilty 
ieut. Grant, second to lieut. Munro, ‘in Da duel 
with col. Faweett ; acquitted 4 Feb. 
raser v. Bagley, for crim. con. ; verdict for the de- 
fendant : 19 Feb. 
ord William Paget v. earl of Cardigan, for crim. 
con. ; verdict for defendant : 26 Feb. 
lary Furley, for the murder of her child in an 
agony of despair ‘ 16 April, 
he will-forgers, William Henry Barber (since de- 
clared innocent), Joshua Fletcher, Georgiana 
Dorey, William Saunders, and: Susannah his wife : 
all found guilty, 15 April: sentenced 22 April, 
in 1848 Mr. Barber returned to England with a 
free pardon, and an acknowledgment of his inno- 
cence by his prosecutors : he was re-admitted to 
practise as. an attorney; and on the 3rd of 
August, 1859, in conformity with the recom- 
mendation of a select committee of the house of 
commons, the sum of s5oool. was voted him ‘“‘ as 
a national acknowledgment of the wrong he had 
suffered from an erroneous prosecution.’’] 
srouch, for the murder of his wife ; found guilty, 
8 May; hanged ° : : 27 May, 
essrs. O'Connell, sen., O’Connell, jun., Steele, 
Ray, Barrett, Grey, Duffy, and rey. Thomas 
Tierney, at Dublin, for political conspiracy: the 
trial commenced 15 Jan., and lasted twenty-four 
days: all the traversers were found guilty, 12 Feb. 
Proceedings on motions for a new trial, &c., ex- 
tended the case into Haster term ; and sentence 
was pronounced upon all but the clergyman, on 
whom judgment was remitted 30-May, 
Augustus Dalmas, for the murder of Sarah Mac- 
farlane ; guilty . 14 June, 
Wm. Burton Newenham, for the abduction es Miss 
Wortham ; guilty ‘ 7 June, 
Bellamy, for the murder of his. wife ‘ie perasiG 
acid; acquitted . art Aug. 
John Tawell, for murder of Sarah Hart ; hanged 


25 Aug. 1842 


29 


be 


> 


o> 


9? 


17 Jan. 1843 


»” 


> 


9? 


9? 


> 


29 Jan. 1844 


39 


9? 


” 


be) 


o> 


99 


9? 


”? 


2? 


13, 14 March, 1845 


Thomas Henry Hocker, for murder of James De- 
larue . =f eg opel 
Joseph Connor, for murder of Mary Brothers, 16 May, 
The Spanish pirates, for murder of ten Englishmen 
at sea “26 July, 
Rev. Dr. Wetherall, for crim. con. with Mrs. Cooke, 
his own daughter 16 Aug. 
Japtain Johnson, of the ship Tori h for the murder 


of several of his crew . : 5 Feb. 
Miss M. A. Smith v. earl Ferrers ; breach of pro- 
mise of marriage . 18 Feb. 


Lieut. Hawkey, for the murder of Mr. Seton, in a 
duel ; acquitted . 16 J uly, 
Richard Dunn, for perjury and attempted fraud on 
Miss A. Burdett Coutts 5) elt ENS) 
Mitchell, the Irish confederate ; transported for 14 
_ years (see Ireland) . 26 May, 
Wm. Smith O’Brien, Meagher, and other confede- 
rates, sentenced to death ; the sentence after- 
wards commuted to transportation (pardoned in 
1856) : : : : 9 Oct. 


rf 


9? 


1846 
3? 


9 


1847 
1848 


2? 


Bloomfield Rush, for murder of Messrs. Jermy, at 
Norwich ; hanged é : 29 March, 
Gorham v. the “bishop of Exeter ; ecclesiastical 
case; judgment given in the court of Arches 
against the plaintiff : : 2 Aug. 
[The bishop had refused to institute the rev. Mr. 
Gorham into the living of Brampton-Speke, in 
Devonshire, alleging want of orthodoxy in the 
plaintiff, who denied that spiritual regeneration 
was conferred by baptism ; the court held that 
the charge against the plaintiff of holding false 
doctrine was proved, and that the bishop was 
justified in his refusal. Mr. Gorham appealed to 
the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, 
which pronounced its opinion (8 March, 1850) 
that ‘‘ the doctrine held by Mr. Gorham was not 
contrary or repugnant to the declared doctrine of 
the church of England, and that Mr. Gorham 
ought not, by reason of the doctrine held by him, 
to have been refused admission to the vicarage of 
Brampton-Speke.” This decision led to subse- 
quent proceedings in the three courts of law, suc- 
cessively, for a rule to show cause why a prohi- 
bition should not issue, directed to the judge of 
the Arches court, and to the ar chbishop of Can- 
terbury, against giving effect to the judgment of 
her majesty i in council. The rule was refused in 
each court, and in the end Mr. Gorham was insti- 
tuted into the vicar age in question, 7 Aug. 1850.] 
Manning and his wife, for murder of O'Connor ; 
guilty : death 27 Oct. 
Walter Watts, lessee of the Olympic ‘theatre, for 
forgery, &c. = to } May, 
Robert Pate, a retired lieutenant, ‘for an assault on 


the queen é rr July, 
The Sloanes, man and wife, for starving their ser- 
vant, Jane Wilbred 3 Feb. 


5 
The Board of Customs v. the ‘London Dock” Com- 
pany, on a charge of defrauding the revenue of 
duties ; a trial of 11 days ended in a virtual ac- 
quittal : 18 Feb. 
Sarah Chesham, for murder of husband, by poison ; 
she had murdered several of her children and 
others by the same means; hanged . 6 March, 
Thomas Drory, for the murder of Jael Denny: 
hanged ; 7 March, 
Doyle 7 v. Wright, concerning the personal Tonistody 
- of Miss Augusta Talbot, a Roman catholic ward 
of chancery, pefore the lord chancellor : pro- 
tracted case . 22 March, 
The murderers of the rev. George Edward Hollest, 
of Frimley, Surrey ; guilty 31 March, 
Miller v. ald. "Salomons, M.P., for voting as a mem- 
ber without having taken the required oath ; ver- 
dict against the defendant ; 19 April, 
The case “‘ Bishop of London v. the rey. Mr. Glad- 
stone:” judgment of the Arches court against 
the defendant tod une, 
Achilli v. Newman, for libel ; ‘tried before lord 
chief justice Campbell in the Queen’s Bench: 
verdict for the plaintiff, Nov. 1852; . 31 Jan. 
Lord Frankfort, for scandalous and daferdataae 
libels ; guilty Dec. 
Richard Bourke Kirwan, for the murder of his w ife ; 
guilty . ae to Dec. 
Eliot Bower, for murder of Mr. Saville Morton, at 


Paris ; acquitted . 28 Dec. 
Henry Horler, for murder of his’ wife ; hanged at 
the Old Bailey : 15 Jan. 
James Barbour, for murder of Robinson ; hanged 
at York 5 Jan. 


George Sparkes and James Hitcheock, for the mur- 
der of William Blackmore at Sree guilty 
9 March, 
Five Frenchmen (principal and “OY for the 
murder of asixth Frenchman in a duel at Egham ; 
verdict, manslaughter. 21 March, 
Moore and Walsh, “for the murder of John Black- 


burn, at Stafford ; hanged A : 21 March, 
Saunders, for murder of Mr. Toler; hanged at 
Chelmsford 30 M arch, 


The Stackpole family, ‘four in number ; tw o of them 
females, and wives to the others, for the murder 
of their relative, also a Stackpole ; hanged at 
Ennis 28 April, 

Case of Holy Cross Hospital, Winchester, decided 
against rev. earlof Guildford —. 1 Aug. 

Smyth ». Smyth, ended in the plaintiff tothe com- 


1849 


>? 


TRIALS. 844 TRIALS. 
mitted on a charge of forging the ye on which James Spollen, on charge of murder of Mr. Little, 
he grounded his claim . 8,9, ro Aug. 1853 near Dublin ; s acquitted . -1r Aug. 


The Braintree case respecting liability to church- 
rates, decided by the house of lords, against the 
rate 12 Aug, 

Case of Lumley v. Gye, respecting “Madile. Wagner ; 


decided ; 20 Feb. 
Mr. Jeremiah Smith, may or of Ry e, convicted of 

perjury. 2 March, 
Duchess of Manchester’s will case . April, 


Mr. Carden, for abduction of Miss E. Arbuthnot, 
and assault upon John Smithwick ; convicted 
28, 29 July; 

Mary Anne Brough, for murdering her six childr ene 
not guilty (insanity) 9 Aug. 
Case of Pierce Somerset Butler v. viscount Mount- 
garret ; verdict for plaintiff, who thus came into 
a peerage, defendant being proved illegitimate 
Aug. 

Courts-martial on lieuts. Perry and Greer; sen- 
tences reversed by lord Hardinge 29 July-Aug. 
Courts-martial on sir E, Belcher, captain McClure, 


&c., for abandoning their ships in the Arctic 
regious ; acquitted Oct. 
Emanuel Barthélemy, for murder of Charles Col- 
lard and Mr. Moore (executed) 4 Jan. 


Handcock v. Delacour, otherwise De Burgh (cruelty 
to Mrs. Handcock, and charges against lord 
Clanricarde); compromised . 

Earl of Sefton v. Hopwood (will set aside) 

-ro April, 

Luigi Baranelli, for murder of Joseph eS (or 


Lambert) ; (executed 30 April) 12 April, 
Charles King, a great thief-trainer; transported 
13 April, 


Wm. Austin (governor), for cruelties in Birming- 
ham gaol; acquitted : 2 3 Aug. 
Sir John Dean Paul, William Strahan, and Robert 
M. Bates, bankers, for disposing of their cus- 
tomers’ securities (to the amount of 113,625/.): 


convicted 27 Oct. 
Joseph Wooler, on Charge of poisoning his wife; 

acquitted ‘ : 7 Nov. 
Westerton v. Liddell (on Aecemtiaae &¢., im. 


church in Knightsbridge ; decision against them) 
BEDE. 
[Decided again by privy council, partly for both 
parties ; each to pay his own costs, 21 March, 
1857.] 
Celestina Sommers, for murder of her child; 
convicted (but reprieved) . 6 March, 
Wi. Palmer, for murder of J. P. Cook by poison 
14-27 May, 
[He was executed at Stafford on 14 June, inthe pre- 
sence of 50,coo persons. If he had been ac- 
quitted, he would have been tried for the murder 
of his wife and brother. ] 
Wm. Dove, for murder of his wife (executed 9 Aug.) 
9g July, 
Ditcher v. archdeacon Denison, respecting the doc- 
trine of the eucharist ; defendant deprived, and 
appeal disallowed [verdict set aside by privy 


council] 5 22 Oct. 
W. S. Tarcwieke t and i. ‘Atewall Seay of 
forgery . 1 Oct. 
Wm. Robson, ‘for frauds of “Crystal Calgon Cone. 


pany (to the amount of about 28 ,oool.); trans- 


ported for twenty years : é rt Novy. 
Earl of Lucan v. Daily News, for libel ; verdict for 
defendant 3 Dec. 
Pearce, Burgess, and Tester : see Gold Robbery, 
14 Jan. 


Leopold Redpath, for forgeries (to the amount of 
150,000l.) upon Great Northern Railway Com- 
pany: transported for life . 16 Jan. 

Jem Saward, a barrister (called the Penman), Wm. 
Anderson, and others, convicted of extensive 
forgery of bankers’ cheques 5 March, 

Miss Madeline Smith, on charge of poisoning 
Emile L’Angelier, at Glasgow; not proven 

30 June-g July, 

Thos. Fuller Bacon, for poisoning his mother, con- 
victed . 25 July, 

[He was acquitted on a charge of nimedertne two 
children, 13, 14 May, same year. His wife con- 
fessed the murder, but appeared to be insane. } 


” 


W. Attwell and others, convicted of eine the 
countess of Ellesmere’s jewels (value 15,000l.) 
from the top ofacab . ~ 1 rg Dec 

Strevens v. Campion, for slander, in charging the 
plaintiff with complicity in the murder of his 
aunt, Mrs. Kelly ; damages 6d. . 31 Dec. 

The directors of the British Bank, Humphry br own, 
Edw. Esdaile, H. D. Macleod, alderman R. H. 
Kennedy, W. D. Owen, James Stapleton, and 
Hugh Innes Cameron, for fraud (see under Banks) ; 
convicted d 13-27 Feb. 

Rey. 8. Smith and his wife, for murderous aia 
on John Leech ; convicted j . 6-7. April; 

Edw. Auchmuty Glover, M.P., for false dattarstion 
of qualification of M. P. 3 - g April, 

Simon Bernard, as accessory ‘to the conspiracy 
against the life of the emperor Napoleon ; acquitted 

12-17 April, 

The earldom of Shrewsbury case ; earl Talbot’s claim 
allowed zr June, 

James Seal, for the murder of Sarah Guppy; con- 
victed (and executed) . 23 July, 

The Berkeley peerage case 23 July, 

Patience Swynfen v. F. H. Swynfen ; “a will case; 
the will affirmed . «ap a7n uly, 

[The plaintiff was Patience Swynfen, widow of Henry 
John Swynfen, son of the testator, Samuel Swyn- 
fen. Her husband died I5 June, 1854, and his 
father on 16 July, following, having made a will 
19 days before his death, ‘devising “the Swynfen 
estate (worth about 60 cool.) to his son’s wife, 
but leaving a large amount of personal estate un- 
disposed of. The defendant, F. H. Swynfen, son 
of the testator’s eldest’ half-br other, claimed the 
estate as heir-at-law on the ground of the testator’s 
insanity. The issue was brought to trial in March, 
1856; but proceedings were stayed by Mrs. Swyn- 
fen’s counsel, sir EF. Thesiger, entering into an 
agreement with the opposite counsel, sir Alex- 
ander Cockburn, without her consent, and in de- 
fiance of her instructions. After various pro- 
ree the court of chancery ordered a new 
tria 
energy of her counsel, Mr. Chas. R. Kennedy, to 
whom she had promised to pay 20,0001. for his 
extraordinary services. Mrs. Swynfen, however, 
married a Mr. Broun, and repudiated Mr. Ken- 
nedy’s claim. The latter, in an action against 
her, obtained a verdict in his favour on 29 March, 
1862, which was, on appeal, finally reversed in 
Feb. 1864. Mrs. Swynfen was non-suited in an 
action brought against her counsel (afterwards 
lord Chelmsford and lord chancellor), in July, 
1859, and June, 1860. ] 

Lemon Oliver, a stockbroker, convicted of exten- 
sive frauds . to Noy. 

Marchmont v. Marchmont ; ‘a disgraceful divorce 
case, begun - 30 Nov. 
xp, dial Guernsey, for stealing Ionian desnatanme 
from the Colonial Office ; acquitted . 15 Dec. 

Evans v. Evans and Rose, ‘divorce case. Dee. 

Lieut.-col. Dickson v. earl of Wilton, for libel ; ver- 
dict for the plaintiff . 14 Feb. 

Black v. Elliott, 850 sheep ‘poisoned by a sheep- 

wash sold by defendant ; damages r4ool. 23 Feb. 


Wagner, Bateman, and others, a gang of bank» 


forgers ; convicted . . 23 May, 
Earl of Shrewsbury v. Hope Scott, and ote the 
earl gains the Shrewsbury estates J une, 
Thellusson will case decided (see Thellusson) 9 June, 
T. R. Marshall, E. A. Mortimer, and H. 8. Eicke, 
convicted of illegal sale of army commissions, 
29 June, 
Thomas Smethurst, a surgeon, for the murda by 
poison of Isabella Bankes, whom he had married 
during his wife’s lifetime ; convicted 15-19 Aug. 
[He was reprieved on the ground of insufficient evi- 
dence; but was tried and found guilty of bigamy, 
16 Nov. 1859. Onur Noy. 1862, he proved Miss 
Bankes’s will, and obtained her property. ] 
Oakley v. the Moulvie Ooddeen, ‘‘ambassador of 
the king of Oude.” Verdict for the defendant, 
who seems to have fallen among bill-sharpers, 


17 Dec. 
David Hughes, an attorney, convicted af gross 
frauds upon his clients c - Jan. 


She gained her cause, mainly through the 


»” 


> 


» 


1860 


ee 


Fe ee nanan En 


TRIALS. 


genia Plummer, aged rz years, convicted of per- 
ury against rev. Mr. Hatch . 
.W. H. Leatham, M.P., convicted of bribery at 
Wakefield : A : 2 : 19 July, 
omas Hopley, a schoolmaster, convicted of man- 
laughter of Reginald Cancellor, by flogging, 
23 July, 
ittidge v. Prince (see Agupemone) 25 July, 
v. J. Bonwell, of Stepney, degraded forimmorality, 
29 Aug. 
mes Mullens, convicted for the murder of Mrs. 
Elmsley; by endeavouring to inculpate one Eins, 
he led to his own conviction —. : 25 Oct. 
ss Shedden v. Patrick. (The plaintiff ably 
pleaded her own cause when the case was opened; 
her object, to prove the legitimacy of her father, 
was not attained) : : . 9 Nov. et seq. 
yoper v. Ward; disgraceful profligacy of a magis- 
trate; verdict for plaintiff . ; . 19, 20 Dec. 
mstance Kent inquiry; trial refused, see Road 
Murder : fi : : : +) dan. 
‘ook v. Brook; see Marriage with Wife’s Sister. 
The house of lords on appeal decided against the 
validity of such marriages, even when celebrated 
in a foreign country ; ; : 18 Maren, 
velwall v. hon. Major Yelverton. The plaintiff 
sued for expenses incurred by defendant's wife ; 
the maior denied the validity of his marriage 
with Miss Longworth, having since married the 
widow of professor Edward Forbes, the eminent 
naturalist. The court in Dublin supported the 
first marriage. ; 21 Feb. to 4 March, 
[iss Longworth endeavoured to establish her 
marriage. On appeal, the Scotch court annulled 
the marriage, July, 1862, and this judgment was 
affirmed by the house of lords, 28 July, 1864, and 
again finally, 30 July, 1867. An attempt to set 
aside the judgment of the house of lords rejected 
by the court of session, 29 Oct. 1868. ] 
eade v. Lacy; the dramatising a novel restrained, 
17 April, 
eamish v. Beamish; the lords on appeal decide 
that a clergyman cannot perform the ceremony of 
marriage for himself : a : . 22 April, 
mperor of Austria v. Day; verdict for plaintiff. 
The defendant had printed roo millions florin 
notes on the bank of Hungary, for Louis 
Kossuth. The notes were ordered to be destroyed 
within one month, 6 May; judgment affirmed 
: 12 June, 
ardross case. John MacMillan, a free-church 
minister, was expelled for drunkenness and mis- 
conduct, May, 1858. The Glasgow synod and 
the general assembly of the free church affirmed 
the sentence. He appealed to the court of 
session, which set aside the decree (which in- 
volved temporalities), asserting that the assembly 
had only spiritual authority . A . duly, 
7. B. Turnbull v. Bird, secretary of protestant 
alliance; libel; verdict for defendant 8-10 July, 
_ ©. Charlesworth, M.P., convicted of bribery at 
the Wakefield election . ; : 20 July, 
iaron de Vidil; convicted of wounding his son; the 
latter refused to give evidence against his father, 
23 Aug. 
‘incent Collucci: convicted of obtaining money on 
false pretences, from Miss F. Johnstone 23 Oct. 
dhn Curran, a Dublin cabman; convicted of a 
violent assault on Miss Jolly, who heroically de- 
fended herself . : : ; . 25-30 Oct. 
'atrick McCaffery; shot col. Crofton and capt. 
Hanham, at Preston; convicted . ae rauec. 
aquiry into sanity,of Wm. Fred. Wyndham (on 
behalf of his relatives), with a view of annulling 
an injudicious marriage; trial lasted 34 days: 140 
witnesses examined; verdict sane mind (see 
Lunacy) : : . 16 Dec. 1861, and 30 Jan. 
Zach party adjudged to pay its own costs, March, 
1862. 
lapt. peso: by court-martial; convicted of 
submitting to ungentlemanly conduct from _ his 
brother officers:—30 days’ inquiry: ended, 
24 March, 
The court was much blamed by the public and the 
sentence was annulled. ] 
frs. A. C. Vyse for poisoning her two children ; 
acquitted asinsane . : z 5 g July, 
toupell v. Waite; during the trial, W. Roupell, 


1862 


Jessie McLachlan; convicted for the murder of 
Jessie Macpherson, at Glasgow; she confessed to 
being accessory after the murder, which she im- 
puted to Mr. Fleming, a gentleman 80 or go years 
Old a: : ‘ : ; ; 17-20 Nept. 

[She was respited 27 Oct. 1862. ] 

Wm. Roupell, M.P., for forgery; convicted on his 
own confession (released Sept. 1876) 24 Sept. 

Catherine Wilson, convicted of poisoning Mrs. 
Soames in 1856 : 2 : 25-27 Sept. 

27 indictments and 24 convictions for savage per- 
sonal outrages in the streets of the metropolis 
during the month : - 3 : Nov. 

Wm. Digby Seymour, M.P., v. Butterworth; libel; 
verdict for plaintiff, damages 40s... ELEC: 

Hall v. Semple; verdict for plaintiff, who had been 
consigned to a lunatic asylum through his wife’s 
getting the defendant to sign a certificate of lunacy 
with culpable negligence; damages rsol. 10 Dee. 

George Buncher, Wm. Burnett, Richd. Brewer, and 
James Griffiths, for forging bank-notes, printed 
on paper stolen from the paper-mill at Laver- 
stoke; convicted . ‘ ‘ : . 7-12 Jan. 

Clare v. The Queen; petition of right for infringe- 
ment of a patent; verdict for defendant 2-6 Feb. 

Rev. John Campbell v. Spottiswoode (as printer of 
a libel in Saturday Review): verdict for plaintiff, 

27 Feb. 

Queen on appeal of earl of Cardigan v. col. Calthorpe 
for libel, charging the earl with deserting his 
men at Balaclava, 25 Oct. 1855; verdict for de- 
fendant (who, however, admitted his error), 

9, 1o June, 

Attorney-general v. Sillim and others, for having 
built the Alexandra for the Confederates, against 
the Enlistment act; verdict for defendants, 

25 June, 

{Decision finally affirmed on appeal to the house of 
lords, 6 April, 1864.] 

Col. Lothian Dickson v. viscount Combermere, earl 
of Wilton, and gen. Peel, for conspiracy to expel 
him from the army; verdict for defendants, 

27 June, et seq. 

Morrison (Zadkiel) v. sir Edward Belcher; libel; 
verdict, 20s. damages . H : ; 29g June, 

Richard Roupell v. Haws: arising out of Roupell 
forgeries ; no verdict : ; , 16-24 July, 

Woolley v. Pole, for Sun Fire Office; verdict for 
plaintiff, awarding him his claim for 29,o00l. for 
his insurance of Campden-house; burnt 23 March, 
TSO2e ; 3 ; : : : 29 Aug. 

George Victor Townley, for murder of Miss Good- 
man, through jealousy ; convicted . 12 Dee. 

[He escaped execution through a certificate of in- 
sanity, too hastily signed: and committed suicide 
in prison, r2 Feb. 1865. ] 

Lieut.-col. Crawley, by court-martial at Aldershot, 
for alleged oppression and cruelty to sergeant- 
major John Lilley, in consequence of a court- 
martial at Mhow, in India; honourably acquitted, 

17 Nov.-23 Dec. 

Franz Miiller, for murder of Mr. Briggs in a railway 
carriage, 9 July; convicted ; . 27-29 Oct. 

Gedney v. Smith, a supposititious child detected 
and deprived of much property to Nov. 

BE. K. Kohl, for murder of Theodore Fuhrkop; con- 
victed . : : 2 . : Ir, 12 Jan. 

Queen v. Wm. Rumble, for infringement of Foreign 
Enlistment act, in equipping the Rappahannock 
for the Confederate government; acquitted, 

Feb. 

Woodgate v. Ridout (for Morning Post), for libel 
respecting the great will case of the earl of Kg- 
mont v. Darell; verdict for plaintiff, roool., 10 Feb. 

Bishop Colenso’s appeal to privy council against 
decision of bishop of Capetown, deposing him, 
which is annulled ¥ : : 2t March, 

Roberts, Jeffery, Casely, and others, for jewel rob- 
beries in London; ‘convicted 13 April, 

J. W. Terry and Thos. Burch, for misdemeanor 
in connection with the Unity Bank; acquitted, 

April, 

Edw. Wm. Pritchard, M.D., for murder of his wife 
and her mother, by poisoning; guilty 3-7 July, 

Charlotte Winsor, a child murderer, convicted on 
the evidence of an accomplice re uly, 


845 TRIALS. 
M.P., a witness, confessed himself guilty of 
14 May, 1860 | + forging a will, and other frauds 18, 19 Aug. 1862 


2? 


> 


22 


TRIALS. 


846 


TRIALS. 


[On account of legal irregularities in her trial, her 
execution was long deferred, and her sentence was 
conumuted to life-imprisonment, 23 May, 1866.] 

Constance Kent tried (see Road Murder) 2:1 July, 

Trials of Fenians for treason-felony ; Thos. Clarke 
Luby, convicted and sentenced to 20 years’ penal 
servitude, 28 Nov.-1 Dec. ; O’Leary and others 
convicted ; O'Donovan Rossa (previously con- 
victed) sentenced to imprisonment for life, r3 Dec. ; 
others convicted at Cork . Dee 

Stephen Forwood (or Ernest Southey iy for murder 
of his wife and children: guilty 20-21 Dee. 

Other Fenians convicted at Dublin (see Fenians), 

Jan. 
succession decided in favour 
of Campbell of Glenfalloch. 26 Jan. 

Ryves and Ryves v. the attorney-general; an en- 
deavour to prove the marriage of king George III. 
with Hannah Wilmot, and that of his brother 
Henry, duke of Cumberland, with Olive Wilmot; 
the jury decided that the claim was not made out, 
and that Olive Serres, the alleged mother of Mrs. 
Ryves, was not the legitimate daughter of the 
duke of Cumberland, and that the 82 documents 
brought in evidence were forged (Mrs. Ryves died 
7 Dee. 1871) . 13 June, 

Banda and Kirwee prize ease (Indian mutiny) ; 
court of admiralty decide that 700,000l. are to be 
divided between the soldiers commanded by 
generals Whitelocke, Rose, Roberts, and others, 

30 June, 

Bishop Colenso v. Gladstone and others, trustees of 
colonial bishopric fund (for withholding his 
stipend) ; verdict for plaintiff, with costs 6 Noy. 

Hunter v. Sharpe (Pall Mall Gazette), for libel 
(charging him with quackery); one farthing 
damages gained by plaintiff x Dec. 

James J. Wilkinson, manager of joint stock Dank. 
convicted of fraud g et seq. Jan. 

[Liberated with free pardon, after investigation, 
July, 1868] 

Bryant v. Foot; decision against prescriptive right 
of a rector to claim a marriage-fee 23 Jan. 

C. W. Lee Webb, Lionel Holdsworth, and others, 
convicted of fraud (scuttling a ship, and claiming 
insurance) 4 Feb. 

C. Anderson, a Swede ; convicted of murdering a 


Breadalbane peerage : 


mulatto, frem super stition : 12 April, 
Breadalbane peerage; Wm. J. Campbell declared 
heir, on appeal to house of lords 16 July, 


Smith v. Tebbitt and others ; a will case, disposing 
of upwards of 400,000l.; verdict for defendants, 
annulling the will of Ann Thwaites, who is de- 
clared of unsound mind, after a long trial, in 
April and May ; judgment given SOLA ES 

Oakes v. Turquand, and others ; appeal case, house 
of lords; decision affirming liability of share- 
holders of the company of Overend, Gurney, and 
Co. (limited) 15 Aug. 

Geo. Druitt, M. Lawrence, ‘and John Anderson, 
leaders of the operative tailors’ association, con- 
victed of a misdemeanor (organising the system 
of ‘‘ picketing,” or watching men on strike; and 
intimidating non-unionists; which began 24 


April, 1867) : , 21 Aug. 
13 tailors convicted of “ picketing” : Pg Aug. 
Fenian trials at Manchester, Allen, . (see 


Fenians) . 30 Ge -I2 Nor 

Frederick Baker convicted of ruth murder of a 
child 3 6 Dec. 

Mr. Rigby Wagon v. Walter (for publication of an 
alleged libel in the Times ; viz., a correct report 
of a debate in the house ‘of lords, &c.); verdict 
for defendant, settling that such a report is 
privileged : 18-20 Dec. 

[Verdict affirmed again, 28 Noy. 1868. Mr. Wa- 
son died July, 1875.] 

Martin v. Mackorbenis (for ritualistic practices) ; 
before dean of arches, 4 Dec. 2567» and 14 days ; 
recommenced; closed 18 Jan. 

Flamank v. Simpson ; similar case ; begun Reps. 
verdict condemning elevation of sacrament, use 
of incense, and mixture of water with the wine in 
the communion service A ‘ 28 March, 

Crossley v. Elsworthy for fraudulent misrepresen- 
tation; verdict for plaintiff, damages 35,o00l. 

18 Feb. 


1865 


1866 


1868 


»”? 


Trial of Fenians for Clerkenwell outrage (see 
Fenians), begun 20 April; all acquitted except 
Michael Barrett ; . 20-27 April, 


Lyon v. Home (the spiritual medium). The plain-~ 


tiff, a widow, sought to recover 60,0001. stock, 
given to Home at the alleged command of her 
deceased husband’s spirit, between Oct. 1866 and 
Feb. 1867; suit instituted 15 June, 1867 ; trial, 
21 April to xz May, 1868; verdict given for 
plaintiff, by the vice-chancellor, sir G. M. Giffard, 


22 May, 


[The judge, in concluding, said, regarding 
spiritualism, that ‘‘ the system, as presented 
by the evidence, is mischievous nonsense; 
well caleulated on the one hand to delude 
the vain, the weak, the foolish, and the 
superstitious ; and on the other to assist the 
projects of the needy, and the adventurer.” ] 

Richard Burke (alias Geo. Berry, &c.), Theobald 
Casey, and Henry Shaw (alias Mullady), Fenians, 
for treason felony, at Old Bailey; Burke and 
Shaw convicted, Casey acquitted 28-30 April, 

Mornington »v. Wellesley, and Wellesley v. Morning- 
ton, a 29 years’ suit in chancery, decided (costs 
above 30,0001.) ; 22,0001. awarded to the countess 
of Mornington “ : 3 7 May, 

Esmonde will case, Dablin: Lady Hanna 
bequeathed property to support protestantism in 
Ireland, by endowing a college, &c. : will disputed 
by her family : no verdict by jury 3-13 June, 

[New trial; will affirmed, Aug. 1869.] 

Thomas Edgeley, convicted of fraud against Leeds 
Banking Company 11-13 June, 

Risk Allah v. Whitehurst (for Daily Telegraph) : 
libel case; damages for plaintiff, 960l., 19 June, 

Attorney-general vy. Dakin: appeal case; decision 
that privilege of exemption from execution of 
legal process does not extend to Hampton Court 
palace 20 June, 

Madame Sarah Rachel Leverson convicted of con- 
spiracy 25 Sept. 

[Writ of error : new ‘trial refused, II es, 1869. ] 

Chornford v. Lingo: female suffrage ‘declared illegal 

-g Noy. 


Baxter v. Langley: Sunday evening ee 


declared not illegal . 9 Nov. 
Martin v. Mackonochie: see Church of England, 
Dee. 

Phillips v. Eyre: verdict for aéfeadant: see 
Jamaica 20 Jan. 


Saurin v. Star and another (convent case; a sister 
sued her mother superior, for ill-usage and ex- 
pulsion); verdict for plaintiff, damages 5ool. 

3-26 Feb. 
[Case compromised, April, 1890] 

James Thos. Gambier, admiralty clerk, and Wm. 
Rumble, engineer, convicted of fraud and seeking 
bribes from contractors 9 April, 

Cooper v. Gordon: verdict for plaintiff ; the vice- 
chancellor decides that the majority of a congre- 
gation of dissenters may dismiss their minister 
for any cause . 28 May, 

Major Frederick Beswick, ‘constable of Birkenhead, 
convicted of forgery - Io June, 

Farrer (president of the Amalgamated Carpenters’ 
Society) v. Close (the secretary), for misappro- 
priation of money. In 1867 the justices dismissed 
the charge because the society had illegal rules. 
At the trial at the Queen’s bench the court was 
equally divided, and no verdict given 3 July, 

Fanny F. M. Oliver convicted of murder of her 
husband uly, 


‘Lyons v. Rev. N. Thomas and others, for absiietion 


of Esther Lyons, a Jewish girl, a sae 
damages 5ol. uly, 
Frederick Pieen convicted of murder of lis para- 
mour, Maria Death, and Wm. boa Boyd 


OV. 
Rey. James John Merest, convicted of sinouy't 
deprived . 26-29 Nov. 


Martin v. Mackonochie: before judicial committee 
of privy council, defendant censured for evading 
verdict, and condemned i in costs ‘ . 4 Dec. 

Mrs. Kelly v. Rey. J. Kelly ; judicial separation for 
ill usage (not violence) decreed Dec. 

Messrs. Gurney and others, for conspiring to de- 
fraud; acquitted : . we, 


| TRIALS. 


aith v. Earl Brownlow: after long litigation de- 
sision against the enclosure of the common at 
Berkhampstead by lord of the manor 14 Jan. 
‘mes Clifford, a retired artilleryman, convicted of 
‘* sweating” sovereigns by the voltaic battery, 
r Feb. 
cob Spinass, a Swiss, convicted of murder of 
Cecilia Aldridge, an unfortunate ..3 March, 
». Kinglake convicted of bribery on behalf of his 
prother at Bridgewater 26 March, 
icklow peerage case: claim for an infant declared 
‘to be unfounded by House of Lords (remarkable 
evidence) c : é : 31 March, 
ametrius Pappa, a bank manager, sentenced to 
5 years’ penal servitude for embezzlement, 6 May, 
r Charles Mordaunt v. lady Mordaunt, and others, 
for divorce: preliminary trial of her sanity (de- 
elared insane on 30 April, 1869), 16-25 Feb. 1870; 
appeal, 27 April, 1870; judgment affirmed 2 June, 
ishop Goss (R.C.) v. Hill and Whittaker: will 
ease; Mr. Moreton’s will, bequeathing the chief 
of his property to the bishop, set aside 16 June, 
illips v. Eyre, for imprisonment during Jamaica 
rebellion ; verdict for defendant . 23 June, 
selsea Murders: Walter Miller convicted of murder 
of Rey. Elias Huelin and Anne Boss, his house- 
keeper (8 or 9 May, 1870) .. : . 13, 14 July, 
ichael Davitt and John Wilson, treason felony; 
see Fenians . - s 4 B . 18 July, 
ohn Jones or Owen, convicted of murder of Ema- 
-nuel Marshall and family (7 persons, early 22 May, 
1870), at Denham, near Uxbridge 22 July, 
hepherd v. Bennett (Arches); decision that defen- 
dant had retracted heresy; appeal to privy council, 
23 July, 
fargaret Waters convicted of murder of John 
Cowen, infant; her sister and accomplice, Sarah 
Ellis, was convicted of fraud, 22 Sept. (baby 
farming case; see Infanticide) 21-23 Sept. 
tev. C. Voysey v. Noble: appeal to privy council 
judicial committee against condemnation for 
_ heresy : . . : : : 10 Nov. 
ibdy v. McGowan: verdict against an architect for 
refusing to give up the plans of a building he was 
about to erect . ? 4 : : 16 Noy. 
latch v. Shaen: for libel on master of Lambeth 
workhouse; verdict for plaintiff, 600/. damages ; 
execution stayed 2 : . 2 15 Dec. 
YNiamond Robbery: London and Ryder’s man made 
insensible and robbed of diamonds, r2 Jan.; Mar- 
tha Torpey acquitted, 1 March; James Torpey 
pleaded guilty (sentenced to 8 years’ penal servi- 
tude) 2 4 ae “ ee ube 
}. Boulton, L. C. Hurt, F. W. Park, and others 
(frequently dressed as women) tried for a conspi- 
racy; acquitted é g-15 May, 


‘ichborne v. Lushington: the plaintiff declared 
himself to be sir Roger Charles Tichborne, sup- 
posed to have been lost at sea; and claimed the 
baronetcy and estates, worth about 24,000l. 
a year. 

Roger Charles Tichborne, son of sir James, born . 

dducated in France till about 
Qotered the army . : A : : 5 x te 
>roposed marriage to his cousin Kate Doughty; 
declined . . ; Z - Z . Jan. 
jailed from Havre for Valparaiso (March), and ar- 

rived there . ‘ : : : : 19 June, 
jailed from Rio Janeiro in the Bella, which foun- 
deredatsea . é ; c s . 20 April, 

AChancery suit was instituted, and his death legally 
proved. ] 

dis mother advertised for her son : 1g May, 

fhe claimant (found by Gibbes and Cubitt in Aus- 
tralia) asserted that he and eight of the crew were 
saved from the wreck of the Bella; that he went 
to Australia, and lived there, roughly, 13 years 
under the name of Castro; married as Castro, 


Jan.; as Tichborne . : 4 : . 3duly, 
de set up his claim ; and was accepted by the dow- 
ager lady Tichborne as her son at Paris Jan. 


No others of the family accepted him; but sir 


847 


1870 


1829 


1843 
1849 


1852 
1853 
1854 


1865 


1866 
1867 


Clifford Constable and some brother officers did.]* 


* Mr. Guildford Onslow, who spent about 15,000l., in 


~ 


supporting the claimant, died 20 Aug. 1882. 


TRIALS. 


His claim was resisted on behalf of sir Henry (a 
minor), son of sir Alfred Tichborne; and after 
chancery proceedings (begun March, 1867) a trial 
began in the court of common pleas before chief 
justice Bovill . : “ ‘ : . zz May, 

The claimant was examined 22 days; the trial ad- 
journed on goth day, 7 July; resumed, 7 Nov.; 
case for claimant closed ; : 21 Dec. 

Trial resumed, 15 Jan.; the attorney-general, sir J. 
D. Coleridge, spoke 26 days; on 4 March the 
jury expressed themselves satisfied that the claim- 
ant was not sir Roger; on the ro3rd day he was 
declared nonsuited . Rag tf : . 6 March, 

The law proceedings are said to have cost the estate 
nearly 92,000. 

He was lodged in Newgate to be tried for perjury, 
7 March; indicted as Thos. Castro, otherwise 
Arthur Orton, for perjury and forgery 9g April, 

The court of queen’s bench decide that he may be 
admitted to bail, 23 April; released. 26 April, 

The trial of the claimant for perjury and forgery 
begun before chief justice Cockburn, and justices 
Mellor and Lush at bar 23 April; case for the 
prosecution closed, ro July: resumed (for defence) 

2r July, 

Lady Doughty, mother of sir Henry Tichborne, dies 

13 Dec. 

[Up to 27 June (47th day of the trial), out of 150 
witnesses above roo had sworn that the claimant 
was not Tichborne; and about 4o that he was 
Arthur Orton. ] 

The claimant forbidden to attend public meetings, 

1g Sept. 

Case for the defence closed on 124th day, ty Dee 
adjourned from 31 Oct. to 17 Nov., then to 
27 Nov. ; rebutting evidence heard, 27, 28 Nov. 

Dr. Kenealy’s summing-up,* 2 Dec.-14 Jan. 1874; 
Mr. Hawkins’s reply . F - 15 Jan.-28 Jan. 

[Mr. Whalley, M.P., fined for contempt of court, 
25ol., 23 Jan.] 

The chief-justice’s summing-up, 29 Jan.-28 Feb. 

Verdict : that the claimant did falsely swear,—that 
he was Roger Charles Tichborne, that he se- 
duced Catherine N. E. Doughty in 1851, and that 
he was not Arthur Orton ; + sentence, 14 years’ 
imprisonment with hard labour 28 Feb. 

[Longest trial known in England.] 

New trial refused by the judges . A 29 April, 

On appeal, sentence affirmed by the house of lords, 
to, 11 March, 1881; released on ticket of leave 

20 Oct. 


Eltham Murder: KE. W. Pook for murder of Jane 
Maria Clousen; acquitted . 12-15 July, 
Hannah Newington, or Flora Davey; convicted of 
manslaughter of Frederick Moon; she was his 
mistress, and excited by insult 15 July, 
Capt. H. Hamilton Beamish and others tried for 
stranding the Agincourt (see Navy), 26 July ; 
primanded by the court : é - 8 Aug. 
Robert Kelly: for murder of Talbot (a police-con- 
stable and informer against Fenians) on night of 
12 July; acquitted (extraordinary verdict) 
30 Oct.-10 Nov. 
Peek v. Gurney and others (Overend and Co.) plain- 
tiffs claim for loss incurred through misrepresen- 
tations in the company’s prospectus; disallowed 
by master of rolls on account of his neglecting to 
verify the prospectus and his too late claim; 
costs refused to defendants : . 6 Noy. 
Mr. Pigott condemned to imprisonment for illegal 
comments on a trial, in the Irishman . 13 Nov. 
Rey. John Selby Watson, eminent scholar, killed 
his wife in a fit of passion, 8 Oct.; convicted and 
imprisoned for life . : é A 1o-12 Jan. 
Christiana Edmunds; convicted of poisoning at 
Brighton; she purchased chocolate creams, and 
returned poisoned ones to the confectioner, and 
thus caused death to one child and nearly killed 
other persons; reprieved as insane 15, 16 Jan. 
The Queen v. the Lords of the Treasury: for not 
repaying expenses for prosecutions to the county 
of Lancaster; mandamus refused . 29 Jan. 


1872 


1872 


3s 


> 


* See Englishman. 


¢+ Charles Orton declared the claimant to. be his 


brother Arthur, at the Globe office, ro March, 1874. 


TRIALS. 


Park-lane Murder: Margaret Dixblanes, a Belgian 
emigrant, murdered her mistress, madame Riel, 
on Sunday, 7 April; escaped; taken at Paris; 
confessed to killing her mistress in a quarrel; 
convicted, but recommended to mercy, 11-314 
June; sentence commuted to penal servitude for 
life : : A ; : : . a1 June, 

£llen Kettel: charged with poisoning her husband's 
first wife in order to marry him; acquitted, 

24, 25 Oct. 

Chelsea Tragedy: Hermann Nagel and Paul May, 
young Prussians, came to London to avoid con- 
scription; their money being spent, they agreed 
to commit suicide; after wounding May, Nagel 
shot himself dead, 2x Aug.; May recovered, and 
was indicted for murder, tried, and acquitted, 

ar Nov. 

{He was convicted and punished for forgery at 
Berlin, Feb. 1873.] ‘ 

Baker v. Loader: widow, to whom 107,000. had 
been bequeathed; in ten years is reduced to 
poverty by imposition; she sues the widow of 
her friend Loader and solicitors; verdict of vice 
chancellor Malins, ordering deeds to Loader to 
be cancelled; the solicitor to pay his own costs, 

20 Nov. 

Mr. Hepworth Dixon v. Smith (Pall-Mall Gazette), 
for libel; damages, one farthing 26-29 Nov. 

Mr. Guildford Onslow and Mr. G. H. Whalley, 
M.P.’s, fined for contempt of court in speeches 
respecting the Tichborne case, 20 Jan.; Mr. 
Skipworth, barrister, for same offence, condemned 
to three months’ imprisonment and fined; the 
claimant made to give securities for 1oool., for a 
similar offence : qa Me 29 Jan. 

Parke v. Harvey Lewis, sir Joseph McKenna, and 
others: for misuse of a company’s funds while 
directors; 10 days’ trial; verdict for plaintiff, 30 Jan. 

‘Omagh Murder: (of Mr. Glass, 29 June, 1871); 
sub-inspector Montgomery tried; r2days; strong 
evidence; jury not agreed . -__._ 19 March, 

Broughton v. Knight: will of Mr. Knight set aside 
on account of unsound mind 31 March, 

Andrews v. Salt: decision by lord-chancellor that a 
child shall be educated as a protestant by grand- 
mother, not by Roman catholic uncle; confirmed 
on appeal . 4 - . 6 May, 

Rey. O'Keeffe v. Cardinal Cullen (for libel, and 
virtually suspending him from his office); consi- 
deration of demurrer; judges (at Dublin) divided 
in opinions; three decide that the papal ordi- 
nance on which the cardinal relied was prohi- 
bited by the statutes of Elizabeth ; demurrer set 
aside, 7 May; the trial begun 12 May; verdict for 
plaintiff; the jury gave one farthing damages, 

27 May, 

(Mr. O’Keeffe submitted to the cardinal, May, 1876. ] 

Sub-inspector Montgomery, at his third trial for 
the brutal murder of Mr. Glass, at Newton- 
Stewart, Ireland, on 8 June, 1871 ; convicted and 
confessed, 28 July [executed, Aug. 26] $ 5 

Great jewellery frauds; Michael and Rebecca 


Goldsmid convicted : - A . 8 July, 
Farrell v. Gordons ; much property left to R. C. 
Church ; will affirmed . : nO.) WLy, 


Todd v. Lyne (father Ignatius) ; son of the plaintiff 
rescued fron: convent (where he had taken vows) 
by chancery : : oi pars . 25 July, 

Bank Forgery: Austin Biron Bidwell, George Mac- 
donnell, George Bidwell, and Edwin Noyes, 
Americans, forged bills for discounting at the 
Bank of England, West-Branch, and obtained 
z02,2171. ; detected through not dating one bill; 
convicted ; penal servitude for life [their plot to 
escape by bribing the warders failed] 18-26 Aug. 

Rev. John Berrington (after 30 years’ swindling) 
sentenced to 15 years’ penal servitude 22 Aug. 

Cheltenham Chronicle fined r50/. for commenting on 
trial of the Tichborne claimant 23 Sept. 

Marshal Bazaine; see France... - 6 Oct. 

Gilbert v. Enoch (for Pall Mall Gazette) for libel in 
critique on ‘‘ The Wicked World,” a play ; verdict 
for defendant (both regarded harmless) 27 Nov. 

Capt. Charles 8. Maunsell sentenced to a month's 
imprisonment with hard labour for assaulting 
the duke of Cambridge on 6 Jan. 4 Feb. 

Miss Fairland gave her fortune to St. Mary’s Domi- 


848 


TRIALS. 


1873 


”? 


nican convent, Belfast ; her trustees.oppose the 
transfer ; the master of the rolls affirms the gift, 
24 Feb. 

Dr. Hayman v. the governing body of Rugby 
school; judgment for the defendants . 21 March, 
Jean Luie (Lindgren) and ‘‘capt.” Brown convicted 
of perjury in the Tichborne case (7 years anid 
5 years’ penal servitude) . : 9, 10 April, 
Mordaunt v. Moncrieff (see 1870), divorce court; 


3 judges hold that insanity is no bar to suit for . 


divorce ; 2 judges hold that itis . 15 May, 
Callan, M.P., v. O'Reilly Dease ; for libel (termed 
“‘wilful and malicious” by ch.-just. Whiteside), 
Dublin ; damages one farthing ; 
E. Welby Pugin, convicted of libel against J. R. 
Herbert, R.A., 23 Sept. ; not sentenced, 24 Sept., 
Epping forest case ; decision against the enclosures 
of the lords of the manors as illegal ; see Commons, 
to Noy, 

Frederick v. Attorney-General : col. Charles Edward 
Frederick declared heir to baronetcy ; the validity 
of the marriage of his grandparents affirmed in 
divorce court . 18 Dee. 


Rubery v. baron Albert Grant and M. B. Sampson — 


(long city editor of the Times) for libel ; the article 
in Times, 18, 20 Nov. and 20 Dec. 1872, charged 
Rubery with connection with a fraud in a certain 
diamond mine in Colorado ; 10 days’ trial; Grant 
cleared ; Sampson fined sool. . : . 18 Jan. 

[By these articles the public were protected from a 
bad scheme. } : 

Alleged False Prospectus Case: (Canadian Oil-Works 
Corporation), Charlton v, sir John Hay, Mr. East- 
wick, and others grossly deceived ; 17 days’ trial ; 
jury divided ; discharged ; no verdict 24 Feb. 

(Oil-wells in Ontario, Canada, property of Prince’s 
company got up to buy them, by Longbottom ; 
scheme not accepted in the city; taken up at 
west-end ; sir John Hay, Mr. M‘Cullagh Torrens, 
Mr. Eastwick, and others induced to become 
directors ; wells bought; company collapsed. ] 

Philpotts v. Boyd: see Reredos: settled by judicial 
committee of privy council . : : 

Mordaunt v. Mordaunt and viscount Cole, (see 
above, May, 1874); divorce granted 11 March, 

Terry v. Brighton Aquarium Company, for opening 
on Sundays ; verdict; penalty 2ool., (see Swnday), 

. 27 April, 

Jackson v. Grand Junction Canal Company, (see 
Gunpowder Explosion, 2 Oct. 1874); Company ad- 
judged responsible for damages 14 May, 

Keith Johnston v. Proprietors of Athencwm, for 
libel in criticism of an atlas; Edinburgh; 
damages, 1275/.: 24 March, new trial; damages 
reduced to rool. d : : 16 June, 

John Neave, Arthur Keen (or Murrell) and Annie 
Bolwell, convicted of coining and uttering false 
coin at railway stations . : . 12, 13 July, 

Jenkins v. Rev. Flavel Cook (for excluding him 
from the communion for heresy (denying per- 
sonality of Satan and eternal punishment); ver- 
dict for defendant in Court of Arches) . 16 July, 


4 Col. Valentine Baker sentenced to fine of s5ool., and 


12 months imprisonment for indecently assaulting 
Miss Dickenson in a railway carriage 2 Aug. 
Mrs. Gladstone v. capt. Gladstone (long case con- 
cluded) ; divorce granted . ’ 2 . 6 Aug. 
Wm. Thompson Hunt convicted of manslaughter 
for administering strychnia to Mrs. Hudson (who 
died) and others, as a remedy for intoxication ; 
5 years penal servitude . : 4 . 25 Sept. 
Win. Talley, a solicitor, for dissuading a person 
bound over to prosecute from fulfilling his en- 
gagement; sentence x year’s imprisonment 
25 Sept. 
Sugden and others v. St. Leonards, will case (lord 
St. Leonards’ will missing ; many codicils left) ; 
verdict for plaintiffs, affirming the lost will on 
his daughter’s, Miss Sugden’s, recollection of its 
provisions . : : : A . 17-26 Nov. 
[Verdict affirmed on appeal, 14 March, 1876.] 
Whitechapel Murder (which see). . 
Henry Wainwright for murder of Harriet Lane, and 
his brother Thomas as accessory before and after 
the fact; before chief justice Cockburn (nine 
days); Henry sentenced to death; Thomas, as 
accessory after fact, to 7 years’ penal servitude 
22 Nov.-z Dec. 


2 July, 


24 Feb. ~ 


1875 


be 


TRIALS. 


iith v. Union Bank of London (see Drafts) ; ver- 
‘lict for defendants . 29 Nov. 
v. H. Keet v. Rev. G. E.  gmith (see Reverend) ; 
ppeal to privy council; verdict for the ‘ee 
fi 2r van. 
rsons representing the parish of Folkestone v. 
Rey. C. J. Ridsdale, vicar (for ritualistic prac- 
ices); verdict for plaintiffs ; the vicar to be ad- 
monished and pay costs 3 Feb. 
nkins v. Rev. F. 8. Cook, appeal from the diecn of 
Arches to the privy council judicial committee ; 
‘verdict for plaintiff; (Rev. F. Cook resigned) 

16 Feb. 
tpion Gas Company (1874) ; Queen v. Aspinall and 
others, directors, for fraud ; long trial; verdict, 

Aspinall and another convicted of improperly 
dbtaining settlement of quotation on Stock Ex- 
shange ; acquitted of charge of fraud . 17 Feb. 
ae lord chief justice declared the company to be 
‘*a fiction and a sham from beginning to end ;” 
sentence, Joseph Aspinall and Charles Knocker, 

‘2 months imprisonment, John Saunders Muir 
and William Whyte, 2 months imprisonment, 1 
July, 1876.] 

. K. Vance and Ellen Snee, conspiracy to murder 
‘ostensibly herself) ; singular case ; sentenced to 
imprisonment read UNE; 
ybert Buchanan, the poet v. P. A, Taylor, M.P., 
proprietor of Examiner, libels in papers 27N ov. 
and 1 Dec. (letter said to be by Mr. A. Swinburne, 
the poet); damages, r50l. 1 July, 

vycross (representing many others) v baron 

Albert Grant and others, to recover money paid 
for shares in Lisbon tramway company, promoted 
by defendant and others ; long trial; able speech 
of Grant ; verdict, 7ool. damages 13 July, 

[Judgment affirmed on appeal, 2 June, 1877.] 
ickhurst peerage, claimed by earl Delawarand by 
his brother, Mortimer Sackville West ; 
lords decide in favour of the earl 18 July, 
ackburn Murder ; Wm. Fish convicted of murder 

and violation of Emily Mary Holland, aged 7 (28 
March); pleaded temporary insanity . 28 July, 
ichard Banner ,Oakley, manager of Co-operative 
Credit Bank, convicted of obtaining money by 
false pretences ; much credulity in victims; 5 
years’ penal servitude . Q-12 Aug. 
“Wl Frauds: Charles Howard ‘(count von Howar d, 
&c.), sentenced to 5 years penal servitude for ob- 
taining 380/. from John Harvey, for a pr LS aping 
will, (other cases) : : 26 Oct. 
rederick Henry Vane v. sir Henry Ralph Vane 
(his nephew) ; verdict for defendant, maintain- 
ing his father’s legitimacy ; chancery division 

25 Nov. 
ewis v. Higgins, for alleged slander in speech as 
counsel; verdict for defendant, affirming privi- 
lege of counsel - 4 Dec. 
ye (stage manager, Haymarket, dismissed Ba ac- 
cused of receiving payments from actors engaged) 

v. Sothern and Buckstone ; ; verdict for mk ta 
damages, ro35/. . 3 Dec. 

ord Longford v. Wellington Purdon ; will Sitad 
property to the plaintiff’ s young son set aside ; 
the testator, Cooke, having been under the undue 
influence of Rev. Wm. Lyster (plaintiff not 
blamed) ; 25 days’ trial . Feb. 
ynall Thomas v. the Queen (petition of right) ; 

for patent of cannon, &c.; verdict for plaintiff, 
with damages to March, 

reat Turf Frauds : forgery of cheques for 10,000l., 
&e. about 13,0001. obtained ; five sentenced to 
penal servitude, Henry Benson, 5 years; Win. 

and Fred. Kerr and Chas. Bate, 10 years; Ed- 
win Murray, accessory, 18 months 12—23 April, 

resswell and others v. Walrond ; will of Bethell 

Walrond set aside by arrangement (he had be- 
queathed his property to strangers and dogs, had 
been cruel to his children, decorated his bed 
with skulls and hearse plumes, &c.) 13 June, 

ueen v. Charles Bradlaugh and Annie Besant, for 
publication of ‘‘Fruits of Philosophy,” by Dr. 

‘Knowlton, which they defended, on grounds of 
humanity, in long speeches ; verdict, the book 
‘calculated to deprave, but not intended, 18—er 
June; sentence (through the defendants not sub- 
mitting to the court), 6 months’ imprisonment, 
2ool. fine for both, 28 June; appeal, on ground 


| 


house of 


849 


1875 


1876 


> 


” 


2? 


29 


29 


TRIALS. 


of legal informality, disallowed by queen’s bench 
16 Novy. 
Nathaniel Druscovitch, John Meiklejohn, and Wm. 
Palmer, police inspectors, and Edward Froggatt, 
solicitor, charged with conspiracy to defeat the 
ends of justice i in respect to turftrauds (see above, 
12—23 April); examination began, 12 J uly; 
Froggatt committed, 6 Sept.; chief inspector 
Clarke arrested, 8 Sept.; ; 28 days’ examination; 
committed, 22 Sept. ; trial began, 24 Oct. 3 all 
convicted except Clarke ; sentence, 2 years’ im- 
prisonment with hard labour . 20 Nov. 
Wm. Swindlehurst, secretary, and Dr. John Baxter 
Langley, director of Artisans’ Dwelling Com- 
pany, and Edward Saffery, convicted of defraud- 
ing shareholders of about 24,312/.; officers sen- 
tenced to 18 months, Saffery 12 months’ impri- 
sonment ; 23 —26 Oct. 
Thos. Hyslop (aged 19) and John Deatans (aged 18) 


convicted of highway robbery at Blackheath 23 Oct. 


Penge Case: Louis A. EK. Staunton, Patrick L. 
Staunton his brother, and Eliz. Ann, his wife, 
and her sister, Alice Rhodes, mistress of Louis ; 
tried for murder by starvation of Harriet, wife of 
Louis (a woman of weak intellect, married for 
her property, and soon deserted), 19 Sept. ; all 
convicted, 26 Sept.; respited, 13 Oct.; Alice 
Rhodes pardoned ; the others sentenced to penal 
servitude for life ; announced 30 Oct. 

Coote (solicitor) v. Kenealy; for payments j ver- 
dict for plaintiff ; 4 Nov. 

Forged Leases: Frederick Dimsdale, polioitor, “Gling: 
Burrell Moore, clerk, and others ; forged leases, 
and borrowed money on them (above “300,000. ) : 
many lenders did not appear; pleaded guilty ; 
senten e, Dimsdale, penal servitude for life; 
Moore, 7 years ; others less é 16, 17 Jan, 

Rey. H. J. Dodwell fired at the master of the rolls, 
sir George Jessel, 22 Feb.; acquitted as insane 

15 Mareh, 

Madame Rachel (Levison, or Leverson), convicted 
of misdemeanour; obtained money and Jewels 
from Mrs. Pearce, for ‘‘ beautifying ;” 5 years’ 
penal servitude 10, 1x April, 

Eugene Marie Chantrelle, Frenchman, convicted of 
murder of wife, at Edinburgh ; much cruelty 
disclosed . to May, 

Will case, Dublin ; : Christopher Neville Bagot, 
made a fortune in Australia; made will, disin- 
heriting his ‘son as illegitimate ; died, 23 May, 
1877; trial, 23 days; painful disclosures; the 
will set aside (see below, 1879) . 20 May 

Harrington v. Victoria Graving Dock Company ; 
he claimed remainder of commission for obtain- 
ing an order from Great Eastern railway com- 
pany; nonsuited; such commissions declared 
illegal by queen’s bench 4 . 4dune, 

Jas. T. Northeott, Geo. Thompson, “Thos. G. Wood 
(of the Albion Life Insurance company); sen- 
tenced to 5 years’ penal servitude for conspiracy, 
and obtaining money on false pretences ; subor- 
dinates sentenced to less imprisonment 8 June, 

Charles Marvin, copying-clerk of foreign office, ex- 
amined for copy of an Anglo-Russian agreement 
published in Globe, 14 June, 27 June; discharged 

16 July, 

Taylor v. Gwyn; claim for Jermy estates (see 
Jermy murders by Rush, Trials, 1849); claim 
denied ; trial set aside by statute of limitations 

5 Aug. 

In ve Agar Ellis; the husband’s promise before 
marriage that his children should be brought up 
Romanists, permitted to be withdrawn by chan- 
cery 4 6 Aug. 

The fie 8 of Works v. rev. F. G. Lee, of All Saints, 
Lambeth ; queen’s bench division decide that the 
incumbent of a church is not its owner, and 
therefore not responsible for keeping it in repair, 

ir Nov. 

Annie Louisa lady Gooch (with Ann Walker); she 
tried to pass a child as her own and her husband’s, 
committed for trial 30 Nov., indictment ignored, 

11 Dec. 

Paul and others v. Summerhayes ; appeal; sentence 
against plaintiffs affirmed (foxhunters may not 
trespass), queen’s bench . . 16 Noy. 

Queen v. Bandmann (for assault on Mrs. Rousby), 
not guilty : é - 19-20 Noy. 


3 1 


1877 


1878 


” 


9? 


4 oe i | < 
3 oe ( 
ia} 1 


TRIALS. 


850 


TRIALS. 


* Henry Sturt Marshall, asst. sec. of curates’ augmen- 
tation fund, convicted of embezzling about 7,000. 
confessed . 

Whistler v. Ruskin, for libellous criticism in “* Fors 
Clavigera,” one farthing damages . 25, 26 Nov. 

Mr. Wybrow Robertson (manager of Westminster 
Aquarium) v. Labouchere, for libel,in Trwth, 
27 Nov., verdict for defendant . o Dec. 

Hill and others v. managers of Metropolitan Asylums 
District (xz days), verdict, that Hampstead small- 
pox hospital was a nuisance (verdict ae on 
appeal, 28 Jan. 1879) . Nov. 

Muir and others ; court of session, decides that trus- 
tees who have invested in the “ City of Glasgow 
bank,” are responsible [affirmed on appeal to house 
of lords, 7 April, 1879] 20 Dec. 

Stephen Gambrill for murder of Mr. Arthur Gillow 
(on 5 Dec. when defending agricultural ma- 
chinery), at Wednesborough, near Sandwich, Kent, 
convicted * . 14-15 Jan. 

Long firm forgeries, Kettle and others convicted, 
sentenced to various terms of imprisonment, 

16-17 Jan. 

City of Glasgow Bank directors and managers (see 
under Banks, note) convicted 20 Jan.-1 Feb. 

Charles Peace (or John Ward), committed many 
burglaries in skilful manner, convicted of at- 
tempting life of policeman, 19 Nov. ; convicted of 
murder of Arthur Dyson, at Bannercross near 
Sheffield, 29 Nov. 1876 4 4 Feb. 

[He jumped from a moving railway train near * Shef. 
field, and was nearly killed, 22 Jan. ; confessed to 
murders, &c.; exonerated William Habron, con- 
victed as an accomplice in a murder (therefore 
released, 18 March); executed at Leeds, 25 Feb.] 

Dr. Julius v. Bishop of Oxford (for not prosecuting 
rev. T. T. Carter of Clewer for ritualistic prac- 
tices), queen’s bench, (verdict for plaintiff, set 
aside on appeal, 30 May, Mr. Carter resigned 24 
March, 1880) - 8 March, 

Kentish Town murder, Thomas Perryman convicted 
of murder of his mother . 2 April, 

Queen v. Booker & Wyman (for libel in 7 ruth, 
‘against Mr. Lambri), verdict against Wyman ; long 
trial 30 Apr iL 

Duke of Norfolk v. Arbuthnot, claiming ‘ownership 
of Fitz-alan chapel in Arundel church, verdict for 
plaintiff, common pleas 17 May, 

[Decision affirmed on appeal, 7 June, 1880. ] 
Bagot will case, appeal, new trial ordered 5 June, 
Shepherd v. Francis (for libel in a review in the 

“‘Atheneum’’), damages, 15ol. . - 16 June, 
The Queen v. sir Charles Reed ; the queen’s bench 
decide that the metropolitan school board have 
power to borrow money 27 June, 
Sturla v. Freccia : Antonio Mangini, born 1735, con- 
sul here about 1771, died 1803, his daughter (Mrs. 
Mangini Brown), married Aquila Brown, 1792; 
after 8 years contest established her legitimacy, 
1811 ; died intestate in London, aged 93, 1871, her 
property, after a trial, awarded to the Freccia 
family, 1876. the claim of Madame Sturla set 
aside by vice-chancellor : . 24 June, 
Richmond murder ,Katherine Webster, convicted of 
murder of Mrs. Julia Martha Thomas (see Rich- 
mond) 4 8 July, 

Edmund Galley convicted of murder, by error, 
and transported ; declared innocent by the house 
of commons 25 July, 

Euston-square mystery, Hannah Dobbs, for eee 
of Matilda Hacker, acquitted . 23 July, 

The mutilated remains of Matilda Hacker, eccentric, 
about so years old, were found in a coal-cellar, 
No. 4, Euston-square. Hannah Dobbs was maid- 
servant there. She published her autobiography, 
in which she attacked her former master, Sewerin 
Bastendorff, who, after bringing an action for 
libel, was convicted of perjury 

(He was awarded by consent sool. damages for the 
libel, 27 Jan. 1881) . Dec. 

Rey. Christopher Newman Hall v. Mrs. Hall, and 
Mr. Richardson, long trial, divorce granted, 8 ’Aug. 

Jonathan Gaydon (or “Geyden), for murder of Miss 
Mary White at Chingford, 21 June, 1857, confessed, 
retracted, convicted (reprieved) - 24 Oct 

Adolphus Rosenberg, for libel against Mrs. Langtry 
and Mrs. West, in Town Talk, convicted, 18 
months’ imprisonment 125, 27,,0CL. 


- 24 Oct. 1878 


> 


39 


”? 


Tranmere beby-farming case(near Birkenhead), John 
and Catherine Barns, convicted of manslaughter ; 
(they received illegitimate infants with premiums 
of 301., &c.) . 28, 29 Oct. 

Dr. Arthur H. Nowell Vv. George Williams (tor plac- 
ing him in a lunatic asylum), verdict for the de- 
fendant, medical men censured by the jury, 13 Noy. 

Phillips, surgeon, %. 8. W. railway company, for 
injury, awarded 7oool. by justice Field; new 
trial, awarded 16,o0ool. by lord ch. justice Cole- 
ridge, common pleas, new trial refused 6 Dec. 

Smee v. Smee and corporation of Brighton, will set 
aside, Brighton loses a free library bequeathed, 

5 Dec. 

Hilliard v. Rose & Todd, will affirmed, singula case, 

2 Dec. 

Edward Froggatt (see above, 20 Nov. aaa sen- 
tenced to 7 years’ penal servitude for fraudulent 
conversion of trust property (8000!.) 17 Dee. 

James Lewis Paine and Fanny Matthews, for mur- 
der of Miss Annie Maclean, aged 34, daughter of 
col. Maclean, C.B., a deformed lady of property, 
by starving, administering spirits, and ill-usage, 
committed 15 Dec.; Fanny Matthews acquitted 

16 Feb.. Paine sentenced to penal servitude for 
life 5 24 Feb. 

Railway commissioners, ‘powers limited toes Rail- 
ways, 1880) ee ae E00 

Martin v. Mackonochie, new action for deprivi ation, 
first movement, see Public Worship Jan. 

Alexander Schosser attempted to kill pridaes in the 
Italian chapel, Hatton-garden, ro Jan., tried, sen- 
tenced to imprisonment for life ro, 11 Feb. 

Wm. Henry Walter, forger by chemicals, &c., sen- 
tenced to 20 years’ penal servitude . 23 March, 

Dr. Caleb Charles Whitefoord sentenced to 2 
months’ imprisonment and fine of sol. for forging 
letter-to stop execution of Charles Shurety, 

24 March, 

Great Western bank directors (Jerom Murch and 
others), for publishing false balance-sheets, ac- 
quitted . 28 April—s May, 

Lambri v. Labouchere, for libel ‘in Truth, verdict 
for defendant - 15 Mays 

Tichborne case, writ of error before court of ‘spe 
granted 13 Jan., sentence affirmed . 24, 25 June, 

Northern Counties Insurance Company, James E. 
Crabtree, manager, Geo. Edw. Nesbitt, ac- 
countant, and four directors, sentenced to impri- 
sonment for making and circulating false accounts, 

22 July, 

Pleasance Louisa Ingle, nurse at Guy’s hospital, 

convicted of manslaughter (she putting Louisa 


2) 


” 


Morgan, apatient, into a cold bath and leaving — 


her), 3 months’ imprisonment g Aug. 
Henry Perry, for robbing Clarence Lewis in a Ken- 
sington railway carriage, and attempting to throw 
him out of the carriage, &e. ; : WUD and 20 
years’ penal servitude 5 Sept. 
Thomas Wheeler for murder of Edward eatee at 
Marshall’s Wick farm, near St. Alban’s, 22 Aug. 
convicted : 6, 8 Nov. 
Sergeant Wm. Marshman (by court- martial), for 
alleged fraudulent marking at the volunteer rifle 
meetings at Wimbledon, 1878, 1879, 1880, ac- 
quitted ; 13 Aug.—16 Sept. 
George Pavey convicted of murder of Ada Shepherd, 
aged ten (Acton murder), and Wm. Herbert, con- 
victed of murder of Jane Messenger in Finsbury 
park . 24 Nov. 
Mr. P. Callan, "M. P., convicted of libel against Mr. 
A. M. Sullivan, MP. (fine sol.) . . 30 Nov. 
Debenham & Freebody v. Mellon, appeal, house of 
lords decide that a husband is not responsible 
for wife’s debts if he allow her sufficient means, 
27 Novy. 
Attorney-general v. Edison Telephone company, 29 
Nov. et seg., verdict against company, establish- 
ing monopoly bought by Government 20 Dec. 
Trial of Charles Stewart Parnell, Thomas Sexton, 
Timothy Daniel Sullivan, John Dillon, Joseph 
Gillis Biggar, all M.P.’s, Thomas Brennan, Pat- 
rick Egan and Michael O’Sullivan, secretary, 
treasurer, and assist. secretary of the land league, 
Michael Boyton, Patrick Joseph Gordon, Matthew 
Harris, John W. Mally, John W. Walsh, and 
122A Sheridan, indicted for conspiracy to prevent 
tenants paying rent, &c. Queen’s Bench, Dublin; 


TRIALS. . 


rd chief justice May retiles, as having been 
lleged to have given an opinion on the case 
-reviously ; trial began 28 Dec. eS jury dis- 
‘greeing were dischar rged - . 25Jan. 
ies and others (trustees) v . rev. John Turner 
tannard, nonconformist minister, and others, to 
-ismiss him for doctrine contrary to trust deed ; 
‘erdict for plaintiffs, chancery division 1 Feb. 
ry Annie Wilmot, nurse, attempt to poison Mrs. 
jooth (whose son and daughter had died under 
/oubtful circumstances), at Sheffield, strong 
ase, acquitted & : ” 16 Feb. me 
mpstead small-pox hospital case (see above, 
878-9), on appeal, to the house of lords, preced- 
1g judgments reversed é 7 March, ,, 
art peerage legitimacy case, Wm. John Manners 
laims by an English marr iage of lord Hunting- 
ower, Albert Edwin Tollemache by a Scotch mar- 
iage, which is declared not proved, house of 
rds (painful details) . : 7 March, ,, 
irke v. Bradlaugh, suit for penalty of sool. for 
itting and voting as M.P. without taking the 
ath, on July 2, 1880; verdict for plaintiff ; 3 ap- 
veal, sentence confirmed* . SooNgrMarch,= ,, 
‘ward Levi Lawson v. Labouchere, M.P. “for libels 
a Truth, seven days’ trial, jury disagree, no 
erdict . 28 Mar char; 
ritualist case, Susan Wills Fletcher (wife of a 
piritualist doctor in America, who was concerned 
a the case), convicted of obtaining by false pre- 
ences about r0,000l. (in jewellery, &e.), of Mrs, 
{art-Davies, long trial, twelve months’ imprison- 
rent with hard labour. : . ee rosA prilsrs, 
1ann Most, convicted of libel against Alexander 
I. of Russia, and incitement to murder in the 
"rethett for 19 March, 25 May;,_ sentence 
firmed on appeal, 18 June; 16 months’ impri- 
onment with hard labour : 2g June, ,, 
minders. v. Richardson, 5 judges decide that pa- 
ents must either pay board-school fees for child 
»eforehand or apply for pecuniary help ; coming 
vithout fee considered non-attendance 27 June, ,, 
id Or libel, Barrow v. ‘‘Morning Post,” for accu- 
ation of doctoring the horse, verdict for plain- 
iff, damages 1750. « - 27; 20 JUDe,. ,, 
1 Ben libel, Stainbank (for Mears) %. sir E. C. 
3eckett, 27 June, verdict for plaintiff, 200. da- 
nages . “ Sallie 55 
ey Lefroy alias “Mapleton committed for trial 
or murder of Mr. Fk. I. Gold on the London and 
3righton railway (27 June), 21 July; convicted, 8 
Tov. ; confessed ; executed . : 5. is Nov. 3 
tting Hill Fire, William Nashand Maria Wright, 
or murder of Elizabeth Jane Clark and others by 
ire, 30 May; he sentenced to death a hers 
he acquitted . AAAS ss 
lru Rolin Reynolds, adventur er, with many 
liases, convicted of remarkable frauds connected 
vith the silver mine company, two years’ penal 
ervitude . s WES Sept. 5; 
bel Wilberforce, an adventuress, convicted of 
ross perjury in action against Mr. Philip; nine- 
aonths’ penal servitude : PGW ts. SR. 
te Dover, for murder of Chas. ‘Skinner, artist, 
t Sheffield, convicted of manslaughter . 7 Feb. 
hay EL Lamson, for murder of Percy M.’ John 
see Wimbledon) ; convicted, 8—14 March; exe- 
uted . ; 28 “April % 
derick Maclean, for shooting at the queen, ac- 
‘uitted as insane . PE STOUADIIL: oy 
sher Pay, for murder of ‘Georgiana Moore (see 
*imlico), acquitted 4 6 . 27—99 April, ,, 
ert Young, for threatening to idot at the 
een, to years’ penal servitude 26 May, ,, 
- Thomas Scrutton v. Miss Helen eee. a libel 
oncerning St. Paul's industrial school; damages 
oool, . 30 June, A 
. Henry Tyler, M. i Dey De Win. Jas. Ramsey, Geo. 
Vm. Foote, and Edwd. Wm. Whittle, also Chas. 
3radlaugh, for blasphemous libel in the Free- 
hinker (lord mayor, 11 July), committed for trial, 
: 21 July, “e 


’ Verdict affirmed (see Barratry), 22 July; Bradlaugh 


deals, r2—14 Nov. ; new trial granted, 2, 3 Dec. 1881 ; 


oeal allowed by lords justices, 2224 Feb. sentence - 
vfirmed, 30 March, 1882; sentence reversed by the 


ds; g April, 1883. 


— 


851 


1881 


TRIALS. 


Neat of Kin Fraud, J. BE. Rogers, A. Me. Kenzie, J. 
H. Shakspear, and W. Evans sentenced to im- 
prisonment 21 July, 

Thomas Walsh, for treason- ‘felony (see Fenians), 7 
years’ penal servitude c 7—9 Abe 

John Saunders, desperate ruffian, ‘convicted of bur- 
glary and attempt to murder at Stamford- hill ; 
penal servitude for life : 19 Oct. 

Charles Soutar, for stealing the body of the earl of 
Crawford ; Edinbur gh; 5 years’ penal servitude, 

23, 24 Oct. 

Wm. Meager Bartlet, a manager of mines, con- 

victed of murder of illegitimate child, Exeter, 
27 Oct. 

Charles Brookshaw, for threatening to kill the 

prince of Wales, Io years’ penal servitude, 
21 Nov. 

St. Luke’s Mystery, Franz Felix Stum, convicted of 
forgery of signature of Urban Napoleon Stanger, 
baker, who “had disappeared ; 3; 10 years’ penal 
servitude . 3 ir Dec. 

Plumstead Murder, Louisa Jane Taylor, convicted 
of poisoning Mary Ann Tregillis, aged 81, 15 Dec. 

Maxwell Heron, commander of H.M.S. Clyde, at 
Aberdeen sentenced by court-martial to dismissal 
for embezzlement and misconduct 21 Dee. 

Richard Claude Belt (sculptor) v. Charles Lawes 
(sculptor), for libel in Vanity Fair, 20 Aug. 1881, 
et seq.; (charges of fraudulent imposture, &c.,) 
before Baron Huddleston, Exchequer division, 
21 June, et sey., 14 Nov., et seq. ; verdict on 43rd 
day for plaintiff, damages 5o0o0ol. i Dec: 

Goodacre v. Watson, to restrain deposition of pes- 
tilential refuse on building ground, as a nuisance 
at Fulham ; injunction granted with costs, 

22 Feb. 

Bethell v. Sir Percy Shelley, for infringement of 

the Theatre act, verdict for defendant, 1s. damages 
2 Feb. 

G. W. Foote, editor, W. J. Ramsey, piinter: and 
H. A. Kemp, publisher, sentenced to imprison- 
ment for blasphemous libels in ,the Freethinker, 

5 Mar. 

Clarke v. Bradlaugh, verdict for defendant on ap- 
peal to lords (see above, March, 1881) 9 April, 

C. Bradlaugh, for blasphemy in the Freethinker, 
to April, acquitted ; 14 April, 

Bradlaugh v. Newdegate, for supporting an action 
by a common informer, verdict for one a with 


costs . 3 April, 
Phenix park murders (see under Ti eiandy P xorl 
May, 


Belt v. Lawes : appeal for new trial, 24 May—g June, 
Dynamite Plot (see Birminghan, England, and 
London, 1883), Thomas Gallagher, Henry Wilson, 
John Curtin, and Alfred Whitehead, for treason- 
felony, sentenced to penal servitude for life ; 
William Ansburgh and Bernard Gallagher, ac- 
quitted = .  ii—r14 June, 
STROME FERRY Case, Ten men were sentenced to 
four months’ imprisonment for violently stopping 
the transmission of fish by Highland railway on 
Sunday, 3 June = . 23 July, 
Dynamite conspiracy, Timothy Featherstone, and 
three other Fenians, convicted at Liverpool, 
7—9 Aug. 
Wm. Gouldstone convicted of murder of his five 
children at Walthamstow OR 8 Aug.), 14 Soa. 
respited as insane ‘ det. 
Patrick O’Donnell, convicted ‘of murder of 5 ames 
Carey, the informer (see Ireland), 30 Nov., 
1 Dec. 
London and River Plate Bank robbery,George Warden 
pleads guilty to robbery of securities (about 
116,000/.), 26 Nov., and John Davis Watters con- 
victed of receiving the same ; both sentenced to 
12 years’ penal ser vitude ‘ . 27 Nov. 
Bournemouth case. Mrs. Miller, the Joy breach of 
promise ; conflicting Sima ; damages for 
plaintiff, "23501. : : : 15 Nov. 
French Date Coffee Co., Bellairs | v. Haymen and 
others, promoters; misleading prospectus, ver- 
dict for plaintiff . f ‘ 22 Nov. 
Priestman v. Thomas ; Whalley itll case; incredi- 
ble incidents ; verdict for plaintiff ; a forged will ; 
fraudulent compromise proposed by defendant : 
15 days’ trial. A - : elas 4 Dec. 
312 


”? 


a” 


: > ts 
! Tie 
. 


TRIALS. 


852 


TRINCOMALEE. 


Dobbs v. Grand Junction water works co. 3 on ap- 
peal the house of lords decides that houses are to 
be rated for water on the rated, not the gross 
value c : : ; ‘ - 230 NOV: 

Central News v. Judy, for libel respecting telegrams, 
verdict for defendant : c ir 3eDece 

Belt v. Lawes, again ; the judges decide for a new 
trial unless Mr. Belt accepts s5ool. instead of 
5,0001. ; Belt accepts, defendant objects, 21 Dec. 

Wm. Wolff and Edwd. Bondurand, for plot to blow 
up German embassy, arrested in Westminster, 
22 Nov. 18833; jury disagree, 14—19 Jan. ; 
prisoners discharged é : 5 . 28 Jan. 

Bradlaugh v. Gosset; verdict for defendant (see 
Parliament) . . ; x 2 . Feb. 

Attorney-general v. Birkbeck, for contravention of 
the Bank act of 1844;.verdict for the oe 

eb. 

Liverpool poisoning case, Catherine Flanagan and 
Margaret Higgins, convicted of the murder of 
Thomas Higgins; other charges, 16 Feb. ; exe- 
cuted : : A = : 5 3 March, 

Belt v. Lawes, appeal before Master of the Rolls 
and others, 3 March, sentence of the other court 
affirmed with costs - 4 : 17 March, 

London Financial Association v. Kelk and others ; 
case dismissed (see Alexandra :park) 8 March, 

Earl v. countess of Euston, divorcé sought on 
ground that she had a husband living when she 
married ; as it was proved that this man had a 
wife living when he married her, and that thus 
she was free, divorce was refused 4 April, 

Parks-place Club declared by the Queen’s Bench to 
be a gaming-house; Mr. Jenks, the proprietor 
and others fined ; ‘ . 24 June, 

Mrs. Weldon v. Dr. Semple, for signing certificate 
of lunacy; ten days ; verdict for plaintiff, rooo/. 
damages E 2 5 C ° 28 July, 

Daley and Egan, Aug. 1884 (see Dynamite) . May, 

Thomas Henry Orrock, convicted of murder of po- 
liceman Cole (on 1 Dec. 1882); remarkable evi- 
dence . J A : > + 19,20 Sept. 

Tichborne Claimant (see above, 1871—4) released on 
ticket-of-leave : . : A 20 Oct. 

Mignonette Case (see Wrecks) A . 6 Nov. 

Miss Finney v. viscount Garmoyle ; breach of pro- 
mise of marriage ; a verdict by consent for 10,obol. 

20 Noy. 

Defence society for innocent prisoners; Morley 
Jervis sentenced to 2 years’ penal servitude, 
Vernon Garland 15 months’ and Charles Kemp 
g months’, for fraud c 4 - at Nov. 

Adams v. Hon. B. Coleridge, for libel in a letter to 
Miss M. Coleridge; verdict of jury for plaintiff, 
3,000l. 3 verdict by judge Manisty for defendant, 
the letter being privileged . . 21, 22 Nov. 

Whalley Will Case (see Dec. 1883), Charles Thomas 
and Thomas William Nash, convicted of forgery, 
15 years” penal servitude, Edward Gunnell ac- 
quitted . ; 5 : : 24 Nov.—2 Dee. 

Mrs. Weldon v. Dr. Forbes Winslow, for treating 
her asa lunatic, 50o/. awarded to plaintiff, 4th trial, 

25—29 Nov. 

Eliz. Gibbons, for murder of husband; she asserted 
his suicide, 18-19 Dee. ; life imprisonment, 31 Dec. 

Mr. Edmund Yates sentenced to 4 months’ im- 
prisonment, for libel against the earl of Lonsdale 
(in The World), July, 1883-April, 1884; appeal dis- 
allowed 5 3 : 5 16 Jan. 

Mr. Irving Bishop fined, 10,oool. for libel (see 
Thought Reading) 3 : : : 15 Jan. 

John Lee, footman, convicted of murder of Miss 
Emma A. W. Keyse, his mistress (at Babbicombe, 
near Torquay, 15 Nov.), 2-4 Feb. ; when about to 
be hanged at Exeter, the drop failed three times, 
and Lee was removed and reprieved . 23 Feb. 

The earl of Durham’s petition for annulling his mar- 
riage, on account of his wife’s alleged insanity 
at the time of their union dismissed with costs 
by sir James Hannen, after 8 days’ trial, 

to March, 

Mrs. Georgina Weldon sentenced to 6 months’ im- 
prisonment for libel on M. Jules Prudence Ri- 
viere A : A : 5 ; 30 March, 

Jaines Lee, convicted of murder of Inspector Sim- 
mons at Romford (25 Jan.) ‘i . 28 April 

John Gilbert Cunningham and Harry Burton con- 
victed of treason-felony (see under Tower), and 


for coinplicity with criminal explosions (25 Feb. 


11-18 May, 1 


1883 | Weldon v, Gounod for libel ; 10,o00l. awarded 7 May, 


39 


3) 


et seq.); sentenced to penal servitude for life, 


See Hxecutions. 


TRIBUNES oF THE PEOPLE (Tribuni Plebis 
magistrates of Kome, first chosen from among tl 
commons to represent them, 494 B.c., when ‘+l 
people, after a quarrel with the senators, had retir. 
to Mons Sacer. The first two tribunes were ( 
Licinius and L. Albinus; but their number w; 
soon after raised to five, and 37 years after to ta 
which number remained fixed. The office we 
annual, and as the first had been created on the 
of the ides of December, that day was chosen 
the election. In A.D. 1347, Nicolo di Rien’ 
assumed absolute power in Rome as tribune of tl 
people, and reformed many abuses; but committin 
extravagances, he lost his popularity and was cor 
pelled to abdicate. He returned to Rome and we 
assassinated, 8 Sept. 1354. 


TRICHINIASIS, a fatal disease, occasione 
by eating raw or underdone pork containing 
minute worm named Trichina spiralis. Profess 
Owen. discovered these worms in cysts, in huma 
muscle, in 1832. The trichine are thoroughl 
destroyed by proper cooking. The disease excite 
much attention in 1865, and was the subject of 
lecture by Dr. Thudichum at the Society of Arts o 
18 April, 1866. 


TRICOLOR FLAG (red, white, and blu 
white representing the ancient monarchy; red an 
blue, Paris) invented by La Fayette, adopted b 
France, 1789. 

TRICOTEUSES (knitters), a name given t 
a number of French republican females, who zeal 
ously attended political meetings and executions i 
1792, knitting at intervals. 


TRIDENTINE, see Trent, and Catechism. 
TRIENNIAL PARLIAMENTS. On 1 


Feb. 1641, an act was passed providing for the meet 
ing of a parliament at least once in three year 
This law was broken by the Long Pariiament, an 
was repealed in 1664.. Another triennial bill, passe 
in 1694, was repealed by the Septennial act, 1716 
see Parliaments, and Septennial Parliaments. 


TRIESTH, an Austrian port on the Adriati 
declared a free port by the emperor Charles VI 
1719, confirmed by Maria Theresa in 1750. It wi 
held by the French in 1797 and 1805. Since th 
establishment of the overland mail to India, it he 
risen to great commercial importance.  Afte 
various changes of rulers it was restored to Austri 
in 1814; see Lioyd’s, note. The emperor and em 
press were warmly received here mid. Sept. 1882. 


TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, ‘s 


Ordnance. 


TRIMMER, a term applied to George Savilt 
earl of Halifax, and others who held simila 
political opinions, midway between those of th 
extreme Whigs and Tories, about the latter part « 
the 17th century. He assumed the title as a 
honour, asserting that it could be rightly given 1 
the British constitution and church. Macaula 
says that Halifax was a trimmer on principle, an 
not arenegade. He died in 1695. 


TRINACRIA, a name of Sicily. The tit! 
‘King of Trinacria,’’ was temporarily assumed b 
Frederick II. (1302), and Frederick III. (1373). 


TRINCOMALEE (Ceylon), was taken fro 
the Dutch, by the English, in 1782; it was retake 


TRINIDAD. 


853 


TRIREMES. 


the French the same year; but was restored to 
Dutch by the peace of 1783. It surrendered to 
British, under colonel Stewart, 26 Aug. 1795, 
| was confirmed to England by the peace of 
iens, in 1802; see Ceylon. Of a series of actions 
Trincomalee between sir Edward Hughes and 
french admiral Suffren, one was fought 18 
). 1782, the enemy having eleven ships to nine ; 
12 April following, they had eighteen ships to 
ren, and on 6 July, same year, they had fifteen 
s to twelve. In all these conflicts the French 
ve defeated. 


(RINIDAD, an island in the West Indies, 
sovered by Columbus in 1498, was taken from the 
uiards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595; by the 
meh from the English in 1676. Taken by the 
tish, with four ships of the line, and a military 
xe under command of sir Ralph Abercromby, to 
om the island capitulated, 18 Feb. 1797; they 
tured two, and burnt three Spanish ships of war 
the harbour. This possession was confirmed to 
gland by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The in- 
rection of the negroes occurred 4 Jan. 1832. 
sulation in 1861, 84,438; in 1881, 153,128, 
307 being natives. Governor, Hon. Arthur H. 
rdon, 1866; James R. Longden, 1870; sir H. T. 
ring, 1874; sir Sandford Freeling, 1880. 

+t of Spain nearly destroyed by fire 28 Jan. et seq. 1884 
e Indian coolies at San Fernando forbidden to 

0 in festival procession to cast their taboots 
small shrines) on the last day of Mohurrum, dis- 

‘bey, and are fired upon by the police and 
oldiers ; r2 killed, and many wounded 30 Oct. ,, 
is course was justified, after due investigation, 

iy sir Henry Norman, governor of Jamaica ; blue 

00k published “ - A 14 April, 1885 


CRINITY AnD TRINITARIANS. Theophilus, 
hop of Antioch, who flourished in the 2nd cen- 
‘y, was the first who used the term Trinity, to 
press the three sacred persons in the Godhead. 
s “Defence of Christianity’? was edited by 
sner, at Zurich, in 1546. Watkins. An order of 
> Trinity, termed Mathurins, was founded about 
38 by John de Matha and Felix de Valois. The 
inity fraternity, originally of fifteen persons, was 
tituted at Rome by St. Philip Neri, in 1548. 
e act to exempt from penalties persons denying 
> doctrine of the Trinity (such as Unitarians and 
redenborgians) passed in 1813. Trinitarian 
ble Society igtnded, 1831. 


[TRINITY COLLEGES, see Cambridge, and 
ford. Trinity College, Dublin, called the Uni- 
rsity: grant of the Augustine monastery of All 
ints within the suburbs for erecting this college, 
ferred by queen Elizabeth, 1591. First stone 
d by Thomas Smith, mayor of Dublin, 1 Jan. 
33. New charter, 1637 Made a barrack for 
diers, 1689. Burns. ‘The principal or west front 
eted, 1759. Library erected, 1732. This college 
ints degrees upon examination without residence. 
e Roman Catholics desire exemption from mixed 
acation and special privileges. Great changes 
re proposed by the Irish University bill, which 
s brought into parliament Feb. 1873, but with- 
iwn. Religious tests were abolished in the same 
ar. 

proposal to establish a Roman catholic college 
within the university was negatived by_ the 
senate (74-7) . E A ; ‘ . 18 May, 1874 
e church choral society incorporated as Trinity 
College, London F c é ; “ se swxO7S 


TRINITY HOUSE, Lonpon, founded by 
* Thomas Spert, 1512, as an_ ‘‘ association for 
loting ships,” was incorporated in 1514, and re- 


incorporated in 1604, 1660, and 1685. ‘The present 
Trinity House was erected in 1795. By their charter 
the brethren of the Trinity House have the power 
of examining, licensing, and regulating pilots, and 
of erecting beacons and lighthouses, and of placing 
buoys in the channels and rivers. Spert, the first 
master, died 8 Sept. 1541.—TRiniry Hovsks, 
originally guilds or fraternities, founded at Dept- 
ford, Hull, and Newcastle, were incorporated by 
Henry VIII., 1536-41. 


RECENT MASTERS. 


William Pitt + 1790 
Earl Spencer . 5 - 1806 
Duke of Portland . 1807 
Earl Camden . . 1809 
Earl of Liverpool . 1815 
Marquis Camden . - 1828 
Duke of Clarence . 1829 
Marquis Camden . +) LOae 
Duke of Wellington . - 1836 


The Prince Consort . Phas 
Viseount Palmerston - 16June, 1862 
Duke of Edinburgh 15 March, 1866 


TRINITY SUNDAY, the Sunday following 
Whitsunday. The festival of the Holy Trinity was 
instituted by pope Gregory IV. in 828, on his 
ascending the papal chair, and is observed by the 
Latin and protestant churches on the Sunday next 
following Pentecost or Whitsuntide, of which, 
originally, it was merely an octave. The observance 
of the festival was first enjoined in the council of 
Arles, 1260. It was appointed to be held on the 
present day by pope John XXI. in 1334. 


TRINOBANTES, 2 British tribe which occu- 
pied Middlesex and Essex, and joined in opposing 
the invasion of Julius Cesar, 54 B.c.; but soon 
submitted. They joined Boadicea and were defeated 
by Suetonius Paulinus near London, 61. 


TRIPARTITE TREATY, name given to 
treaty of Paris, 1856. 


TRIPLE ALLIANCE was ratified between 
the States-General and England against France, for 
the protection of the Spanish Netherlands ; Sweden 
afterwards joining the league, it was known as the 
Triple Alliance, 23 Jan. 1668.—Another Triple 
Alliance was that between England, Holland, and 
France against Spain, Jan. 1717.—Another between 
Great Britain, Russia, and Austria, 28 Sept. 1795. 
Another between Germany, Austria, and Italy, said 
to have been proposed June, 1882, and adopted 
1883. 

TRIPOLI (three cities). I., in Syria, com- 
prised three quarters built by the Tyrians, Sidonians, 
and Arabians; was taken by the Crusaders 1109, 
and made a county for Raymond of Toulouse. It 
was conquered by the Egyptians in 1832; restored 
to the Porte 1835; surrendered to the British 1841. 
II., a Turkish province, N. Africa, comprised the 
cities Sabrata, Gta (the present Tripoli, the capital), 
and Leptis (the ancient Tripolitana), after having 
been held by Greeks, Romans, Vandals, and Sara- 
cens, was conquered and annexed by the Turks 
1551 Hamet Bey, pacha in 1741, made himself 
independent, and the government remained in his 
family till 1835, when Tripoli was restored to nomi- 
nal subjugation to the sultan. Population (1884) 
about 1,000,000. Panic through fear of insurrec- 
tion about 20 July, 1882. 

TRIPOLITZA (Greece), was stormed by the 
Greeks, who. committed dreadful cruelties, 5 Oct. 
1821; retaken by the Egyptians, 30 June, 1825 ; 
given up to the Greeks, 1828. 


TRIREMES, galleys with three banks of oars, 
are said to have been invented by the Corinthians, 
784 or 700 B.C. 


1852 


TRIUMPHS. € 


“O4 


TRUMPET-FLOWER. 


TRIUMPHS were granted by the Roman senate 
to generals of armies after they had won great vic- 
tories. They were received into the city with great 
magnificence and public acclamations. There were 
the great, called the Triumph; and the less, the 
Ovation; see Ovation. 


TRIUMVIRATES, Roman. 
Julius Cesar, Pompey, and Crassus formed a coali- 
tion to rule the state. This lasted ten years, and 
the civil war ensued. The second triumvirate, 43 
B.C., was formed by Octavius Cisar, Mark Antony, 
and Lepidus, through whom the Romans totally lost 
their liberty. Lepidus was expelled in 36; Antony 
was subdued in 31, and Octavius made himself 
absolute; see Rome. In Feb. 1849, a triumvirate 
was appointed at Rome, consisting of Joseph Maz- 
zini, Armellini, and Saffi, which resigned on 1 July, 
1849, when the city was taken by the French. 


TRIVIUM, see Arts. ‘ 
TROCADERO, Paris, a mount on the right 


bank of the Seine, so named in memory of a fort 
near Cadiz, captured by the French while sup- 
pressing the insurrection in 1823. On this ground 
was erected the palace of the “ Trocadéro,”’ in con- 
nection with the international exhibition of 1878 ; 
see Paris. 


TROPPAU, CONGRESS OF, in Austrian 
Silesia. The emperors Francis of Austria and 
Alexander of Russia met at Troppau, 20 Oct. 1820. 
The congress between them and the king of 
Prussia, against Naples, took place 10 Nov.; and 
the conference was transferred to Laybach, as nearer 
to Italy, 17 Dec. 1820; see Laybach. 


TROUBADOURS AnD TROUVERES (from 
troubar, trouver, to find or invent), the poets of the 
middle ages (from the Iith to the 15th century). 
The former flourished in the south of France and 
north of Spain, and used the Langue d’oc (that is, 
oc for oui, yes) ; the latter flourished in the north of 
France, and used the Langue d’oil (that is, oz/ for 
oui). The Troubadours produced romances, but 
excelled chiefly in lyric poetry; the Trouvéres ex- 
celled in romances, several of which are extant; as, 
the Brut d’ Angleterre, and the Row, by Wace; the 
‘Romance of the Rose,’’ by Guillaume de Lorris 
and Jean de Meung. The Troubadours were usually 
accompanied by Jongleurs, who sang their masters’ 
verses, with the accompaniment of the guitar. 
Histories of these French poets, and specimens of 
their works, have been published in France. These 
poets, although frequently very licentious, tended 
to promote civilisation during those warlike times. 


TROY or Intum, capital of the Troas, Asia 
Minor; see Homer. Its history mythical. 


Arrival of Scamander in Phrygia. Blair. - B.C. 1546 
Teucer succeeds his father . p 5 “ ae Gaiters 
Dardanus succeeds ; builds Dardania - 1480 


Reign of Erichthonius . : : . ; Oe 
Reign of Tros; from whom the people are called 
Trojans, and the city Troas . - : - 1374 
Tlus, his son, reigns ; the city called lium. - 1314 
Reign of Laomedon . : : : : ; - 1260 
Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia. Hesione delivered 
from the sea monster. Blair; Usher eeLo2S 
War of Hercules and Laomedon 2) 1224 
Reign of Priam or Podarces . : ; aa 
Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, son of Priam, 
zo years before the sacking of Troy. Homer's 
lliad, book xxiv. 2 . m . 5 ear? 
Commencement of the invasion of the Greeks to 
recover Helen : : : s : : 1193 
Troy taken and burnt in the night of the rrth of 
June, 7.e., 23rd of the month Thargelion. Parian 
Marbles. 408 years before the first Olympiad. 
Apollodorus, Hales, and Clinton, 1183; others. . 1184 


1449 


9 


/ Mr. W. E. Gladstone dates the war > 


Tn 66 core 


/Eneas arrives in Italy. Lenglet. : . 

[Some time after the destruction of Troy,a new | 
city was built with the same name, about thirty 
stadia distant from the old site. It was favoured 
by Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedition, 
but never rose to much importance, and in the 
age of Strabo was nearly inruins. Priestley.] — 

Dr. H. Schliemann, during his excavations at Hissar-. 
lik in the Troad, discovered the remains of a very 
ancient city with temples, which he named 
“Novum Ilium”  . 5 : : - A.D. 1872 

He published Troy and its Remains (trans. by Dr. P. 
Smith) A . 2 : 5 : 7 ‘ 

His Trojan antiquities arranged at South Kensing- 
ton Museum, for exhibition ; : Dee. 1% 

Dr. Schliemann resumes excavations at Hissarlik ; 
discovers Trojan houses and many antiquities, a 
dagger, earrings, bracelets, idols, shells, &c., 

30 Sept.-1 Dec. 18; 

Again with professor Virchow and M. Burnouf, x 
March ; makes fresh discoveries described in letter 
5 June, 1879; desists investigation ; published 
his book Ilios, 1880, and T’roja 3 : = - 188 


TROY WEIGHT. The Romans introduce 
their ounce, our ayoirdupois ounce, into Britair 
The present ounce was brought from Grand Cair 
into Kurope, about the time of the Crusades, 109; 
and was first adopted at Troyes, a city of Franc 
whence the name. It is used to weigh gold, silver 
and precious stones. The Troy weight, Scots, wa 
established by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618 
see Standard. 


TROYES (Central France), where a treaty wa 
concluded between England, France, and Burgund 
whereby it was stipulated that Henry V. sho 
marry Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., be ap 
pointed regent of France, and, after the death « 
Charles, should inherit the crown, 21 May, 142 
Troyes was taken by the allied armies, 7 Feb. ; re 
taken by Napoleon, 23 Feb.; and again taken b 
the allies, 4 March, 1814. 


TRUCE OF GOD (frera or Treuga Dei), 
term given to a cessation of the private feuds an 
conflicts so general during the middle ages all oye 
Europe, said to have been strongly advocated by th 
bishop of Aquitaine, in 1032. The clergy strenu 
ously exerted their influence for the purpose. 
synod at Roussillon, 1027, decreed that none shoul 
attack his enemy between Saturday evening (a 
nones) and Monday morning (at the hour of prime, 
Similar regulations were adopted in England, 104 
(sometimes Friday and Wednesday being chosen fc 
the time). The truce of God was confirmed b 
many councils of the church, especially the Latera 
Council, in 1179. 

TRUCK SYSTEM of paying workmen’ 
wages in goods (sold at ‘*‘ tommy shops’’) instea 
of pine was prohibited by parliament in 183) 
By the Truck act a commission to inquire into i 
alleged prevalence was appointed ; act passed I 
Aug. 1870. 


TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historian 
ascribe the invention of the trumpet to the T'yx 
rhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was i 
use in the time of Homer. First torches, thie 
shells of fish, sounded like trumpets, were th 
signals in primitive wars. Potter. The Jewis! 
feast of trumpets was appointed 1490 B.C. (Lex 
xxiil. 24). Otta, king of Mercia, is said to hay 
had trumpets sounded before him when travelling 
about A.D. 790. The speaking trumpet is said t 
have been used by Alexander the Great in 335 B.C. 
improved by Kircher in a.p. 1652; by Salland, 1654 
and philosophically explained ey Morland, 1671. 


TRUMPET-FLOWER, Bignonia radicans 


Bg 


TRURO. 


855 


TUNIS. 


ws brought hither from North America, about 
40. The Trumpet Honeysuckle, Lonicera semper- 
rens, came from North America in 1656. The 
ignonia capensis was brought to England from the 
ype in 1823. The Large-flowered Trumpet- 
ywer, or Bignonia grandiflora, was brought from 
aina in 1800. 


‘TRURO, W. Cornwall. The town was founded 

7 Richard de Lucy, chief justice of England in 

\e 12th century, and chartered by Reginald, earl 

‘Cornwall, illegitimate son of Henry I. An act 

‘provide for the foundation of a bishopric of Truro 

issed 11 Aug. 1876, and money sufticient for its 

idowment having been subscribed, the see was 

mstituted by order in council, 9 Dec. same year. 

ruro was made a city, Aug. 1877. 

yundation of new cathedral (St. Mary’s) laid by 

the prince of Wales 4 : s 20 May, 1880 
See Mansion House Fund. 

BISHOP. 
77. Edward White Benson, consecrated, 25 April ; 
trans. to Canterbury, Dec. 1882. 
83. George Howard Wilkinson, consecrated 25 April. 


TRUSS. A transverse spring-truss for ruptures 
as patented by Robert Brand in 1771, and by 
any other persons since. The National Truss 
reiety to assist indigent persons, was established 
. 1786; and many similar societies since. 


TRUSTEES, see Fraudulent. 


TUAM (W. Ireland). St. Jarlath, the son of 
oga, who lived about 501, is looked upon as the 
rst founder of the cathedral of Tuam, though the 
obey is said to have been founded in 487. The 
vurch was anciently called Zwaim-da-Gualand. 
1 1151, Edan O’ Hoisin was the first archbishop, at 
ast the first who received the pall, for some of his 
redecessors are sometimes called bishops of Con- 
aught, and sometimes archbishops, by Ivish his- 
yrians. Thesee of Mayo was annexed to Tuam in 
559. ‘Tuam is valued in the king’s books, by an 
xtent returned anno 28 Eliz., at Sol. sterling per 
nnum. Beatson. It ceased to be archiepiscopal, 
onformably with the statute 3 & 4 Will. IV., 1833; 
nd is now a bishopric only, to which Killala and 
honry, a joint see, has been added; see Arch- 
ishops. New protestant cathedral of St. Mary, 
onsecrated by the bishop, the Hon. Dr. Charles 
3}, Bernard, 9 Oct. 1878. 


TUBMAN, see Postman. 
TUBULAR BRIDGES. The Britannia Tu- 


salar Suspension Bridge, then the most wonderful 
nterprise in engineering in the world, was con- 
tructed, 1846-50 (Mr. RK. Stephenson and Mr, Fair- 
iairn, engineers), about a mile southward of the 
lenai Strait Suspension Bridge.* 
yn the Britannia rock, near the centre of the Menai 
Strait, the surface of which is about ten feet 
above low water level, is built a tower two hun- 
dred feet above high water (commenced building, 
May, 1846), and on which rest two lines of tubes 
or hollow girders strong enough to bear their 
weight and laden trains in addition, the ends 


* The Britannia tubular bridge was intended to supply 
hhe place of one of the finest bridges in the kingdom ; 
ind the railway, of which the tubular bridge forms a 
sart, is in like manner a substitute for one of the finest 
nail-coach roads ever constructed. The road from 
uondon to Holyhead has been long regarded as the 
aighway from the British metropolis to Dublin ; and the 
ate Mr. Telford was applied to by the government to 
verfect this route’ by the London and Holyhead mail- 
s0ach road, which he did by erecting a beautiful suspen- 
sion bridge over the river Conway and over the Menai 
Strait ; commenced in July, 1818, and finished in July, 
1825. 


resting on the abutments on each shore ; each 

tube being more than a quarter of a mile in 

length. The height of the tube within is thirty 

feet at the Britannia tower, diminishing to 

twenty-three feet at the abutments. The lifting 

of these tubes to their places was a most 

gigantic operation, successfully performed, 

: 27 June, 1849 

The first locomotive passed through March, 1850 
The Conway tubular bridge, a miniature copy of 

the Britannia (principal engineers, Mr. Robt. 

Stephenson and Mr. Fairbairn) erected . 1846-8 
At Chepstow, a railway tubular bridge 2 Ben Be 
A bridge or viaduct on the tubular principle (called 

the Albert viaduct) over the river Tamar at Ply- 

mouth, opened by the prince consort 2 May, 1859 
See Victoria Railway Bridge and Tay Bridge. 


TUDELA (N. Spain). Near here marshal 


Lannes totally defeated the Spaniards, 23 Novy. 
1808 ; see Hbro. 


eee SOVEREIGNS; see England, 1485- 
1603. 


TUESDAY, in Latin Dies Martis, the day of 
Mars, the third day of the week, so called from 
Tuisto, Tiw, or Tuesco, a Saxon deity, worshipped 
on this day. Tuisto is mentioned by Tacitus; see 
Week Days. 


TUGENDBUND (‘league of Virtue”’ ), 
formed in Prussia soon after the peace of Tilsit, 
June, 1807, ostensibly for relieving the sufferers by 
the late wars, and for the revival of morality and 
patriotism. Its head-quarters were at Konigsberg. 
It excited the jealousy of Napoleon, who demanded 
its suppression in 1809. It was dissolved at the 
peace In 1815. 


TUILERIKS (Paris), the imperial palace of 
France, commenced by Catherine de Medicis, after 
the plans of Philibert de l’Orme, 1564; continued 
by Henry IV.; and finished: by Louis XIV. This 
palace was stormed by the mob, Io Aug. 1792; 
and ransacked in the revolutions of July, 1830, and 
Feb. 1848. Louis Napoleon made it his residence 
in 1851, and greatly renovated it. The restoration 
of the Tuileries (much injured by fire by the com- 
munists, May 1871) was determined on, Oct. 1872 ; 
not proceeded with. The ruins were sold for 
32,2001. to M. Picard, 4 Dec. 1882. 


TULCHAN: BISHOPS; a mere nominal 
episcopacy set up in Scotland by the regent Morton, 
who, with other nobles, absorbed the larger por- 
tion of the revenue, 1572-3. 7'ulchan was a stuffed 
calf’s skin set before a cow to facilitate milking. 


TULIPS, indigenous in the east of Europe, came 
to England from Vienna about 1578. It is recorded 
in the register of Alkmaer in Holland, that in 1639, 
120 tulips, with the offsets, sold for 90,000 florins : 
and that one, called the Viceroy, sold for 4203 
guilders! The States stopped this ruinous traffic. 
The tulip tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, was brought 
to England from America, about 1663. 


TUNBRIDGE WELLS (Kent). The springs 
were discovered, it is stated, by pagey lord North, 
who, when very ill, was restored to ealth by the 
use of the waters, 1606. The wells were visited by 
the queens of Charles I. and II., and by queen 
Anne, and soon became fashionable. 


TUNGSTEN (also called wolfram and schee- 
lium), a hard whitish brittle metal. From tungstate 
of lead, Scheele in 1781 obtained tungstic acid, 
whence the brothers De Luyart in 1786 obtained 
the metal. In 1859 it was employed in making a 
new kind of steel. 


TUNIS (N. Africa) stands nearly on the site of 


TUNIS. 


Carthage. Tunis was besieged by Louis IX., of 
France, who died near it 25 Aug. 1270. It remained 
under African kings till taken by Barbarossa, for 
Solyman the Magnificent, 1531. Barbarossa was 
expelled by the emperor Charles V., when 10,000 
Christian slaves were set at liberty, June, 1535. 
The country was recovered by the Turks under 
Selim II. 1575. The bey of Tunis was first appointed 
in 1574; Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the 
bey refusing to deliver up the British captives, 
1655. The Hussein dynasty was founded;1705. In 
July, 1856, the bey agreed to make constitutional 
reforms. He died 22 Sept. 1859; and his brother 
and successor Mohamed-es-Sadok took the oath of 
fidelity to the constitution. He died, and was suc- 
ceeded by his brother Sidi Ali, 28 Oct. 1882. Tunis 
is now under French protection. 


Insurrection, 18 April; ships of war sent to protect 
Europeans . A A . 4 F . May, 
Tunis decreed to be an integral part of the Turkish 
empire . 2 4 “ 2 : ye ear 
A dispute with France settled by submission of the 
bey. 5 : : - - 5 2 . Jan. 
The bey, embarrassed by debt (5,000,000l.), his 
finances in hands of an international commission 
Disputes between France and Italy respecting rail- 
way concessions 5 ; 4 - « Aug. 
Dispute between a British subject here and a French 
company respecting purchase of the Enfida estate, 
decision left to the legal tribunals mrebs 
Dispute with France ; predatory incursions of the 
Kroumirs, nomadic shepherd tribes, on Algerian 
territory, March: military expedition sent from 
France; lands in Tabarka; 25 April, bombards 
fortress, and occupies Bizerta . 30 April, ,; 
The bey appeals to Turkey, 11 April; and the Great 
Powers “ : A 4 z ss 27 ADIH;. | y5 
The Kroumirs said to be enclosed by the French; 
the bey’s army retreats ssearly Mayen a5 
Alleged battle with the Kroumirs . about 2 May, ,, 
The French approach Tunis, alleging the object to 
be to restrain warlike tribes and protect their 
frontier > : . : . ° Ti) Mays 0s, 
Treaty with France signed; it assures to France the 
right to occupy the positions which the French 
military authorities might deem necessary for the 
maintenance of order and the security of the fron- 
tier and the coast, and to send aresident minister 
to the capital. The French government guaran- 
tees to the bey the security of his person, his 
states, and his dynasty, and the maintenance of 
existing treaties with the European powers; while 
the bey undertakes not to conclude any interna- 
tional convention without a previous understand- 
ing with the French government, and to prevent 
the introduction of arms into Algeria through 
Tunis. The financial system of the regency to be 
regulated by France in concert with the bey, 
12 May, ,, 
Reported conflict between the French under gen. 
Bréart and the Arabs ; the French enter Mater, 
18 May, ;, 
The Sultan of Turkey protests againstthetreaty, May, ,, 
M. Séguin, a news correspondent, murdered at Beja 
by a fanatic (who is executed) 28 May, ,, 
M. Brangard, inspector of telegraphs, and assistants, 
murdered by Arabs, near Oran. abouts June, ,, 
M. Roustan, the consul, appointed French resident 
minister (said to be virtual ruler, replacing bey), 
French army returning home June,* 4; 
Mustapha Ben Ismail, the bey’s chief minister, re- 
ceived by president Grévy, at Paris . 21June, ,, 
Insurrection at Sfax, revolt of great chief Ali Ben 
Khalifa, announced . - t : 30 June, 4, 
Europeans attacked, nearly all flee to ships, alleged 
massacres ; : 4 : “ pee Oto ULY seas 
Sfax bombarded by the French, 5 July, et seq. ; 
captured after severe conflict 16. July, ~;, 
Arabs revolting ; anarchy reported zoJuly, ,, 
Enfida case; decision against the English, Mr. 
Levy . - - : . . : ug. 
Collapse of Bey’s authority s BOOUbTLS AUS au. 
Asserted conflict at Hammamet, the French re- 
pulsed about 31 Aug. ; the French retreating about 
8 Sept. ,, 


1864 
1871 
1879 
1880 
1880 


1881 


856 


TUNNELS. 


Arrival of 2,000 French troops at Goletta 9 Sept. 188 
General Sabattier with troops at Zaghonan sur- & 
rounded by Arabs . . about 13 Sept. ,, 
28,000 men sent to Tunis announced . 26 Sept. 
Alleged defeat of the Bey’s troops under Ali Bey 4 
4 hours’ conflict . ; : - about 25 Sept. ,, 
Ali Bey’s army surrounded  . about 4 Oct. et seq. ,, 
Union of the French and Ali Bey’s army, a 
ct. 


Tunis occupied by the French - 10, Oct. 73, 
Gen. Batier deteats the Arabs ; six hours’ conflict ; 


800 killed, French loss slight 2 . 13 Oct.am, 
Continued fighting . : . about 22 Oct. ,,_ 


The French under Gen. Etienne enter Kairwan, b 
without resistance . SS - _ + 26 Oct... mm 
The French treaty with the Bey (11 May) confirmed 
by the chambers “ ~ - - 9Nov. ,,@ 
Alleged defeat of Arabs, near Gerid, by Gen. 
Logerot 3 : 3 : . about 16 Nov. ,, 
Gen. Saussier reports his capture of a large rebel 
convoy ; = : 5 about 17 Nov. ,, 
The insurrection virtually suppressed; army of 
occupation to be 20,000 . announced 29 Nov. ,, 
Mr. Levy (see Aug. 1881) expelled . about 14 Dec. ,, 
M. Roustan in Paris; M. H. Rochfort acquitted of 
bitter libel against M. Roustan . 15: Deca, 
M. Roustan returns ‘3 -.  » about 29 Dec. 
Transferred to Washington . about 23 Feb. 
Victory of insurgents - about 1 April, ,, 
Enfida case amicably settled ) 4 F ay, 
Treaty with France (taking over debt about 
5,000,000l.) draft . é : A r . July, 
Renewed Arab incursions . 3 about 3 Oct. ,, 
French courts of law established ; foreign consular 
jurisdictions abolished (capitulations) 1 Jan. 1884 


TUNNAGE AND POUNDAGE were ancient 
duties levied on every tun of wine and pound of 
other goods, imported or exported, and were the 
origin of our ‘‘customs.’”’ They commenced in 
England about 1346, and were granted to the kings 
for life, beginning with Edward IV. Charles I. 
gave great offence by levying them on his own 
authority, 1628. They were granted to Charles IJ. 
for his lifetime, 24 June, 1660. By the act 27 
Geo. III. c. 13, these and other duties were repealed, 
1787, and a new arrangement of excise and customs 
was introduced. 


TUNNELS, for drainage, are ancient. The 
earliest tunnel for internal navigation was executed 
by M. Riguet, in the reign of Louis XIV., at Beziéres 
in France. The first in England was by Mr. 
Brindley, on the duke of Bridgewater’s canal, 
near Manchester, about 1766. Project of the 
Gravesend tunnel, 1800—the report upon it, 1801. 
The Thames Tunnel was projected by Mr. Brunel 
in 1823, and opened for foot passengers, 25 March, 
1843; see Thames Tunnel. Innumerable tunnels 
have been made for railways. The railway tunnel 
at Liverpool was completed in the middle of 1829, 
lit up with gas, and exhibited once a week. On the 
London and Birmingham railway there are eight 
tunnels (the Primrose-hill, Watford, Kilsby, wer 
their total length being 7336 yards. Smiles. It 
was computed by Mr. Fowler, that there were 80 
miles of tunnels in the United Kingdom in 1865, 
which cost about 6,500,000/., at the average of 45/. 
a yard; see Alps and Thames. 


Tunnel between Dover and Calais, suggested by M. 
Mathieu . ; - * 4 , = about 1802 

Tunnel for a railway beneath the channel from 
Dover to Calais, proposed by Messrs. J. F. Bate- 
man and J. Revy : : = : 30 Aug. 

M. Thomé de Gamond, after many years’ study, ex- 
hibited his plans in Paris, 1867; his scheme re- 
vived in France, July, 1871 and Nov. 1873; a 
convention in its favour was signed for France 
by M. Michel Chevalier, Jan., 1875; engineers, ~ 
sir John Hawkshaw and M. Lavally ; monopoly 
for 30 years granted ; chairman for English com- 
pany, lord Richard Grosvenor; plan of boring 
through 20 miles chalk by-Mr. D, Brunton. 


1869 


TURAN. 


i‘ 


857 


TURKEY. 


Thomé deGamonddied . . Feb., 1876 
ring at Sangatte, near Calais, begun 25 Feb. ; 


200 
set deep ‘ alle “{ ep . 3dune, ,, 
morandum of basis of proposed treaty between 

Ingland and France issued Ug. 99 


aer plans have been proposed by G. Remington, 
>. J. Bishop, A. Austin, &c. 
e French government’s concession for prelimi- 
iary works granted in 1875, renewed for 3 years 
from 2 Aug. 
perimental boring going on, April, 1881; 800 
nétres from the coast : 2 . May, 1883 
ting of Channel Tunnel Company 2 Feb.; of 
submarine Continental railway company 3 Feb. 
annel Tunnel near Dover; about 1 mile exca- 
yated ; visited by Mr. Gladstone and others 
tr March, 
e Channel Tunnel disapproved of by sir G. 
Wolseley, and other officers, British and Foreign 
March, et seq. 
e works stopped by government about 1 May ; 
by order of Mr. Justice Kay y - 6July, 
vo channel tunnel bills discharged in the commons 
16 Aug, 
sport of a commission on the channel tunnel (sir 
A. Alison. chairman) unfavourable on political 
grounds issued A : A ; EL TLOCE 
.e question referred to a committee of lords and 
commons 4, 6 April, which meets 24 April ; decide 
against the tunnel (6-4) . about.1o July, 
1e company resolutely determine to wait 17 Aug. 
ll rejected by the commons (222-84) 14 May, 1884; 
(281-99) $ : : ; - d 12 May, 
ersey tunnel, between Liverpool and Birkenhead, 
one mile long, projected 1866, execution fre- 
quently suspended, boring renewed by the energy 
of major Isaac 1880, boring completed, 17 Jan. 
1884 ; formally opened ; A . 13 Feb. 
ae Severn tunnel near Bristol, constructed by W. 
C. Richardson, for the Gt. Western company’s 
Railway : ; : ; 2 : 1873-85 
Joseph II. mining adit,” Schemnitz, begun 1782, 
after many delays, finished, 16,538 metres long, 
5 Sept. 1878 
rlberg tunnel, Austria, 10,270 metres long ; begun 
June, 1880; completed, and train passed through, 


13 Noy. 1883 
TURAN, see Turkestan. 


TURCKHEIM, see Ziirkheim. 


TURIN, the ancient Augusta Taurinorum in 
iedmont, capital of the Sardinian States, and of 
1e kingdom of Italy, till 1864, when it was super- 
ded by Florence, Its importance dates from the 
ermanent union of Savoy and Piedmont in 1416. 
he French besieged this city; but prince Kugéne 
efeated their army, and compelled them to raise 
ae siege, 7 Sept. 1706. In 1798, the French 
publican army took possession of Turin, seized all 
he strong places and arsenals of Piedmont, and 
bliged the king and his family to remove to the 
sland of Sardinia. In 1799, the French were 
riven out by the Austrians and Russians; but the 
ity and all Piedmont surrendered to the French, 
une 1800. In May 1814, it was restored to the 
ing of Sardinia; see Italy, 1864. Here prince Hum- 
ert was married to his cousin Margherita amidst 
reat rejoicing, 22 April, 1868. The monument to 


” 


‘avour was inaugurated, 8 Nov. 1873. Anexhibition | 


pened by the king, 25 April, 1880. See Treaties, 
nd Italy, 1884. 

TURKESTAN, called by the Persians Turan, 
ndependent Tartary, the original country of the 
‘urks, in Central Asia, was reached by Alexander, 
31 B.c. The Russians are gradually encroaching 
n this country; on 14 Feb. 1865, a new province, 
‘urkestan, was created by decree, and gen. Kauft- 
nann made governor, 26 July, 1867; died 16 May, 
‘882. The authority of thé czar accepted by the 
thief tribes at Merv, which see, announced 8 Feb. 


884. 


they returned to Asia Minor. 


TURKEY. The Turks were originally a 
tribe of Tartars; but, by incorporation with the 
peoples they have conquered, have become a mixed 
race. About 760, they obtained possession of a 
part of Armenia, called from them Turcomania. 
‘They gradually extended their power; but in the 
13th century, being harassed by other Tartar tribes, 
The Turkish empire 
till’ 1878 comprehended the almost independent 
principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, Servia, 
and Montenegro, the hereditary vice-royalty of 


_ Egypt, and Tunis. The Turkish quadrilateral for- 


tresses were Shumla, Varna, Silistria, and Rust- 
chuck. The population of theempire was estimated 
at, 52,920,000 in 1884. By the treaty of Berlin (13 


July, 1878) Turkey 1s said to have 


| Greece subjected 


Square Inhabi- Moham- 


Miles. tants. medans. 
Ceded to Roumania 5,935 246,000 142,000 
ae Servia é 4 ABBAS 264,000 75,000 
+6 Montenegro .. = 1,549 40,000 9,009 
3 Austria . tS 2,000 — 
as Greece (?) . - «=  5)300 750,000 40,000 
To be occupied and adminis- 
tered by Austria . 28,125 1,061,000 513,000 
Formed into the Principality 
of Bulgaria . . «4 24,404 1,773,000 681,500 
Included in Eastern Rou- 
melia. z 13,646 746,000 265,000 


If we exclude the provinces “ indefinitely ”’ to be 
occupied by Austria, Bulgaria, and Eastern Roume- 
lia, there remain to Turkey in Europe only 74,790 
square miles, with 4,779,000 inhabitants, of whom 
2,521,500 are Mohammedans. In Armenia Russia 
takes 10,000 square “miles, with about 350,000 1n- 
habitants. Cyprus, entrusted to the keeping of 
England, has an area of 2,288 square miles, and 
about 150,000 inhabitants. Thessaly ceded to 
Greece by convention, 24 May; treaty signed, 
2 July, 1881. 


Alp Arslan and the Turks conquer Armenia and 


Georgia . s : : : : : m 1065-8 
Asia Minor conquered, 1074-84; Jerusalem taken . 1076 


Soliman Shah drowned in the Euphrates, while on 
the march; his son Ertoghul, granted territories 
near Angora, dies . : : : : : 

Othman, his son, emir of the sultan of Teonium, 
founded the Ottoman empire at Prusa, Bithynia 


by policy and conquest, in . 1299 


1288 


Organisation of Janissaries by Orcan about . 1330 

Nicvea conquered, 1330; and the Morea. . « 1346 
The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and take Adrian- 

ople , : : : - . é : aeEROL 

| Amurath I. remodels the Janissaries . : 4 a r302 
Bajazet I. overruns provinces of the Hastern empire 


1389 et seq. 
He defeats Sigismund of Hungary at Nicopolis 
28 Sept. 1396 
He besieges Constantinople; but is interrupted by 
the approach of Tamerlane (or Timour), by whom 
heis'defeated and made prisoner, at Ancyra, 28 July, 1402 
Macedonia annexed . : é ‘ A . 1430 
Ladislas of Hungary defeated and slain at Varna 
by Amurath : : ‘ é ; to Nov. 1444 
Amurath defeats John Huniades at Kossova Oct. 1448 
The Turks, invading Hungary, repelled by Huni- 
ades 2 3 F : : : f “e?: 
Constantinople taken by the Turks under Mahomet 
IL, which ends the Eastern Roman empire, 
29 May, 1453 
Belgrade relieved by Huniades’ victory over the 
Turks A i , : : July, 1456 
to the Turks (see Greece) 1458-60 
The Turks take Otranto, diffusing terror through- 


450 


out Europe - ; ‘ ‘ : : ep T480 

Selim I. raised to the throne by the Janissaries ; 
murders his father, brothers, &c. . S J s| SIZ 
He takes the islands of the Archipelago. - 1514 
He overruns Syria : : ‘ : . enrs7s 
Gains Egypt by defeat of Mamelukes . Aug. 1516 

Solyman takes Belgrade, Aug. 1521; and Rhodes, 
Dec. 1522 


TURKEY. 858 TURKEY. . 
r 
Defeats Hungarians at Mohatz A - 29 Aug. 1526 | Fire at Constantinople; extinguished by the men ~ 
Repulsed before Vienna. . 5 - Oct. 1529 of H.M.S. Blonde : 22 Jan. 133¢ 
Peace with Austria . 4 : “ - 1533 | The porte acknowledges the independence ofGreece ~ 
Cyprus taken from the Venetians - .* AUS 1570 25 April iN 
Great battle of Lepanto (which see) . A 7 Oct... 3; Treaty with America : 3 2 ; 7 May, ,,’ 
Treaty of commerce with England : - + 1579 Great fire at Pera; British embassy destroyed, 
Turks driven out of Persia by Shah Abbas» aE TSO5 2 Aug. 1933 
Great fire in Constantinople : - - 1606 | New military “order of glory” (Nischan) founded 
War with the Cossacks, who take Azof 1637 | 19g Aug. | ,, 


The Turks defeat the Persians and take the city of 
Bagdad . 

Candia (Crete) taken from Venice, after a 25 years’ 
siege 

Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV. but relieved by 


Jotwof Poland tee. oe 12 Sept. 1683 | 
Peace of Carlovitz 26 Jan. 1699, | 
Mustapha II. deposed by Janissaries 5 A se IOS 
The Morea retaken by the Turks : ear7 IS 
The Turks defeated at Peterwardein - 1716 


They lose Belgrade ; and their power declines 
Peace of Erivan (with Persia) 
Belgrade taken from Austria; and Russia relin- 


quishes Azof . : : 4 : bi icley 
The Turks defeated at Kars . 4 & * owe 74 5 
Insurrection of Wahabees. 1749 | 


Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio : the Russian 
fleet defeats the Turkish 
The Crimea ceded to Russia . FE F J an. 


Disastrous war with Russia and Austria, the Turks 


lose more than 200,000 men 1787-91 
Cession of Oczacow . 2 1 1991 
War with the French, who invade Egy pt . - » 1798 
Insurrection of Mamelukes at Cairo. - - 1803 
War against Russia and England 7 Jan. 1807 


Passage and repassage of the Dardanelles effected 


by the British fleet, but with great loss ; see Dar- 
danelles é : 19 Feb 
Murder of Hali Aga ‘ 25 May, 


The Janissaries massacre the newly disciplined 


troops ; : 5 eOOS 
The Russians defeated at Silistria 1809 
Treaty of Bucharest (which see) 28 “May, 1812 


A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, returning from 
Mecca, destroyed “by a pestilential wind in the 


5 hy 


- 1638 


1669 


1732 


1770 
1784 


rP) 


> 


deserts of Arabia; 20 saved g Aug: 5, 
Subjugation of the Wahabees (which see) 1818- 19 
Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares himself 

independent . 2 
Insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia, 6 March, 1821 
Persecution of Christians, 6 March; the Greek 

patriarch put to death at Constantinople, 

SsAprit swe: 
[For the events in connection with the incase? 
ence of Greece, see Greece. ] 
Horrible massacre at Scio (see Chios). 23 April, 1822 
Sea-fight near Mitylene ; Turks defeated . 6 Oct. 1824 
New Mahometan army organised 29 May, 1826 


Insurrection of the Janissaries at Constantinoiet 
they are suppressed and massacred, 14-16 June, 
6000 houses burnt at Constantinople Beets" Aug. 
Battle of Navarino; the Turkish fleet destroy ed 
by the fleets of England, France, and Russia (see 
Navarino) : 20 Oct. 
Banishment of 132 French, 120 English, and 85 


Russian settlers from the empire : 5 Jan. 
War with Russia : . 26 April, 
The czar Nicholas takes the field . - 20 May, 
Capitulation of Brahilow . A - Ig June, 
Surrender of Anapa 23 June, 
Eminences of Shumla taken by Russians, 20 July, 
The czar arrives before Varna - 5 Aug. 
Battle of Akhalzic  . : - = - 24 Aug. 
Fortress of Bajazet taken 9 Sept. 


The sultan proceeds to the camp with the prey 


standard 4 5 * 26 Sept. 
Dardanelles blockaded . : Zz war Oct 
Surrender of Varna . : ao arr Oct: 
Russians retreat from Shumla 16 Oct. 


Surrender of the castle of the Morea to the French, 

30 Oct. 
Siege of Silistria raised by Russians 10 Nov. 
Victory of the Russians at Kuleftscha, near Shumla 


ir June, 

Battle near Erzeroum Set ei uly, 
Adrianople is entered by the Russians, 20 Aug. ; 
armistice agreed on : : ZO Aug. 
Treaty of peace at Adrianople : 14 Sept. 


1829 


” 


a” 


> 


_ [For the events of 1839 and 1840 in relation to 


St. Jean d’Acre taken by Ibrahim Pacha, ge of 
Mehemet Ali 2 uly, 
He defeats the army ‘of the sultan at Konich, 
21 Dec. 

Ibrahim Pacha marches within eighty leagues of 
Constantinople, and the sultan asks the aid of 
Russia 2 2 “ Jan. 
The Russians enter Constantinople 3 April, 
Treaty with Russia, offensive and defensive, 
8 July, 

Office of grand vizier abolished 30 March, 
Treaty of commerce with England, concluded by 
lord Ponsonby, ratified 16 Aug. 


1832 


7 
ni 


1838 


Syria; see Syria. ] 

Hatti Sherif promulgated decreeing many reforms, 
termed the Tanzimat (regulations) 3 Noy. 1839; 
again, at Rhodes 6 Jan. 1840; again 1844. 

Christians admitted to office in Turkey June, 

The Turkish government refuses to surrender the 
Hungarian and Polish refugees on the me de- 
mand of Russia and Austria. 6 Sept. 

[The porte (countenanced by England) firmly resist 
this demand. ] 

Russia suspends the Porte, 

2 Nov. 


The British fleet, under sir W. Parker, anchors in 
Besica bay : . 13 Nov. 
Diplomatic relations between Russia and the porte 
resumed, 31 Dec. ; the latter sending the refugees 
to Konieh : J an. 
Turkish Croatia in a state of rebellion . . dan. 
Treaty with France respecting the Holy Places 
(which see) 13 Feb. 
Imperial order of Medjidie founded — 2 AS 
Prince Menschikoff repairs to Constantinople as 
Russian negotiator, 28 Feb.; his peremptory 
demands rejected ; a . 19 April, 
Reschid Pacha becomes foreign itnistoe’ the 
ultimatum being rejected, Menschikoff quits 
Constantinople a . 21 May, 


intercourse with 


-| Hatti-sheriff issued, confirming the rights of the 


Greek Christians : é 
Russian manifesto against Turkey . . 26 June, 
Russian army crosses the Pruth é . 2duly, 


Grand national council—war to be declared if the 
principalities are not evacuated . - 26 Sept. 
War declared against Russia. J - 5 Oct. 
[See Russo-Turkish War. ] 
Commencement of national debt (see Loans, 1854) . 
Insurrection in Epirus and Albania, favoured by 
the Greek government at Athens—Hellenic em- 
pire proclaimed 2 2 - 27 Jan. 
Volunteers from Athens j join it. - 14 March, 
Rupture between Greece and Turkey 28 March, 
[Several conflicts ensue with varied success. ] 
Osman Pacha storms Peta, the central point of the 
insurrection : . — 25 April, 
English and French governments, after many 
remonstrances, send troops, which arrive at the 
Pireeus ; the king of Greece submits, and pro- 
mises strict neutrality: the Greek volunteers 
are recalled c . 25 and 26 May, 
Abdi Pacha and Fuad Effendi take the intrenched 
camp at Kolampaka, and the insurrection shortly 
after ceases 3 18 June, 
Reschid Pacha, having retired ‘G3 June), re 
his office 5 uly, 
Convention between Turkey and Austria 14 oa une, 
The Russians retire from the principalities, which 
are thereupon pated by the Austrians, Sept. 
Turkish loans : . ls 5 .  aatage 
[See Loans 1854- -s] 


Firman authorising free exercise of religion 18 Feb. 
Peace with Russia | by treaty of Paris 30 March, 
Great Britain, France, and Austria guarantee integ- 
rity of Turkish empire . : 15 April, 
Austrians quit the principalities ; . . March, 18: 57 


. 6 June, 


1855 


1856 


” 


; 
: TURKEY. 


‘isunderstanding among the allied powers re- 
' specting Moldavian elections, which are annulled, 


859 


Fe ee ee cee a eee e eae racecar eee a ea ree e racecar acerca nc ac ee Eine OnESES ann EET aS Snr AIT eSnnSISS SIRES IEERA Sn eT 


TURKEY. 


Fuad Pacha proposes confiscation of the property 
of the mosques : opposition of the Sheikh-ul-Islam 


i July, 1857 at Sept. 1865 
eath of Reschid Pacha y : é 7 Jan. 1858 | Lord Lyons, ambassador at Constantinople . Oct. ,, 
ord Stratford de Redcliffe, many years English Revolt of the Maronites under Joseph Karam, 
ambassador at Constantinople, returned to Eng- 30 Dec. ,, 
land, Jan.; he is succeeded by sir H. Lytton The grand vizier, Fuad Pacha, superseded by 
: Bulwer ; accredited . é Tord ULY ys 55 Ruchdi Mehemed Ali . . : 2 5 June, 1866 
adecisive conflicts in Montenegro between the Revolution in Bucharest (see Danubian princi- 
natives and the Turks . : a Ola 05: palities). 
fassacre of Christians at Jedda (which see), Insurrection in Candia (which see) A AULGNINss 
; : 15 June, ,, International conference respecting cholera at Con- 
urkish financial reforms begun. - __ Aug. ,, stantinople ; : : 13 Feb.-26 Sept. ,, 
. first mat railway opened (from Siete in European Turkey very unsettled Jan. 1867 
myrna) ~. é : . : SUE TOIBeDUa an ¢ Sines ET OR ore : 
jase coinage called in ; a fictitious Turkish coinage : nga eR ae ae eaten oe an tia ani ets evict, 
. . 3 > , Cll. y e . ¢ ? ” 
| seer PELE a petal aaa Mont ee ” Ministerial changes: Ali Pacha becomes grand- 
eT aa 5 aah Seeing nti ee trees vizier; Fuad Pacha, foreign minister Tr BP CWsn ss 
°rince Alexander Cousa elected hospodar of both % ching Lae neous ; Peni flnally Peined 
, Moldavia and Wallachia 5 and 7 Feb. 1859 * I ouburs pind 31 Mar 
. _ c . 9” 
7 porte at first objects, but afterwards accedes Omar Pacha, commander-in-chief of the Turkish 
_to the double election. ] army April 
lg ea telegraph completed between Sete Destruction of the dockyards in the Golden Horn by 
1 S : oui 30° i ; : 2 a2 fire : a : s : . : SpA Drtlamecs. 
ireat fire at Constantinople ; rooo houses ae Bt The sultan, with his son and nephew, visits Pits, 
: : ree Semone #9 1-12 July; arrives at Buckingham Palace, 
| Jonspiracy against the sultan, 17 Sept.; his brother London, 12 July; entertained by the queen at 
implicated ; several condemned to die ; reprieved, Windsor, 13 July; by the lord mayor, 18 July ; 
Sept. and Oct. , teat ie Poa eka 
ah ae e 29 at a ball at New India House, 19 July; gives 
< es agitation for financial reform __. . Oct. 5, 25001. to the poor of London, 22 July ; sails from 
eged ill treatment of Christians in Turkey ; pro- Dover, 23 July ; at Vienna, 27 July-r Aug. ; re- 
posed intervention of the great powers, 5 May ; turns +5 oauetaatinonls SS i Z 7 Aug. 
the Turkish government promises investigation The Sultan declines the proposition of Russia, for 
ay see 30 May; all the powers bias the suspension of hostilities in Crete, and an in- 
Wa ag were es a une, 1860 ternational commission . . 4 Sept. ,, 
ar between the Druses and Maronites in Lebanon ; Ministerial crisis; Fuad Pacha resigns, but re- 
‘ massacres (See Druses)  . =. June, ,, Paihia ita) oftion. eats 1 gow aks ged Cale ABER 
prety he tae at Damascus (see ‘ eerule, Meeting of the new council of state (including 
Convention on behalf of the Great Powers at Paris : i yes ee Saari a Ae oe Sopp h He ia + 
| armed intervention of the French ea Arrival of prince Napoleon Jerome at Constanti- 
readationasst Gal Bet fee > Ee 3 Nope eee ee Set ks 26 June, ,, 
ee one POUL 175,000 “Feb Arrests on account of a supposed plot against the 
Christians revolt in the Herzegovi id ab th ce poet ; ‘ : ; ; } cite ES 
Montanenrins Seg ee abo VATS, AICO Merch. Dispute with Greece for intervention in the Cretan 
SR Rese ey i aay tected te Pte insurrection; see Greece. . «. ~. Dee. ,, 
Great need of financial reform: the British am- Fuad Pacha dies : h . Feb. 1869 
pees sir H. Lytton Bulwer, Se execil. The prince and princess of Wales’s visit April, _,, 
s : : Sa ¥ : : : ees Memorial of the porte to the European powers de- 
healed respecting the French occupation of siring the abolition of the consular jurisdictions 
D ay a. att : A : REA : 5 June, ” termed ‘‘ capitulations ” 4 4 June, 5; 
ON pdut ae hi bre én bdul-Medjid ; ee el of The khedive or viceroy of Egypt censured for 
E eee rennet ro 25 VUNG, 96 assuming sovereign powers encroaching on those 
conomical reforms begun; Fuad Pacha made of the sultan Aug 
. . ic . . . . . > ”? 
eer the 2 aa Rei and: : July, », System of compulsory education promulgated, Oct. ,, 
Ree sewers BO a eacgeaie : Aug. 5 Arrival of the empress of the French at Constanti- 
Imperial order of knighthood (Osmaneh) to include nople . j ; : ; ; 13 Oct... ¢,, 
civil as well as military persons, founded, Sept. ,, | Inauguration of the Suez canal. } 17 Nov. ,, 
Imperial guard reorganised —. : : Oct. ,, The khedive submits to the sultan . Decsnes 
Fuad Pacha made grand vizier . 22 Nov. ,, Modification of the ‘‘ capitulations ” April, 1870 
He puts forth a budget ; treaties of commerce with Great fire at Pera; British embassy and about 7900 
Sweden, Spain, &c. a é : March, 1862 houses destroyed ; great loss of life . 5 JUNC) 55 
A Turkish loan (8,000,000l.) taken up in London, _. Another fire at Constantinople ; about 1500 houses 
; May, ,, burnt . : ~ a ; ‘ "| TT JULY, ess 
_Secularisation of the property of the mosques, Change in the cabinet; Mustapha Fazyl, finance 
(value about 3,000,000l.) said to be determined on, minister x f A ~ ¢ Td ALS cs 5 
Ocbiarss Reported treaty between Turkey and Greece to re- 
Insurgents in the Herzegovina submit ; peace made sist European aggression in the Kast . 2TOCt mrss 
with Montenegro , : c PF 23Sept. ,, Russia repudiates the treaty of Paris, 1856, 31 Oct. ,, 
- Dispute with Servia (which see) settled . 7 Oct. ,, ‘A note delivered to the porte (see Russia), 15 Nov. ,, 


Ministerial crisis through the sultan’s attempt at 


The sultan agrees to a conference on the Black Sea 
reaction; Fuad Pacha and others resign, but 


question alone about'3 Dec.-,; 


resume Office. ; ° 2 . . 7 Jan. 1863 | Mustapha Fazyl, replaced by Mehemed Ruchdi 
“Anew bankestablished . . . . 28dan. ,, about 15 Jan. 187% 
Fuad Pacha becomes seraskier 12 Feb. ,, | The Black Sea question settled by the conference 
Exhibition of the produce of the empire opened in at London (see Russia) . 5 “ 13 March, ,, 
March; closed. ‘ : 2 26 July, ,, Omar Pacha, general, dies . 2 , To Aprilia: 


The sultan visits Egypt —. é 7-17 April, ,, | Insurrection in Yemen, subdued May; . ss; 


' Fuad Pacha made grand vizier : rJune, ,, Great fires at Constantinople 7June, ,, 
Great immigration of the Caucasian tribes April, 1864 | Aali Pacha, grand vizier, an able statesman, dies 


‘Financial reforms ; conversion and verification of 
_ the Turkish debt Ri ac “ ‘ Aug. 


Cholera rages at Constantinople, nearly 50,000 


Sept. ,, 
Mahmoud Pacha, grand vizier . : F Septneass 
Tunis made an integral part of the empire, by de- 


_ deaths, Aug. ; cholera subsides, Sept. ; great fire cree. : : : F : ; 23 OC mares 
there, about 2500 buildings (mosques, dwellings, Political reforms inaugurated by the new ministry 
&c.) destroyed . £ - 5 * oO Sept. 4 ;, INOVEe ss 


TURKEY. 


Important speech of the sultan to his council re- 
specting the finances . E 16 May, 
Mahmoud Pacha, grand vizier, having made 
enemies through dismissing foreign employés, &c., 
is dismissed and replaced by Midhat Pacha, 
about 30 July, 


Midhat Pacha, who favoured Austria, haw earnie 
replaced by Mehemed Ruchdi 9 Oct. 
Essad_ Pacha, grand vizier; 15 Feb. Mehened 


Ruchdi again : April, 
The Roumelian railway connecting Constantinopte, 
Adrianople, &c., opened . 17 June, 
The sultan’s jewels, &e. (valued at 8, ,000, 0001, ) €X- 
hibited at Vienna - Aug. 
The shah of Persia arrives at Constantinople 
Aug. 
Inability to raise a loan: the sultan gives ae a large 
sum ; great financial reforms proposed Oct. 
Turkish aggressions on South Arabia checked by 
Great Britain 2 . Nov. 
Great improvements in the army ; : formation of re- 
serves . 
Hussein Avni, pacha ; made grand vizier Feb. 
Improved financial arrangements reported April, 
The sultan ill; he recognises his nephew Murad 
as successor . - about 5 Oct. 
Austria, Germany, and Russia inform Turkey that 
they consider they have the right to conclude 
separate treaties with Roumania . 20 Oct. 
Mésondivé or Mesoudiyé, Turkish ironclad, launched 
at Blackwall . A 28 Oct. 
Turkish debt 3,000,000. in 18543 : 180 ,000, 000l, 
Budget : estimated receipts, 21,711, 7641. g expendi- 
ture, 26,299,178. , . dune, 


Insurrection in Herzegovina ( ak see)’ ; great ex- 
citement in Bosnia, Servia, and Montenegro 
July-Aug, 

Mahmud Pacha made grand vizier, with a strong 
ministry, about 25 Aug. 
Decree (in consequence of the deficit of 5,000, 0001. 
in the budget) that for 5 years half the interest on 
the debt be paid in cash and half in 5 per cent. 
bonds. : : - ; - 6 Oct. 


Circular note remitting faxes and promising eco- 
nomical and commercial reform, 7 Oct. ; another 
stating object of the government to stop onerous 
loans, develop the resources of the empire, &c., 

20 Oct. 

Remonstrances of British and Russian ambassadors 

with the government respecting expenditure and 


treatment of Christian subjects Sept.-Nov. 
Raschid Pasha new foreign minister Nov. 


Midhat Pasha, reformer, resigns . : 4 Dec. 
Firman issued; ordering great reforms, equality 
of rights to Christians, &e. sec: 


Note of Andrassy, Austrian minister, respecting 
reforms, 30 Dec. ; adopted by Germany and Russia, 
Jan.; by Great Britain, 18 Jan.; transmitted 
to the porte, about 7 Feb., agreed to to Feb, 

Payment of April dividends deferred to July 

April rz 

Insurrection in Bulgaria, promoted by foreign 
agitators, 1, 2 May ; quickly suppressed by troops 
sent 7 May ; about 65 villages burnt by the Bashi- 
bazouks, and other Turkish troops ; several towns 
destroyed ; about 15,000 persons killed ; atrocious 
cruelties to women and children; a few Turks 
killed by Bulgarians in self-defence (report by 
Mr. Schuyler, see below) F . May, 

Riots at Constantinople ; the softas, fanatical stu- 
dents, and others, demand reforms; their ery, 
“Turkey for the Turks ;” ministerial changes ; 
Mahmud Pacha, the grand vizier, replaced by 
Mehemet Ruchdi; Europeans much alarmed 

1o May et seq. 

British fleet arrives in Besika Bay . 26 May, 

Meeting at Berlin of ministers of Austria, Germany, 
and Russia; they agree to a note to Turkey, re- 
quiring an armistice of two months, and other 
measures, 11, 12 May; the note accepted by 
France and Italy, not by Great Britain, 19 May ; 
not presented through the revolution 30 May, 

The grand vizier Mehemet Ruchdi, Hussein Avni, 

- and Midhat: Pacha, request the sultan to give up 
some of his treasure to save the nation from 
ruin; he refuses and is deposed, 29 May; his 
nephew proclaimed as Murad V.; joyfully ac- 


1872 


860 TURKEY. } 
cepted by the people, and recognised by the F 
western powers : : ; 30 May, et seg. 1876 


) 


Manifesto recognising the danger of the empire 
through SO a and promising amend- 
ment .. . 2June, 

Abdul-Aziz recognises Murad : said to have com- 
mitted suicide by cutting arteries in the arm ; 
said to be insane ; (decided, by trial, to have been 
murdered ; see below, June, 1881) : 4 June, 

Assassination of Hussein Avni, the war minister, 
Raschid Pacha, the foreign minister, and others, 
by Hassan, a disgraced Circassian officer, 15 June, 
who is hanged 3 . 17 June, 

Declaration of war by Servia, iJ uly ; : by. Monte- 
negro . 2 

Tschernay eff and Servians enter Turkey ; 3 battle at 
eae or Zaicar ; Turks said to have the advan- 
age 

Severe conflict of Turks with Servians at Yavor, 
near Novi Bazar, 6 July; with Moubencer at 


Nevesinje 7 July, 
League in aid of Turkish Christians foment in Lon- 
don 27 July, 


Mukhtar Pacha defeated by prince Nikita at Urba 
or Urbitza in Herzegovina ; 28 July, 
Issue of paper money ‘announced . 28 July, 
Several days’ conflict ; the Turks enter Servia, and 
capture Gurgosavatz ; Servians retreat 7 Aug. 
Turkish barbarities in Bulgaria reported by Daily 
News’ correspondent, substantiated by report of 
Mr. Schuyler, the American commissioner from 
Constantinople, dated . ro Aug. 
Asserted victory of prince Nikita at Mean, fe 
Kutchi, about 
Advance of the Turks under Abdul- Karin: ‘Pacha 
upon Alexinatz ; severe fighting, g Aug. 
19-30 Aug. 
Servia invites the mediation of the guaranteeing 
powers, about . . 24 Aug. 
Murad V. deposed on account of bad Hest his 
brother Abdul-Hamid II. proclaimed 31 Aug. 
The great powers propose an immediate arminticn 
the restoration of the status quo ante bellum, pay- 
ment of an indemnity by Servia, &c. ; memoran- 
dum presented . 4 Sept. 
Servians said to be severely beaten before Sicxinake 
1, 2 Sept. ; continued indecisive fighting 
Armistice till 2 5 Sept. agreed to about 17 Sept. 
Prince Milan proclaimed king by the army at Deli- 
grad ; disapproved 16 Sept. 
Report ‘of Mr. Baring, the British are arse in 
Bulgaria, published g Sept. 
{It establishes the facts ‘‘ that a ferocious Museutl 
man soldiery, in revenge for a feeble and abortive 
insurrection, were let loose on the inhabitants of a 
large province ; that the population were bar- 
barously massacred, men, women, and children 
included ; and that during the storm of savage 
fury crimes of all descriptions and outrages un- 
mentionable were perpetrated on the inhabi- 
tants.” —Times.] 
Firm incisive despatch from Lord Derby to Sir H. 
Elliot, referring to Mr. Baring’s report, proposing 


longer armistice, &e. . . 21 Sept. 
The porte receives the propositions of the six great 
powers 26 Sept. 


Lord Derby informs the deputation from the city 
of London that, in regard to the Eastern question, 
the. government is labouring for local self-govern- 
ment for the Turkish provinces in Europe, equal 
treatment of Mahometans and Christians, better 
administration for both, security for life and pro- 
perty, and effectual guarantees against ee 
of outrages. . 27 Sept. 

Servia rejects the renewal of the armistice ; ~ eheky 

nayeff and army dominant; fighting renewed, 


26, 27 Sept. 
Servian attacks on the Turks near Alexinatz severely 
repulsed 28, 29 Sept. 


In reply to the gr eat powers the porte declines an 
armistice, opposes administrative autonomy to 
the provinces as impracticable, proposes a senate, 
and guarantees incisive reforms . 2 Oct. 

Mukhtar Pacha said to defeat Montenegrines, 7 Oct. 

Montenegrine victory at Danilograd . 13 Oct. 

Turkey’s proposal of an armistice for 6 months, 
10 Oct. ; declined by Russia, who proposes 4 t0 


” 


” 


” 


TURKEY. 


TURKEY. 


6 weeks, longer being injurious to commerce, 


&e. : ‘ ‘ : : : \ 14 Oct. 
mtinued fighting, generally unfavourable to Ser- 
‘vians : ‘4 ; 5 : : 15-19 Oct. 
lexinatz bombarded. ; : . 16-19 Oct. 
edun surrenders to Montenegrines Le 20: OCU 
revet taken by Turks . ‘ 2x Oct. 


esult of fighting very favourable to Turks 19-24 Oct. 
lleged conspiracy at Constantinople against the 
reform ministry ; many arrests . about 23 Oct. 
nportant Turkish successes in the valley of the 
Morava : ‘ eee ‘ . 19-24 Oct. 
arvians and Russians defeated; armies under 
Tchernayeff and Horvaritch divided, 19-24 Oct.; 
Djunis taken by Turks; Deligrad untenable ; 
severe Russian loss : . : . 29 Oct. 
‘eutral despatch of lord Derby . dated 30 Oct. 
lexinatz captured by Turks ; Russian ultimatum 
given, demanding 6 weeks’ armistice within 48 
hours : A ot de: ; . dated 31 Oct. 
rmistice for two months signed . 1 Nov. 
eligrad captured by Turks, now virtually masters 
of Servia . : ; F A : r Noy. 
‘acific declaration of the ezar to lord Aug. Loftus, 
2 Nov. 
Jeligrad evacuated by Turks ; farewell address of 
Tchernayetf to officers, exhorting to constancy, 
Nov. 
'zar’s speech at Moscow ; he will act independently 
if guarantees are not obtained to Nov. 
farquis of Salisbury appointed special ambassador 
for conference at Constantinople ; he arrives at 
Paris, 18 Noy. ; Berlin, 20 Nov. ; Vienna, 24 Nov.; 
Rome, 29 Noy. ; Constantinople : apr Ole 
\lleged abortive conspiracy to restore Murad, — 
. 8 Dec. 
-reliminary meetings of conference of representa- 
tives of six great powers begin (Great Britain, 
Russia, Austria, Germany, France, and Italy), 
12 Dec. 
Ruchdi Pacha, grand vizier, replaced by Midhat 


Pacha, a reformer : : : 19 Dec. 
Armistice extended to Feb. 1877 A . Dec. 
Yew political constitution proclaimed: (chief 


provisions : indivisibility of the empire ; the sultan 
supreme ; individual liberty; freedom of all creeds, 
of the press, and of education ; equal legal taxa- 
tion; a senate and two chambers ; general elec- 
tions by ballot every fourth year; irremovable 
judges, &c.) : . 4 - 23 Dec. 
Jpening of the conference : é - 23 Dee. 
Financial decree of 6 Oct. 1875, abrogated, 27 Dec. 
Armistice extended to 1 March 28 Dec. 
[he great national council of Turkey rejects the 
propositions of the conference, 18 Jan. ; it closes, 
20 Jan.; chief ambassadors leave soon after 
22 Jan. 


Negotiations for peace opened with Servia and Mon- 
tenegro 4 < : about 26 Jan. 
Midhat Pacha, the grand vizier, dismissed and 
banished ; succeeded by Edhem Pacha (educated 
at Paris) ; reforms to go on 5 Feb. 
Gortschakoff’s circular to great powers, inquiring 
what they intend to do, signed 19 Jan. ; pub- 
lished. . : : : about 7 Feb. 
Protocols of the conference published in Times, &c. 
early in Feb. 

In Turkey “there is no aristocracy, no governing 
class ; no organised democracy ; no representa- 
tive government,” (marquis of Salisbury) 20 Feb. 
Peace with Servia signed : : rt March, 
First Turkish parliament opened : 30 senators, go 
deputies ; speech from the sultan read, 19 March, 
Gen. Ignatieff visits Berlin, Paris, London, Vienna, 
&.. . . : : ; : : March, 
Protocol signed for six powers : principles—to wait 
for Turkish reforms and watch ; conditional dis- 
armament in Russia and Turkey (voidable under 
certain conditions) . : 5 . 31 March, 
Protocol rejected by Turkey, 12 April; justificatory 
circular sent to the powers ; Mr. Layard sent as 
temporary ambassador to Turkey April, 
Insurrection of Mirdites or Miridites, April ; armis- 
tice with Montenegro not renewed 13 April, 
Arrival of Mr. Layard as ambassador, at Constanti- 
nople ; he affirms the neutrality of Great Britain, 
about 24 April, 


>”? 


War declared by Russia (see Russo-Turkish war, 
1877 : 7 : é : é . 24 April, 
Riotous manifestation by the softas, soon subsides, 
24 May, 

A jihad or holy war against Russia een aye oe 
the sheikh-ul-islam : about 28 May, 
Suleiman Pacha successful in Montenegro ; relieves 
Nicksics, besieged ‘ 5 May, et seq. 
Miridite leaders captured . : P . June, 
The parliament closed without a speech. 28 June, 
Safvet Pacha, foreign minister, replaced by Aariti 


Pacha . . ; z . about 18 July, 
Other ministerial changes . 2 : July, 
Protests against alleged Russian atrocities, July, 

Aug. 
Bosnian revolt reported to be ended Aug. 


Proclamation for increase of army by 150,0o00-— 
Christians and others to serve . 26 Nov. 
Reported intrigues at Constantinople by peace and 
war parties : : : ‘ 4 . Nov. 
The sultan issues a rather vague proclamation of 
amnesty to Bulgaria about 27 Nov. 
Surrender of Plevna, ro Dec. ; circular note to the 
great powers requesting mediation . . 12 Dee. 
Parliament opened ; the sultan’s speech censures 
the war, and praises his generals and soldiers, 
13 Dec, 

The ministry censured, resigns ; still holds office 
Suleiman dismissed; crisis at Constantinople, 
5, 6, 7 Jan. 

Hamdi Pacha, grand vizier Z : Nokit valle 
New ministry under Ahmed Nefik ; grand viziership 
abolished . : . ; : : 4, 5 Heb. 
British fleet enter the Dardanelles without 


t permis- 
sion of the sultan : : : 2 P royrebs 
The parliament dissolved by the sultan . 14 Feb. 


Insurrection in Crete, Thessaly, Epirus, &c. (see 

Greece) A x \ : d Feb., March, 

Treaty of peace with Russia signed at San Stefano 
(see Stefano), 3 March ; ratified at St. Petersburg, 

17 March, 

Osman Pacha honourably received by the sultan, 


24 March, : 


Grand-duke Nicholas and the sultan exchange visits 
at Constantinople : * 26 March, 
Ahmed Nefik replaced by Sadyk as prime minister, 
about 18 April, 
Insurrection near Rhodope, in Roumelia, against 
Russians going on ; see Rhodope April, 
Insurrection (said doubtfully to be in favour of the 
ex-sultan Murad) in Constantinople, suppressed ; 
Ali Suavi, a softa and fanatical reformer, with 
others, killed : 5 , - . 20 May, 
Public offices, &c., at Constantinople destroyed by 
fire ; attributed to incendiaries 22 May, 
Office of grand vizier revived for Mehemet Ruchdi, 
May ; soon replaced by Safvet . 29 May, 
Secret agreement between the marquis of Salisbury 
and count Schouvaloff, Russian ambassador, 
ne 30 May, 
Secret British convention with Turkey (defensive 
alliance): if by the treaty of Berlin, Russia ac- 
quires Kars, Ardahan, or Batoum, Great Britain 
is to join the sultan in arms in defending his 
dominions, he engaging to reform his government ; 
Cyprus to be held by Great Britain till Russia 
returns its acquisitions : 3 4 June, 
Cyprus ceded to Great Britain . 3 July, 
Berlin conference meets, 13 June; treaty signed 
(see Berlin) . : : = : 13 July, 
A conspiracy against the sultan suppressed, about 
to Jul 
A ministerial crisis ends ; the vizier Safvet Backes 
policy approved by the sultan, who gives hima 
present ; ratification of the treaty of Berlin an- 
nounced : : : : : i; 4 Aug. 
Trial of Suleiman Pacha for misconduct during the 
war begun . 2 ; Sec : Aug. 
The Turks said to be grossly ill-treated in Bulgaria, 
and other surrendered places Aug. 
Safvet Pacha’s circular to foreign powers refusing 
to recognise Greek proposal for annexation of 
Candia, Thessaly, &c. 2 . 8 Aug. 
Murder of Mehemet Ali Pacha at Ipek, near Scutari 
by Albanian rioters . : ‘ 6 Sept. 


Alleged conspiracies on behalf of the ex-sultan 
Murad ; instigated by the ulemas, about 10 Sept. 


2? 


” 


? 


TURKEY. 


Albanian leader with 40,ooo men said to be ruling 
from Janina to Montenegro . 12 Sept. 
German circular to the powers on Turkish delays 
in carrying out the Berlin treaty . middle Sept. 
The sultan ‘accepts the reforms proposed by the 
British government ; announced - 24 Oct. 
Insurrectionary movements in Macedonia Oct. 
Midhat Pacha appointed governor-general of Syria, 
to inaugurate reforms . 3 about 11 Nov. 
Suleiman “Pacha sentenced to degradation and im- 
prisonment, 2 Dec. ; absolved the sultan 4 Dec. 
New ministry ; Kheredine Pacha (grand vizier) ; 
Caratheodori, and others. . 3 : 4 Dec. 
Macedonian insurrection ended . ; - 3dan. 
Definitive treaty of peace with Russia, signed mare 
8 Feb. 
British fleet leaves the sea of Marmora March, 
Definitive treaty with Austria, published 26 May, 
Mahmoud Nedem, old statesman, returns to Con- 
stantinople on invitation 4 30 June, 
Kheredine, Caratheodori, and others compelled to 
resign through opposition of the assembly of 
Ulemas (their policy said to be against the 
Khoran) ; succeeded by Aarifi Pacha 
28, 29 July, 
The Russians evacuate Turkey < July, Aug. 
New ministry under Said Pacha. 18, 19 Oct. 
Pressure for reforms put upon the Povernisentt by 
the British ; admiral Hornby and the fleet enter 
Turkish waters ; quit é early in Nov. 
Baker Pacha appointed inspector-general of gen- 
darmerie in Asia Minor announced 18 Nov. 
Great financial depression Nov. Dee 
Official relations with Great Britain teinporarily 
suspended on account of the imprisonment of Dr. 
Koler, a German missionary , and Ahmed Tewfik, 
who assisted him, in translations 31 Dec. 
Successful intervention of sir A. H. Layard 
I-10 Jan. 
Note of Savas Pacha to the Powers acknowledging 
corruptions in judicial affairs and promising effi- 
cient reforms (in T'imes) . o Jan. 
Col. and Mrs. Synge (distributors of relief to Mus- 
sulmans) captured by Greek brigands, near Salo- 
nica, about 19 Feb. ; released for 10, cool. 
about 24 March, 
Mr. Guschen sent as ape tort ambassador 5 
arrives at Constantinople . 5 28 May, 
New ministry under Kadri Pacha about 8 J une, 
Identic note from European powers, 11 June; 
given in ANE ri oe June, 
Osman Pacha, war qninister, dismissed 
about ro July, 
Naval demonstration by the European powers at 
Dulcigno, suggested by earl Granville July, 
Collective note of the Berlin conference presented 
15 July, 
Madame Skobeleff, mother of the Russian general, 
robbed and murdered near Philippopolis by 
Ouzalis, a Russian : 18 July, 
Midhat Pacha, governor of Syria, and Hamed 
Pacha of Smy rna exchange offices . és Aug. 
Collective note from the powers urging cession of 
Dulcigno, &c., to Montenegro, and proposing to 
aid the prince’ in taking possession 3 Aug. 
The ministry modified under Said Pacha, rene 
12 Sept. 
A final note from the powers respecting cession of 
Dulcigno to Montenegro, delivered 15 Sept. 
Admiral Beauchamp Seymour, commander of com- 
bined fleet at Ragusa, sent to make a demonstra- 
tion near Dulcigno . 5 20 Sept. 
The sultan refuses to surrender Dulcigno ; the 
French decline to partake in attack on the town 
about 27 Sept. 
Note from the sultan limiting his concessions and 
resisting coercion ; presented 3 Oct. 
Immediate cession of Dulci igno ordered ne the 
sultan, about 23 Oct. ; effected. 26 Nov. 
The combined fleet disperses - 4 Dee. 
Note from the sultan to the powers Gespectine the 
Greeks arming . ‘ 14 Dec. 
Circular from the powers recommending arbitra- 
tion, 24 Dec. 1880; declined by Turkey and 
Greece . A early in Jan. 
Circular from Turkey proposing conference at Con- 
stantinople &e. A : about 15 Jan. 
Notes from the powers presented 2 . 21 Feb. 


862 


1878 


TURKEY. 


Conference at Constantinople ; agreement between 


Turkey and the powers ; proposals referred to 
Athens : : - 30 March, 
Mr. Henry Suter, engaged in mines, seized by 


brigands at Cassandra, in Salonica, about 8 April, 


Rebellion in Albania (which see) suppressed May, 


Midhat Pacha’s palace ‘surrounded by soldiers ; he 
escapes and appeals to the powers . 17 May, 
The sultan protests against French invasion of 
Tunis (which see). 5 May. 
Midhat surrenders, claiming a fair trial ; 
about 17 May, 
Turkey protests against the Tunis treaty of 12 May 
May 
Suter’s release for 15,oool. ransom anwornesd 
23 Ma 
Convention between Turkey and Greece mee ss 
Constantinople settling frontiers ; Thessaly ceded 
by Turkey. . : A : . 7 24 May, 
Mr. Godschen leaves Constantinople ; his mission 
successful ; succeeded by lord Dufferin, 26 May ; 
who arrives at Constantinople, ms 15 June, 


Trial of Midhat Pacha and others for murder of the 
late sultan Abdul-Aziz; convicted ; ; Mustapha 
Fahri Bey and Hadj Mehmed actual assassins ; 
others, Mahmoud and Nouzi Pachas, the sultan’ § 
brothers-in- law, Midhat eK and others ac- 


Mr. 


complices : : - 27, 28 June, 
Sentence ; death to all except ‘wo subordinates to 
imprisonment 5 2 A ; 5 29 June, 


Turco-Greek convention ceding Thessaly to Greece, 
signed at Constantinople . “ : 2 July, 


” 


The trial of Midhat and others said to be a mockery; - 


punishment commuted to exile on intercession 
of the British Government ; announced 31 July, 
The captors of Mr. Suter taken in Greece, about 
15 Aug. 
Turkish mission at Cairo . 7-18 Oct. 
Continued negotiations at Constantinople respect- 
ing national debt A : - Oct. et sey. 
The German vessel Vulcan laden with dynamin 
(said to belong to Russia) cargo unshipped near 
Constantinople . . . about 8 Oct. 
Decree signed for a satisfactory settlement of the 
national debt ~ 2oLWeGs 
Capt. Selby, R.N. ,wounded by Albanians at Artaki, 
announced 16 Feb. ; dicd yaw ‘ - 20 Feb: 
Mehemet Ruchdi Pasha dies 5 - 26 March, 
Russian-war indemnity convention ratified 6 May, 
The minister Said Pasha dismissed, succeeded by 
Abdurrahman Pasha, about 2 May; who resigns 
Jul 
Said Pasha reinstated - about gj ay, 
Sultan protests against bombardment of forts at 
Alexandria (see Lgypt) . about 11 July, 
Protracting negotiations respecting a military con- 
vention ; agreed to . - 29 Aug. 
Alleged conspiracy of Fuad Pasha and others to 
dethrone the sultan. : about 28 Noy. 
Said Pasha dismissed ; Circassian guard dismissed 
29 Nov. 
Frontier disputes with Montenegro . Nov. 
Said Pasha restored with honours, made grand 
Vizier 3 Dec. Fuad Pasha restored to favour 
7 Dec. 
Excitement of the sultan through dread oh assas- 
sination : - about 13 Dec. 
Fight among the sultan’s body guard, (Albanians 
and Negroes) about 30 killed or wounded 17 Jan. 
Turkish note to the powers against British Egypt- 
tian circular . ° : . about 23 Jan. 
Difficulties with the Gr eek church reapecenie poli- 
tical reforms; resignation of the Cicumenical 
Patriarch Yoachim II. ; not accepted ; concilia- 
tion proposed - a “ . 29 Dec.-3 Jan. 
Resignation maintained . Jan. 
Amicable settlement of dispute, announced April, 
The Imperial prince and princess of Austria hospi- 
tably entertained by the sultan 4 . April, 
Death of Midhat Pasha, great statesman and re- 
former in exile, aged 62  . x : . May, 
Circular to the six great ‘powers announcing the 
stoppage of the post offices in Constantinople, 
20 July, resisted ; the Turkish arrangements fail, 
and are Withdrawn. a «0 eee . Aug. 


Edward Thornton appointed to succeed 
ufferin’ . 5 . . . é 
2k patriarch elected 


TURKEY TRADE. 


863 


lord 
Sept. 1884 
Tah) C Users 


siny of troops at Monastir, for want of pay and 


othing ; settled by concession 


. about 21 Nov. ,, 


‘tions to the sultan from Macedonia, respecting 


urkish atrocities signed . 3 


- 12 Oct. = ,; 


isan Fehmy Pasha sent to London to confer on 
ie Egyptian question; his proposals not_re- 


‘ived,end of . 4 5 4 : 
key protests against Italian occupation of Mas- 
wah on the Red Sea 


Jan. 1885 


about 23 Feb. ,, 


2 Candia, Egypt, Greece, Montenegro, and Servia. 


TURKISH SULTANS. 


. Othman, Osman, or Ottoman, founded the empire, 


retained the title emir, but ruled despotically. 


j. Orchan, son, took the title ‘‘ sultan.” 
>» Amurath (or Murad), I. ; stabbed by a soldier, of 


which wound he died. 


. Bajazet I., Ilderim, son; defeated by Tamerlane, 


and died imprisoned. 


. Solyman, son: dethroned by his brother. 
. Musa-Chelebi: strangled. 
. Mahomet I., son of Bajazet. 


Amurath IL, son. 


. Mahomet IL., son: took Constantinople, 1453. 

. Bajazet II., son. 

. Selim I., son. 

. Solyman I. or II., the Magnificent, son. 

. Selim IL, son. 

. Amurath III., son: killed his five brothers ; their 


mother, in grief, stabbed herself. 


. Mahomet III., son: strangled all his brothers, 


and drowned his father’s wives. 


. Ahmed (or Achmet) I., son. 
. Mustapha I., brother: deposed by the J anissaries, 


and imprisoned. 


. Osman IL, nephew: strangled by Janissaries. 
. Mustapha I. again: again deposed, sent to the 


Seven Towers, and strangled. 
Amurath IV., brother of Osman II. 


. Ibrahim, brother: strangled by the Janissaries. 

. Mahomet IV., son: deposed by 

. Solyman II. or III., brother. 

. Ahmed (or Achmet) IL, son of Ibrahim, nephew. 

. Mustapha IL, eldest son of Mahomet IV.: de- 


osed, 


pose 
. Ahmed (or Achmet) III., brother: deposed, and 


died in prison in 1736. 


. Mahmud I. (or Mahomet V.), son of Mustapha I. 


Osman III., brother. 


. Mustapha III., brother. 


Abdul-Ahmed or Hamid I. 
brother. 


(or Achmet IV.) 


. Selim III., son of Mustapha III. ; deposed by the 


Janissaries. 


. Mustapha IV., son of Abdul-Ahmed; deposed, 


and, with the late sultan Selim, murdered. 


. Mahmud II., or Mahomet VI., brother. 
. Abdul-Medjid (son), 2 July (born 23 April, 1823) ; 


died 25 June, 1861. 


. Abdul-Aziz, brother, born 9 Feb. 1830, deposed 29 


May ; alleged suicide 4 June, 1876 (see 1881). 


. Amurath V. (Murad) son of Abdul-Medjid, born 


21 Sept. 1840; proclaimed 30 May; deposed for 
bad health, 31 Aug. 
Abdul-Hamid II., brother, 31 Aug. born 22 Sept., 


1842. 

BE He is not a tyrant; he is not dissolute; he is 
not a bigot or corrupt.”—Lord Beaconsfield, 27 
July, 1878.] 

Son: Mehemed Selim, born 11 Jan. 1870. 


[TURKEY TRADE, commenced in the year 
so. The Turkey or Levant Company of Londun 
s instituted by charter of Elizabeth, in 1579. 


[TURKEYS AND GUINEA FOWLS, 


first 


ught to England about 1523, and to France in 
0. Turkeys are natives of America, and were 
‘sequently unknown to the ancients. 


[URKHEIM (E. France). Here the elector 


Brandenburg and the Imperialists were defeated 
the French under Turenne, 5 Jan. 1675. 


TUSCANY. 


TURKISH BATHS, see Baths. 


_ TURKISH COMPASSIONATE FUND, 
instituted by the Daily Telegraph, and supported 
by lady Burdett Coutts, the abp. of Canterbury, and 
others, to relieve sufferers by the war, Aug. 1877. 


TURKOMANS, see White Sheep, and Tur- 


kestan. 


TURNER’S ACT, 13 & 14 Vict. c. 35 (1850), 


relates to the court of chancery. 


TURNER’S LEGACIES. Joseph M. W. 
Turner, a great landscape painter, was born in April, 
1775, and died 19 Dec. 1851. He bequeathed to the 
nation all the pictures and drawings collected by 
him and deposited at his residence, 47, Queen Anne- 
street, London, on condition that a suitable gallery 
should be erected for them within ten years; and 
directed his funded property to be expended in 
founding an asylum at Twickenham for decayed 
artists. The will was disputed by his relatives, but 
a compromise was made. The oil-paintings (100 in 
number) and the drawings (1400) were obtained by 
the nation, and the engravings and some other pro- 
perty were transferred to the next of kin. The 
drawings were cleaned and mounted under the 
careful superintendence of Mr. Ruskin, and the 
pictures were sent to Marlborough-house for ex- 
hibition. In 1861, many of the pictures were re- 
moved from the South Kensington Museum to the 
National Gallery, others in 1869. The sketches, 
plates, &e., of Turner's Liber Studiorum, were 
sold for about 20,000/. 28 March, 1873. 


TURNING, see Lathe. In our dockyards, 
blocks and other materials for our ships of war are 
now produced by an almost instantaneous process, 
from rough pieces of oak, by the machinery of Mr. 
(afterwards sir Mark Isambard) Brunel (died 1849) ; 
see Blocks. . 


TURNPIKHS, see TZodis. 
TURPENTINE TREE, Pistacia Terebinthus, 


came from Barbary, before 1656. Spirits of turpen- 
tine were first applied, with success, to the rot in 
sheep; one-third of the spirit diluted with two-thirds 
water, 1772. 


TURRET SHIPS, see Navy of England. 
TUSCAN ORDER oF ARCHITECTURE, 2 


debased Doric, used in Tuscany for buildings in 
which strength is chiefly required. Wotton. 


TUSCANY, formerly a grand duchy in Central 
Italy, the northern part of the ancient Etruria 
(which see). It formed part of the Lombard king- 
dom, after the conquest of which by Charlemagne, 
774, it was made a marquisate for Boniface about 
828. His descendant, the great countess Matilda 
bequeathed the southern part of her domains to the 
pope (1115). In the northern part (then called 
Tuscia), the cities, Florence, Pisa, Sienna, Lucca, &c. 
gradually became flourishing republics. Florence 
became the chief under the government of the 
Medici family; see Florence. 'The duchy in that 
family began in 1531; and the grand-duchy in 
1569. After the extinction of the Medicis in 1737, 
Tuscany was given by the treaty of Vienna (1738) 
to Francis, duke of Lorraine (married to Maria 
Theresa of Austria in 1736), who had ceded his 
hereditary estates to France. Population in 1882 
2,226,265. 
The French enter Florence : 28 March, 1799 
The grand-duke is dispossessed, and his dominions 

given to Louis duke of Parma (of the royal house 

of Spain), with the title of king of Etruria . 1801 
Tuscany incorporated with the French empire - 1807 

e 


6 


TUSCULUM. 


864 


TYNEMOUTH. 


) Pl ; 
> 
“ft 


The grand-duchy given to Eliza, sister of Napoleon 1808 
Ferdinand III. restored 3 - 2 A Aho 


Lucca united to Tuscany . ; p 3 4 . 1847 
Leopold II. grants a free constitution . 15 Feb. 1848 


Insurrection at Florence ; republic proclaimed ; the 
grand-duke flies . : 2 = rz Feb. 
He is restored by the Austrians , 5 July, 
Rigorous imprisonment of the Madiai, husband 
and wife, converts to protestantism, for reading 
the Bible. i H : a ; A May, 
The earls of Shaftesbury and Roden and others in 
vain intercede for them at Florence ; OCtars; 
They are released after the intervention of the 
British government. ; 5 : March, 
[An annuity was provided for them by subscription. ] 
The Tuscan army demand alliance with the Sar- 
dinians ; the grand-duke refuses, and departs to 
Bologna; the king of Sardinia is proclaimed dic- 
tator, and a provisional government formed 
27 April, 
The king assumes the command of the army, but 
declines the dictatorship . : ZOuAprula mess 
The Sardinian commissary Buoncompagni invested 
with the powers of government Tr Mayetouss 
Prince Napoleon arrives at Leghorn, addresses the 
Tuscans, and erects his standard SMR Ve oss 
The grand-duke Leopold II. abdicates in favour 
of his son Ferdinand : OT OU Vues 
Tuscan constituent assembly meets TY Alps 5, 
It declares against the house of Lorraine, and 
votes for annexation to Sardinia Sept. 5, 
Prince Eugene of Savoy-Carignan elected governor- 
general of central Italy ; he declines: but recom- 
mends Buoncompagni, Noy. ; who is accepted by 
the Tuscans . : : : : : LCC Hess 
Annexation to Sardinia voted by universal suffrage, 
rz, 12 March; decreed . < 22 March, 1860 
Prince Eugene appointed governor 26 March, ,, 
Florence made the capital of Italy, by decree pub- 
lished . iz Dec. 1864 


1849 
1850 


1852 


1853 


; (See I taly, and Florence.) 


SOVEREIGNS OF TUSCANY. 
DUKES. 
. Alexander I. 
. Cosmo I. 


GRAND-DUKES. 

. Cosmo I., Medict. 

. Francis I. 

. Ferdinand I. 

. Cosmo II. 

. Ferdinand II. 

. Cosmo III. (visited England, and wrote an ac- 
count of his travels). 

. John Gaston (last of the Medici). 

. Francis II. (duke of Lorraine), became emperor of 
Germany in 1745. 

. Leopold I. (emperor in 1790). 

o. Ferdinand III. (second son of Leopold I.); ex- 
pelled by the French in 1800. 


KINGS OF ETRURIA. 
1801. Louis I., duke of Parma. 
1803. Louis II. 
GRAND-DUCHESS. ‘ 
1808-14. Eliza Bonaparte (married to. Bacciochi, made 
prince of Lucca). 
GRAND-DUKES. 
1814. Ferdinand III. restored. 
1824. Leopold II., 18 June (born 3 Oct. 1797; abdicated, 
21 July, 1859), died 29 Jan. 1870. 
1859. Ferdinand IV., 21 July (born ro June, 1835); pro- 
tested against the annexation of his grand 
duchy, 26 March, 1860. 
Son: Leopold Ferdinand, born 2 Dec. 1868. 


TUSCULUM (now Frascati), a city of Latium 
(S. Italy). The Tusculans supported Tarquinius 
Superbus against the Romans, y whom they were 
totally defeated, 497 B.c. The Tusculans, on ac- 
count of their friendship with Rome, suffered much 
from the other Latins, who took their city, 374, but 
were severely chastised for it. _ Here Cicero during 
hisretirement wrote his ‘‘ Tusculanz Disputationes,”’ 
about 46 B.C. 


TWELFTH-DAY, the feast of the Epiphany, 


or manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles, 6 Jal 
see Epiphany. ; 


TWELVE TABLES, see Decemvirs. 


TWINS, joined together, have been born fre 
quently, but seldom lived long. Helen-Judith 
joined Hungarian twins, were born in 1715, an 
died in 1723. _ Millie-Christine, negro twins, born 
in North Carolina in E51 were wholly distinct i 
the upper part of the body, but one in the low 
part of the spinal column and pelvis; the four le 
obeying nerves from a common centre. They sa 
and danced well, and were named the ‘* Two-head 
Nightingale.’ The will, understanding, and co 
science were distinct. Exhibited in London 
Feb. 1885. See Siamese Twins. 


TWIN-SHIP, see under Steam. 


“TWOPENNY TRASH,” a term given t 
W. Cobbett’s Weekly Political Register, after 2 Noy 
1816, when he reduced the price from 123d. to 2d. 
the sale greatly increased. , 


TYBURN (W. London), at the west end o 
Oxford-road (now street), the chief place in Londor 
for the execution of malefactors till 1783. Pennant 
(who died 1798) remembered Oxford-street as ‘‘s 
deep, hollow road, and full of sloughs, with here an¢ 
there a ragged house, the lurking-place of cut- 
throats.”’ 

In conformity with an act passed in 1697, a so-called 
**Tyburn ticket” was given to the prosecutor of a ¢1i- 
minal executed at Tyburn. The ticket gave exemptior 
from serving on juries and parochial offices. The uxet 
was repealed in 1818. ; 


“TYBURNIA” (a N.W. suburb of London) 
was built between 1839 and 1850, on the green 
fields and nursery grounds in Paddington belonging 
to the see of London. ? 


TYLER’S INSURRECTION, in oppositior 
to the poll-tax imposed on all persons above 15. 
5 Nov. 1380. One of the collectors, acting with in. 
decent rudeness to Wat Tyler's daughter, was strucl 
dead by the father, June, 1381. His neighbour 
took arms, and in a short time almost the whole o: 
the population of the southern and eastern countie: 
rose, extorting freedom from their lords, and plu 
dering. On 12 June, 1381, they gathered upo 
Blackheath to the number of 100,000 men, and o 
14 June murdered Simon of Sudbury, archbishop 
Canterbury, and sir Robert Hales, the royal trea: 
surer. The king, Richard II., invited Tyler to: 
parley, which took place on the 15th at Smithfield 
where the latter addressed the king in a menacing 
manner, now and again lifting up his sword. 1 
this the mayor, Walworth, stunned Tyler with % 
blow of his mace, and one of the king’s knigiits 
dispatched him. Richard temporised with the 
multitude by promising a charter, and thus lec 
them out of the city, when sir R. Knollys and a 
band of knights attacked and dispersed them with 
much slaughter. The insurrection in Norfolk an¢ 
Suffolk was subdued by the bishop of Norwich, and 
1500 of the rebels were executed. 


TYNDALE MEMORIAL. A statue of 
William Tyndale, protestant martyr, translator of 
the new testament, published 1525, was set up on 
the Thames Embankment in 1883. Sculptor, Mr. 
J. E. Boehm. 


TYNEMOUTH, Northumberland. Here are 
remains of a monastery built by king Edwin, 625; 
destroyed by the Danes; rebuilt by king Kgfrid. 
671-85; often ravaged by Danes, 795-993; re- 
founded and made a castle, by Rob. de Mowbray 
1090; plundered by Scots, 1316 and 1389; fortifie 


nes ee ee 


TYPE-COMPOSING MACHINES. 


r Charles I., weg ; taken by Scots, 1644; finally 
ined, 1665; and made a depot, 1783. The cha- 
1 has been restored. Tynemouth was made a 
rough, returning one member to parliament, 
32. An aquarium, winter-garden, &c., was 
ened, 27 Aug. 1878. 


TYPE-COMPOSING MACHINES, sce 
der Printing, 1842-72. 


TY PE-FOUNDING, 
52, 1720. 


TYPE-WRITERS. M. Foucault sent to the 
wis exhibition of 1855, a writing-machine for the 
ind; and several were invented by Wheatstone. 
fter successive improvements, Messrs. Remington, 
America, in 1873, contracted to construct 25,000. 
he speed is said to have been raised to seventy- 
re words a minute. 

1e action of the type-writer somewhat resembles that 
of a pianoforte. Pressure upon a key marked with a 
letter raises a hammer with a type-cut letter, which 
presses upon paper; provision is made for inking the 
type, shifting, &c. 

1e Hall type-writer exhibited in London, 1883. 

r. E. Peacock’s new compact and expeditious type 
writer exhibited in April, 1885. 


TYRANT. In early Greek history, the term 
as applied to any man who governed with irre- 
onsible power. Solon objected to the term, and 
ose the name Archon (ruler), 594 B.c. The 
rliest tyrants were those at Sicyon, beginning 
ith Cleisthenes, in the 7th century B.c. Tyranny 
clined in Greece about 490 B.c., and revived after 
e close of the Peloponnesian war, 404 B.C.; see 
hirty Tyrants. 


TYRE (Pheenicia), a great city, said to have 
en first built by Agenor. Another city was built 
57 (about 2267, Hales) B.c. It was desieged by 
e Assyrians, who retired from before it, after a 
exe of upwards of five years, 713 B.c. Taken by 
ebuchadnezzar, 572 B.c., and the city demolished, 
hen the Tyrians removed to an opposite island, 


see under Printing, 


865 


TYRRHENI. 


and built a new and magnificent city. It was taken 
by Alexander with much difficulty, after a siege of 
seven months, July, 332 B.c. He joined the island 
to the continent by a mole. Strabo. Tyre was 
captured by the Crusaders, 7 July, 1124; -by the 
French, 3 April, 1799; and by the allied fleet, 
during the war against Mehemet Ali, 1841. 


TYRE, ERA OF, began on 19 Oct. 125 B.C., 
with the month of Hyperbereteus. The months 
were the same as those used in the Grecian era, 
and the year is similar to the Julian year. To 
reduce this era to ours, subtract 124; and if the 
given year be less than 125, deduct it from 125, and 
the remainder will be the year before Christ. 


TYROL, the eastern part of ancient Rhetia, 
now a province of the Austrian empire, was ceded to 
the house of Hapsburg in 1359 by Margaret, the 
heiress of the last count. It became an appanage 
of the younger (or Tyrol) branch of the imperial 
house, which came to the throne in the person of 
Maximilian II., in 1618. The French conquered 
the Tyrol in 1805, and united it to Bavaria; but in 
1809 an insurrection broke out, headed by Andrew 
Hofer, an innkeeper, who drove the Bavarians out 
of the Tyrol, thoroughly defeated some French de- 
tachments, but laid down his arms at the treaty of 
Vienna. He was subsequently accused of corre- 
sponding with the Austrians, captured and sent to 
Mantua, and there shot by order of the French 
government, 20 Feb. 1810. The Austrian emperor 
ennobled his family in 1819, and erected his statue 
in Insbruck in 1834. The Tyrolese riflemen were 
very effective in the Italian war in 1859. The 
Arlberg tunnel railway from Innsbruck to Bregenz 
inaugurated by the emperor 20 Sept. 1884. 


TYRONE (near Ulster, N. Ireland), formerly 
the territories of the O’Neills, and the seat of the 
insurrection in 1641. 

TYRRHENI, included the ancient Etruscans, 
and other tribes, said to have come from Lydia, Asia 
Minor. 


U. 


UBIQUITARIANS. 
UBIQUITARIANS or UBIQUARIANS, a 


small German sect, originated by John Brentius 
about 1560, who asserted that the: body of Christ 
was present everywhere (wdique). 


UGANDA. A flourishing kingdom in Equa- 
torial Africa, near the head of the Nile. The king 
Mtesa, who acted in a most friendly manner to- 
wards Grant, Speke, Stanley, and other travellers, 
died 10 Oct. 1884, he was succeeded by his son 
Ma’anda, whose friendship is very important to 
Europeans, 


UHLANS, the German lancers, very effective 
in the war in 1870. 


UKRAINE (Polish for a frontier), a vast 
fertile plain in Russia, ceded to the Cossacks by 
Poland in 1672, and obtained by Russia in 1682. 
The country was divided, Poland having the west 
side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. The 
whole country was assigned to Russia by the treaty 
. of partition in 1795. 

ULM, in Wiirtemberg, S. Germany, where a 
PEACE was signed, 3 July, 1620, by which Frede- 
rick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from it 
previously). Ulm was taken by the French in 
1796. After a battle between the French and 
Austrians, in which the latter, under general Mack, 
were defeated with dreadful loss by marshal Ney, 
Ulm surrendered with 28,000 men, the flower of the 
Austrian army, 17-20 Oct. 1805. 


ULPHILAS’S BIBLE, see under Bid/e. 


ULSTER, the N. division of Ireland. After 
the death of Strongbow, 1176, John de Courcy was 
made earl of Ulster; Hugh de Lacy was earl, 1243 ; 
and Walter de Burgh, 1264; ities descendant, 
Elizabeth, married Lionel, son of Edward IIL, 
1352. He thus became earl of Ulster. In 1611, 
the, British colonisation of the forfeited lands 
(termed the Ulster settlements or plantations) 
began, much land being granted to the corpora- 
tion of London; see Irish Society. The consequent 
rebellion of the Irish chieftains, Roger More, Phelim 
O’Neale, McGuire, earl of Inniskillen, and others, 
broke out on 23 Oct. 1641 (see Ireland).— Ulster 
King of Arms appointed for Ireland, 1553.—By the 
ancient ‘‘ Ulster tenant-right,”’ the outgoing tenant 
of a farm received from his successor a sum of money 
for the privilege of occupancy. A modified form 
of this right was adopted in the Irish land act, 
passed 8 July, 1870. 


ULTRAMONTANISTS (from wltra montes, 
beyond the mountains), a term originally applied in 
France to those who upheld the extreme authority 
of the pope in opposition to the freedom of the 
Gallican church, which had been secured by various 
bulls, and especially by the concordat of 15 July, 
1801. Ultramontanists now are those who main- 
tain the oficial infallibility of the bishop of Rome. 


ULUNDI, Zululand, South Africa. On 4J uly, 
1879, the Zulus, commanded by their king, Cety- 
wayo, who had refused the conditions of peace, were 
totally defeated near here by lord Chelmsford, after 
a severe conflict. Capt. Wyatt-Edgell, 17 Lancers, 
and 9 men were killed, and about 53 wounded. The 
British were attacked in the open country by the 
4ulus, who enveloped our hollow square and charged 


UNIFORMITY ACTS. 


on all sides up to within 60 yards, when they brok 
and fled under the heavy fire. They were pursue 
and routed by cavalry. About 23,000 Zulus engaged 
1,500 killed. The British showed much firmnes 
and the Zulus displayed great courage. The roya 
kraal at Ulundi and other military kraals were burnt 


UMBRELLA, described in early dictionaries 
as ‘‘a portable pent-house to carry in a person’s 
hand to screen him from violent rain or heat.’’ 
Umbrellas appear in the carvings at Persepolis, 
Niebuhr saw a great Arabian prince returning from 
@ mosque, he and each of his family having a large 
umbrella carried by his side. Old chinaware shows 
the Chinese shaded by umbrellas. It is said that 
the first person who generally used an umbrella in 
the streets of London was the benevolent Jonas 
Hanway, who died in 1786. ys 
John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life, in- 

forms us that he had ‘‘a fine silk umbrella, which he 

brought from Spain ; but he could not with any comfort 
to himself use it, the people calling out, ‘ Frenchman ! 
why don’t you get a coach?’” The hackney-coachmen 
and chairmen were clamorous against their rival. The 
footman says he “ persisted for three months, till they 
took no further notice of this novelty. Foreigners 
began to use theirs; and then the English.” 1778. 


‘UNCLE TOM’S CABIN,” a story by 
Mrs. H. Beecher-Stowe, published in portions in a 
newspaper in 1850; complete in March, 1852; set= 
ting forth the evils of negro slavery. The sale was 
enormous, and the translations numerous, and it 
greatly contributed to emancipation. The Rey. 
Josiah Henson, the original “Uncle Tom,” was 
received by the queen at Buckingham palace, 
2 March, 1877, and was much benefited by his visit 
to Britain ; he died May, 1883, aged 93. 


UNCTION, EXTREME, see Anointing. 
UNDULATORY THEORY or LIGHT 


supposes a progressive wave-like motion betwee 
the eye and the luminous body seen. It is said t 
have been suggested by Francisco Grimaldi abou 
1665, and was propounded by Robert Hooke an 
Huyghens, about 1672; opposed by Newton; bu 
confirmed by Thomas Young by experiments i 
1801, and is now generally adopted; see Hmissio 
and Light. 


UNIFORMITARIANS, see Continuity. 


UNIFORMITY ACTS. That of 2 & 3 Kd- 
ward VI., 1 p Jan. 1549, ordained that the order of 
divine worship, drawn up by Cranmer and others, 
‘* with the aid of the Holy Ghost,” should be the 
only one used after 20 May. The penalties for 
refusing to use it were fine and imprisonment, 
This act was confirmed in 1552; repealed by Mary, 
1554; and re-enacted by Klizabeth in 1559. The 
act of Uniformity, 14 Charles IL. ec. 4, was passed in 
1662. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion 
and obliged all clergy to subscribe to the thirty- 
nine articles, and use the same form of worshiy) 
and same book of common prayer. Its enforcemen} 
on 24 Aug. 1662, termed Black Bartholomew’s day } 
caused, it is said, upwards of 2000 ministers to quif 
the church of England. This day was commemo- 
rated by dissenters in 1862. The Act of Uniformity , 
Amendment act, whereby shortened services were 
authorised, and other changes made, was passed 1 


UNIFORMS. 


yy 1872. The Uniformity of Process act, which 
le many law changes, was passed 23 May, 1832. 


JNIFORMS. Military uniforms were first 
d in France, ‘in a regular manner” by 
is XIV. about 1668. In England the uniform 
soon afterwards adopted in the military service, 
with little analogy to the modern dress. See 
er Navy. 


JINIGENITUS, see Bul. 


JNINFLAMMABLE SALTS. _ At the 
tish Association, 15 Sept. 1859, MM. Versmann 
_ Oppenheim announced their discovery that 
rics steeped in solutions of tungstate of soda, or 
hate or phosphate of ammonia, burn without 
1e. 

JNION CHAPEL, Islington, rebuilt; 
ned, 5 Dec. 1877; was termed a ‘‘congrega- 
ial cathedral.’’ Rey. Dr..H. Allon, minister, 
2. ¢ 

JNION oF CALMAR, 1397; of Utrecht, 1579. 


JNION oF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND by: 


accession of James VI. of Scotland as James 1. 
wIngland, 24 March, 1603. The legislative union 
the two kingdoms (as Great Britain) was at- 
ipted, but failed in 1604 and 1670; in the reign 
inne, commissioners were appointed, the articles 
sussed, and, notwithstanding a great opposition 
le by the Tories, every article in the union was 
roved by a great majority, first in the house of 
mons, and afterwards by the peers, 22 July, 
6; was ratified by the Scottish parliament, 16 
. 1707, and became law, I May, same year. 


JNION oF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
cted, 2 July, 1800. 


posed in the Trish parliament . = 22 Jan. 1799 
ected by the commons of Ireland, the votes 

eing ros for, to 106 against the union, 24 Jan. ,, 
English house of commons on the same question 
ivided, 140, 141, and 149 for the union; against 
, 15, 25, and 28 respectively i - : : 
d Castlereagh detailed his plan of the union, in 
1e Irish house of lords, founded on the resolu- 


” 


ons of the British parliament thereon 5 Feb. 1800 
es of the commons agreeing to it, 161 against 
t5,17 Feb. ; and again, 152 against 108 21 Feb. ,, 


' houses of lords and commons wait on the lord 
eutenant with the articles of union, 27 March, ,, 
:act passed in the British parliament 2Jduly, ,, 

+ imperial united standard first displayed at 

ie tower of London, and upon Bedford Tower, 
hublin Castle, on the act of legislative union be- 
oming an operative law . - é 1 Jan. 180t 
‘attempts to dissolve this union, see Repeat. 


JNION JACK. The original flag of England 
3 the banner of St. George, 2.e., white with a red 
ss, which, 12 April, 1606 (three years after 
nes I, ascended the throne) was incorporated with 
banner of Scotland, 7z.e., blue with a white 
gonal cross. This combination obtained the name 
“Union Jack,” in allusion to the union with 
itland, and the word Jack is considered a corrup- 
1 of the word Jacobus, Jacques, or James. This 
angement continued until the union with Ire- 
d, 1 Jan. 1801, when the banner of St. Patrick, 
, white with a diagonal red cross, was amalga- 
ted with it, and forms the present Union flag. 


JNION CHARGEABILITY ACT, pro- 
ing for the better distribution of the charge for 
eving the poor in unions, was passed in June, 
15. One object of the act is the improvement of 
dwellings of agricultural labourers. 


JNION RELIEF ACT, passed in 1862, con- 
ued in 1863, to enable boards of guardians of 
tain unions to obtain temporary aid to meet the 


867 


UNITED PROVINCES. 


extraordinary expenditure for relief occasioned by 
the distress in the cotton manufacturing districts. 


UNION REPEAL ASSOCIATION, IRE- — 
LAND, see Repeal of the Union. 


UNIONISTS. _ A Spanish political party, long 
headed by marshal Serrano. In 1869 they advocated 
the election of the duc de Montpensier as king. See 
Progresistas and Spain. 


UNIONS, see Poor, and Trades. 
UNION GENERALE, see France, Dec. 1882. 


UNIT, a gold coin, value 20s., issued by James I. 
in 1604. 


UNITARIANS, termed Socinians from Lelius 
Socinus, who founded a sect in Italy about 1546. 
They profess to believe in and worship one only 
self-existent God, in opposition to those who wor- 
ship the Trinity in unity. They consider Christ to 
have been a mere man; and do not admit the need 
of an atonement or of the complete inspiration of the 
Scriptures. Michael Servetus printed a tract in dis- 
paragement of the doctrine of the Trinity. In 1553, 
proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin in- 
duced the magistrates to arrest him on a charge of 
blasphemy and heresy. Servetus, refusing to re- 
tract his opinions, was condemned to the flames, 
which sentence was carried into execution, 27 May, 
1553. Servetus is numbered among those anato- 
mists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine 
of the circulation of the blood, before Harvey estab- 
lished that doctrine. Matthew Hamont was burnt 
at Norwich for asserting Christ not to be the Son 
of God, 1 June, 1579. The Unitarians were nume- 
rous in Transylvania in the 17th century; they 
eame to England about 1700, and many of the 
original English presbyterian churches became 
Unitarians about 1730. They were not included in 
the Toleration act till 1813. There were 229 con- 
gregations in England in 1851. Their tenets re- 
semble those of the Arians and Soeinians (which see). 
The Unitarian marriage bill was passed, June, 1827. 
In Dec. 1833, by a decision of the vice-chancellors 
the Unitarians (as such) lost the possession of lady 
Hewley’s charity ; the decision was affirmed on ap- 
peal in 1842. British and Foreign Unitarian 
Association founded, to promote Unitarianism, 
1825 ; meeting in London, 13 June, 1878. There 
were 320 unitarian churches in the United Kingdom 
in Feb. 1884. 


UNITED BRETHREN, see Yoravians. 
UNITED IRISHMEN, a political society 


which met secretly, to establish a_ republic, 
became active in 1795. Theobald Wolf Tone, the 
founder, was captured by sir John Warren in the 
Hoche, one of six frigates destined to support the 
rebellion, in Oct. 1798. He anticipated his punish- 
ment by suicide in prison Noy. 1798. 


UNITED KINGDOM. England and Wales 
were united in 1283; Scotland to both in 1707; and 
the British realm was named the United Kingdom 
on the union of Ireland, 1 Jan. 1801; see Union.— 
The UniTED Kinepom ALLIANCE, for the total sup- 
pression of liquor traffic, was founded, 1 June, 
1853. See Permissive Bill, The subscribed mani- 
festo of this alliance occupied a page of the Times, 
11 Dec.1871. United Kingdom Beneficent Associa- 
tion, founded 1863, grants annuities to poor persons 
of a better class. 

UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, 


in Scotland, was formed 13 May, 1847; see Burghers 
and Relief Chureh. 5; ; : 


UNITED PROVINCES (Holland, Zealand, 


ral 


ak2 


UNITED SERVICE INSTITUTION. 868 


UNITED STATES. 


Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, Overyssell, and 
Guelderland), the deputies of which met at Utrecht, 
23 Jan. 1579, and signed a treaty for their mutual 
defence; see Holland. 


UNITED SERVICE INSTITUTION, 
ROYAL, Whitehall, London, was established in 1831. 
Its museum contains many remarkable military and 
naval relics. The lectures given are reported in its 
journal, which first appeared in 1857. 


The United Service Gazette first published 9 Feb. 1833. 


UNITED STATES or AMERICA were 
so styled by the congress of the revolted British 
provinces, 9 Sept. 1776. Their flag was declared 
to be thirteen stripes, alternately red and white, 
and thirteen stars in a blue field, corresponding with 
the then number of states of the union, 20 June, 
1777. The government of the United States is a 
pure democracy. Each of the states has a sepa- 
rate and independent legislature for the administra- 
tion of its local affairs, ut all are ruled in matters 
of imperial policy by two houses of legislature, the 
senate, elected for six years, and the house of repre- 
sentatives, elected for two years, to which delegates 
are sent from the different members of the con- 
federacy. ‘The president of the United States is 


New York. * South Carolina. 
New Jersey. * Georgia. 
Pennsylvania. See separate articles, 
The following have been added :— ‘ 
Vermont (from New York) ' ; ° ° 1791 
* Tennessee (from North Carolina) . |.© 043996 
Kentucky (from Virginia) . 1792 


Columbia district (under the immediate government 
of congress) contains Washington, the seat of 


government ; . : ‘ . é ao 

Ohio (created) . > F a 
* Louisiana (bought from France in 1803) ‘ 2) wees 
Indiana (created) ; 2 2 “ - 18 

* Mississippi (from Georgia) . 3 * «lowes fl 
Illinois (created) 5 é ; ‘ $ . 18 
* Alabama (from Georgia) 181 
Maine (from Massachusetts) 182 
Missouri (from Louisiana) 182 
*Arkansas . F F 1836 
Michigan : » *— 837 
*Florida (ceded by Spain, 1820); made a, state - 1845 
* Texas ‘ , 2 % 
Iowa 2 1846 
Wisconsin . . 1848 
California A - ‘ - . 1850 
New Mexico (ter ritor y). * .: 1850 
Minnesota (territory, 1849); state 1857 


Oregon (territory, 1850); state . ‘ ie ee 
Kansas (territory, 1854); state . Z - 3 ‘ 
Utah (territory) . P R : 


elected every fourth year by the free voice of the | Washington (territory). Sy ee 1853 
people. The election of Abraham Lincoln as presi- ae Nore Rear k state +) ae 7504 
dent on 4 Noy. 1860, was followed by the secession ey orado (territory, 1861) Sthte Soi ss ar 
akota (territory) . : 1861 
of eleven slaveholding states, and led to the great | 4pizona (territory) "3863 
civil war, 1861-5; see : Confeder ates, and below. Idaho (territory) é 
The ¢hirteah states of the union at the declaration of | West Virginia (from Virginia); state 4 
independence in 1776: the italics indicate the then | Montana (territory) - 1364 
slaveholding states; those with a * prefixed, seceded | Nebraska (territory, 1854); state . 1367 
from the federal government in 1860 and 1861, and | Wyoming (territory) . 3 1868 
were subdued in 1865. Alaska (territory) . . . a 
New Hampshire. Delaware. Electoral College in 1872, 366 caemiiece 40 for New 
Massachusetts. Maryland. England, 95 for the southern States, 12 for the Pacific 
Rhode Island. * Virginia. States, 84 for the middle States, and 135 for the 
Connecticut. | * North Carolina. western States. 
PoPpuLaTION. See Slavery in America. 
Slaves. Total. | Slaves. Total. | Slaves. Total. 
1776 : ‘ 2,614,300 | 1830. 2,009,050 . 12,858,670| 1860 . * 3,952,801 ~. 31,445,98 
1800 896,849 5,309,750 | 1840. : 4 + 17,069,453 | 1870 5 : 38,558, 37) 
1810 1,191,304 73239,903 | 1850 3,204,313 - 23,191,876| 1880 . . ° °  « 50,155) 7a 
The Census report thus classifies the population : Males, June, 1875, 2,237,813,048 dollars. 


25,520,582 ; females, 24,632,284. Native born, 43,475,506 3 
foreign born, 6,677,360. Whites, 43,404,877 ; coloured, 
6,577,151. The remaining 170,838 are composed of 
Indians not in tribal relations and under Government 
care, Chinese, and other Asiatics. The Chinese are esti- 
mated at 105,363. 

The senate is composed of 2 members for each state, 
elected for 6 years. The representatives in congress 
were formerly elected for 2 years in the ratio of x in 
93,423 persons (five slaves were counted as three per- 
sons); but this system ended with the abolition of 


slavery. In 1872 the number of representatives was 
raised from 233 to 283, to commence 3 March, 1873. 
Revenue.— Dollars, 
Total receipts, year ending 30 June, 1855, 65,003,930 
ditto ditto £859, 53,405,071 
ditto ditto 1863, 888,082,128 
ditto ditto 1866, 1,273,960,215 
ditto ditto 1875, . 284,020,771 
ditto ditto 1877, 269,000,586 
ditto ditto 1880, 333,526,610 
ditto ditto 1884, 348,519,869 
Expenditure — 
Year ending go June, 1855. 56,365,393 
ditto 1859 66,346,226 
ditto 1863 714,709,996 
ditto 1866 I, 141,072,666 
ditto 1875 274,623,392 
ditto 1877 238,660,008 
ditto 1880 267,642,957 
ditto 1884 244,126,244 
Public Debt— 


June, 1867, 2,515,615,936 dollars, 
June, 1871, 2,292,030,835 dollars, 


June, 1876, 2,176,947,758 dollars. 
June, 1880, 2,120,415,370 dollars. 
June, 1884, 1 1830, 528,923 dollars. 


Year VALUE OF IMPORTS. 


30 JUNE. ee 
1871-2 £114,502,16r . £112, 361,576 
1874-5 106,600,905 . 109,013, 80: 
1876-7 90,261,510 . 117,933, 39% 
1880 133,590,660 . 164,789, 27¢ 
1884 133,539,538 + + 144,992,976 


ARMy.—That which achieved independence was dis 
banded at the end of the war. In 1789, a war depart 
ment was established, and in 1790 the army consiste« 
of 1216 men for the Indian frontier. In 1808, thé 
militia was newly equipped. When war with Great 
Britain was declared on 18 June, 1812, 35,000 men wert 
voted ; and this army was disbanded at the peace in 
1815. Armies were voted for the wars in 1833 
1835, afterwards disbanded. ' 

In 1855, Army, 11,658. Militia, 1,873,558. Fleet, 7: 
vessels (2290 guns). 

In 1860, the United States Militia were 3,070,987. Fleet 
92V essels (of all kinds) ; in Oct. 1862, 256 vessels of War. 

Federal Army, 29 July, 1861, estimated at 660,971. 
Dec. 1862, nearly 1,000,000 men. In April, 1865, ab 
I,500,000, at the end of the war, when the reducti 
began at once. Number of soldiers in 1867, 54,890 ; 4 
July, 1871, 32,135} 1875, 27,525 men; in 1883, 25,4" 
men. 

Fleet, in July, 1867, 26: vessels of all kinds, 2218 gon! 
Jan. 1871, 179 Vessels, 1440 guns; 1875, 155 vessel 
1203 guns ; 1884, 92 vessels. 

Railways, miles : 1839, 23; 1861, 31,286; 1873, 73,533 
in 1884, 121,532. 


UNITED STATES. 


of the British parliament, imposing new heavy 
ities on imports 3 t March, 
oxious stamp-act passed 4 22 March, 
| American congress held at New York, June; 
e stamp-act resisted d 1 Noy. 


ip-act repealed 18 March, 
ish act, levying duties on tea, paper, painted 
ss, HC. - P ‘ 14 June, 

Gage sent to Boston . Oct. 


chests of tea destroyed by the populace at 
yston, and 17 chests at New York . 18 Dec. 
On port bill (port rights annulled) — 25 March, 
uties from the states meet at Philadelphia, 
Sept. ; Declaration of Rights issued , Nov. 
t action between the British and Americans, at 
-xington ; British retreat wane April, 
of perpetual union between the states 20 May, 
‘ge Washington appointed commander-in-chief, 
ay ; battle of Bunker’ s-hill, the Americans 


tire after a severe conflict 17 June, 
rica declared ‘‘ free, emia and inde- 
ndent ” 4 July, 


eral Howe takes” Long Island, 27 Aug. a new 
ork, 15 Sept. ; victor at White Plains, 20 Oct. ; 

kes Rhode Island . 5 Dee. 
Hessians surrender to Washington 25 Dec. 
Fayette and other French officers join the 
mericans 


hington defeated at Brandywine rr Sept. 
1 Cornwallis takes Philadelphia . Sept. 
goyne victor at Germantown, 3, 4, Oct.; sur- 
unded; capitulates at Saratoga .17 Oct. 


deral government adopted by congress 15 Nov. 


states recognised by France 16 Dec. 
ance with France s 56 eh: 
king’s troops quit Philadelphia . June, 
ericans defeated at Brier’s Creek 3 March, 
rleston surrenders tothe British. 13 May, 
nwallis defeats Gates at Camden 16 Aug. 


or André hanged asaspy . 2 Oct. 
dré (born 1751) was an adjutant-g general in the 
ritish army, and was taken in disguise on his 
turn from a secret expedition to the traitorous 
merican general Arnold, 23 Sept. 1780. He was 
ntenced to execution as a spy by a court of 
mneral Washington’s officers at Tappan, New 
ork, and suffered death, 2 Oct. following. His 
mains were removed to England in a sarco- 
hagus, ro Aug. 1821, and interred i in Westminster 
pbey. Impartial judges justify the severity of 
1is punishment. } 
erican Academy of Arts and Sciences at Boston 
yunded 
. federal government accepted by all the states, 
March; congress assembles. 2 March, 
nwallis defeats Green at Guildford, 15 March ; 
rnold defeats the Americans at Eutaw 8 Sept. 
render of lord Cornwallis and his whole army of 
ooo men to generals Washington and Rocham- 
eau, at Yorktown . 19 Oct. 
‘ival of sir Guy Carleton to treat for peace, 5 May; 
rovisional articles’ signed at Paris by commis- 
ioners F 30 Nov. 
finitive treaty of peace signed at Paris, 3 Sept. 
783; ratified by congress Jan. 
nuel Seabury consecrated bishop of the episcopal 
hurch in America at Aberdeen ; . 14 Nov. 
in Adams, first American ambassador’s first in- 
erview with the king of England . x June, 
e cotton plant introduced into Georgia " 
w constitution signed by a convention of states, 
17 Sept. 
2 same ratified . 23 May, 
e quakers of Phil adelphia emancipate their slaves, 
an 
w government organised, 4 March ; George Wash- 
ngton, xst president, 6 "April; pr esent depart- 
nents of state established - . 27 July, 
ath of Benjamin Franklin. Se er7A pri, 
nk instituted ; capital, 10,000,000 dollars, 7 June, 
y of Washington chosen the capital of the Bie, 
8 July, 
\Whitney’s invention of the cotton-gin gives an 
mense impetus to the growth of American 
ton . 
ection of general Washington as ‘president, 
rch, 1793; resigns . ; P 17 Sept. 
stdams, 2nd president 4 . . 4 March, 


aN 


t 


869 


1764 
1765 


1766 


1767 
1768 


1793 


1796 
1797 


Washington dies ; 


UNITED STATES. 


universal sorrow 4 Dec. 
The seat of gover ‘ment removed to Washington 
Thomas Jefferson, 3rd president . 4 March, 
Louisiana purchased from the French . ce April, 
Discussion between England and America respect- 
ing the rights of neutrals . 
American ports closed to the British, July; trade 
suspended. 3 3 * youDee: 
Importation of slaves abolished é . 1. dan. 
James Madison, 4th president . March, 
War with Great Britain (New England States 
opposed to it, threatened to secede) . 18 June, 
Action between the American ship Constitution, and 
the British frigate Gwerriére, an unequal contest, 
19 Aug. 
Fort Détroit taken . . or Aug. 
The British sloop Frolic ‘taken by the American 
sloop Wasp . : 3 18 Oct. 
The ship United States of 54 guns, great calibre 
(commodore Decatur), captures the British frigate 
Macedonia ‘ 25 Oct. 
Battles of Frenchtown (which see) . 22-24 Jan. 
The Hornet captures the British sloop of war Peacock 
Feb. 
Fort Erie and Fort George abandoned by the British, 
27 May, 
The American frigate Chesapeake captured by the 
Shannon frigate, captain Broke zr June, 
At Burlington Heights, Americans defeated: 
6 J une, 
H.M. sloop Pelican takes the sloop Argus 14 Aug. 
Buffalo town burnt by the British ‘ Dee. 
American frigate Hssexw taken by the Phebe and 
Cherub. : 29 March, 
The British defeat the ‘Americans ina severe conflict, 
2J uly, 
[Several engagements with various success followed. ] 


The British, under Ross, defeat the Americans at 
Bladensburg ; ; the city of Washington taken and 
public edifices burnt . 24 Aug. 


The British sloop of war Avon sunk by the Cuan 
sloop Wasp r : 8 Sept. 
The British squadron on Lake ieanethy captured, 
rz Sept. 

Attack on Baltimore by the British; general Ross 
killed . 12 Sept. 
Treaty of peace with Great Br itain, signed at Ghent, 
24 Dec. 

The British repulsed at New Orleans - 8 Jan. 
The British ship Endymion captures the President, 


15 Jan. 
The Ghent treaty ratified . 17 Feb. 
James Monroe, sth president . 4 March, 


Centre foundation of the capitol of vashinaton laid, 
24 Aug. 
The ‘‘Missouri Compromise” of Henry Clay, re- 
garding slavery, passed . Feb. 
Spain cedes Florida to the ‘American States 24 Oct. 
The States acknowledge the independence of South 
America. 3 3 ‘ 8 March, 
Treaty with Columbia - sees Oct, 
John Quincey Adams, 6th president 4 March: 
Death of the two ex- “presidents, Adams and Jeffer- 
son, on the soth anniversary of the independence 
of the American States Z .4 duly, 
Convention with Great Britain concerning indemnt- 
ties for war 1812-14 . 3 Nov. 
American Tariff Bill imposing heavy ahtles on 
British goods A 13 May, 
General Jackson, qth pr esident . 4 March, 
Treaty between the United States and the Ottoman 


Porte . 4 . 7 May, 
Ports re- opened to British commerce a 2s Oct. 
First railway made . ‘ 4 ‘ ; 4 
New tarifflaws . 3 14 July, 


Commercial panic. 

Great fire at New York, 674 houses and many public 
edifices burnt; loss estimated at 20,000,000 dol- 
lars z : 3 16 Dec. 

National debt ‘paid ‘off ‘ 4 : : 

Martin Van Buren, 8th president . 4 March, 

In the Canadian insurrection, many Americans 
assist the insurgents . ; Oct. to Dee 

The American steamboat Caroline is attacked SS 
burnt by the British, near Schlosser, to the east 
of the ed gion on the territory of the United 
States . j ; ; 29 Dec. 


9? 


UNITED STATES. 


870 


UNITED STATES. 


Proclamation of the president against American 
citizens aiding the Canadians . 5 Jan. 
The Great Western steam-ship first sails from Bristol 
to New York “ 8-15 April 
American banks suspend cash payments. 4 Oct. 
Alex. MacLeod, charged with aiding in the de- 
struction of the Caroline ; true bill ‘found against 


him for murder and arson . 6 Feb. 

The Unifed States. bank again suspends payment, 
7 Fe 

Gen. W. H. Harrison, gth ig dah 4 March, 

Died . 4 April, 

Mr. Fox, British minister, demands the release of 

Mr. MacLeod 12 March, 


John Tyler, roth pr esident . : April, 
The case of MacLeod removed to supreme court at 
New York : .7 6 May, 
A party of British volunteers from Canada earry off 
col. Grogan . 9 Sept. 
Resignation of all the United States pinintae with 
the exception of Mr. Webster . . 11 Sept. 
President’s proclamation against lawless nitrite: of 
American citizens to invade British possessions, 
and to suppress secret lodges, clubs, and associa- 
tions . 25 Sept. 
Grogan restored to the Americans. = gC: 
Trial of MacLeod at Utic a, 4 Oct. ; acquitted, r2 Oct. 
Colossal statue of Washington placed in the capitol 
at Washington . see WEG 
Affair of the Cr cole ; dispute with England Dec. 
(This American vessel was on her voyage to New 
Orleans with a cargo of slaves: they “mautinied, 
murdered the owner, wounded the captain, and 
compelled the crew to take the ship to Nassau, 
New Providence, where the governor, considering 
them passengers, allowed them, against the pro- 
test of the American consul, to go at liberty.] 
Announcement of lord Ashburton’s mission to the 


United States 1 Jan, 
Arrest of Hogan, implicated i in the Caroline affair, 
2 Feb. 

Lord Ashburton arrives at New York 1 April, 


Washington treaty, defining the boundaries between 
the United States and the British American. pos- 
sessions, and for suppressing the slave trade, and 
giving up fugitive criminals ; signed at Washing- 
ton, by lord Ashburton and Mr. Webster, 9 Aug. 

The tariff bill is passed . 30 Aug. 

Lord Ashburton leaves the United States . 5 Sept. 

Death of Dr. Channing A 2 Oct. 

James Knox Polk, rith : pr esident - . 4 March, 

War declared against the United States by Mexico, 
on account of the proposed annexation of Texas, 

; 4 June, 

[Several actions are fought between the belligerents, 
adverse to Mexico.] 

Resolution of the senate and house of representa- 

. tives for terminating the joint occupancy of 
Oregon . . 20 April, 

Annexation of New Mexico to the United States, 
after a protracted war 523 Aug. 

Mexicans defeated by Taylor at Palo Alto, 8, 9 May : 

Treaty fixing the north-west boundary of the U.S. 
at the goth parallel of latitude, and giving the 
British possession of Vancouver’s island, the free 
navigation of the Columbia river, &c., signed 

12 June, 

Treaty with Columbia guaranteeing neutrality of 
the isthmus of Panama 

The Mexicans defeated by general Taylor, at Bueno 
Vista . . 22,23 Feb. 

Vera Cruz taken by storm, 29 March ; the Mexicans 
everywhere worsted. Great battle of Sierra Gorda : 
the Mexicans signally defeated by general Scott, 


18 Apr il, 
Treaty between Mexico and-the United ah a rati- 
fied 9 May ? 


Gen. Zachary Taylor, rath pr esident 4 Mar ch, 
Riot at the theatre, New York, occasioned by the 
dispute between "Mr. Forrest and Mr. Macready, 
to May, 

Proclamation of the president against the maraud- 
ing expedition to Cuba . Sr reAug, 
[Lopez, a Spanish adventurer, ‘landed 600 men at 
Cuba; after a short but obstinate struggle they 
took the town of Cardenas ; and soon after had a 
land engagement with some Spanish soldiers, in 
which many of them were killed or taken pri- 


1838 
99 
1839 


1841 


1842 


1846 


be 


” 


| Mr. Crampton, British envoy, dismissed, 


| J. F, Cooper, American novelist, dies . 


| Lone Star Society (see hone Star) : 


soners ; the others embarked with Lopez in the 
Creole steamer, and thus escaped from a Spanish 
war steamer, the Pizarro, May, 1850.] 
The French ambassador dismissed Wot Washington, 
14 Sept. 3 
Treaty with England for a transit way across Pana- 


ina (see Bulwer), 19 April; ratified 4duly, 3 
President Zachary Taylor dies ; death of M. Cal- 

houn . : 31 March, 
Millard Fillmore, I 3th. president 2 March, 
California admitted a state : 15 Aug. 
Fugitive slave bill passed . . Aug, 


President Fillmore issues a second proclamation 
against the promoters of a second expedition to 
Cuba, aud the ship Cleopatra, freighted with 
military stores destined for that island, is seized, 

25 April, : 

Census of the United States taken, the population 
ascertained to amount to 23,347,884, in the whole 
union . = 16 June, 

Henry Clay, American statesman, dies 29 June, 

Failure of the second expedition against Cuba by 
Lopez and his followers ; they are all defeated and 
taken; 51 are shot by the Cuban authorities, 
Lopez is garotted, and the rest are sent prisoners 
to Spain, where, after some negotiation, they are 
mercifully set at liberty (see Cuba) Aug.-Sept. 

14 Sept. 

The president issues a proclamation against the 
sympathisers with the, revolutionary noe 
in Mexico : : 2 Oct. 

Part of the capitol of Washington, and the whole of 
the library of the United States er a de- 
stroyed by fire Dec. 

M. Kossuth, the Hungarian chief, arrives rt Wash- 
ington, on the invitation of the si alee States 
legislature Z o Dee. 

Publication of “Uncle Tom’s Cabin, ” hg Mrs. 
Stowe . zo March, 1 

The dispute with England relating to the Fisheries 
occurs about this irae Mr. Webster’s note upon 
the subject 14 July, 

:: SAugs 

The United States Ship Crescent City boarded at 
Havannah, and not allowed to land her mails or 
passengers . Oct. 

Death of the eminent statesman Daniel Webster in 
his zoth year ; ‘ : 24 Oct. 

Expedition to Japan 

Address to the women of America on ‘slavery, 
adopted by the duchess of Sutherland and other 
ladies (signed afterwards by 576, ooo English- 
women) . . 26 Nov. 


Gen. Franklin Pierce, ‘rath president — 4 March, ; 
Affair of Koszta at Smyrna (see Koszta) 2x June, 
Crystal palace opens at New York . 14 July, 


Duel between M. Soulé (American minister at 
Madrid) and M. Turgot’ - 18 Dec. 
Great fire at New Yor GR eat Republic Bete de- 
stroyed . é 6 Dec. 
Astor Library, New York, " opened g Jan. 3 
William Walker proclaims the republic of Sonat 
divided into two states—Sonora and Lower Cali- 
fornia 18 Jan. 
American steamer Black Warrior seized at ert 
28 Fe 
The Spanish government remitted the fine, but con- 
sidered the seizure legal . = Apres 
Commercial treaty concluded between Japan and 
United States by commodore Perry (sent there 
for the purpose) . . 23 March, 
Reciprocity treaty between Great Britain and 
United States (respecting Newfoundland fishery, 
international trade, &c.) concluded 7 June, 
ee Hollins in American sloop Cyane, bombard 
San Juan de Nicaragua 3 July, 
Negotiation for the annexation of the Seadwidh 
Islands . = Och 
Dreadful election riots in "Kansas, March and April, 
Indian war: they are defeated . 25, 29 April, 
Dispute with British xe on enlistment (see 
Foreign Legion) . ~pame) LLy 
Gen. Harney gains a victory over the Sioux area 
ep 
Senator Charles Sumner savagely assaulted by, 
senator Preston Brooks in the senate-house fo 
speaking against slavery 5 + 5: So May 
28 Ma 


— 


I 


! 


UNITED STATES. 


hn G. Fremont nominated the “‘ Republican” can- 


didate for the presidency . : A 17 June, 
ittle in Kansas; the slavers (under capt. Reid) 
defeat Brown and the abolitionists 30 Aug. 
mes Buchanan, elected 15th president 4 Nov. 


ie Resolute presented to queen Victoria (see Frank- 
lin) : 4 : “ 2 a2) Dee: 
wd Napier appointed British envoy to United 
States bc Jan.) ; warmly received 18 March, 
mtral American question settled . March, 
idgment given in the ‘‘Dred Scott” case in the 
supreme court. (He was claimed as a slave in a 
free state: 2 judges declared for his freedom, 5 
against it, which causes great dissatisfaction 
throughout the free states) . , : March, 
isorganised state of Utah; troops march to sup- 
port new governor . : : May and June, 
iots in Washington against Irish electors ; and in 
New York on account of changes in the police 


arrangements. : 2 2 : . June, 
isurrection in Kansas quelled . July, 
ommercial panic in New York Aug. 


utrage at Staaten Island ; quarantine house burnt, 
| 7 Sept. 
ispute respecting right of search, settled May, 


ranquillity restored in Utah . ; é June, 
reat rejoicing at the completion of the Atlantic 
telegraph (see Electric Telegraph) Aug. 


massacre of emigrants at Mountain Meadows, 
Utah (Mormons suspected) . , . 18 Sept. 
ieut. Moffat seizes the American slave ship Echo 
and takes her to Charleston . : Sept. 
eath of W. H. Prescott, the historian . 28 Jan. 
aniel Sickles, a government official, killed Philip 
Barton Key, for adultery with his wife ; acquitted 
of murder. : ; : : ; 26 Feb. 
he American commodore Tatnall assists the Eng- 
lish at the Chinese engagement on the river Peiho, 
saying, ‘‘ Blood is thicker than water,” 25 June, 
‘en. Ward, the United States envoy, goes to Pekin, 
but does not see the emperor . : : July, 
‘en. Harney sends troops to San Juan Island, near 
Vancouver's Island, ‘‘to protect the American 
settlers ;” moderation of the British, who have a 
naval force at hand; governor Douglas also sends 
troops . 3 z : A 27 July, 
nsurrection at Harper’s Ferry 16 Oct. 


John Brown, called captain Brown and old Brown, 
was a prominent leader in the violent conflicts in 
Kansas, during the agitation respecting the ques- 
tion of its becoming a slave state. He wasa 
monomaniac on the slavery question, and con- 
tended that all means for annihilating slavery were 
justifiable. He gathered together a band of despe- 
rate characters, who so much annoyed Missouri 
and other slave states, that a reward was offered 
for his head. He had arranged for the successful 
issue of the insurrection above mentioned, so far 
as to devise a provisional government and a new 
constitution. On 16 Oct. he and his band, aided 
by a mob, seized the arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, a 
town on the borders of Virginia and Maryland, 
stopped the railway trains, and cut the telegraph 
wires ; a conflict with the military ensued, when 
many of the insurgents were killed. Temporary 
panic in southern states. ] 


Gen. Harney superseded by gen. Scott at San Juan, 
who makes conciliatory overtures; accepted by 
governor Douglas . : : 4 = . Nov. 

Death of Washington Irving 


. 28 Nov. 


John Brown captured and tried : executed 2 Dec. 
Great agitation in the congress, Nov. 1859; no 
speaker elected till 1 Feb. 


President Buchanan protests against a proposed in- 


quiry into his acts - : 28 March, 
Companions of John Brown executed March, 
The national republican convention meet at 


Chicago ; Abraham Lincoln chosen as candidate 
for the presidency 3 is : : 16 May, 
Japanese embassy received by the president at 


Washington . 7 2 : : . 17 May, 
Fresh disputes at San Juan, through gen. Harney, 
who is recalled . : ; : b= May; 
William Goodrich (Peter Parley) dies May, 


The national democratic convention meet at Balti- 
more; a large number of delegates secede ; the 
remainder nominate Stephen Douglas as _ presi- 


871 UNITED STATES. 
dent : the seceders nominate John Breckinridge, 
1856 18 June, 
The Great Eastern arrives at New York 23 June, 


” 


The prince of Wales arrives at Detroit in the United 
States, 20 Sept.; visits Washington, 3 Oct. ; 
Philadelphia, 9 Oct. ; New York, 11 Oct.; Bos- 
ton, 17 Oct. ; embarks at Portland 20 Oct. 

Abraham Lincoln, the republican candidate, elected 
16th president (see Southern Confederacy), 6 Nov. 

[303 electors are appointed to vote for a president ; 
152 to be a majority. The numbers were, for A. 
Lincoln, 180; John C. Breckinridge, 72; John 
Bell, 39; Stephen A. Douglas, 12.] 

Intense excitement at Charleston, South Carolina, 
and in other southern states . i : Nov. 

South Carolina secedes from the union . 20 Dec. 

Major Anderson, of United States army, occupies 
Fort Sumter in Carolina... : . 26 Dec. 

Delegates from South Carolina not received by_ the 
president . : : F 30 Dee. 

Vacillating policy of president Buchanan ; the secre- 
taries Cass, Cobb, Floyd, and Thompson resign, 

Dec. 1860-Jan. 

New York and other northern states protest against 

the secession ; ageneral fast proclaimed ; observed 


On so. . : : : E s 4 Jan. 
Vicksburg, Mississippi, fortified . : . 12 Jan. 
Kansas admitted a state . é . 21 Jan. 


Secession (by convention) of Mississippi, 8 Jan. ; 
Alabama, Florida, 11 Jan. ; Georgia, 19 Jan. ; 
Louisiana, 26 Jan. ‘Texas (by legislature), 

; 1 Feb 


Jefferson Davis, elected by the six seceding states, 
8 Feb. ; is inaugurated president of the “ southern 
confederacy,” at Montgomery, Alabama, 18 Feb. 

New (Morrill) tariff bill passed (nearly prohibits 
commerce with England) ' : . 2 March, 

President Davis prepares for war (100,000 men to 
be raised) 3 F : ; : March, 

Abm. Lincoln, inaugurated president at Washing- 
ton, says, ‘‘the central idea of secession is the 
essence of anarchy ” ; : ; . 4 March, 

Southern commissioners not received by the presi- 
dent at Washington . : : 12 March, 

Gen. Winfield Scott, in a letter to president Lin- 
coln, sets before him four courses : either, I., to 
surrender to slavery half the territory acquired or 
to be acquired ; II., to blockade all revolted ports ; 
IIL., to say to seceding states, “‘ Wayward sisters, 
go in peace !” or IV., to conquer the south, which 
would require 300,000 men and afterwards a resi- 
dent army [the letter became public Oct. 1862] 

March, 
(Statement denied in 1874.) 

Great excitement at the operation of the new 
Morill tariff, which begins : . r April, 

The war begins : Major Anderson refuses to surren- 
der Fort Sumter, Charleston, when summoned, 11 
April; it is taken by. the secessionists, after a 
bloodless conflict A A 13 April, 

President Lincoln summons the congress to meet 
on 4 July; issues a proclamation, calling on the 
states to furnish a contingent of 75,000 men, &c. 

15 April 

Massachusetts, New. York, Pennsylvania, and 
other states zealously respond, with vigorous 
preparations for war ; Kentucky, North Carolina, 
Virginia, Tennessee, and Missouri, decidedly re- 
fuse, asserting the proposed coercion to be wicked, 


illegal, and unconstitutional : April, 
The mob in Baltimore, Maryland, attack some 


Massachusetts regiments on their way to Wash- 
ington; several persons killed in the conflict, 
tg April, 

President Davis issues letters of marque, 17 April ; 
president Lincoln proclaims the blockade of the 
ports of seceding states : 1g April, 
U.S. Arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia, fired by 
command, and 15,000 stand of arms destroyed, 
18 April; 9 ships of war and naval stores in the 
navy yard, Norfolk, Va., burnt to prevent them 
falling into the hands of the southern confede- 
rates, who occupy the place 21 April, 
Virginia (except West Virginia) secedes by ordi- 
nance (the 8th state) 2 é ; 25 April, 
Lincoln ¢alls for 42,034 volunteers for three years, 
3 May, and informs foreign powers of his inten- 
tion to maintain the union by war . 4 May, 


” 


3 


” 


” 


” 


9 


4 


UNITED STATES. 


The confederates under Beauregard and Johnston, 
in Virginia, threaten Washington, defended by 
the federals under generals Winfield Scott and 
George McClellan May, 

The British queen commands her subjects to be 
neutral in the ensuing war ; e PiaeMay, 

The federals enter Virginia ; Beauregard calls on 
the Virginians to rise ‘and expel them r June, 

Formal secession of Arkansas, 6 May; North Caro- 
lina, 20 May; Tennessee (oth, roth, and rrth), 

8 June, 

Several British vessels seized while endeavouring to 
break the blockade; .the southern privateer 
Savannah captured June, 

Neutrality announced by the Fr ench emperor 1o June, 

Fast-day in confederate states 13 June, 

Missowrit.—Gen. Lyon raises a federal army, and 
defeats the state troops, 17 June; the federals 
successful at Carthage, 5 July; Fremont takes 
command in West Missouri, 26 July ; federals 
victorious at Athens, 5 Aug. * at Wilson’s Creek 
(gen. Lyon killed), 10 ‘Aug. > Fremont proclaims 
martial law, and freedom to slaves or rebels, 3x 
Aug. ; Lexington surrenders to confederates, 20 
Sept. ; Fremont blamed, retires; succeeded by 
Hunter : 2 Nov. 

Virginia. —Federals defeated at Big Bethell, Io 
June ; occupy Harper’s Ferry, evac cuated by the 
confederates, 16 June; col. Pegrim and 600 con- 
federates surrender at Beverley 13 July, 

[Very many skirmishes, with various results. ] 

McClellan defeats confederates at Rich Mountain, 
ir July; Paterson permits the junction of the 
confederates under Johnston and Beauregard 
near Manassas, 15 July; who are repulsed at 
Blackburn’s Ford, near Centreville 18 July, 

Battle of Bull Run (which see) or Manassas, Vir- 
ginia; the federals, seized with panic, flee in 
utter disorder 21 July, 

Meeting of U.S. Congress, 4 “July ; cy ao of 250 
million dollars authorised 7 July, 

Meeting of confederate congress at Richationd: 
Virginia ; x op ord) uly, 

Passport system introduced into the northern 
states, and the liberty of the press greatly re- 
stricted 2 Aug, 

The charges in the Morrill tariff greatly raised ; 
the confederates prohibit exportation of cotton 
except by southern ports Aug. 

Battle of Springfield or Wilson’s Creek ; confede- 
rates defeated to Aug. 

McClellan assumes command of the army of the 
Potomac. . 20 Aug. 

Federal gen. Butler takes Fort Hatter as, N. Carolina 
(700 prisoners and r1ooo stand of arms), 29 Aug. 

Fast-day in federal states : . 26Sept. 

Garibaldi declines command in the federal army, 

Sept. 

Battle of Ball’s Bluff; federals defeated and chy 
Baker killed, near Leesburg, Virginia ; hundreds 
drowned : 21 Oct. 

The federals and confederates enter “Kentucky ; 
the governor protests; many skirmishes,Sept. -Dec. 


Resignation of lieut.-gen. Scott, 31 Oct. ; George 
McClellan made commander-in- chief ‘of the 
federal army . t Noy. 


The federal general Sherman takes Port tie al forts, 
8. Carolina ,8 Nov. 
Capt. Wilkes, of federal war steamer San Jacinto, 
boards the Royal British mail packet Trent, 
and carries off Messrs. Mason and Slidell, con- 
federate commissioners, and their secretaries, 8 
Noy., and conveys them to Boston 9 Nov. 
Great rejoicings in the northern states ré the 
capture of Mason and Slidell . : - Noy. 
McClellan reviews 70,000 men . - 20 Nov. 
Capt. Pegram, of confederate steamer Nashville, 
burns the federal ship Harvey Birch, 19 Nov., and 
brings the crew on to Southampton : 21 N Ov. 
A secession ordinance passed by a party in Mis- 
souri, 2 Noy. ; the same in Kentucky . 30 Nov. 
Dissensions increase between the republicans (abo- 
litionists) and the democrats in New York, &c. 
Nov. 

Jefferson Davis elected president of confederate 
states for six years 30 Nov. 
President Lincoln states that the folletal armies 
comprise 660,971 men 5 : 2 Dec. 


872 


” 


UNITED STATES. 


Meeting of congress, which votes thanks to capt. 
Wilkes, 2 Dec. ; the foreign envoys at Washington 
protest against ‘his act . Dec. 

The federals commence sinking hulks filled with 
stones to block up Charleston harbour (8. Caro- 
lina) [much indignation in England] 21 Dec. 

Banks at New York, &c., suspend cash payments, 

30 Dec. 

A firm despatch from the British government 
arrives, 18 Dec. 1861; Mason, &c., surrendered, 
sail for Europe F x Jan. 

Phelps’ fruitless expedition to Ship ‘Tsland, Minste- 
sippi Sound 3 Dec: 1861-Jan. 

Confederate general Zollicoffer défeated by Thomas 
and slain at Mill Springs or Somerset, Kentucky, 

19 Jan. 

Tennessee.—The federals (Grant) take Fort Henry, 
6 Feb. ; Fort Donnelson, with 15,000 prisoners, 
16 Feb. ; ; and Nashville * 23 Feb. 

Confederates defeated at Pea Ridge, Arkansas, 

6, 7, 8 March, 

Confederate iron-plated ship Merrimac destroys 
federal vessels Cumberland and Congress in Hamp- 
ton roads, 8 March; is repulsed by federal iron- 
clad floating battery Monitor 9 March, 

McClellan and his army (100,000) cross the Potomac 
and find the confederate camp at Bull Run 
evacuated i i : to March, 

McClellan resigns general command, and assumes 
that of the army “of the Potomac only ; Fremont 
that of the Mountain neptatows ; and Halleck 
that of the Mississippi . 11 March, 

Burnside’s expedition sails, rz _ Jan. ; takes Roanoke, 
N. Carolina, 7, 8 Feb. ; Newbern 14 March, 

Capt. Wilson (British) ‘boldly rescues his vessel, 
Emily St. Pierre, a merchantman, from the federals 

21 March, 

[She was sailing from Caleutta to New Brunswick, 
and while attempting to inquire whether a block- 
ade existed, was captured off Charleston bar by a 
federal ship of war. Her captain, and his cook 
and steward, were permitted to remain on board 
on her voyage to Philadelphia. On 21 March, 
Wilson with his two associates succeeded, “by 
stratagem and courage, in recovering the com- 
mand of the vessel, overcoming two U.S. officers 
and 13 sailors, and brought her into Liverpool. 
The owners of the ship gave him 2000 guineas, 
and the Liverpool merchants presented him with 
a magnificent testimonial of their admiration of 
his gallantry. The British government refused 
to restore the vessel when claimed by the 
Americans. ] 

Confederates defeated at Winchester 23 March, 

General Burnside occupies Beaufort and Fort Macon 

x April, 

Slavery abolished in district of Columbia, 4 April, 

McClellan advances into Virginia, with the view of 
taking Richmond ; he besieges York town, held 
by 30,000 confederates 4 5 ‘April, 

Correspondents of English newspapers excluded 
from federal army . s April, 

Great battles of Shiloh or Pittsburg Lendl near 
Corinth, Tennessee ; confederates victorious, but 

* Jose their able gen. ‘Albert J ohnstone ; they retire 

6, 7 April, 

Treaty between Great Britain and the "Tnited 

States for the suppression of the slave trade, 
7 April, 

Federals take Fort Pulaska on the Soveraiah’ II 
April ; and New Orleans 25-28 April, 

Yorktown evacuated by confederates 3 May, 

The Seward-Lyons treaty between Great Britain 
and the United States, for suppression of the 
slave trade, signed 7 April; ratified . 20 May, 

Confederates repulsed at Williamsburg, 5 May; their 
naval depot at Norfolk, Virginia, surrenders, 10 
May ; they burn the Merrimac 4 . 11 May, 

Commodore Farragut with a flotilla ascends the 
Mississippi . . May, 

Little Rock, Arkansas, taken by federals. _ May, 

Stonewall Jackson defeats Banks at Winchester, 


McClellan takes Hanover court-house . 
Skirmishes in Virginia; success varying . A 
Severe battles of Fair Oaks, before Richmond 

(indecisive) 31 May, x June, 
Beauregard and “the confederates retreat from 


1862 


” 


” 


UNITED STATES. 


Pag Tennessee, 30 May ; pursued by Halleck 


id the federals —. F June, 
-aphis, on the Mississippi, taken. 6 June, 
‘erals defeated near Charleston. . 16 June, 
eral forces under Fremont, Banks, and 
eDowell, placed under Pope ; Fremont resigns, 

27 June, 
erals suffer through several severe engagements 
‘Virginia. 25-30 June, 
eral “Butler excites great indignation by his 
ilitary rigour at New Orleans “May and June, 
ted States debt estimated at 100,000,000l. June, 
»n days’ conflict on the Chickahominy before 
ichmond; the confederate gen. Lee compels 
eClellan to abandon the siege and retreat 17 
iles, taking up a position at. Harrison’s Land- 
g, on James’s river : - 25 June-r July, 
tariff still further raised . ; ‘ mere LL Vs 
iy conflicts in Kentucky, Missouri, and Ten- 

sssee, through confederate guerilla parties. 
| June and July, 
20In visits and encourages the army of McClellan, 
1d calls for 300,000 volunteers - . July. 
20ln’s assent to a bill confiscating the property 
id emancipating the slaves of all rebels in arms 
ter 60 days =P Lz July, 
leck supersedes McClellan as commander- ie chief 
26 July, 
vy volunteering; many emigrations to Canada 
id Europe ; habeas corpus suspended : the pre- 
dent ordains a draft if the volunteers are not 


rady by 15 Aug. a a tilly, 
lie debt of United | States estimated at 
222,000,000 dollars: . 2 J i duly; 
takes command in Virginia . 5 14 July, 
coln’s proclamation of confiscation of property 
frebels . 26 July, 


‘ee. attack of Breckenr idge (c onfeder ates) on 
aton Rouge ; the federals soon after retire, 5 Aug. 

e's troops ravage Virginia; Banks, his subordi- 
ate, defeated at Cedar Mountain by gen. Thos. 

Stonewall” Jackson : Aug. 

cording to some accounts he obtained the name 
y promising Beauregard, at the battle of Bull 
‘un, that his brigade. should stand like a ** stone 
‘all;”’ others say that Beauregard gave the name 
imself. ] 

Jlellan retreats from Harrison’s Landing (said 
) have lost 70,000 men, killed, wounded, prison- 


rs, and deserters) . 16 Aug. 
: federals surprised, and Pope loses his baggage, 
25 5 Aug. 


kson turns the flank of Pope’s army, and attacks 
im at Groveton, 29 Aug. ; and when reinforced 
y Lee, defeats him and McDowell at Bull Run, 

o Aug. ; Pope retreats to Centreville 1 Sept. 

» remains of Pope’s army flee behind the lines 
f Washington, 2 Sept. ; he is removed to the 
orth-west to ect fagaiest ‘the Indian insurrection 


3 Sept. 
Dowell superseded ; charged with fremihner he 
laims a trial = , . Sept. 


Clellan appointed commander-in- chief, saves 
Vashington, and marches against the confede- 
ates under Lee, who have crossed the ie aot 
nd entered Maryland : , 6 Sept. 
ere conflicts at South Mountain Gap ae ’Middle- 
ywn), 14-16 Sept. ; confederates, after a great 
ght near Antietam Creek and Sharpsburg road, 
streat . ety Sept. 
rper’s Ferry surrendered to J ackson, 15 Sept. ; 
e crosses Potomac and joins Lee’s army 17 Sept. 
eral cause declining in the west; they lose 
exington, Aug. ; and Munsfordville 17 Sept. 
mksgiving-day in southern states, 18 Sept. 
encrans defeats the confederates at Iuka 19 Sept. 
ifederates re-enter Virginia laden with eee 
22 Sept. 
coln proclaims freedom to the slaves in the con- 
sderate states, on 1 Jan. 1863, if the states have 
ot returned to the union F 22 Sept. 
ret convention of 16 governors of states at 
ltoona, Pennsylvania, approve Lincoln’s policy 


24 Sept. 
uught of 40,000 men ordered in New York state 
y 12 Oct. Sept. 


coln suspends habeas corpus'writ, and authorises 
evere measures against disloyal persons 25-27 Sept. 


i 


873 UNITED STATES. 


” 


” 


” 


| 


Desperate but indecisive conflicts near Corinth. 
Tennessee, 3-5 Oct. ; and at Perrysville, Pe ue 
c 
Confederate gen. Stuart crosses Upper Potoniac, 
and enters Pennsylvania ; enters Chambersburg 
and other places, carrying off horses, ammunition, 
&e. ; rides round the federal army, and returns to 
his camp - : to, 13 Oct 
Gold at 29 premium at New York 5 - Oct. 
Great democratic meeting at New York, condemning 
the president’s policy . . 12 Oct. 
At New Orleans Butler compels all. persons who 
refuse to take the oath of allegiance to send in 
their names and register their property to the 
provost marshal 12 Oct. 
McClellan’s head- quarters at Har per ’s Ferr y 17 Oct. 
Raid of confederate gen. Morgan in Kentucky ; he 
carries off 80 federal waggons of ammunition, d&e. 
18 Oct. 
Ten confederate prisoners at Palmyra shot by order 
of gen. McNeil in consequence of the disappear- 
ance of Abraham Allsman : : 18 Oct. 
Rosencrans supersedes Buell in the west — 30 Oct. 
M. Drouyn de Lhuys, on behalf of the French 
government, proposes joint mediation in the 
American conflict to Great Britain and Russia, 
30 Oct. ; declined by Gortschakoff, 8 Nov. ; by 
earl Russell 2 13 Noy. 
The confederate steamer Alabama, capt. Semmes, 
captures many U.S. vessels, and excites much 
alarm at New York ; ; ; Oct. -Dece. 
Elections for next congress ; great majority for the 
democratic (opposition) candidates in New York 
and several other states. . 4 Nov. 
McClellan, while advancing towards Richmond, 
is superseded by gen. Burnside, 5 Nov., who 
advances towards Richmond = 7 NOMS 
President Davis threatens reprisals if general 
McNeil is not surrendered (see 18 Oct.) 17 Nov. 
Burnside summons Fredericksburg to surrender ; 
confederate gen. Lee with about ‘80,000 men near 


22 Nov. 

100,000 federal soldiers on the sick list . Nov. 
Great honour shown to McClellan; he is proposed 
as the next president : Nov. 
The federal government orders release of disaffected 
persons in prisons wu 25 Nov. 


Annual session of U.S. congress ; ” the president 
recommends compensated “emancipation of all 
slaves in the loyal states before the year 1900 1 Dec. 

Battle of Fredericksburg (which see); Burnside 
crosses the Rappahannock, 10 Dec. ; bombards 
Fredericksburg, 11 Dec.; a series of desperate 
attacks on the confederates; Burnside totally 
defeated, 13 Dec.; recrosses theriver 15 Dec. 

Engagements i in Tennessee with varying results, Dec. 

Discovery of frauds in the U.S. army financial 
accounts ; public dissatisfaction with the govern- 
ment ; secretaries Chase and Seward resign, but 
resume office owe Dec: 

Homestead and Pre- -emption act (relating to settle- 
ment of free land) passed . 

Battles near Murfreesboro’, or Stone Riv er, between 
Rosencrans and the federals and Braxton Bragg 
and the confederates : begin 29 Dec. ; severe but 
indecisive, 3x Dec.; battle continued, 1 Jan. ; 
Bragg defeated, retreats 2 Jan. 

[‘‘ There have been about 2000 battles and skirmishes 
since the commencement of the war.”—American 
Almanack. | 


President Lincoln proclaims the freedom of slaves 
in the rebel states, except in parts held by the 
USS. armiyiann a2 ads 

Burnside ew erndant by Ei oseph Hooker in com- 
mand of army of the Potomac . 26 Jan. 

The French government’s offer of mediation, g Jan. 
declined =U) 6. Leb, 

The George Gr iswold, a vessel containing provisions 
and other relief for the distressed cotton workers 


in Lancashire, arrives g Feb. 
A conscription bill (for men between 18 and 45) 
passed . ees, rep: 


The congress authorises “the suspension of the 
habeas. corpus act, 3 March; and establishes a 
National Academy of Sciences at Washington 


4 March, 
Confederate loan for 3,0 000,000/. well fart up in 
Europe : : March, 


1862 


29 
7 


1863 


UNITED STATES. 


874 


UNITED STATES. © 


Charleston, South Carolina, attacked by monitors 
and gunboats; the Keokuk, a monitor, sunk 

7 April, 
Battle of Chancellorsville (which see); the federals 

under Hooker cross the Rappahannock, 28 April ; 
defeated (gen. Stonewall Jackson is mortally 
wounded), 2-4 May ; Hooker recrosses the Rappa- 
hannock : 5 May, 
Stonewall Jackson dies ‘ 1o May, 
Grant’s successful campaign in Tennessee ; he defeats 
the confederates under Joseph J ohnstone at 
Jackson, 14 May; and under Pemberton at 
Champion Hills, 16 May ; and invests Vicksburg, 
Mississippi, which is strongly fortified, 18 May, 
a dreadful assault on it repelled 
Great peace meeting at Norfolk 5 June, 
Confederate invasion under Lee; invade Maryland 
and Pennsylvania, and take various towns 
14 June, et seq. 


The federal gen. Hooker superseded by George 


H. Meade . 27 June, 
Meade advances against Lee ; great battle of 
Gettysburg, indecisive ; but the confederates 


evacuate Pennsylvania and Maryland, 1-3 July, 
Vicksburg bombarded, 3 July; surrendered by 
Pemberton to Grant and Porter 4 July, 
Port Hudson, a confederate fortress on the 
Mississippi, surrenders : 8 July, 
Fierce riots at New York against the conscription ; 
many negroes murdered, and much property 
destroy ed : 13-16 July, 
The Sioux defeated, 7 Aug. : gen. Pope reports that 
the Indian war is ended a AD: 
New York rioters tried and convicted, 12 Aug. : 
conscription going on peaceably 21 Aug. 
Siege of Charleston; defended by Beauregard— 
attacks with varied success, July; Fort Sumter 
bombarded and destroyed (and so-called Greek 
fire employed); attacks on the ruins repulsed 
21, 22 Aug. 
Knoxville occupied by Burnside ro Sept. 
A Russian squadron warmly received at New York 
Sept. and Oct. 
Battles of Chickamauga, Tennessee; Rosencrans 
defeated by Bragg . - 19, 20 Sept. 
Mason, the confederate commissioner in England, 
protests against the mode of his reception, and 


quits 22 Sept. 
Confederates ‘defeated at Blue- Springs, Tennessee 
to Oct. 


Rosencrans’ command of the federal army in Tennes- 


see superseded by Grant, and THe and 
Sherman E 9 Oct. 
The steam rams El Tousson and El retain  nuilt 


by Mr. Laird at Birkenhead, and suspected to be 
for the confederates, are placed under charge of a 


government vessel in the Mersey 31 Oct. 
Lincoln calls for 300,000 volunteers 17 Oct. 


British consuls dismissed from southern states Oct. 
Meade captures a part of Lee’s army on the N. side 
of the Rappahannock : . 7 Nov. 
The chief justices Lowrie, Woodward, and Tacnige 
son declare that the Conscription act is uncon- 
stitutional . - 12 Nov. 
Longstreet defeats Burnside, and compels him to 
retire into Knoxville - 14-17 Nov. 
Sherman and Thomas defeat Bragg at Ghabtenoogs 
23, 24 Nov. 

Longstreet’s attack on Knoxville, defended by 
Burnside, fails, and he retreats into Virginia 
29 Nov. and rx Dec. 

The confederate general Rete superseded by 
Hardee 2 Dec. 
Lincoln’s message ‘to congress Ww arlike ; he proffers 
amnesty to all ¢ except heads of governments, &e., 

4 Dec.; Davis’s message, firm, but acknow- 
ledging reverses. 7 Dec. 
Gen. J oseph Johnston takes command of thie con- 
federate army in Georgia . 27 Dee. 
President Lincoln orders a draft of 500,000 men in 


3 years. 1 Feb. 
Federal expedition ‘into F lorida ; : defeated at 
Olustee o Feb. 


Failure of attack of Kilpatrick ‘and Danian on 
Richmond : 27 Feb.-4 March, 

Ulysses Grant made commander-in- chief, succeeding 
Halleck ere March, 

Confederate raids into the Western states March, 


22 May, | 


Sherman’s expedition against. Mobile, 2 March, 
defeated by Kirby-Smith 5 Ap ril, I 


1863 | James E. Stuart, the celebrated confederate tavalry 


officer, killed . . 1 May, 
Campaign in Virginia; the ‘army of the Potoned 
crosses the Rapidan ; advance of Lee (now sup- 
ported by Longstreet), 2 May ; severe battle in the 
“Wilderness” (near Chancellorsville), indecisive, 
5,6 May; battle of Spottsylvania; the federals 
remain on the field ; much carnage to-12 May, 
Sherman (in Georgia) beats the confederates at 
Resacca, 14 May, and at Dallas 28 May, 
Fugitive slave act repealed by the house of represen- 
. tatives 113) dune; 
After a succession of ‘attacks on both aide Grant 
compels Lee to retire gradually, and by a flank 
movement marches to the other side of Richmond, 
and faces Petersburg, 15 June; where, having 
taken the first intrenchments after desperate 
assaults, he is repulsed with considerable loss 
18 June, 

The confederate steamer Alabama (capt. Semmes) 
attacked and sunk by the U.S. corvette Kearsage 
(capt. Winslow) near Cherbourg, France, 19 June, 
Mr. Chase, secretary to the U.S. treasury, resigns ; 
succeeded by Mr. Fessenden July, 
Part of Lee’s army invades Mary land, r July; 
defeats Wallace near Monocracy river, 9 July; 
threatens Baltimore and Washington, and retreats 
12, 13 July; 

Sherman’s 3 battles at Atlanta (Georgia), 20, 22 July ; 
victory remains with the federals . 28 duly, 
Confederates again invade Maryland and Pennsyl- 
vania, and destroy Chambersburg 30 July, 
Grant orders the explosion of a mine at Petersburg, 
whereby 250 confederates are killed: but the 
assault following is repulsed with great slaughter 


30 July, 
The Tallahassee confederate steamer (builtin London) 
destroys many U.S. merchantmen July, Aug. 
Severe conflicts in the Shenandoah valley: ree 
federals victors p Aug. 
The confederate flotilla near Mobile destroyed by 
Farragut, 5 Aug. ; Fort Gaines taken 8 Aug. 
McClellan nominated for the presidency by the 
““ Democratic” Chicago convention x Sept. 
Sherman occupies Atlanta ; the confederate general 
Hood retires . sepa 
Sherman orders the depopulation of ‘Atlante 


7 Sept. 
McClellan declares for maintaining the Sine the 
democratic party divided 13 Sept. 


Sheridan (federal) defeats Early ‘at Winchesten in 
the Shenandoah valley, but with very great loss 
19 Sept 
Longstreet replaces Early in the command of the 
confederates. Oct. 
Longstreet defeats the federals at Cedar Creek ; 
Sheridan arrives, rallies his troops, and defeats 
the confederates : Oct. 
St. Alban’s Raid.—Between 20 ‘and 30 me men 
enter St. Alban’s, Vermont; rob the bank and 
carry off horses and stores; fire on and kill 
several persons, and flee to Canada, eo Oct. ; 
where 13 of them are arrested : 1 Oct. 
Lincoln re-elected president ; McClellan COR ss his 
command in U.S. army . Nov. 
Sherman destroys Atlanta and begins Feb march 
through Georgia to Savannah ‘ 3 Nov. 
Hood’s ‘attack on Thomas (federal), at. Franklin, 
repulsed with severe loss 3 . 30 Nov. 
Lincoln’s message to congress considered * bold” 
6 Dec. 
The St. Alban’s raiders discharged by Judge 
Coursol; general Dix issues an intemperate order 
for reprisals (disannulled by the president) 


14 Dec. 
Hood defeated by Thomas (federal) near Nashville 
14-16 Dee. 
Sherman storms fort ang 13 Dee..; aay 
Savannah ¥ ‘ t Dec. 
Wilmington bombarded ; “the attack of Sanaral 
Butler and admiral Porter repulsed 24, 25 Dec. 
The St. Alban’s raiders recaptured a committed 
for trial f Dec. et seq. 
The federal congress abolishes slavery i ts the United 
States .. 1 Feb. x: 
Fruitless meeti ng of president Lincoln and seghelary 


eee ee 


UNITED STATES. 


Seward with the confederate secretary Stephens, 
nd 2 commissioners to treat for peace at Fort 
‘Monroe : s > : = 2, 3 Feb. 
'e Canadian governinent surrenders Burley, a 
vaider, to the federals . ; : Pees te: 
e takes the general command of the confederate 
armies; he recommends enlistment of negroes 


t 18 F eb. 
ilmington captured by Schofield ; 


it 


Charleston 
avacuated by the confederates ; retreat of Beaure- 
Fa * A * " r . * 22 Feb. 
ie confederate congress decree the arming of the 
‘slaves : = : + z : 22 Feb. 
wraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson inaugurated 
as president and vice-president . 4 March, 
new stringent tariff comes into operation, 
| x April, 
iree days’ sanguinary conflict at Five Forks, be- 
gan 31 March; Sheridan turns Lee’s front, and 
totally defeats him, x April; Lee retreats, 
lv: 2 April, 
‘chmond and Petersburg evacuated by the con- 
federates and occupied by Grant 2, 3 April, 
1eridan overtakes and defeats Lee at Sailor’s 
Creek, 6 April; Lee surrenders with the army of 
Northern Virginia to Grant, at Appomatox court- 
house . : ; 2 : A . g April, 
obile evacuated by the confederates 12 April, 
1e Union flag replaced at Fort Sumter, Charleston, 
14 April, 
-esident Lincoln shot in the head at Ford’s Thea- 
tre, Washington, about 11 o’clock, p.m., 14 April, 
by Wilkes Booth, who escapes; Mr. Seward, the 
foreign secretary, and his son, wounded in his 
own house by an assassin about the same time; 
Lincoln dies at 7.30 a.m., 15 April; Andrew 
Johnson, vice-president, sworn in as 17th president, 
15 April, 
he convention between Sherman and Johnston 
‘(favourable to confederates), 17 April, disavowed 
by the government, 21 April; Johnston surren- 
ders on same terms as Lee 26 April, 
Tilkes Booth shot, and his accomplice Harrold 
captured, in a farmhouse F : 26 April, 
he confederate general Dick Taylor (near Mobile) 
surrenders . “ : ; F : 4 May, 
resident Jefferson Davis captured at Irwinsville, 
Georgia; imprisoned to May, 


he confederate general Kirby Smith, in Texas, 
surrenders; end of the war 3 ; 26 May, 


resident Johnson proclaims the opening of the 
southern ports, 22 May; and an amnesty with 
certain exemptions : : “ . 29 May 
olemn fast observed for death of president Lincoln, 

rt June, 


he armies on both sides rapidly disbanding; fierce 
riots at New York between whites and negroes, 
June, 


‘alveston, Texas, the last seaport held by the 
south, surrendered by Kirby-Smith 5 June, 

‘he British and French governments rescind their 
recognition of the confederates as belligerents, 

2, 6 June, 


‘resident Johnson, uniting with the democrats, 
and acting leniently towards the south; reorgan- 
isation of the state governments June, 

‘lose of the long trial of the assassination conspira- 
tors, 29 June; execution of Payne, Atzerott, 

Harrold or Herold, and Mrs. Suratt 7 July, 

‘he president declines recognition of the emperor 


.of Mexico 5 : 3 i A 18 July, 
ll southern prisoners of war to be released on 
parole on taking oath of allegiance 29 July, 


'ederal debt declared 2,757,253,275 dollars, 
} 31 July, 
‘he confederate privateer Shenandoah (captain 
Waddell) captures and destroys many federal 
vessels (about 30) =. 3 ‘ A . Aug. 
acific policy of president Johnson; he declares 
himself opposed to centralisation and in favour 
of state rights; and is bitterly opposed by the 
yadicals . : A : : : s Sept. 
Jorrespondence between earl Russell and Mr. 
Adams (U.S, minister, London) respecting the 
Alabama, confederate privateer; proposal of a 

commission to whom claims for reparation shall 
be referred ~ . : . 7 April-18 Sept. 


re 


875 


>? 


” 


? 


UNITED STATES. 


Alex. Stephens and other southern officials par- 
doned : : . : : - rr Oct. 
Great meeting of Fenians at Philadelphia; the Irish 
republic proclaimed ‘ ‘ 16-24 Oct. 
Much public discussion respecting equal negro 
suffrage : : ‘ . ; . duly-Oct. 
The national debt stated to be 600,000,000!. Oct. 
General Robert Lee becomes president of Wash- 
ington College, Virginia 3 : . -2 Oct. 
Several southern states pass ordinances annulling 
secession, abolishing slavery, and renouncing 
confederate debt . é . Sept. Oct. Nov. 
National thanksgiving for the peace 2 Nov. 
Captain Waddell arrives at Liverpool, 6 Nov. ; sur- 
renders the Shenandoah to the British govern- 
ment, stating that he had not heard of the end of 
the war till 2 Aug.; he and his crew paroled, 
8 Nov.; the vessel given up to the American 
consul ; : : : : : g Nov. 
Capt. Wirz, after long military trial, executed for 
cruelty to the federal prisoners.at Andersonsville, 


: ro Nov. 

A negro convention at Charleston, appeals for jus- 
tice and generosity : ; : . 25 Nov. 
Ex-president Buchanan publishes his justification, 
Nov. 

Habeas corpus act restored in N. states r Dee. 


Close of correspondence between the British and 
U.S. governments respecting depredations of 
Alabama, Shenandoah, &c. The earl of Clarendon 
maintains that ‘no armed vessel departed during 
the war from a British port, to cruise against the 
commerce of the United States” . 2 Dec. 

Congress and government protest against the French 
intervention in Mexico, Nov.; 6, 16 Dec. 

Opening of 39th congress; president Johnson’s 
message conciliatory and firm (he requires from 
the southern states—repeal of their act of seces- 
sion, abolition of slavery, and repudiation of 
confederate debt) A : : 4 Dec: 

The radical party, opposed to the president, and to 
clemency to the south, predominate in the con- 
gress, and move violent resolutions against resto- 


ration of southern states to the union . Dec. 
Estimated federal debt, 600,000,000l.; revenue, 
80,000, 000, Dec. 


85 members for the southern states excluded from 
congress; the conservative party support the 
president in his endeavours to reconstruct the 
union; the radicals violently oppose his policy, 
requiring the south to undergo previously a 
severe probation; the president has restored 
state government to all the southern states ex- 
cept Texas and Florida : : 29 Dec. 

The radicals demand for the negroes, personal, 
civil, and political rights, equal to those of the 
whites; the president proposes gradual enfran- 
chisement, in separate states ’ Feb. 

The president vetoes the Freedmen’s Bureau bill, 
21 Feb.; and the bill for the civil rights of the 
blacks : ; . : : . 27 March, 

The president fiercely opposed by the radicals; the 
conservatives and democrats unite to support 
him 3 . c : 3 : March, 

He proclaims the rebellion at anend . 3 April, 

The Civil Rights bill passed in spite of the veto, 

g April, 

The veto on the admission of Colorado as a state, 
15 May; set aside P . May, 

Fenian raids in Canada 31 May-7 June, 

The radical reconstruction clause termed the “ con- 
stitutional amendment” (granting negro suffrage 
to be enforced by the different states; the whites 
and the blacks to be equal in the sight of the 
law, &c.), passed by the senate 13 June, 

Death of general Winfield Scott, aged 80, 29 May; 
and of Lewis Cass, aged 83. : . 17 June, 

Continued dissension between the president and 
the congress F : : : : swuly. 

The representatives of Tennessee re-admitted to 
the congress (xo states still excluded) . July, 

The Atlantic telegraph completed (see Electric 
Telegraph) ; i ; . 27 July, 

The congress adjourns . 3 é 28 July, 

Great meeting at Philadelphia of the National 
Union Convention, consisting of delegates (the 
moderate men of all the parties, in every state, 
north and south, now termed the conservative 


9° 


1866 


UNITED STATES. 


876 


UNITED STATES. 


party), whose object is to establish the national 
union, restore the south to its rights, and vindi- 
cate the president’s policy 14 Aug. 
Tour of the president; he visits Philadelphia, New 
York, Chicago, &c.; he is very enthusiastically 
received ; and speaks warmly, and often injudi- 
ciously c 28 Aug.-18 Sept. 
Elections for congress go in favour of the republi- 
cans 4 Oct. 
[They demand that three-fifths of the blacks in the 
south shall be entitled to vote; that where negro 
suffrage is not established, only whites shall 
count; and that all persons who have taken any 
pet ne the rebellion shall be disqualified to 
vote 
Death of Martin Van Buren, ex- president Oct. 
Trial of Jefferson Davis deferred till spring Oct. 
Elections in all the states except Delaware and 
Maryland in favour ofthe radicals (about 2,200,000 
to 1,800,000); two coloured deputies elected in 
Massachusetts . Oct.-Novy. 
Government policy declared to be “‘dead” | Nov. 
Meeting of congress; president’s message; he de- 
clares that he adheres to his policy 3 Dec. 
Bills to provide territorial governments in southern 
states; and restriction of president’s appointing 
powers proposed < so Dee: 
The president charged with being “ silent and mo- 
tionless ;” congress absorbs all 1 the power Dec. 
A bill admitting negroes to the suffrage in district 
of Columbia passed : 5 13 Dec. 
Veto of president set aside Jan. 
Supreme court decides that congr ess has not power 
to appoint military tribunals ~ ih Jan. 
Impeachment of president by a judicial committee 
agreed to 2 7 dan. 
Division among the radicals ; Stevens successfully 
opposed by Ashley 29 Jan. 
Debt of the United States reported 2, 543,000,000 
dollars t Feb. 
Nebraska admitted as the 37th state, over presi- 
dent’s veto . g Feb. 
Bill for establishing military gover nment on the 


southern states, divided into five districts, dis- 
cussed 13-15 Feb. 
Modified and passed, 20 Feb.; vetoed by ina pa 
dent ‘ 28 Feb. 
Mr. Peabody gives 1,000,000 dollars to promote 
education in “the south E r - - Feb. 
4oth congress opened 4 March, 


Supplementary reconstruction bill for the south 
passed . : : 20 March, 
Tenure of Office act passed . 5 P March, 
Russian America pure hased for 7,000,000 dollars ; 
treaty ratified by the senate . g April, 
**Protection” rife: taxation on British manufac- 
tures 80 per cent.; much smuggling; public debt 
not diminishing; many strikes amongst opera- 
tives . . April, 
Jefferson Davis released on bail, 13 May; pro- 
ceeded to New York, and thence to Canada, 
20 May, 
Supplementary reconstruction bill adopted over 
the president’s veto - 15 July, 
Long trial of John H. Suratt, for complicity in 
assassination of president Lincoln; jury not 
agreed on verdict (discharged, 6 Nov. 1868), 
ro Aug. 
Insubordination of gen. Sheridan, favoured by 
Edw. Stanton, secretary of war, who refuses to 
resign at the requisition of the president, 5 Aug.; 
suspended; succeeded by gen. Grant 12 Aug. 
General amnesty proclaimed by the president, 
9 Sept. 
Removal of gen. Sheridan from the government of 
Louisiana, and of Sickles from N. Carolina, for 
insubordination to the president Aug. -Sept. 
National cemetery at Antietam (which see) dedi- 
cated in presence of the president 17 Sept. 
Sir Fred. Bruce, British ambassador, died at Boston, 


9 Sept. 
Russian America ceded to a eee Oct. 
Jefferson Davis’s trial adjourned . 26 Nov. 


Elections in the south give supremacy to the ne- 
groes; in the north, great majorities for the 
democrats ; Oct.-Nov. 

President’s message, maintaining his principles on 
reconstruction . F ‘ 4 . 3 Dec: 


1866 


»” 


%” 


Revenue of the states fallen off; public debt about 
520,000, 0001. Dec. 
Proposed impeachment of the president ‘negatived 
in congress (108 to 57) "8 Dee. 
Treaty for purchase of Danish West Indies (St. 
Thomas and St. J Spe for 7,500,000 dollars, 
signed . Dec. 
Great general storm of snow and sleet: many 
perish ; many wrecks : . xx-15 Dec. 
President Johnson censured ; and gen. Sheridan 
thanked by house of representatives (see ene. 
1867) 4 
Taner al Grant replaced by Stanton (by the senate), 
14, 15 Jan. 
The house of representatives declare that there is 
no valid government in the south; and transfer 
the jurisdiction from bree Johnson to Past 
as general of the army 1 Jan. 
Great commercial depression ; Mr. Wells, the ronan 
commissioner, recommends ** peace, retrench- 
ment, and reform” Jan. 
The inland cotton tax repealed : about 1 Feb. 
Edward Thornton, new British ambassador, and 
Charles Dickens received by the president 7 Feb. 
Angry correspondence between the president and 
gen. Grant : 28 Jan.-14 Feb. 
President Johnson orders ‘dismissal of Stanton, 
and appoints gen. Thomas secretary of war, 2r 
Feb.: declared illegal by the senate. _ 22 Feb. 
The impeachment of the president voted by honse 
of representatives (126 to 47), 24 Feb.; reported 
at the bar of the senate by Thaddeus Stevens and 
Bingham ; +?) 25.Kem 
Nine articles of impeachment (for i issuing St for 
removal of E. M. Stanton from war-office, and 
following proceedings) adopted by representa- 
tives (127 to 47). . 2 March, 
Bill of impeachment of Johnson sent up to the 
senate by the house of representatives, 4 March, 
Judicious speech of lord Stanley in the British 
house of commons on the Alabama claims, 


186 


” 


” 


9? 


6 March, 
Trial of president Johnson comes before the senate, 
23 March, 
Impeachment opened by gen. Butler 30 March, 


My. Dickens sails from New York, after most affec- 
tionate parting : : . 22 April, 
National republican convention at Chicago; an- 
nounce their ‘‘ platform”; approving the ‘con- 
gress reconstruction policy; severely condemning 
president Johnson; denouncing repudiation of 
the debt; declaring for protection of naturalised 
citizens, &c., 20 May; and proposing general 
Ulysses Grant as the next president, and Mr. 
Colfax as vice-president 21 May, 
The senate reject the r1th article of the impeach- 
ment . 16 May, 
Reject 2nd and ard articles ; and adjourn sine die; 
intense excitement among republicans, 26 May, 
Mr. Stanton resigns, 27 May ; ; succeeded by gen. 
Schofield . é : 30 May, 
Death of the ex-president James ; Buchanan, zr June, 
Chinese embassy received by the president, 5 June, 
Bill for re-admitting North and South Carolina, 
Georgia, Louisiana, Florida, and Alabama, to 
representation in congress, passed by the senate, 


rr June, 

Mr. Reverdy Johnson nominated ambassador to 
Great Britain : - I2dune, 
Arkansas re-admitted over the president’s veto, 
20 June, 


The democratic convention nominate Horatio Sey- 
mour for president, and Francis P. Blair for vice- 
president . 4—7 July, 

General amnesty (with exceptions) issued a July, 

Wyoming territory organised . a : uly, 

Act for protection of naturalised citizens “alton 
passed. ‘ ‘ . 

Thaddeus Stevens dies . é 

Total debt declared, 2 ,641,002, 572 dollars . 

General Ulysses Gr ant, elected 18th president 3 Noy. 

General Sheridan’s victory over insurgent Indians ; 
a village burnt . . 27 Noy. 

Any repudiation of debt renounced by the house of 
representatives (154 to 6) . ‘ i mw Dee: 

General pardon issued . 25 Dec, 

Cornell university (which see) founded. P é 


we we we 


’ 


UNITED STATES. 


NITED STATES. 


vention respecting Alabama claims signed by 
wd Clarendon and Mr. Reverdy Johnson, 14 Jan. 
secution of Jefferson Davis dropped; a nolle 
rosequi entered . é : 3 2 = 6 Feb. 
lian war reported over . : 3 } Feb. 
ibama treaty rejected by committee of senate, 
18 Feb. 
frage bill, abolishing all distinctions of race, 
olour, and property, passed. s 21 Feb. 
neral Schenk’s bill, declaring that all national 
bligations shall be paid in coin, passed 3 March, 
journment of goth congress; meeting of 41st 
ongress ; gen. Grant assumes office . 4 March, 
1enk’s bill for cash payments passed by senate, 
15 March, 
nvention respecting Alabama claim rejected by 
he senate . F : ; : P 13 April, 
in Lothrop Motley appointed minister at London, 
April, 
turalisation treaty with Great Britain ratified by 
enate . é - é : a cS April, 
sat peace jubilee held at Boston; colossal con- 
ert (10,371 voices, 1094 instruments, with anvils, 
yells, &c.) began ; 4 15 June, 
n. Pitt Fessenden, financier, died 8 Sept. 
am-boat, Stonewall, burnt on the Mississippi ; 
bout 200 persons perish 2 : « 27 Oct. 
se-trade agitation prevalent « Oct.—Dee. 
m. Charles Stewart, “‘ old iron-side,” aged 92, died 
: 6 Nov. 
rrespondence respecting Alabama claims, We. 
yetween lord Clarendon and Mr, Hamilton Fish 
June—Oct. 1869), published . : Dec. 
newal of the reciprocity treaty with Canada re- 
ected by congress x ; ‘ : 13 Dee. 
8. corvette Oneida sunk by collision with British 
P. & O. steamer Bombay; 112 lives lost, 24 Jan. 


ipt. Eyre, of the Bombay, severely censured for 
not waiting to give succour. ] 


rien canal scheme approved by congress, Jan. ; 
treaty signed . : 7 ’ : . 26 Jan. 
ince Arthur presented to president Grant, 24 
Jan. ; attended Mr. Peabody’s funeral 8 Feb. 
rginia (15 Jan.) and Mississippi re-admitted to 
congress . F 5 : , c Feb. 
ll for purchase of St. Thomas’s isle rejected by 
senate . : ; : : : . 23 March, 
xas (15 Mar.) and Georgiare-admitted to congress, 
20 April, 

r amendments of the constitution, negroes ad- 
mitted to equal rights with whites April, 
1e tariff bill opposed by freetraders . . . May, 
on-recognition of Cuba affirmed A June, 
neoln state (out of New Mexico) constituted, 
June, 

rong opposition to Chinese immigration ; citizen- 


ship refused by the senate July, 
Imiral J. A. Dahlgren died . y) xr2 or 13 July, 
ssion of congress closed . r : 15 July, 
L. Motley, minister to Great Britain, recalled, 
July, 

ew tariff bill passed (new rates take effect, 1 Jan. 


1871) . ; p : 3 2 : . Prins 
dmiral David Farragut died, aged 70 14 Aug. 
rict neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war pro- 
claimed . = A : i F ; Aug. 
nator Oliver P. Morton accepts the embassy to 
Great Britain . i oe 23 Sept. 
reat loss of life and property through floods in 
Virginia and Maryland, end of Sept.-2 Oct. 
otal debt, 2,346,913,645 dollars . 5 F Oct. 
tal public debt, the principal and interest, 
2,346,913,652 dollars ‘ ’ : ~ 3. Oct. 
reat reduction of the heavy internal taxation 


begins. : ; 3 : : baat £.OCE. 
ovement against the Mormons on account of their 
polygamy . : 4 x : «f0-OCt, 
eeting of the southern convention at Cincinnati 
for political and commercial affairs - 4 Oct. 
eneral Robert Lee dies, aged 62 . 12 Oct. 


resident Grant issues a proclamation against 
Fenianism, and attacks on Cuba 13 Oct. 
r. Morton declines the embassy to Britain for 
party reasons . : % about 25 Oct. 
he republican majority in the congress greatly 
reduced by the ‘‘fall” election (the first in which 
all races are duly represented) : P Nov. 


> 


Gen. Cox, secretary of interior, dismissed ; quarrel 
between him and the president _ 2 
Total debt, 2,334,308,494 dollars. 3 1 Dec. 
Annual message of the president: he regrets 
failure of proposal for annexing St. Domingo; 
and of the non-settlement of the Alabama claims ; 
and complains of Canadian aggression 5 Dec. 
Population: 33,581,680 whites ; 4,879,323 coloured ; 
Indians, 25,733; Chinese, 63,196; Japanese, 55; 
total, 38,549,987. : : : : - Dec. 
Mr. Motley terms his recall ‘‘an outrage” —_7 Dec. 
Gen. Robert Schenck appointed minister in Lon- 
don; accepts . : A . : 7) 21, Dee. 


New tariff in operatior : . r Jan. 
George Ticknor, historian, dies . 26 Jan. 


Statue of Abraham Lincoln in the capitol at Wash- 


ington, unveiled . ; ; 3 q 25 Jan. 
42nd congress meets (senate, 47 republicans; 15 
democrats) . : : ; : . 4 March, 
Proclamation against the Ku Klux in N. Carolina, 
5 March, 


Commission to settle disputes with Great Britain 
respecting the Alabama, &c., fishery question, and 
the San Juan affair: for the British, the earl de 
Grey (since marquis of Ripon), sir Stafford North- 
cote, and others; for the Americans, secretary 
Fish, gen. Schenck, and others; announced ro 
Feb. ; meet at Washington, 27 Feb. ; sign treaty, 
agreeing to arbitration at Geneva, &. (see Ala- 
bama, and San Juan), 8 May ; ratified, 26 May, 

General Schenck warmly received at Liverpool, 

3 June, 

An American fleet, accompanied by English and 
French and German ships, arrives at Corea to 
conclude a treaty for protection of mariners; on 
attempting to explore the island the Europeans 
are assailed from masked batteries ; the Corean 
forts are then attacked and destroyed ; and nego- 
tiations renewed . x : e ; . June, 

Formation of the ‘‘new departure ” democrat party 
advocating perfect freedom of all males irrespec- 
tive of race and colour, full political restoration 
of the southern states, and free trade ; about July, 

Chicago destroyed by fire; great exertions to re 
lieve the sufferers ; see Chicago ; about 2000 lives 
lost by fires in N. W. forests . . 8-11 Oct. 

Col. Hodge, paymaster of the regular army, con- 
fesses great defalcations since 10 Sept. 1864; con- 
demned to long imprisonment . : a NOV: 

European and North American railway opened at 
Bangor, Maine, by lord Lisgar and gen. Grant, 

18 Oct. 

Dispute between the U.S. foreign minister, Hamil- 
ton Fish, and the Russian envoy Katakazy (for 
undue interference); Katakazy dismissed Nov. 

Grand duke Alexis of Russia warmly received at 


New York. c : - 2 : . 18 Nov. 
Congress opened ; president in his message refers to 
peace abroad and prosperity at home . 4 Dec. 


Formal meeting of the Alabama arbitration commis- 
sion at Geneva (adjourned to 15 June) . 18 Dec. 
Gen. Halleck died . : . : 5 +) can. 
General amnesty bill passed - 2 . 16 Jan. 
American case under the treaty of Washington ; 
claims indirect damages by Alabama and other 
vessels ; much excitement in England Jan. 
Despatch from the British minister sent 2 Feb. ; 
reply received (not divulged to parliament), 14 
March ; further correspondence (see Alabama), 
March, April, 
Formation of Yellowstone National Park (which see) 
authorised by congress . : March, 
Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, 
nominated president by many republicans, 
May, 
New tariff, reduced duties to begin from 1 Ari: ; 
passed a : : : : June, 
General Grant nominated for re-election as president 
by the republicans at Pennsylvania 6 June, 
Continued negotiations respecting the Alabama 
affair, May; nothing settled ; congress adjourns 
to December . ; é A ‘ Io June, 
Dispute with Spain respecting unjust imprison- 
ment of Dr. Howard, an American citizen, in 
Cuba since 13 Dec. 1870; settled; Dr. Howard 


released . : : Z : ; June, 
Formation of straight-out democrat party, about 
June, 


Nov. 1870 


9 


? 


” 


UNITED STATES. 878 UNITED STATES. 
Great international musical peace jubilee at Boston, they depose, 15 Sept. ; they submit to the presi- 
17 June—4 July, 1872 dent; and Kellogg is restored - 18 Sept. 12: 
Coalition between the democrats and the liberal Great fire at Fall River cotton mills, Mass., about 
republicans at Baltimore to support Greeley, 60 lives lost 19 Sept. _,, 
to July, ,, Reported massacre of whites by Indians tg N.W. 
Trial of Edward 8. Stokes for murder of James provinces. - Octo 
Fisk of the Erie Ring (see New York, 1872), The Republic, new government paper, started 4 Ocha. 
isJuly, ,, |'Lineoln monument, Springfield, Illinois, inaugu- — 
United States squadron at Southampton, Rp arem rated . 275 Oct. 
visited by the prince of Wales . 3 Augi>) 5; Triennial convention of the episcopal church ; canon 
Judge Barnard convicted of corruption, and remnovei passed against ritualism 3 g Oct., 
from office and disqualified 9 Aug. . 5, Majority for democratic party in elections for con- 
The ‘‘straight-out democrats” nominate Charles gress reported ub OV 
O’Connor for president ~ Sept. 355 President Grant’s message, moderate 7 Dec. 5, 
Announcement of the award ‘of the Geneva arbitra- The senate passes a bill for the resumption of cash 
tion on the Alabama, &c. (about 3,229,166l.) Sept. ,, payment, 1 Jan., 1879 Decay, 
Wm. Henry Seward, statesman, died to Oct. ,; Disturbances in New Orleans : government troops _ 
The emperor of Germany, arbitrator in the San eject conservative members from the legislative 
Juan difficuity, awards the isiand to the United assembly as unduly elected . 4 Jan. 18 


States . 23 Oct. 
Total debt of the States, : 2 276, 828, 101 dollars, I a NOE: 
Gen. Grant re-elected president (by 300 electoral 

votes ; 68 for Greeley) 5 Nov. 
Death of Horace Greeley, aged 6r 29 Nov. 
Sergeant William Bates walked from Gretna “Green 

to London, carrying the American flag; warmly 

received everywhere (the feat originated in a 

wager); arrived 29 Nov. ; rode through London to 

Guildhall. 30 Nov. 
Gen. Grant in his message ‘says “that the results of 

the arbitration leave Great Britain and the United 

States without a shadow ys their friendly rela- 

tions . ez ec: 
Modoc Indians, near Oregon, defeat troops ge. to 

expel them Jan. 
Visit of professor Ty mdall; he lectures in eae 
Philadelphia, Washington, New York, &c., 
Sept. 1872—Feb. 
Vice-president Colfax accused of perjury Feb. 
Civil war in Louisiana, fighting at New Orleans, 
Feb. 
The congress opened, great Credit Mobilier scandal, 
members accused of bribery March, 
Death of chief justice Chase . : 7 May, 
General Canby and others massacred (see Modaons. 
1x April; capt. Jack and others captured; end 
of the war 1J une 
Hiram Powers, sculptor ‘of “ the Greek Slave,” 
died at Florence . 27 June, 
Steamer Wawasset takes fire on the Potoniee. about 

70 perish . 8 Aug. 
Cash payments (in ‘silv er) resumed . 28 Oct. 
Great excitement through the execution of Ameri- 

cans taken in the Virginius (see Cuba) Noy. 
Public debt (less money in treasury) 2,141,833, 476 

dollars (about 4s. gold per dollar) 1 Nov. 
President Grant’s message : (calm) 2 Dec. 
Great deficiency in the revenue (about 17,000, 000l. ) 

announced . Dee. 
Alex. H. Stephens, the gr eat confederate leader, re- 

turns to political life ‘and the legislature Dec. 
Women’s whisky-war in 8. Ohio : endeavour to sup- 

press the liquor trafiic by prayers, singing, &c., 

opposite the shops, Feb. : in New York” 27 Feb. 
Ex-president Fillmore died . A 8 March, 
Charles Sumner, senator, died. Ir March, 
Women’s whisky -war resisted ; March, 

April, 
President Grant’s veto of the currency bill for creat- 
ing inconvertible paper money, advocated by the 

Butler party : - 22 April, 
Total debt, 2,285,786, 818° 89 dollars 1 Aug. 
Fierce white and black riots at Austin, Mi ississippi, 

Soom by the military (after loss of x 5 lives) 

12 Aug. 
Great excitement respecting the Beecher- Tilton 
scandal; the rev. H. Beecher, a great preacher, 
accused of adultery with Mrs, Tilton, July ; ac- 
quitted by a committee of his church. 27 Aug. 
Pennsylvania Republican Convention choose go- 
vernor John F, Hartranft for next president 
Aug. 
Insurrection of negroes at Trenton, Tennessee ; sup- 
pressed ; leaders hanged "Aug. 
Centenary "of the meeting of delegates at Philadel- 
phia celebrated . Sept. 
Insurrection of whites at New Orleans against R. 
D. Kellogg, the governor of Louisiana, whom 


subsides 


? 


New York, Boston, and other cities orotate the 
president’ s excuse in his message "Jan 
Senate rejects new reciprocity treaty with Cain 


4 Feb. 
Colorado and New Mexico to be made States es 
Civil rights (of negroes) bill passed Feb. 
The 44th congress comes into office, 4 March ; (to 
meet on 6 Dec. ye 
Centenary of battle of Lexington celebrated 
9 April 
Centenary of battle of Bunker’s hill célobratoan : 
June 
Trial of Tilton v. Beecher ends: jury disagree $ 
discharged 5 uly, 
Andrew J fohnson, ex-president, ‘dies a July, 
Democratic conventions of New York declare in 
favour of hard money and resumption of cash 
payments 16 Sept. 
John McCloskey, R. C. archbishop of New York, 
made the first North American cardinal, received 
in his church at Rome . 30 Sept. 
President Grant, in addressing the ‘Tennessee army 
in Iowa, protests against Roman catholic aggres- 
sion . 30 Sept. 
Democratic inflationists defeated at relantions for 
governor in Ohio and lowa about 12 Oct. 
Virginia city destroyed by fire (see Nevada) 26 Oct. 
State official elections give large majority for repub- 
licans . . about 2 Nov. 
President Grant’s message } alludes to attacks on 
and defends unsectarian "education ; notices un- 
satisfactory state of Cuba, and hints at ultimate 
intervention 7 Dee. 
Centennial year begun ‘with great demonstrations 
at Philadelphia, Ke. ; : 1 Jan. 
General Babcock, secretary to president, acquitted 
of complicity in ‘* Whisky frauds ;” (resigned) 
24 Feb. 
Mr. Belknap, secretary at war, accused of sallline 
official places ; resigns ; impeached by congress 
2 March, 
General Schenck, minister in London, charged with 
eomplicity in ‘‘ Emma Mine frauds ;” resigns and 
proceeds to America; R. H. Dana, appointed in 
his room (opposed) ; John Walsh appointed next; 
John Walsh comes - March, et seq. 
Salary of next president proposed to be reduced 
from 50,000 to 25,000 dollars March, 
Increased opposition to Chinese immigration, March, 


Dana’s appointment as British minister rejected by — 


the senate -. . about 5 April, 
Lincoln monument, Washington ; (erected by co- 
loured people) ; unveiled 4 Bree ko. sind. 
Other scandals in government offices reported April, 
The president vetoes the bill for reduction of presi- 
dent’s salary . . 19 April, 
Issue of silver coin for small notes . ‘ . May, 
Dispute with Great Britain respecting the extradi- 
tion of Winslow, an American forger March-May, 
Mr. Pierrepoint, attorney-general, nominated minis- 
ter for London . 5 May 
International exhibition opened ‘(see Philadelphia) 
to May, 
Political conferences at Philadelphia urge reforms 
May 
Governor Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, nominated 
president, and Wm. A. Wheeler vice-president, by 
the republican convention, Cincinnati 16 June, 
The arrangements for surrendering fugitive crimi- 


UNITED STATES. 


ls in the treaty of 1842 nullified by the release 
Winslow and Brent (see Extradition). June, 
sral Custer and his army attack the Sioux In- 
ans, fall into an ambuscade, and are nearly all 
led . : : r a : . 25 June, 
Tilden nominated president by the democratic 
nvention, St. Louis > - : 29 June, 
jenary of the foundation of the republic 4 July, 
sacre of negro militiamen by whites at Ham- 
ig, 8S. Carolina, 9 July; 53 whites indicted for 


finder:. : : 3 : . . Aug. 
Belknap’s case in the senate: 35 vote him 
lty of official corruption; 25 not; acquittal 

1 Aug. 
th of gen. Braxton Bragg . Sept. 


president’s proclamation ‘against unlawful com- 
nations (of whites) in 8. Carolina 17 Oct. 
declines to receive a centennial address from 
ish home-rulers : F seOCk 
ition of electors for the president 7g INOY. 
rnational Exhibition at Philadelphia closed 
to Nov. 

sident Grant’s message; he declares the elec- 
ral system to have failed . : 5 Dec. 
‘tion for president by delegates; Mr. Tilden, 
'4; Mr. Hayes, 185; (some votes challenged) 
6 Dec. 

. of dispute with the British Government an- 
yunced (see Extradition) . 3 . Dec. 
storal tribunal (to settle the election for presi- 


ant) chosen in congress ‘ > . 30 Jan. 
sident in his message urges a speedy return to 


ish payments. F ees : 3 Feb. 
R. B. Hayes’ election confirmed ; Mr. Wm. A. 
‘heeler, vice-president, 2 March; sworn, 4 March ; 
augurated ; in his message he professes impar- 
al devotion to the public good, 5 March; and 
rms an impartial ministry . , March, 
.. Grant visits Britain. . 28 May et seq. 
‘olly Maguire,” murderous terrorist rioters in 
ennsylvanian cCoal-fields; subdued; several 
cecuted . x c . : . June, 
ke of railway servants on Baltimore and Ohio 
uilway through reduced pay; violent riots in 
Vest Virginia ; reign of terror; successful resis- 
ince to the military ; many killed and wounded 
t Pittsburg; held by rioters; sheriff killed ; 
amnon used : ; : 5 . 16-22 July, 
ke extending to New York railways (not in New 
ingland) : : 3 z é 24 July, 
b (many foreign communists) beaten by military 
t Chicago(rs5 killed, about 100 wounded), 25 July 
1. Sheridan sent to Pittsburg, 22 July ; damage 
pout 8,000,000l. ; tranquillity restored about 


4 Aug. 
ith of Brigham Young. ys 29 Aug. 
ieral movement for the rights of labour during 
he year. 


isident Hayes warmly received in the south, Sept. 
‘mation of a Cuban league on behalf of insur- 
ents, announced . - : é 3 Sept 
position to the president in Ohio, and other 
tates ; in elections s 5 : : Oct. 
2 new congress opened (democratic majority in 
he house of representatives; gaining in the 
enate) ; Sam. J. Randall, democrat, re-elected 
peaker 15 Oct. 


ny suspicious failures of commercial companies 
; Sept., Oct. 


md others . 4 : ; 

duction of the federal army from 25,000 t0 20,000 
‘oted by congress, refused by senate Oct., Nov. 
ti-resumption bill passed by house of represen- 
atives p 4 A ; 3 23 Nov. 
»sident Hayes’ message ; recommends resumption 
if cash payments on 1 Jan. 1879 ; pacification of 
he south ; good treatment of the negroes, 3 Dec. 
e government defeated in the senate by Conkling 
md party ; opposing civil service reform, cash 
yayments, Kc. : : A pyere ec: 
ind’s ‘‘ silver bill,” making silver the standard 
nstead of gold ; (injurious to fundholders, &c.,) 
yassed by senate, veto of the president, (specie 
yayments in silver to be resumed 1 Jan. 1879 5), 
lollar 4124 grains said to be 8 per cent. less value 
than gold. ; ; : : ~ 16 Feb. 
mmittee appointed to investigate charges of cor- 
tuption against boards returning delegates to 
elect the president . ‘ “ . June, 


3 


879 


1876 


>” 
1877 


»”> 


UNITED STATES. 


Gen. Butler secedes from the republicans, and 
joins a new “ National party” connected with 
Kearney, a violent agitator from California ; 
(they are popularly termed ‘‘Greenbackers,” as 
contending for soft money, and opposing return to 
cash payments) . : « ; Aug. et seq. 

Desire expressed for a new reciprocity treaty with 
Canada . . : ; : ug. 

American association meet at St. Louis . 21 Aug. 

Many deaths by yellow fever in southern states 

Aug., Sept., Oct. 

Autumn elections (mostly on 5 Nov.) . : é 

46th congress elected ; 149 democrats, 130 repub- 


licans, ro greenbackers . : i Nov. 
President’s address to congress expresses gratitude 
‘¢ for countless blessings” . é 5 2 Dec. 
Gold at par (rst time since 1862) “ s Io Dec. 

Resumption of cash payments ; no great demand 
2 Jan. 


Death of Caleb Cushing, U.S. minister at Madrid ; 
aged about 79 —ti«r “ ° . “ 11 Jan. 
Meeting of 46th congress . - 5 4 March, 
Great emigration of negroes from the southern to 
the western states. x March, April, 
30,000,000l. 5 per cents converted into 4 per cents 
at par . - : , . “ 
Mr. John Walsh, minister in London, resigns, July ; 
leaves England [succeeded by James Russell 
Lowell the poet] . ; . r s tg Aug. 
‘‘ Knights of Labour,” a secret society for protec- 
tion and advancement of workmen, prevalent in 
the middle states “ : 
Largest grain crops for many years e 


autumn, 


Public debt, 2,027,202,452 dollars : ee OCbe 
Elections specially favour republicans . Oct. 
Much distress of freed negroes in Kansas, &c. 1 Jan. 


The republican convention at Chicago choose gen. 
Garfield and Mr. Arthur as president and vice- 
president, 9 June ; the democratic convention at 
Cincinnati choose gen. Winfield Scott Hancock 
and Wm. H. English ; : 5 24 June, 

Gen. Garfield sets forth his proposed policy in a 
letter ; says, ‘‘ We legislate for the people of the 
United States, not for the whole world ;” proposes 
a check for Chinese immigration, &. . 12 July, 

97,000 Office holders said to be liable to change Aug. 

Public debt reduced to 1,915,594,813 dollars 1 Oct. 

Gen. Garfield elected president ; Mr. Chester A. 
Arthur vice-president (213-156) .« 2 Nov. 

Treaty with China i . - . 27 Nov: 

Dispute between the president and senator Conk- 
ling respecting appointment of collector of cus- 
toms at New York ; Conkling resigns May, 

Attempted assassination of president Garfield by 
Charles Jules Guiteau, a lawyer of Chicago, at 
railway station, Washington ; two pistol shots ; 
ball enters the body . A 5 2 July, 

Destructive forest fires in Michigan; about 500 
persons perish ; 10,000 homeless . Sept. 

General Garfield, after much suffering, died 19 Sept. 

Queen Victoria’s message to Mrs. Garfield : ‘ Words 
cannot express the deep sympathy I feel with 
you at this terrible moment. May God support 
and comfort you, as He alone can”. 20 Sept. 

After lying in state at Washington the general is 
buried at Cleveland, in Ohio 7 23 Sept. 

Court mourning in Great Britain . 21—28 Sept. 

334,000 dollars collected for Mrs. Garfield ae es 

30 Sept. 

Centenary of the capture of Yorktown celebrated 
(English flag saluted) 16 Sept. et seq. 

Mr. Blaine’s letter to the European powers asserting 
the treaty respecting neutrality at Panama in 
1846 to be sufficient, and protesting against their 


interference . : “ < * 4 es.Ock 
The hon. Sackville West, the new British minister, 
warmly received at Washington 3 . 4 Nov. 
Guiteau’s trial begins = é 6 14 Nov. 
Meeting of Congress . A ; «5 Wecs 
Mr. Frelinghuysen succeeds Mr. Blaine as foreign 
minister . ; : 12 Dec. 


Guiteau in the prison van shot at by Wm. Jones ; 
his head grazed, 19 Nov. 1881; verdict, guilty 
25 Jan. 

Chinese immigration suspended for 20 years; bill 
passed by senate about ro March; vetoed by 
representatives, March ; by the president about 


4 April, 


April, . 


1882 


” 


UNITED STATES. 


880 - UNIVERSITIES. 


Bill abolishing polygamy passed 
Great floods in the west (see Mississipi). March, ,, 
United States constitution translated into Chinese 
by Tsai Sih Yung, completed . Rat ae hs AS 
Representatives pass immigration bill excluding 
Chinese for ten years . 2 : . 17 April, ,, 
Great strike of iron-workers (about 150,000) in 
Pennsylvania begun 1 June; goingon 13 July, ;, 
Meeting of masters at Pittsburg to organise resist- 
ance: : F -7dune, 5; 
Guiteau executed . : : : . goJune, ,, 
The Chinese exclusion act comes into operation 
4Aug. ,;, 
Act imposing a tax of 2s. per head (opposed by 
governinent) comes into operation . ; Aug. a 
One of only two copies of a life of general Garfield 
presented to queen Victoria; the other to Mrs. 
Garfield . 3 ‘ “ . 4 2 
End of the iron-workers’ strike - -about 12 Sept. _,, 
Robert E. Lee steamer burned on the Mississipi; 
about 20 deaths .' . ; : 29 Sept. ,, 
Elections greatly in favour of the Democrats 
7 Nov. 5; 
Death of Thurlow Weed, politician and journalist, 
aged about 85 5 . : 3 22 Nov. ;, 
Meeting of Congress; president’s address ; com- 
ments on financial prosperity ; recommends re- 


duction of taxation and tariff : ¢ 4 Deese a; 
Civil service reform bill adopted by the senate 
27 Dec. ;; 


Immigration, 1881, about 719,000—735,000 
Presidential succession bill passed 
National debt, net, 1,607,543,676 dollars 7 Wane, 
The marquis of Lorne visits Washington . 26 Jan. ,, 
Reduction in internal revenue and revision of the 
tariff by the senate and congress . . 9) Mareh,” 5; 
Last sitting of the congress . 5 4 Maren. 2., 
Great East River bridge, connecting New York and 
Brooklyn, opened . ‘ 4 24 Mays 95, 
Great strike of telegraph clerks in various states 
July, ends about 15 Aug. ,, 
Visit of chief justice Coleridge ; very warmly re- 
ceived : 3 : : Z . Sept.—Oct. ,, 
Gen. Sheridan succeeds gen. Sherman in command 
of the United States army . : Mepeniare oS 


Autumn elections ; favour republicans s JANovs >, 
The new congress meets Dee... “',; 


Death of Wendell Phillips, energetic abolitionist, 
aged 72 : é - 4 ' F 

Gxcitemont concerning the wreck of the Daniel 
Steinmann (see Wrecks); investigation 8 April, ,, 

Financial embarrassment of gen. Grant through 
endeavouring to support his son [relieved by 
government, 1885] . ; 3 ‘ - . May, .,, 

Mr. James G. Blaine and gen. Logan nominated 
republican candidates for the presidency and 
vice-presidency at Chicago, 6 June; great dis- 
satisfaction thereat . F : - _« June, ,, 

Meetings at New York, and other cities, about 

ar June, 55 

Colossal statue of Liberty, by Bartholdi, the gift of 
the French to the United States, delivered at 
Paris by M. Jules Ferry, 4 July ; 

Mr. Grover Cleveland, governor of New York, and 
Mr. Thomas A. Hendricks, nominated democrat 
candidates for the presidency and vice-presidency 
at Chicago . 5 ; : SIT Lek 2 1 WY eg 

Gen. Butler offers himself as people’s candidate 

TOLAN SE. ay 

Great strike of miners in Hocking valley, Ohio, on 
account of foreigners ; rioting . r Sept. et seq. ,, 

Governor Cleveland, president, and Mr. Hendricks, 
vice-president, elected (defeat of the oo ee 

4 NOV. 3) 

Roman Catholic plenary council at Baltimore 
(about 7o archbishops and bishops) openedg Nov.  ,, 

Cattle-men’s convention at St. Louis (see under 
Cattle) . . . : : . 18—22 Nov. ,, 

About 56,000,000 acres appropriated by the Home- 
stead act of 1862, up to 1880; announced 


23 March, 1882 


é 9 Jan, 1883 


. 4 Feb. 1884 


Jan. 1885 


Public indignation at the criminal explosions in_ 
London ; stringent dynamite bill introduced in 


the senate by government ‘ . 26 Jan. 1 
Public debt, 1,409,128,325 dollars, announced 
2 Feb. 


The Chinese expelled from California ; indemnity 
to be claimed by their government ; announced 


Feb. 
Memorial obelisk of George Washington, 555 feet 
high, at Washiagton, inaugurated - 21 Feb. \ 


President Cleveland installed amid great acclama- 
tions . 3 P r S ; . March, 
A new ministry ; secretary of state, Thomas F. 
Bayard . . 5 : : : - 4 March, 
Mr. Edward J. Phelps appointed U.S. minister in 
London, March; arrives at Southampton 16 May, 


PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


1789 & 1793. General George Washington, elected f 
president. 6 April. 

1797. John Adams. 4 March. 

1801 & 1805. Thomas Jefferson. 4 March. 

1809 & 1813. James Madison. 4 March. 

1817 & 1821. James Monroe. 4 March. 

1825. John Quincey Adams. 4 March. 

1829 & 1833. General Andrew Jackson. 4 March. 

1837. Martin Van Buren. 4 March. 

1841. General William Henry Harrison. 4 March. D 
4 April, succeeded by 

184r. John Tyler (formerly vice-president). 

1845. James Knox Polk. 4 March. 

1849. General Zachary Taylor. 4 March. Died 9g Ju 
1850, succeeded by the vice-president, 

1850. Millard Fillmore. 

1853. General Franklin Pierce. 4 March. 

1857. James Buchanan. 4 March. 

1861 & 1865. Abraham Lincoln. 4 March. Shot x14 Ap 
died 15 April, 1865; succeeded by vice-preside 

1865. Andrew Johnson. 15 April. 

1869 & 1873. Ulysses 8. Grant. 4 March. 


1877. Rutherford Birchard Hayes. 4 March. 
1881. Gen. James Abram Garfield. 4 March. 
», Gen. Chester A. Arthur. 19 Sept. 


1885. Grover Cleveland. 4 March. 
UNITY, see Christian. ; 
UNIVERSALISTS, who believe in the fi 


salvation of allmen. ‘This doctrine, declared in 
Talmud, and ascribed to Origen, about 230, 
advocated by other early fathers, but opposed 
St. Augustin, about 420; and condemned by the | 
general council at Constantinople, May, June, 5 
It was received by the Unitarians in the 17th e 
tury, and avowed by numerous clergymen of 1 
church of England. James Relly, who publisl 
his ‘‘ Union” in 1760, founded the sect of Univ 
salists in Britain; and John Murray, in Ameri 
about 1770. The sect barely exists in Britain, | 
flourishes in America. 


UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE (Plebdiscitui 
one of the six points of the charter (see Chartisi 
was adopted by the French in their constitution 
1791; and used in the election of their president 
1851, and of their emperor in 1852; and by - 
Italian States in voting for annexation to Sardi 
in 1860, 1861, 1866, and 1870. 


UNIVERSITIES. The most ancient 
Europe are those of Bologna, Oxford, Cambrid 
Paris, and Salamanca. In old Aberdeen was 
monastery, in which youths were instructed 
theology, the canon law, and the school philosop 
at least 200 years before the university and Kin 
College were founded; see Degrees. ‘The follow 
dates are generally given: 


Aberdeen founded . 5 . 1494 | Basle, Switzerland ; . 1460 | Breslau ; ‘ eyes > 
Abo, Finland A . . 1640] Berlin . . . 1810] Bruges, French Flanders . . 3 
Adelaide, Australia . ‘ . 1876} Berne . - . 1834] Brussels. ; ss 2 
Andrews, St., Scotland . 5 OUE4EE Caen, Normandy, 1436; revived  ; 


Bologna, Italy 
Bonn *,. . 
Bordeaux 
Bourges . 


Angers, chiefly law - 1364 
Anjou, 1349; enlarged . ey 
Athens A ‘ , . 1836 


Barcelona, revived. . natoat 


Besancon, Burgundy bad te L070 


; . 1116 | Cambridge, began about 635 (?); 
1784, 1818 revived : ‘ ‘ _£ 
: . 1472 | Cambridge, New England, pro- 
, 1465] jected ; ‘ ‘ ap 


Lal re 


n ” 


UNIVERSITIES. 881 URANUS. 

Jhristiania : : ~ « rérz| Kiel, Holstein ._ . ‘ - 1665| Perpignan . » 1349 
Jologne, in Germany, refounded 1385 | King’s College, London «which Perugia, Italy ; fo 307 
Jompostella, Spain i way Vee seeye 3 F - - . 182¢ | Petersburg, St., 1747; again . 1819 
Joimbra, Portugal. - 1279 | Konigsberg, Prussia . - 1544] Pisa, 1343; enlarged . ‘i LES2 
Jopenhagen | - 1476 | Leipsic, Saxony - 1409 | Poitiers . A é + 1431 
Jordova, Spain - 968} Leyden, Holland - 1575 | Prague : : : - 1348 
Jorfu . : : ea - 1823| Liege. ; - 1816 | Queen’s University (Ireland). . 1850 
Jracow, Poland, 700; revived . 1364] Lima, in Peru ; ‘ - 1614 | Rheims, rr45; enlarged - 1548 
Dijon, France. peg . - + 1722] Lisbon, 1290; removed to Coim- Rome : : F ¢ 1245 
Jillingen, Swabia 2 1505 bra : ; b : . + 1391 | Rostock, Mecklenburg + 1419 
Jole, Burgundy - 1422 | London University (which see) . 1826 | Salamanca : + 1239 
Jorpat : : . - 1632] Louvaine, Flanders, 926; en- Salerno : - £233 
Jouay, French Flanders - 1568} larged . 3 a : - 1426 | Salzburg. : 4 - 1623 
Jresden, Saxony P : - 1694 | Lyons, France 830, 1300 | Saragossa, Aragon - 1474 
Dublin (see Trinity College) . . 1591] Madrid : - 1836 | Seville : 7 E504 
Jublin College (catholic) . - 1851} Mantua , - . 1625 | Sienna. ; - 1380 
Jurham . : : - 1831] Marburg. : - 1527 | Siguenza, Spain - 507 
idinburgh, founded by James Mechlin, Flanders . - 1440 | Sorbonne, France » L253 

VI. : 5 ; : - + 1582] Melbourne, Victoria . - 1855 | Strasbourg 4 + 1538 
irfurt, Thuringia; enlarged . 1390] Mentz . , 3 - 1477| Stutgardt . ; - 1775 
arlangen . S Z é - 1743 | Milan : - ». 1565 | Sydney, N.S. W. + 1852 
ivora, Portugal . : - 1533 | Montpellier ; ‘ - 1289 | Toledo, Spain. - 1499 
Mlorence, Italy, enlarged - 1439 | Moscow, 1754; again - 1803 | Toulouse : - 1229 
*rankfort-on-the-Oder . - 1506} Munich 3 - 1826} Treves, Germany . 2 - 1473 
franeker . E 5 - 1585 | Munster - 1491 | Tiibingen, Wtirtemberg 2 1477 
fribourg, Germany - 1460] Nancy. - 1769 | Turin ‘ + 1405 
xeneva Es - 1368 | Nantes - 1460 | Upsal, Sweden + 1476 
shent - 1816} Naples - 1224] Utrecht, Holland . - 1634 
Flasgow - 1450] Orange . : - 1365] Valence, Dauphiné Sar ded. 
xOttingen i - 1735 | Orleans, France . - 1305 | Valencia . - 1209 
sranada, Spain . - 1537 | Oxford (sce Oxford) 879 | Valladolid - 1346 
aripswald = : é - 1547 | Paderborn F - 1592} Venice ~ Z : - 1592 
sroningen, Friesland . - 1614| Padua, Italy - - : -_ . 1228 | Victoria, N. England. . 1880 
Halle, Saxony - 1694 | Palenza, 1209; removed to Sala- Vienna . : 3 211305 
Harvard, U.S. - 1638; manca . : 3 a - 1249] Wales . - 1883 
Heidelberg - 1386] Palermo . . - 3 - 1447| Wittenburg - 1502 
Helmstadt . - 1575 | Paris, 792; renovated. - 1200{ Wiirtzburg . - 1403 
{Ingolstadt, Bavaria E5734 Lara n.. : - 1482/ Wilna - 1803 
[rish new F : - 1879} Pau. : é E - 1722} Zurich - 1832 
Jena, or Sala, Thuringia - 1547 | Pavia, 1360; enlarged . - 1599 


UNIVERSITIES OF OXFORD AND 
CAMBRIDGE. Royal commission appointed to 
inquire into their income and property, in 1872 ; 
reported in Oct. 1874, that the united income for 
1871, was {54,405/- 5s. 13d.; see Cambridge and 
Oxford. The Universities Act passed, 10 Aug. 
1877, appoints commissioners with power to make 
statutes and other provisions. 


UNIVERSITY BOAT-RACE. The contest 
between the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, 
at first near Oxford, afterwards on the river Thames, 
began 10 June, 1829, and has been annual since 
1856. In 1864, after 20 contests, the opposing 
parties were equal; but on 8 April, 1865, 24 March, 
1866, 13 April, 1867, 4 April, 1868, and 17 March, 
1869, Oxford won; the last time being the gth in 
succession. Cambridge won, 6 April, 1870, 1 April, 
1871, 23 March, 1872, 29 March, 1873, and 28 March, 
1874. Oxford won, March 20, 1875; Cambridge 
won, 8 April, 1876. Dead heat; neither won, 24 
March, 1877; Oxford won, 13 April, 1878; Cam- 
bridge won, aaa 1879; Oxford won on Monday, 
22 March, 1880; Friday, 8 April, 1881; Saturday, 1 
April, 1882; and Thursday, 15 March, 1883; Cam- 
bridge, Monday, 7 April, 1884; Oxford, Saturday, 
28 March, 1885. In the international boat-race 
between the universities of Oxford and Harvard, 
Massachusetts, U.S., Oxford won, 27 Aug. 1869. 


UNIVERSITY COLLEGE (London), see 
London University, and Oxford. 


UNIVERSITY EDUCATION (Ireland) 
Act, 42 & 43 Vict. c. 85, passed 15 Aug. 1879. It 
provides for the dissolution of the ‘* Queen’s Univer- 
sity,” and the foundation of the “ Royal University 
of Ireland,” the charter of which was signed by the 
queen, 19 April, 1880. 


DL NIVERSITY ELECTIONS, see Dodson’ s 
Ct. 


UNIVERSITY TEACHING, Society for 
its Extension formed in London, and supported by 
Cambridge, Oxford, and London universities ; great 
meeting for its support at the Mansion-house, 19 
Feb. 1879. Courses of lectures given in various 
parts of London, Oct. 1879. 

Proposed establishment of a settlement in east 

London, by university men of Oxford and Cam- 

bridge, to improve social condition May, 1884 


UNIVERSITY TESTS (Religious). A bill 
for their abolition was rejected by the lords, 19 July, 
1869, and 14 July, 1870; passed, and received royal 
assent, 16 June, 1871. A similar act for Trinity 
College, Dublin, was passed in May, 1873. In 
April, 1878, on trial it was affirmed, that an endew- 
ment with a religious test at Hertford college, 
Oxford, was valid. 


UNKNOWN TONGUES, sce JIrvingites, 


note. 


UNLEARNED PARLIAMENT, see Par- 


liament, 1404. 


UNSEAWORTHY SHIPS COMMIS- 
SION, see Seamen and Merchant Shipping Act. 


UPSAL (Sweden). The Swedish rulers were 
kings of Upsal till 1roor. The university was 
founded in 1476, by Sten Sture, the ‘ protector,” 
and opened 21 Sept. 1477. Celebration of founda- 
tion of university, Sept. 1877. 


URANIUM, a brittle grey metal discovered by 
Klaproth in 1789, in the mineral pitch-blende. It 
has lately been employed in the manufacture of 
glass for certain philosophical purposes. 


URANUS, a planet with eight satellites, was dis- 
covered by William Herschel, 13 March, 1781, first 
called Georgium Sidus, after George III.; next 
Herschel; and, finally, Uranus. It is about twice 

3 L 


URBANISTS. 


882 


UTRECHT. ¥ 


as distant from the sun as the planet Saturn, The 
anniversary of its first revolution (in 84 years 

days) since its discovery, was celebrated on 
20 March, 1865. Its perturbations led to the dis- 
covery of Neptune, in 1846. Uranus has 8 satel- 
lites; 6 discovered by Herschel, 2 in 1787, 2 in 
1790; 2 in 1794; and I by Lassell, and 1 by Struve, 
in 1847. 


URBANINSTS, see Clementines, and Clare. 


URBINO, the ancient Urbinum Hortense, 
central Italy, capital of a duchy created for 
Malatesta, 1474. It was treacherously seized by 
Cesar Borgia, 1502; captured by Julius II., 1503 ; 
and given to Borgia, 1504; given to Lorenzo de’ 
Medici by Leo X. 1516; after many vicissitudes re- 
covered by the duke Francesco, 1522; on the duke’s 
resignation annexed to the papal states, 1631; an- 
nexed to Italy, 1860. 


URGENCY, see Parliament, 1881. 
URICONIUM, see Wroweter. 


URIM AND _ THUMMIM, Licut Aanp 
PERFECTION (Exodus xxviii. 30), words con- 
nected with the breastplate worn by the high priest 
when he entered into the holy place, with the view 
of obtaining an answer from God (1490 B.C.). 


URSULINE NUNS (so called from St- 
Ursula), founded originally by St. Angela of 
eee | about 1537. Several communities existed 
in England; and some still exist in Ireland. 


URUGUAY, BANDA ORIENTALE, a republic 
in South America, formerly part of the vice-royalty 
of Buenos Ayres; declared its independence, 25 Aug. 
1825; recognised 4 Oct. 1828; constitution pro- 
claimed 18 July, 1830. Population in 1882 (esti- 
mated) 505,207. 


The president of the executive, G, A. Pereyra, 

elected in 1856; succeeded by B. P. Berro . - 1860 
Civil war broke out in consequence of the invasion 
of the ex-president, general Venancio Flores, 
26 June, 
The vice-president Aguirre became president, 
xt March, 
He refused to modify his ministry according to the 
desire of general Florés, who marched towards 
the capital . A ; . ‘ : June, 
Flores became provisional president. Feb. 
F. A. Vidal elected president t March, 
During an insurrection of the Blanco party (headed 
by Berro), at Montevideo, general Flores was 
assassinated; the troops remained faithful; in- 
surrection soon suppressed, and Berro shot, 
19 Feb, 1868 

Gen. Lorenzo Battle elected president. 1 March, ,, 
Blanco insurrection repressed, July, 1871; ended, 
Jan. 
Revolution at Montevideo; Ellazio’s government 
overthrown ; Pedro Varela provisional president, 


1863 
1864 


I 86 5 
1866 


1872 


about - - , : 15 Jan. 1875 
Col. L. Latorre president . 3 . iz March, 1876 
Dr. F. A. Vidal, president, 17 March 1880; died, 

gen. Maximo Santas. 2 ; xz March, 1882 


USEFUL KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY, 


see Diffusion. 


USES, STATUTE OF, 27 Hen. VIII. c. 10 
(1535-6) ; see Charitable Uses. 


USHANT, an island near Brest, N.W. France, 
near which two naval battles were fought between 
the British and French fleets. 


(x.) On 27 July, 1778, after an indecisive action of three 
hours, the French, under cover of the night, withdrew 
into the harbour of Brest. Admiral Keppel com- 
manded the English fleet; the count d’Orvilliers the 
French. The failure of a complete victory was attri- 
buted to admiral sir Hugh Palliser’s non-compliance 


. 


| enforced by Nehemiah, 


with the admiral’s signals. Palliser preferred article 
of accusation against his commander, who was trie 
and acquitted, and the charge against him declared t 
be ‘‘ malicious and ill-founded.” 

(2.) Lord Howe with 25 ships signally defeated th 
French fleet (26 ships, under Villaret-Joyeuse), takin; 
six ships of the line, and sinking one (the Vengewr*) 
x June, 1794. While the two fleets were engaged i 
this action, a large fleet of merchantmen, on th 
safety of which the French nation depended for it 
means of prosecuting the war, got safely into Bres 
harbour, which gave occasion to the enemy to clain 
the laurels of the day, notwithstanding their loss i 
ships, and in killed and wounded, which was ver 
great. The day was long termed in England th 
“‘olorious first of June.” 


USURY from a stranger was permitted to th: 
Jews, but forbidden from their brethren, 1491 B.c 
(Exod. xxii. 25. Deut. xxiii. 13.) This law wa 
5 B.C. (Neh. v.) Usury 
was prohibited by the English parliament, 1341 
Until the 15th century, no Christians were allowec 
to receive interest of money, and Jews were th¢ 
only usurers, and therefore often banished and per. 
secuted; see Jews. By the 37th of Henry VII 
the rate of interest was fixed at Io per cent., 1545 
This statute was repealed by Edward VI., but re. 
enacted 13 Eliz. 1570. For later legislation, se 
Interest. 


UTAH, a western territory of North America 
was organised 9 Sept. 1850; the capital, Great Sal 
Lake City, became the chief seat of the Jformonite: 
(which see). 


UTICA (N. Africa), an ancient Tyrian colony 
an ally of Carthage, named in the treaty with the 
Romans 348 B.c. Here Cato the younger, after th: 
defeat of the partisans of Pompey at Thapsus, com- 
mitted suicide, 46 B.c. Utica flourished greatly 
after the fall of Carthage, and was made a Romar 
city by Augustus on account of its favouring Juliu: 
Cesar. It suffered by the invasion of the Vandals 
439; and of the Saracens, about 700. 


UTILITARIANISM, termedsthe ‘“ greates 
happiness principle,’ the philosophy which pro. 
poses the attainment of the greatest happiness o 
the greatest number ; a doctrine ascribed to Priestley 
by Bentham. The doctrine is found in the writ. 
ings of Locke, Hartley, Hume, and Paley; bu 
was chiefly propounded by Jeremy Bentham in hi 
‘Introduction to the Principles of Morals anc 
Legislation,’ 1780-89, and by John Stuart Mill 
who died 9 May, 1873. Mill founded a smal 
“utilitarian society,’ in 1822. He took the name 
from an expression in Galt’s “Annals of the Parish.’ 


UTRAQUISTS, see Calixtins. 


UTRECHT (the Roman Trajectum ad Rhenum 
became the seat of an independent bishopric about 
695. ‘The last prelate, Henry of Bavaria, weary 0: 
his turbulent subjects, sold his temporal govern- 
ment to the emperor Charles VY. in 1528. The 
union of the Seven United Provinces began heré 
(see United Provinces) ; signed 23 Jan. 1579; 300th 
anniversary celebrated 23 Jan. 1879.e The treaty 0) 


* Various French histories, on the authority of thé 
French demagogue Barrére, state that the English had 
36 ships of the line, and the French only 26, and that 
the crew of the Vengeuwr sang the Marseillaise while the 
ship sank, displaying the tricolor flag. All this was 
denied in 1802, and disproved by rear-admiral Griffith iu 
Noy. 1838. The Vengeur surrendered to the British, 
who exerted themselves to save the crew. The Frenel 
statement was accepted by Alison, and at first by Carlyle, 
but afterwards contradicted by both. 


UTRECHT. 


883 


UXBRIDGE. 


Jtrecht, which terminated the wars of queen Anne, 
yas signed by the ministers of Great Britain and 
‘rance, and all the other allies, except the ministers 
f the empire, 11 April, 1713. This treaty secured 
he Protestant succession in England, the separation 
f the French and Spanish crowns, the destruction of 
he works of Dunkirk, the enlargement of the 
ritish colonies and plantations in America, and a 
ill satisfaction for the claims of the allies. Utrecht 
urrendered to the Prussians, 9 May, 1787; was 


acquired by the French, 18 Jan. 1795, and restored 
at the peace, 1814. 


UXBRIDGE (W. Middlesex). On 30 Jan. 
1645, commissioners met here to discuss terms of 
peace between Charles I. and the parliament; they 
separated without effect, 22 Feb. The latter re- 
quired absolute control of the army and navy, the 
abolition of the episcopacy, liturgy, &. Uxbridge 
murder, see Zria/s, Dec. 1884. 


ee 


co 


VACATIONS. 


VACATIONS, see Terms. 
VACCINATION (from Variola Vaccina, the 


cow-pox), discovered by Dr. Edward Jenner. He 
was born in 1749, and educated for the medical 
profession, partially under John Hunter. Having 
heard that milkmaids who had had the cow-pox 
never took the small-pox, he, about 1780, conceived 
the idea of vaccination. He made the first experi- 
ment by transferring to a healthy child on 14 May, 
1796, the pus from the pustule of a milkmaid who 
had caught the cow-pox from the cows. He an- 
nounced his success in a memoir published 1798, 
and vaccination, begun 21 Jan. 1799, soon became 
general, after much opposition. For this Dr. Jenner 
received 10,000/. from parliament, 2 June, 1802, and 
20,0007. in 1807. The first national institution for 
vaccination, the Royal Jennerian Institution, was 
founded 19 Jan. 1803. The emperor Napoleon 
valued Dr. Jenner so highly, that he liberated Dr. 
Wickham, when a prisoner of war, at Jenner’s re- 
quest, and subsequently whole families of English, 
making it a point to refuse him nothing that he 
asked. Vaccination, although much opposed, was 
practised throughout all Europe previously to 1816. 
Dr. Jenner died suddenly, 26 Jan. 1823. 
Royal Jennerian and London Vaccine Institution, 
founded . ; : : x : Bo ey Scher: 
The Vaccination act, 3 & 4 Vict. passed . 23 July, 1840 
Mr. John Badcock, of Brighton, began to inoculate 
cows with small-pox to produce new lymph for 
vaccination . : = : “ 5 about ,, 
An important blue-book, entitled ‘‘ Papers on the 
History and Practice of Vaccination,” edited by 
Mr. John Simon, was published by the board of 
health in. : a : : : . : 
A statue, subscribed for by all nations, was erected 
to Jenner’s memory in Trafalgar-square 30 April, 
Jt was removed to Kensington in : : ae 
Vaccination was made compulsory in England in 
1853, and in Ireland and Scotland ; hts 
A statue was erected by the French at Boulogne, 
and inaugurated . < - < rr Sept. 
These laws were consolidated and amended by 
30 & 31 Vict. c. 84, 12 Aug. 1867 (see Small-pox 
and Inoculation), and amended in. va Ae : 
Much opposition to vaccination; an anti-vaccina- 
tion society formed, 1870-71; a parliamentary 
commission appointed : : : 13 Feb. ,, 
A government bill respecting punishment for com- 
pulsory vaccination dropped . 5 A Aug. 
Vaccination direct from the cow or calf advocated 
and practised in Brussels, &c. . ; : 1879-81 
Successful vaccination of 68,900 sheep by M. Pas- 
teur of Paris : A : up to x Oct. 188z 
The Grocer’s company of London offer prize of 
toool. for a plan for propagating vaccine conta- 
cium apart from the animal body 30 May, 1883 
Great anti-vaccination demonstration at Leicester 
(nany persons had been fined) . 23 March, 1885 


VADIMONIS LACUS, the Vadimonian lake, 
Umbria, central Italy, near which the Etruscans 
were totally defeated in two severe engagements by 
the Roman consuls: 1, by Fabius Maximus, 309 B.c. ; 
2, by Cornelius Dolabella, 283. 


VAGRANTS. By law, after being whipped, a 
vagrant was to take an oath to return to the place 
where he was born, or had last dwelt for three 
years, 1530. A vagrant a second time convicted 
was to lose the upper part of the gristle of his right 
ear, 1535; a third time convicted, death. A vaga- 


1880 


VALLADOLID. 


bond to be branded with a V, and be a slave fo 
two years, 1547. If he absconded and was caught 
he was to be branded with S, and be a slav 
for life. Vagrants were punished by whipping 
gaoling, boring the ears, and death for a secon 
offence, 1572. The milder statutes were those o 
17 Geo. II.; 32, 35, and 59 Geo. III. The presen 
Vagrant Act (5 Geo. IV. c. 83) was passed in 1824 
There were about 33,000 tramps in England ani 
ees in 1865. For vagrants in London, see unde 
oor. 


VALDENSES, see Waldenses. 
VALENCAY, a chateau near Chiteauroux 


central France, where Napoleon I. imprisone: 
Ferdinand of Spain from 1808 to 1813. His king 
dom was restored to Ferdinand by a treaty signec 
8 Dec. 1813. 


VALENCIA CE. Spain), the Valentia Edeta: 
norum of the Romans, became the capital of ¢ 
Moorish kingdom, 1000; annexed to Aragon 1238 
Its university, founded, it is said, in the 13tl 
century, was revived in the 15th. Valencia wa: 
taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1705, bu 
submitted to the Bourbons after the unfortunat 
battle of Almanza, in 1707. It resisted the attempt 
made on it by marshal Moncey, but was taken fron 
the Spaniards with a garrison of more than 16,00 
men, and immense stores, by the French unde 
Suchet, 9 Jan. 1812. 


VALENCIENNES (N. France). This cit 
(the Roman Valentiane), after many changes, wai 
taken by Louis XIV. in 1677, and annexed 1678 
It was besieged from 23 May to 28 July, 1793, whet 
the French garrison surrendered to the allies unde 
the duke of York. It was retaken, together witl 
Condé, by the French, 27-30 Aug. 1794; on capitu 
lation, the garrison and 1100 emigrants were mad 
prisoners, with immense stores. 


VALENTIA, a Roman province, including th 
country between the walls of Severus and Adrian 
was reconquered from the Picts and Scots by Theo 
dosius, and named after Valentinian I. the reignin; 
emperor, 368. 


VALENTINE’S DAY (14 Feb.). Valentin 
is said to have been a bishop, who suffered martyr 
dom under Claudius II. at Rome; others say unde 
Aurelian, in 271. 618,000 letters passed throug! 
the post-office on & Feb. 1856. 3303300 was th 
estimated number of valentines delivered in 1864 
in 1870, 1,545,755. The origin of the ancien 
custom of ‘* choosing a valentine’? has been muc! 
controverted ; see Post. 


VALENTINIANS, followers of Valentine, 
priest, who, on being disappointed of a bishopric 
forsook the Christian faith, declaring there wer 
thirty gods and goddesses, fifteen of each sex, whic. 
he called ones, or Ages. He taught in the 2n 
century, and published a gospel and psalms: hi 
followers added other errors, 


VALLADOLID (Spain), the Roman Pinti 
and the Moorish Belad Walid: was recovered fo 
the Christians by Ordoijio II., the first king of Leon 
914-23. It became capital of Castile in the 15t! 


VALLOMBROSA. 


885 


VARNA. 


century. It was taken by the French Jan. 1808; 
and captured by the English, 4 June, 1813. Here 
died Christopher Columbus, 20 May, 1506. 


VALLOMBROSA (Central Italy). A Bene- 
dictine abbey was founded here by John Gualbert, 
about 1038. The monks were termed Vallam- 
brosians, 


VALMY (N.E. France). Here the French, 
commanded by Kellermann, defeated the Prussians, 
commanded by the duke of Brunswick, 20 Sept. 
1792. ‘The victory was of immense moral advan- 
tage to the republicans; and Kellermann was made 
duke of Valmy in 1808. 


VALOIS, a county (N. France) given by 
Philip III. to his younger son Charles, whose son 
Philip became king as Philip IV. in 1328; see 
France. 


VALOR ECCLESIASTICUS, a report of 
the annual value of church property, made by order 
in 1534, was published by the Record Commission 
in 1810-34. 


VALPARAISO, principal port of Chili, South 
America, was bombarded by the Spanish admiral 
Mendez Nuitiez, on 31 March, 1866, when much 
property was destroyed. It suffered by earthquakes 
In 1822, 1829, and 1851. 


VALTELLINE (\. Italy), a district near the 
Rhetian Alps, seized by the Grison league, 1512, 
and ceded to it, 1530. At the instigation of Spain, 
the catholics rose and massacred the protestants, 
19-21 July, 1620. After much contention between 
the French and Austrians, the neutrality of the 
Valtelline was assured in 1639. It was annexed to 
the Cisalpine republic in 1797; to Italy, 1807; to 
Austria, 1814; to Italy, 1860. 


VALUATION OF PROPERTY ACT, 
to provide for the uniform assessment of rateable 
property in the metropolis, was passed 9 Aug. 1869. 


VALVASOR (or “Vavasor”’). Camden 
holds that the “ Vavasor’’ was next below a baron. 
Du Cange maintains that there were two sorts of 
yavasors: the greater, who held of the king, such 
as barons and counts; and the lesser, called “ val- 
yasini,’ who held of the former, such as vassals 
holding land under a nobleman himself a vassal. 


VANADIUM (from Vanadis, the Scandina- 
vian Venus), metal discovered by Sefstrom, in 1830, 
combined with iron ore. A similar metal, dis- 
covered in lead ore by Del Rio in 1801, and named 
Firythronium, was proved by Wohler to be Vana- 
dium. Vanadium was discovered in the copper- 
bearing beds in Cheshire, in 1865, by H. E. Roscoe, 
by whom its peculiarities were further studied, and 
published in 1867-8. It is likely to be useful in 
photography and dyeing. 


VANCOUVER’S ISLAND, North Pacific 
ocean, near the main land. Settlements were made 
here by the English in 1781, which were seized by 
the Spaniards in 1789, but restored. By a treaty 
between the British government and that of the 
United States in 1846, this island was secured to 
the former. It has become of much greater im- 

ortance since the discovery of gold in the neigh- 

ouring main land in 1858, and the consequent 
establishment of the colony of British Columbia 
(which see). Victoria, the capital, was founded in 18 57: 
The island was united with British Columbia by 
act passed in Aug. 1866; and on 24 May, 1868, 
Victoria was declared the capital. Lord Dufferin, 
governor-general of Canada, was warmly received 


here, 15 Aug. 1876. See Juan, San. Chinese 
immigrants are virtually excluded by a poll-tax, 


1878. 
VANCOUVER’S VOYAGE. Captain Van- 


couver served as a midshipman under captain Cook, 
and was appointed to command during a voyage 
of discovery, to ascertain the existence of any 
navigable communication between the North Pacific 
and North Atlantic oceans. He sailed 7 Jan. 1791, 
and returned 24 Sept. 1795. .He compiled an ac- 
count of this voyage of survey of the north-west 
coast of America, and died in 1798. 


VANDALS, a Germanic race, attacked the 
Roman empire in the 3rd century, and began to 
ravage Germany and Gaul, 406-14; their kingdom 
in Spain was founded in 411; under Genseric they 
invaded and conquered the Roman territories in 
Africa, 429, and took Carthage, Oct. 439. They 
were subdued by Belisarius in 534. ‘They were 
driven out by the Saracen Moors. The dukes of 
Mecklenburg style themselves princes of the 
Vandals. 

VANDAL KINGS IN AFRICA. 
429. Genseric (see Mecklen- 496. Thrasimund. 
burg). 523. Hilderic. 
477. Hunneric, his son. 531. Gelimer. 
484. Gundamund. 


VAN DIEMEN’S LAND (called Tasmania 
since 1853), was discovered by Abel Jansen Tasman, 
24 Nov. 1642, and named after the governor of the 
Dutch East Indies. 


Visited by Furneaux, 1773; Cook é ; 


ot ee 
Proved to be an island by Flinders, who explored 


Bass’s Straits . : : : : F - 1799 
Taken possession of by lieut. Bower .. 2 jee ES0s 
Arrival of col. Collins, the first governor, with con- 

victs; Hobart Town founded : : . 1804 
Bishopric of Tasmania established . 1842 
Transportation abolished . : : : TeIOSS 
Visited by the duke of Edinburgh 7-18 Jan. 1868 
Population, 1857, 81,492; 1865, 95,201 (only 4 re- 

mained of the aborigines); 1870, 99,328; 1880, 

114,762. 

Col. Thos. Gore Brown, governor ot , ToOe 
Charles Ducane, governor . Aug. 1868 
Fred. Aloysius Weld, governor : : . 1874 
Gen. sir John Henry Lefroy, governor . 21 Aug. 1880 
Sir George C. Strahan, governor Dec. 188r 


VANGUARD, see Wrecks, 1875. 
VARANGIANS, orn VARAGIANS, a 


name given to northern pirates, who invaded 
Flanders, about 813; France, about 840; Italy, 
852. Their leader, Ruric, invited by the Novgo- 
rodians to help them, founded the Russian mon- 
archy, 862. 


VARENNES, 2 town in N.E. France, is cele- 
brated for the arrest of Louis XVI., his queen, 
sister, and two children. They fled from the 
Tuileries on 21 June, 1791; were taken here the 
next day, and conducted back to Paris, mainly 
through Drouet, the postmaster, who, at an inter- 
mediate town, recognised the king.: 


VARIABLE STARS. The variation of 
brightness in certain stars is said to have been first 
observed in a small star of Cetus, or the Whale, 
by Daniel Fabricius, 13 Aug. 1596. In Oct. of 
same year the star had vanished. Since then many 
similar variations have been observed by Goodricke, 
Herschel, and other astronomers; and Mr. Pogson 
has constructed a table of 38 variable stars. No 
satisfactory explanation has yet been given of the 
phenomena. ng. Cyc. 


VARNA, 2 fortified seaport in Bulgaria, for- 
merly European Turkey. A great battle was fought 


VASSALAGE. 


886 


VELOCIPEDES. 


near this place, 10 Nov. 1444, between the Turks 


under Amurath II. and the Hungarians under their 
king Ladislaus and John Hunniades. ‘The latter 
were defeated with great slaughter: the king was 
killed, and Hunniades made prisoner, who had 
opposed the Christians breaking the truce for ten 
years, recently made at Segedin. The emperor 
Nicholas of Russia arrived before Varna, the head- 
quarters of his army, then besieging the place, 
5 Aug. 1828. The Turkish garrison made a vigorous 
attack on the besiegers, 7 Aug.; and another on 
the 2Ist, but were repulsed. Varna surrendered, 
after a sanguinary conflict, to the Russian arms, 
11 Oct. 1828. It was restored at the peace in 1829; 
its fortifications were dismantled, but have since 
been restored. The allied armies disembarked at 
Varna, 29 May, 1854, and sailed for the Crimea, 
3 Sept. They suffered severely from cholera. In 
conformity with the treaty of Berlin, Varna was 
evacuated by the Turks, and occupied by Russians, 
autumn, 1878. 


VASSALAGE, see Feudal Laws, and Slavery. 
VASSAR COLLEGE (on the east bank of 


the Hudson, United States), for the higher education 
of women, was founded by Matthew Vassar in 1861. 


VASSY (N.E. France). The massacre of the 
protestants at this place by the duke of Guise on 
I March, 1562, led to desolating civil wars. 


VATICAN (Rome), the ancient Mons Vati- 
canus, a hill of Rome. The commencement of the 
palace is ascribed to Constantine, Liberius, and 
Symmachus. It became the residence of. the pope 
at his return from Avignon, 1377. The palace is 
said to contain 7000 rooms, rich in works of art, 
ancient and modern. The library, founded by pope 
Nicholas V., 1448, is exceedingly rich in printed 
books and MSS.— Pistolesi’s description of the 
Vatican, with numerous plates, was published 
1829-38.—The phrase ‘‘ Thunders of the Vatiean’’ 
was first used by Voltaire, 1748.— The ancient 
Vatican Codex of the Old and New Testament in 
Greek was published at Rome in 1857. For 
‘* Vatican Decrees,” see Councils. 


AUD, a Swiss canton, after having been suc- 
cessfully held by the Franks, the kings of Burgundy, 
emperors of Germany, dukes of Zahringen, and 
dukes of Savoy, was conquered by the Bernese, Jan. 
1536, and annexed, 1554. Vaud, made independent 
in 1798, joined the confederation in 1815. A new 
constitution was obtained in 1830, after agitation. 


VAUDOIS, see Waidenses. 
VAUXHALL BRIDGE, constructed of iron 


under the direction of Mr. Walker, at an expense of 
150,000/. (to be defrayed by a toll). The first stone 
was laid 9 May, 1811, by prince Charles, eldest son 
of the duke of Brunswick; and the bridge was 
ppene on 4 June, 1816; freed from toll, 24 May, 
1879. 


VAUXHALL GARDENS (London), were 
so denominated fromthe manor of Vauxhall, Falkes- 
hall, Fox-hall, or Faukeshall, said to have been the 
property of Fulke de Breauté about 1282. The 
tradition that this house or any other adjacent was 
the property of Guy Fawkes is erroneous. The 
premises were the property of Jane Vaux in 1615, 
and the mansion-house was then called Stockden’s. 
From her it passed through various hands, till it 
became the property of Mr. Tyers in 1732. There 
is no certain account of the time when these pre- 
mises were first opened for the entertainment of the 
public; but the New Spring Gardens at Vauxhall 
are mentioned by John Evelyn in his diary 2 July, 


1661, Pepys 29 May, 1662, Wycherley 1672, and 
in the Spectator 1711, as a place of great resort. 
The gardens were opened for a ‘‘ridotto al fresco’’ 
7 June, 1732, by Jonathan Tyers, who spared no pains 
or expense to maintain hissuccess. The greatest season 
was In 1823, when 133,279 persons visited the gar- 
dens, and the receipts were 29,5907. The greatest 
number of persons in one night was 2 Aug. 1833, 
when 20,137 persons paid for admission. The 
number on the then supposed last night, 5 Sept. 
1839, was 1089 persons. Vauxhall was sold by 
auction, 9 Sept. 1841, for 20,200/., and again 20 
Aug. 1859. The last performances at Vauxhall took 
place on 25 July, 1859. ‘The ground has been sold 
for building purposes. Six persons killed and many 
injured by fall of stack of wood at Buckley’s saw- 
mills, 25 Feb. 1880. 


VAVASOR, see Valvasor, 


VEDAS, the sacred books of the Hindoos, in 
Sanskrit, were probably written about 1000 B.c. 
Veda means knowledge. These books comprise 
hymns, prayers, and liturgical formule. The edition 
by professor Max Miiller, printed under the patron- 
age of the East India Company, appeared in 1849- 
74. Four volumes of a translation by H. H. 
Wilson appeared in 1850-67. 


VEGETABLES for the table were brought 


from Flanders about 1520; see Gardening. 


VEGETARIAN SOCIETY, founded 1847, 
whose members restrict themselves to a vegetable 
diet, held their fifteenth anniversary in London, 4 
Sept. 1862. 

Meetings held at Manchester, 14 Oct. 1874 3 et seq. 22 Oct. 

1879; 36th meeting at Manchester, 17 Oct. 1883. 

** Fraternia,” a settlement of vegetarians, existed in 

California in 1880. 


VEHMIC TRIBUNAL: Vehmgerichte, Fehm- 
gerichte, or Femgerichte, were secret tribunals estab- 
lished in Westphalia to maintain religion and the 
public peace, had their origin in the time of Charle- 
magne, and rose to importance in 1182, when 
Westphalia became subject to the archbishop 0: 
Cologne. Persons of the most exalted rank were 
subjected to their decisions, being frequently seized. 
tried, and executed. The emperors endeavoured t¢ 
suppress them, but did not succeed till the 16th 
century. Their last court, it is said, was held ir 
1568. Sir W. Scott has described them in ‘ Ann¢ 
of Geierstein.’”? A remnant of this tribunal was 
abolished by Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia 
in I8II. 


VEII, an independent Latin city near Rome 
Between the Romans and Veientes frequent wars oe: 
curred, till Veii was utterly destroyed, after ter 
years’ siege, 396 B.c. The Roman family, the 
Fabii, who had seceded from Rome for politica 
reasons, were surprised and destroyed at the rive 
Cremera, by the Veientes, 477 B.C. 


VELLORE (S.E. India) became the residence: 
of the family of the dethroned sultan of Mysore, an 
was strongly garrisoned by English troops, 1799 
The revolt of the sepoys, in which the family of th 
late Tippoo took an active part, took place Io J a 
1806. ‘lhe insurgents were subdued by colonel Gil 
lespie, and mostly put to the sword; about 80 
sepoys were killed. 


VELOCIPEDES. A machine of this kind wa: 
invented by Blanchard the aéronaut, and describe: 
in the Journal de Paris, 27 July, 1779; and on 
was invented by Nicéphore Niepce in 1818. Th 
‘‘dandy-horse”’ or ‘‘ Draisena, a machine called : 
velocipede,”’ was patented for the Baron von Drais 


‘ 


VELVET. 


in Paris and London in 1818, and described in 
‘¢ Ackermann’s Repository,’ Feb. 1819. These 
machines came again into use in 1861; and since 
1867 have been very common under various forms, 
termed bicycles and tricycles; the chief inventor of 
which, James Starley, an ingenious mechanic of 
Albourne, Sussex, was buried at Coventry, June, 
1881. The popular “‘ Otto’’ bicycle, first patented 
in 1881, much improved since. Velocipede races 
took place at the Crystal Palace, 26 May, 1869, and 
frequently since. Mr. John Mayall and two friends 
travelled to Brighton on velocipedes, 17 Feb. 1869. 


Mr. Stanton went from London to Bath, 106 miles, 
on a bicycle, in 8 h. 28 min. pee oA 
Similar feats since performed. Ordinary speed 
with bicycles 8 (now 10) miles an hour ; with tri- © 
cycles 10 miles may be attained.—Field. Oct: 3; 
A gentleman said to have travelled rooo miles in . 
Ireland and Wales ; expenses 251. 
Bicycle clubs formed in London, Xe. . ; ee 
Above 1500 velocipedes at a meeting at Hampton 
Cowt . e . : , 3 . 26 May, 
Middlesex magistrates decide that a bicycle is a 
carriage, and fine a rider for damage 31 July, 
John Rankin went from Kilmarnock to London 
and back to Glasgow, with stoppages (112 miles 
one day) s F i s 23 July-1o Aug. ,, 
The Bicycle Union, the National Cyclists’ Union, 
and the Cyclists’ Touring club founded 5 
Six days’ contest, Agricultural Hall, London, Mr. 
George Waller won prize-helt (sool.) and_rosl., 
rode 1172 miles, 28 April—3 May. Mr. Waller 
again won, rode 1404 miles (6 days of 18 erie 
_ 1—6 Sept. 
ivan Zmertych Hungarian, travelled on his veloci- 


pede from Ostend to Pesth (about 1200 miles), 
'  ro—3o0 June, 
Mr. Alfred Nixon, hon. sec. London tricycle club, 
on ‘Premier’ tricycle from John 0’ Groat’s to 
Land’s End in 13 days, 23 hours, 55 minutes 
16—30 Aug. 
EF. J. Lees, of Sheffield, covers 20 miles within an 
hour with a bicycle F « : 18 Aug. 
Switzerland crossed by bicycles and _ tricyles 
Aug.—Sept. ,, 
r7th annual exhibition of bicycles, &c., at the 
Floral Hall, Covent Garden . 4 Feb. 1884 
Mr. Alfred Nixon went from London, to Edinburgh 
on a tricycle in three days . 28—31 Aug. 3, 


VELVET. The manufacture, long confined to 
Genoa, Lucca, and other places in Italy, was carried 
to France, and thence to England, about 1685. 
Velvet is mentioned by Joinville in 1272; and our 
king Richard II., in his will, directed his body to be 
clothed “in velveto,’’ 1399. Jerome Lanyer in 
London patented his ‘“ velvet paper”’ in 1634. 


VENAISSIN COMTAT, or Comrat (. 
France), after various changes, was ceded to pope 
Gregory X. 1274; and retained by his successors 
till 1791, when, with Avignon, it was re-united to 
France. 


VENDEE, see La Vendée. 
VENDEMIAIRE, 12, 13, 14 (3, 4, 5 Oct.), 


1795, Barras and Napoleon Bonaparte suppress a 
royalist revolt against the convention. 


VENDOME COLUMN (132 feet_2 inches 
high), erected in the Place Vendome, Paris, by 
Napoleon I. in 1806, to commemorate his successful 
eampaign in Germany in 1805. On its side were 
bas-reliefs by Launay. It was pulled down by the 
communists ‘‘in the name of international frater- 
nity,’ 16 May, 1871; 
assembly, 31 Aug. 1574; statue of Napoleon I. on 
‘the top, replaced 28 Dec. 1875. 


VENETI, maritime Gauls inhabiting Armorica, 
N.W. France. They rose against the Romans 57 


1874 


$ 


a 


887 


restored by the national - 


| Zara captured by the Venetians R 


VENICE. 


B.C., and were quelled by Julius Cesar, who defeated 
their fleet, 56, and cruelly exterminated an active 
commercial race. 


VENETIA, see Venice. 


VENEZUELA, the seat of a South American 
republic. When the Spaniards landed here in 1499, 
they observed some huts built upon piles, in an 
Indian village named Cora, in order to raise them 
above the stagnated water that covered the plain ; 
and this induced them to give it the name of Vene- 
zuela, or Little Venice. This state in July, 1814, 
declared in congressional assembly the sovereignt 
of its people, which was recognised in 1818. It 
formed part of the republic of Columbia till it 
separated from the federal union, Nov. 1829. The 
population in 1881, 2,075,245. 

Its independence was recognized by Spain 
General D. T. Monagas was elected president - 1855 
A new constitution promulgated s Dec. 1858 
A revolution; Don José Castro became president, 
March, 1858; compelled to resign in Aug. 1859 ; 
and Dr. Pedro Gual assumed the government, 
Aug. 

General José Paez elected president 2.8 Sept. 


He resigned; and Juan E. Falcon succeeded, 
17 June, 

General Febres Cordero protested, and set up a 
rival government at Porto-Cabello. . sea OC Umass 


Marshal J. C. Falcon proclaimed president, 
18 March, 1865 


A revolution in Caraccas; president Falcon fied, 
22—26 June, ,, 

The president Monagas dies, 18 Nov., and Pulgar 
becomes provisional president Tease DCCL sg 
Caraceas captured by general Guzman Blanco, after 
three days’ conflict . : ; 4 . 27 April, 
He is made president, virtually dictator 13 July, 
A rebel general, Salazar, tried and shot about 17 May, 
Blanco re-elected president ; : 20 Feb. 
Severity towards the church for opposition to civil 
marriages ; bishop of Merida expelled July, 
Renunciation of papal authority announced Sept. 1876 
Gen. F. L. Alcantara president, elected . 27 Feb. 1877 
Gen. A. Guzman Blanco, president, elected + 1879 

(See Columbia.) 


“VENGEUR STORY,” see Ushant, note. 
VENI, VIDI, VICI,—‘‘I came, I saw, I con~ 


quered ;’’ see Zelda. 
VENICE (N. Italy). The province of Venetia, 


held by the Veneti, of uncertain origin, was invaded 
by the Gauls about 350 B.c. The Veneti made an 
efliarins with the Romans, 215 B.c., who founded 
Aquileia, 181, and gradually acquired the whole 
country. Under the empire, Venetia included 
Padua, Verona, and other important places. Popu- 
lation of the city of Venice in 1857, 118,173; in 
1881, 129,445. New line of steamers for the east 
started from Venice by the Peninsular and Oriental 
Company, July, 1872. 


Venice, founded by families from Aquileia and 


> 1845 


1859 
1861 


1863 


1870 


1872 
1873 


1874 


Padua fleeing from Attila . 7 about A.D. 452 
First doge (or duke) chosen, Anafesto Paululio . 697 
Bishopric founded : : : E - e738 
The doge Orso slain ; anannual magistrate (maestro 

di militi, master of the militia) appointed 737 
Diodato, son of Orso, made doge_. é : oe TAe 
Two doges reign: Maurizio Galbaio, and his son 

Giovanni . : “ ; : : 5 dee og WA 
The Rialto made the seat of government 811 
Venice becomes independent of the eastern empire, 

and acquires the maritime cities of Dalmatia and \ 

Istria . : : . . * ‘ 997 
Its navy and commerce increase. : + IO00C-I1100 
The Venetians aid at the capture of Tyre and ac- 

quire the third part, 1124 ; and ravage the Greek 

archipelago z : é - Bie ar . II25 
Bank of Venice established .. . . d LIST 
Ceremony of wedding the Adriatic instituted, about 1177 


24 Nov. 1202 


VENLOO. 


The Venetians aid the crusaders with men, horses, 
and ships : - : . : 4 Zoo 
Crete purchased . ‘ 


- : ; 4 ie eOd 
Venice helps in the Latin conquest of Constanti- 
nople, and obtains power in the East 1204-5 
The four bronze horses by Lysippus, brought from 
Constantinople, placed at St. Mark’s by the doge 
Pietro Ziani, who died : a ; é Ps c -3-10) 
The Venetians defeat the Genoese near Negropont, 1263 
War with Genoa d : ; : 5 3 Pat203 
The Venetian fleet severely defeated by the Genoese 
in the Adriatic, 8 Sept. 1298; peace between 
eM we : ; : : : : ; - 1299 
Louis of Hungary defeated at Zara . r duly, 1346 
Severe contest with Genoa 1350-81 


The doge Marino Faliero, to avenge an insult, con- 
spires against the republic ; beheaded = 17 April 1355 

The Venetians lose Istria and Dalmatia . : - 1358 

War with the Genoese, who defeat the Venetians at 
Pola, and advance against Venice, which is vigor- 
ously defended . ; 


4 A . , e377 
The Genoese fleet is captured at Chiozza . . 1380 
And peace concluded : : : Bn ietshe 
Venice flourishes under Antonio Vernieri 1382-1400 
War with Padua; conquest of Padua and Verona . 1404 


War against Milan; conquest of Brescia 14253 of 
Bergamo . * 2 : : * : - 1428 

The city suffers from the plague : ; : » 1447 

War against Milan, 1430; conquest of Ravenna . . 1454 

War with the Turks; Venice loses many of its 
eastern possessions . , ; : ~ . 1461-77 

The Venetians take Athens, 1466; and Cyprus . . 1475 

Venice excommunicated, 1483; joins league against 
Naples, 1493; helps to overcome Charles VIII. of 
France 


: ; 5 : : : : - 1495 
Injured by the discovery of America (1492), and the 4 

passage to the Indies : } ° ; vag IAOT, 
The Venetians nearly ruined by the league of Cain- 

bray formed against them ? : : - 1508 
They assist in defeating the Turks at Lepanto, 7 Oct. 1571 
The Turks retake Cyprus : 3 E ae nes 
Destructive fire at Venice . ; % : » - 577 
The Rialto bridge and the Piazza di San Marco 

erected ; ; 3 ; : J . about 1592 
Paul V.’s interdict on Venice (1606) contemptuously 

disregarded . é 3 : : p A - 1607 
Naval victories over the Turks ; at Scio, 1651 ; and 

in the Dardanelles . ; 3 : « BeTOSS 
The Turks take Candia, after 24 years’ siege 1669 


Venice recovers part of the Morea, 1683-99; loses it, 
1715-39 
Venice occupied by Bonaparte, who, by the treaty 
of Campo Formio, gives part of its territory to 
Austria, and annexes the rest to the Cisalpine re- 
public . . 5 : : : 2 : ads 
The whole of Venice annexed to the kingdom of 
Italy by the treaty of Presburg 26 Dec. 1805 
All Venice transferred to the empire of Austria . 1814 
Venice declared a free port . 5 F . 24 Jan. 1830 
Insurrection begins 22 March, 1848; the city, de- 
fended by Daniel Manin, surrenders to the Aus- 
trians after a long siege 2 ‘ 22 Aug. 
[During the Italian war in 1859, the country was 
much disorganised, and many persons emigrated 
in. 1860-1. ] 
Venetian deputies will not attend the Austrian par- 
liament at Vienna : ; a - May, 
Venetia surrendered to France for Italy (by the 
treaty of Vienna, signed 3 Oct.), and transferred 
to Italy . 4 A 2 “ =) 7 OGL: 
Plebiscitum : 651,758 votes for annexation to Italy ; 
69 against . 2 : - 2 A 22 Oct. 
Result reported by Venetian deputies, and the iron 
crown given to the king at Turin . 


1797 


1849 


15 Aug. 1867 
The remains cf Daniel Manin (brought from Paris) 
buried in St. Mark’s 23 March, 1868 
His statue unveiled 5 ; F . 22 March, 1875 
The emperor of Austria and king of Italy at Venice 
5-7 April, 
{Venice has had 122 doges; Anafesto, 697, to Luigi 
Manin, 1797.] 


VENLOO (Holland), surrendered to the allies, 
under Marlborough, 23 Sept. 1702; and to the 
drench, under Pichegru, 26 Oct. 1794. 


> 


888 


VERDUN. 


| VENNER’S INSURRECTION, see Anv- 
baptists, 1601. 


VENTILATORS were invented by the rey. 
Dr. Hales, and described to the Royal Society o! 
London, May, 1741; and the ventilator for the us¢ 
of ships was announced by Mr. Triewald, in Novem- 
ber, same year. The marquis of Chabannes’ plan 
for warming and ventilating theatres and houses fo: 
audiences was applied to those of London about 
1819. The systems of Dr. Reid (about 1834) anc 
others followed, with much controversy. Dr 
Arnott’s work on this subject was published in 1838 
A commission on warming and ventilation issued : 
report in 1859. 

New air machine in the house of commons started 
5 June, 1874 

Mr. Tobin’s plan, a horizontal tube from without 

communicating with vertical tube inside; suc- 

cessful at Leeds ; described (in Times,) 12 April, 187: 


VENTRILOQUISM (speaking from the belly) 
is evidently described in Iswiah xxix. 4 (about 71: 
B.c.). Among eminent ventriloquists were baror 
Mengen and M. Saint Gille, about 1772 (whose ex. 
periments were examined by a commission of th: 
French Academy); Thomas King (about 1716) 
coe Mathews (1824); and M. Alexandr 
1822). 


VENUS, the Roman goddess of love and beauty 
(the Greek Aphrodité). ‘The transit of the plane 
Venus over the sun was predicted by Kepler, bu' 
not observed. The first transit observed, was by 
the rev. Jeremiah Horrox, or Horrocks, and his 
friend, Wm. Crabtree, on 24 Nov. 1639, as pre- 
dicted by Horrox in 1633. The astronomer-roya 
Maskelyne observed her transit at St. Helena 
6 June, 1761. Capt. Cook made his first voyag: 
in the Endeavour, to Otaheite, to observe a transi 
of Venus, 3 June, 1769; see Cook’s Voyages. ‘Th 
diurnal rotation of Venus was discovered by Cassin 
in 1667. See Swn, note. Statues: Venu 
de Medicis, found near Tivoli and removed t 
France, 1680; the Venus found at Milo or Melos 
1820, placed in the Louvre, Paris, 1834. 

Halley suggested the observation of the transit as 


ameans of estimating the distance of the earth 
from the sun, and devised. a method for this pur- 


pose : é : ; : ra ts : a 
Another method was invented by Delisle about . 174 
Both plans were used in Dees 282 


Expeditions for the accurate observation of the 
phenomena, on 8 Dec. astronomical day ; ordi- 
nary day, 9 Dec. 1874, were sent to different parts 
of the globe by all the great powers, and fayour- 
able results have been reported : 4 lay 

The transit, on 6 Dec. 1882, was observed at Bath, 
Penzance, Cork, Cape Town, Washington, Mel- 
bourne, and many other places. The next transits 
will take place 8 June, 2004, and 6 June, 2012. 


VERA CRUZ (Mexico), built about 1600; we 
taken by the Americans in 1847, and by the alli 
on 17 Dec. 1861, during the intervention ; retake 
by the liberals, under Juarez, 27 June, 1867. 


VERCELLI, the ancient Vercelle, Piedmon 
near which Marius defeated the Cimbri, Io1 B.c. | 
was the seat of a republic in the I gin and 14th cer 
turies. It was taken by the Spaniards, 163¢ 
French, 1704; and allies, 1706; and afterwar 
partook of the fortunes of Piedmont. 


VERDEN (Hanover). Here Charlemagr 
massacred about 4500 Saxons, who had rebelled ar 
relapsed into idolatry, 782. 


VERDUN (the ancient Verodunum), a firs 
class fortress on the Meuse, N.E. France, made 


875- 


VERGARA. 


§89 


VESPERS. 


igazine for-his legions by Julius Cesar. It was 
juired by the Franks in the sixth century, and 
‘med part of the dominions of Lothaire by the 
vaty of Verdun, 843, when the empire was divided 
tween the sons of Louis I. It was taken and 
nexed to the empire by Otho I. about 939. It 
trendered to France in 1552; and was formally 
led in 1648. It was taken and held by the Prus- 
ms 43 days, Sept.—Oct. 1792. Gen. Beaurepaire, 
2 commandant, committed suicide before the sur- 
ider, and 14 ladies were executed on 28 May, 
94, for going to the king of Prussia to solicit his 
mency for the town. Verdun surrendered to the 
‘mans 8 Noy. 1870, after a brave defence; two 
rorous sallies being made 28 Oct. Above 4000 
m were captured, with a large number of arms 
d ammunition. It was the last place held by 
e Germans; and was given up I5, 16 Sept. 1873, 
d the troops retired. 


VERGARA, N. Span. Here the Carlist 
neral, Maroto, made a treaty, termed “ The paci- 
ation of Vergara,’ with Espartero, 31 Aug. 1839. 
1e monument to celebrate it was destroyed by the 
wlists in Aug. 1873. 


VERMANDOIS (N. France), a county given 
* Charlemagne to his second son Pepin, whose 
mily held it till the 11th century; in 1156 it 
me, by marriage, to the counts of Flanders; and 
1185 1t was seized by Philip II., and incorporated 
ith the monarchy in 1215. 


VERMONT, 2 northern state in North America, 
as settied by the French, 1724-31; and ceded to 
reat Britain im 1763. It was freed from the autho- 
ty of New York, and admitted as a state of the 
uon in 1791. 


VERNEUIL (N.W. France), the site of a 
uttle fought 17 Aug. 1424, between the Burgundians 
id English under the regent duke of Bedford, and 
.e French, assisted by the Scots, commanded by 
ie count de Narbonne, the earls of Douglas and 
uchan, &c. The French at first were successful ; 
at some Lombard auxiliaries, who had taken the 
nglish camp, commenced pillaging. Two thousand 
nglish archers came then fresh to the attack; and 
1e French and Scots were totally defeated, and 
1eir leaders killed. 


VERNON GALLERY. The inadequate 
1anner in which modern British art was repre- 
mted in the National Gallery was somewhat 
medied in 1847 by the munificent present to the 
ation, by Mr. Robert Vernon, of a collection of 157 
ictures, all but two being by first-rate British 
rtists. They were first exhibited at Mr. Vernon's 
ouse in Pall-mall, next in the vaults beneath the 
fational Gallery, afterwards at Marlborough House, 
nd are now at the South Kensington Museum. In 
857, Mr. John Sheepshanks followed Mr. Vernon’s 
xample; see Sheepshanks’ Donations. 


VERONA (N. Italy) was founded by the Gauls 
r Etruscans; see Campus Raudius. The amphi- 
heatre was built by Titus, a.p. 82. Verona has 
een the site of many conflicts. It was taken by 
jonstantine 312 ; and on 27 Sept. 489 Theodoric de- 
eated Odoacer, king of Italy. Verona was taken 
'y Charlemagne 774. About 1260 Mastino della 
scala was elected podesta, and his descendants (the 
Jealigeri) ruled, till subdued by the Visconti, dukes 
if Milan, 1387. Verona was conquered by the 
Venetians 1405, and held by them with some inter- 
nissions till its capture by the French general Mas- 
ena, 3 June, cane: Near to it Charles Albert of 
Sardinia defeated the Austrians 6 May, 1848. 


+ 


Verona is one of the four strong Austrian fortresses 
termed the Quadrangle, or Quadrilateral (which see), 
and here the emperor Francis Joseph, on 12 July, 
1859, in an order of the day, announced to his army 
that he must yield to circumstances unfavourable to 
his policy, and thanked his people and army for 
their support. It was surrendered to the Italian 
government, 16 Oct. 1866; and the king was re- 
ceived by 70,000 persons in the amphitheatre, 18 
Noy. 1866. Above 50,000 coins of Gallienus and 
other emperors, chiefly bronze, discovered near 
Verona, Jan. 1877. 


VERSAILLES (near Paris) was a small vil- 
lage, in a forest thirty miles in circuit; where Louis 
XIII. built a hunting-seat about 1632. Louis XIV. 
between 1661 and 1687 enlarged it into a magnificent 
palace, which became the usual residence of the 
kings of France. By the treaty between Great 
Britain and the revolted colonies of British North 
America, signed at Paris, the latter power was ad- 
mitted to be a sovereign and independent state, 3 
Sept. 1783. On the same day a treaty was signed 
at Versailles between Great Britain, France, and 
Spain, by which Pondicherry and Carical, with other 
possessions in Bengal, were restored to France, and 
Trincomalee restored to the Dutch. Here was held 
the military festival of the royal guards 1 Oct. 
1789, which was followed (on the 5th and 6th) by 
the attack of the mob, who massacred the guards 
and brought the king back to Paris. Versailles 
became the residence of Louis-Philippe in 1830. 
The historical gallery was opened in 1837. Ver- 
sailles, with the troops there, surrendered to the 
Germans 19 Sept. 1870, and the crown prince of 
Prussia entered the next day; and on 26 Sept. he 
awarded the iron cross to above 30 soldiers at the 
foot of the statue of Louis XIV. The palace was 
converted into an hospital. The royal head-quarters 
were removed here from Ferriéres 5 Oct. After the 
peace, Versailles became the seat of the French 
government (see France) March, 1871. Removed 
to Paris 27 Nov. 1879. ‘Che congress for the revi- 
sion of the constitution met here 4—13 Aug. 1884. 


VERSBE, see Poetry, Hexameter, Elegy, Lambie, 
&ec. Surrey’s translation of part of Virgil's dAineid 
into blank verse is the first English composition of 
the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English 
language (published in 1547). The verse previously 
used in our grave compositions was the stanza of 
eight lines, the ottava rima (as adopted with the 
addition of one line by Spenser in his faery 
Queene), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and 
Tasso. Boccaccio introduced it into Italy in his, 
Teseide, having copied it from the old French chan- 
sons. ‘Trissino is said to have been the first intro- 
ducer of blank verse among the moderns, about 
1508. Vossius. 


VERULAM, see Alban’s, St. 


VERVINS (N. France). Here was concluded 
the peace between Philip II. of Spain and Henry 
IV. of France, with mutual concessions, 2 May, 
1598. 

VESERONCE (S.E. France), near Vienne. 
Here Gondemar, king of the Burgundians, defeated © 
and killed Clodomir, king of Orleans, and revenged 
the murder of his brother Sigismond and his family, 

24. This conflict is called also the battle of 

olron. 


VESPERS, see Stcilian Vespers. In the house 
of the French ambassador at Blackfriars, in Lon- 
don, a Jesuit was preaching to upwards of three 
hundred persons in an upper room, the floor of which 
gave way with the weight, when the whole congre- 


| 
| 
L 
\ 


VESTA. 


890 ; VICTORIA. 


gation was precipitated to the street, and the 
preacher and more than a hundred of his auditory, 
chiefly persons of rank, were killed. This catas- 
trophe, termed the Latal Vespers, occurred 26 Oct. 
1623. Stow. 


VESTA. The planet Vesta (the ninth) was dis- 
covered by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, on 29 March, 
Se She appears like a star of the sixth magni- 
tude. 


VESTALS, virgin priestesses, took care of the 
perpetual fire consecrated to Vesta. The mother of 
sitomulus was a vestal. Numa is said to have ap- 
pointed four, 710 B.c., and Tarquin added two. 
Minutia was buried alive for breaking her virgin 
Vow, 337 B.c.; Sextilia, 273 B.c.; and Cornelia 
Maximiliana, a.D. 92; see Chastity. The order 
was abolished by Theodosius, 389. 


“ VESTIGES or THE NaTuRAL HIsToRY 
OF CREATION,” a work which upholds the doctrine 
of progressive development as a hypothetic history 
of organic creation, ascribed to Robert Chambers, 
and other persons, first appeared in 1844, and occa- 
sioned much controversy. See Origin of Species. 


VESUVIUS. By an eruption of Mount 
Vesuvius, the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum 
(which see) were overwhelmed 24 Aug. 79 A.D., and 
more than 200,000 persons perished, among them 
Pliny the naturalist. Numerous other disastrous 
eruptions have occurred. Torre del Greco, with 
4000 persons, was destroyed, 17 Dec. 1631. There 
was a dreadful eruption took place suddenly, 24 
Nov. 1759, and another 8 Aug. 1767. The violent 
burst in 1767 was the 34th from the time of Titus. 
One in June, 1794, was most destructive: the lava 
flowed over 5000 acres of rich vineyards and culti- 
vated land, and Torre del Greco was a second time 
burned; the top of the mountain fell in, and the 
crater 1s now nearly two miles in circumference. 
A great eruption in Oct. 1822, and others in May, 
1855, May and June, 1858, caused great destruction. 
A series of violent eruptions causing much damage 
occurred in Dec, 1861, and in Feb. 1865. ‘Torre 
del Greco was again destroyed in Dec. 1861. 
Another eruption began 12 Noy. 1867, and con- 
tinued increasing in grandeur and danger, March, 
_ 1868. The phenomena were observed by professors 
Tyndall and Miller, sir John Lubbock, and other 
scientific men, in April, 1868. A great eruption’ 
began 8 Oct. 1868, and continued, causing much 
destruction, 19, 20 Noy. A severe eruption began 
23 April and ended about 3 May, 1872; above 60 
lives were lost. The mountain was disturbed in 
1876; and another eruption began about 20 Sept. 
1878; lava was spouted to the height of 300 feet; 
un eruption began 11 June, 1879; a brief eruption 
2 May, 1885. Professor John Phillips’ *‘ Vesuvius” 
was published 1869. 


VETERINARY COLLEGE (London), was 
established at Camden-town, 1791; and Albert 
Veterinary College was opened in 1865. Veterinary 
Pea act, 44 & 45 Vict. sec. 62, passed 27 Aug. 
1881. 


VICK, an instrument of which Archytas of 
Tarentum, disciple of Pythagoras, is said to have 
been the inventor, along with the pulley and other 
implements, 420 B.c. Society for the Suppression 
of Vice, established 1802. 


VICE-ADMIRALTY COURTS ACT, 1863, 


was extended and amended in 1867. 
VICE-CHANCELLOR or ENGLAND, 

an equity judge, appointed by parliament, first took 

his seat 5 May, 1813. A new court was erected for 


him about 1816 contiguous to Lincoln’s-inn-he 
Two additional vice-chancellors were appoint 
under act 5 Vict., Oct. 1841. The office of vi 
chancellor of England ceased in August, 1850, a 
a third vice-chancellor was appointed in 1851, wh 
two more equity judges, styled lords justices, w 
appointed. 


VICE-CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND, \ 


1813. Sir Thomas Plumer, 13 April. 

1818. Sir John Leach, 13 Jan. 

1827. Sir Anthony Hart, 4 May. 

1827-50. Sir Lancelot Shadwell, 1 Nov. THE LAST. 


VICE-CHANCELLORS. 


Sir John Stuart, sat last, 27 March, 1871. 

Sir Wm. Page Wood, made a justice of appe 
1868 ; lord chancellcr, Dec. 1868. 

Sir Geo. Markham Giffard, died 1870. 

Sir Wm. M. James, Jan. ; made a lord justice 
appeal, June, 1870. 

Sir John Wickens, April; died, 23 Oct. 1873. 

Sir Richard Malins, resigned 1881; died 15 Jan. 18 

Sir James Bacon, the last 
of the vice-chancellors, {_ now included in the 

Sir Charles Hall, Nov. ; | chancery division. 
died 12 Dee. 1883. 


VICENZA (the ancient Vicentia, N. Italy) w 
the seat of a republic in the 12th century. 
greatly suffered by the ravages of Alaric, 401, a: 
Attila, 452. Having joined the Lombard league, 
was sacked by Frederic II. 1236. After ma 
changes it was subjected to Venice, and with it f 
under the French domination, 1796; and was giv 
to Austria in 1814. Having revolted, it was 1 
taken by Radetzky, 11 June, 1848. It was annex 
to the kingdom of Italy, Oct. 1866. 


VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE BOARD 
TRADE. ‘This oftice was abolished in 1867, anc 
secretary with a seat in parliament substituted. 


VICKSBURG, see United States, 1863. 
VICTORIA, formerly PortT PHIL 


(Australia), situated between New South Wales ai 
South Australia. In 1798, Bass, in his whale-be 
expedition, visited Western Port, one ofits harbour 
and in 1802 Flinders sailed into Port Phillip Bay. 


Colonel Collins lands with a party of convicts with 
the intention of founding a settlement at Port 
Phillip, but afterwards removed to Van Diemen’s 
Land : , . 4 : : uke 

Messrs. Hume and Hovell, two stock-owners from 
New South Wales, explore part of the country, 
but do not discover its great advantages. 408 

Mr. Edward Henty (of a Sussex family), comes 
from Tasmania with cattle, sheep, shepherds, &c., 
and settles in Portland Bay; his brothers, 
Stephen George and John, follow soon : A 

Mr. John Batman enters between the heads of 
Port Phillip, and purchases a large tract of land 
from the aborigines for a few gewgaws and 
blankets : he shortly after, with fifteen associates 
from Hobarton, took possession Of 600,000 acres 
in the present Geelong country. ‘ May, 18 

The Launceston associates and Mr. John Pascoe 
Falkner ascend the Yarra-Yarra (or everflowing) 
river, and encamp on the site of Melbourne <a 

The colonists (450 in number) possess 140,000 
sheep, 2500 cattle, and 150 horses ; sir R. Bourke, 
governor of New South Wales, yisits the colony, 
determines the sites of towns, and causes the 
land to be surveyed and resold, setting aside 
many contending claims; he appoints captain 


1852. 
1853. 


1868. 
1869. 


1871. 
1866. 
1870. 


1873. 


Lonsdale chief-magistrate (see Melbourne) . . 18 
The colony named Victoria . ‘ a: 


Mr: C. J. Latrobe appointed lieutenant-governor 
under sir G. Gipps ‘ : . ; : a 

Its prosperity brings great numbers to it, and in- 
duces much speculation and consequent em- 
barrassment and insolvency . : ; ‘ 184 

The province declared independent of New South 
Wales; a reward of 2ool. offered for the discovery 


~. * aia 

By 4.7 
5 ‘ 
a 


- 


VICTORIA. 


f gold in Victoria, which was soon after found 

ear Melbourne, and was profitably worked Aug. 1851 
> persons were at Ballarat, Oct. ; 10,000 round 
fount Alexander ‘ A INOVaul 55 
m 30 Sept. to 3x Dec. 1851, 30,311 ounces of 

old were obtained from Ballarat; and from 29 

ct. to 31x Dec. 94,524 ounces from Mount 
lexander—total 124,835 ounces 

production was still very great . “ . . 1859 
nense immigration to Melbourne (see Melbourne) 1852 
Charles Hotham, governor . é June, 1854 


epresentative constitution granted : Seles 
Henry Barkly appointed governor . . . 1856 
parliament was opened . ‘ 26 Nov. 1857 
administrations had been formed in . 1857-1860 


iibition of the products of the colony opened by 
1e governor . : . ; é : zr Oct. 1861 
Charles Darling appointed governor, May: 
rrives F . ; . ' . to Sept. 1863 
at opposition to reception of convicts in any 
art of Australia; a ship containing them sent 
ack . i 7 ‘ 5 ; 5 Oct. 1864 
portant land act passed : 22 March, 1865 
. assembly passes the new government taritf, 
an., which is rejected by the legislative council ; 
1e governor raises money for the public service 
‘regularly : ‘ ‘ $ : : JULY eres 
. crisis still continues ; appeal to the queen pro- 
osed . : & : ants Octiw,s 
liament prorogued : DRG anss 
Charles Darling recalled . 26 Feb. 1866 
iisterial difficulties: Mr. McCulloch becomes 
remier . ; 2 3 : : 3 April ass 
2 assembly votes 20,000l. to lady Darling; sir 
‘harles departs : 3 : - May... 5; 
w governor, sir John H. T. Manners Sutton, 
viscount Canterbury in 1869) arrived Ts AUS C5, 
ercolonial Exhibition opened . i 25 Oct. vss 
te Of 20,0008. to lady Darling rejected by legisla- 
ive council é 3 : : : 20 Aug. 1867 
nisterial crisis; dispute continues between the 
ssembly and the council : : F OCTINT 
ke of Edinburgh arrives; great rejoicings 

23 NOVs. 55 
address. presented to him by Mr. Edward 
tenty, the first settler, and others . > et Te 
rliament dissolved . : ‘ a stowed OLE > Sp 
w parliament; ministry resigned because the 
rovernor objected to insertion of the Darling 
rant in the appropriation bill 12 March, 1868 
st woollen and paper manufactories established 


. . . 


May, ;, 
e M‘Culloch ministry arrange the Darling affair : 

July 55 
e M‘Pherson iinistry announced . Oct. 1869 


- M‘Culloch forms a ministry including Mr. 
M‘Pherson, April; is knighted . May, 1870 
. M‘Culloch resigns z ij : z4 June, 55 
e federation of the Australian colonies, proposed 
by Mr. Gavan Duffy in 1857, revived by him and 
liscussed in the legislative assembly . JUTE, A <5, 
lustrial Museum at Melbourne, opened 8Sept. ,, 
r. Duffy minister ; ; x F July, 1871 
2 resigns on a vote against him . 29 May, 1872 
r. Francis forms aministry . F i June, - 4; 
ment (3001. a year) to M. P.’s begins . ’ 
: George Ferguson Bowen succeeds viscount Can- 
terbury $ ‘ 3 : 4 Z 7) Heb 1873 
inisterial crises: Mr. Kerford premier; Mr. Ser- 
vice’s budget; expenditure, 4,500,000l. ; deficit, 
about 340,000l.; he proposes a moderate free- 
trade policy; reduction of taxation and a loan ; 
rejected by the parliament ; Mr. Kerford resigns, 
as sir Wm. Stowell, the acting governor, would 
not dissolve ; : : : ; Aug. 1875 
r. Graham Berry, premier ; would continue pro- 
tection and tax the richer. colonists heavily (a 
financial cowp d’état) ; defeated ; resigns Octamys 
r James M‘Culloch forms a coalition ministry, 
Oct.; proposing tax on income, land, and 
realised property . : 4 ‘ P Nove, 5; 
isses his income-tax bill with a majority of 3 

announced June, 1876 
ispute of government with Messrs. Stevensons, 
respecting their alleged undervaluing goods for 
payment of duties ; their letters opened 

March-June, ,, 

lections ; triumph of protectionists; sir James 


a 


891 


VICTORIA PARK. 


M‘Culloch resigns; Mr. Berry again premier, 
May ; a land-tax enacted . t i . Oct 
Legislative council rejects Mr. Berry’s appropria- 
tions, defence, and exhibition bills, end of Oct. ,, 
County court and other judges dismissed by the 
council; sir G. Bowen, the governor, supports 
the ministry - , 3 : ‘ Jan. 
The lower house overrules the council; orders 
public creditors to be paid on its sole vote, about 
13 Keb. 4; 
Berry ministry and the lower house predominant 
March-Aug. 
The marquis of Normanby appointed governor, Feb. 
Mr. Berry’s fruitless visit to England . Fe Dseatss 
He introduces a reform bill, Sept.; which is with- 
drawn . ; . : : 2 zx Le DECHE ss 
Parliament dissolved about 9 Feb.; elections give 
majority against Mr. Berry, 28 Feb.; his cabinet 
resign, 2 March; new ministry under Mr. James 
Service . . ‘ : : > 3 March, 
Mr. Service’s reform bill rejected, 24 June ; dissolu- 
tion of the assembly, 29 June ; the ministry re- 
signs . A 5 5 5 ‘ % i4 July, 73; 
Mr. Berry forms a cabinet : : BS SUL sels 
Ned Kelly and some of his gang of bush-rangers 
after committing many murders and robberies 
(since autumn of 1878) captured and sent to 


Melbourne 3 i : 4 we 27.200 UNE, 55 
International exhibition at Melbourne, opened 

TiOGLea ss 

Kelly hanged . ‘: c zx NOV. ,; 


Population of the colony in 1836, 224; in 1841, 
11,738; in 1846, 32,879; in 1851, 77,345; 31 Dec. 
1852, about 200,000; in March 1857 there were 
258,116 males and 145,403 females ; in all 403,510 
In 1859, in all 517,366; in 1861, 540,322; Dec. 
1865, 626,639; in 1871, 729,654; 1877, 849,021 ; 
in 1881, 858,582. 

Vote of confidence in Mr. Berry in parliament lost ; 


sir Brien O’Loghlen forms a ministry July, 1881 
The marquis of Normanby resigns March; sir 
Henry Brougham Loch succeeds’. April, 1884 


Mr. Service, premier, promotes a confederation bill 
about 30 June, ,, 
Chinese immigrants are now virtually excluded. 


VICTORIA, see Hong Kong, Vancouver's 
Island, Docks, Thames 1870, Wrecks 1852, British 
Columbia. 


VICTORIA, 2 British colony in Ambas bay, on 
the West African coast, originally a Baptist mis- 
sionary settlement, annexed 19 July, 1884. 


VICTORIA CROSS, a new order of merit, 
instituted to reward the gallantry of persons of all 
ranks in the army and navy, 5 Feb. 1856. Itis a 
Maltese cross made of Russian cannon from Sebas- 
topol. The queen conferred the honour on 62 
persons (of both services) on Friday, 26 June, 18575 
and on many of the Indian army, 2 Aug. 1858. 
Victoria and Albert Order of Knighthood for ladies, 
India, instituted 10 Feb. 1862. 


VICTORIA INSTITUTE, or PHILOSOPHI- 
CAL SocIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN, established 
22 June, 1865; its primary object being the attempt 
to reconcile apparent discrepancies between Chris- 
tianity and science. 


VICTORIA PARK (E. London), was origi- 
nated by an act passed in 1841, which enabled her 
majesty’s commissioners of woods and forests to 
purchase certain lands for a royal park, with the 
sum of 72,000/. raised by the same act, by the sale 
of York-house to the duke of Sutherland. The 
act described the land to be so purchased, contain- 
ing 290 acres, situate in the parishes of St. John, 
Hackney; St. Matthew, Bethnal-green; and St. 
Mary, Stratford-le-bow.. The park was completed 
and opened to the public in 1845. Lady (then Miss) 
Burdett-Coutts presented a handsome drinking 
fountain, and was present at its inauguration, 28 
June, 1862. The park was visited by the queen, 


‘ ca | 
J . = 


7 
4 


VICTORIA. 


89 


2 VIENNA. 


2 April, 1873 ; and in memory of her reception, she 
presented a clock and peal of bells to St. Mark’s 
church; recognition service, 21 May, 1874. 


VICTORIA RAILWAY BRIDGE (tubu- 
lar), over the St. Lawrence, Montreal, erected by 
Mr. James Hodges, under the superintendence of 
Mr. Robert Stephenson and Mr. A. M. Ross, 
engineers, was begun 24 May, 1854, and formally 
opened by the prince of Wales, 25 Aug. 1860. It 
forms part of the Grand Trunk raitway, which con- 
nects Canada and the seaboard states of North 
America. The length is about sixty yards less than 
two English miles, and about 73 times longer than 
Waterloo bridge, and ten times longer than new 
Chelsea bridge; the height sixty feet between the 
summer level of the river and the under surface of 
the central tube. It is supported by 24 piers. The 
cost was I,700,000/. On 5 Jan. 1855, while con- 
structing, the bridge was much injured by floating 
ice, but the stonework remained firm. 


VICTORIA REGIA, the magnificent water- 
lily brought to this country from Guiana by sir 
Robert Schomburgk, in 1838, and named after the 
queen. Jine specimens are at the Botanic Gardens 
at Kew, Regent’s Park, &c. It was grown in the 
open air in 1855, by Messrs. Weeks, of Chelsea. 


VICTORIA STEAMER;; sunk; see Wrecks, 
24 May, 1881. 


VICTORIA UNIVERSITY constituted; is 
to consist of Owen’s college, Manchester, and others; 
the charter was granted in April; the first council 
met, 14 July, 1880. 


VICTORY, MAn-oFr-WAr, of 100 guns, the 
finest first-rate ship in the navy of England, was 
lost in a violent tempest near the race of Alderney, 
and its admiral, sir John Balchen, and 100 gentle- 
men’s sons, and the whole crew, consisting of 1000 
men, perished, 8 October, 1744.—The Victory, the 
flag-ship of Nelson, at the battle of Trafalgar, 21 
Oct. 1805, is kept in fine preservation at Ports- 
mouth. 


VICTUALLERS, an ancient trade in Eng- 


land. The Vintners’ company of London was 
founded 1437; their hall rebuilt in 1823. 


None shall sell less than one full quart of the best 
beer or ale for 1d. and two quarts of the smaller 
sort for rd. : : : : . : 

The power of licensing public-houses was granted 
to sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchel . 

The number in England then was about 13,000 

In Great Britain about 76,000 public-houses : 

England, 59,3353 Scotland, 15,081; Ireland, 
14,080; total, 88,496 in . “ - , : : 

Public-houses allowed to be opened on Sundays 
from 1 o’clock till 3, and from 5 till rz p.m 

The prescribed time enlarged . ; 4 : : 

127,352 licences were issued for the sale of beer, 
cider, and perry in the United Kingdom, produc- 
ing a revenue of 304,688/.; and 93,936 licences 
for the sale of spirits : revenue 560,5571. - 1858 

Licensed Victuallers’ School established . a - 1803 

Licensed Victuallers’ Asylum established 22 Feb. 1827 

Licensed Victuallers in the United Kingdom 
99;405. “ : : ; , , < “ 

Between 100,000,000l. and 150,000,000l. said to be 
invested in the liquor trade. The licensed vic- 
tuallers actively opposed Mr. Bruce’s licensing 
bill, which was withdrawn summer of 1871 

New licensing act, regulating hours of opening and 
shutting, &c., passed and came into execution 

zo Aug. 1872 

[It caused much irritation, and was said to have conduced 

to the fall of the Gladstone ministry, 1874.] 

Public-houses in Ireland closed on Sundays, by act 
passed : 4 ; f 4 16 Aug. 1878 

Payment for licenses raised : June, 1880 


1603 
1621 
> 
1790 
1850 


1828 
1855 


1872 


VICTUALLING OFFICE (London), 
managing the victualling of the royal navy, 
instituted Dec. 1663. ‘The number of com 
sioners was five, afterwards seven, and then red 
tosix. The various departments on Tower-hill 
Katherine’s, and Rotherhithe, were removed 
Deptford in Aug. 1785, and the office to Some 
house, 1783. In 1832 the office of commissio 
was abolished, and the victualling-office made 
of five departments under the iords of the 
miralty. 


VIENNA (the Roman Vindobona), was ca 
of the margrayiate of Austria, 984; virtual cay 
of the German empire, 1273; since 1806, capit: 
the Austrian dominions only. Population in 1 
476,222; 1872, 901,000; 1880, 1,103,857; see dus: 
Vienna made an imperial city . 2 : : 
Walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for 

Richard I. of England, 40,0001... A 4 : 
Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the Magnifi- 

cent, with an army of 300,000 men; but he was 

forced to raise the siege with the loss of 70,000 of 
his best troops F F A A ; 
Besieged by the Turks . : : : . July, 
The siege raised by John Sobieski, king of Poland, 
who defeats the Turkish army of 100,000, 12 Sept. 
Vienna taken by the French under prince Murat, 


14 Noy. 1805, evacuated 12 Jan. 
Captured by Napoleon I. . ‘ : 13 May, 
Restored on the conclusion of peace 14 Oct 
Congress of sovereigns at Vienna Nov 


Imperial Academy of Sciences founded . 3 b 
The revolt in Hungary induces an insurrection in 
Vienna : : a - 5 13 March, 
The emperor retires, 17 May ; returns Aug. 
A second insurrection: Count Latour, the war 
minister, is murdered . F 6 Oct. 
The emperor again takes flight . : Oct. 
Vienna is bombarded by Windischgratz and 
Jellachich, 28 Oct. ; its capitulation . 30 Oct. 
Conferences respecting the Russo-Turkish war held 
at Vienna* = : ; : : 2 I 
The fortifications demolished, and the city enlarged 
and beautified ; : : ; A ; xe 
The imperial parliament (Reichsrath) assembles 


here - ; : 2 F . 31 May, 
The Prussians encamp near Vienna ; state of siege 
proclaimed : & : ; . -  wulyg 
Visited by the sultan , 27 July, 


New palace of the fine arts founded by the emperor 
about 18 Sept. 
The great international exhibition opened by the 
emperor ; the prince of Wales and many digni- 
taries present : ¥ 4 : : r May, . 
[The enormous building with annexes was designed 
by Mr. Scott Russell, most ably supported by the 
Austrian engineers; the grand central rotunda, 
312 feet in diameter, with lofty dome, is an 


* A conference of the four great powers, Eng! 
France, Austria, and Prussia, was held 24 July, wh 
note was agreed on and transmitted for acceptance t 
Petersburg and Constantinople, 31 July. This note 
accepted by the czar, 10 Aug., but the sultan requ 
modifications, which were rejected by Russia, 7 § 
The sultan’s note (31 Dec.) contained four point 
1. The promptest possible evacuation of the pr 
palities. 2. Revision of the treaties. 3. Mainten 
of religious privileges to the communities of all 
fessions. 4. A definite settlement of the conventio 
specting the holy places. It was approved by the 
powers, and the conferences closed on 16 Jan. 1854 
new conference of plenipotentiaries, from Great Br 
(lord John Russell), France (M. Drouyn de 1H 
Austria (count Buol), Turkey (Arif Effendi), and Ri 
(count Gortschakoff), took place, March, 1854. 
points, the protectorate of the principalities and the 
navigation of the Danube, were agreed to ; but the 
posals of the powers as to the reduction of the Rus 
power in the Black Sea were rejected by the czar, am 
conference closed, 5 June, 1854. The English and Fr 
envoys’ assent to the Austrian propositions was no 
proved of by their governments, and they both resi 
their official positions. 


VIENNE. 


caggerated Pantheon, suspended on iron girders 
. place of masonry, and dwarfs St. Peter’s at 
ome. ] 
at financial failures ; affect all Europe, o May, 
t of the ezar, 1-7 June; of the shah of Persia, 
30 July, ,, 
res to exhibitors presented by the archduke 
Ibert. : 5 < A ; EE ICLAU CS oss 
4 of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy, 17-22 


ept. ; of the emperor of Germany 17-23 Oct. ,, 
berworks inaugurated by the emperor 24 Oct. ,, 
exhibition closed A : QIN OVe ss 
v bed of the Danube inaugurated 30 May, 1876 


ann Zich throws a stone at Russian ambassador 

rg Jan. 

ERA OTL ss 
caused by the 
447. persons 
1881 3 [accusa- 


srmational art exhibition opened 
Ring theatre destroyed by fire, 
ll of .a large spirit lamp, 
erished out of about 2000, 8 Dec. 
ons of culpable negligence] ; imprisonment 
ecreed . 2 : i z A 16 May, ,, 
t of shoemakers and others suppressed by mili- 
ary . ‘ : : c : A —8 Nov. ,, 
ernational exhibition of graphic art, Ne. 

15 Sept.—1 Nov. 
etrie exhibition A - 16 Aug.—3 Nov. ,, 
sentenary of the siege raised by John Sobieski, 
ing of Poland, celebrated z2Sept. ,, 
. imperial parliament meets in its new grand 
ouse early in . ; : ‘ : ene Deere «5. 
ch disaffection, see Austria 3 : . Jan. 
ful storm; destruction of life and property 

10 Dee, *;; 


TREATIES OF VIENNA. 


The treaty between the emperor of Germany and the 
ing of Spain, by which they confirmed to each 
ther such parts of the Spanish dominions as they 
rere respectively possessed of ; and bya private treaty 
he emperor engaged to employ a force to procure the 
estoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means 
xr placing the Pretender on the throne of Great 
ritain. Spain guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction. 
o April, 1725. 

lreaty of alliance between the emperor of Germany, 
tharles VI., George II., king of Great Britain, and 
he states of Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanc- 
ion was guaranteed, and the disputes as to the 
ypanish succession terminated. (Spain acceded to 
he treaty on the 22nd of July.) Signed 16 March, 


I. 

feeaty of peace between the emperor Charles VI. of 
rermany and the king of France, Louis XV., by which 
he latter power agreed to guarantee the Pragmatic 
janction, and Lorraine was ceded to France. Signed 
8 Nov. 1738; see Pragmatic Sanction. 

Treaty between Napoleon I. of France and Francis 
II. of Germany) I. of Austria, by which Austria ceded 
o France the Tyrol, Dalmatia, and other territories, 
vhich were shortly afterwards declared to be united 
o France under the title of the Illyrian Provinces, and 
ngaged to adhere to the prohibitory system adopted 
owards England by France and Russia. 14 Oct. 


Treaty between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and 
russia, confirming the principles on which they had 
eted by the treaty of Chaumont, 1 Mar. 1814. Signed 
3 March, 181s. 
Treaty between the king of the Netherlands on the 
ne part, and Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and 
russia on the other, agreeing to the enlargement of 
he Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in 
he house of Orange. 31 May, 1815. 
Treaty by which Denmark ceded Swedish Pomerania 
nnd Rugen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenburg. 
| June, 1815. 
Commercial treaty for twelve years between Austria 
ind Prussia. Signed at Vienna, 19 Feb. 1853. 
Treaty for the maintenance of Turkey, by the repre- 
sentatives of Great Britain, France, Austria, and 
Russia. Signed g April, 1854. 
Treaty between Austria and Prussia and Denmark, 
by which Denmark ceded the duchies. 30 Oct. 1864. 
Treaty of peace between Austria and Italy ; Venetia 
ziven up to Italy. 3 Oct. 1866. 


VIENNE, the ancient Vienna Allobrogum 
.E. France). Here the emperor Valentinian II. 


¥ 


893 


VIMIERA. 


was put to death by Arbogastes, 15 May, 392, anda 
short reaction in favour of paganism followed. 
Vienne was capital of the kingdom of Burgundy in 
432 and 879, and sometimes gave its name to the 
kingdom. A ‘general council was held here in 
131 : . Vienne was annexed to the French monarchy, 
1448. 

VIGILANCE MuRrDER ASSOCIATION, see 
Ireland, 1883. 


VIGO (N. W. Spain) was attacked and burned 
by the English, under Drake and Norris in 1589. 
Sir George Rooke, with the combined English and 
Dutch fleets, attacked the French fleet and the 
Spanish galleons in the port of Vigo, when several 
men-of-war and galleons were taken, and many 
destroyed, and abundance of plate and other 
valuable effects fell into the hands of the conquerors, 
12 Oct. 1702. Vigo was taken by lord Cobham 
in 1719, but relinquished after raising contribu- 
Noe It was again taken by the British, 27 March, 
1809. 


VIKINGS. Scandinavian chiefs, Swedes, 
Danes, and Norsemen, who in the 4th century 
migrated—eastward, to the countries beyond the 
Baltic; westward and southward, chiefly to the 
British isles. 


VILLA FRANCA. Near here, and Llerena, 
Spain, the British cavalry, under sir Stapleton 
Cotton, defeated the French cavalry under marshal 
Soult, 11 April, 1812,— VILLA FRANCA, a small 
port on the Mediterranean, near Genoa, was bought 
for a steam-packet station by a Russian company, 
about Aug. 1858, which caused some _ political 
excitement.—At VILLA FRANCA, in Lombardy, 
the emperors of France and Austria met, on II July, 
1859 (after the battle of Solferino), and on 12 July 
signed the preliminaries of peace, the basis of the 
treaty of Zurich (which see). 


VILLA VICIOSA. 1. in Portugal. Here 
the Portuguese, under the French general Schom- 
berg, defeated the Spaniards, 1665. 2. in Castile, 
Spain. Here the struggle for the Spanish crown 
was decided in favour of Philip V. by Vendéme’s 
victory over Staremberg and the Austrians, 10 Dec. 
1710. 


VILLAIN, 
England, — 


VILLE DE HAVRE, French Atlantic mail 
steamer, 5,100 tons, sailed from New York for 
Havre, I H Noy. 1873; was run into by a Glasgow 
clipper, Lochearn, about 2 a.m., 22 Nov., and sank 
in twelve minutes; 226 out of 313 persons perished. 


The crew of the Lochearn rescued 87, who were 
conveyed to Cardiff by the American vessel T'ri- 


or VILLEIN, see Slavery in 


Mountain, capt. Urquhart, arriving there x Dec. 1873 
The Lochearn, beginning to sink, 28 Noy., was aban- 
doned by her crew, who were rescued by the 
British Queen, and brought to Plymouth 7 Dee. ,, 
On judicial examination, the Lochearn was exone- 
rated in England, but censured in France Jan. 1874 
VILLETA (Paraguay, South America). Here 


Lopez and the Paraguayans were totally defeated 
by the Brazilians and their allies, 11 Dec. 1868. 
Lopez and 200 men fled; 3000 prisoners were made ; 
and the war was considered to be ended. 


VIMIERA (in Portugal), where the British 
and Spanish forces, under sir Arthur Wellesley, 
defeated the French, under marshal Junot, duke of 
Abrantes, 21 Aug. 1808. The attack, made with 
great bravery, was gallantly repulsed; it was 
repeated by Kellermann at the head of the French 
reserve, which was also repulsed. The French, 


VINCENNES. 


894 


VIRGIN ISLANDS. 


charged with the bayonet, withdrew on all points 
in confusion, leaving many prisoners. 


VINCENNES, a strong castle near Paris; a 
residence of the French kings from the 12th to the 
14th centuries. Henry V. of England died at the 
Bois de Vincennes, 31 Aug. 1422. At the fosse of 
the castle, Louis duc d’Enghien was shot by order 
of Napoleon, after a hasty trial, early on the morn- 
ing of 22 March, 1804. 


VINCENT, Care Sr. (S. W. Portugal). 
See Cape St. Vincent, and Rodney’s Victories. 


VINCENT, ST. (West Indies), long a neutral 
island ; but at the peace of 1763, the French agreed 
that the right to it should be vested in the English. 
The latter soon after engaged in a war against the 
Caribs, on the windward side of the island, who 
were obliged to consent to a peace, by which they 
ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. In 
1779 the Caribs greatly contributed to the reduction 
of this island by the French, who, however, restored 
it in 1783. In 1795 the French landed some 
troops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insur- 
rection, which was not subdued for several months. 
The great eruption of the Souftriere mountain, after 
the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812. 
Population in 1861, 31,755; in 1881, 40,548. 


VINCENT DE PAUL, ST., CHARITABLE 
SocrEry, founded in 1833, in France, by twelve 
young men. It extends its extremely beneficial 
operations into Britain. Its power excited the 
jealousy of the French government, which sup- 
pressed its central committee of Paris, in Oct. 1861. 
St. Vincent de Paul was born, 1576; established 
the congregation of Lazarists, or Vincentines, 162 3 
Sisters of Charity, 1634; a foundling hospital, 1648. 
He died 1660. 


VINCY, N. France. Here Charles Martel 
defeated the Neustrians, 21 May, 717, and acquired 
their country. 


VINE. The vine was planted by Noah, 2347 
B.C. Gen. ix. 20. A colony of vine-dressers from 
Phocea, in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and in- 
structed the South Gauls in tillage, vine-dressing, 
and commerce, about 600 B.c. Some think that 
vines are aborigines of Languedoc, Provence, and 
Sicily, and that they grew spontaneously on the 
Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. 
The vine was carried into Champagne, and part of 
Germany, by the emperor Probus, about A.D. 279. 
The vine and sugar-cane were planted in Madeira 
in 1420. In the gardens of Hampton-court palace 
is an old and celebrated vine, said to surpass any 
known vine in Europe; see Grapes, and Wine. 
The Tokay vines were planted in 1350. 

Vine Disease. In the spring of 1845, Mr. E. Tucker, of 
Margate, observed a fungus (since named Otdiwm 
Tucker) on grapes in the hot-houses of Mr. Slater, of 
Margate. Itis a whitish mildew, and totally destroys 
the fruit. 

The spores of this oidiwm were found in the vineries at 
Versailles in 1847. The disease soon reached the trel- 
lised vines, and in 1850 many lost all their produce. 

In 1852, it spread over France, Italy, Spain, Syria, and 
in Zante and Cephalonia attacked the currants, reduc- 
ing the crop to one-twelfth of the usual amount. 

Through its ravages, the wine manufacture in Madeira 
ceased for several years. 

Many attempts have been made to arrest the progress of 
this disease, but without much effect. Sulphur dustis 
the most efficacious remedy. 

The disease had much abated in France, Portugal, and 
Madeira, in 1863. -In 1862 Californian vines were 
introduced into the two latter. 

New malady (microscopic insect, phylloxera vastatrix). 
in 8. France, observed . : 7 - 1865 


Remedy, sulphuret of carbon, recommended by 
M. Dumas ; ‘ ‘ ; : Aug. ; 
Not successful ; great destruction; 12,0001. offered 
foraremedy . : , : ; . duly; 
Phylloxera prevalent in Malaga and France; reported 
July, Aug. 1878; Portugal, Italy, Spain ; Sept.- 
Noy. 1879; appears in Victoria, Australia, Nov. - 
Phylloxera congress at Bordeaux Io—15 Oct. : 
The phylloxera is said to be exterminated in Swit- 
zerland by fire . - A : = Novae 
Phylloxera ravaging vines on the Douro; conse- 
quent emigrations to Brazil . 7 Feb. 
Phylloxera checked in W. France ; prosperous vin- 
tages . : : ue A ‘ ‘ier a: 
VINEGAR. The ancients had several ki 
which they used for drink. The Roman sold 
were accustomed to take it in their marches. ' 
Bible represents Boaz, a rich citizen of Bethleh 
as providing vinegar for his reapers (1312 B.C.) 
custom still prevalent in Spain and Italy. 


VINEGAR-HILL (near Enniscorthy, 
Wexford, S. E. Ireland). Here the Irish reb 
headed by father John, a priest, encamped and e« 
mitted many outrages on the surrounding count 
They were gradually surrounded by the Brit 
troops, commanded by Lake, 21 June, 1798, : 
after a fierce struggle, with much slaughter, tot: 
dispersed. 


VINTNERS, see Victuallers. 


VIOL AnD VioLtn. The lyre of the Gre 
became our harp, and the viol of the middle a 
became the violin. The violin is mentioned as e: 
as 1200, in the legendary life of St. Christopher. 
was introduced into England, some say, by Cha 
II. Straduarius (or Stradivarius) of Cremona, 
a renowned violin-maker (1700 to 1722). ' 
eminent violinist Paganini visited England, 18 
died at Nice, 27 May, 1840. 


VIRGINALS; an early keyed instrumen: 
the kind termed clavichords; used in the 16th : 
17th centuries; played on by queen Elizabeth ; 
Mary queen of Scots. According to Johnson 
owed its name to young women being the us 
performers. Tallis, Morley, Purcell, Gibbons, : 
Bull composed for this instrument. 


VIRGINIA, see Rome, 449 B.c. 


VIRGINIA, the first British settlement 
North America, was discovered by John Cabot 
1497, and was taken possession of and named 
Raleigh, after the virgin-queen Elizabeth, 13 Ji 
1584. Vain attempts were made to settle it in 15 
Two expeditions were formed by patent in 1606, : 
others in 1610. In 1626 it reverted to the croy 
and a more permanent colony was established s 
afterwards. George Washington was delegate 
Virginia in the congress of 1774. Eastern Virgi 
seceded from the Union, 25 April, 1861, but West: 
Virginia declared for the Union, 13 Feb. and elec 
a governor, 20 Feb. 1861. Virginia was a chief s 
of the war. The state was readmitted to the ct 
gress, Jan.-Feb. 1870; see United States, and Ru 
mond. 


VIRGINIA CITY, see Nevada. 


VIRGIN ISLANDS (West Indies), an easte 
group discovered by Columbus, (1494): Viv 
Gorda, Tortola, Anegada, &c., and the Danish I 
St. Thomas, Santa Cruz, and St. John. 


Tortola settled by Dutch buccaneers about 16483. 
expelled by the English (who have held it since) 1 

St. Thomas settled by Danes 1672, and St. John 
afew years after; held by the British 1801-23 
1807-15; proposed sale to the United States for 
1,500,500l. to be made a ‘‘territory.” Danish 
proclamation, 25 Oct. 1867; purchase- declined 
by U.S. senate. a, 23 March, May, 1 


- VIRGINIUS. 


895 


VLADIMIR. 


ee 


a dreadful hurricane off St. Thomas, the Royal 
fail steamers Rhone and Wye were entirely 
yrecked ; the Conway and Derwent, and above 50 
ither vessels, driven ashore ; about rooo persons 
aid to have perished. 

ch suffering occasioned in Tortola ; houses blown 
‘own or unroofed, &c. (a report reached London 


hat the isle was submerged) ‘ - 29 Oct. 1867 
tthquake at St. Thomas’s and other isles; much 
amage ; few lives lost NOV. ass 


ita Cruz. A negro insurrection, in which M. Fon- 
aine, a planter, was killed ; Fredrikstadt and 36 
ut of 50 sugar plantations were burnt, and about 
ooo whites rendered homeless. During the sup- 
ression by col. Garde, the governor, about 200 
egroes were killed A : 1-5 Oct. 1878 


VIRGINIUS, American blockade-runner, see 
ba, 1873. 


VIRGIN MARY. The Assumption of the 
‘gin is a festival in the Greek and Latin churches, 
honour of the miraculous ascent of Mary into 
‘ven, according to their belief, 15 Aug. A.D. 45. 
2 Presentation of the Virgin is a feast celebrated 
Noy., said to have been instituted among the 
»eks in the 11th century; its institution in the 
‘st is ascribed to pope Gregory XI. 1372; see 
muncration, and Conception, Immaculate. 


VIRTUE, LEAGUE OF, see Tugendbund. 


JISCONTI, the name of a noble Italian 
uly, which ruled in Milan from about 1277 to 
7; the heiress of the family was married to 
tneesco Sforza, who became duke 1450. 


TISCOUNT (Vice Comes), anciently the name 
the deputy of an earl. The first viscount in 
land created by patent was John, lord Beaumont, 
om Henry VI. created viscount Beaumont, giving 
1 precedence above all barons, 10 Feb. 1440. 
hmole. _'This title is of older date in Ireland and 
ince. John Barry, lord Barry, was made vis- 
nt Buttevant, in Ireland, 9g Rich. II. 138s. 
vison. 


7ISIBLE SPEECH, a term applied by Mr. 
x. Melville Bell to his ‘‘ Universal Self-Inter- 
ting Physiological Alphabet,’’ comprising thirty 
ibols representing the conformations of the 
uth when uttering sounds: He stated that about 
y different types would be required to print all 
ywn languages with these symbols. He ex- 
inded his system to the Society of Arts, London, 
March, 1806; and published a book in 1867. 


7ISIGOTHS, separated from the Ostrogoths 
ut 33°; see Goths. The emperor Valens, about 
, admitted them into the Roman territories upon 
condition of their serving when wanted in the 
nan armies; and Theodosius the Great permitted 
m to form distinct corps commanded by their own 
vers. In 400, under Alaric, they invaded Italy, 
{in 410 took Rome. They founded their king- 
1 of Toulouse, 414; conquered the Alani, and 
ended their rule into Spain, 414; expelled the 
nans in 468; and finally were themselves con- 
red by the Saracens under Muza, in 711, when 
ir last king, Roderic, was defeated and slain ; see 
wn for a list of the Visigothic kings. Their rule 
France ended with their defeat by Clovis at 
iglé, in 507. 


TISITATIONS, see Heralds. 


ITAL FORCE, defined by Humboldt “as an 
mown cause preventing the elements from obey- 
their primitive affinities.’ This theory is now 
osed by many physiologists, and animal motion 
ittributed to muscular and nervous irritability, 
strated by the researches of Galvani, Humboldt, 


sir Charles Bell, Marshall Hall, and others. The 
subject has been much discussed recently by Huxley 
and other eminent physiologists. 


VITI ISLES, see Fiy?. 
VITTORIA (N. Spain), the site of a victory 


obtained by Wellington over the French army com- 
manded by Joseph’ Bonaparte, king of Spain, and 
marshal Jourdan, 21 June, 1813. The hostile armies 
were nearly equal, from 70,000 to 75,000 each. 
After a long and fearful battle, the French were 
driven, towards evening, through the town of Vit- 
toria, and in their retreat were thrown into irre- 
trievable confusion. The British loss was 22 officers 
and 479 men killed; 167 officers and 2040 men 
wounded. Marshal Jourdan lost 151 pieces of can- 
non, 451 waggons of ammunition, all his baggage, 
provisions, cattle, and treasure, with his biton as a 
marshal of France. Continuing the pursuit on the 
25th, Wellington took Jourdan’s only remaining 
gun. 


VIVARIUM, see Aguavivarium. 
VIVISECTION. — Physiological experiments 


upon living animals having much increased, the 
societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals in 
Dresden and Paris in 1859 requested the opinion of 
a committee of eminent scientific men on the merits 
of the knowledge thus acquired. Their judgment 
was not unanimous. The London society took up 
the question in 1860; and printed a pamphlet by 
Mr. G. Macilwain against vivisection. In Aug. 
1862 an international conference to discuss the 
question was held at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. 
The subject was discussed in 1866, and a prize 
awarded by the London society. Sir Charles Bell’s 
opinion of vivisection was, that it either obscured 
the subject it was meant to illustrate, or misled men 
into practical errors of the most serious character. 


Discussion revived in consequence of the prosecu- 
tion of Dr. Schiff in Florence, who justitied vivi- 
section when chloroform or any other anzsthetic 
is used : : i : : ; : I 

Rival societies: 1. Society for the abolition of 
vivisection, 1875 ; 2. International Association for 
total suppression of vivisection : : . 1876 

Commission (viscount Cardwell, professor Huxley 
and others) to inquire into the practice, appointed 
23 June, 1875; report signed, 8 Jan. : published, 
March, 1876 ; a bill to regulate vivisection (cruelty 
to animals act) brought into parliament ; strongly 
opposed by the medical profession in general, 
June, July; passed, r5 Aug. 1876. Vivisectors 
are to have a licence or certificate. 

Resolution in favour of vivisection passed by the 
International Medical Congress, London 9 Aug. 

The prosecution of prof. Ferrier (who had experi- 
mented on the brains of monkeys under anes- 
thetics) and others failed . : 4 - Nov. 

Dr. Koch, of Berlin, demonstrates that tubercular 
Seer can be propagated by organisms termed 
IACULLL . . . . . . . . '¢ 

Mr. R. T. Reid’s bill to prohibit Vivisection, talked 
Otter: ‘ = 5 = z : 4 April, 

Report for 1883: Great Britain, 44 licences Upon 
experiments ; Ireland, 8 licences : 34 experiments: 
anzesthetics employed when required. 

Instructed by Dr. Ferrier’s vivisection experiments 
Dr. Hughes Bennett localized in a man’s brain a 
tumour, which was removed by Mr. Godlee 


25 Nov. 1884 

VIZIER, GRanp, an officer of the Ottoman 
Porte, said to have been first appointed by Amu- 
rath I., about 1386. The office was abolished in 


1838 ; but since been frequently revived and sup- 
pressed, 


VLADIMIR (central Russia), a city founded in 
the 12th century, and the capital ‘of a grand duchy 
from 1157 to about 1328. 


873-6 


VOCALION. 


VOCALION, a new musical instrument in 
which tones are produced from strings made to 
vibrate by currents of air, the joint invention of Mr. 
James Baillie Hamilton and Mr. John Farmer 
assisted by Mr. Hermann Smith, described and 
illustrated by Mr. Hamilton at the Royal Institu- 
tion, 21 May, 1875, and tried successfully at 
Harrow, 23 March, 1882, and soon after at West- 
minster Abbey ; and at other places. 


VOIRON, see Veseronce. 
VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth 


there are above 200 volcanoes which have been 
active in modern times; see Etna, Vesuvius, and 
Iceland. In Mexico, a plain was filled up into a 
mountain more than a thousand feet in height by 
the burning lava from a volcano, in 1759. A vol- 
cano in the isle of Ferro broke out 13 Sept. 1777, 
which threw out an immense quantity of red water, 
that discoloured the sea for several leagues. A new 
volcano appeared in one of the Azore islands, I May, 


1808. 
VOLHYNIA, a Polish province, annexed to 


Russia 1793. 


VOLSCI, an ancient Latin people, frequently at 
war with the Romans. From their capital, Corioli, 
Caius Martius (who defeated them about 490 B.C.) 
derived his name Coriolanus. The story of his 
banishment by his ungrateful countrymen; of his 
revenge on them by bringing the Volsci to the gates 
of Rome, yet afterwards sparing the city at the 
entreaties of his mother, Volumnia (487 B.c.), is 
considered by many as a poetical legend. The 
Volsci and their allies were totally defeated at 
Sutrium by the consul Valerius Corvus (346), and 
incorporated with the Roman people about 338. 


VOLSINII, the inhabitants of an Etrurian city, 
who, after a sharp contest, were completely over- 
come by the Roman consul Titus Coruncanius, 
280 B.C. 


VOLTAIC PILE or BATTERY, was con- 
structed by Galvani; see Galvanism in article 
Electricity. The principle was discovered by Ales- 
sandro Volta, of Como (born 1745), for thirty years 
professor of natural philosophy at Pavia, and an- 
nounced by him to the Royal Society of London in 
1793. The battery was first set up in 1800, Volta 
savas made an Italian count and senator by Napoleon 
Bonaparte, and was otherwise greatly honoured. 
While young he invented the electrophorus, electric 
pistol, and hydrogen lamp. He died in 1826, aged 
81. The form of the Voltaic battery has been greatly 
improved by the researches of modern philosophers. 
"The nitric acid battery of sir W. KR. Grove was 
constructed in 1839; Alfred Smee’s battery in 1840; 
ithe carbon battery of professor Robert Bunsen in 
1842. The first is very much used in this country ; 
that of Bunsen on the continent, see Copper-Zine 
Couple. 


VOLTURNO, a river in §. Italy, near Capua, 
mear to which Garibaldi and his followers held a 
strong position. This was furiously assailed by the 
royal troops on I Oct. 1860, who were finally re- 
pulsed after a desperate struggle, the fiercest in 
which Garibaldi had yet been engaged. He was 
aided greatly by a band of Piedmontese from 
Naples. On 2 Oct. general Bixio completed the 
victory by capturing 2500 fresh Neapolitan troops 
and dispersing others. 

VOLUNTARY CONTRIBUTIONS. Pub- 


lic contributions for the support of the British 
government against the policy and designs of 


896 


VOLUNTEERS. ' 


France amounted to two millions and a half s 
ling in 1798. About 200,000/. were transmitte 
England from ‘India in 1799. Sir Robert Pee 
Bury, among other contributions of equal amor 
subscribed 10,0007. Annual Register; see 
triotic Fund. In 1862 nearly a million pounds y 
subscribed in the British empire for the relief of 
Lancashire cotton spinners ; see Cotton and Man: 
House, where voluntary contributions for benefit 
purposes are continually received. 


VOLUNTEERS were enrolled in England 
the American war, 1778, and especially in co: 
quence of the threatened invasion of revolutior 
France, 1793-4. Besides our large army, 
85,000 men voted for the sea, we subsidised 40, 
Germans, raised our militia to 100,000 men, 
armed the citizens as volunteers; the yeoma 
formed cavalry regiments. Between 1798 and I 
when this force was of greatest amount, it m 
bered 410,000, of which 70,000 were Irish; * } 
manry in 1884, 11,400. On 26 Oct. 1803, k 
George III. reviewed in Hyde Park 12,401 Lon 
volunteers, and on 28 Oct. 14,676 more. The E 
lish volunteers were, according to official accou 
341,600 on I Jan. 1804; see Naval Volunteers. 
May, 1859, in consequence of the prevalence of 
fear of a French invasion, the formation of vol 
teer corps of riflemen commenced under the ausp 
of the government, and by the end of the } 
many thousands were enrolled in all parts of 
kingdom. The volunteers were said to be ‘‘a f 
potentially the strongest defence of England,” 
April, 1870; see Artillery Association, and Ne 
Artillery Volunteer Force. 


YEOMANRY were enrolled by lord Chatham in 176r. 
The present 49 regiments of cavalry (about 300 
each), cost 80,co0l. : ; . : : 5 

[The first Middlesex volunteers were formed in 
1803 as the duke of Cumberland’s sharpshooters. 
They retained their organisation as a rifle club, 
when other volunteers were disbanded. In 1835 
they were permitted by the duchess of Kent to 
take the name of the Royal Victoria Rifle Club.] 

Circular letter from col. Jonathan Peel, proposing 
organization of National Volunteer Association for 
promoting the practice of Rifle-shooting, 12 May, 
1859. It was established in London, under the 
patronage of the queen and prince consort, Mr. 
Sidney (afterwards lord) Herbert, secretary at 
war, president, and the earl of Derby and other 
noblemen vice-presidents. (Annual subscription 
one guinea, or a composition for life of ten guineas) 

16 Nov. | 

2500 volunteer officers presented to the queen; a 
dinner followed, with the duke of Cambridge in 
the chair; andaball . 4 ~ - 7March, - 

The queen reviews about 18,450 volunteers in 
Hyde-park ; ‘ : : : 23 June, 

[Mr. Tower, of Wealdhall, Essex, aged 80, was pre- 
sent as a private; he had been present as an 
officer in a volunteer review in 1803.] 


; 


* The first regiment of Irish volunteers was for 
at Dublin, under command of the duke of Leinste! 
Oct. 1779. They armed generally to the amoun’ 
20,000 men, and received the unanimous thanks of 
houses of lords and commons in Ireland, for t 
patriotism and spirit, for coming forward and defen¢ 
their country. At the period when the force appea 
Irish affairs bore a serious aspect; manufactures 
decreased, and foreign trade had been hurt by a — 
hibition of the export of salted provisions and but 
No notice of the complaints of the people had been ta 
in the English parliament, when, owing to the alari 
an invasion, ministers allowed the nation to arm, abi 
immense force was soon raised. The Irish took 
occasion to demand a free trade, and government 
there was no trifling with a country with arms in 
hands. The Irish parliament unanimously addressed 
king for a free trade, and it was granted, 1779. 


VOLUNTEERS. 


rst meeting of the National Association for rifle- 
shooting held at Wimbledon; captain Edw. Ross 
(North York) obtained the queen’s prize of 25o0l. 
and the gold medal and badge of the association 
2-7 July, 
[M. Thorel, a Swiss, obtained a prize. ] 
iecessful sham-fight at Bromley, Kent 14 July, 
20VE 20,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at 
Edinburgh : : - : : . 7 Aug. 
90Ve 10,000 Lancashire volunteers reviewed by 
the earl of Derby at Knowsley . . wa Sept. 
rd Herbert stated that the association had a 
capital of 3000l. and an annual income of r5o00l., 
16 Feb. 
Junteers in Britain estimated at about 160,000, 

May, 

cond meeting at Wimbledon; Mr. Jopling (8. 
Middlesex) gains the queen’s prize and the asso- 
ciation medal . r Fy ‘ ‘ 4-10 July, 
view of 11,504 volunteers at Wimbledon, 13 July; 
of g000 at Warwick : bh < 24 July, 
istered number of volunteers, 162,681 1 April, 
ooo volunteers reviewed by lord Clyde at 
Brighton , 5 : ‘ : . 21 April, 
vird meeting at Wimbledon; Mr. Pixley (8. Vic- 
toria) gains the queen’s prize, &c. 1-14 July, 
commission recommends that an annual grant of 
either 208., 308., or 348., be given to each volun- 
teer according to circumstances : a OCU: 
urth meeting at Wimbledon, 7 July, &c.; queen’s 
prize, &c., won by sergeant Roberts (z2th Shrop- 


shire). : 4 P . ; 14 July, 
1 act to amend and consolidate the acts relating 


to the volunteer force of Great Britain was passed, 
21 July, 
ooo volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales 
in Hyde-park (great improvement noticed), 
28 May, 
fth meeting at Wimbledon, 11 July, &c.; the 
ueen’s prize, &c., won by private John Wyatt 
fe oreclrn rifle brigade) : 23 July, 
lunteers estimated at 165,000 in 1864. 
rth meeting at Wimbledon, began 11 July; the 
queen’s prize was won by private Sharman (4th 
West York), 18 July; the meeting ended with a 
review by the duke of Cambridge 22 July, 
venth meeting at Wimbledon, began g July; 
queen’s prize won by Angus Cameron (6th Inver- 
ness), 17 July; the value of about 7oool. distri- 
buted in prizes; and review by duke of Cam- 
bridge . : ‘ 3 : ar July, 
1e volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales at 
Brighton, 2 April; at York, 11 Aug.; by duke of 
Cambridge at Hyde-park . 23 June, 
stimate of volunteers: 135,000 infantry, 27,000 
artillery, and 4000 engineers.—Times . g Oct. 
bout 1100 volunteers visit Brussels, headed by col. 
Loyd Lindsay : warmly received; first prize 
gained by Curtis, of the 11th Sussex rifles, 
11-22 Oct. 
arliamentary vote for volunteers, 361,009l. 

6 June, 
etropolitan and Berkshire volunteers reviewed in 
Windsor Great Park . : é . Io June, 
ighth meeting at Wimbledon, began 8 July; Bel- 
gian Garde civique and volunteers (above 2000) 
received by prince of Wales, 13 July; resignation 
of lord Elcho, chairman of the council; succeeded 
by earl Spencer, 18 July; grand review by prince 
of Wales, the sultan, &c.; the queen’s prize given 
to sergeant Lane (Bristol) by the princess of Teck, 

20 July, 
rand review in New Sefton park, Liverpool, 5 Oct. 
bout 28,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at 
Windsor . f : ; : : . 20 June, 
aview of regulars and volunteers at Edinburgh, 

4 July, 
inth meeting at Wimbledon, 13 July; the queen’s 
prize gained by lieut. Carslake (sth PE alae 

25 July, 
rd Elcho re-elected chairman of the council (earl 
Spencerresigned) . . ier, . Feb. 
emorial to government respecting the capitation 
grant; signed by noblemen and gentlemen, 

; 19 Feb. 
olunteers reported to number 170,000 . . ; 
eview of volunteers of southern and western 
counties at Portsmouth . 26 April, 


ap 


897 


9 


1865 


VOLUNTEERS. 


Tenth meeting at Wimbledon 3 July; queen’s prize 
gained by corporal Angus Cameron (6th Inver- 
ness), 2nd time, 13 July; grand review 24 July, 

Volunteers’ act, 1863, amended ; s EPORAIE: 

“Army Service Corps” to be composed of volun- 
teers; established by royal warrant 12 Nov. 

Eleventh meeting at Wimbledon, rz July; queen’s 
prize won by corporal Humphries (6th Surrey), 

19 July, 

Letter from the lord mayor recommending the en- 
largement of the volunteer system, and its greater 
efficiency . ; , : 22 Sept. 

Establishment of an extensive rifle range, drill 
ground, armoury, &., for the London volunteers 
resolved on : : é , : 1 3, 0c. 

Distribution of breech-loaders commenced Noy. 

Lord Elcho (chairman) resigned; succeeded by the 
earl of Ducie . : c : ! : June, 

Twelfth meeting at Wimbledon, 8 July; queen’s 
prize won by ensign A. P. Humphry, undergra- 
duate (Cambridge university), aged 19 » 18 July, 

Vote for volunteer force, 1872-3, 473,200l. 24 June, 

Thirteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 8 July; queen’s 
prize won by colour-sergeant Michie (London 
Scottish) . g : : : : 16 July, 

The Elcho shield, the International trophy, and the 
Irish International trophy (all won by the Eng- 
lish) placed in the custody of the lord mayor, 

27 July, 

Some volunteers visit Ghent . 14-21 Sept. 

Fourteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 7 July; queen’s 
prize won by sergeant Robert Menzies (ast Edin- 


burgh) ‘ , ‘ ‘ : ‘ 15 July, 
Volunteers visit Havre ; shoot for prizes ; 50 obtain 
prizes, end of May ; given 29 June, 


Fifteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 6 July; queen’s 
prize won by private W. C. Atkinson (1st Durham) 
14 July, 
An ‘efficient volunteer” defined by order in 
council (substitute for schemes of 27 July, 1863, 
and 16 Oct. 1872) . : : ; : ug. 
Resignation of earl of Ducie as chairman . April,’ 
Sixteenth meeting at Wimbledon, r2 July ; queen’s 
prize won by capt. George Pearse (15th Devon) 
20 July, 
175,387 enrolled volunteers 1874 ; 181,080, : ; 
30,000 volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales 
in Hyde Park (‘‘ complete success.’’—Times. ) 
i July, 
Seventeenth meeting at Wimbledon, -10-22 July: 
queen’s prize won by sergeant Pullman, 2nd 
(South) Middlesex. : 2 18 July, 
185,501 enrolled volunteers. : : : ; 
Eighteenth meeting at Wimbledon, o-21 July; 
queen’s prize won by private George Jamieson 
(a Scot), of rsth Lancashire corps (Liverpool) 
17 July, 
Nineteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 8-20 July; 
queen’s prize won by private Peter Ray (a Scot), 
mith Stirling : : ° a 16 July, 
203,213 enrolled volunteers : : 5 Noy. 
Twentieth meeting at Wimbledon, 14-26 July; 
queen’s prize won by corporal George Taylor, 
47th Lancashire. : : ; . 22 July, 
Tnternational trophy won by England 19 July, 
Standard of efficiency : 69 per cent. 1863; 85 per 
cent. 1868 ; 96 per cent. : é : : ‘ 
Earl Stanhope elected chairman in room of earl 
Wharncliffe . - ° : : : May, 
Twenty-first meeting at Wimbledon, r2—24 July; 
Queen's prize won by Alexander Ferguson, private 
ist Argyll . 3 . i ; 21 July, 
Bast York volunteer artillery corps resign on ac- 
count of dismissal of col. Humphrey (through 
continued personal disagreements), 16 June; 
resignations said to be illegal . 29 June, 
Sergeant Wm. Marshman, tried by court-martial for 
alleged fraudulent marking at the rifle meetings, 
1878, 1879, 1880, acquitted 13 Aug.—16 Sept. 
Earl Stanhope, chairman, succeeded by earl Brown- 
low... i ; ¢ ‘ “ . 4 May, 
Twenty-second meeting at Wimbledon, r1-23 July; 
queen’s prize won by private Thomas Beck, 3rd 
Devony srs aii. - : . 19 July 
Twenty-third meeting at Wimbledon, ro—22 July ; 
queen’s prize won by sergeant Lawrence, rst 


Dumbarton . 5 A 18 July, 
Enrolled volunteers, 207,336 « : 4 1 Nov. 
M 


1882 


” 


VOSSEM. 


898 


—- 


VULGATE. 


Twenty-fourth meeting at Wimbledon, 9—21 July; 
queen’s prize won by sergeant Mackay, 1st 
Sutherland aieoas “ ~ . 17 July, 

International rifle match between British and 
Americans : won by British . ari July, 

Twenty-fifth meeting at Wimbledon, 14—26 July ; 
queen’s prize won by private Gallant, 8th Mid- 
dlesex . : 3 5 : A 22 July, 

Volunteers exercised in camping out ; sham conflicts 
in Berkshire and other counties Aug. 

Enrolled volunteers, 208,000 . % .) March 

Volunteers Forces’ Benevolent Association, inau- 
gurated . £ a : 4 A . 6duly, 

Twenty-sicth meeting at Wimbledon, 13—25 July; 
queen’s prize won by sergeant Bulmer, 2nd Lin- 
coln. 5 é - § 5 ar July, 


BASTER MONDAY REVIEWS AND SHAM FIGHTS. 


Brighton 2x April, 1862, and 5 April, 
Guildford . s ; : : 28 March, 
Brighton ° 17 April, 1865; and 2 April, 
Dover s 5 . = 22 April, 


Portsmouth (the most successful hitherto, 29,490 
volunteers present) ; 13 April, 
Dover (bad weather) . 4 : : 29 March, 

Brighton, 18 April, 1870; (considered a failure) 

to April, 

cone Mock battle between sir Arthur Hors- 
ford (12,180 men, 22 guns) and gen. Lysons (11,082 
men, 20 guns) : : ; : 2 ox epril, 

Small reviews at Wimbledon and other places, 
14 April, 1873; 6 April, 1874; 29 March, 1875; 
at Tring, &c., 17 April, 1876; at Dunstable, &c., 2 
April, 1877; at Staines, &c., 22 April, 1878; at 
Dover, Reigate, Wimbledon, &c., 14 April, 1879; 
Brighton, battle, successful ; 29 March, 1880; 
18 April, 1881; Portsmouth, 20,000 (‘‘ Genuine 
success,” Times), 10 April, 1882; Brighton (evolu- 
tions very successful), 26 March, 1883; Dover, 
Portsmouth, &c., (12-)14 April, 1884; Brighton 
and Dover, 6 April, 1885. 

Above 52,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at 
Windsor, g July. [‘‘A magnificent success; the 
crowning achievement of the volunteer move- 
ment.”—Times, 11 July] : ; 5 “ : 

About 40,c00 Scotch volunteers reviewed by the 
queen, in Queen’s-park, Edinburgh . .25 Aug. 

ELcHO CHALLENGE SHIELD, shot for by teams, 
and kept by the winning nation: 

Won by England: 1862, 1863, 1865, 1867, 1868, 1870, 
1871, 1872, 1876, 1881 (July 22), 1882 (July 20), 
1885 (July 23). 

Scotland: 1864, 1866, 1869, 1874, 1879 (July 24). 

Ireland: 1873, 1875, 1877, 1878, 1880 (July 22), 
1883 (July 19), 1884 (24 July). 

V olunteer Medical Staff Corps established, announced 

23 March, 


1881 


1885 | 
VOSSEM, PEACE of, between the elector of 


Brandenburg and Louis XLV. of France; the latter 
engaged not to assist the Dutch against the elector ; 


signed 6 June, 1673. 


VOTING PAPERS. See Dodson’s Act. T 
proposal to use them was negatived in the deba 
on reform in 1867; adopted by the ballot act in 18’ 


VOUGLE or Vovurtuk, §8.W. France (n 
Poitiers), where Alaric II., king of the Visigot! 
was defeated and slain by Clovis, king of Fran 
507, who subdued the whole country from the Lo 
to the Pyrenees. <A peace followed between t 
Franks and Visigoths, who had been settled abc 
one hundred years in that part of Gaul cal 
Septimania. Clovis soon afterwards made Pa 
his capital. 


‘VOYAGES. By order of Pharaoh-Necho, 

gypt, some Phcenician pilots sailed from Egy 
down the Arabian Gulf, round what is now cal. 
the Cape of Good Hope, entered the Mediterrane 
by the Straits of Gibraltar, coasted along the no: 
of Africa, and at length arrived in Egypt, after 
navigation of about three years, 604 B.c. Herodot 
The first voyage round the world was made b 
ship, part of a Spanish squadron which had be 
under the command of Magellan (who was killed 
the Philippine Islands in a skirmish) in 1519-2 
see Circumnavigators, and North-West Passage. 


VOYSEY ESTABLISHMENT FUN 
The Rev, Charles Voysey having been deprived | 
heresy (see Church of ae 1871), began a ser 
of services at St. George’s hall, Langham-place, 1 0 
1871. The fund for their maintenance was support 
by Bp. Hinds of Norwich (retired), Sir John Bo 
ring, and other eminent liberals. He termed | 
congregation a ‘* Theistic Church.’’ 


VULCAN, see Planets. The Greek god F 
phaistos answered to the Roman Vulcan. 


VULCANITE (vulcanised india-rubber), « 
termed Ebonite. 


VULGATE (from vulgatus, published), a te 
applied to the Latin version of the Scriptu 
which is authorised by the council of Trent (154 
and which is attributed to St. Jerome, about 3 
The older version, called the Italic, is said to h: 
been made in the beginning of the 2nd century. 
critical edition was printed by order of pope Sixtus 
in 1590, which, bemg considered inaccurate, ¥ 
superseded by the edition of pope Clement V. 
1592. The earliest printed vulgate is without da 
by Gutenburg and Fust, probably about 1455, t 
first dated (Fust and Scheeffer) is 1462. 


} W. 


| 


) WACHT. 


WAHABEES. 


/-WACHT DES DEUTSCHEN VATER- 
iAND (‘‘ Watch of the German Fatherland’’). 
‘erman national hymn, by Reichardt, first per- 
te 2 Aug. 1825. Very popular during the war 
870-71. 


“WADHAM COLLEGE (Oxford). Founded 


Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy, his wife, in 
Es 3. In this college, in the chambers of Dr. Wil- 
ins (over the gateway), the founders of the Royal 
ociety frequently met prior to 1658. 


WAGER or BATTLE, see Appeal. _ 
WAGES 1n ENGLAND. The wages of 


undry workmen were first fixed by act of parlia- 
rent 25 Edw. III. 1350. Haymakers had but one 
enny a day. Master carpenters, masons, tilers, 
nd other coverers of houses, had not more than 3d. 
er day (about 9d. of our money); and their ser- 
ants, 13d. Viner’s Statutes.* 


ty the 23 Henry VI. the wages of a bailiff of hus- 
bandry was 23s. 4d. per annum, and clothing of 
the price of 5s. with meat and drink; chief hind, 
carter, or shepherd, 20s., clothing, 4s.; common 
- servant of husbandry, 15s., clothing, 4od.; woman- 
servant, ros., clothing, 4s. . : 2 ‘ : 
sy the 11 Henry VIL., a like rate of wages with a 
little advance: as, for instance, a free mason, 
master carpenter, rough mason, bricklayer, mas- 
ter tiler, plumber, glazier, carver or joiner, was 
allowed from Easter to Michaelmas to take 6d. a 


1444 


| Payment of wages in public-houses prohibited by 


day without meat and drink; or, with meat and 
drink, 4d.; from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate 
rd. A master having under him six men was 
allowed a rd, a day extra . : : : be 5 
Agricultural labourers per week: Warwickshire, 
3s. 6d. and 4s.; Devonshire, 5s.; Suffolk, 5s. and 
6s.; wool-weavers, about 3s. and 4s. (Macaulay) 
about 1685 
In 1866 the annual amount of wages paid in the 
United Kingdom was estimated by Mr. Gladstone 
at 250,000,0001.; by Mr. Bass at 350,000,000l.; and 
by professor Leone Levi at 418,300,000l., earned 
by 10,697,000 workers, ages 20 to 60. 


1495 


In 1872-8 many trades struck for increase of wages, 


and frequently were successful; in 1877-9, unsuc- 
cessful. 

In 1878 professor Levi estimated that 503,000,000. 
were earned (by men, 390,000,000l. ; by women, 
113,000,000l.); after deducting for holidays, &c., 
422,700,0001. 

He says, that ‘“‘In no other country are wages more 
liberal, but in no other country are they more 
wastefully used.” See Strikes. 


act passed in . . 1883 


LABOURERS’ WAGES CORN 


WAGES OF HARVEST-MEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 


Year 8. d. | Year. 
1350 per diem o 1 | In1716 
1460. of Oo 2 1740. 
1568 ss O) 4 1760 
1632 re o 6 1788 . 
1688 ap Oo tee BL 704 


WAGGONS were rare in the last century. 
‘hey, with carts, &c., not excepting those used in 
griculture, were taxed in 1783. The carriers’ 
vaggons are now nearly superseded by the rail- 
rays. 

WAGHORN’S NEW OVERLAND 
2OUTE tro INDIA. Lieut. Waghorn devoted 
_ large portion of his life to connect India with 
Ingland. On 31 Oct. 1845, he arrived in London, 
y a new route, with the Bombay mail of the Ist of 
hat month. His despatches reached Suez on the 
gth, and Alexandria on the 20th, whence he pro- 
eeded by steamboat to a place twelve miles nearer 
ondon than Trieste. He hurried through Austria, 
saden, Bavaria, Prussia, and Belgium, and reached 
ondon at half-past four on the morning of the 
rst-mentioned day. The authorities of the differ- 
nt countries through which he passed eagerly 
acilitated his movements. The ordinary express, 
id Marseilles, reached London 2 Nov. following. 
fr. Waghorn subsequently addressed a letter to 
he Times newspaper, in which he stated that in a 
ouple of years he would bring the Bombay mail to 
ondon in 21 days. He died 8 Jan. 1850. On 
Feb. 1884, at a meeting at the Mansion-house, 
* Mr. J. E. Thorold Rogers, ‘‘ Six Centuries of Work 
nd Wages,” published in 1884. 


PER WEEK. PER QUARTER. 
Sana: fee SU. 
1824 < yi) 62) 0 
TOs fen 8 oO 55) 50 
1860 . s aw eh to Soaan 
1869 . ~ pene a io) 492 
steGper ip 3 pies io) yas 
$d. | . «Year, &. a. 
per diem o g | In 1800 . perdiem 2 o 
¥ o I0 r81r. : ay 2 i 
” I | 1850 ” Sg. 
35 sg ee ev ae : a 35 5 oO 
rt 6/| Since then increased. 


9? 


London, it was determined to erect a national 

monument to his memory. 

The Overland Mail, which had left Bombay on 1x Dec. 
1845, arrived early on the 30th in London, by way of 
Marseilles and Paris. The speedy arrival was owing 
to the great exertions made by the French government 
to show that the route through France was shorter 
and better. 


WAGNERISM, see under Music. 
WAGRAM, a village near Vienna, where 


| Napoleon I. totally defeated the archduke Charles, 


5, 6 July, 1809. ‘The slaughter on both sides was 
dreadful; 20,000 Austrians were taken by the 


French, and the defeated army retired to Moravia. 


An armistice was signed on the 12th; and on 24 
Oct., by a treaty of peace, Austria ceded all her 
sea-coast to France; the kingdoms of Saxony and 
Bavaria were enlarged at her expense; part of 
Poland in Galicia was ceded to Russia ; and Joseph 
Bonaparte was recognised as king of Spain. 


WAHABEES or WAHABITES, a warlike 
Mahometan reforming sect, considering themselves 
the only true followers of the prophet, established 
themselves in Arabia about 1750, under the rule of 
Abd-el-Wahab, who died 1787. His grandson, 
Saoud, in 1801, defeated an expedition headed by 
the caliph of Bagdad. In 1803 this sect seized 

3M 2 


WAHLSTATT. 


Mecca and Medina, and continued their conquests, 
although their chief was assassinated in the midst 
of his victories. His son, Abdallah, long resisted 
Mahommed Ali, pacha of Egypt, but in 1818 was 
defeated and taken prisoner by Ibrahim Pacha, who 
sent him to Constantinople, where he was put to 
death. The sect, now flourishing, is well described 
by Mr. W. Gifford Palgrave, in his ‘‘ Journey and 
Residence in Arabia in 1862-3,” published in 
1865. It is influential in India, and is suspected 
of a tendency to insurrection. 


WAHLSTATT, see Katzbach. 


WAITS, the night minstrels who perform shortly 
before Christmas. The name was given to the 
musicians attached to the king’s court. We find 
that a company of waits was established at Exeter 
in 1400 to ‘‘ pipe the watch.”’ The waits in London 
and Westminster were long officially recognised by 
the corporation. 


WAKEFIELD (W. Yorkshire), an ancient 
town. Near it a battle was fought between the ad- 
herents of Margaret, the queen of Henry VI., and 
the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 
3000 Yorkists fell upon the field, 3r Dec. 1460. The 
earl of Warwick supported the cause of the duke’s 
son, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IYV., 
and the civil war was continued. An art and indus- 
trial exhibition was opened at Wakefield, 30 Aug. 
1865. The Bishoprics act, authorising the establish- 
ment of asee at Wakefield, was passed 16 Aug. 1878. 


WAKHS, theancient parish festivals on the saint’s 
day to commemorate the dedication of the church ; 
regulated in 1536, but gradually became obsolete. 


WALBROOK CHURCH (London), amaster- 
piece of sir Christopher Wren, completed in 1679. 
There was a church here in 1135, and a new church 
was erected in 1429. 


WALCHEREN (anisland at the mouth of the 
Scheldt, Holland). The unfortunate expedition of 
the British to this isle in 1809 consisted of 35 ships 
of the line, and 200 smaller vessels, principally 
transports, and 40,000 land forces, the latter under 
the command of the earl of Chatham, and the fleet 
under sir Richard Strachan. For a long time the 
destination of the expedition remained secret; but 
before 28 July, 1809, when it set sail, the French 
journals had announced that Walcheren was the 
point of attack. Flushing was invested in August; 
a dreadful bombardment followed, and the place was 
taken 15 Aug.; but nosuggestion on the part of the 
naval commander, nor urging on the part of the 
officers, could induce the earl to vigorous action, 
until the period of probable success waS gone, and 
necessity obliged him to return with as many of the 
troops as disease and an unhealthy climate had 
spared. The place was evacuated, 23 Dec. 1809. The 
house of commons instituted an inquiry, and lord 
Chatham resigned his post of master-general of the 
ordnance, to prevent greater disgrace; but the 
policy of ministers in planning the expedition was, 
nevertheless, approved. The following epigram, of 
which various readings exist, appeared at the 
time :— 

‘Lord Chatham [or the warrior earl] with [his] sabre 

drawn, 

Stood waiting for sir Richard Strachan ; 

Sir Richard, longing [or eager] to be at ’em, 

Stood waiting for the earl of Chatham.” 


WALDECK Anp PYRMONT, united Ger- 
man principalities, established in 1682. The late 
reigning family claim descent from’the Saxon hero, 
Witikind, who flourished about 772. Prince George 


900 


WALES. 


Victor, born 14 Jan. 1831, succeeded his fathe 
George, 15 May, 1845. Heir: Frederic, son, bo: 
20 Jan. 1865. On 22 Oct. 1867, the states a 
proved a treaty of annexation, and the admini 
tration was transferred to Prussia, I Jan. 1868. 


WALDENSEHS (also called Valdenses, Valle 
ses, and Vaudois), a sect inhabiting the _Cotti: 
Alps, derives its name, according to some author 
from Peter de Waldo, of Lyons (1170). They had 
translation of the Bible. The Waldenses settled - 
the valleys of Piedmont about 1375, but were fr 
quently dreadfully persecuted, especially in the 171 
century, when Charles I. of England interceded f 
them (1627-9) and Oliver Cromwell by threa 
(1655-6) obtained them some degree of toleratio: 
All the Waldensian Barbes or pastors, save tw 
died in the great plague of 1630. Gilles and Gr 
went to Geneva and Lausanne for Swiss Calvini 
ministers to fill the vacancies. ‘The new ministe 
were no sooner inducted than they deposed tl 
surviving Barbes and abolished all the distinctiy 
teaching and usages of the community, substitutin 
the Genevese model. They were permitted to hay 
a church at Turin, Dec. 1853. In March, 1868, 
was stated that there were in Italy 28 ordaine 
Waldensian ministers, and 30 other teachers. 


WALES, Cambria, Cymru, the land of ft} 
Cymry, called by the Romans Britannia Secund 
Welsh and Wales are corruptions of Teuton 
epithets applied to foreigners, especially Gaul 
After the Roman emperor Honorius gave up Britain 
Vortigern was elected king of South Britain. H 
invited over the Saxons to defend his counh 
against the Picts and Scots; but the Saxons pe 
fidiously sent for reinforcements, consisting | 
Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which they mac 
themselves masters of South Britain. Many of tl 
Britons retired to Wales, and defended themsely 
against the Saxons, in their inaccessible mountain 
about 447. In this state Wales remained uncor 
quered till Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1157 
and in 1282 Edward I. entirely reduced the who 
country, an end being put to its independence by tl 
death of Llewelyn, the last prince.* In 1284 tk 
queen gave birth to a son at Caernarvon, whom Ec 
ward styled prince of Wales, now title of the heir 
the crown of Great Britain. Wales was united an 
incorporated with England by act of parliamen 
1536; see Britain and Bards. 

Ostorius Scapula, propretor of Britain, defeats the 

Cymry : : 7 3 ~ 5 A.D) ae 
The supreme authority in Britannica Secunda in- 

trusted to Suetonius Paulinus, who caused deso- 

lating wars. 5 = : : 
Conquests by Julius Frontinus . : F - ae 
The Silures totally defeated . : : : i 
The Roman, Julius Agricola, commands in Britain. 7 
Bran ab Llyr, the Blessed, dies about . : <> ame 
The Druidical class gradually dissolved by the influ- 


ence of Christianity in . B z 300-4¢ 
The Britons defeat the Saxons 447-44 
Vortigern king . < : . 5 . 44 
The renowned Arthur elected king about 5 
Defeats Saxons . about 52 


Cadwallawn, king of Gwynedd, defeated and slain 
by the Saxons at Denisburn . about 63 


* The statute of Wales, enacted at Rhuddlan, 19 Mare! 
1284 (or March, 1283), alleges that—‘‘ Divine Providence 
has now removed all obstacles, and transferred wholl 
and entirely to the king’s dominion the land of Wales an 
its inhabitants, heretofore subject unto him in feuda 
right.” The ancient laws were to be preserved in civ 
causes ; but the law of inheritance was to be changed 
and the English criminal law to be put in force. <Annal 
of England. 


WALES. 


901 


WALES. 


yvnwal Moelmud, said to have come from Armo- 
Tica, and to have established his authority west 
‘of the Tamar and Severn as king of the Cymry 


about 640 
eign of Roderic the Great . 844 
e unites the petty states into one ‘principality ; ; 
‘his death 877 
ivision of Wales—into north, south, and central 
‘(or Powys-land) . : : ‘ Le aise 
he Welsh princes submit to Alfred 885 
he Danes land in Anglesey . goo 
aws enacted by Howel Dha, prince of all Wales, : 
about 920 
thelstan subdues the Welsh . : 933 
ivil wars at his death . about 948 


reat battle between the sons of Howel Dha and 
the sons of Idwal Voel; the latter victorious oe o54 
dgar invades Wales . about 973 
evastations committed by Edwin, the son of 
Eineon 


980 
anes invade Wales ; 


&e. 
980-1000 
he country reduced by Aedan, prince of North 
‘Wales. . » 1000 
edan, the usurper, slain i in ‘pattle by Llewelyn - 1015 
art of Wales laid waste by the forces of Harold . 1063 
“iiam I. claims feudal authority over Wales . . 1070 
hys ab Owain kills king Bleddyn, 1073; defeated 
and slain 


lay Anglesey waste, 


zOTT 
avaging invasion of Hugh, earl of Chester . 1079-80 
ivasion 1 of the Irish and | Scots : - 1080 
"illiam I. invades Wales. . 1081 
attle of Llechryd . 1087 


n this conflict the sons of Bleddyn ab Cynvy n 
were slain by Rhys ab Tewdwr, the reigning 


prince. ] 

hhys ab Tewdwr slain ; 8. Wales conquered by the 
English . I090 
rvasion of the English ‘under William II. 1095-7 
he settlement in Wales of a colony of Flemings’ . 1106 


iolent seizure of Nest, wife of Gerald de Windsor, 


by Owain, son of Cadwgan ab Bleddyn . 1108 
ardigan conquered by Strongbow . . II0Q 
adwgan assassinated 7 1p12 
rutfydd ab Rhys lays claim ‘to the sover eignty Lesees 


nother body of Flemings settle in Pembrokeshire 
Che posterity of these settlers are still distinguished 
from the ancient British population by their lan- 
guage, manners, and customs. ] 


‘ivil war in South Wales and Powysland leads to 

the subjugation of the country by the English ; 
Henry I. erects castles in Wales . ; . 1114 & seq. 
ywain killed in battle with Gerald de Windsor y1LLO 
tevolt of Owen Gwynedd on the death of Hen. I. ; 

part of South Wales laid waste AL IRS 


” 


‘he English defeated in several battles ; 1136 
ittrongbow, earl of Pembroke, invested with ‘the 

powers of a count palatine in Pembroke 1138 
lenry II. invades Wales, receives a stout resistance 

from Owen Gwynedd, ‘put subdues 8. Wales. . 11 57 
tonfederacy of the princes of Wales for the recovery 

of their independence er ELO4 
‘rince Madoc said to have emigrated to America 

about 1169 

inglesey devastated . : 5 LETS 
*he crusades preached in Wales by Baldwin, arch- 

bishop of Canterbury . 1188 
“he earl of Chester’s inroad into North Wales" PuLoTO 
ting John invades Wales, laying waste a great part 

of the principalities ; exacts tribute and alle- 

giance I2I1 
The pope incites the Welsh to resist John 1212 
Revolt of the Flemings . 1220 
slewelyn, prince of “North Wales, commits great 

ravages ; overcomes Henry III. . 1228 
Che earl of Pembroke and other noblesj join Llewely n 

against Henry III., 1233; a truce , Sa iceel 
Prince David ravages the marches, &e. eteda 
mvasion of Henry III. Tod's 
Anglesey cruelly devastated by the English Sept.. ,, 
Llewelyn ap Griffith, the last prince . - 1246 
Welsh princes: combine against the English + 1250 
3reat invasion of the English; threatened extermi- 
- nation of the Welsh, compelled to retreat with ~ 

loss . : . 1287 
Welsh offers of peace refused ‘ . 1257-62 
Liewelyn’s incursions into English territory. . 1263 


02) 
ataiits of Wales (see p. 900) enacted 


Reported conference between him and Simon de 
Montfort against the Plantagenets . 1265 
Llewelyn does homage to Henry II. for a treaty 
Sept. 1267 
Edward J. summons Llewelyn to Westminster ; 
on his refusal to come, deposes him, 1276: and 
invades Wales : June, 1277 
Llew elyn submits and obtains good terms 10 Nev. a 
He marries Eleanor de Montfort ES OCu ys 
The sons of Grufydd treacherously drowned in the 
river Dee, by the earl Warrenne and Roger 
Mortimer ; great insurrection . 1285 
Hawarden castle taken by surprise by Llewelyn and 
his brother David, 2x March; they destroy Flint 
and Rhuddlan castles, Fruitless negotiations 
Nov. 1282 
Battle between Llewelyn and the English near Aber 
Edw: Llewelyn slain, afterthe battle, by Adam 
Frankton hs oir Dec. 
Prince David surrenders, and is executed . 1283 
Wales finally subdued by EdwardI. . is 
The first English prince of Wales, son of Edward, 
age at Caernarvon castle (see Princes of Wales, 
2 25 April, 1284 
tg March, ,, 
Many insurrections suppressed and the leaders 
executed : 1287-1320 
Great rebellion of Owain Glyndwr, or Owen 
Glendower (descendant of the last prince, 
Llewelyn), commences . 1400 
Radnor and other places taken by Owain Glyndwr 1401 
Allies with the Scots and the Percies; besieges 


Caernarvon : . 1402 
And seizes Harlech castle » 1404 
Makes a treaty with France : to May nae; 
Harlech castle retaken by the English forces . 1407 
Loses his allies by their defeat at Bramham moor 

19 Feb. 1408 
Ravages the English territories < . 1409 
Refuses to ask for terms or submit; dies 21 ‘Sept. 1415 
His son submits , . 24 Feb. 1416 
Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI., takes 

refuge in Harlech castle ‘ - 1459 
Town of Denbigh burnt . 1460 
The earl of Richmond, afterw ards Henry VIL, lands 

in Pembroke, and is aided by the Welsh Aug. 1485 


Palatine jurisdictions in Wales abolished by Henry 
MELE 3 : : : ; : : ; - 1535 

Monmouth made an English county; counties of 
Brecknock, Denbigh, and Radnor formed 

Act for “laws and justice to be administered in 
Wales in same form as in England,” 27 Henry 
Wi 

Wales incorporated into England by "parliament 

Divided into twelve counties F 

Dr. Ferrar, bishop of St. David’s, burnt at the stake 
for heresy : 30 March, 

Lewis Owain, a baron of the exchequer, attacked 
and murdered while on his assize tour. ry 

The bible and prayer-book ordered to be translated 
into Welsh, and divine service to be performed in 


that language 1562 
Welsh bible printed : 1588 
First congregation of dissenters assembled in W ales ; 

Vavasour Powel apprehended while preaching 1620 
Beaumaris castle garrisoned for king Charles I. - 1642 
Powys castle taken by sir Thos. Myddelton Oct. 1644 
Dr. Laud, formerly bishop of St. David’s, beheaded 

on Tower hill é tro Jan. 1645 
Surrender of Hawarden castle to the parliament 

general Mytton / ; : sears 
Charles I. takes refuge in Denbigh ‘ ; ; at 
Rhuddlan castle surrenders . é Pg 
Harlech castle surrenders to Cromw ell’s s army under 

Mytton . 1647 


Battle of St. Fagan’ 8; the Welsh defeated by col. 
Horton, Cromwell’s lieutenant . 8 May, 1648 

Beaumaris castle surrenders to Cromwell . 

Pembroke castle taken ; colonel Poyer shot, 25 Apr. * 1649 


* At the commencement of the civil war, Pembroke 
castle was the only Welsh fortress in the possession of 
the parliament, and it was entrusted to the command of 
col. Laugharne. In 1648, he, and colonels Powel and 
Poyer, embraced the cause of the king, and made 
Pembroke their head quarters; after the defeat at 
St. Fagan’s, they retired to the castle, followed by an 
army led by Cromwell. They capitulated, after havin 


WALES. 902 WALES. 
The lords marchers court suppressed : , - 1688 the 25th April, 1284. It is asserted that imm 
‘Charitable suciety of Ancient Britons ” and Welsh diate:y after his birth he was presented by 1 
charity schools, established (now at Ashford)  . 1715 father to the Welsh chieftains as their futu 
Cymmrodorion Society (for charitable purposes), sovereign, the king holding up the royal infa 
established . 1751-81 in his arms, and saying, in the Welsh languag 
The French land in Pembrokeshire, and. are made ** Hich Dyn, % literally in English, ‘‘ This is yo 
prisoners 3 Feb. 1797 man,” but signifying, ‘* This ‘is your countrym: 
Rebecca or “Becca” riots broke out against toll- and king.” See, however, ‘‘ Ich Dien.” 
gates, Feb. ;. an old woman, a toll- keeper, was 1301. Edward of Carnarvon made prince of Wales a1 
murdered, ro Sept. ; many persons were tried and earl of Chester. 
punished : : Oct. 1843 | 1343. Edward the Black Prince. 

Cambrian Archeological Association founded . 1846 | 1376. Richard, his son (afterwards Richard IT. A 
Subscriptions begun. for a university in Wales Dec. 1863 | 1399. Henry (afterwards Henry V.), son of Henry IV. 
A national unsectarian Paes, college at 1454. Edward, son i Henry VI.; slain at Tewkesbur 

Aberystwyth opened 9 Oct. 1872 4] May, 14 
Great strike of colliers in 8. Wales, r Jan, 2 ents 1471. Edward (aft, "Kaward V.), son of Edward IV. 

about 27 March, 1873 } 1483. Edward, son of Richard III. ; died in 1484. 
Cymmrodorion society, to promote ‘literature and | 1489. Arthur, son of Henry VII; died in x 502. 

art, re-established 1877. 1503. Henry, his brother (afterwards Henry VIII). 
Great distress in South Wales thr ‘ough decay of Edward, his son (afterwards Edward VI.) was dul 

coal trade by strikes and commercial ‘depression 1877-8 | of Cornwall, and not prince of Wales. 
““Rehecca” riots ; people of Rhayader on the Wye » 1610. Henry Frederic, son of James I. ; died 6 Noy. 161 

capture fish out of season illegally ; and resist the | 1616. Charles, his brother (afterwards Charles I.). 
water bailiffs : Dec. 1878-Jan. 1879 | Charles, his son (afterwards Charles II.), ney 
Welsh Sunday closing ac t 1881 created prince of Wales. 
A Cambrian academy of arts “settled to be esta- 1714. George Augustus (afterwards George II.). 
blished at Llandudno Jan. 1882 | 1729. Frederic Lewis, his son; died 20 March, 1751. 
A university college of South Wales and Monmouth- 1751. George, his son (afterwards George III.). 


shire established at Cardiff; professors appointed 


6 Sept. ; opened .. 4 Oct. 1883 
North Wales university college, Bangor one 
18 Aug. 1884 


SOVEREIGNS OF WALES. 


630. Cadwallawn, king of Gwynedd. 

634. Cadwaladyr, his son. 

661. Idwal, son. 

728. Rhodri, or Roderic; heroic defender. 
755- Cynan and Howel, sons ; incessant war. 
818. Mervyn; son-in-law, and Essylt (wife). 
844. Roderic the Great, son. 


PRINCES OF GWYNEDD OR NORTH WALES AND FREQUENTLY 
OF ALL WALES. 

Anarawd, son of Roderic. 

Idwal Voel. 

Howel Dha the Good, prince of all Wales. 

Iefan and Iago ; sons of Idwal. 

Howel ap Iefan, the Bad. 

Cadwallon, brother. 

Meredith ap Owen ap Howel Dha. 

Idwal ap Meyric ap Edwal Voel: able, brave. 

Aedan, a usurper. 

Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt, good sovereign. 

Iago ap Idwal ap Meyric. 

Griffith ap Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt; killed. 

Bleddyn. 

Trahaern ap Caradoc. . 

Griffith ap Cynan ; able; warlike ; generous. 

Owain Gwynedd ; energetic, successful warrior. 

Howel, son. 

David ap Owain Gwynedd, brother ; married sister 
of Henry II. 

Llewelyn, the Great. 

David ap Llewelyn. 

Llewelyn ap Griffith, last prince of the blood ; slain 
after battle, 11 Dec., 1282. 

ENGLISH PRINCES OF WALES. * 

Edward Plantagenet (afterwards king Edward II.) 

son of Edward I., born in Caernarvon Castle on 


377. 
QI5. 
943- 
948. 
972- 
984. 
985. 
woes 
998. 
IO15. 
1023. 
1039. 
1067. 
1073. 
1079. 
m7, 
1169. 
2? 
IIQ4. 


1240. 
1246. 


1284. 


endured great sufferi ings from want of water. Laughar ne, 
Powel, and Poyer were tried by a court- martial, and 
condemned to death ; but Cromwell having been induced 
to spare the lives of two of them, it was ordered that 
they should draw lots for the favour, and three papers 
were folded up, on two of which were written the words, 
“‘Life given by God;” the third was left blank. The 
latter was drawn by colonel Poyer, who was shot in 
London accordingly on the above-mentioned day, after 
long imprisonment. Pennant. 

- WALES, PRINCESS oF. This title was held, some 
authors say, during the early period of her life, by the 
princess Mary of England, eldest daughter of Henry Will 
and afterwards queen Mary I. She was created, they state, 
by her father princess of Wales, in order to conciliate the 
Welsh people and keep alive the name, and was the only 
princess of Wales in her own right ; a rank she enjoyed 
until the birth of a son to Henry, who was afterwards 
Edward V1., born in 1537. This is ‘denied by Banks. 


1762. George, his son (afterwards George LY.): born 12 Au; 
1341. Albert-Edward, son of queen Victoria : born 9 No 
Baptized, king of Prussia a sponsor, 15 Jan. 184: 
Travelled on the continent, and studied at Oxfor 

and Edinburgh, in 1859 

Visited Canada, with the dignity of a viceroy, an 
the United States, 1860. 

Entered the university of Cambridge in Jan 
attended the camp at the Curragh, Kildare, Jul 
to Sept. ; opened New Middle Temple Library 
31 Oct. 1861. 

Ordered to be prayed for as Albert-Edwar 
8 Jan. ; visited the continent, Syria, and Egyp’ 

March-June ; Germany and Italy, Aug-Dec. 186: 

Admitted to the house of peers, 5 Feb.; a priv 
councillor, 8 Dec. 1863. 

Married to princess Alexandra of Denmark, x 
March, 1863. 

Visited Denmark and Sweden, Sept.-Oct. 1864 
Russia, Noy.-Dec. 1866. 

Visited International Exhibition, Paris, May, 186: 

Visited Ireland ; arrived at Dublin, 15 April, 186: 

Installed knight of St. Patrick, 18 April, 1868. 

Opened Leeds Fine Arts Exhibition, rg May, 186% 

With the Princess at Glasgow, laid foundation 
new university, 8 Oct. 1868. 

Sailed for the continent, 17 Nov. ; called at Paris 
arrived at Copenhagen, 29 Nov. ; visited Berlin 
Vienna, and arrived at Cairo, 3 Feb. 1869. 

Examined the Suez canal, Feb. ; arrived at Constan 
tinople, 1 April; at Sebastopol, 13-17 April; a 
Athens, 19-24 April; landed at Dover, 13 May 186c¢ 

Inaugurated Victoria Embankment (Thames) 1 
J uly, 1870. 

Opened Workmen’s International 
Islington, 16 July, 1870. 

Attacked with typhoid fever, about 19 Nov. ; greates 
danger, 6-13 Dec. ; amendment began 14 Dec. ,1871 

W ned to St. Paul’s with the queen for thanksgiving 

7 Feb.; sailed for the continent, 11 Mareh 
visited the Pope, 27 March ; opened new gramma: 
school at Yarmouth, 6 June; the East Londot 
Museum, 24 June, 1872. 

At the opening of the great exhibition at Vienna 
t May, 1873. 

At the duke of Edinburgh’s wedding at St. Peters: 
burg, 23 Jan. ; visit to France : entertained hy 
the due de Rochefoucauld Bisaccia, duc d’Aw 
male, and others,about 17 Oct. ; at Birmingham, 
3 Nov. 1874. 

Installed grand master of. the freemasons of Eng- 
land, 28 April, 1875. 

112,o00l. voted for his visit to India [more than 
sufficient] July, 1875. 

Sailed from Dover, 11 Oct. ; warmly received at 
Athens, 18 Oct. : at Cairo, invested Mohammed 
Tewfik, the son of the Khedive, with the Star of 
India, 25 Oct. 1875. 


Arrived at Bombay, 8 Noy.; Poonah, 13 Nov. 


Exhibition 


WALHALLA. 


Goa, 27 Nov. ; Colombo, Ceylon, 1 Dee. ; Madras, 

13 Dec. ; Calcutta, 23 Dec. 1875. 

At Benares, 5 Jan. ; Lucknow, 6 Jan. ; Delhi, 11 

| Jan. ; Lahore, 18 Jan. ; Jummoo, Cashmere, 20 

Jan. ; Agra, 25 Jan. ; Gwalior, 31 Jan. ; in Ne- 
| paul, 12 Feb. ; at Allahabad, 7 March; sailed 

: from Bombay, 13 March; arrivedin Malta, 6 April; 
Gibraltar, 15 April; Seville, 21 April; Madrid, 25 
April; Lisbon, 1 May ; London, with about 500 
animals for the Zoological gardens, 11 May ; 
banquet at Mansion house, 19 May; reviewed 
30,000 volunteers in Hyde Park, 1 July. 1876. 

President of the British commissioners at the 
Paris exhibition, 1878. 

Presided at National Water Supply conference, 
21 May; laid foundation of St. Mary’s, Wilberforce 
memorial church, Southampton, 12 Aug. 1878. 

Laid foundation of new hospital, Norwich, 27 June; 
aa new dock at Great Grimsby, 22 July, 
1879. 

Laid foundation of new cathedral at Truro, 20 
ie as ; opened new dock at Holyhead, 17 June, 
1660. 


Laid foundation of central Institution of City and 
Guilds of London Institute, South Kensington, 
18 July, 188r. 

Opens the Royal College of Music, 7 May, 1883. 

Opens the International Fishery Exhibition, 12 
May ; closes it 31 Oct. 1883. 

Inaugurated the juries at the Health Exhibition, 
17 June, 1884. 

Visits Newcastle and opens Armstrong park, mu- 
seum, &c., 20, 21 Aug. 1884. 

Visit to Dublin (enthusiastically received), 8 April ; 
Cork, 15 April; Killarney, 16 April ; Limerick 
(warmly received); 20 April ; from Dublin to Bel- 
fast (warm reception), 23 Apml; Londonderry, 
25 April ; sailed from Larne, 27 April, 1885. 

Issue: Albert-Victor, born 8 Jan. 1864; 
George-Frederick, born 3 June, 1865; 
Louise Victoria, born 20 Feb. 1867. 
Alexandra, born 6 July, 1868. 
Maud, born 26 Nov. 1869. 
Alexander John, born 7 April, died 8 April, 1871. 


WALHALLA or VALHALLA (the Hall of 
Glory), a temple near Ratisbon, erected by Louis, 
king of Bavaria, to receive the statues and 
memorials of the great men of Germany, com- 
menced 18 Oct. 1830, and inaugurated 18 Oct. 1842. 
The name is derived from the fabled meeting-place 
of Scandinavian heroes after death. 


WALKERITES, see Separatists, 
WALKING, see Pedestrianism. 
WALKING-STICKS, a term satirically ap- 


plied to candidates for the house of commons nomi- 
nated by political associations, and subject to them 
in their parliamentary votes, 1878. 


WALLACE MONUMENT, at Abbey Craig, 
near Stirling, was inaugurated 27 Aug. 1869, and 
soon after given into the charge of the magistrates 
of Stirling. It cost about 13,000/. The telescope 
there was presented by the Scotch inhabitants of 
Ipswich, 24 June, 1865. 


_ WALLACHIA, see Danubian Principalities. 
On 23 Dec. 1861, the union of Wallachia and 
Moldavia, under the name of Roumania, was pro- 
claimed at Jassy and Bucharest. 


WALLER’S PLOT. Edmund Waller, the 
poet, and others, conspired to disarm the London 
militia and let in the royalists, May, 1643. The 
fe was detected and punished, June-July, 1643. 

Waller betrayed his confederates, and was suffered 
to emigrate. 


WALLIS'S VOYAGE. Captain Wallis 
sailed from England on his voyage round the world, 
-26July, 1766; andreturned to England, 19 May,1768. 


t 


903 


WANDSWORTH. 
WALLOON. This name was given to those 


inhabitants of the low countries who retained the 
ancient German language, and to those who adopted 
the Walloon language (based on the Gaulish), 
which though surviving as a patois, has been sup- 
planted in France by the modern French. The 
language of the Walloon protestant refugees in 1556 
was French. 

A church was given to Walloon refugees by queen Elizabeth 
at Sandwich, and they still have one at Canterbury. 
The frontier line of Flemish and German towns may be 
_ traced from the north through Gravelines to Luxeim- 

burg; that of the Walloon towns from Calais to Metz. 


WALLS, see Roman Walls, China. 
WALNUT-TREE has long existed in Eng- 


iand.* The black walnut-tree (Juglans nigra) was 
brought to this country from North America before 
1629. 


WALPOLE’S ADMINISTRATIONS. 
Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Robert, and earl of 
Oxford) was born in 1676; became secretary-at-war 
in 1708; was expelled the house of commons on a 
charge of misappropriating the public money, I7II ; 
committed to the Tower, 17 Jan. 1712; became 
first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the 
exchequer in Oct. 1715. He resigned, on a disunion 
of the cabinet, in 1717, bringing in the sinking 
fund bill on the day of his resignation. On the 
earl of Sunderland retiring in 1721, he resumed his 
office, and held it till Feb. 1742. He died 18 
March, 1745. 


SECOND WALPOLE ADMINISTRATION (APRIL, 1721). 

Sir Robert Walpole, jirst lord of the treasury. 

Thomas, lord Parker, created earl of Macclesfield, lord 
chancellor. 

Henry, lord Carleton (succeeded by William, duke of 
Devonshire), lord president. 

Evelyn, duke of Kingston (succeeded by lord Trevor), 
privy seal. 

James, earl of Berkeley, first lord of the admiralty. 

Charles (viscount Townshend), and John, lord Carteret 
(the latter succeeded by the duke of Newcastle), secre- 
taries of state. 

Duke of Marlborough (succeeded by the earl of Cadogan), 
ordnance. 

George Treby (succeeded by Henry Pélham), secretary-at- 
war. 

Viscount Torrington, We. 


WALRUS. One placed in the Zoological Gar- 
dens in 1853 lived a few days only; another was 
placed there in the autumn of 1867, and died 25 
Dec. 


WALTZ, the popular German national dance, 
was introduced into England by baron Neuman and 
others in 1813. Ravkes. 


WANDEWASH (S. India). Here the French, 
under Lally, were severely defeated by colonel Eyre 
Coote, 22 Jan. 1760. 


WANDSWORTH, near London. Here was 
organised a ‘‘ presbytery,’ 20 Nov. 1572. In Gar- 
ratt-lane, near this place, a mock electiun of a mayor 
of Garratt was formerly held, after every general elec- 
tion of parliament, to which Foote’s dramatic piece, 
The Mayor of Garratt (1763), gave no small cele- 
brity. The iron bridge here was opened 26 Sept. 
1873. 


’* Near Welwyn, in Hertfordshire, there was the largest 
walnut-tree on record ; it was felled in 1627, and from it 
were cut nineteen loads of planks; and as much was 
sold to a gunsmith in London as cost rol. carriage ; 
besides which there were thirty loads of roots and 
branches. When standing it covered 76 poles of ground ; 
a space equal to 2299 square yards, statute measure. 


WAR. 


904 


ry 


WARSAW. 


WAR, called by Erasmus ‘‘ the malady of 


princes.”” Osymandyas of Egypt, the first warlike 
king, passed into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 
2100 B.c. Usher. He is supposed by some to be 
the Osiris of the priests. It is computed that, up to 
the present time, no less than 6,860,000,000 of men 


have perished on the field of battle; see Battles 
Secretaries ; Neutral Powers. An internationa 
conference on ‘‘ usages of war’? began at Brussels 
27 July, 1874, and closed without important results 
See Brussels Conference. In 1880, about 4,000,006 
men in arms, annual cost, 500,000,000/. 


FOREIGN WARS OF ENGLAND SINCE THE CONQUEST. 


War with Peace. War with 
Scotland - 1068 . . 1092 | France 
France eit ENO, . 1118 | Scotland’. 
Scotland . 3 seLLSOis . 1139] France 
France - 1161 +. . 1186) France 
France. Br uewoy. & . 1195 | France 
France Pr 208 . 1216| Scotland . 
France puLoodin . 1234 | Scotland 
France - 1294 . . 129¢4.Scotland . 
Scotland . rel 20076 . 1323| France : 
Scotland pelge7 a uae L920u) Prance 
France . 0330. . 1360 | Scotland 
France - 1368 . 1420 | France 


War of the Succession, commenced 4 May, 1702. Peace 
of Utrecht, 13 March, 1713. 

War with Spain, 16 Dec. 1718. Peace concluded, 172r. 

War ; Spanish War, 23 Oct. 1739. Peace of Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle, 30 April, 1748. 

War with France, 31 March, 1744. 
April, 1748. 

War; the Seven Years’ War, 9 June, 1756. Peace of Paris, 
10 Feb. 1763. 

War with Spain, 4 Jan. 1762. General peace, 10 Feb. 1763. 

War with the United States of North America, 14 July, 
1774. Peace of Paris, 30 Nov. 1782. ° 

War with France, 6 Feb. 1778. Peace of Paris, 20 Jan. 


Closed also on 30 


1783. 

War with Spain, 17 April, 1780. Closed same time, 20 
Jan. 1783. 

War with Holland, 21 Dec. 1780. Peace signed, 2 Sept. 
1783. 

War of the Revolution, 1 Feb. 1793. Peace of Amiens, 27 
March, 1802. 

War against Bonaparte, 29 April, 1803. 
18 June, 181s. 

War with America, 18 June, 1812. 
Dec. 1814. 

War with Russia, 27 March, 1854. 
March, 1856. 


Finally closed, 
Peace of Ghent, 24 


Peace of Paris, 31 


. . ry * . . 
For the wars with India, China, Persia, Abyssinia, Af- 


ghanistan, and Zululand, see those countries respec- 

tively. 

WAR AFFAIRS. Onaccount of the war with 
Russia, the duke of Newcastle, previously colonial 
secretary, was appointed a secretary for war affairs, 
and a cabinet minister, 9 June, 1854; see Secre- 
taries. War Office act, passed 20 June, 1870, ap- 
points a financial secretary (who may sit in parlia- 
ment) and other officers. An act for the protection 
of war department stores was-passed in 1867. By 
the warrant abolishing purchase in the army, in 
1871, Mr. Cardwell became virtually uncontrolled 
minister of war. For War Orrick CHARGE, see 
under Army and Admiralty. 

New war offices erected by virtue of the Public 

Offices site act, passed . > : 24 July, 1882 
War Exhibition of trophies, &e., from Egypt, 

opened at Knightsbridge . : 3 -14 Feb. 1883 

WAR, GAME oF (German, Kriegspiel), based 
on the game of chess, was described in a pamphlet 
in 1780, and rules for it laid down by Domianen- 
rathe von Reisswitz about 1820, and published by 
his son in 1824-8. Capt. (now sir) Evelyn Baring 
published a translation of works on the subject in 
1872. A society (including von Moltke) was formed 
at Magdeburg to study it. 


of Connaught) lectured on this game at Dover, 13 
March, 1872. 


WARBECR’S INSURRECTION. Perkin 
Warbeck, the son of a Florentine Jew, to whom 
Edward IV. had stood godfather, was persuaded by 


Prince Arthur ‘now duke, 


Peace. War with Peace 
« 1422 % - 147%) Spalles 2 taGp 1 5G0 6 + 160. 
. 1480 -.1486 | Spain. SEALOR A ais 162 
1402 - 1492 | France E rae hO2 Fue 162 
Sache - 1514 | Holland . EP LOGEs ove 165. 
. 1522. - 1527 | Spain - : be LOShas - 166: 
+ T§22>... |. 1542 erences ; = LOGO, 6. vie ames 
7 1542) 6 - 1546 | Denmark - 1666 . - 166! 
- 1547). 3/6 Teco Is HOUAnCee Sdeleionays 166: 
A tS40\s - 1550 | Algiers 3 ail fe LOOD'se 167: 
2 1857 - 1559 | Holland . e LOZ Zeus 167. 
eS Ste - 1560 | France : Peet OOOns - 169: 
1502 L504 Peace of Ryswick, 20 Sept. 169; 


Margaret, duchess of Burgundy, sister to Richard III. 
to personate her nephew Richard, Edward Y.’ 
brother, which he did first in Ireland, where h 
landed, The imposture was discovered by) 
Henry VII. 1493. Some writers consider that War 
beck was not an impostor. 
Warbeck attempted to land in Kent, with 600 men, 16 
were taken prisoners, and executed, July, 1495. 
Recommended by the king of France to James IV. 0 
Scotland, who gave him his kinswoman, lord Huntley’ 
daughter, in marriage, when he assumed the title o 
Richard IV, James IY. invaded England in his favour 


1496. 

Left Scotland, and went to Bodmin, in Cornwall, wher 
3000 joined.him, Sept. 1497. 

On the approach of Henry took sanctuary at Beaulieu 
surrendered ; taken to London, Oct. 1497. 

Said to have been set in the stocks at Westminster anc 
Cheapside, and sent to the Tower, June, 1499. 

Accused of plotting with the earl of Warwick to escap: 
out of the Tower, by murdering the lieutenant, Aug. 
the plot failed, and he was hanged at Tyburn, 23 Nov. 
the earl beheaded, 28 Nov. 1499. 


WARBURG (N. Germany). Here the Frence! 
were defeated by the duke of Brunswick and th 
allies, 31 July, 1760. 


WARDIAN CASES. In 1829, Mr. N. B 
Ward, from observing a small fern and grass grow- 
ing in a closed glass bottle, in which he had _ placec 
a chrysalis covered with moist earth, was led to con. 
struct his well-known closely glazed cases, whicl 
afford to plants light, heat, and moisture, and ex: 
clude deleterious gases, smoke, &e.. They are par. 
ticularly adapted for ferns. In 1833 they were firs 
employed for the transmission of plants to Sydney 
&c., with great success, and - professor Faraday 
lectured on the subject in 1838. - 


WARDMOTES, meetings of the citizens o 
London in their wards, where they elect annually 
their common councilmen. The practice is said t 
have begun in 1386. They had previously assemble 
in Guildhall. 


WARRANTS, GENERAL, do not specif 
the name of the accused. They were declared to bi 
illegal by lord chief justice Pratt, 6 Dec. 1763, 11 
relation to the seizure and committal of Mr. Wilke: 
for a libel on the king; see North Briton. 


WARRIOR, see under Navy of England, 1860 
WARSAW, the metropolisof Poland. The die’ 


was transferred to this city from Cracow in 1566, an¢ 

it became the seat of government in 1689. Popula 

tion in 1882, 406,261. 

The Poles defeated in three days’ battle by the 
Swedes. 5 ; é 4 a . 28-30 July, 165¢ 


~ ee 
s 

: 

3 

¥ 


WARTBURG. 


905 


WATER. 


iance of Warsaw, between Austria and Po- 
ind, against Turkey, in pursuance of which, John 
sobieski assisted in raising the siege of Vienna 
September following), signed 31 March, 
rsaw surrenders to Charles XII. . : ; - 
‘aty of Warsaw between Russia and Poland, 
24 Feb. 1768 
2 Russian garrison here expelled with the loss of 
‘ooo killed and 500 wounded, and 36 pieces of 
annon . ' - ; : 2 . 17 April, 
e Poles defeated by the Russians at Maciejovice, 


Fixing N.W. boundary of British America and 


IMPORTANT TREATIES OF WASHINGTON, 


United States, &e. . : ‘ : . 12 June, 
‘““ Reciprocity ” treaty regulating trade with Canada, 
7 June, 1854 


Referring the Alabama claims and the San Juan 


boundary question to arbitration ; settling dis- 
putes respecting fisheries (see Alabama and Juan); 
and laying down three rules ; asserting that it 1s 
the duty of a neutral state, which desires to re- 
main at peace with belligerents, and to enjoy the 


rights of neutrality, to abstain from taking any 
part in the war by affording military aid to one 
or both of the belligerents ; and to take care that 
no acts which would constitute such co-operation 
in the war be committed by any one within its 
territory . : : 5 . 8 May, 1871 


WASIUM (named from the royal house of 


Wasa or Vasa) ,a supposed new metal, discovered by 


OCtsar ss 
e king of Prussia besieges Warsaw, July apeite 
yelled to raise the siege, Sept. ; it is taken by the 
Russians. alee ; 2 ; ee NOV Aas > 
warrow, the Russian general, after the siege and 
lestruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 30,000 
oles, of all ages and conditions, in cold blood, 
ZONOVues 
irsaw constituted a duchy, and annexed to the 


jouse ofSaxony. . . . .  . Aug. 1807 | F. Bahr, of Stockholm, in 1862. In Nov. 1863 Nicklés 
e duchy overrun by the Russians ; Warsaw made declared it to be a compound of didymium, yttrium, 
she residence of a Russian viceroy ; ; - 1813 | and terbium 
e last Polish revolution commences at Warsaw, E 

ae , __ ,29 Nov. 1830 WASTE LANDS. The inclosure of waste 
ttle of Grochow, near Warsaw, in which the Rus- lands and commons, in order to promote agriculture, 
sians were defeated, and forced to retreat with the Brat bheanin knok Q dabout the year 1547, and gave 
oss of 7ooo men . 25 Feb. 1831 | “US eganin England about the year 1547, ane g¢ 


rise to Ket’srebellion, 1549. Inclosures were again 
promoted by the authority of parliament, 1785. The 
waste lands in England were estimated in 1794 to 
amount to 14 millions of acres, of which there were 
taken into cultivation, 2,837,476 acres before June, 
1801. In 1841, there were about 6,700,000 acres of 
waste land, of which more than half was thought to 
be capable of improvement; see Agriculture. 


WATCH or LonpDOoN, at night, appointed 
1253, proclaimed the hour with a bell before the in- 
troduction of public clocks. Hardie. The old watch 
was discontinued, and a new police (on duty day 
and night) commenced, 29 Sept. 1829; see Police. 


WATCHES are said to have been first invented 
at Nuremberg, 1477, although it is affirmed that 
Robert, king of Scotland, had a watch about 1310. 


Watches first used in astronomical observations by 


ttle of Warsaw, when, after two days’ hard 
fighting, the city capitulated, and was taken pos- 
session of by the Russians ; and great part of the 
Polish army retired towards Plock and Modlin, 

6-8 Sept. ,, 
e ezar meets the emperor of Austria and the 
regent of Prussia; no result 20-25 Oct. 
nie ina church; great loss of life =) 25) Dec. 
exander III. visits Warsaw; great precautions, 


8 Sept. 1884 

(See Poland, 1861-5.) 
WARTBURG, 2 castle in Saxony (N. Ger- 
any), where Luther was conveyed for safety after 


e diet of Worms, April, 1521, and where he trans- 
ted the Bible into German. 


WARWICK CASTLE (Warwickshire), the 
at of the Beauchamps, Nevilles, Plantagenets, 
udleys, Riches, and Grevilles, successively, and 
equently besieged; suffered much by fire, 3 Dec. 


1860 
1881 


ioe 7 Piped ‘ates 4 Purbach®; ¢ : : : : ; . = een E5OO) 
Wee sons of the more ancient. p art was destroyed. Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was 
WASH-HOUSES, see Baths. the first who had anything that might be called a 

2 watch, though some call it a small table-clock |. 1530 
WASHING MACHINES. Severalhave been | watches first brought to England from Germany in 1577 


A watch which belonged to queen Elizabeth is pre- 
served in the library of the Royal Institution, 
London. 

Spring pocket-watches (watches properly so-called) 
have had their invention ascribed to Dr. Hooke 


vented by Americans. At an hotel in New York 
indreds of garments are washed in a few minutes 
, steam, and dried by a centrifugal machine 
862). The ingenious machines of Messrs. Horns- 


y, of Norwich, appeared in the great exhibition 
‘London, 1862. 


WASHINGTON (in Columbia district, partly 
. Virginia and partly in Maryland, on the bank of 
ie Potomac, N.E. Virginia), the capital of the 
nited States, founded in 1791, and made the seat 
government in 1800. 

he house of representatives opened . . 30 May, 1808 
‘ashington was taken by the British forces under 
general Ross, after his victory at Bladensburg; 
its superb structures and national library burnt, 
; 24 Aug. 
eneral Ross killed by some American riflemen, in 


a desperate engagement at Baltimore zz2Sept. ,, 
aval observatory founded : < ; x AGEVE- 
mithsonian institute (which see) founded . pee te40 
art of the capitol and the whole of the library of 

the United States congress destroyed by fire, 

24 Dec. 1851 
he prince of Wales entertained by the president 
here . 4 : : : ‘ : : Oct. 1860 
Jashington fortified in April, 1861 


resident Lincoln shot by Booth in Ford’s theatre, 


14 April; died . : j : ; 15 April, 1865 
lemorial obelisk to George Washington, 555 feet 
high, inaugurated . . 3 = . 2t Feb. 1885 


fational theatre burnt down i ; 727, Fep.- 5 


See United States. 


a 


1814 


by the English, and to M. Huyghens by the Dutch. 
Dr. Derham, in his Artificial Clockmaker, says that 
Dr. Hooke was the inventor ; and he appears cer- 
tainly to have produced whatis called the pendulum 
watch about 1658; manifest, among other evi- 
dences, from an inscription on one of the double- 
balance watches presented to Charles II., ‘‘ Rob. 
Hooke, inven. 1658; T. Tompion, fecit, 1675.” 


Repeating watches invented by Barlowe . : - 1676 
| Harrison’s first time-piece produced (see Harrison), 1735 
Watches and clocks were taxedain - : Sen 707 


The tax was repealed in 1798. See Clocks, 
Arrangements made at Kew observatcry for testing 
high class watches, and granting graduated cer- 
tificates ; fees, 11. 1s., 10s. 6d., Xe. ; announced 
April, 1884 


WATER. Thales of Miletus, founder of the 
Ionic sect, considered water to be the 
principle of everything, about 594 B.C. 
Cavendish and Watt demonstrated that water is 

composed of 8 parts of oxygen and 1 part of hy- 

drogen 2 : : : : : : . 1781-4 
Water was decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen 

gases by Lavoisier, 1783 ; by the voltaic battery 

by Nicholson and Carlisle, 1800; by the heat of 

the oxy-hydrogen flame by W. R. Grove é - 1846 
In freezing, water contracts till it is reduced to 42° 


iginal 
Stanley-——_ 


WATER-BED. 


906 


WATERLOO BRIDGE. 


or 40° Fahr. ; it then begins to expand till it be- 
comes ice at 32°. 

Water was first conveyed to London by leaden pipes, 
2r Henry III. 1237. Stow. It took nearly fifty 
years to complete it ; the whole being finished, 
and Cheapside conduit erected, only in ers 

The New River water brought to London from 
Chadwell and Amwell in Hertfordshire, at an im- 
mense expense, by sir Hugh Myddelton, in. 1609-13 

The city was' suppled with its water by convey- 
ances of wooden pipes in the streets and small 
leaden ones to the houses, and the New River 
Company was incorporated, 1620. So late as queen 
Anne’s time there were water-carriers at Aldgate- 
pump. 

The water-works at Chelsea completed, and the 
company incorporated : : : a6, 

London-bridge ancient water-works destroyed by 
fire . . : : ; : : . 29 Oct. 

An act to supply the metropolis with water, 15 & 16 
Vict. c. 84, was passed, 1 July, 1852. This act was 
amended by an act passed 21 Aug. 1871. The 
companies were bound to provide a constant 
supply when required ; the owner or occupier of 
the house to provide the prescribed fittings. 

[The supply is now considered to be much improved 
in quality and quantity. ] 

A company was formed to carry out Dr. Normandy’s 
patent for converting salt water into fresh, in 


1285 


1722 


1779 


Jan. 1857 
Commissioners for metropolitan water supply ap- 
pointed, 27 April, 1867; report signed 9 June,. 1869 


London supplied by nine companies : the New River 
(the best), East London, Chelsea, Grand Junction, 
Southwark and Vauxhall, Kent, West Middlesex, 
Lambeth, and South Essex; who deliver about 
108,000,000 gallons daily, 1867 ; about 116,250,000 
gallons : ‘ : : ; é bse 
New schemes for supplying London with water, 
1867 :— 
x. Mr. Bateman ; from the sources of the Severn. 
2. Messrs. Hemans and Hassard ; from the Cum- 
berland lakes. 

3 Mr. Telford Macneill; Thames water filtered 
through Bagshot sand. 

4. Mr. Bailey Denton ; storage reservoirs near the 
sources of the Thames. 

5. Mr. Remington; from the Derbyshire and 
Staffordshire hills. 

The water from the first two sources analysed and 
highly approved by professors Frankland and 
Odling . ; : : : A s . April, 

Water from the chalk districts softened by Homer- 
sham’s process strongly recommended, Jan. 1871 

Aug. 

Conference on the national water supply at So- 
ciety of Arts (suggested by the prince of Wales, 
president) . : : ; 2 21, 22 May, 

Letter from the prince of Wales to the earl of 
Beaconsfield suggesting the appointment of a 
commission on water supply, dated . 24 March, 1879 

National Water Supply Exhibition, Alexandra Pa- 
lace ; opened . : : : : 14 Aug. 

Government proposal to buy companies’ works for 
34,398,700l. (New River company, 9,146,000. ), 
spring; dropped . ‘ : : : April, 1880 

Annual revenue, according to Mr. E. J. Smith's cal- 
culations, above 1,500,000l. . ‘ : . 1881 

Atkins’ process for softening hard water an improve- 
ment upon Clarks’ process, announced July, 1882 

See Artesian Wells and London Water. 


WATER-BED, CLOCKS, sce Beds, Clocks. 


WATER-COLOUR PAINTING was gra- 
dually raised from the hard dry style of the last 
century to its present brilliancy, by the efforts of 
Nicholson, Copley Fielding, Sandby, Varley, the 
great Turner, Pyne, Cattermole, Prout, &c., within 
the present century. The Water-Colour Society’s 
exhibition which began in 1805, was made Royal in 
1881, the diplomas were to be signed by the queen 
after Nov. 1882. The Institute of Painters in Water 
Colours,established about 1831 (made Royal in 1883), 
open new galleries in Piccadilly, and propose to give 
free instruction, 27 April, 1883. 


1877 


1868 


1878 


2? 


»? 


WATERFORD (S. Ireland), built about 879. 
was totally destroyed by fire in 981. Rebuilt and con- 
siderably enlarged by Strongbow in 1171, and stil} 
further in the reign of Henry VII., who grante 
considerable privileges to the citizens. Richard J 
landed and was crowned here in 1399; in 169 
James II. embarked from hence for France, afte 
the battle of the Boyne; and William IIT. residec 
here twice, and confirmed its privileges. Memorahk 
storm here, 18 April, 1792. The cathedral of Water- 
ford, dedicated to the blessed Trinity, was first 
built by the Ostmen, and by Malchus, the first 
bishop of Waterford, after his return from Englanc 
from his consecration, 1096. This see was uniteé 
with that of Lismore in 1363. It was.valued in 
the king’s books, by an extent returned 29 Henry 
VIII., at 727. 8s. 1d. Irish per annum. By stat. 
3 & 4 Will. IV., ¢. 37 (the Irish Church Tempo- 
ralities act), the see of Waterford and Lismore was 
united with the see of Cashel and Emly, 14 Ang. 
1833. The interior of the cathedral, organ, &e., 
were destroyed by fire, 25 Oct. 1815. 


WATER-GLASS, a name given to a liqui¢ 
mixture of sand (silex) and one of the alkalies 
(potash or soda). Glauber (De Lithiase) mentions 
a similar mixture in 1644. Dr. Von Fuchs, th 
modern inventor, gave an account of his process ir 
1825; and Mr. Frederick Ransome, of Ipswich 


ignorant of Von Fuchs’s discovery, patented a mod 


of preparing water-glass in 1845, which he has sine 
greatly improved upon. In 1857, M. Kuhlmann, o 
Lille, published a pamphlet setting forth th 
advantageous employment of water-glass in harden. 
ing porous stone and in stereochromy (which see) 
It has been applied to the exterior of many building 
in France and England. The memoirs of Yor 
Fuchs and Kuhlmann were translated and printe 
in England, in 1859, by direction of the prine 
consort. 


WATERING STREETS. Mr. Cooper’s plai 
for using solutions of chloride of lime or of sodiur 
(which dry slowly and attract moisture and ammoni 
and other gases, and combine them with the materi 
of the road) was partially used in the parish of St 
Mary-le-bone in 1868, and also in Liverpool, Bostox 
and other towns. The plan was ordered to be trie 
in Westminster in July, 1870. 


WATERLOO, in Belgium, the site of th 


| great battle, on Sunday, 18 June, 1815, between th 


French army, of 71,947 men and 246 guns, undé 
Napoleon, and the allies, commanded by the duk 
of Wellington; the latter, with 67,661 men an 
156 guns, resisted the various attacks of the enem 
from about ten in the morning until five in th 
afternoon. About that time, 16,000 Prussiaz 
reached the field of battle; and by seven, the for¢ 
under Blucher amounted to above 50,000 men, wit 
104 guns. Wellington then moved forward li 
whole army. <A total rout ensued, and the earnag 
was immense. Of the British (23,991), 93 office 
and 1916 men were killed and missing, and 36 
officers and 4560 men wounded—total, 6932; a 
the total loss of the allied army amounted to 420 
killed, 14,539 wounded, and 4231 missing, makin 
22,976 hors de combat. Napoleon, quitting the wre¢ 
of his army, returned to Paris; and, finding 1 
impossible to raise another, abdicated. P. Nicolas. 

By the side of the chapel of Waterloo, which wé 
uninjured by shot or shell on 18 June, 1815, Marlboroug 
cut off a large division of the French forces, 17 Aug. 170 


The conquerors on the same field are the only Britis 
commanders whose career brought them to dukedoms. 


WATERLOO BRIDGE, Lonpon. Abrid; 
over this part of the Thames was repeatedly sus 


WATERLOO CUP. 


‘sted during the last century, but no actual pre- 

rations to carry it into effect were made till mee: 

ven Mr. G. Dodd procured an act of parliament, 

‘1 gave the present site, plan, and dimensions of 

bridge; but, in consequence of some disagree- 

mt with the committee, he was superseded by 
». John Rennie, who completed this noble struc- 
te. It was commenced 11 Oct. 1811, and opened 

June, 1817, on the anniversary of the battle of 

‘aterloo, when the prince regent, the duke of 

ellington, and other distinguished personages, 

re present. Its length within the abutments is 

42 feet; its width within the balustrades is 42 

‘t; and the span of each arch, of which there are 
ie, is 120 feet. Bought for 475,000/. by metro- 

‘litan board of works; opened toll free, 5 Oct. 1878; 
by electric light from 10 Oct. 1879. 

, On Oct. 9, 1857, two youths, named Kilsby, found on 
3 of the abutments of the bridge a carpet bag, con- 
ning human bones and flesh, which had been cut up, 
ted, and boiled, and some foreign clothes. No clue 

‘ud be found respecting these remains, which were 

erred in Woking cemetery. 


WATERLOO CUP, see Dogs. 
WATER-MILLS, used for grinding corn, are 


d to have been invented by Belisarius, the general 
‘Justinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, 
5. The ancients parched their corn, and pounded 
in mortars. Afterwards mills were invented, 
ich were turned by men and beasts with great 
your; yet Pliny mentions wheels turned by water. 
e Telo-dynamic transmitter. 


WATERSPOUT. Two waterspouts fell on the 
_atz mountains in Germany, and caused dreadful 
vastation to Hautenbach and many other villages ; 
any persons perished, 13 July, 1827, A water- 
‘out at Glanflesk, near Killarney, in Ireland, 
ssed over a farm of Mr. John Macarthy, destroy- 
g farm-houses and other buildings; seventeen 
‘rsons perished, 4 Aug. 1831. The estimated 
agth of one seen near Calcutta, 27 Sept. 1855, was 
oo feet. It lasted ten minutes, and was absorbed 
ywards. One seen on 24 Sept. 1856, burst into 
‘ayy rain. The town of Miskolez, Hungary, 
stroyed by a waterspout; great loss of life and 
operty, 30 Aug. 1878. 61 persons said to have 
en killed by a waterspout in Algieria, Oct. 1881. 
waterspout at Arequipa, Peru, caused immense 
mage, several persons drowned, 14 Feb. ; one at 
‘whuca, Mexico, 30 deaths, 27 Sept. 1884. 


WATER TOFANA, see Poisoning. 
WATLING-STRERT, see Roman Roads. 


WATTIGNIES (N. lrance). Here Jourdan 
id the French republicans defeated the Austrians 
der the prince of Coburg, and raised the siege of 
‘aubeuge, 14-16 Oct. 1793. 


(met TYLER’S INSURRECTION, see 
yler. 


WAVE PRINCIPLE (in accordance with 
‘hich the curves of the hull of a ship should be 
lapted to the curves of a wave of the sea) formed 
/e subject of experiments begun by Mr. John Scott 
‘assell in 1832, with the view of increasing the 
eed of ships. Colonel Beaufoy is said to have 
he 30,000/. in researches upon this matter. It 
‘as also taken up by the British Association, who 
‘we published reports of the investigations. The 
inciple has been adopted by naval architects; see 
ndulatory Theory, and Yacht. 


WAVERLEY NOVELS. The publication 


the series began with ‘‘ Waverley; or, ’Tis Sixty 


Zz 


907 


| heart. 


WEDGWOOD WARE. 


Years since,’’ in 1814, and closed with ‘ Tales of 
my Landlord,” fourth series, in 1831. The author- 
ship was acknowledged by sir Walter Scott, at a 
dinner, 23 Feb. 1827. The original MSS. of several 
of Scott’s poems and novels were sold by auction by 
Christie and Manson for 1255 guineas, 6 July, 1867. 


WAWZ or WAwER (Poland). The Poles 
under Skrzynecki attacked the Russians at Wawz, 
and after two days’ hard fighting, all the Russian 
positions were carried by storm, and they retreated 
with the loss of 12,000 men and 2000 prisoners, 
31 March, 1831. The loss of the Poles was small, 
but their triumph was soon followed by defeat and 
ruin. 

WAX. came into use for candles in the 12th 
century; and wax candles were esteemed a luxury 
in 1300, being but little used. In China, candles of 
vegetable wax have been in use for centuries; see 
Candleberry. The wax tree, Ligustrwm lucidum, 
was brought from China before 1794.—SEALING- 
Wax was not brought into use in England until 
about 1556. Its use has been much superseded by 
the introduction of adhesive envelopes, about 1844. 


WE. Sovereigns generally use we for J, which 
style began with king John, 1199. Coke. The 
German emperors and French kings used the plural 
about 1200. 


WEALD of Kent and Sussex, the site of 
very large, ancient forests; St. Leonard’s still 
remaining ; near which, in the Wealden formation, 
Dr. G. A. Mantell discovered the remains of huge 
extinct animals, 1825, et seg. Mr. R. Furley 
published an exhaustive “History of the Weald of 
Kent,” 1871-4. 


WEATHER, see Aleteorology. 


WEAVING appears to have been practised in 
China more than a thousand years before it was 
known in Europe or Asia. The Egyptians ascribed 
the art to Isis; the Greeks to Minerva; and the 
Peruvians to the wife of Manco Capac. Our 
Saviour’s vest, or coat, had not any seam, being 
woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. 
The print of a frame for weaving such a vest may 
be seen in Calmet’s Dictionary, under the word 
Vestments. Two weavers from Brabant settled at 
York, where they manufactured woollens, which, 
says king Edward, ‘‘ may prove of great benefit to 
us and our subjects”’ (1331). Flemish dyers, cloth 
drapers, linen-makers, silk-throwsters, &c., settled 
at Canterbury, Norwich, Colchester, Southampton, 
and other places, on account of the duke of Alva’s 
persecution, 1567; see Loom, and Electric Loom. _ 

WEDDINGS. Silver weddings are celebrated 
after a union of 25 years; golden weddings after a 
union of 50 years; and diamond weddings after a 
union of 60 years. John, king of Saxony, celebrated 
his golden wedding, 10 Nov. 1872. 


WEDDING-RINGS were used by the 
ancients, and put upon the wedding finger, from a 
supposed connection with a vein there with the 
According to Pliny they.were made of iron ; 
in the time of Tertullian of gold. Wedding-rings 
are to be of standard gold, by statute, 1855; see 
Adriatic. 

WEDGE-LIKE CHARACTERS, see Cunei- 
form. 

WEDGWOOD WARE, pottery and porce- 
lain produced by Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, of Stafford- 
shire, in 1762, His potteries, termed Etruria, were 
founded in 1771, Previously to 1763, much earthen- 
ware was imported from France and Holland. 


1 


WEDNESDAY. 


908 


WELLINGTONIA GIGANTEA. 


WEDNESDAY, the fourth day of the week, 
so called from the Saxon idol Woden or Odin, 
worshipped on this day. Woden was the reputed 
author of magic and the inventor of all the arts, 
and was thought to answer to the Mercury of the 
Greeks and Romans. 


WEEDON INQUIRY (Northamptonshire). 
Commissioners were appointed to inquire into the 
accounts of Mr. Elliot, superintendent of the great 
military clothing establishment at this place, in 
July, 1858, and commenced sitting in September. 
Many of the statements were afterwards disputed, 
and caused much dissatisfaction. 


WEEK, the space of seven days, supposed to be 
first used among the Jews, who observed the 
sabbath every seventh day. They had three sorts of 
weeks—the common one of seven days; the second 
of years, seven years; the third of seven times 
seven years, at the end of which was the jubilee. 
All the present English names are derived from 
the Saxon :— 


Latin. French. 
Dies Solis, Day of the Sun, Dimanche. 
Dies Lune, Day of the Moon, Lundi. 
Dies Martis, Day of Mars, Mardi. 
Dies Mercurii, Day of Mercury, Mercredi. 
Dies Jevis, Day of Jupiter, Jeudi. 
Dies Veneris, Day of Venus, Vendredi. 
Dies Saturni, Day of Saturn, Samedi. 
English. Saxon. German. 
Sunday, Sun’s day, Sonntag. 
Monday, Moon’s day, Montag. 
Tuesday, Tiw’s day, Dienstag. 
Wednesday, Woden’s day, Mittwoche. 
Thursday, Thor’s day, Donnerstag. 
Friday, Friga’s day, Freitag. 
Saturday, Saterne’s day, Samstag, or Sonn- 
abend. 


WEEKLY DISPATCH, liberal weekly 


Sunday paper, established 1801. 


WEIGHTS anp MEASURES. These and 
the stamping of gold and silver money, are attributed 
to Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, 895 B.c.; see Arwn—- 
delian Marbles. Weights were originally taken 
from grains of wheat, the lowest being still called a 
grain. Chalmers. See Crith. 


Much information is given by Mr. H. W. Chisholm 
in his work ‘‘On the Science of Weighing and 
Measuring.” 1877. 

The Jews ascribed weights and measures to Cain ; 
the Egyptians to Theuth, or Thoth ; the Greeks, 
to Hermes (the Roman Mercury). 

The basis of ancient measures was the natural pro- 
portions of the human body ; the digit, or breadth 
of the middle part of the first joint of the fore 
finger, being the lowest unit of the scale. 

The Egyptian cubit (six palms), under the Pha- 
raohs, was about 18.24 English inches ; the cubit 
of Ptolemy about 21.87 inches; he determined 
the length of a stadium, and of a degree. 

The sacred cubit of the Jews (Newton), 24.7 inches. 

Assyrian weights are described by Mr. Layard in 
his ‘‘ Nineveh.” 

The standard measure was originally kept at Win- 
chester by the law of king Edgar . : ; : 

Standards of weights and measures were provided 
for the whole kingdom of England by the sheriffs 
of London, g Rich. I. : : , : as wis 

A public weighing-machine was set up in London, 
and all commodities ordered to be weighed by the 
city-officer, called the weigh-master, who was to 
do justice between buyer and seller, stat. 3 Edw. 
ET: (Stow) a . . 5 < e 7 

Edward IIIf. ordered that there should be ‘‘one 
weight, measure, and yard,” throughout the king- 
dom : ; : : : , : oa 

First statute, directing the use of avoirdupois 
weight, of 24 Hen. VIII. . ; : , : 

Weights and measures ordered to be examined by 
the justices at quarter-sessions, 35 Geo. III. . . 1795 


972 


1197 


1309 


1353 
1532 


Again regulated , : ; : € - 3 
Statute for establishing a uniformity of weights and 
measures, 1824, took effect throughout the United 
Kingdom . é . : : : . rdan. 18: 
New acts relating thereto passed in 1834, 1835, 1855, 
and in : : , 4 : ‘ z ; 
16 & 17 Vict. c. 29, regulates the weights to be used 
in the sale of bullion, and adopts the use of the 
Troy ounce j : . é : < ee | 
A commission (consisting of Mr. G. B. Airy, gen. 
E. Sabine, lord Rosse, Mr. T. Graham and others), 
appointed to examine the standards 9 May, 
3rd report of the Standards commission state that 
errors exist in official standards, dated 24 July, 
A new Weights and Measures act passed to enforce 
uniformity in all markets in the United Kingdom, 
and abolish local measures, 8 Aug. 1878; came 
into operation F ‘ - : : x Jan. 
Specific gravities (unit, pure water): iridium, 22.38; 
platinum, 2t.4¢ 5; osmium, 21.4; gold, 19.32; lead, 
11.35; Silver, 10.51; copper, 8.94; iron, 7.87; 
tin, 7.29; zinc, 7.19; iodine, 4.95; carbon, 3.523 
aluminium, 2.56; sulphur, 2; sodium, 0.973 
lithium, 0.59; oxygen, 0.001431; nitrogen, 
0.001257; hydrogen, 0.0000896, Dr. O. J. Broch . 18; 
(See Standard ; and Metrical System.) 


WEIMAR, capital of the grand-duchy of Sa} 
Weimar (which see). - 


WEINSBERG, see Guelphs. 
WEISSENBURG, see Wissembourg. 


WELLINGTON ADMINISTRATION 
succeeded that of viscount Goderich, Jan. 1828. Tl. 
duke resigned 16 Nov. 1830. 

Duke of Wellington, jirst lord of the treasury, 

Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 

Henry Goulburn, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl Bathurst, president of the council. 

Lord Ellenborough, privy seal. 

Mr. (afterwards. sir) Robert: Peel, earl Dudley, and M 
Wm. Huskisson, home, foreign, and colonial secretari: 

Viscount Melville, board of control. ‘ 

Mr. Charles Grant, board of trade. 

Lord Palmerston, secretary-at-war, 

J. C. Herries, master of the mint. 

Earl of Aberdeen, duchy of Lancaster. 

Mr. Huskisson, earl Dudley, viscount Palmerston, ar 
Mr. Grant quitted the ministry, and various chang 
followed in May and June same year. 

The earl of Aberdeen and sir George Murray becam 
respectively, foreign and colonial secretaries. 

Sir Henry Hardinge, secretary-at-war. 

Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald (afterwards lord Fitzgerald), Ind 
board. 

Lord Lowther, first commissioner of land revenues, & 
May and June, 1828. ; 

Mr. Arbuthnot, Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald, &ce. 


WELLINGTON COLLEGE (Sandhurst 
was erected by subscription in memory of the gre: 
duke of Wellington, for the support and educatic 
of orphan sons of commissioned officers. The fir 
stone was laid by the queen on 2 June, 1856; ar 
the building was opened by her majesty on 29 Jal 
1859. Out of the 159,000/, subscribed, 55,000/. we 
expended on the building, and the rest invested f 
the maintenance of the institution. 

A controversy respecting its management ; certain 

charges explained or rebutted . Aug.-Oct. 18: 
Proposal for royal commission of inquiry nega- — 

tived in the commons i : . x April, ge; 
Commission appointed ; lord Penzance, bishop of 

Exeter, Mr. R. Lowe (since lord Sherbrooke), col. 

Chesney, &c., June, 1879; report recommending 

greater economy and improvement of income, 

Aug. 18! 

WELLINGTONIA GIGANTEA, tl 
largest tree in the world, a native of Califormi 
was discovered by W. Whitehead, June, 1850; 
specimen first gathered by Mr. W. Lobb in 185, 
and described by Dr. John Lindley. When fu 
grown it is about 450 feet high, and 116 feet 1 
circumference. The prince consort (5 June, 1861 


18: 


" WELLINGTON’S VICTORIES. 


G09 


WESLEYAN METHODISTS. 


l the queen (24 July, 1861) planted Welling- 
jas at the new gardens of the Royal Horti- 
tural Society. 


VELLINGTON’S VICTORIES, &c. For 


ails see separate articles. 


hur Wellesley was born, according to some 
uthorities, in March or April (baptised 30 April); 
vcorrectly said by others x : rt May, 
yointed to command in the Mahratta war in 
idia ; takes Poonah and Ahmednugegur, 12 Aug. ; 
ains his first victory at Assaye, 23 Nept. ; defeats 
cindiah at Argaum, Noy.; and at Gawalghur 


1769 


13 Dec. 1803 
omes secretary for Ireland . : 5 ; . 1807 
es the command in Portugal, defeats Junot at 
imeira . ‘ . : - : 21 Aug. 1808 
eats Victor at Talavera, 28 July; created 
iscount Wellington 4 Sept. 1809 


yulses Massena at Busaco, 27 Sept. ; and occupies 
ne lines at Torres Vedras : “ . to Oct. 
eats Massena at Fuentes de Onoro, 5 May ; takes 
Imeida = ; : : 4 to May, 
ses the Douro and defeats Soult. 12 May, 
rms Ciudad Rodrigo, 19 Jan.; and Badajos, 
April; defeats Marmont at Salamanca, 22 
uly ; enters Madrid ; east 2AM YS, 
eats Joseph Bonaparte and Jourdan at Vittoria, 
r June; storms St. Sebastian, 31 Aug. ; enters 


‘rance , F : 5 ‘ : . 8 Oct. 1813 
eats Soult at Orthez, 27 Feb. ; and at Toulouse 
to April, 1814 


ated. duke of Wellington, with an annuity of 
3,000/, and a grant of 300,000!. ; May: \-5, 
st appeared in the house of lords; his patents 
f creation as baron, earl, marquis, and duke being 
2ad at the same time : P : 28 June, ,, 
nmands the army in the Netherlands ; repulses 
n attack of Ney at Quatre Bras, 16 June: defeats 
fapoleon at Waterloo, 18 June; invests Paris 
3 July, 
nmands the army of occupation in France 
July, 1815, till Nov. 
; assassination attempted by Cantillon, who 
scapes : F : to Feb. 
pointed master-general of the ordnance : 
» Wellington shield and sttpporting columns 
esigned by Stothard, commemorating all the 
bove-mentioned victories, presented to the duke 
y the merchants and bankers of London. (It 
ras manufactured by Green and Ward, and cost 
1,0001.) 16 Feb. 


: : 5 F = - 1822 
» duke appointed commander-in-chief, 22 Jan. ; 


signs: : : : Pr 30 April, 1827 

‘comes first minister. : : A 8 Jan. 1828 

iS in carrying the Catholic Emancipation bill 
April, 1829 


erts that no reform in parliament is needed, 2 
lov. ;/ resigns —.. ; : : : 16 Noy, 
nsacts all the business of the country, after the 
esignation of lord Melbourne, till the arrival of 
ir R. Peel from Italy, Nov. ; and becomes foreign 
ecretary under sir R. Peel, Dec. 1834; resigns 


1830 


April, 1835 
in commander-in-chief 15 Aug. 1842 
Ss at Walmer castle* 14 Sept. 1852 


noved to Chelsea hospital, where he lay in state 


TO NOV. ¢ 55 
noved to the Horse Guards i 17 Nov. ,, 
blic funeral at St. Paul’s cathedral . FO NOV: «55 


nultitude of all ranks, estimated at a million and a 
alf of persons, were congregated in the line of route, 
distance of three miles, to witness and share in the 
mposing spectacle. 

+ military consisted of the household regiments of 
orse and foot guards, the 2nd battalion of the rifles, a 
attalion of the Royal Marines, the 33rd regiment, the 
7th Lancers, and the 18th Light Dragoons, the regi- 
1ent of Scots Greys ; a body of Chelsea pensioners, and 
1en of different arms of the Indian army. 

+ body was placed upon a sumptuous funeral car, 
rawn by twelve horses richly caparisoned, and the 
offin was thus seen by the whole of the crowd. 

> procession moved about seven o’clock, and it was 


His favourite old horse, Copenhagen, (born 1808, at 
terloo), died 1836. 


over it to the last. 


three o’clock before the body was lowered into the 

vault beside the remains of Nelson, under the dome of 

St. Paul’s cathedral. 
Memorial by Marochetti erected by the present duke, his 

son, and tenants at Strathfieldsaye, July, 1866. 

WELLINGTON MONUMENT, in St. Paul’s. 

A number of models exhibited in Westminster-hall ; none 
chosen, 1857. } 

The execution of the monument entrusted to Mr. A. 
Stevens, sculptor, and Mr. Penrose, architect. The 
stone sarcophagus was completed in 1858. 

In Aug. 1870, above 17,o0ol. had been expended, and it 
was stated that 15,oool. more were required. Parlia- 
ment had granted 20,0001, Fresh arrangements were 
made with Mr. Stevens. He died 1 May, 1875. .Mo- 
nument reported complete, 1 Feb.; uncovered, 20 
April, 1878. 

: See Statues, 

WELLS were dug by Abraham, 1892 B.c., and 
Isaac, 1804 (Gen. xxi. 30, and xxvi. 19). Danaus 
is said to have introduced well-digging into Greece 
from Egypt. Norton’s ‘‘ tube-well,’”’ patented Oct. 
1867, is said to be the inventicn of Hiram J. 
Messenger, Stephen Brewer, and Byron Mudge, 
Americans of the state of New York. The appa- 
ratus consists of an iron tube perforated with holes 
at the lower end, and shod with a steel point, which 
readily enters the hardest soil when forcibly driven. 
It was used with great advantage during the civil 
war 1861-4; by the British in their campaign in 
Abyssinia in 1867-8; and by the Russians in Khiva, 
1873. . 
Messrs. Meux, brewers, New Oxford-street, London, 

boring, found water beneath the greensand, about 

tooo feet deep, April, 1877. 


WELLS (Somerset). The cathedral church 
was built by Ina, king of the West Saxons, 704, and 
by him dedicated to St. Andrew. Other West 
Saxon kings endowed it, and it was erected into a 
bishopric in 909, during the reign of Edward the 
Elder. The present church was begun by Robert, 
18th bishop of this see, and completed by his imme- 
diate successor. The first bishop was ASthelm or 
Adelmus (afterwards bishop of Canterbury). The 
see was united with Bath (which see) in 1088. 


WELSH CHARITY SCHOOLS; esta- 
blished in Gray’s-inn-road, London, 1715; removed 
to Ashford, near Staines, Middlesex, 1852. 


WENDS. a branch of the Slavonic family which 
spread over Germany in the 6th century, and settled 
especially in the north-eastern parts. 


WESLEYAN METHODISTS, a sect 
founded by John Wesley (born 1703, died 1791) 
and his brother Charles, who in 1727 with a few 
other students formed themselves into a small society 
for the purpose of mutual edification by religious 
exercises. From theirstrictness of life they were called 
Methodists, in 1729. John Wesley went to Georgia 
in America, in 1735, with a view of converting the 
Indians. On his return to England, in 1738, he 
commenced itinerant preaching, and gathered many 
followers. On finding many churches shut against 
him, he built spacious meeting-houses in London, 
Bristol, and other places. For some time he was 
united with George Whitefield; but differing with 
him respecting the doctrine of election, ‘they sepa- 
rated in 1741; see Whitefield. Wesley was almost 
continually engaged in travelling through the 
United Kingdom. His two leading doctrines were 
the instantaneousness of conversion, and Christian 
perfection, or deliverance from all sin. His society 
was well organised, and he preserved his influence 
‘* His genius for government 
was not inferior to that of Richelieu.” Macaulay. 
The deed of declaration, establishing the conference, 


WESSEX. 
is dated 28 Feb. 1784. 


In 1851 there were 


910 


428 


circuits in Great Britain, with between 13,000 and 
14,000 local or lay preachers, and about 920 itine- 


rant preachers, and 6579 chapels. 


The Conference, the highest Wesleyan court, till 
lately, composed of roo ministers, who’ meet 
annually. It was instituted by John Wesley in . 

At the centenary of the existence of Methodism 
216,o0ol. were collected, to be expended on the 
objects of the society : : : F eis 

Ancecumenieal conference to be held in the autumn 
of 1881, settled : : : . 31 July, 

138th annual conference openec 19 July, 


Out of the original connection have seceded :— 
Chapels in 
New Connection (in 1796) . : : : 
Primitive Methodists (1810) . : 
Bible Christians, or Bryanites (1815) 
Wesleyan Methodist Association (1834) 
Wesleyan Methodist Reformers (1849). : , 
The last arose out of the publication of ‘Fly 
Sheets,” advocating reform in the body (1844-8). 
The suspected authors and their friends were ex- 
pelled. By these disruptions the main body is 
thought to have lost 100,ooo members.—This 
sect in America numbered about a million in 
1844, when a division took place on the slavery 
question. ; : 
Wesleyan Methodist church members in Great Bri- 
tain in 1868, 342,380; in 1872, 346,580; in 1876, 
372,538 ; 1878, 380,867 (1412 ministers). ; 
Letter from Dr. Pusey requesting aid in opposing 
Coleridge’s bill for admitting dissenters to the 
universities, read at the conference, but not 
received . : : : : : 13 Aug. 
The establishment. of a high school for Wesleyaus 
at Cambridge (to prepare for the university) pro- 
posed ; - : : . ‘ - May, 
The chapel in the City-road, London, founded by 
John Wesley, x April, 1877, was nearly destroyed 
by fire : : : ; : . eT WeGs 
(cumenical Methodist conference (at City-road 
Chapel, London), of 400 delegates, ministers and 
laymen from all parts of the world (representing 
nearly 4,000,000 : 3 ° . 6 Sept. et seq. 
Members in United Kingdom, 435,232 . 4 2 


WESSEX, see Britain. 


1784 


1839 
1880 
1881 


1851 
301 


. 2871 


403 
329 


2000 


1868 


1872 


1879 


1881 
1884 


WEST AFRICAN SETTLEMENTS— 
Sierra Leone, Gambia, &c. Governor, sir Arthur 
E. Kennedy, 1867; sir Garnet Wolseley, Aug. 1873 ; 
Cornelius H. Kortright, 1875; Dr. Samuel Rowe, 


1876; capt. Arthur E. Havelock, 1881 ; 
Samuel Rowe, 1884. See Ashantees. 


Turbulent chiefs subdued . 5 : . June, 
International conference at Berlin, on West 
African affairs.* Freedom of trade on the Congo; 
Rights of States occupying open territory ; pro- 
posed by Germany, accepted by France, England, 
Portugal, Spain, Holland, Belgium, the United 
States, and Turkey : : s . 8 Oct. 
Conference opened, prince Bismarck president 
15 Nov. 

The conference declares free trade in the Congo 
valley and affirms British protectorate over the 
Niger, and recognises the International African 
Association : paDSC. 
Prohibits slave trade. - . é - 7 Jan. 
Approves rules for future annexations on the ok 
1 Feb. 

Result of the conference embodied in a general act 
signed . ; ; : : ~ . 26 Feb, 
International limitations on the lower Congo, settled 


15 Feb. 


sir 


1883 


WESTERN AUSTRALIA, formerly Swan 
RIVER SETTLEMENT, which was projected by 
colonel Peel in 1828. Regulations issued from the 
colonial office, and Captain Stirling, appointed 
lieutenant-governor, Jan. 17, 1829, arrived at the 


* Mr. H. Stanley, at Berlin. 


WESTERN EMPIRE. 


appointed site in August following. The thi 
towns of Perth, Freemantle, and Guildford we 
founded same year. In March, 1830, fifty shi 
with 2000 emigrants, with property amounting 
1,000,000/., had arrived before hardly any dwellin 
had been erected or land surveyed. The mc 
energetic settlers left for home, or the neighbouri 
colonies, and the colony languished for twenty ye: 
for want of suitable inhabitants—the first settle 
from their previous habits and rank in life, provi 
unfit for the rough work of colonisation. In 18: 
the colonists requested that convicts might be se 
out to them, and in sy a band arrived, who w« 
kindly received and well treated. The best resu. 
ensued. By 1853, 2000 had arrived, and the i 
habitants of Perth had requested that 1000 shou 
be sent out annually. The reception of convicts 
to cease in after-years, in consequence of the ene 
getic opposition of the other Australian coloni 
(1865).—The settlement of King George’s Sou 
was founded in 1826 by the government of N; 
South Wales. It was used as a military station f 
four years. In 1830, the home government orden: 
the settlement to be transferred to Swan Riv; 
Since the establishment of steam communicatio 
the little town of Albany here, employed as a cos 
ing station, has become a thriving sea-port. 
possesses an excellent harbour, used by whalers. 
journal called the Freemantle Gazette was publish 
here in March, 1831. Population of Western Au 
tralia in 1859, 14,837; Jan. 1862, 155535 5 De 
1883, 31,233. Governor John Stephen Hampto 
appointed 1861 ; sir Benjamin C. C. Pine, May, 186 
Frederick A. Weld, 1869; Wm. C. F. Robinsc 
1874: major-gen. sir Harry St. George Ord, 187 
sir W. F. Robinson, 1880; sir Frederick Napi 
Broome, 1882. 


WESTERN CHURCH (called also + 
LATIN or RoMAN) broke off communion with t 
Greek or Eastern Church, 653; see Greek Churc 
Its history is mainly comprised in that of the poy 
and of the European kingdoms; see Popes. Tl 
church was disturbed by the Arian heresy abo 
345 and 500; by Pelagianism, about 409; by t 
introduction of 1mage-worship about > yet 
injunction of the celibacy of the clergy and the 1! 
of the monastic orders about 649; by the conte: 
between the emperors and the popes respectii 
ecclesiastical investitures between 1073 and II7 
by the rise and progress of the Reformation in t 
15th and 16th centuries; by the contests betwe 
the Jesuits and Jansenists in the 17th and 18 
centuries; and by the progress of modern philosop! 
and rationalism, and by ultramontanism, in t 
19th; see Roman Catholics, 


WESTERN EMPIRE. The Roman empi 
was divided into Kastern and Western by Di 
cletian in 296; but was reunited under Consta 
in 340. It was again divided into Eastern 
Western by Valentinian and Valens, the form 
having the Western portion or Rome, 364; 8 
Eastern Empire, Italy, and Rome, 
‘EMPERORS. | 
364. Valentinian, son of Gratian, takes the Wester) 4 
his brother Valens the Eastern empire. : 

367. Gratian, a youth, son of Valentinian, made a &€ 
league in the government by his father. 

375. Valentinian II., another son, also very young, is, ‘ 

' the death of his father, associated with Gratia 

who is assassinated by his general, Andragathiu 
in 383. Valentinian murdered by one of his officer 
Arbogastes, in 392. ’ 

392. Eugenius, a usurper, assumes the imperial dignit 
he and Arbogastes are defeated by fe 


yt ae 


WESTERN ISLES OF SCOTLAND. 


,. Theodosius the Great, who becomes sole emperor. 
[Andragathius threw himself into the sea, and Arbo- 
gastes died by his own hand. ] 

Se Honorius, son of Theodosius, reigns, on his father’s 

' death, in the West, and his brother Arcadius in 
the East. Honorius dies in 423. 

3. Usurpation of John, the Notary, defeated and slain 
near Ravenna. 

5» Valentinian III., son of the empress Placidia, daugh- 
ter of Theodosius the Great: murdered at the in- 
stance of his successor 

;- Maximus: he marries Eudoxia, widow of Valen- 
tinian, who, to avenge the death of her first 
husband and the guilt of her second, invites the 
African Vandals into Italy, and Rome is sacked. 
Maximus stoned to death. 

;. Marcus Mecilius Avitus; forced to resign, and.dies 
in his flight towards the Alps. 

7, Julius Valerius Majorianus ; awed at the instance 
of his minister, Ricimer, who raises 

r. Libius Severus to the throne, but holds the supreme 
power; Severus poisoned by Ricimer. 

5. [Interregnum. Ricimer retains the authority, with- 
out assuming the title of emperor. } 

7. Anthemius, chosen by the joint suffrages of the 
senate and army; murdered by Ricimer, who dies 
soon after. 

2. Flavius-Anicius Olybrius: slain by the Goths soon 

. after his accession. 

3. Glycerius: forced to abdicate by his successor, 

4. Julius Nepos: deposed by his general, Orestes, and 
retires to Salone. 

5. Romulus (called Augustulus, or Little Augustus), 
son of Orestes. Orestes is slain, and the emperor 
deposed by 

§. Odoacer, king of the Heruli: takes Rome, assumes 
the style of king of Italy, and completes the fall of 
the Western empire. 

See Italy, Rome, and Germany. 


WESTERN ISLES oF Scoruann. Royal 
mmission to ea Neate into extreme destitution ap- 
inted 20 March, 1883 (lord Napier and Ettrick, 
r. Donald Cameron, M.P., and cthers). 
‘ansion House. 


WEST INDIHS, islands discovered by Colum- 
is, St. Salvador being the first land he made in 
e New World, and first seen by him in the night 
tween the 11th and 12th Oct. 1492, The largest 
e Cuba, Hayti (or St. Domingo), Jamaica, Porto 
ico, Trinidad, and Guadaloupe; see the Islands 
spectively. 

royal commission to inquire into their condition ap- 
pointed in 1882, reported on their great need of im- 
portant judicial and fiscal reforms April, 1884: De- 
pressed condition through increased use of beet sugar ; 
inadmissible remedies proposed by deputation to 
lord Derby, 28 Aug. 1884. 


WESTMINSTER, s0 called on account of its 
estern situation with regard to St. Paul’s cathe- 
al, or from there being formerly a monastery 
med East Minster, on the hill now called Great 
ywer-hill. This city joins London at Temple- pe 
ormerly Westminster was called Thorney, 
horney Island: and in ancient times Canute tad 
palace here, burnt in 1263. Westminster and 
mdon were one mile asunder in 1603, when the 
uses were thatched, and there were mud walls in 
e Strand. It is said that the great number of 
yotsmen who came over after the accession of 
mes I. occasioned the building of Westminster, and 
vited it with London. Howel’s Londinopolis ; 
e Parliament, 1834-52, 1884. By the Seats act 
1885, Westminster is to send three members to 
iliament. 
wl Grosvenor created marquis of Westminster, 
1831 ; the marquis created duke 
estminster industrial exhibition, opened. 24 May, 
closed . 9 Aug. 
wroness Burdett Coutts lays foundation of New 
Town Hall, near Victoria Street, 29 March, 1882 ; 
Opened . A c 5 ute) July, 1883 


See 


1874 
1879 


911 


WESTMINSTER BISHOPRIC. 
WESTMINSTER ABBEY. Christopher 


Wren, in his survey of the present edifice, found 
nothing to countenance the belief that it was erected 
on the ruins of a pagan temple. The erection of 
the first abbey in the 7th century is ascribed to St. 

Sebert, king of Essex. 


The church becoming ruinous, splendidly rebuilt by 
Edward the Confessor (1055-65) and filled with 
monks from Exeter (Pope Nicholas II. constituted 
it the place for the inauguration of the kings of 
England); dedicated . 28 Dee. 1065 

Re-built in a magnificent style by Henry Il. 1220-69 

In the reigns of Edward II., Edward III., and 
Richard Il. the great cloisters, abbot’s house, and 
principal monastic buildings, erected . . 1300-1400 

The western parts of the nave and aisles rebuilt 
between . . 1340 and 1483 

The west front and the great window built by 
Richard III. and Henry VII.; the latter com- 
menced the chapel which bears his name ; the first 
stone laid . , 24 Jan. 1502-3 

The abbey dissolved and made a ‘bishopric - 1540 

Made a collegiate church by Elizabeth + 1560 

Made a barrack for soldiers (Mercurius Rusticus), 

July, 1643 

The great west window and the western towers re- 
built in the reigns of George I. and II. . 1714-60 

The choir injured by fire : .g July, 1803 

Mr. Wyatt commenced restoring the dilapidated 
parts at an expense of 42,o00l. in . 

A fire, without any serious injury 27 April, 

The evening services for the working classes, when 
a sermon was preached by the dean, Dr. Trench, 
commenced on 3 Jan. 

The 8ooth anniver sary of the foundation éelebrated, 

28 Dec. 1865 

7oool. voted by parliament to restore the shanter: 
house (G. Gilbert Scott employed), 1 May, 1866 ; 
re-opened . 29 April, 

Lectures in the Abbey on foreign missions : pro- 
fessor Max Miiller, a layman, 3 Dec. 1873; prin- 
cipal Caird of Scotch church, 30 Noy. 1874; rey. 
Robert Moffat, father-in-law of Livingstone 

30 Noy. 1875 

Sir Charles Lyell, sir Wm. Sterndale Bennett, and 
bishop Connop Thirlwall, buried in the Abbey, 
1875; G. E. Street, 29 Dec. 1881; C. R. Darwin, 

26 April, 1882 

Repairs connected with the principal entrance after 
designs by Gilbert Scott, ee at a cost of 


1809 
1829 


1858 


1872 


about 20,0001. ‘ “ P . Nov. 1881 
New Abbey gardens opened é = 50: "April, 1882 
New organ set up May, 1884 


WESTMIN STER AQUARIUM, see 


Aquarium. 


WESTMINSTER BISHOPRIC anp 
DEANERY. At the dissolution of monasteries, 
Westminster abbey was valued at 3977/. per annum; 
king Henry VIII. in 1539 erected it into a deanery; 
and in I 540 into a bishopric, and appointed Thomas 
Thirlby prelate. He was translated to Norwich in 
1550, and with him ended the bishopric of West- 
minster; Middlesex, his diocese, being restored to 
London. The dean presided until the accession of 
Mary, who restored the abbot. Elizabeth displaced 
the abbot, and erected the abbey into a collegiate 
church of a dean and twelve prebendaries, as it 
still continues. On the revival of the order of the 
Bath, in 1725, the dean of Westminster was ap- 
pointed dean of that order, which honour has been 
continued. Dr. Nicholas Wiseman was created arch- 
bishop of Westminster by the pope Pius IX. 30 Sept. 
1850; see Papal Aggression. Dr. Wiseman died 8 
Feb. 1865; Henry Manning was consecrated his 
successor 8 June, following. 


RECENT DEANS. 

Samuel Horsley ; bishop of St. Asaph, 1802. 
William Vincent ; died 21 Dec. 1815. 

John Ireland ; died 21 Sept. 1842. 

Thomas Turton; bishop of Ely, 1845. 
Samuel Wilberforce ; bishop of Oxford, 1846. 


1793- 
1802. 
1815. 
1842. 
1845. 


J ’ 
~ 
4 
* 


ae | 


WESTMINSTER BRIDGES. 


1846. William Buckland ; died 14 Aug. 1856. 

1856. Richard C. Trench, ; abp. of Dublin, 1 Jan. 1864. 
1864. Arthur Penrhyn Stanley ; died 18 July, 1881. 
1881. George Granville Bradley ; 14 Sept. 


WESTMINSTER BRIDGES. The hand- 
some old bridge was begun (after a design of M. 
Labelye), 13 Sept. 1738, the first stone laid 29 Jan. 
1738-9; opened for passengers 18 Nov. 1750; cost 
426,650/. It was built of Portland stone, and crossed 
the river where the breadth is 1223 feet. 

Owing to the sinking of several of its piers, most 
of the balustrades on both sides were removed, to 
relieve the structure of its weight. 

By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 46 the estates of its commis- 
sioners were transferred to her majesty’s commis- 
sioners of works, who were empowered to remove 
the then existing bridge, and build a NEW 


BRIDGE (near the old one) . : : . 4 Aug. 1853 
The contract required the completion of the works 
zr June, 1857 


The works were suspended for a time, in conse- 

quence of the failure of Messrs. Mare the contrac- 

tors. The government eventually undertook the 

building, which they entrusted to Mr. Thomas 

Page, the engineer. One half of the new bridge 

was opened for use early in 1860; the whole on 
24 May, 1862 


WESTMINSTER ConrEssION OF FAITH 
AND CATECHISMS were drawn up by the ‘‘ Assem- 
bly of Divines’’ (partly consisting of laymen), who 
sat by authority of parliament in Henry VII.’s 
chapel, Westminster, from 1643 to 1647. These 
have ever since been the doctrinal standards of 
Scotch Presbyterians. 


WESTMINSTER HALL (London), first 
built by William Rufus in 1097, for a banqueting- 
hall; and here in 1099, on his return from Nor- 
mandy, ‘‘he kept his feast of Whitsuntide very 
royally.”” The hall became ruinous before the 
reign of Richard II., who repaired it in 1397, raised 
the walls, altered the windows, and added.a new 
roof, as well as a stately porch and other buildings. 
In 1236 Henry III. on New-year’s day caused 6000 
poor persons to be entertained in this hall, and in 
the other rooms of his palace, as a celebration of 
queen Eleanor’s coronation; and here Richard II. 
held his Christmas festival in 1397, when the num- 
ber of the guests each day the feast lasted was 
10,000. Stow. The courts of law were established 
here by king John. Jdem. Westminster hall was 
stated to be the largestroom in Europe unsupported 
by pillars (except a hall of justice at Padua); it is 
270 feet in length, 74 feet broad. The hall, under- 
went a general repair in 1802. Concurrently with 
the erection of the palace of Westminster, many 
improvements and alterations have lately been 
made in this magnificent hall. The Volunteer 
Rifle corps were drilled in the hall in the winter of 
1859, and since. ‘The courts of law removed to the 
new buildings in the Strand Jan. 1883. Restora- 
tions proposed by Mr. J. L. Pearson, R.A., July, 
1884. The roof and windows greatly damaged by 
an explosion of dynamite (?) about 2 p.m. 24 Jan. 


1885. 


WESTMINSTER HOSPITAL, founded, 
1719; chartered, 1836. 


-WESTMINSTER PALACE, see 


Palace of Westminster, and Parliament. 


WESTMINSTER REVIEW, Liberal in reli- 
gion and politics, first appeared, 1824, as the organ 
of the philosophic radicals, termed the Westminster 
school, friends of Jeremy Bentham. See U¢ili- 
tarianism. 


WESTMINSTER SCHOOL orSt. PETER’s 


under 


912 


WHALE-FISHERY. 


COLLEGE, was founded by queen Elizabeth in 15¢ 
for the education of forty boys, denominated t 
Queen’s scholars, who are prepared for the unive 
sity. It is situated within the abbey enclosw 
Besides the scholars on the foundation, many of t 
nobility and gentry send their sons to Westminst 
for instruction. A proposal in 1860 to remove t 
school was disapproved of in 1861. 

Westininster Schools, United, comprise Emanuel a: 
St. Margaret’s hospitals, and rey. James Palmer’s ai 
Emery Hill’s school charities, which were abolish 
by the endowed school commissioners 27 June, 18- 
New schools are to be erected. 


WESTMINSTER, STATUTES OF, are 3 a: 
13 Edward I., 1275-90; ‘see Acts of Parliament. 


WESTMORELAND. This county and Cun 
berland were granted as a fief to Malcolm of Seo 
land by Edward the Elder in 945; but resumed |} 
Henry III. in 1237. Neville, earl of Westmor 
land, revolted against Elizabeth in 1569, and w: 
attainted in 1570. 


WESTPHALIA (Germany). This duchy b 
longed in former times to the dukes of Saxony, ar 
afterwards became subject to the archbishop | 
Cologne. On the secularisation in 1802, it w: 
made over to Hesse Darmstadt; and in 1814, w 
ceded for an equivalent to Prussia. The kingdo 
of Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms | 
Bonaparte, composed of conquests from Prussi 
Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and the smaller states 
the west of the Elbe, was created by decree 18 Au 
1806, and Jerome Bonaparte appointed king, 1 De 
1807. Hanover was annexed to it, 1 March, 181 
The kingdom was abolished in 1813, and the cout 
tries were restored to their former rulers. 


WESTPHALIA or MtnstTEr, PEACE OF 
the treaties signed at Osnaburg 6 Aug., and ; 
Miinster 24 Oct. 1648, between France, the empero 
and Sweden; Spain continuing the war again 
France. By this peace (ending the thirty year 
war) the principle of a balance of power in Euro] 
was first recognised; Alsace given to France, ar 
part of Pomerania and some other districts 4 
Sweden ; the Lower Palatinate restored to tl 
elector palatine ; the religious and political righ 
of the German states established; and the inde 
pendence of the Swiss Confederation recognised b 
Germany. 


WEST SAXONS, see Wessex, in Britain. 


WEYMOUTH, Dorsetshire, was given b 
Henry I. to St. Swithin’s, Winchester. Take 
from Charles I., by the parliamentarians, 1644 
visited and brought into note by George IIL., 178 
First Dorset industrial exhibition was opened her 
25 July, 1878. 


WHALE-FISHERY, it is said, was fin 
carried on by the Norwegians in the ninth centu 
Lenglet. Whales were killed at Newfoundland an 
Iceland, for their oil only, 1578; the use of thei 
fins and bones was not yet known, consequently | 
writer adds) no stays were worn by the ladies. ‘I 
English whale-fishing commenced at Spitzbergen 
1598; but the Dutch had been previously fishit 
there. The fishery was much promoted by an act 0 
parliament passed in 1749. From 1800 to 200 
whales have been killed annually on the coast 6 
Greenland, &c. The quantity of whale-oil importe 
in 1814 was 3 567 tuns; in 1826, when gas-ligh 
became general, 25,000 tuns; in 1840, about 22,00 
tuns; in 1850, 21,360 tuns; in 1861, 19,176 tuns 
in 1864, 14,701 tuns; in 1867, 15,945 tuns; in /1871 
24,679 tums; in 1872, 18,719 tuns; in 1878, 20,05 
i 


HT 


WHARNCLIFFE MEETINGS. 913 WHITEBAIT DINNER. 


is; in 1883, 17;156tuns, A living whale from 
brador, 9 feet 6 inches long, placed in the West- 
aster aquarium, 26 Sept.; died 29 Sept. 1877. 
uite whale (Beluga), arrived 28 May; died in 
ter part of June. 


WHARNCLIFFE MEETINGS of public 
apanies (held to give enlarged powers under 
tain prescribed conditions) are so called because 
: standing orders of the house of lords, under 
ich they are held, were introduced by lord 
iarncliffe, about 1846. 


WHEAT. The Chinese ascribe to their empe- 
, Ching-Noung, who succeeded Fohi, the art of 
sbandry, and method of making bread from 
eat, about 2000 years before the Christian era. 
reat was introduced into Britain in the 6th cen- 
y, by Coll ap Coll Frewi. Roderts. The first 
eat imported into England of which we have a 
ie was In 1347. Various statutes have regulated 
: sales of wheat, and restrained its importation, 
order to encourage its being raised at home. 

1862 attention was drawn to the probable 
lity of considering the pedigree of wheat. In 
71 it was estimated that 3,571,894 acres in the 
ited Kingdom were devoted to wheat; in 1876, 
24,342. See Bread,and Corn Laws. Greatest 
ducers (in order), United States, Russia, France, 
eat Britain, &c. 


IMPORTED INTO GREAT BRITAIN. 


Wheat. Flour. 

1854, 2,656,455 Q7rs. 6,329,038 cwts. 

1861, 29,955,532 5, 6,152,938 ,, 

1862, 41,033,503 5, 7,207;113 55 

1864, 23,196,714 cwts, 4,512,391 ,, 

1866, 23,156,329 ,, 4,972,280 ,, 

1868, 32,639,768 ,, 3,093,022 ,, 

1871, 39,389,803 ,, 3:977;933 » 

1872, 420627720. 55 4,388,136 ,, 

1874, 41,527,038 ,, 6,236,044 4, 

1877, 54,269,800 ,, it 753977303... 3, 

1878, 49,906,484 ,, 7828,079 5, 

1879, 5935915795 45 10,728,252 ,, 

1880, 55,261,924 4, TO550, 312" 5, 

1881, 57,147,933 95 11,357,381 5, 

1882, 64,240,749 4, 139572493 95 

1883, 64,138,631 4, 16,329,312 5, 
{LUE OF WHEAT IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
4 - + + £11,693,737,;1869 . . ~ £19,515,758 
55 : - 9,679,578 | 1870 3 - 16,264,027 
jor « SeemeEE 710, 340i LO7E -s A « +23,3128,883 
57 3 : 9,563,099 | 1872 : + 26,169,185 


‘oer 6 rhe 9,050,467 | 1873 . Me neoy5 305740 
39 > + 8,713,532 | 1874 - «+= 25,236,932 
fen se)  £0,554,003 | 1875. * 2  927;510,409 
)I + 19,051,464 | 1876 2 - 23,178,011 
i2h Bee 23,203,00011 1877's » + 33,995,437 
3 . + 12,015,006 | 1878 . 27,433: 444 
a See ELO.074;0541 11070 |. oP jem 1 5GE AOS, 57.7 
5 é 3 9,775,016 | 1880 - fi, 430,021.90 
ape gi 52,063,090 | 1661 . He a ere eee Cer 
7 > - 24,985,096 | 1882 - e* 9 34,250,120 
1 . Peis 622,000, 353 [pt003 We aks 454s4015 


erage Annual Price per Quarter in England and Wales 
Sod. S20, Sd, | SHed, 


Me iro 6) 1840 66 4/| 1868 63 9| 1876 46 2 
% 89 9/1845 5010/1869 48 2| 1877 56 g 
fapexo00 5} 1850 40 311870 46 10| 1878 46 5 
MeeeO5) 7 /'X055 74 8 | 187r 56 811879 43 IO 
cemmnOg) TO} 1800 53°.3)31872 57 0| 1880 44 4 
Gmmoon 0} 1505 4% ro} 71873 58 8) x188r 45 4 
fee 60" 411800 49 11/1874 55 8! 31882 45 1x 
35 «39: «41 1867 +64 5(1875 45 2| 1883 41 7 


WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE. A barbarous 
nde of death, of great antiquity, ordered by 
ancis I. for robbers, about 1535; see Ravaillac. 


WHEEL-WORK, see Spinning, Looms, Auto- 


wton. 


WHIGS. In the reign of Charles II. the name 
Whig was a term of reproach given by the court 
party to their antagonists for holding the principles 
of the ‘‘whigs,’”’ or fanatical covenanters in Scot- 
land; and in return the name Zory was given to 
the court party, comparing them to the Tories, or 
popish robbers in Ireland. Baker. The distinction 
arose out of the discovery of the Meal-tub plot 
(which see) in 1678. Upon bringing up the meal 
plot before parliament, two parties were formed : 
the ones who doubted the plot styled those who 
believed in it Whigs ; these styled their adversaries 
Tories. In time these names, given as marks of 
opprobrium, became honoured distinctions. Hive. 
The Whigs brought about the revolution of 1688-9, 
and established the protestant succession. ‘They 
were chiefly instrumental in obtaining the abolition 
of the slave trade and slavery, the repeal of the 
Test and Corporation act, Catholic emancipation, 
parliamentary and municipal reform, the repeal of 
the corn laws, and similar measures. The Whig 
Club was established by Charles James Fox ; one of 
its original members was the great Francis, duke of 
Bedford, who died in 1802. For the principal Whig 
ministries, see Halifax, Walpole, Rockinghum, 
Grenville, Grey, Melbourne, Russell, Palmerston, 
and Gladstone. 


WHIP, the popular title of the patronage secre- 
tary of the treasury, whose duty itis to collect mem- 
bers to make a house on important occasions, &c. Sir 
Win. Hayter, the liberal “ whip,” 1850-8, received 
a testimonial for his energetic services, early in 1861. 
The right hon. Wm. P. Adam, an able whip, died 
governor of Madras, 24 May, 1881. Itis the duty 
of both conservative and liberal whips to promote 
the interest of their party in every conceivable 
way. 

The management of the house of commons by bribery is 
said to have begun with Clifford of the ‘‘ Cabal”’ minis- 
try, and continued by Whigs and Tories. Mr. Roberts 
(under Henry Pelham), is said to have paid members 
sums of 1,o000l., sool., &c., to each at the close of a 
session for their support. JV razxall. 


WHISKY, the spirit distilled from malt and 
other corn in Scotland and Ireland, of which about 
eight millions of gallons have been distilled 
annually in the former, and upwards of nine mil- 
lions of gallons in the latter. ‘The duty upon this 
article once produced annually about three millions. 
The distillation of whisky is referred to the 16th 
century; but some authors state it to have been 
earlier; see Distillation. In 1855 the duties on 
spirits distilled in Scotland and Ireland were 
equalised with those distilled in England. JVomen’s 
Whisky War, see United States, 1874. 


WHIST, a game at cards, became general at the 
end of the 17th century. 


Edmund Hoyle, who published his ‘‘ Short 

Treatise,” about 1742, died in 1769, aged 97; 

lord Peterborough introduced short whist early 

in the present century; the laws were revised in 1864 
‘“Whist,”apoem  . ; : 3 “ ; - 1791 
Laws by ‘‘ Cavendish,” compiled . : . about 186r 
James Clay, M.P., an eminent player, died 26 Sept. 187r 


WHITEBAIT DINNER, when the cabinet 
ministers met at the end of each session, is 
said to have begun at the end of the last 
century, through sir Robert Preston and Mr. 
George Rose inviting Mr. Pitt and his colleagues 
to dine at Dagenham, and afterwards at Green- 
wich. Another account datesits originin 1721. The 
annual whitebait dinner, stopped by the Gladstone 
ministry, was revived by the Disraeli ministry, 
1 Aug. 1874, and continued by the Gladstone, 1 

3.N 


WHITEBOYS. 


Sept. 1880. No dinner, 1884. The whitebait 

(clupea alba) is a subject of controversy. Albert 

Giinther, of the British Museum, in his Catalogue 

of Fishes, says the whitebait is ‘‘a purely nominal 

species,’ and that all the examples which he has 

examined were young herrings (1868). 

At the inquiry in June, 1878, James Henry Cannon, 
fisherman, claimed the discovery of the fish for his 
grandfather, Richard, who named it 1780, It was 
mentioned in a letter in the life of lord Malmesbury, 
2 July, 1763. 

WHITEBOYS, a body of ruffians in Ireland, 
so called on account of their wearing linen frocks 
over their coats. They committed dreadful outrages 
in 1761, but were suppressed by a military force, 
and their ringleaders executed in 1762. They rose 
and were again suppressed in 1786-7._ The insurrec- 
tion act was passed on their account in 1822. 


WHITECHAPEL, a parish in East London, 
was part of Stepney till 1329. The church, built 
in 1673, was replaced by one consecrated 2 Feb. 
1877, which was burnt 26 Aug. 1880. 

New Loan Art exhibition opened - 4 April, 1882 


WHITECHAPEL MURDER. Henry 
Wainwright, a brushmaker, murdered Harriet Lane, 
his mistress, on his premises, 215, Whitechapel-road, 
and buried the body, Sept. 1874. 

While conveying the mutilated remains to be con- 
cealed in his cellars in Southwark, Wainwright 
and Alice Day were apprehended, through the 
courage and activity of Alfred Philip Stokes, xz 
Sept. Day was discharged; Henry and his 
brother Thomas were committed for trial 13 Oct. 

Nine days’ trial before chief justice Cockburn ; 
Henry convicted of murder ; Thomas as accessory 
after the fact (seven years’ penal servitude), 22 
Noy.-1 Dec. ; Henry executed 21 Dec. 1875 

1232l. subscribed for Henry’s family. 

30l. awarded to Stokes, 


WHITE CROSS ARMY, the shorter title of 
the Church of England Purity Society, established 
by Miss Ellice Hopkins, supported by the bishops of 
Durham and Lichfield and other, prelates, highly 
successful at Oxford, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and 
other places, 1884. 


WHITE DOVES, a South Russian religious 
sect, said to be wealthy and superstitious, strongly 
advocating celibacy: under a chief named Kou- 


1875 


drine. Members were tried for moral offences about 
April, 1876. 
WHITEFIELDITES. George Whitefield, 


the founder of the ‘‘ Calvinistic Methodists,’ born 
1714, was the son of an innkeeper at Gloucester, 
where he received his first education. He was ad- 
mitted a servitor at Oxford in 1732, became a com- 
panion of the Wesleys there, and aided them in 
establishing Methodism. He parted from them in 
1741, on account of their rejection of the doctrine 
of election. He was the most eloquent preacher of 
his day. His first sermon was preached in 1736, and 
he commenced field preaching in 1739. He is said 
to have delivered 18,000 sermons during his career 
of 34 years. He visited America in 1737, 1739, and 
1744. His followers are termed ‘‘ the countess of 
Huntingdon’s connexion,’ from his having become 
her chaplain in 1748, and from her energetic support 
of the sect, by establishing a college at Trevecca, 
1767. There were 109 chapels of this connexion in 
1851; but many of his followers have joined the 
Independents. He died 30 Sept. 1770, and the 
countess died 17 June 1791; see Tabernacle. 


WHITE FLAG, see Flag. 


WHITE FRIARS, see Carmelites, Sanctuaries, 
White. 


914 


WHITSUNTIDE. 


WHITEHALL (London), built by Huber 
Burgh, earl of Kent, before the middle of the | 
century. It afterwards devolved, by bequest, to 
Black Friars of Holborn, who sold it to the a 
bishop of York, whence it received the nam« 
York-place, and continued to be the town resid 
of the archbishops till taken by Henry VIII. f 
cardinal Wolsey, in 1530. At this period it bec 
the residence of the court. Queen Elizabeth, - 
died at Richmond in 1603, was brought from the 
to Whitehall, by water, in a grand procession. 
was on this occasion, Camden informs us, that 


following quaint panegyrie on her majesty 


written : 


“The queen was brought by water to Whitehall, 

At every stroke the oars did tears let fall. 

More clung about the barge: fish under water 

Wept out their eyes of pearl, and swam blind after 

I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs, 

Have rowed her thither in her people’s eyes ; 

For howsoe’er thus much my thoughts have scanr 

She had come by water, had she come by land.” 
Whitehall was ede! burnt 9-10 April, 1€ 
totally destroyed by fire, 4 Jan. 1697-8, except 
banqueting-house, which had been added to 
palace of Whitehall by James I., according 1 
design of Inigo Jones, in 1619. In the front 
Whitehall Charles I. was beheaded 30 Jan. if 
George I. converted the hall into a chapel 172 
The exterior of this edifice underwent repair 
tween 1829 and 1833. 


WHITE HATS, a party in the Low Count 
formed about 1377, against Louis, count of Fland 
The struggle lasted till 1384, when it was settled 
Philip, duke of Burgundy. 


WHITE HOODS, see Catechumens. 
WHITE HORSE, see Ashdown. 
WHITE HOUSE (Washington), built of f 


stone, the residence of the president, gives name 
the United States government, as St. James’s pal 
does to that of Great Britain. 


WHITE LEAGUE, formed in Louisiana : 
other southern states of North America, to resist 
aggressions of the emancipated negroes and tl 
fas termed ‘‘ carpet-baggers.”’ See New Orlec 
1874. 

WHITE PLAINS (N. America), where 
battle was fought 28 Oct. 1776, between the revo! 
Americans and the British forces under sir Will: 
Howe. It terminated in the defeat of the Amerie: 
who suffered considerable loss in killed, wounc 
and prisoners. 


WHITE SHEBRP, a name given to the Tux 
mans who conquered Persia about 1468, and pe! 
cuted the Shiites, but were expelled by Ismail, \ 
founded the Sophi dynasty in I501. 


WHITE TOWEHR, the keep or citadel in 
Tower of London, a large, square, irregular buildi 
erected in 1070, by abbot Gundulph, afterwa 
bishop of Rochester. It measures 116 feet by 
and is 92 feet in height: the walls, which are 
feet thick, having a winding staircase contin! 
along two of the sides, like that in Dover Castle. 
contains an extensive armoury. Within this to\ 
is the ancient chapel of St. John, originally used 
the English monarchs. The turret at the N. 
angle, the highest of the four by which the Wh 
Tower is surmounted, was used for astronoml 
purposes by Flamsteed previously to the erection 
the royal observatory at Greenwich. . 


WHITSUNTIDE,, 2 festival appointed to co 
memorate the descent of the Holy Ghost upon t 


WHITTINGTON’S CHARITIES. 


915 


WILLS. 


ipostles: the newly-baptized persons, or catechu- 
nens, are said to have worn white garments on 
Whitsunday. This feast is movable, being always 
xactly seven weeks after Easter. Rogation week 
om p 0) is ae week before Whitsunday. Whit- 
sunday 1534, I June; 1885, 24 May; 1886, 13 June; 
887, 29 May; 1888, 20 p aiae i Leen 
Whitsunday, a Scotch quarter-day, is always on 


15 May, as settled by an act of 1693, but local usage 
varies. 


WHITTINGTON’S CHARITIES. Sir 
Nichard Whittington, a citizen and mercer of Lon- 
lon, served the office of lord mayor three times, the 
ast in 1419. Many false stories are connected with 
uis name, and his munificent charities are little 
cnown. He founded his college, dedicated to the 


Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary, in 1424; and his | 


umshouses in 1429; the latter, originally built in 


| 


London,now stand on Highgate-hill (built 1808)near | 


he supposed site of the supposed famous stone which 
vommemorated the legend of his return to London, 
ifter leaving it in despair. 


WHITWORTH FOUNDATIONS. — Mr. 
aftd. sir) Joseph Whitworth, the eminent engineer, 
n a letter to the first lord of the treasury, dated 18 
March, 1868, offered to found 30 scholarships of the 
mnual value of 100/. each, to be applied for the 
further instruction of young men, natives of the 
United Kingdom, selected by open competition for 


practice of mechanics and its cognate sciences, with 
i view to the promotion of engineering and mechani- 


cal industry in this country ; and he expressed hopes | 


that means might be found for bringing science and 
industry into closer relation with each other than 
ut present obtains here. This offer was accepted by 


the lords of the committee of the privy council, 28 | 


March, 1868. In 187 es sir Joseph assigned an estate 
to support these scholarships. 


WHO? WHO? ADMINISTRATION, 
Derby’s, earl of, Feb. 1852 (which see). 


“WHOLE DUTY oF yea tea ae ae | 
Mea ae | court, was a prisoner in Carisbrook castle, in 1647. 


ship doubtfully attributed to 
Frewen, and Sterne; to bishops Fell and Chapel ; 
to Dorothy, lady Packington, and others;) first 
published, 1659. Lowndes. It is attributed by 
some to John Ischam. 


WICKLIFFITES, the followers. of John 
Wickliffe (born 1324), a professor of divinity in the 
university of Oxford and rector of Lutterworth in 


Leicestershire. He was a forerunner of the reforma- | 
tion of the English Church from popery, being | 


among the first who opposed the authority of the 


pope, transubstantiation, the celibacy of the clergy, | 
&e. Wickliffe, protected by John of Gaunt, Ed- | 


ward’s son and Richard’s uncle, was virulently 


persecuted by the church, and only saved from mar- | 


tyrdom by a paralytic attack, which caused his 
death, 31 Dec. 1384, in his 60th year. The Council 
of Constance, in 1414, decreed his bones to be disin- 
terred and burnt, which was done by the bishop of 
Lincoln, and his dust was cast into the river Swift, 
1415. Wickliffe’s English version of the Bible 
was commenced in 1380; a noble edition of it was 
printed at Oxford in 1850. Wyeliff Society, founded 
in 1882 to publish his works. Quin-centenary of 
his death celebrated in London, &c., 21 May, 1884. 
See Lodlards. 


WIDOWS. The Jewish law required a man’s 
brother to marry his widow if without children (1490 
%.C.). For the burning of widows in India, see Sut- 


tees. Among the numerous associations in London | Vol. I. 


colonel Lilburne, 1651. 


| 
| 


for the relief of widows are, one for the widows of 
musicians, instituted in 1738; for widows of naval 
men, founded in 1739; for widows of medical men, 
1788 : a law society, for widows of professional gen- 
tlemen, 1817; and a soviety for artists’ widows, 1827. 
—WIDOWERS were taxed in England as follows: a 
duke, 127. 10s.; lower peers, smaller sums; a com- 
mon person, Is.; 7 Will. III. 1695. 


WIEN, see Vienna. 
WIFH, see Wives. 
WIG, see Peruke. 


WIGAN (Lancashire). The king’s troops, com- 
manded by the earl of Derby, were defeated and 
driven out of the town in 1643 by the parliamentary 
forces under sir John Smeaton. The earl was again 
defeated by colonel Ashton, who razed the fortifica- 
tions of Wigan to the ground, same year; and once 
more by a greatly superior force commanded by 
In this last engagement, 
sir Thomas Tildesley, an ardent royalist, was slain ; 
a pillar was erected to his memory in 1679. The 
colliers in the neighbourhood struck, and acting 
riotously 17, 18 April, 1868, were quelled by the 
military. Arrangements were soon after made with 
the employers. The prince and princess of Wales 
at their visit, 4 June, 1873, opened a new hospital, 
&c., and received a hearty welcome. See Raelway 


mates :! Me : | Accidents, 2 Aug. 1873. 
their intelligence and proficiency in the theory and | Mae ads Cae 


WIGHT, Is tz or, the Roman Vecta or Victis, 
was conquered by Vespasian in the reign of Clau- 
dius. It was conquered by the Saxons under Cerdis 
about 530; by the Danes, 787, and in 1001, when 
they held it for several years. It was invaded by 
the French, July, 1377, and has several times 
suffered from invasion by them. In 1442, 
Henry VI. alienated the Isle to Henry de 
Beauchamp, first premier earl of England and 
then duke of Warwick, and afterwards crowned him 
king of the Isle of Wight, with his own hands; but 
dying without heirs male, his regal title died with 
him, and the lordship of the isle returned to the 
crown. Charles I., after his flight from Hampton- 


In the time of Charles II. timber was very plentiful. 
In this isle is the queen’s marine residence, 


_ Osborne-house. 


WILD BIRDS’ PROTECTION ACTS, 
passed 10 Aug. 1872, 24 July, 1876, and 7 Sept. 
1880. 


WILDERNESS BATTLES, 
States, May, 1864. 


WILHELMSHAFEN, at Hippens, bay of 
Jahde, Oldenburg, the first German military port, 
was inaugurated by William, king of Prussia, 
17 June, 1869. Since 1871, it has become the 
Chatham of Germany. By explosion ofa gun on 
the Mars, 8 men killed and 20 injured, 27 April, 
1881. 


WILKES’S NUMBER, 45, see North Briton, 


and also Warrants, General. 
WILLIAMS’ LIBRARY, see Libraries. 


WILLIS’S ROOMS, see -4/mack’s. 
WILLOW-LEAVHES, see Sun. 


WILLS AND TESTAMENTS are of very high 
antiquity, see Genesis xlviil. The private will of 
Sennacherib, king of Assyria, 680 B.c., found at 
Nineveh, is translated in Records of the Past, 
Solon introduced them at Athens, 578 

3.N 2 


see United 


BO: 
the Koran. 
duced codicils to wills at Rome, 31 B.c. 


WILLS. 


There are regulations respecting wills in 
Trebatius Testa the civilian, intro- 
The 


power of bequeathing lands by the last will and 
testament of the owner was confirmed to English 
subjects 1 Henry I. 1100; but with great restric- 
tions and limitations respecting the feudal system, 
which were taken off by the statute of ty Hen. VIII. 


1541. 


Blackstone's Commentaries. he first will 


of a sovereign on record is stated (but in error) to 
be that of Richard II. 1399; Edward the Confessor 
made a will, 1066. Various laws have regulated 


the wills and testaments of British subjects. 
previous statutes were repealed by the ‘‘ Wills Act,” | 


All 


7 Will. IV. and 1 Vict. c. 26, 1837, and the laws 
with relation to wills amended.* The present 
PRoBATE Court (which see) was established in 


1857. An office for the reception of the wills of | 


living persons was opened in Jan. 1861. See Thel- 


lusson’s Will. 


In 1869 twenty probates of wills or 


letters of administration were stamped for personal 
property, each exceeding a quarter of a million ; 


one had a stamp of 21,000/. 


The Wills Office, re- 


moved from Doctors’ Commons to Somerset House, 
was opened 24 Oct. 1874. 
The will of Peter the Great, described in the ‘‘ Mémoires 


be | 


de la Chevaliere d’Eon,” as a ‘‘ plan for compassing 
European supremacy,” left for his successors, and de- 
posited in the archives of the palaces of Peterhoff near 
St. Petersburg. It advocated *‘ approach as near as 
possible to Constantinople, and towards the Indies: 
wars with Turkey and Persia; possession of the shores 
of the Black Sea, and the Baltic ;” &c. The existence 
of the will (denied by the czars), was first announced 
by M. Lesur in his ‘‘ Progres de la Pwissance Russe,” 
published at Paris in 1812. In 1863, Dr. Berkholz of 
Riga asserted that the will was a forgery, probably 
dictated by Napoleon I. Mr. W. J. Thoms, the anti- 
quary, and others, contend for the genuineness of the 
will, June, 1878. 


EXTRACTS FROM THE LAST WILL OF NAPOLEON L., 
EMPEROR OF FRANCE. f 


(He died 5 May, 1821, eleven days after he had signed 


of St. Helena. 


these documents. The original in French occupies 
about twenty-six pages in Peignot’s ‘‘Testamens Re- 
marquables,” 1829.] 

‘‘This day, 24 April, 182r, at Longwood, in the island 
This is my testament, or act of my last 


“‘T leave to the comte de Montholon 2,000,000 franes 


as a proof of my satisfaction for the attentions he has 
paid to me for these six years, and to indemnify him for 
the losses which my residence in St. Helena has occa- 


sioned him. 
francs. 


I leave to the comte Bertrand 500,000 
I leave to Marchand, my first valet-de-chambre, 


400,000 francs ; the services he has performed for me are 
those of a friend. I desire that he may marry a widow, 
sister, or daughter of an officer or soldier of my old 
guard. To St. Denis, 100,000 francs. To Novarre, 100,000 


francs. 
50,000 francs. 


To Archambaud, 


To Pijeron, 100,ooo francs. 
To Chandelle, 


To Cuvier, 50,000 francs. 


idem. 


he may build his house near Ponte Novo de Rossino. 
the comte Las Casas, 100,000 francs. 
lette, 1roo,ooo frances. 
xr00,o00 francs. 
known. 


I desire that 
To 
To comte Lava- 
To the surgeon-in-chief, Larrey, 
He is the most virtuous man I have 
To general Brayer, 100,000 francs. 


“To the Abbé Vignali, 100,000 frances. 


* By this act the testator must be above 21, not a 
lunatic or idiot, not deaf and dumb, not drunk at the 
time of signing, not an outlawed or wupardoned felon. 
All kinds of property may be devised. The will must be 
written legibly and intelligibly, and signed by the 
testator, or by his direction, in the presence of two or 


more witnesses, who also must sign. 


A married woman 


may bequeath only her pin money or separate mainten- 
ance, without the consent of her husband 


+ These documents, dated from 15-24 April, deposited 


since 1821 in England, have been given up to the autho- 
“he at Paris, at the request of the French Govern- 
ment, 


916 


WILLS. 


“To general Lefevre Desnouettes, 100,000 francs. — 


general Drouet, 100,000 francs. To general Cambroni 
100,000 francs. To the children of general Muton L 
vernais, too,ooo francs. To the children of the bra 
Labédoyere, 100,000 franes. To the children of gene 
Girard, killed at Ligny, 100,000 franes. To the childx 
of general Chartrand, 100,000 franes. To the children 
the virtuous general Travost, roo,o00 franes. To gene 
Lallemand, the elder, 100,000 franes. To general Claus 
100,000 frances. To Costa Bastilica, also 100,000 fran: 
To the baron de Menevalle, 100,000 frances. To Arnau 
author of Marius, 100,000 francs. 

‘**To colonel Marbot, 100,000 franes : I request him 
continue to write for the defence and glory of the Fren 
armies, and to confound the calumniators and the ap 
_ tates. To the baron Bignon, roo,o0o frances: I requ 
_ him to write the history of French Diplomacy from 17 
to 1815. To Poggi de Talaro, 100,000 francs. To t 
surgeon Emmery, 100,000. 3 

“‘These sums shall be taken from the six millio 
which I deposited on leaving Paris in 1815, and froin t 
interest at the rate of 5 per cent. since July, 1815; t 
account of which shall be adjusted with the bankers _ 
the counts Montholon and Bertrand and by Marchand 

“These legacies, in case of death, shall be paid to t 
widows and children, and in their default, shall revert 
the capital. I institute the counts Montholon, B 
trand, and Marchand my testamentary executors. Tl 
present testament, written entirely by my own hand, 
signed and sealed with my arms. 

‘““NAPOLEON. 


** 24 April, 1821, Longwood.” 


The following are part of the eight Codicils to the pi 
ceding will of the emperor :— ‘ 


“On the liquidation of my civil list of Italy—such 
money, jewels, plate, linen, coffers, caskets of which t 
viceroy is the depository, and which belong to me, Id 
pose of two millions, which I leave to my most faithf 
servants. I hope that without their showing any caus 
my son Eugene Napoleon will discharge them faithfull 
He cannot forget the forty millions which I have giv 
him in Italy, or by the right (parage) of his mothe 
inheritance. 

“From the funds remitted in gold to the empre 
Maria Louisa, my very dear and well-beloved spouse, 
Orleans, in 1814, there remain due to me two millior 
which I dispose of by the present codicil, in order 
recompense my most faithful servants, whom I besi 
recommend to the protection of. my dear Maria Louis 
I leave 200,000 frances to count Montholon, 100,000 fran 
of which he shall pay into the chest of the treasurer (L 
Casas) for the same purpose as the above, to be employ 
according to my dispositions in legacies of conscience. 

““to,000 franes to the sub-officer Cantillon (died Jul 
1869), who has undergone a prosecution, being accus 
of a desire to assassinate lord Wellington, of which ~ 
has been declared innocent. Cantillon had as much rig 
to assassinate that oligarch, as the latter had to send: 
to perish on the rock of St. Helena,” &c. &c. &e. 


LETTER TO M. LAFITTE. 


*““MOoNSIEUR LAFITTE,—I remitted to you in r8rs5, 
the moment of my departure from Paris, a sum of nea 
six millions, for which you gave me a double receipt. 
have cancelled one of these receipts, and I have charg 
comte de Montholon to present to you the other receiy 
in order that you may, after my death, deliver to himt 
said sum with interest at the rate of five per cent., fro 
the rst of July, 1815, deducting the payments with whi 
you have been charged in virtue of my order. I ha 
also remitted to you a box containing my medallion. 
beg you will deliver it to comte Montholon. 

“This letter having no other object, I pray God, Mo 
sieur Lafitte, that He may have you in His holy a1 


worthy keeping. 
_ “NAPOLEON. 
‘‘Longwood, in the island of St. Helena, 25 Apr 


182.’ 


The following WILL or NaPoLron III. was publishe 
in the Times, 30 April, 1873:— 


“« April 24, 1865. 
‘This is my will. I commend my son and my wife? 
the high constituted authorities of the state (aux gran 
corps de ]’Etat), to the people, and the army. The en 
press Engénie possesses all the qualities requisite ft 
| conducting the regency well, and my son displays a di 


WILLUGHBY SOCIETY. 


sition and judgment which will render him worthy of 
s high destinies. Let him never forget the motto of the 
ad of our family, ‘Everything for the French people.’ 
t him fix in his mind the writings of the prisoner 
St. Helena; let him study the emperor’s deeds and 
rrespondence; finally, let him remember, when circum- 
inces so permit, that the cause of the peoples is the 
use of France. Power is a heavy burden, because one 
nnot always do all the good one could wish, and be- 
use your contemporaries seldom render you justice, so 
ut, in-order to fulfil one’s mission, one must have faith 
and consciousness of, one’s duty. It is necessary to 
asider that from heaven on high those whom you have 
red regard and protect you; it is the soul of my illus- 
ous uncle that has always inspired and sustained me. 
ie like will apply to my son, for he will always be 
rthy of his name. I leave to the empress Eugenie all 
y private property. It is my desire that on the ma- 
ity of my son she shall inhabit the Elysée and Biar- 
z. Itrust that my memory will be dear to her, and 
at after my death she will forget the griefs I may have 
used her. With regard to my son, let him keep as a 
isman the seal I used to wear attached to my watch, 
dl which comes from my mother; let him carefully 
eserve everything that comes to me from the em- 
ror, my uncle, and let him be convinced that my heart 
(my soul remain with him. I make no mention of my 
thful servants. I am convinced that the empress and 
y son will never abandon them. I shall die in the 
tholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion, which my son 
llalways honour by his piety. Done, written, and signed 
th my hand at the palace of the Tuileries, the 24th of 
ril, 1865. (Signed) “NAPOLEON.” 


The WILL oF Princr Lovis NAPOLEON, was written 
th his own hand, and signed 26 Feb. 1879, the night 
fore he sailed for South Africa (where he was killed 
vile on a reconnoitring party, 1 June, 1879). He states 
at he dies in the Catholic religion ; expresses his love 
r his country, his mother the empress, and his friends ; 
d his gratitude to the queen and royal family of Eng- 
nd, and to the English people for their cordial hospi- 
lity. He constitutes his mother sole legatee ; bequeaths 
zacies and memorials to prince J. N. Murat, M. F. 
etri, baron Corvisart, M. Rouher, and others; and 
signs to Victor, the eldest son of prince Napoleon 
rome, the task of continuing the work of Napoleon I. 
d Napoleon III. Executors, MM. Rouher and Pietri. 


WILLUGHBY SOCIETY, devoted to the 
udy of birds; founded in 1879; was named after 
rancis Willughby (1635-72), who wrote Orni- 
ologia, published 1676. 


WILMINGTON (N. Carolina, U.S.) was held 
‘the confederates ; resisted severe attacks of the 
derals in Dec. 1864. Fort Fisher was taken by 
sault on 15 Jan., and Wilmington was evacuated 
y the confederates, 22 Feb. 1865. 


WILMINGTON ADMINISTRATION, 
eceeded that of sir Robert Walpole, Feb. 1742. 


url of Wilmington, first lord of the treasury. 

ord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 

wl of Harrington, president of the cowncil. 

url Gower, lord privy seal. 

r. Sandys, chancellor of the exchequer. 

ord Carteret and the duke of Newcastle, secretaries of 
state. 

arl of Winchilsea, first lord of the admiralty. 

uke of Argyll, commander of the forces and master-general 
of the ordnance. 

r. Henry Pelham, paymaster of the forces. 

ith several of the household lords. 

[On lord Wilmington’s death, 26 July, 1743, Mr. Pel- 
ham became prime minister; and in Nov. 1744, he 
formed the ‘‘ Broad- bottom” administration; see 
Pelham.) 


WILMOT’S ACT (Sir E.), 3 & 4 Vict. ¢. 77 
(840) relates to schools. 


WIMBLEDON, ancient village 8 miles S.W. 


fLondon. See Volunteers, 1860. 


ercy Malcolm John, Student at Blenheim house, 
died suddenly at his school, at Wimbledon, 3 Dec. 


917 


WINDMILLS. 


1881 ; his brother-in-law Dr. George Henry Lam- 

son suspected of poisoning him, with aconitine, 

2 Dec. ; was convicted of the murder, 14 March, 

confessed his guilt 27 April, and was executed 

28 April, 1882 

WINCHESTER (Hampshire), a most ancient 
city, whose erection may reasonably be ascribed to 
the Celtic Britons, with the fabulous date 392 B.c. 
It was made the capital of the West Saxon king- 
dom under Cerdic, about 520; and of England b 
Egbert, 827; it became the residence of Alfred, 

79-991. In the reign of William I. London be- 
gan to rival it; and the destruction of religious 
houses by Henry VIII. almost ruined it. Several 
kings resided at Winchester, and many parliaments 
were held there. Memorials of its ancient superi- 
ority exist in the national denomination of measures 
of quantity, as Winchester ell, Winchester bushel, 
&c., the use of which has but recently been replaced 
by imperial measures. The cathedral church was 
first founded and endowed by Cynegils, or Kene- 
gilsus, the first Christian king of the West Saxons. 
Becoming ruinous, the present fabric was begun 
by bishop Walkelyn, the 34th bishop, 1073. The 
church was first dedicated to St. Amphibalus, then 
to St. Peter, and afterwards to St. Swithin, once 
bishop here. Dedicated to the Holy gee! by Henry 
VIII. St. Birinus was the first bishop of the West 
Saxons, his seat Dorchester, 636; Wina, in 660, 
was the first bishop of Winchester. The see is 
valued in the king’s books at 2793/. 4s. 2d. annually. 
Present income, 6,500/. 
Taken by the Danes, 871-3; ravaged by Sweyn 2 rOrg 
William Rufus buried here . : : : Oo 
Hospital of Holy Cross, founded by bishop Henry 

de Blois . ; ; : P , ; : Lt 32 
‘* Almshouse of Noble Poverty,” engrafted on the 

Holy Cross by cardinal Beaufort, revived in 1883. 
Winchester school, founded by bishop William of 

Wykeham . : 4 : s ; : Pe ee yf 
Winchester several times taken and re-taken, 1641-3; 


taken by Cromwell and the castle dismantled . 1645 
Charles II. began a palace here by Wren. - 1683 
Charitable Society of Natives founded . 1699 


Winchester Cross restored : : , - . 1866 

New Guildhall opened by lord-chancellor Selborne, 
ir May, 1873 

zooth anniversary of the incorporation of the city, 


celebrated . 3,4 July, 1884 


RECENT BISHOPS. (Prelates of the Order of 
the Garter.) 

Brownlow North, died 12 July, 1820. 

George Pretyman Tomline, died 1827. 

Charles Richard Sumner, resigned, 1869; died, 15 
Aug. 1874. 

Samuel Wilberforce, elected Nov. ; killed, through 
the fall of his horse, 19 July, 1873. 

Edward Harold Browne, translated from Ely, Aug. 


1781. 
1820. 
1827. 


1869. 


1873. 
WINCHESTER SCHOOL, the oldest of our 


great schools, ‘“‘Seinte Marie College of Wyn- 
chestre,” the charter of which is dated Oct. 1382, 
was founded in 1387) by William (Long) of Wyke- 
ham, bishop of Winchester, who had established a 
school here in 1373. ‘The ancient statutes were 
revised in 1855; and still further altered by the 
Public Schools act of 1868. In Nov.-Dec. 1872 there 
was much published correspondence respecting the 
tunding—the excessive punishment of the boys by 
boy prefects. 

WINDING-UP ACTS (to facilitate the 
winding up the affairs of joint-stock companies 
which are unable to meet their engagements) were 
passed in 1848, 1849, 1857, and 1862. 


WINDMILLS are of great antiquity, and 
stated to be of Roman or Saracen invention. They 
are said to have been originally introduced into 
Europe by the knights of St. John, who took the 


ad ~ 7 
+ 
A, 
/ 
\ . * 


WINDOWS. 


918 


hint from what they had seen in the crusades. 


Baker. 
France, and Germany, in 1299. -Anderson. 


Windmills were first known in Spain, 


ind 


saw-mills were invented by a Dutchman, in 1633, 
when one was erected near the Strand, in London. 


WINDOWS. There were glass windows in 


Pompeii, 4.D. 79, as is evident from its ruins. 


It 


is certain that windows of some kind were glazed 
so early as the 3rd century, if not before, though 
the fashion was not introduced until it was done by 


Benedict Biscop, about 650. 
were used in private houses, but the glass was 
ported 1177. Anderson. 


Windows of glass 


ImM- 


Tn England, in 1dST, 


about 6000 houses had fifty windows and upwards in 


each; about 275,000 had ten windows and 
wards ; und 725,000 had seven windows, or 
than seven. 


Window-tax first enacted in order to defray the 
expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage of silver 

The tax increased, 5 Feb. 1746-7; again in 1778; 
and again on the commutation-tax for tea 1 Oct. 

The tax again increased in 17975 ae and 

Reduced 

The revenue derived from windows was in 1840 
about a million and a quarter sterling; and in 
1850 (to April 5), 1,832,684l. 

The tax repealed by act 14 & 15 Vict. c. 36 (which 
act imposed a duty oe inhabited houses in lieu 
thereof) . . 24 July, 


up- 
less 


1695 
1784 


1808 
1823 


1851 


WINDSOR CASTLE (Berkshire), a resi- 
dence of the British sovereigns, begun by William 
the Conqueror, and enlarged by Henry I. about 
1110. Edward III., who was born here, 13 Noy. 
1312, caused the old building, with the exception of 


three towers at the west end, to be taken down, 


and 


re-erected the whole castle, under the direction of 
William of Wykeham, 1356, and built St. George’s 


chapel. 
send him workmen. 
prisoned here, 1406-23. 
made by Henry 


He assessed every county in England to 
James I. of Scotland 1 was im- 
Several additions were 
III. Elizabeth made the grand 


north terrace; and Charles II. repaired and beauti- 


fied it, 1676- 80. 


The tae repaired and opened . , ; 
The castle repaired and enlarged, 1824-8; George 
IV. took possession . 4 4 8 Dec. 

Royal stables built . 

A serious fire in the prince of Wales’s tower, owing 
to some defect in the heating apparatus, 

19 March, 

Our sovereigns have here entertained many royal 
personages, as the emperor and empress of the 
French, in . : April, 

Here died the prince consort . 4 Dec. 

The Albert memorial chapel, on the site of Wolsey 
chapel, was opened PEL SOUN OV: 

Windsor Forest, situated to the south and west of 
the town of Windsor, was formerly 120 miles in 
circumference; in 1607, it was 774 miles round, 
but it has since been reduced in its bounds to 
about 56 miles. It was surveyed in 1789, and found 
to contain 59,600 acres. 

Virginia Water and the plantations about it were 
taken out of the forest. 

The marshes were drained and the trees planted for 
William, duke of Cumberland, about 1746; and 
much was done by George LV., who often resided 
at the lodge. 

On the south side is Windsor Great Park; it con- 
tains about 3800 acres. 

The Little Park, on the north and east sides of the 
castle, contains about 500 acres. The gardens are 
elegant, and have been considerably improved by 
the addition of the house and gardens of the duke 
of St. Albans, purchased by the crown. 

Cumberland Lodge partially destroyed by kt pic- 
tures burnt ‘ 4N oy. 

Albert Institute, Windsor, opened by the lok of 


Wales ; : - zoJan. 
About 52,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen, 
g July, 


Oct. 1790 


1828 
- 1839 


1853 


1855 
1861 


1875 


1869 
1880 
r88r 


WISSEMBOURG. 


WINDSOR KNIGHTS, 
Knights. 


WINDWARD ISLES (West Indies)—Bar 
badoes, St. Vincent, Grenada, Tobago, and St 
Lucia, (which see). Governor, Rawson W. Rawson 
1868 ; af: Pope Hennessy, Feb. 1875; capt. Strahan 
Noy. 1876; sir Henry Bulwer, April, 1880; Williar 
Robinson, 1881 ; ; Walter J. Sendall, May, 1885. 


WINE. ‘Noah planted a vineyard, and dran 
of the wine,’ 2347 B.c. (Gen. ix. 20); see Vine 
Ching- Noung, emperor of China, is said to hay 
made rice wine, 1998 B.c. Christ changed wate 
inte wine at the marriage of Cana in Galilee, a.r 
30. John il. 3-10. 


Wine sold in England by apotliecaries as a cordial 
in r300, and so continued for some time after, 
although there is mention of ‘‘ wine for the king” 
so early as John. 

The price regulated by statute, 5 Richard II. . . 

The price was twelve shillings’ the pipe in 5 

A hundred and fifty butts and pipes condemned, 
for being adulterated, to be staved and emptied 
into the channels of the streets, by Rainwell, 
mayor of London, Stow’s Chron. . 142 

An act for licensing sellers of wine in England 
passed 25 April, 166 

By the Methuen treaty, Portuguese wines were 
highly favoured, and French wines discouraged by 
heavy duties . 

Wine duties to be 2s. od. per gallon on Cape wine, 
and ss. 6d. on all other wines 

In year ending 31 March, 1856, the customs duties 
on wines produced 1 856, r2ol.; in 1858, 1,733,7291.; 
1867, 1,391,192I. ; 1876, 1,755,7101 ; "1884, 1,268,842h 

By the French treaty of commerce, 1860, the duty — 
on wines was reduced from ss. gd. to 2s. 6d. and 
1s. according to the alcoholic strength . Jan. 186 

Licences granted to refreshment houses by an act 
passed in : 

The Oporto Wine Company (a monopoly), estab- 
lished in 1756, and abolished 

Commission on the wine duties appointed by ‘the 


see Poor, an 


138 
140 


commons 5 ‘ . . ‘ : April, 187 
WINE IMPORTED INTO UNITED KINGDOM, 
Gallons. Gallons 
1800 . . 3,307,460 | 1868 5 «) & 16,053.8% 
1815 4 : 4,306,528 | 1869 . ° s 17, 18433 
1830 #4 é 6,879,558 | 1870. «375 TAage 
1839 : 9,909,056 | 1871 . : - 18,224,9¢ 
1845 . re 8,469,776 | 1875 : - . 18,429,3¢ 
1850 5 + “2 G)304,3922:| 2 Sqome 5 + 19,950,7% 
T6545 . - 10,875,855 | 1879 E . 15,162,85 
1857 c - 10,336,485 | 1880 . é - 17,385,4¢ 
1859 . 4 2 8,105,513') 106 “ « « 16,2070er 
1861 : » » T1,052;430 | 18ceen. 4 > 15,71 590) 
1864 . 15,451,593 | 1883 . ~~ «+ 15;55957¢ 
WINTER. Recent mild winters, 1862, 186! 
1873, 1876, 1881. See Frosts. 


WINTER ASSIZES ACT, 39-40 Viet, ¢. 5’ 
(11 Aug. 1876), gives power, by order in counci 
to unite counties for the purpose of winter assize 
for more speedy trials of prisoners. 


WIRE. The invention of drawing wire | 
ascribed to Rodolph of Nuremberg, about IAL 
Mills for this purpose were first set up at Nurem 
berg in 1563. ‘The first wire-mill in England we 
erected at Mortlake in 1663. Mortimer. / 


WIRTEMBERG, sce Wirtemberg. 
WISCONSIN, a N.W. state of N. America 


was organised as a territory in 1836; and receive 
into the union, 29 May, 1848. 


WISSEMBOURG, or WEISSENBURG, N. 1 
France, in the department of the Lower Rhin¢ 
situate on the right bank of the river Lauter, th 
boundary of France and the Palatinate. It wa 
formerly an imperial city of Alsace, and was seize 


WITCHCRAFT. 


919 


WIVES’ POISON. 


Louis XIV. in 1673, and annexed to France by 
treaty of Ryswick, 1697. The ‘‘lines”’ of Wis- 
ibourg, erected by Villars 1705, were taken by 
Austrians and retaken by the French, 1793, 
r Hoche’s victory at Geisberg. On 4 Aug. 
0, the crown-prince of Prussia crossed the 
iter and gained a brilliant but bloody victory 
rthe French (a part of MacMahon’s division), 
ming the lines, and the Geisberg. General Abel 
lay was mortally wounded, and about 800 pri- 
ers were made. ‘The killed and wounded on 
h sides appeur to have been nearly equal. The 
man army, composed of Prussians, Bavarians, 
| Wiirtembergers, were, it is said, about 40,000, 
inst about 10,000 French, who fought with des- 
ate bravery. 


VITCHCRAFT. ‘The Jewish law (Exodus 
i. 18), 1491 B.c., decreed, ‘‘ Thou shalt not 
er a witch to live.’ Saul, after banishing or 
demning witchcraft, consulted the witch of 
lor, 1056 B.c. (1 Sam. xxviii.) Bishop Hutch- 
yn’s historical ‘* Essay on Witchcraft’? was pub- 
ed in 1718. Pope Innocent VIII. issued a bull 
inst witchcraft in 1484. Thousands of innocent 
sons were burnt, and others killed by the tests 
lied.. 3 


ny Templars burnt at Paris for witchcraft, &c., 1309 
n of Arc burnt at Rouen as a witch, 30 May, 143r. 
yut five hundred witches burnt in Geneva, in three 
1onths, 1515. 

ny burnt in the diocese of Como in a year, about 


524. 

reat number in France, about 1520, when one sorcerer 
onfessed to having 1200 associates. 

1¢ hundred burnt in Lorraine, 1580-1595. 

s hundred and fifty-seven burnt at Wurtzburg, old 
nd young, learned and ignorant, between 1627 and 1629. 
nndier, the parish priest at Loudon, burnt on a charge 
f having bewitched a whole convent of nuns, 1634. 
Bretagne, twenty poor women put to death as witches, 
654. 

turbances commenced on charges of witchcraft in 
\merica, at Massachusetts, 1648-9 ; and persecutions 
aged dreadfully in Pennsylvania in 1683. 

Salem, in New England, nineteen persons hanged (by 
he Puritans) for witchcraft, eight more condemned ; 
ifty confessed themselves to be witches and were 
vardoned, 1692. 

ria Renata burnt at Wurtzburg in 1749. 

Kalisk, in Poland, nine old women charged with 
aving bewitched and rendered. unfruitful the lands 
longing to that palatinate, were burnt 17 Jan. 1775. 
re women condemned to death by the Brahmins, at 
-atna, for sorcery, and executed, 15 Dec. 1802. 

WITCHCRAFT IN ENGLAND. 
statute enacted declaring all witchcraft and sor- 
ery to be felony without benefit of clergy. 33 Hen. 
VIII. 1541. Again, 5 Eliz. 1562, and 1 James I. 1603. 
e 73rd canon of the church prohibits the clergy from 
sasting out devils, 1603. 
rrington estimates the judicial murders for witchcraft 
n England in 200 years at 30,000. 
itthew Hopkins, the ‘‘ witch-finder,” causes the judicial 
murder of about 100 persons in Essex, Norfolk, and 
Suffolk, 1645-7. 
> Matthew Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft in 
1664. 
venteen or eighteen persons burnt at St. Osyths, in 
Essex, about 1676. 
vo pretended witches were executed at Northampton 
in 1705, and five others seven years afterwards. 

1716, Mrs. Hicks, and her daughter, aged nine, were 
hanged at Huntingdon. 
orthamptonshire and Huntingdon preserved the super- 
stition about witchcraft later than other counties. 


, Scotland, thousands of persons were burnt in the 
period of about a hundred years. Among the victims 
were persons of the highest rank, while all orders in 
the state concurred. James I. even caused a whole 
assize to be prosecuted for an acquittal. The king 
published his Demonologie in Edinburgh, 1597. The 
last sufferer in Scotland was at Dornoch in 1722. 


The laws against witchcraft had lain dormant for many 
years, when an ignorant person attempting to revive 
them (by finding a bill against a poor old woman in 
Surrey for the practice of witchcraft), they were repealed, 
10 Geo. II. 1736. 

Credulity in witcheraft still abounds in the country dis- 
tricts of England. On 4 Sept. 1863, a poor old para- 
lysed Frenchman died in consequence of having been 
ducked as a wizard at Castle Hedingham, Essex, and 
similar cases have since occurred. 

Ann Turner, old ; killed as a witch by a half-insane man 
at Long Compton, Warwickshire, 17 Sept. 1875. 


WITENA-MOT or WITENA-GEMOT, the 
assembling of the wise men, the great council of the 
Anglo-Saxons. A witena-mot was called in Win- 
chester by Egbert, 800, and in London, 833, to 
consult on the proper means to repel the Danes; 
see Parliament. 


WITEPSK (in Russia), where a battle was 
fought between the French under marshal Victor, 
duke of Belluno, and the Russians commanded by 
general Wittgenstein. The French were defeated 
after a desperate engagement, with the loss of about 
3000 men on both sides, 14 Nov. 1812. 


WITNESSES. Two or more witnesses were 
required by the law of Moses, 1451. B.c. (Deut. 
xvli. 6), and by the early Christian Church in cases 
of discipline (2 Cor. xiii. 1), A.D. 60. The evidence 
of two witnesses required to attaint for high treason, 
25 Edw. III. 1352. In civil actions between party 
and party, if a man be subpcenaed as a witness on a 
trial, he must appear in court on pain of 100/. to be 
forfeited to the king, and Io/., together with the 
damages equivalent to the loss sustained by the 
want of his evidence to the party aggrieved. Lord - 
Ellenborough ruled that no witness is obliged to 
answer questions which may tend to degrade him- 
self, 10 Dec. 1802. New act relating to the exam- 
ination of witnesses passed 13 Geo. [1]. 1773- 
Act to enable courts of law to order the examination 
of witnesses upon interrogations and otherwise, 
1 Will. IV. 30 March, 1831. 


WIVES, see Marriage. By the Divorce and 
Matrimonial Causes Act, passed in 1857, the con- 
dition of married women has been much benefited. 
When ill-used they can obtain a divorce or judicial 
separation; and while in the latter state any 
property they may acquire is secured to them per- 
sonally, as if unmarried. By another act passed in 
1857, they are enabled to dispose of reversionary 
interests In personal property or estates. An act 
to amend the law relating to the property of married 
women was passed 9 Aug. 1870. By it the separate 
earnings of a wife were secured to her own use, as 
well as personal and freehold property bequeathed 
to her. She may maintain an action at law, and 
acquires other rights. The husband is declared not 
liable for debts contracted by his wife prior to 
marriage, and she may be sued for them. This act 
was amended in 1874. Husband and wife may be 
jointly sued for her debts before marriage. By the 
Matrimonial Causes Act, 1878, a magistrate can 
grant judicial separation, with maintenance, to a 
wife suffering from her husband’s ill-usage. 


House of lords decide that the husband is not re- 
sponsible for his wife’s debts if he allow sufficient 
for dress, &c. Debenham v. Mellon 27 Nov. 

Married Women’s Property Act, 45 and 46 Vict. 
c. 75, passed 18 Aug. 1882, making their powers 
almost equal to those of single women, and in- 
creasing their reponsibilities in regard to debt, 
&e., came into effect . A - $ . rJan. 1883 


WIVES’ POISON or WATER TOFANA, see 


Poisoning. 


1880 


a 


WIZARD. 


920 


WOOD PAVEMENT. 


WIZARD oF THE NORTH, a name given to 
sir Walter Scott, on account of his romances ; also 
to Mr. Anderson, the conjurer, who died 3 Feb. 
1874, see Covent Garden. 


WCERTH sur SAUER, 2 town in the depart- 
ment of the Lower Khine, N.E. France. After 
storming Wissembourg (which see) on 4 Aug. 1870, 
the crown-prince of Prussia, with the 3rd army 
(about 150,000) marched rapidly forward and 
surprised part of the French army under Marshal 
MacMahon, including the corps of Canrobert and 
part of that of Failly (about 47,000), and defeated it 
in a long, desperate, and sanguinary engagement 
near this place 6 Aug. The battle lasted from 9 a.m. 
till 4 p.m. The chief struggles occurred in the 
country round Reichshoffen and-in the village of 
Freeschweiller; the French are said to have charged 
the German line eleven times, each time breaking 
it, but always finding a fresh mass behind. The 
ridge on which Weerth stands was not captured 
until the French «were taken in flank by the 
Bavarians and Wiirtembergers. Nearly all Mac- 
Mahon’s staff were killed, and the marshal himself, 
unhorsed, fell fainting into a ditch, from which he 
was rescued by a soldier. He then, on foot, directed 
the retreat towards Saverne, to cover the passes of 
the Vosges. The victory is attributed to the very 
great numerical superiority of the Germans as well 
as to their excellent strategy. The French loss has 
been estimated at 5000 killed and wounded, and 
5,000 prisoners, 2 eagles, 6 mitrailleuses, 35 can- 
non, and much baggage. The Germans are stated 
to have had above 8000 men put hors de combat. 
It was admitted that MacMahon had acted as an 
able and brave commander. 


WOLVERHAMPTON (Staffordshire), an old 
town formerly named Hamton; owes its present 
name to the foundation of a college here by 
Wulfrana, sister of king Edgar, and widow of 
Aldhelm, duke of Northampton, 996. The queen 
was present at the inauguration of the prince con- 
sort’s statue here, 30 Nov. 1866, and the church 
congress was opened here 1 Oct. 1867. Wolver- 
hampton is eminent for its manufactures in metal. 
Statue of hon. C. P. Villiers (its M.P., 1835-85) 
was uncovered, 6 June, 1879; jubilee celebrated 
10 Jan. 1885. 


WOLVES were once very numerous in England. 
Their heads were demanded as a tribute, particu- 
larly 300 yearly from Wales, by king Edgar, 961, 
by which step they were falsely said to be totally 
destroyed. Carte. Edward I. issued his mandate 
for the destruction of wolves in several counties of 
England, 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for 
many centuries after their extirpation in England; 
for there are accounts of some being found there so 
late as 1710, when the last presentment for killing 
wolves was made in the county of Cork. Wolves 
still infest France, in which kingdom 8384 wolves 
and cubs were killed in 1828-9. ‘They were trouble- 
some in the Vosges, Oct. 1875. 


WOMEN. The employment of women is regu- 
lated by the Lactory and Workshop Regulation Acts 
(which see). 


(See Degrees, Female Medical School, Marriage, and Wives.) 
Female medical society and obstetrical college 
founded : : - : ° . about 1864 
Female suffrage for members of parliament was pro- 
posed by J. 8. Mill, and negatived by 196 against 
73 ‘ 3 : r : : ; 20 May, 1867 
Lily Maxwell, a shopkeeper at Manchester, voted 


for Jacob Bright : E é ae 20 NOV owe. 
First annual meeting of the Manchester national 
society for women’s suffrage 30 Oct. 1868 


Temale suffrage decided to be illegal, by the court 


of common pleas : ; : «| 75 9 NOV: {ae 
Women’s Club and Institute, Newman-street, | 
London W. opened . : Jan, 1 


Women’s: Disabilities removal bill rejected by the 
commons (220 to 94) 12 May, 1870; (222-143) r 
May, 1872; (223-155) 30 April, 1873 ; withdrawn, 
1874 ; (187-152) 7 April, 1875 ; (239-152) 26 April, 
1876; hustled out, 6 June, 1877; (219-140) 

19 June, 1878 ; (217-103) 7 March, 1879; (130-114) 
6 July, x8 

Miss Garrett and Miss Davies elected members of 
the metropolitan school-board - 29 Nov.)a¢ 

Women’s hospitals founded : Soho,1842; Marylebone, x 

Medical school for women opened (see Physic) Oct. x 

Women’s Protective and Provident League founded 
by Mrs. Paterson and others, Great Queen Street, 
(out of this has arisen several independent trades 
unions, book-binders, upholsterers, &c.) . Pas 

Miss Merington elected guardian of the poor for 
Kensington (the first case in London) April, 28 

Women’s Whisky War, see United States, 1874. 

Women permitted to be registered under ‘‘ Medical ~ 
Act,” by 39 & 4o Vict. c. 41 . f . Tr AUSTE, 

Women’s Education Union, president, the princess 
Louise, founded at the Society of Arts, in 1871, 
to promote the better education of women ; said 
to be languishing in : : : 4 Oct. xf 

University of London: senate vote for granting 
degrees to women, 28 Feb.: convocation vote 
against it, 8 May, and July 1877; vote for a sup- 
plemental charter granting it (242-132), 15 Jan.; 
charter granted . : 5 ‘ . 28 March, xf 

Great meeting for female suffrage ; St. James’s Hall, 

6 May, 1! 

Women excluded from government employment 
in the United States, by order . about 27 Dec. xi 

Women to be admitted to examinations for honours 
at Oxford ; by statute 4 . 29 April, 1! 

Female householder’s suffrage (widows and spins- 
ters), proposed by Mr. Woodall in the commons, 
to June; negatived (271-135) 12-13 June; in con- 
sequence Miss H. Miiller refuses to pay queen’s 
taxes, and her goods are distrained . 2dJuly, 

Women’s suffrage blll; lords read 1st time, 3 July; 
negatived : : : ; . toduly, 


WONDERS OF THE WorzLD. I. The py 
mids of Egypt. 2. The mausoleum or tomb built 
Mausolus, king of Caria, by Artemisia, his que 
3. The temple of Diana, at Ephesus. 4 The we 
and hanging gardens of the city of Babylon. 
The vast brazen image of the sun at Rhodes, cal 
the Colossus. 6. The ivory and gold statue 
Jupiter Olympus. 7. The pharos or watch-tow 
built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egy 
see separate articles. 


WOOD-CUTS, see Engraving on Wood. 
WOODS, Forests, &c., see Forests. 1 


board of woods, forests, and land revenues was c¢ 
stituted in 1810. The oversight of works 2 
public buildings was added to its duties in 1832, | 
transferred to a separate board of commissioners 
1851. In 1874 the annual revenue of the cro 
woods and forests was 487,695/. ; 1882-3, 380,000 


WOOD’S HALEF-PENCEH, for circulation 
Ireland and America, were coined by virtue 0: 
patent, passed 1722-3. Against them, Dr. Jonath 
Swift, by his Drapier’s letters, raised such a spi 
that Wood was virtually banished the kingdo 
The half-pence were assayed in England by 
Isaac Newton, and proved to be genuine, in 1724 


WOOD PAVEMENT was laid down 
Whitehall in 1839; and. in Oxford-street, 1 
Strand, and other streets. The principal part ¥ 
soon taken up. In Nov. 1872, the improved wo 
pavement company put forth a prospectus; @ 
in May, 1876, wood had been largely laid dow 
and was said to be the best pavement in London, 


WOODSTOCK. 


921 


WORCESTER. 


Oxford-street was paved by Henson’s street paving 
mpany, with a compound of wood, asphalt, felt, and 
yrtland cement in 1876; with wood, 1878. Bond-street 
d many other streets paved with wood, 1879-81. 


WOODSTOCK (Oxfordshire). In Wood- 
ock, now Blenheim-park, originally stood a 
yal palace, in which king Ethelred held a par- 
ament, and Alfred the Great translated Boethius 
» Consolatione Philosophie, 888. Henry I. beau- 
fied the palace; and here resided Rosamond, 
istress of Henry IJ. 1154. In it were born 
dmund, second son of Kdward I., 1301, and 
dward, eldest son of Edward IIT., 1330; and here 
.e princess Elizabeth was confined by her sister 
ary, 1554. A splendid mansion, built at the 
cpense of the nation, for the duke of Marlborough, 
as erected here to commemorate his victory at 
lenheim in 1704. At that time every trace of the 
acient edifice was removed, and two elms were 
lanted on its site; see Blenheim. Scott's romance, 
Woodstock,’ was published, June, 1826. Mar- 
1all’s *‘ History of Woodstock,” 1873. 


WOOL. From the earliest times to the reign 
queen Elizabeth the wool of Great Britain was 
ot only superior to that of Spain, but accounted 
1e finest in the universe; and even in the times 
‘the Romans a manufacture of woollen cloths was 
stablished at Winchester for the use of the em- 
erors. Anderson. In later times wool was manu- 
ictured in England, and is mentioned 1185, but 
ot in any quantity until 1331, when the weaving 
fit was introduced by John Kempe and other arti- 
ans from Flanders. This was the real origin of 
ur now unrivalled manufacture, 6 Edw. III. 1331. 
-ymer’s Federa. 


uties on exported wool were levied by Edw. I. 
he exportation prohibited ; 5 3 : 
taples of wool established in Ireland, at Dublin, 
Waterford, Cork, and Drogheda, 18 Edw. III... 1343 
heep were first permitted to be sent to Spain, 
which has since injured our manufacture. Stow. 
irst legislative prohibition of the export of wool 
from Ireland. E : : : ; Sat 
he exportation of English wool, and the importa- 
tion of Irish wool into England, prohibited . 1696 
‘he export forbidden by act passed. : ee T7IS 
ill to prevent the running of wool from Ireland to 
France . : ; ‘ : : : ; . 1738 
‘he duty on wool imported from Ireland taken off 1739 
Vooleombers’ act, 35 Geo, III. : : eee SIO4 
‘he non-exportation law was repealed, 5 Geo. IV.. 1824 
n 1854 we imported 83,311,975 Ib. of wool and 
Alpaca; in 1856, 116,211,392 tb.; in 1859, 
133,284,634 th. ; in 1861, 147,172,841 Ib. ; in 1864, 
206,473,645 Ib. ; in 1866, 239,358,689 tb. ; in 1871, 
323,030,299 th. ; in 1875, 365,065,578 th. ; in 1877, 
409,949,198 Ib.; in 1879, 417,110,099 Ib.; in 1881, 
450,141,735 Ib.; in 1883, 495,946,779 Ib. 
Ve imported from Australia, in 1842, 12,979,856 Ib. ; 
in 1856, 56,052,139 Ib. ; in 1861, 68,506,222 tb. ; in 
1866, 113,773,694 tb.; in 1871, 182,710,567 th. ; in 
1875, 238,631,824 lb. ; in 1877, 281,247,190 Ib. ; in 
1879, 287,831,804 Ib.; in 1881, 329,665,855 Ib.; in 
1883, 351,685,606 tb. 


WOOL-COMBERS in several parts of Eng- 
and have a procession on 3 Feb., in commemoration 
f bishop Blaise, who is reported to have discovered 
heir art. He is said to have visited England, and 
o haye landed at St. Blazy, in Cornwall. He was 
vishop of Sebaste, in Armenia, and is said to have 
bh martyrdom in the Diocletian persecution, 
89. 

WOOLLEN CLOTH. Woollen cloths were 
nade an article of commerce in the time of Julius 
Jesar, and are familiarly alluded to by him; see 
Weaving. 

‘he Jews were forbidden to wear garments of 
woollen and linen together . : BO.) x45 


. 1275 
1337 


1467 


1521 


7o families of cloth-workers (from the Netherlands) 


settled in England by Edward III. Rymer. A.D. 133% 
Worsted manufacture in Norfolk , 4 
A kind of blankets were first made in England. 

(Camden) Z ‘ i about ,, 
Woollens made at Kendal : : : et F390 
No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported 

into England . : : ; : : . . 1463 
Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made . DOA 
Manufacture of fine cloth began at Sedan, in France, 

under the patronage of Cardinal Mazarine . . 1646 
Broadcloth first dressed and dyed in England, by 

Brewer, from the Low Countries. : m8 X07 
British and Irish woollens prohibited in France . 1677 
All persons obliged to be buried in woollens, and 

the persons directing the burial otherwise to for- 

feit 5l., 2g Charles II. ‘ ‘ F 5 + te, LOFTS 
The manufacture of cloth greatly improved in Eng- 

land by Flemish settlers é : : . 1688 
Injudiciously restrained in Ireland, rz Will. III. . 1698 
The exportation from Ireland wholly prohibited, 

except to certain ports of England : . 1701 
English manufacture encouraged by 10 Anne, 1712, 

and 2Geo. I= -< : ; : : ‘ oe bypass 
Greater in Yorkshire in 1785 than in all England at 

the revolution. Chalmers. 

Value of woollen manufactures of all kinds exported 
in 1847, 6,896,038/. ; in 1854, 9,120,759l. ; in 1861, 
11,118,692l.; im 1864, 18,569,089/.; in 1871, 
274182,305l.; im. 1875, 27,659,3250. 5) In 1877, 
17,343,203; in 1879, 15,861,166/.; in. -1881, 
18,128,756l.; in 1883, 18,315,575l. 

International Woollen Exhibition at the Crystal 
Palace, Sydenham, opened by the duke of Con- 
naught é 5 : : : 2June, 1881 

Association for the encouragement of British 


woollen manufactures founded by the countess 
of Bective and about 200 other ladies . : a pp 


WOOLSACK, the seat of the lord high chan- 
cellor of England in the house of lords, so called 
from its being a large square bag of wool, without 
back or arms, covered with red cloth. Wool was 
the staple commodity of England in the reign of 
Edward III., when the woolsack first came into use. 


WOOLWICH (Kent), the most ancient mili- 
tary and nayal arsenal in England. Its royal 
dockyard, where men-of-war were built in: the 
reign of Henry VIII., was closed, 1 Oct. 1869. Here 
Harry Grice de Diew was built, 1512; and here 
she was burnt in 1552. The royal arsenal was 
formed about 1720, on the site of a rabbit-warren ; 
it contains vast magazines of great guns, mortars, 
bombs, powder, and other warlike stores; a foundry, 
with many furnaces, for casting ordnance; and a 
great laboratory, where fireworks, cartridges, gren- 
ades, &c., are made for the publie service. The 
Royal Military Academy was erected in the royal 
arsenal, but the institution was not completely 
formed until 19 Geo. II. 1745. 


The arsenal, storehouses, &c. , burnt (loss of 200, oool.) 


20 May, 1802 
Another great fire : : 30 June, 1805 
Fatal explosion of gunpowder 20 Jan. 1813 
The hemp-store burnt down 8 July, ,, 
Another explosion by gunpowder . 16 June, 1814 


The Royal Military Academy nearly destroyed by 
fire ; loss about 100,000l. 4 : 1 Feb. 1873 
Visited by the shah of Persia : : ax June, \,, 
Subway beneath the Thames between North and 
South Woolwich, begun . ; ! 23 Aug. 1876 
Explosion in the rocket factory ; the town bom- 
barded ; with little damage, the armoury burnt, 
only two men killed in the factory, 10 a.m.24 Sept. 
Construction of great free steam ferry authorized 
by the Commons : : : . I May, 
(Woolwich Infant, see Cannon, 1872.) 
WORCESTER. successively an important 
British, Roman, and Saxon town, was burnt by 
the Danes (1041) for resisting the tribute called 
Danegelt. William I. built a castle, 1090. The 
city was frequently taken and retaken during the 
civil wars of the middle ages, and by Cromwell in 


1883 
1885, 


WORCESTER. 


922 


WORKING MEN. 


1651.—The BisHopric was founded by Ethelred, 
king of the Mercians, 680, and taken from the sce 
of Lichfield, of which it composed a part. The 
married priests of the cathedral were displaced, and 
monks settled in their stead, 964. The church was 
rebuilt by Wolstan, 25th bishop, 1030. The see 
has yielded to the church of Rome four saints, and 
to the English nation five lord chancellors and three 
lord treasurers. It is valued in the king’s books at 
1049/. 16s. 34d. per annum. Present income, 
50002. 

The renovated cathedral opened 8 April, 
Much excitement through the refusal of the dean 
and chapter to permit the cathedral to be used as 

a concert room for the three choirs festival 
Oct.-Nov. ,, 

The festival held as strictly religious services 
22, 23 Sept. 


1874 


1875 
RECENT BISHOPS. 

Richard Hurd, died 28 May, 1808. 

Folliott H. Cornwall, died 5 Sept. 183. 

Robert James Carr, died 24 April, 1841. 

1841. Henry Pepys, died 13 Nov. 1860. 

1860. Henry Philpott (PRESENT bishop). 


WORCESTER, BATTLE or, 3 Sept. 1651, 
when the Scots army which came to England to 
reinstate Charles Il. was defeated by Cromwell, 
who called it his crowning mercy. Charles with 
difficulty escaped to France. More than 2000 of the 
royalists were slain, and of 8000 prisoners most 
were sold as slaves to the American colonists; sec 
Boscobel. 


WORDSWORTH =SOCIETY, formed ‘‘as 
a bond of union among those who are in sympathy 
with the general teaching and spirit of Wordsworth” 
and ‘‘ to promote and extend the study of the poet’s 
works,’’ &c., was inaugurated at Grasmere, West- 
moreland, 30 Sept. 1880. President, Dr. Charles 
Wordsworth, bishop of St. Andrews. 


WORKHOUSES, see under Poor. 
WORKING MEN. Since the great Exhibi- 


tion of 1851, much has been done to benefit the 
labouring classes by organisation. See Artisan. 


Working Men’s Clubs considered to have begun with 
the Working Men’s Mutual Improvement and 
Recreation Society, established in Lancaster by 
the instrumentality of the rev. H. Solly in 

The Westminster Working Men’s Club, in Duck-lane, 
originated with Miss Adeline Cooper; opened in 

Dec. 

The Working Men’s Club and Institute Union esta- 
blished by lord Brougham and others, 4 June, 

The Working Men’s Club and Lodging-house, Old 
Pye-street, Westminster, was opened 20 April, 

Working Men’s Colleges, &c. The first, established 
in Sheffield, by working-men. The second, in 
London, by the rev. professor Frederick D. 
Maurice, as principal, in Oct. 1854 (died x April, 
1872); a. third in Cambridge; and, in 1855, a 
fourth at Oxford; all wholly for the working 
classes, and undertaking to impart such know- 
ledge as each man feels he is most in want of. 
The colleges engage to find a teacher wherever 10 
or 12 members agree to form a class, and also to 
have lectures given. There were eleven classes 
at the one in Bloomsbury, London, in 1856; Mr. 
Ruskin gave lessons in drawing. Some of these 
colleges have been found to be self-supporting. 

A Working Women's College, begun at Queen’s-square, 
Bloomsbury . : : : : : Sue Gy Sueley 

The two colleges amalgamated as the ‘“‘ New College ~ 
for men and women,” inaugural meeting 12 Oct. 1874 

Working Women’s College, Fitzroy-street, inaugu- 
rated : ‘ é : PF : oO Oct Bs 

Act to establish councils of conciliation, to adjust 
differences between masters and workmen, passed 

20 Aug. 1867 

The Arbitration (Masters and Workmen) Act passed 

6 Aug. 1872 


1781. 
1808. 
1831. 


Working Men’s College, for South London, opened 
with a lecture by professor Huxley 4 Jan. 186! 
Workmen's International Exhibition proposed by 
the duke of Argyll, lord Elcho, and others, 
March, 1868 ; meeting for arrangements, ro Jan. 
1870, held in the Agricultural Hall, Islington (16 
classes and a fine arts department); opened by 
the prince of Wales, 16 July; closed by Mr. Glad- 


stone 5 5 : é ‘ : 31 Oct. 187 
National trades societies congress meet at Man- 
chester, 1868; at Birmingham . Aug. 186 


Demonstration of working men in Hyde park 
against certain clauses relating to masters and 
servants in the Criminal Law Amendment Act, 

2 June, 187 

International Working Men’s Association (termed 
the International) owes its origin to some German 
socialists in London, 1847, and was much pro- 
moted by the foreign visitors to the great exhibi- 
tion in 1862. It was definitely organised, 28 Sept. 
1864, George Odger first president. Its professed 
object is the complete emancipation of labour 
from the tyranny of capitalists. It has held 
congresses at Geneva, Sept. 1866; Lausanne, 
Sept. 1867; Brussels, 6-13 Sept. 1868 ; Basel, 6-11 
Sept. 1869; Barcelona, June, 1870; at the Hague, 

_ when great dissensions arose between the ‘‘autho- 
ritarians,” who consider a government needful, 
and the ‘‘ anarchists,” who deny it. One party 
including the council seceded from the trade 


portion, and adjourned to New York, 3-10 Sept. 187 
Four of its members were elected into the French 

national assembly : ‘ Z , - Feb.ireg 
The association took part in the communist insur- 

rection at Paris 2 ; : E - Dec: a3 
It made a demonstration at New York 18 Mar. 1&7 


It is said to have about 2,500,000 members in all 
countries, and to be allied with several secret 
societies, such as Fenians, the Mary Anne, &c. 

A proposal from Spaiti that European governments 
should combine for its suppression, 9 Feb., was: 
declined by Great Britain, 8 March. It was pro- 
scribed in France by the national assembly, 

14 March, 143 

The British section met at McQueen’s club-house, 
Parliament-street : ; A i 21 July,) ag 

One party took the name of International Associa- 
tion, and held annual congresses : Geneva, Sept. 
1873; Brussels, 7 Sept. 1874; Berne, 1876 ; Ver- 
viers, 7 Sept. 1877. A congress of socialists met 
at Ghent (partly united the two divisions), Sept. 

International congress Paris assembled 2-12 Sept. ,, 

Report of an alliance between conservative peers 
and the working men for the improvement of the 
condition of the latter, about 15 Oct. ; explained 
by Mr. Scott Russell (Times, 14 Nov. 1871), who 
issued a.programme ; : : : Jan. 

Workmen's Peace Association held its first annuai ~ 
meeting in London : , . 20S8ept. 187 

A “ Workman’s city,” Shaftesbury Park, Clapham, 
was inaugurated by the earl of Shaftesbury 


Nov. 187 

Annual trade congress at Sheffield . 2-17 Jan, 187 
Alex. Macdonald and Thos. Burt, working-men, 

elected M.P.’s for Stafford and Morpeth . Feb. ,, 
Royal commission on labour laws appointed (chief 
justice Cockburn, lord Winmarleigh, Messrs. 
Roebuck, T. Hughes, Alex. Macdonald and 

others) . : . 5 : ~ : March, ,, 
Dwellings of working classes protected from rail- 

way bills by new standing orders 30 July,nas 


Trades’ Union Congress opened at Liverpool 18 Jan. 
1875, 1876 ; at Leicester, 17 Sept. 1877; at Bristol, 
g Sept. 1878; at Edinburgh, 15 Sept. 1879; at 
Dublin, 13 Sept. 1880; London, 12 Sept. 1881; 
Manchester, 18 Sept. 1882; Nottingham, [134 
unions ; 552,091 members], ro Sept. 1883 ; Aber- 
deen , i é : ‘ a . 8 Sept. 318° 
Employers and Workmen Act passed . 13 Aug. 187 
Annual trade congress at Glasgow »  t1-16 OctaaE, 
Church of England Working Men’s Society founded 
at St. Alban’s, Holborn. ; A 5 Aug. 187 
Working-Lads’ Institutes, London; meeting at the 
Mansion House to found them, 27 Oct. ; first in- 
stitute opened at Whitechapel . 14 Nov. 187 
Workmen’s Social Education League, founded 
June, 1879; professor J. R. Seeley, president, 
announced . : 3 d +» zo June, 187: 


WRECKS. 


WORKS. 923 

loyers’ Liability Act (to compensate workmen Places of Worship. Sittings. 
‘injuries) passed . 2 : . .« 7 Sept. 1880 | Society of Friends ame 371 91,559 
rnational conference of workmen at Paris Unitarians : 229 68,554 
ses. : : . ; : 29 Oct. 1883 | Scottish Presbyterians ‘ : 160 86,692 
ational trades union congress at Paris ; main Latter-day Saints (Mormonites) 222 30,783 
jects, shorter hours, safety and comfort ; Brethren (Plymouth) . i ; 132 (?) 18,529 
itish, most moderate 29 Oct. et seq. 4, Jews : : ‘ : é 53 8,438 
See Co-operative Societies, and Employers. New Church (Swedenborgians) . 50 12,107 
d Moravians ‘ Gears : - 32 9,305 

TORKS anp PupBLic BUILDINGS, 8€¢ |} Catholic and Apostolic Church 
ds. seiiaineios) a \ 3? 7,437 
, : : reek Church . A : é : 3 291 
TORKSHOPS, see Atelier's and Factories. Countess of Huntingdon’s Con- e iy oe 

nexion . : : ; : : 

/ORKSHOP REGULATION ACT, sup- | weish Calvinistie Methodists. 828 —=«-198, 242 
nent to Factory Acts, passed 21 Aug. 1867 ; | Various small bodies, some with- me delves 


nded, 1871. 


JORLD, sce Creation, and Globe. 
kly newspaper began 8 July, 1874. 


JORMS, a city on the Rhine, in Hesse-Darm- 
t. The Roman city, Borbetomagus, was 
idered by the Alemanni, 354, and by Attila, 
: rebuilt by Clovis I. about 475. Here Charle- 
ne resided in 806 B.c. Here was held the 
erial diet before which Martin Luther was 
moned, 4 April, 1521, and by which he was 
eribed. Luther was met by 2000 persons on 
-and on horseback, at the distance of a league 
o Worms. When Spalatin sent to warn him of 
danger, he answered, ‘‘If there were as many 
ils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roots 
ts houses, I would go on.’’ He appeared before 
emperor, the archduke Ferdinand, six electors, 
nty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops 
prelates, and many princes, counts, lords, and 
yassadors, 17 April, acknowledged his writings 
opinions, and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. 
, to save his life, he had to remain in seclusion 
ler the protection of the elector of Saxony for 
ut a year. The edict putting him under the 
. of the empire was issued 26 May, 1521. 
rms was burnt, by order of Louis XTV., 1689, the 
hedral excepted ; and was taken by the French, 
ler Custine, 4 Oct. 1792. A memorial statue of 
ther at Worms was uncovered, 25 June, 1868, 
the presence of the king of Prussia and other 
ereigns. 


WORSHIP. The first worship mentioned is 
t of Abel, 3872 B.c. (Gen. iv.) ‘‘Men began 
call on the name of the Lord,” 3769 B.c. (Gen. 
) The Jewish order of worship was set up by 
ses, 1490 B.c. Solomon consecrated the temple, 
4 B.C. To the corruptions of the simple worship 
the patriarchs all the Egyptian and Greek idola- 
es owed their origin. Athotes, son of Menes, 
1g of Upper Egypt, is supposed to be the Copt 
the Egyptians, and the Zoth, or Hermes, of the 
eeks, the Mercury of the Latins, andthe Zewtutes 
the Celts or Gauls, 2112 B.c. Usher. 


WORSHIP in Enauanp. The Druids were 
2 priests here, at the invasion. of the Romans 
5 B.C.), Who eventually introduced Christianity, 
lich was almost extirpated by the victorious 
xons (455), who were pagans. ‘The Roman 
tholic form of Christianity was introduced by 
izustine, 596, and continued till the Reformation 
hich see). See Hymns, Liturgies, Prayers, 
thlic Worship, Ritualists. 


PLACES OF WORSHIP IN ENGLAND AND WALES 


IN 1851. 
Places of Worship. Sittings. 
urch of England . 14,077 5,317,915 
ssleyan Methodists . 6,579 2,194,298 
dependents . 3,244 1,067,760 
ptists ; 3 2,789 752,343 
man Catholics .. 570 186,111 


WORLD | 


out names : : 5 ; 
June, 1884, total sittings in the metropolis (population 
4,019,361), 1,388,792 ; Church of England, 677,645. 
See Wesleyan Methodists, note. 
116 sects having 20,330 places of worship, Oct. 1871. 


| Certified Places of Worship, 4 Nov. 1884, 23,341. 


WORSTED, spun wool, obtained its name from 
having been first spun at a town called Worsted, in 
Norfolk, in which the inventor lived, and where 
manufactures of worsted are still extensively carried 
on, 14 Edw. III. 1340. Anderson. “A worsted- 
stocking knave’’ is a term of reproach or contempt 
used by Shakspeare. 


WORTH, see Werth. 
WORTHIES, NINE, 2 term long ago given 


to the following eminent men:— 


Jews. Died. 
Joshua . B.C. 1426 
David : “ : : TE LOLS 
Judas Maccabeus . : . 161 

Heathens. 

Hector of Troy . az 5 C “ 3 . 1184 
Alexander the Great . é . x 323 
Julius Cesar . . at ads . 2 ot 

Christians. 

King Arthur of Britain A.D," *542 
Charlemagne of France 814 
Godfrey of Bouillon 2 110C 


In some lists, Gideon and Samson are given, instead 
of Hector and Arthur. In Shakspeare’s Love’s Labour's 
Lost, act v. sc. 2, Hercules and Pompey appear as 
worthies. 


WOTHLYTYPEH, see under Photography. 


WOUNDED IN BATTLE, see Geneva 
Convention, and Aid to Sick and Wounded. 


WOUNDING. Malicious wounding of another 
was adjudged death by the English statutes. The 
Coventry Act was passed in 1671; see Coventry Act. 
By lord Ellenborough’s Act, persons who stab or 
cut with intent to murder, maim, or disfigure 
another were declared guilty of felony without 
benefit of clergy. Those guilty of maliciously 
shooting at another in any dwelling-house or other 
place, are also punishable under the same statute 
in the same degree, 43 Geo. III. 1802. This offence 
is met by some later statutes, particularly the act 
for consolidating and amending the acts relating to 
offences against the person, 9 Geo. IV., June, 1828. 
This last act is extended to Ireland by 10 Geo, IV., 
1829. An act for the prevention of maliciously 
shooting, stabbing, &c., in Scotland, 6 Geo. IV., 
1825; amended by 10 Geo. IV., 4 June, 1829, 
for the prevention and punishment of assaults on 
women and children. 


WRECKS. The loss of merchant and other 
ships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and disasters 
in the open sea, was estimated at Lloyd’s, im 1800, 
to be about an average of 365 ships a year. In 
1830, it appeared by Lloyd's Lists that 677 British 


WRECKS. 


vessels were totally lost, under various circum- 
stances, in that year. The laws respecting wrecks 
were consolidated in 1846 and 1854. See Seamen 
(commission of inquiry). 


British vessels wrecked in 1848, were, sailing vessels, 
5or ; steamers, 13; tonnage, 96,920. 

In 1851, there were wr ecked 611 vessels, of which number 
Iz were steamers: the tonnage of “the whole being 
111,970. 

The year 1852-3, particularly the winter months (Dec. 
and Jan.), was very remarkable for the number of 
dreadful shipwrecks and fires at sea; buta few of them 
are. recorded. Wrecks in 25 years (1854-79), 49,322; 
lives lost, 18,319. 

Many vessels were lost in the great storms, 25, 26 Oct. 
1859; 28 May, 1861 ; 19, 20 Oct. 1861 ; and 13, 14 Nov. 
1862: by a cyclone, India, 5 Oct. 1864; in the West 
Indies, Oct. 1867. 

Roe under Life Boat. 


WRECKS OF VESSELS ON BRITISH COASTS. 


Vessels. Lives lost. 
1852 : A 4 1 aa a : 920 
1853 . A 5 SO2ny us 689 
TES44 aro 987 . - 1549 
1855 .- : 5 b a4 Coe 469 

Vessels wrecked or suffering Vessels 

other casualties. totally wrecked. Lives lost. 
1856 EI53 : 4 ‘ oo ete S & bter 
$957 0 \USTAS ar pine < 1ise 384 532 
1858 I170 5 5 4 354 340 
1859 TATOO! . . 4 — 2 025 
1860 1379 5 : S4T = 830) 
1861 I494 . j . t — 884 
1862 1488 fs é . 455 . 690 
1863 1664 . : , oe 503 - 620 
1864 T30G.uETs “ 4 » 467 : 516 
1865 1656 . < . sre : ~ | 698 
1866 1860 A : A LE OOo 
1867 2090 . f ; cy Sets) (M2398 
1868 1747 : . ee. - 824 
1869 2TE4e, : - ae te fie : 933 
1870 1502 é 5 : SEALE : 774 
1871 gig ee : ‘ A oe Stet 7 . 026 
1872 1958 : . A Burkey +) ae SOO 
1873 967 (6- months) eA eee é +) tes 
1873-4 408 ¢ 4 4 Serge one i5O0 
1874-5 3590 . . 472 5 -=026 

(331 by Schiller.) 
1875-05797); A 502 ; » 9778 
1876-7 4164 : 4 : Sepa 3 <n ey 7G 
1877-8 364% . : 422 : 892* 
1878-9 3062 A 3 ee OT mes > i) 490 
1879-80 2519 >. . : * 355 ° 231 
1880-1 3575 - ~ a7 OS ne Sry te ysv"§ 
1881-2 3660 . . x 606 4 + 1097 
1882-3 3654 ‘ ; : SSIW =) ey TOZO 


REMARKABLE CASES OF BRITISH VESSELS WRECKED 
OR BURNT. 

Mary Rose, 60 guns, going from Portsmouth to Spit- 
head, upset in a squall; all on board perished, 

o July 

Coronation, 90 guns, foundered off the Remateea 
crew saved: Harwich, 70 guns, wrecked on 
Mount Edgcumbe ; crew perished 1 Sept. 
Royal Sovereign, 100 guns ; burnt in the Medway, 
29 Jan, 

Stirling Castle, 70 guns; Mary, 70 guns; Nor ae 
berland, 70 guns, lost on the Goodwin; Vanguard. 
7o guns, sunk at Chatham; York, 70 guns, lost 
near Harwich ; all lost but four men ; Resolution, 
60 guns, coast of Sussex ; Newcastle, "60 guns, al; 
Spithead, 193 drowned ; Reser ve, 60 guns, at Yar- 
mouth, 173 perished ; in the night of 26 Nov. 
Association, 7o guns, and other “vessels, lost with 
admiral sir C. Shovel, off the Scilly isles (which see) 

2 Oct. 

Solebay, 32 guns, lost near Boston neck; crew 
perished 5 Dec. 
Edgar, 70 guns, blew up ‘at Spithead ; all on hola 
perished . : 5 Oct. 
Wager: part of ‘commodore Anson's South Sea 
expedition ; wrecked on desolate island, lat. 47° S. 
14 May 


1545 


1691 
1696 


318 in Zurydice. 


WRECKS. 


Victory, too guns, near the isle of Alderney ; ae 
perished 5 Oct. 
Colehester, 50 guns, lost on Kentish Knock; 5° ment 
perished ; 1 Sept. 
Namur, 74 guns, foundered near Fort st. David 
East Indies; all perished except 26 persons; 
Pembroke, 60 guns, near Porto Novo; 330 of her 


crew perished <. £5 April eee 4 
Prince George, 80 guns, burnt in lat, 48 N., on way 

to Gibraltar ; about 400 perished y 3 April, 27: 
Lichfield, 50 guns, lost on the coast of pe ionk 130 

of the crew perished Noy. J 
Tilbury, 60 guns, lost off Louisbourg ; E ioeh of the 

crew perished’ 25 Sept. x75 
Ramilies, 90 guns, lost ‘on the Bolt- head ; only 26 

persons saved ; Conqweror, lost on St. Nicholas’s 

Island, Plymouth 15 Feb. x76 
Ducd’ Aquitaine, 64 guns, and Sunderland, 60 guns, 

lost off Pondicherry ; all perished : 1 Jan. 17 
Raisonnable, 64 guns, lost at the attack of Marti- 

nique "9 Febuas 76 
Repulse, 32 guns, foundered off Bermuda: eel 

perished . 177 
aed er, 74 guns; Stirling Castle, 64; Defiance, 

: Pheniz, 443 La Blanche, 32; Laurel, 28; 
Shark. 28; Andromeda, 28 ; Deal Castle, 24 ; Pene- 
lope, 24; Scarborough, 20; Barbadoes, 14; Came- 
leon, 14; Endeavowr, 14 ; and Victor, ro guns: all 
lost in the same storm, in the West Indies, in 

Oct. 178 
Gen. Barker, Indiaman, off Scheveling . 17 Feb. 178 
Grosvenor, Indiaman, coast of Caffraria . 4 Aug. 178 
Swan, sloop of war, off Waterford; 130 drowned, 
4 AUS F 
Royal George ; above 600 perished 29 Aug. ,; 
Centaur, 74 guns, foundered on her passage from 
Jamaica ; capt. Inglefield and 11 of the crew saved 
21 Sep, 
Ville de Paris, of 104 guns, one of admiral Rodney’s ~ 
prizes ; the Glorieuzx, of 74 guns, lost in the West 
Indies 5 Och, 
Superb, 74 guns, wrecked in Tellicherry roacer East 
Indies Nov. 178 
Cato, 50 guns, radmiral sir Hyde Parker, on the 
Malabar coast ; crew perished : of 
Count Belgioioso, Indiaman, off Dublin Bay ; 147 
souls perished . . 13 March,” ,; 
Menai, ferry-boat, in “the " Strait ; 60 drowsieds ‘ 
5 Dec. 178 
Halsewell, HE. Indiaman; 386 persons perished, 
6 Jan. 178 
Hartwell, Indiaman, with immense wealth on board 
24 May, 178 
Charlemont Packet, from mn to Dublin ; 3 104 
drowned 3 22 Dec. 179 
Pandora, frigate on ‘a reef ; 100 perished . 28 Aug. 179 
Union, packet of Dover, lost off the port of Calais ; 
a similar occurrence had not happened for 105 _ 
years ‘before . 28 Jan. 179 
Winterton, E. Indiaman : many perished 20 Aug. ,, 
Ii mpetuens, 74 guns, burnt at Portsmouth 24 Aug. ,, 
Scorpion, 74 guns, burnt at Leghorn 20 Nov. 179 
Ardent, 64 guns, burnt off Corsica April, 179. 
Boyne, by fire, at Spithead (see Boyne) . 4 May, 179. 
Courageux, 74 guns, capt. B. Hallowell, near Gib- 
raltar ; crew, except 124, perished 18 Dee. 179) 
La Tribune, 36 guns, off Halifax ; 300 souls perished 
16 Nov. 179) 
Proserpine frigate ; in the Elbe; 15 lost t Feb. 179 


Resistance, blown up in the straits of Wi : 
wy 
Royal Charlotte, East iniaee blown up at Calan 
1 Aug. 
H.M.S. Lutine, 32 guns, was wrecked off Vlieland, 
coast of Holiand ; only one saved, who died be- 
fore reaching England * ; 


g-10 Oct. 1796 


* La Lutine was a French ship captured by a asia 


Duncan. She contained much bullion and money, be 
longing to merchants ; 


at Lloyd’s. 


a great loss to the undereital 
The Dutch government claimed the wreck, 


and granted one third of the salvage in 1801 to the 


bullion fishers. 


After much discussion, and occasion 


recoveries, the king of the Netherlands ceded to Great 


| Britain (for Lloyd’s) half the remainder of the wreck. 


Dutch salvage company began operations in Aug. 185 


A 


At the end of 1859, Lloyd’s had received 22,1621. 65. ; 


ree 


‘ 


WRECKS. 


25 


WRECKS. 


wegnadle, 98 guns, wrecked between Langstone 

ud Chichester - 19 Oct. 1799 

saw, 64 guns, on the Haak Bank; roo perished, 
2E.OCu an ,, 

vtre, 64 guns, wrecked in Table Bay, cape of Good ” 


lope; 291 of the crew perished INOVoNr 55 
alion, frigate, 38 guns, on the Penmarks, 

24 Weel # |; 
‘en, transport, on Trefusis Point; 369 souls 
erished : é 14 Jan. 1800 
stiff, gunbrig, on ‘the Cockle Sands Tend nih es 


ulse, 64 guns, off Ushant 
en Charlotte (which see), burnt; 


to March, ,, 
673 perish 

17 March < ,, 
en, W. Indianian, by fire, off Brazil per LY iy, 
zen, Sloop of war, off Newhaven ; all lost except 
neman . : as ae 
incible, 74 guns, near Yarmouth ; capt. John 
‘ennie, ‘and the crew, except 126 souls, perished, 


16 March, 1801 
rgate, Margate-hoy, near Reculver; 23 persons 
erished 10 Feb. 1802 
galore, E. Indiaman, Indian Sea rt April, .-,, 
ive, West Indiaman, in Margate Roads 10 Jan. 1803 
dostan, East Indiaman, went to pieces on the 
ulvers Tip aN ty? 
Déterminée, 24 guns, in ‘Jersey Roads , many 
rowned . : 26 March, es 
istance, 36 guns, off Cape St. Vincent . STA Vee <5 
'y Hobart, packet, on an island of ice 


28June, ,, 


ve, frigate, 44 guns, off Schelling ar July; 4, 


elope, capt. Wilson, off Pellew Islands . OuAe  s; 
tory, Liverpool ship, at Liverpool; 27 drowned, 

. 30 sept. ,, 
%, frigate, 32 guns, off Yarmouth TON OVen ys 
itilus, E. Indiaman, on Ladrones TOMNOVeues » 
“ry, in Chinese Sea: 46 souls perish 29 Nov. ,, 
isante, sloop, 16 guns, off Cork 25 Decl x, 
illo, frigate, on coast of Portugal zr April, 1804 
wberland Packet, on Antigua coast a Sept. ,, 
umey, 50 guns on Haak Bank, Texel TOeNOv.. 4, 
erable, 74 guns, at Torbay; lost See reneraNO Vanes. 
Wn, ON a rock, near Grouville i 21 Dec. ;, 


is, frigate, on ‘the Diamond Rock, Quiberon Bay, 


12 Jan. 1805 
rgavenny, East Indiaman, on the Bill of Port- 
nd; more than 300 persons perished 6 Bebie ;; 
as, transport, on Newfoundland coast 23 Oct. ,, 
eas, transport, off Newfoundland; 340 perished, 

23 OCtitx.;; 
‘ora, transport, on the Goodwin Sands; 300 
arished . epor ety. 5, 
g George, packet, from Park- gate to Dublin, lost 
a the Hoyle bank; 125 rete passengers and 
‘ew, drowned ; 21 Sept. 1806 
enien, 64 guns, near Tunis ; 347 souls pen 

Ct. 5 
gow, packet, off Farm Island; several drowned, ; 
Nov. ar 
“, 12 guns, near Santander; 79 souls lost 

22 Jan. 1807 
heim, 74 guns, admiral sir T. Troubridge, and 
wa, 23 guns, foundered near island of Rodriguez, 
ast Indies eT ‘Feb. - 
t, 74 guns, by fire, off the island of Tenedos ; 

‘o perished 14 Feb. - 
whe, frigate, on the French coast; 45 men 
srished . 4 March, 5, 
ges, East Indiaman, off the Cape of Good Ea 

a ” 
we of Wales, Park-gate packet, and Backide: 
ansport, on Dunleary point, near ee nearly 
oo souls perished . OnNOVe ws 
as, man-of-war, upon the Hannois bak in the 
iannel : 23 Noy. |; 


On, 44 Soe wrecked in Mount’s Bay; 60 lives 
st ZOWWeC. 455 


tha, hear. Memel; ‘lord Royston and others 


‘owned . ; $ 7 April, 1808 
ea, frigate, on Anagada coast . 23) Mayyan 53 
h, passage-boat, in the Frith of orsche 40 
srsons drowned A : se) Aug. 1809 


ut 99,8931. recovered ; about 1,175,oool. remaining. 
aair and table at Lloyd’s were made of the rudder 
ivered in 1859. Martin’s History of Lloyd's. 


Foxhound, 18 guns, foundered on passage from 
Halifax ; crew “perished : 31 Aug. 
Sirius, 36 guns, and Magicienne, 36 guns, wrec ked 
when advancing to attack the French, off Isle of 
France 23 Aug. 
Satellite, sloop of war, 16 guns, ‘upset, aye all on 
board’ perished : 4 Dec. 
Minotaur, of 74 guns, wrecked on the Hank, Bank! 
360 persons perished . 22 Dec. an 
Pandora, sloop of war, off Jutland; 30 persons 
per ished . rane en: 
Saldanha, frigate, on the Irish coast; 300 persons 
perished E 4 Dec. _,, 
St. George, of 98, and Defence, of. 74 2 ouns, and the 
Hero, stranded on the coast of Jutland, adm. 
Reynolds and all the crews (about 2000 per sons) 
perished, except 18 seamen . . 24 Dec 
Manilla, frigate, on the Haak Sand; I2 persons 
perished ; 28 Jan. 
Atalante ; H.M. frigate off Nova Scotia * )10 Noy, 
British Queen, pac Ket, from Ostend to Margate, 
wrecked on the Goodwin Sands, and all on 1 board 
perished . 7 Dec. 
Duchess of Wellington, “at Caleutta, by fire a Jan. 
Seahorse, transport, near Tramore Bay; 365 persons, 
chietly soldiers of the sgth regiment, and most of 
the crew, drowned 30 Jan. ,, 
Lord Melville and Boadicea, transports, with up- 
wards of 200 of the 82nd regiment, with wives and 
children, lost near Kinsale ; almost all perished, 
1 Jan. 
Harpooner, transport, near Newfoundland ; re per- ‘ 
sons drowned . ; oP LOLNOV Gey, 
William and Mary, packet, struck on the Willeys 
rocks, near the Holmes lighthouse, eae Chan- 
nel; nearly 60 persons perished . : 3 Oct. 
Queen Charlotte, East Indiaman, at Madras; all on 
board perished ‘ ~ 24 Oct. 
Ariel, in the Persian Gulf; "99 souls perished: 
18 March, 
Blendon Hall, on Inaccessible Island, many perished, 
23 July, 
Earl of Moira, on the Burbo Bank, near Liverpool; 
40 drowned. 8 Aug. 
Juliana, Kast Indiaman, on the Kentish Knock; 40 


1809 


1810 


drowned 26 Dee. a3 
Thames, Indiaman, off Beachey Head; several 
drowned . : é Feb. 1822 
Drake, 10 guns, near Halifax ; several drowned, 
zoJune, ,, 
Ellesmere, steamer; rr persons lost 4; Dec = 
Alert, Dublin and Liverpool packet; 70. souls 
perished . : 26 March, 1823 
Robert, from Dublin to Liverpool; 60 souls per ished, 
16 May, 
Kent (which see); East Indiaman; burnt . March 1825 
Fanny, in Jersey Roads; lord Harley and many 
drowned - Jan. 1828 


Venus, packet, from Waterford to Dublin, near 
Gorey ; 9 persons drowned 19 March, Ap 

Newry, from Newry to Quebec, with 360 passengers ; 
cast away near Bardsy, about 40 persons were 


drowned. 16 April, 1830 
Lady Sherbrooke, from Londonderry to ‘Quebec; lost 
near Haas Ray; ; 273 souls Neones 32 ey were 
saved g Aug. 1831 
Experiment, from Hull to Quebec; wrecked near 
Calais . 15 April, 1832 
Hibernia, purnt in W. long. 22°, S. lat. 4°; 150 per- 
sons (out of 232) perished ; : 15 Feb. 1833 
Earl of Wemyss, near Wells, Norfolk : the cabin filled, 
and x1 ladies and children were drowned; all on 
deck escaped E 13 July, ;; 
Amphitrite, ship with female convicts to New South 
Wales; lost on Boulogne Sands; out of 131 per- 
sons, 3 only were saved . 30Aur, 4; 
United Kingdom, W. Indiaman, with rich he run 
down by the Queen of Scotland steamer off North- 
fleet, near Gravesend . 2 : 15, Oct: 4; 
Waterwitch, steamer, on the coast of Wexford; 4 
drowned . slo Dec: 
Lady Munro, from ‘Caleutta ‘to Sydney; of go 
persons on board, not more than 20 were saved, 
g Jan. 1834 


Cameleon, cutter, run down off Dover by the ase 
frigate; 13 persons drowned. A DITA UL aly. 
Earl of Eldon ; East Indiaman; burnt . 27 ’ Rept. iy 


WRECKS. 


29 persons perished, 
26 Jan. 
Forfarshire, steamer, from Hull to Dundee; 38 per- 
sons drowned. Owing to the courage of Grace 
Darling and her father, 15 persons were saved (see 
Forfurshire) . 6 Sept. 
Protector, E. Indiaman, at Bengal; of 178 et sons on 
board, 170 perished : ; 1 Nov. 
William Huskisson, steamer, between Dublin and 
Liverpool; 93 passengers saved by capt. Clegg, of 
the Huddersfield x Jan. 
Lord William Bentinck, off Bombay; 58 Crna: 
20 Officers, and 7 passengers perished; the Lord 
Castlereagh also wrecked, most of her crew and 
passengers lost . 17 June, 
H.M.S. Fairy, captain Hew itt; sailed from Harwich 
on a surveying cruise, and was lost next day ina 
violent gale, off the coast of Norfolk 13 Nov. 
City of Bristol, steam packet, 35 perished 
18 Nov. 
Thames, steamer, captain Gray, from Dublin to 
Liverpool, wrecked off St. Ives; the captain and 
55 persons perished é Jan. 
Governor Fenner, from Liverpool for America; run 
down off Holy head by the Nottingham steamer out 


Killarney, steamer, off Cork; 


of Dublin; 122 persons perished 19 Feb. 
Amelia, from London to Liverpool; lost on the 
Herne Sand . 26 Feb. 


President, steamer, from New York to Liverpool, 
with many passengers on board; sailed on 11 
March, encountered a terrific storm two days 
afterwards, and has never since been heard of, 

13 March, 

[In this vessel were, Mr. Tyrone Power, the come- 
dian ; a son of the duke of Richmond, &c.] 

William Browne, by striking on the ice ; 16 passen- 
gers who had been received into the long boat 
were thrown overboard by the crew to lighten her 


g April, 
Isabella, from London to Quebec ; eiracke by an 
iceberg 9 May, 


Solway, “steamer, on her passage between Belfast 
and Port Carlisle ; crew saved 25 Aug. 
Amanda, off Metis ; 29 kone ah and 12 OF the 


crew lost . 26 Sept. 
James Cooke, of Limerick, ‘coming from Sligo to 
Glasgow pot ‘Nov. 


Abercrombie Robinson and WW "aterloo transports, in 
Table Bay, Cape of Good Hope: of 330 persons 
on. board the latter vessel, 189, pious con- 
victs, perished . 28 Aug. 

Spitfire, war-steamer, off Jamaica. 10 Sept. 

Reliance, Kast Indiaman, from China to London, off 
Merlemont, near Boulogne : of 116 persons on 
board, seven only were saved 13 LAE 

Hamil ton, on the Gunfleet sands, near Har pire 
of the crew perished & a Ney: 

Conqueror, East Indiaman, homeward penne. near 
Boulogne ; crew and passengers lost . 13 Jan. 

Jessie Log gan, East Indiaman, on the Cornish coast; 


many lives lost 16 Jan. 
Solway, royal mail- steamer, near Corunna; 28 lives 
lost, and the mail April, 


Catherine, trader, blown up ‘off the Isle of Pines ; 
most of the crew were massacred by the natives, 
or afterwards drowned 12 Apr il, 

Amelia Thompson, near Madras, “part of crew te 

a 

Albert, troop-ship, from Halifax, with ie 64th 

regiment on board, which was miraculously rote 
13 July, 

Pegasus, steam-packet, from Leith ; off ine. Fern 
Islands; of 59 persons (including Mr. Elton, the 
actor), 7 only were saved . Be So: J uly, 

Phenix, in a terrific snow-storm, ‘off the boast of 
Newfoundland ; many lives were lost 26 Nov. 

Elberfeldt, iron steam- ship, from Brielle 22 Feb. 

Manchester, steamer, from Hull to Hamburg, off the 
Vogel Sands, near Cuxhayen about 30 lives lost, 

16 June, 

John Lloyd, by collision, in the Irish sea; several 
liveslost . 25 Sept. 

Margaret, Hull and Hamburg ‘steamer ; pena lives 
lost : 22 Oct. 

Tweed, steamer ; off Yucatan. 12 Feb. 

Great Britain, iron steam-ship, grounded in Dun- 
drum bay (see Great Britain) . . 22 Sept. 
[Recovered by Brunel, &c., 27 Aug. 1847.] 


926 


WRECKS. 


| Tweed, W. India mail-packet; 72 souls perished, 


1838 | 


>” 


+B) 


1840 


> 


>) 


» 


” 


1842 


>» 


1846 


»”? 


19 Feb. 

Exmouth, emigrant-ship, from Ledondesty to 
Quebec ; of 240 persons on board, nearly all were 
drowned . 28 April, 
Carrick, brig; a gale in the St. Lawrence; 170 


emigrants perished : 19 May, 
Avenger, H.M. steam-frigate ; off N. coast of 
Africa; officers and crew (nearly 200) lost 
20 Dec. 
Ocean Monarch (which see) . j 2 . 24 Aug. 
Forth, steamer ; off Campeachy 13 Jan. 


Caleb Grimshaw, emigrant-ship, fire ; 400 persons 
miraculously escaped . 12 Noy. 

Royal Adelaide, steamer, wrecked on the Tongue 
Sands, off Margate, above 400 lives lost, 


3o March, 

Orion, steam-ship, off Portpatrick (sas Orion), 
18 June, 

Rosalind, from Quebec; a number of the crew 
drowned 9 Sept. 


Edmund, emigrant- -ship, with nearly 200 passenueln 
from Limerick to New York (of whom more than 
one-half perished), wrecked off the Western coast 


of Ireland . x2 Now 
Amazon, W. India mail-steamer "(see Amazon), 
4 Jan, 


Birkenhead, troop-ship, iron paddle-wheulads and 
of 556 horse- -power, sailed from Queenstown, 7 
Jan. 1852, for the Cape, having on board detach- 
ments of the rath Lancers, and, 6th, 12th, 43rd, 
45th, and 6oth Rifles, 73rd, a4th, and gxst regi- 
ments. It struck upon a pointed pinnacle rock 
off Simon’s bay, South Africa, and of 638 persons 
only 184 were saved by the boats ; 454 of the crew 
and soldiers perished ‘ 26 Feb. 

Victoria, steam-packet, wrecked near Wings. ‘beacon 
off Gottenburg ; many lives lost 8, 9 Noy. 

Lily, stranded and blown up by gunpowder, on the 
Calf-of-Man; by which more than 30 ae 
lost their lives : ; Dec. 

St. George, steam-ship, bound from Live ce to 
New York, with 121 emigrant passengers) 
Trish), and a crew consisting of twenty-nine sea- 
men (the captain inclusive), was destroyed by fire 
at sea. The crew and seventy of the passengers 
were saved by the American ship Orlando, and 
conveyed to Havre, in France; 51 oa to 
have perished 5 Dec. 

Queen Victoria, steam- -ship, bound from Liverpoa 
was wrecked off the Bailey lighthouse, near Dub- 
lin ; mistook her course in a snow-storm: 67 lost 
out of 120 ; . ) 5 Wepe y 

Independence, on the coast of Lower ‘Califone and 
which afterwards took fire; 140 persons were 
drowned or burnt to death, a few escaping, who 
underwent the most dreadful additional sufferings 
on a barren shore Z 16 Feb. 

Duke of Sutherland, steamer, ‘from London to Aber- 
deen ; struck on the pier at Aberdeen, and the 

captain (Edward Howling) and 16 (of the crew 
and passengers) perished : . x Apmit 

Rebecca, on west coast of Van Diemen’s Land, capt. 
Shephard and many lives lost 29 "April, 

William and Mary, an American emigrant ship, 
near the Bahamas. She struck on a —e on 
about 170 persons perished . 

Awrora, of Hull; sailed from New York, 26 rer 
and foundered ; about 25 lives lost 20 May, — 

Bourneuf, Australian emigrant vessel; struck on a 
reef near Torres Straits ; the captain (Bibby) and 
six lives lost . . 3 Aug 

Annie Jane, of Livereey an emigrany veal 
driven on shore on the Barra Islands, on west 
coast of Scotland ; about 348 lives lost 29 Sept. 

Harwood, brig, by collision with the Trident 
steamer, near the Mouse light near the Nore; : 
foundered ; six of the crew perished . 5 OtE I 

Dalhousie, foundered off Beachey Head ; the 4 
tain (Butterworth), the passengers, and all 
erew (excepting one), about 60 persons in all, 
perished ; the cargo was valued.at above 100,000l. ; 


19 Oct. 

Marshall, screw-steamer, in the North Sea, rap 
into the barque Woodhouse; about 48 pe 

supposed to have perished. 8 Nov. 


ree emigrant ship, driven on ‘the roa off 


al 


WRECKS. 927 WRECKS. 


Lambay Island, north of Howth ; about 380 lives 
Host= 9". : F : : : - 2oJdan, 1854* 
avowrite, in the Channel, on her way from Bremen 
to Baltimore, came into violent contact with the 
American barque Hesper, off the Start, and imme- 
diately went down; zor persons were drowned 
29 April, ,, 
ady Nugent, troop-ship, sailed from Madras, 10 
May, 1854; foundered in a hurricane ; 350 rank 
and file of the Madras light infantry, officers, and 
crew, in all 4oo souls, perished e May, 
orerunner, African mail-steamer, struck on a 
sunken rock off St. Lorenzo, Madeira, and went 
down directly afterwards, with the total loss of 
ship and mails, and 14 lives. : 25 Oct. 
ile, iron screw-steamer, struck on the Godevry 
rock, St. Ives’ Bay, and all perished . 30 Nov. 
ty of Glasgow, a Glasgow steamer, with 480 persons 
on board, disappeared in : : ; ‘ 
the storm which raged in the Black Sea, 13-16 
Noy. 1854, eleven transports were wrecked and 
six disabled. The new steamship Prince was lost 
with 144 lives, and a cargo worth 500,000l. indis- 
pensable to the army in the Crimea. The loss 
of life in the other vessels is estimated at 340. 
orge Canning, Hamburg and New York packet, 
near the mouth of the Elbe: 96 lives lost, and 
Stately, English schooner, near Neuwiek, ina great 
storm . % , : : : : i Jan. 1855 
ercury, serew-steamer, by collision with a French 
ship: passengers saved. . ; é z1 Jan. 
net Boyd, bark, in a storm off Margate Sands ; 28 
lives lost : : e : Z . 20 Jan. 
ill o’ the Wisp, screw-steamer, on the Burn Rock, 
off Lambay ; 18 lives lost 2 = - 9 Feb. 
orna, steamer on rocks near the Isle of Man: 21 
lives lost A : 3 ; : - 25 Feb. 
hn, emigrant vessel, on the Muncles rocks off 
Falmouth ; 200 lives lost . - ‘ . 1 May, 
cific, Collins steamer, left Liverpool for New 
York, with 186 persons on board; never since 
heard of (supposed to have struck on an iceberg) 
23 Jan. 1856 
sephine Willis, packet-ship, lost by collision with 
the screw-steamer Mungerton, in the Channel; 
about 70 lives lost . F , ‘ neg Heb. 
hn Rutledge, from Liverpool to New York, ran on 
un iceberg and was wrecked; many lives lost 
20 Feb. _,, 
ny vessels and their crews totally lost 1-8 Jan. 1857+ 
olet, royal mail-steamer, lost on the Goodwin; 
many persons perished : ; Babee 93 
ne, royal-steamer, stranded on her way to South- 
ampton from the Brazils . . 5 13 Jan. 
Andrew, screw-steamer, totally wrecked near 
Latakia ; loss about 145,000l. ; . 29 Jan, 
arlemagne, iron clipper, wrecked by the coast of 
Canton : passengers saved ; loss, about 110,000l. 
20 March,- ,, 
M.S. Raleigh, 50 guns, wrecked on south-east 
coast of Macao a : ? * . 14 April, 
therine Adamson, Australian vessel, wrecked 
25 miles from Sydney, 20 lives lost 
about 3 June, ,, 
M.S. Transit, wrecked on a reef in the Straits of 
Banca .. 2 . fs : es TOs ULY et 
mbar, clipy er, wrecked on the rocks near Sydney: 
[21 persons, and cargo valued at 22,000l., lost ; 
me person only saved, who was on the rocks 30 
10UrS 7 ; E i : 20 Aug. 
rah Sands, an iron screw-steamer, sailed from 
Portsmouth to Calcutta, in Aug. 1857; 300 soldiers 
m board. On 11 Noy. the cargo (government 
stores) took fire. By the exertions of major Brett 
und captain Castle, the master of the vessel, who 
lirected the soldiers and the crew, the flames 
vere subdued, although a barrel of gunpowder 
xploded during the conflagration. A new danger 


9 


”» 


” 


” 


” 


»” 


' Arctic, U.S. mail steamer, by collision in a fog with 
: Vesta, French steamer, off Newfoundland; above 300 
28 lost, 27 Sept. 1854. 

tA large American vessel, Northern Belle, was 
scked near Broadstairs. The American government 
t 21 silver medals and 27ol. to be distributed among 
heroic boatmen of the place, who saved the crew, 
Jan. 1857. 


then arose—the prevalence of a strong gale; water 
was shipped heavily where the port quarter had 
been blown out. Nevertheless; after a fearful 
struggle, the vessel arrived at the Mauritius, 2x 


Noy., without losing a single life tr-21 Nov. 1857 
Windsor, emigrant-ship, struck on a reef near the 
Cape de Verde Islands ¢ TEE: 


Ava, Indian mail-steamer, with ladies and others 
from Lucknow on board, wrecked near Ceylon 
16 Feb. 1858 
Eastern City, burnt about the equator on her way to 
Melbourne ; by great exertions all on board were 
saved : - : : : 23) 24 AUCs eee 
Austria, steam-emigrant ship, burnt in the middle 
of the Atlantic. Of 538 persons on board, only 
67 were saved. The disaster due to carelessness 
ToSepuuers 
St. Paul, captain Pennard, from Hong Kong to 
Sydney, with 327 Chinese emigrants, wrecked on 
the island of Rossel, 30 Sept. 1858. The captain 
and eight of the crew left the island in search of 
assistance, and were picked up by the Prince of 
Denmark schooner. The French steamer Styx was 
dispatched to the island, and brought away one 
Chinese, 25 Jan. 1859. All the rest had been 
massacred and devoured by the natives : 
Czar, steamer, wrecked off the Lizard ; 14 lives lost 
23 Jan. 1859* 
Eastern Monarch, burnt at Spithead; out of 500, 
eight lives lost. The vessel contained invalid 
soldiers from India, who, with the crew, behaved 
admirably : : : : F - 2dJune, 
Alma, steamer, grounded on a reef near Aden, Red 
Sea, about 35 miles from Mocha: all persons 
saved ; after 31 days’ exposure to the sun, with- 
out water, they were rescued by H.M.S. Cyclops : 
sir John Bowring, who was on board, lost valua- 
ble papers : ‘ ‘ : : 12 June, ,, 
Admella, steamer, running between Melbourne and 
Adelaide, struck on a reef; of about 72 persons, 
only 23 were saved; many perished through ex- 
posure to cold : ‘ 3 A se KOVATISS ©, tee 
Royal Charter, screw-steamer, captain Taylor, totally 
wrecked off Moelfra, on the Anglesea coast : 446 
lives lost. The vessel contained gold amounting 
in value to between 700,000l. and 800,000l. ; much 
of this has been recovered night of 25-26 Oct. 
Indian, mail-steamer, wrecked off the coast of 
Newfoundland ; out of 116, 27 lives lost 2t Nov. 
Blervie Castle, sailed from London docks for 
Adelaide; lost in the Channel and all on board, 
57 persons ; last seen on - : ee 25 Wee: 
Northerner, steamer, wrecked on a rock near Cape 
Mendorino, between San Francisco and Oregon ; 
38 lives lost : ; ; : . - 6Jan. 1860 
Endymion, sailing-vessel, burnt in the Mersey ; loss 
abuve 20,oo0l. : 3 2 : e Ssridan: 
Dreadful gales; and many wrecks on the coast, t 
15-19 Feb. 
Ondine, steamer; lost through collision with the 
Heroine, of Bideford, abreast of Beachey Head; 
the captain and about 50 persons perished 19 Feb. 
Luna, American emigrant vessel, wrecked on rocks 
off Barfleur ; about roo lives lost 3 1g Feb. 
Hungarian, new mail-steamer, wrecked off coast of 
Nova Scotia ; allon board (205) lost on the night of 


” 


se 


19-20 Feb. ,, 
Nimrod, steamer, wrecked on rocks near St. David’s 
Head; 40 lives lost . : . 28 Feb. 


Malabar, iron ship, on her way to China, with lord 
Elgin and baron Gros: wrecked off Point de Galle, 
Ceylon. Theambassadors displayed much heroism; 
no lives lost. Of much specie sunk, a good deal 
was’recovered . é . : 22 May, 

Lady Elgin, an American steamer, sunk through 
collision with schooner Augusta on lake Michigan ; 


* Pomona, an American ship, captain Merrihew-; 419 
persons on board, from Liverpool to New York; was 
wrecked on Blackwater Bank, through the master 
mistaking the Blackwater for the Tuskar light, only 24 
persons saved, night of 27-28 April, 1859. 

+ American barque Lima, with emigrants, wrecked off 
Barfleur ; above roo lives lost, 17 Feb. 1860. On the 
same rock, on 25 Nov. 1120, was wrecked the Blanche 
Nef, containing the children of Henry I. and a large 
number of attendants ; in all 363 persons perished. 


Bbc 
| 


WRECKS. 


928 


WRECKS. ; 


of 385 persons on board, 287 were lost, including 
Mr. Herbert Ingram, M.P., founder of the “Tllus- 
trated London News,” and his son; morning of 
8 Sept. 

Arctic, Hull steamer, wrecked off Jutland; many 
persons saved by Mr. Earle, who lost his own life 
while endeavouring to save others. 5 Oct. 
Connaught, steamer, burnt; crew saved through 
the gallantry of the crew of an American brig, 

: 7 Oct. 

Juanita, wrecked through collision with an Ameri- 
can vessel, Joseph Fish, 13 lives lost. 15 March, 
Canadian, steamer, struck on a field of ice in the 
straits of Belle-isle, and foundered in halfan hour; 
35 liveslost . : : : : 4 June, 
H.M.S. Conqueror, stranded on Rum Cay, near 
Bahamas, and lost [the captain and master were 
censured for neglect of duty] ; 29 Dec. 
Harmony, lost with all hands off Plymouth 27 Feb. 
Ocean Monarch, 2195 tons, sailed from New York, 
s March, laden with provisions; foundered in a 


gale oy : ; : : : .- . 9 March; 
Upwards of 60 merchantmen lost during gales in 
March, 


Mars, Waterford steamer, struck on a rock near 
Milford haven; about 50 lives lost. April, 
Bencoolen, East Indiaman, 1400 tons; struck on 
sands near Bude haven, Cornwall; about 26 lives 
lost . : : ; ; : .. 19.0¢t. 
Lotus, merchantman, off Chale Bay, in the great 
storm; crew all lost except two 19 Oct. 
Many vessels lost during storm . 1g Oct. 
Colombo, East India mail steamer, in thick weather, 
wrecked on Minicoy Island; 440 miles from Point 
de Galle, Ceylon; no lives lost (the crew and pas- 
sengers taken off by the Ottawa from Bombay, 
30 Nov.) . : , : : : 19 Nov. 
Lifeguard, steamer, left Newcastle, with about 41 
passengers; never since heard of; supposed to 
have foundered off Flamborough head 20 Dec. 
Orpheus, H.M.S. steamer, new vessel, 1700 tons ; 
commander Burnett; wrecked on Manakau bar, 
W. coast New Zealand; 70 persons saved; about 
rgo perished : : : : 7 Feb. 
Anglo-Saxon, mail steamer, captain Burgess, in 
dense fog, wrecked on reef off Cape Rave, New- 
foundland; about 237, out of 446, lives lost, 
27 April, 
All Serene, Australian ship; gale in the Pacific ; 
above 30 lives lost (the survivors suffered much 
till they reached the Fijiisles ina punt) er Feb. 
Many shipwrecks in consequence of the cyclone at 
Calcutta. ; : ; 3 ; SS OGL. 
H.M.S. Racehorse, off Chefoo Cape, Chinese coast; 
99 liveslost . ; 3 A : co 4aNOVe 
The Stanley, Friendship, &c., in the gale off Tyne- 
mouth; and the Dalhousie, screw steamer, mouth 
of the Tay; same gale ; 34 lives lost 24 Nov. 
H.M.S. Bombay, burnt off Flores Island, near Mon- 
tendes; g1 lives lost . ; ; : 14 Dec. 
Lelia, cutter, off Great Orme’s Head, during a gale; 
several lives lost; 7 persons drowned by upsetting 
of the life-boat : : : : 5 a4 tall: 
Eagle Speed, emigrant vessel, foundered near Cal- 
cutta; 265 coolies drowned; great cruelty and 
neglect imputed . : : 24 Aug, 
Duncan Dunbar, wrecked ona reef at Las Rocas, 
8. America; no lives lost : : 7 OCt. 
Samphire, mail-steamer ; collision with an American 
barque; several lives lost 2 : Sarg,Dec: 
Ibis, steamer, machinery damaged, off Ballycroneen 
bay ; 15 lives lost; sailed from Cork . . 18 Dec. 
London, steamer, on her way to Melbourne; foun- 
dered in Bay of Biscay; about 220 persons 
perished (including captain Martin, Dr. Woolley, 
principal of the university of Sydney, G. V. 
' Brooke, the tragedian); about the same time the 
Amalia steamer went down with a cargo worth 
200,000. ; no lives lost : 4 . 1x Jan. 
Many wrecks and much loss of life during gales, 
especially off Torbay . 6-11 Jan. 


Spirit of the Ocean, steamer; wrecked on a rock 
near Dartmouth; all lost except 4 23 March, 
General Grant, on voyage from Melbourne to London, 
wrecked off Auckland isles; only 13 out of about 
roo saved. : : , eh oe May, 
Amazon, H.M. screw sloop, and screw steamer 


1860 


1864 


” 


Osprey, sunk by collision near Plymouth ; several 
passengers and sailors drowned to July, 1§ 
Bruiser, steamer, sunk by collision with the Has- 
well, off Aldborough ; about rs lives lost 19 Aug. 
Bhima, Indian steamer ; foundered through collision 
with Nana, steamer, between Bombay and Suez; 
tg lives lost . : : : : . rz Sept.ig 
H.M.S8. Berenice, burnt in Persian Gulf; none 
perished. 2 ; ; : 2 13 Octam, 
Ceres, near Carnsoe, Ireland; about 36 lives lost 
[captain Pascoe censured for neglecting to sound] 
ro Nov. , 
Many wrecks in the Channel 4 - 5,6Jan. x 
James Crosfield, iron ship ; wrecked off Langness, Isle 
of Man; all on board lost . : - . 5 Janae. 
Singapore, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, struck 
on a sunken rock, and went down; no lives lost, 
zo Aug. , 
Rhone and Wye, Royal Mail steamers, totally lost, 
and about 50 other vessels driven ashore; great . 
loss of life by a hurricane, off St. Thomas (see 
Virgin Islands) ; : : . 29 Oct, 
Hibernia, screw steamer; the shaft of screw pro- 
peller broke, 600 miles off coast of Ireland ; many 
lives lost . . Z . 24 or 25 Oct. or Nov. 1€ 
Many wrecks on the Cornish coast during a gale, 
19-20 March, 1 
Italian, merchant steamer, struck on a rock near 
Finisterre; about 26 lives lost about 21 March, 
Carnatic, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, wrecked 
off Shadwan in the gulf of Suez ; about 25 lives lost, 
13 Sept. 
Oneida, American vessel, run down by collininal with 
P. & O. steamer Bombay off Yokohama; about 115 
lives lost (captain of Bombay suspended for 6 
months) : : ; : ; . 24 Jan, 1x 
City of Boston, sailed from New York, long miss- 
ing; a board stating that she was sinking 
found in Cornwall F ; rz Febag | 
Normandy, 8. W. company’s steamer, by collision 
with the steamer Mary, off the Isle of Wight, sunk; 
the captain, C. B. Harvey, and 33 others perish, 
17 March, 
H.M.S. Slaney, wrecked by a typhoon near Hong 
Kong; about 42 lives lost . : . 9 May, 
H.M.S. Captain, iron-clad, sank in a squall off 
Finisterre (see Navy of England) . 7 Sept. 
Cambria, iron screw-steamer, lost in a storm off 
Inishtrahul island, N.W. Ireland; about 170 lives 
lost: é ‘ F : ; : 1g Oct. 
Queen of the Thames, magnificent vessel, sailed from 
London to Sydney by the Cape in 58 days; re- 
turning, was lost by striking on'sands off Cape 
Agultras, Africa; 4 lives and valuable cargo lost; 
the captain was censured . 18 March, 1 


Cornwall, wrecked by collision with the Himalaya 
steamer off Hartlepool . : - ‘1g March, 


Megera, government iron screw-steamer, sailed 
with about 400 on board for Australia, Feb. 1871; 
sprang a leak, 8 June; when it was discovered 
that her bottom was nearly worn away by corro- 
sion; she was beached on St. Paul’s Isle, in the 
Indian ocean, 16 June; huts were erected, and the 
crew settled, and stores landed; lieut. Jones was 
taken on board a Dutch vessel, 16 July; the 
Oberon brought provisions, 26 Aug.; the crew was 
carried off during a storm, the stores being left 
behind, by the Malacca 3 Sept. 

[The vessel was reported unfit for service in 
1867; capt. Thrupp was tried and acquitted 
of blame, 17 Nov.; sir Spencer Robinson and 
various admiralty officials were censured by a 
government commission, 6 March, 1872.] 


Rangoon, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, valued 
at 78,oool., wrecked on Kadir rock, off Point de 
Galle; cargo lost; no lives a é . 1 Nave | 

Norfolk Hero, fishing lugger, lost off Norfolk coast, 


2 Dee. - oe 
Delaware, large steamer; wrecked off Scilly rocks; 
only 2 out of 47 saved . F . 20Dec | 


Severe gales; many wrecks, and lives lost. 


Kinsale, steamer, off Waterford; Albion, schooner, 
off Looe; Dee, schooner, &c. 22-23 Nov. 


Royal Adelaide, emigrant vessel; went ashore on 
Chesil beach, between Weymouth and Portland; 
6 LOSUmunae ; ; F - F . 25 Nov. ; 


ry 


~ >=: 25 LALLA ee SaaS Ce ; 


WRECKS. 929 WRECKS. 


mania, mail packet; wrecked off La Rochelle; 
bout 24 perished A ° : 21 Dec. 1872 
rtifleet, vessel laden with railway iron for Van 
Jiemen’s Land, andrailway navigators, run into by 
, foreign steamer (probably the Murillo,* a 
panish vessel) off Dungeness, about 10.30 p.m.; 
bout 300 lost. : ; : ¢ . 22dan. 1873 
wabuco, iron ship; sunk in the Channel, 15 miles 
rom Orme’s head, by collision with the Torch 
teamer ; 24 lost ; ¢ = P Towarch, 2; 
jne, barque; wrecked off Mohilo bay, Cornwall; 
bout 20 lost . 2 3 : , mer Marcha, 
antic, steamer, of White Star company, struck 
m Meagher rock, west of Sambro; said to have 
allen short of coals steaming for Halifax; 442 
including capt. Williams) saved ; about 560 lost, 
April, 1873; many on the rigging perished 
hrough cold and want. The case was investi- 
ated, and the captain was suspended for two 
ears . “ ‘ : : : TOCA pel, wy 
on, Ship, with rso tons of gunpowder, sailing for 
‘alparaiso ; set on fire by her mad captain, and 
lew up: (the crew in a boat were rescued by the 
wanita) 2 - “ ; | 7, 8 Nov. #e, 
ypore, from Calcutta, took fire and ran into Kings- 
own harbour, doing much damage till it went to 
ieces ; the captain of the Echo and some sailors 
rere drowned. : * = r oe 19) NOY. 
hearn lost, through collision with the Ville de 
lavre (which see), 22 Nov. ; quitted by her crew 
26 NOV. ;, 
t, London and Hamburg steamer ; crew, 32; left 
hames 14 Dec., supposed to have foundered in a 
ule. 3 = 2 : . . TOMUICG™ 
en Elizabeth, Glasgow steamer from India ; went 
shore near Tarifa ; about 20 perished ; middle of 
March, 1874 
ma, steamer, from Valparaiso ; foundered ; about 
) lost (see Chili) . F ‘ : Marche try 
rid, British and African Steam-ship Co. ; 
recked by collision with Barton steamer, off 
eilly isles ; probably all Lost on board both vessels 
about 13 April, ,, 
fish Admiral, emigrant ship ; wrecked on King’s 
land, Bass’s strait ; about 80 out of 89 lost 
23May, ,, 
banke, iron steamer; laden with zine from Car- 
1agena ; sunk through collision with Hankow 
seamer off Dungeness ; 14 perish; 1.30 a.m. 
20: July; ,; 
sutta, ship, from Shields to Aden; took fire ; 
early all lost : t . about 11 Sept. ,, 
vern, barque, from Sunderland ; foundered off 
ingapore ; all hands lost . : 59 Weel) eee 
gsbridge, iron ship, sunk off the Lizards, by col- 
sion with the Candahar, iron ship ; the master, 
is wife and daughter, and 8 of the crew perish 
TaOCtra 5, 
uw, iron ship, of London; new clipper; wrecked 
ff the Hebrides in a gale; crew, about 24, lost 


20 Oct. ,, 
san, from Glasgow for Shanghai ; sunk in a gale 
ff Ardrossan ; about 7 lost . . een Ges se 


ter of H.M.8. Aurora swamped in the Clyde; 
slost . : : “e $ 2 BeeTONNO Vets 
Plata, steamer (capt. Dudden), 1600 tons ; sailed 
om Gravesend with telegraph cable for Brazil, 
5 Nov.; foundered in a gale in the Bay of Biscay ; 
7 escape out of 85 5 4 ; Ee ZOUNOV aly s 
patrick, emigrant vessel (capt. Emslie), on her 
ay to Auckland, New Zealand ; took fire, mid- 
ight, 17-18 Nov. ; only 5 or 6 (out of 476) escaped ; 
icked up, 27 Nov.; arrived at St. topes 

6 Dee. - ,, 
an, Pacific Mail steamer, from Yokohama ; took 
re off Hong Kong ; many lost about 17 Dec. ,, 
ine, steamer ; struck on sunken rock, west coast 
f Africa; nearly alllost  . - E : : 
pio, steamer, from Cardiff to Charente; not 
eard of, 30 Dec. ‘ A : : ALEC ime. 
tes, Of London, foundered in Bay of Biscay ; 
den with coal for Aden; capt. E. King; about 
slost . 5 . . ‘ ATS {63.1 BY Xe 


This vessel was captured near Dover, 22 Sept. and 
demned by the court of admiralty to be sold; (the 
ers severely censured) ; 4 Nov. 1873. 


Hong Kong, steamer ; wrecked on sunken rock near 
Aden; about 12 lost . é F : 22 Feb. 1875* 
Stuart Hahnemann, sailed from Bombay, 4 April; 
capsized ; about 40 drowned; (some rescued by 
Blandina, Austrian barque, 27 April) . 14 April, 
Cadiz, London steamer ; wrecked on Wizard Rock, 
Brest ; about 62 lost . ‘ 3 : . 8 May, 
Vicksburg, steamer, left Quebec, 27 May; struck on 
ice, 30 May; sank, 1 June; between 40 and 50 
lost. E : : < : A =) ) Delile 5s 
Strathmore, emigrant vessel, wrecked in a fog near 
the Crozet isles, South Indian ocean, on way to 
New Zealand ; 45 out of 89 lost . wer uly: 
Boyne, mail steamer, from Brazil; ran on a rock 
during a fog, 15 miles off Ushant ; 2 lives lost 
13, AUS, 5 
Mistletoe, Mr. Heywood’s pleasure yacht ; sunk by 
collision with H.M.’s steamer, Alberta (the queen 
on board); in the Solent; near Isle of Wight; 
Miss Annie Peel and two others drowned 
TSLAUP ass 
(Coroner’s inquest on Nathaniel Turner ; ver- 
dict, accidental death, with a note alleging 
error of navigating officers, 10 Sept; another 
inquest, closed without verdict, 7 Dec. 1875 ; 
captain Welch, of the Alberta, was repri- 
manded ; 30001. paid to Mr. Heywood, and 
others compensated ; announced, April, 
1876. ] 
See under Navy of England. 


H.M.S. Vanguard, double-screw iron-clad, 3774 
tons; cost about 350,000. (captain Dawkins) 
struck by ram of the Jron Duke during a fog off 
the coast of Wicklow; crew (about 400) saved ; 
50m. pastnoon , : : : OUT septa, , 

Pacific, steamer, from Victoria, British Columbia, to 
California ; foundered off Cape Flattery ; above 
150 lost : , A : 2 about 4 Nov. ,, 

Goliath, old man-of-war, fitted up as a training-ship 
for poor boys; burnt through a lamp falling on 
the dirty floor of the lamp-room ; about a dozen 
lives lost out of about 500; the boys were highly 
commended for their courage and discipline under 
the command of captain Bourehier . 22 Dee. 

_ Many wrecks autumn and winter, 1875. ¢ 

Warspite, old training-ship of the Marine Society’s 
boys, on the Thames between Woolwich and 
Charlton, burnt; no loss of life ; good discipline 
shown ; : : : : ; - 3Jan. 1876 

Strathclyde, Glasgow steamer, sunk by collision with 
Hamburg ship Franconia, in Dover bay, in day- 
light; about 17 lost; (verdict of manslaughter 
against Kuhn, captain of Franconiat) . 17 Feb. 

Edith, steamer, sunk by collision with the Duchess 
of Sutherland (both owned by the London and 
North Western Railway Company) off St. John’s 
Point, Ireland ; 2 lives lost. A >. , 8Sept. 

Shannon, mail steamer ; struck on a $hoal, 80 miles 
8.S.W. of Port Royal, Jamaica; no lives lost, 

8 Sept. ,, 

Western Enupire, in Gulf of Mexico ; a leak sprung, 
13 Sept. ; vessel left (zo lost) . - 18 Sept. 

Great Queensland, with impure patent gunpowder, 
and ordinary gunpowder ; 569 persons on board ; 
sailed for Melbourne, 5 Aug. ; supposed to have 
exploded (pieces of wreck found), near Finisterre 

after 12 Aug. ,, 
[Verdict of wreck commission against owners, 
21 July, 1877.] 

St. Lawrence, troop-ship, capt. Hyde ; ran aground 
in St. Helena’s bay, Africa ; no loss of life 8 Nov. ,, 

Ambassador, steamer; sunk by collision with an 
American ship, George Manson, returning from 


>? 


* Schiller, Hamburg mail steamer; wrecked in a fog ; 
on rocks off the Scilly isles ; about 331 drowned, 7 May, 


1875. 

Sorensen rata fine Atlantic steamer, from Bremen to 
New York, during a gale, went on sandbank, the Kentish 
Knock, at mouth of the Thames ; about 70 lost (many 
emigrants), 6 Dec. 1875. The Liverpool, tug steamer, 
saved a great many lives ; on investigation, it was shown 
that there had been no delay in helping, and no robbery, 
3r Dec. The captain censured for error in navigation, 
and want of judgment. 

{ Verdict quashed on appeal; 7 judges (against 6), 

| decide against British jurisdiction, 13 Nov. 1876. 
3 0 


WRECKS. 


930 


WRECKS. 


Calcutta; lat. 58° 6 N., lon. 73° 27’ E.; 23 lost 
(crew, 43) - 25 Dec. 
Cairo, iron ship ; bound for Australia ; carried 
much gunpowder ; (said to have been wrecked 
off Tristan or Gough island) ; disappeared about 
middle of Jan. 
Cashmere, steamer (British India Steam Nav igation 
company); wrecked off Guardafui ; 7 drowned 
12 July, 
Eten, steam ship (English Pacific Steam Navigation 
company) ; ; wrecked about 70 miles N. of Valpa- 
raiso ; about 100 (of 160) lost; many rescued by 
H.M.S. Amethyst : - 15 July, 
Avalanche, emigrant iron vessel ; from London to 
New Zealand ; above 100 on board ; struck by 
Forest (of Windsor, Nova Scotia), 21 "crew ; both 
sank ; about 12 lives saved ; in channel, 15 miles 
S. by W. of Portland, 9.15 p. m. rr Sept. 
Many losses by severe gale x 14, 15 Oct. 
Knapton Hall, steamer ; sank through collision with 
Lochfyne, to whose assistance she was ome 39 
perish Oct. 
Atacama, steamer ; wrecked : 22 miles S. of Calder 
near Copiapo ; about 104 lost end of Nov. 
Mizpah, steamer ; sunk by collision with unknown 
vessel, 15 miles 8.W. of Beachy Head ; above 6 
~ lost ; early , . 6 Dec. 
European, Clyde steamer, from “Algoa Bay ; wrecked 
off Ushant ; diamonds, &c., lost ; no lives 5 Dec. 
C. M. Palmer, steamer, of Newcastle; lost by colli- 
sion with Ludworth steamer, near Harwich ; about 
14 lives lost ; fog, 10 a.m.. 2 7 Feb. 
Eurydice, H. M. 8., frigate ; training ship ; potariine 
from Bermudas ; ; founders off Dunnose headland, 
near Ventnor, Isle of Wight ; through a squall ; 
capt. A. S. Hare, lieut. Tabor, and about 300 men 
perish 24 March, 
Raised with much skill and labour, and taken into 
Portsmouth . Aug. 
Childwall Hall, Hull ‘steamer ; “wrecked near Cape 
St. Vincent, Portugal ; ; about 14 lost 11 April,* 
Princess Alice (which see), run into by the screw 
steamer, Bywell Castle, in the Thames, near Wool- 
wich, and sunk; between 600 and 700 lost; 
about 7.40 p.m. .) SAO Se De. 
Fanny, coastguard cruiser ; run down by N tional 
steamer Helvetia, off Tuskar, Irish channel ; 
lost : 31 dct. 
Much damage and loss of life by gales 8-10 Nov.t 
Mesopotamia, steamer, run ashore at Peniche, coast 
of Portugal ; 8 perished : 18 Dec.f 
Ava, British India Navigation Steam Company 
steamer, sank by collision with sailing ship Brun- 
hilda, in the Bay of Bengal; capt. Dickenson 
and about 70 perish : 24 April,§ 
City of London, Aberdeen steamer ; run down and 
sunk by the Vesta, in the Thames, near Barking 
Reach ; no lives lost . I Aug. 
Borussia, a Dominion steamer, left. Liv erpool 20 
Nov. ; sprung a leak in the Atlantic after leavi ing 
Corunna, 1 Dee. ; went down ; about 160 lost ; 
ro out of 184 saved by boats . 4 2 Dee? 
Valentine foundered in a gale near Falmouth ; 
about 16 lost 8 Feb. 
Many wrecks in the North Atlantic duri ing terrifie 
gale (see Atalanta) . 12-16 Feb. 
Struthnairn, of Dundee : collision with LHdith 
Hough, steamer, off Ushant ; all lost 13 Feb. 
Hindoo, steamer, from New York; loaded with 
grain, which shifted ; abandoned ; three officers 
lost and much cattle - 22 Feb. 
Vingorla, steamer ; sprung a leak 70 miles N. of 
Bombay ; captain and & eee perish : an- 
nounced : x1 March, 


1876 


1877 


1878 


> 


” 


* The German ironclad, Grosser Kurfiirst, sunk by 
collision with Konig Wilhelm ; about 300 lost, 31 May, 


1878. 


+ Pomerania, Hamburg-American mail steamer, sunk 
off Folkestone, by Moel Kilian, iron bark, of Carnarvon ; 


162 saved by boats ; 
midnight, 25 Nov., 1878. 


about 48 missing; a little after 


t French steamer, Byzantin, sunk (losing above 200 


lives) by collision with English steamer, Rinaldo, in 
danelles, during a fearful gale, 18 Dee. 1878. 


Dar- 


§ Arrogante, French ironclad battery, sank off Hiréres 


isles ; 47 drowned ; 19 March, 1879. 


Barita, British steamer, sunk in a fog by collision 
with an Australian mail steamer near Galatz; 16 
perish . : 9 April, 

American, steamer (Union Steamship Company), 
capt. Maclean Wait, foundered off Cape Palmas ; 
all passengers and crew escaped (except about 6) 
in boats: (picked up by vessels, and carried to 
Madeira, the Canaries, &c.) . 23 April, 

Hydaspes, sailing ship ; sank by collision ih Cen- 
turion, screw steamer, off Dungeness, in a fog; 
both blamed 3 no lives lost . -* 17 July,* 

Jumes Harris, steamer, loaded with iron ; sunk by 
collision with the Andalusia, steamer, off the 
Ferne isles - _ 14 April,t 

H.M.S. Doterel destroyed “by uns in the 
Straits of Magellan (see Navy) 26 April, 

Victoria, steamer, on the Thames, Canada ; over- 
loaded ; upset; several hundreds drowned ; be- 
tween 600 and 7ooon board . 24 May, 

Ten fishing eat sunk off the Shetland foles in a 
storm ; about 58 lives lost . 4 - 20 duly, 

Teuton, Union Company’s mail screw steamer, struck 
ona rock near Cape Agulhas, Cape of Good Hope ; 
and foundered a few hours after; of above 200 


persons, not many saved; capt. E. Manning 
and most of the officers lost 30 Aug. 
[Inquiry: attributed to the oe. jn 


navigation . : x Sept.] 
Govino, British steamer ; about 13 nevished 7 Oct. 
130 wrecks (105 British) with great loss of life and 
property by the gales to-15 Oct. 


Corsica, steamer; stranded near mouth of the . 


Tagus ; 21 deaths . i 

[The captain exonerated, 8 Nov. J 
Cyprian, iron steamer, lost in Carnarvon bay; capt. 
Strachan and another drowned 14 Oct. 

, Glasgow steamer, wrecked in the Irish sea ; 
many lost: . about 20-22 Oct. 
Clan Macduff, steamer, capt. Webster ; foundered 
off the Irish coast (over-loaded) 32 lives lost 
{[eaptain censnred] - 21 Oct: 
Albion, steamer, wrecked on the Atlantic coast of 


1z Oct. 


Columbia; 32 lost . 5 Noy. 
Crown, British steamer, stranded near Sutlands 
7 drowned - 15 Nov. 


Solway, channel steamer, capt. W. Fry; during a 
storm off the Skerries; greatly burned through 
ignition of naphtha * oil flooding the decks 
thr ough bursting of casks, about 14 burned, and 
5 drowned, who escaped in a boat (the steamer 
got back to Kingston harbour); officers exonerated 
of blame 16 Nov. 

Culzean, iron steamer ; ‘capt. Pirnie, while being 
towed to be repaired during a gale, stranded on 
rocks in the sound of Java; crew of 17 lost 

22 Nov. 

Many wrecks with loss of life and property during 
agale . 26-27 Nov. 

Kildare, barque, stranded off Aberdeen ooait in 

gale . Dee. 

Helenslea, barque, collision with Catalonia, Cunard 
steamer ; 9 of the crew lost ‘ : Dee. 

Lanarkshire, screw steamer, stranded off Codling 
Bank, Wicklow ; some of the crew lost 1 5 Jan. 

Bahama, steamer, foundered between Porto Rico 
and New York; 20 lives lost ~ 4 Bebe 

Kosmos, steamer, ‘sank off Kilia ; captain a 20 of 
crew drowned. . Febz 

Livadia, steamer, from Shields, sunk off Yarmouth ; : 
23 lives lost . 28 Feb. 

Douro, royal mail steamer ; collision with Spanish 
steamer, Yurrac Bal, both sunk ; about 23 Eng- 
lish and 36 Spanish ‘lost, about rz p.m. (captain 
of Deuro blamed) x April, 


Novara, ship; on voyage from Newcastle to San 


Francisco, burned ; 19 missing . 13 April, 


Alexandroonoe, Liverpool ship, wrecked off Swan- 
age; crew all lost early in May, 
Pera, iron steamer ; foundered 30 miles 8.W. Cape 
Race ; about ro men lost . : - roJune, 


9 


” 


* Veru Cruz, U.S. steamer ; foundered through hun 
cane in N. Atlantic, 30 miles from shore ; ; 11 out of ‘ 


saved ; 4 Sept. 1880. 


+ Oncle Joseph, French steamer, sunk by collision vi 
Ortigia, Italian steamer, off Spezzia ; about so out of 3 


saved ; 24 Nov. 1880. 


r 


4-5 Se spe Ea nn RR a 


WRECKS. 


931 


WRITING. 


cambia, British screw steamer, wrecked at Es- 
cambia, near San Francisco; crew (about 20) 
lost, announced : < < 20 June, 1882 
‘ice, steam-tug, wrecked on Bondecao rocks, Nor- 
thumberland ; 16 lives lost 2gJune, ,, 
ewres Castle, steamer, run aground, near Cape 
Guardafui, N.E. Africa; several perished, 9 July, 
hiopia, African mail steamer, run on a reef 28 July, 
‘menian, Liverpool steamer, lost in the Baltic ; 
crew abont 23 perish, announced . oe AU. 
noma, Glasgow iron ship, foundered off Yar- 
nouth ; about 20 perish, announced g Sept.* ;, 
nstantia and City of Antwerp, steamers, sunk by 
sollision off the Eddystone ; about 14 OMe Sat 
e ToOck. - 5; 
mton, lost off Ushant; 24 perish. TOINOVelgs 
‘armouth, steamer, lost off Magdalen Island 
ar NOV.*;, 

mbronne, steamer, sunk by collision with Marion, 
rear Lundy “ - : F 26 Nov. ,, 
George, steamer; lost off Portreath, Cornish 
soast; rr perish . : : ‘ . 29 Nov. 
lar Grove, steamer, lost off Cape Canto, Nova 
scotia ; 17 persons missing about 30 Nov. ,, 
ny wrecks, with loss of life . : ‘ Dec. ,, 
agrigg Hall, barque, wrecked off Wexford ; 
4qdeaths . E 4 b “ x 15. Dec. ,; 
wrecks during a storm off Newfoundland 

about 19 Dec. ,, 
tish Empire, ship, burnt off Alleppy; several 
ersons perish . F : é ee ae uenos 
y of Brussels, sunk by collision with the Kirby 
fall, in the Mersey ; 10 drowned ~ 7 dan.t) ,, 
umure Castle, steamer, wrecked in Bay of Biscay ; 
o drowned . - : 3 about x Feb. ,, 
ig Arthur, Hull steamer, sunk near the mouth 
fthe Bosphorus; 14 lost . A aee2 Neb: -,, 
ecks through gales in North sea, 382 lives lost, 

6 March, ,, 
varre, Scotch steamer; sunk near Christiansand ; 
bout 45 lost . 2 ; ; : 7 March, ,, 
nstaffnage, Liverpool ship, wrecked off Aber- 
een; 23 perished . - : Z r7 March, . -,; 
keham, steamer, of Whitby, foundered near 
jisbon ; 22 drowned ; sailed from Cardiff_March, ,, 
tisk Commerce, sunk by collision with Cownty of 
berdeen, otf Selsey Bill ; 25 perish 24 April, ,, 
ppler burnt near Bute Inlet (Vancouver Island) 
bout 70 perish . ie VR about 3 May, ,, 
4.8. Lively stranded on rocks off Stornoway 

AdtNese 7,5 

[Commander Parr dismissed, 28 June.] 

itara, sunk by collision with Hurwnui (New 
ealand Steamship Co.,) off Beachy Head; 25 
erish S : - : F 22 Sunes, ~;, 
ihne, coasting steamer, heeled over, during 
umech in the Clyde ; about 124 drowned 3 July, ,, 
wrecks on British coasts reported through 
Olent gale . : : A : . «r-2Sept. -,, 
yhead, L. & N. W. railway’s cattle steamer and 
erman barque, Alhambra, sailing vessel, sunk 
y collision between Dublin and Holyhead; 
; deaths ; midnight 3 : at OCtL.3 
, sunk off Cape Villano; about 35 perish; an- 
yunced 7 ’ 3 ‘ , : NOVs 055 
‘, Liverpool steamer, at South Henden ; 22 lives 
ist . . 5 3 : 2 : ripe g oe Ble 
la, wrecked by collision with the City of Luck- 
yw, both Glasgow Australian sailers, near the 
eedles, English channel ; about 20 perish ; 3 p.m. 

25 Jan. 1884t 
ymany wrecks . - . ; 23-27 Jan. ,, 
90, iron ship, stranded in the Mersey by a gale; 

\e crew (30) perish . - “ her20,.27 Jan. 44 
omis, barque, struck on Black Rock, Amtrim ; 
| perish Sd aor : : A ; ZO Allen ys 
2 of Florida, Glasgow steamer, and Ponema, 


Asia, N.W. transit service steamer, foundered be- 
2n Ontario and Saule Sainte Marie; about 98 lost, 
ept. 1882. 

Cimbria, Hamburg steamer, sunk by collision with 
lish steainer, Sultan, off coast of Holland, about 
perish, rg Jan. 1883. 

City of Columbus, U.S. passenger ship; ran on reef, 
t of Massachusetts ; 29 lives saved; about 97 perish: 
sed negligence; 18 Jan. 1884. 


barque, sunk by collision in mid-ocean off Canada 
coast ; about 123 perish . ~ : 18 April,* 

Laxham (capt.Lothian), English steamer, and Gijon, 
Cuban steamer, sunk by collision in a fog off 
Cape Finisterre; about 130 perish; many picked 
up by Santo Domingo . E night, 2x July, ,, 

Dione, steamer, sunk by collision with Camden, 
steamer, near Gravesend; about 17 drowned; 
soon after midnight . : é he er AUL oie ss 
[capt. of the Dione punished for reckless navi- 
gation, Aug]. 

Wasp, H.M. gun-boat (see under Navy). 

Little Beck, stranded near the mouth of the Maas ; 
14 drowned . ‘ rs : - A 26 Oct. 5s 

Mignonette, yacht; sailed from Southampton to 
Australia, 19 May; foundered in a storm about 
1600 miles from the Cape; 3 men and a boy 
escaped in a boat, without provisions, 5 July; 
proposed killing of one by lot rejected by 
Brooks, boy (Richard Parker) killed by captain, 
and eaten, 2oth day, et seqg.; men picked up by 
German barque, Montezwma, 24th day, and 
carried to Falmouth; capt. Thos. Dudley, and 
Edwin Stephens, mate, tried for murder at 
Exeter ; facts affirmed, 6 Nov. ; affirmed by lord 
chief justice and other judges in Queen’s bench, 
4 Dec.; sentence of death passed, 9 Dec. ; 
reprieved, 6 months’ imprisonment without 
labour . F 2 A - ; 13 Dec. 7,, 

Durango, screw steamer, run down by Luke Bruce, 
iron barque, in the English channel; 20 lives lost 


1884 


27 Nov. ,, 
Pochard, steamer, foundered off Holyhead; crew 
lost . 5 : FDOCE yy 


Admiral Moorsom, L. and N. W. R’s steamer, sunk 
near Holyhead by collision with Santa Clara - 
(American); capt. Weeks, and about 4 perish 

15 Jan. 1885 

WRECK COMMISSION, a new court esta- 

blished to inquire into the causes of shipwrecks ; 

pits sat, 30 Oct. 1876, Mr. H. C. Rothery, presi- 
ent. 


WREXHAM, S. E. Denbighshire, the Saxon 
Wrightesham, given to earl Warren by Edward I. ; 
made a borough by the reform act, 1832. An ex- 
hibition of art treasures of North Wales, and the 
border counties, was opened here by the’ duke of 
Westminster, 22 July, 1876. Musical festival here 
1883, et seq. 


WRITING. Pictures are considered to be the 
first essay towards writing. The most ancient re- 
mains of writing are upon hard substances, such as 
stones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts, 
and matters of public notoriety. Athotes, or 
Hermes, is said to have written a history of the 
Egyptians, and to have been the author of the 
hieroglyphics, 2112 B.c. Usher. Writing is said to 
have been taught to the Latins by Europa, daughter 
of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 1494 B.c. Thucydides. 
Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B.c., brought 
the Pheenician letters into Greece. Vossius. The 
commandments were written on two tables of stone, 
1491 B.c. Usher. The Greeks and Romans used 
wax table-books, and continued the use of them 
long after papyrus was known ;{ see Papyrus, 
Parchment, Paper. Thos. Astle’s ‘ History of 
Writing”’ was first published in 1784; Natalis de 
Wailly’s ‘‘Elémens de Paléographie,”’ 1838; see 
Diplomatics and Type- Writers. 


* Daniel Steinmann, White Cross steamer, struck on 
rock off Sambro’ Isle, Nova Scotia: about 120 perish, 
about 3 April, 1884. 

+ Senorine, French brig, wrecked off Great Bank, 
Newfoundland ; about 62 perish, 6 May, 1884. 

+ ‘*I would check the petty vanity of those who slight 
good penmanship, as below the notice of a scholar, by 
reminding them that Mr. Fox was distinguished by the 
clearness and firmness, Mr. Professor Porson by the cor- 
rectness and elegance, and sir William Jones by the ease 
and beauty of the characters they respectively employed.” 
Dr, Parr. 

30 2 


WROXETER. 


932 


¥ v 
‘ ? 
4 


WYOMING. 


The Paleographical Society was founded in 1873; Mr. 
Bird, of the British Museum, president. 


WROXETER (in Shropshire), the Roman city 
Uriconium. Roman inscriptions, ruins, seals, and 
coins were found here in 1752. New discoveries 
having been made, a committee for further investi- 
gation met at Shrewsbury on 11 Nov. 1858. Exca- 
vations were commenced in Feb. 1859, which were 
continued till May. Large portions of the old town 
were discovered ; also specimens of glass and pottery, 
personal ornaments and toys, household utensils and 
implements of trade, cinerary urns, and bones of 
man and of the smaller animals. A committee was 
formed in London in Aug. 1859, with the view of 
continuing these investigations, which were re- 
sumed in 1861, through the liberality of the late 
Beriah Botfield, M.P. The investigations, stopped 
through want of funds, were resumed for a short 
time in 1867. Mr. Thomas Wright published 
‘*‘ Uriconium”’ in 1872. 


WURSCHEN, see Bautzen. 
WURTEMBERG, originally part of Swabia, 


was made a county for Ulric I., about 1265, anda 

duchy for Eberhard in 1494. The dukes were pro- 

testants until 1722, when the reigning prince became 

a Roman catholic. Wiirtemberg has been repeatedly 

traversed by armies, particularly since the great 

French revolution of 1793. Moreau made his cele- 

brated retreat, 23 Oct. 1796. The political consti- 

tution is dated 25 Sept. 1819. Wiirtemberg opposed 

Prussia in the war, June, 1866, but made peace, 

13 Aug. following; in Oct. 1867, joined the Zoll- 

verein (which see), but sent a contingent to Prussia 

in the war, 1870. Population of Wiirtemberg in 

1871, 1,818,539; 1880, 1,971,118. 

DUKES. 

Eberhard I. 

Eberhard II. 

Ulric; deprived of his states by the emperor 

Charles V. ; recovers them in 1534. 

Christopher the Pacific. 

Louis the Pious. 

Frederic I. 

John Frederic ; joined the protestants in the Thirty 

years’ war. ; 

1628. Eberhard III. 

x674. William Louis. 

1677. Eberhard Louis; served under William III. in 
Ireland; and with the English armies on the 
continent. 

1733. Charles Alexander. 


T4094. 
1496. 
1498. 


1550. 
1568. 
1593- 
2608. 


1737. Charles Eugene. 

1793. Louis Eugene (joins in the war against France), 

1795. Frederic I., makes peace with France, 1796. 

1797. Frederic I. marries the princess royal of Englan 
18 May ; made elector of Germany, 1803; acquire 
additional territories, and the title of king 
1805. 

KINGS. 

Frederic I. supplies a contingent to Napoleor 
Russian army ; yet joined the allies at Leipsic 
1813. Died in 1816. 

William I., 30 Oct. ; son; born 27 Sept. 1781. I 
abolished serfdom in 1818 ; instituted represe 
tative government in 1819; entered into a co 
cordat with Rome in 1857; was the oldest livi 
sovereign, 1862; died 25 June, 1864. 

Charles I., son; born 6 March, 1823; marri 
princess Olga of Russia, 13 July, 1846. } 
issue. 


Heir presumptive: Augustus, cousin ; born 24 Ja 
1813. 


_WURZBURG (in Bavaria), was formerly 
bishopric, and its sovereign one of the greate 
ecclesiastic princes of the empire. It was given 
a principality to the elector of Bavaria in 1803; a 
by the treaty of Presburg, in 1805, was ceded to tl 
archduke Ferdinand of Tuscany, whose elector 
title was transferred from Salzburg to this place. | 
1814 this duchy was again transferred to Bayari 
in exchange for the Tyrol, and the archduke Ferd 
nand was reinstated in his Tuscan dominion 
Ministers from the second-rate German states m 
at Wiirzburg to promote union amongst them, 2I-: 
Nov. 1859. Near here the archduke Charles d 
feated the French,under Jourdan, 3 Sept. 1796; ar 
the Prussians defeated the Bavarians, 28 July, 186 


-WYATT’S INSURRECTION, sce Reb 
lions, 1554. 


WYCLIFFITES, see Wicklifites. 


WYOMING, a western territory of the Unité 
States of America, constituted in 1868, capite 
Cheyenne. Lynch Law has not long been supe 
seded. Women have been enfranchised. It it 
cludes Yellowstone park (which see): The des 
lation of Wyoming, in Pennsylvania, by an ir 
cursion of Indians allied with the British, 3 Jul’ 
1778, forms the subject of Campbell’s poer 
“Gertrude of Wyoming ”’ published 1809, yl 
ming abounds in iron, coal, natural soda, miner 
oil, &e. 


1805. 


1816. 


1864. 


iG 


XANTHIAN MARBLES. 
XANTHIAN MARBLES, 


4SCURN. 


XANTHICA, a military festival observed by 
» Macedonians in the month called Xanthicus 
ir April), instituted about 392 B.c. 


XANTHUS, Lycia, Asia Minor, was taken by 
rpagus for Cyrus, about 546 B.c., when the in- 
jitants buried themselves in the ruins. It was 
ieged by the Romans under Brutus 42 n.c. After 
reat struggle the inhabitants set fire to their city, 
troyed their wives and children, and perished. 
e conqueror wished to spare them, and offered 
yards to his soldiers if they brought any of the 
nthians into his presence, but only 150 were 
ed. Plutarch. 


XENOPHON, see Retreat of the Greeks. 


KERES DE LA FRONTERA (S.W. Spain), 
Asta Regia of the Romans, and the seat of the 
1e-trade in Spain, of which the principal wine is 
t so well known in England as Sherry, an 
glish corruption of Xeres. The British impor- 
ions of this wine in 1850 reached to 3,826,785 
lons; and in the year ending 5 Jan. 1852, to 
04,978 gallons. Xeres is a handsome and large 
m, of great antiquity. At the battle of Xeres, 
July, 711, Roderic, the last Gothic sovereign 
Spain, was defeated and slain by the Saracens, 
manded by Tarik and Muza. 


see British 


XYLOTECHNOGRAPHICA. 
XERXES’ CAMPAIGN. Xerxes crossed the 


Hellespont by a bridge of boats, and entered Greece 
in the spring of 480 B.c., with an army which, 
together with the numerous retinue of servants, 
eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted 
(according to some historians) to 5,283,220 souls. 
Herodotus states the armament to have consisted of 
3000 sail, conveying 1,700,000 foot, besides cavalry 
and the marines and attendants of the camp. This 
multitude was stopped at Thermopyle (which see) 
by the valour of 300 Spartans under Leonidas, 7-9 
Aug. 480 B.c. The fleet of Xerxes was defeated at 
Artemisium and Salamis, 20 Oct. 480 B.c.; and he 
hastened back to Persia, leaving behind Mardonius, 
the best of his generals, who, with an army of 
300,000 men, was defeated and slain at Plata, 22 
Sept. 479 B.c. Xerxes was assassinated by Arta- 
banus, 465 B.C. 


XIMENA (S. Spain), the site of a battle be- 
tween the Spanish army under the command of 
general Ballasteros, and the French corps com- 
manded by general Regnier, 10 Sept. 1811. The 
Spaniards defeated their adversaries; the loss was 
great on both sides. 


XY LOTECHNOGRAPHICA, a process for 
staining wood various colours, invented and patented 
by Mr. A. F. Brophy ; announeed early in 1875. 


Ys 


YACHT. 


YACHT (from the Dutch yaght); a light vessel | Yarmouth disfranchised for bribery and corruption 


for pleasure or raves. 


Royal London Yacht Club, established as Arundel 
Yacht Club, 1838, assumed present name : 
Yacut Races.—The America, an American yacht 
schooner, built on the wave principle, 17r tons ; 
at Cowes regatta, in a match round the Isle of 
Wight, open to all comers, came in first by 8 
miles,gaining the queen’s cup worth rool. 22 Aug. 1851 

Three American yachts, the Henrietta, Vesta, and 
Fleetwing, sailed from New York, 11 Dec. 1866, at 
rP.M. The Henrietta arrived at Cowes at 5.400n 
25 Dec., the quickest voyage ever made in a sail- 
ing vessel. Her rivals were only a few hours after 
her. 

In a contest off the Isle of Wight, between the 
American vessel Sappho and the English cutters 
Aline, Cambria, Oimara, and Condor, the Oimara 
won 4 : : : 3 : . 25 Aug. 1868 

In a triangular race between Sappho and Cambria, 
Sappho won, 10 May; no race, 14 May; won 

17 May, 1870 

In a yacht race off Staten island, New York, for the 
squadron or queen’s cup, the Magic won, Cambria 
being the 8th in 16. : ; : : PATIGS Sites 

In a series of matches off Staten island between 
Mr. Ashbury’s Livonia, and the vessels of the 
New York Club, she was beaten by the Columbia, 

16, 18 Oct; by the Dawntless, 2x Oct. The two 
vessels were disabled by a gale in attempting the 
race 5 ; E : : : s1) 25 Oct. 1875 

In consequence of the collision of Mr. Heywood’s 
yacht, - Mistletoe, with her majesty’s steam 
yacht, Alberta, 18 Aug. 1875 (see under Wrecks), 

a letter was written on behalf of the queen to the 
marquis of Exeter, commodore of the Royal 
Victoria Yacht Club, desiring yachts not to be! 
brought too near to her majesty’s, whether from 
loyalty or curiosity : : . Sept. 1875 

Yacht Racing Association formed as a court of 
appeal . s : : 4 ; . *r7 NOV Ss, 

33 yacht clubs, 1800 yachts ; matches frequent 

Aug. 1880 

Death of George Inman, of Lymington, head of 
the firm which built the Alarm, and many other 
swift sailing yachts . x : 20 Oct. 1883 


YANKEE, from ‘ Yengees,” a corruption of 
’ “English,” the name originally given by the Mas- 
sachusetts Indians to the colonists: applied solely 
to the New Englanders by the British soldiers in the 
American war (1775-81); afterwards by foreigners 
to all natives of the United States; and latterly by 
the confederates of the south to the federals of the 
north during the war 1861-64. 


YARD. The word is derived from the Saxon 
geard, or gyrd, a rod or shoot, or from gyrdan to 
enclose, being anciently the circumference of the 
body, until Henry I. decreed that it should be the 
length of his arm; see Standard Measures. 


YARMOUTH, GREAT (Norfolk), was a royal 
demesne in the reign of William I., as appears from 
Domesday Book, 1086. It obtained a charter from 
John, and one from Henry III. In 1348, a plague 
here carried off 7000 persons; and did much havoc 
again in 1579 and 1664. 


1849 


Theatre built ¢ : . : : 5 5 bbe 
Nelson’s pillar, a fluted column r4o feet in height, 
erected 1817 


Suspension chain bridge over the Bure, built by Mr. 
R. Cory, at an expense of about 4oool. ; owing to 
the weight of a vast number of persons who 
assembled on it to witness an exhibition on the 
water, it suddenly gave way, and seventy-nine 
lives (mostly children) were lost . - 2May, 1845 


YEAR. 
by the Reform Act A A : . Aug. 186 
The prince of Wales opened a new grammar school, 
6 June, 187 
Aquarium and winter garden opened 5 Sept. 187 
New municipal buildings opened by the prince of 
Wales . P 31 May, 188 


YASHGAR, a country, Central Asia; Yakooh 
its able despotic chief, was contending with Chin 
and Russia, 1875. 


YEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were th 
first who fixed the length of the year. 


The Roman year introduced by Romulus, 738 B.C. ; C0: 
rected by Numa, 713 B.c.; and again by Julius Casat 
45 B.C. (see Calendar). 


The solar or astronomical year was found to comprise 36 
days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, and 6 deciials 
265 B.C. 

The lwnar year (twelve lunar months, or 354 days, 
hours, 48 minutes) was in use amongst the Chaldean: 
Persians, and Jews. Once in every three years wa 
added another lunar month, so as to make the sola 
and the lunar year nearly agree. But though th 
months were lunar, the year was solar; that is, th 
first month was of thirty days, and the second ¢ 
twenty-nine, and so alternately : and the month adde 
triennially was called the second Adar. The Jew 
afterwards followed the Roman manner of compt 
tation. 

The sidereal year, or return to the same star, is 365 day: 
6 hours, 9 minutes, 11 seconds. 

The Jews dated the beginning of the sacred year i 
March, and civil year in September; the Atheniax 
began the year in June; the Macedonians on 24 Sept. 
the Christians of Egypt and Ethiopia on 29 or 30 Aug 
and the Persians and Armenians on rr Aug. Near! 
all Christian nations now commence the year on 
January. | | 

In France, the Merovingian kings began the year wit 
March ; the Carlovingians sometimes began the yei 
with Christmas, 25 Dec. ; and sometimes with Haste 
which, being a movable feast, led to much confusiot 

Charles IX. of France, in 1564, published an arrét, tl 
last article of which ordered the year for the time | 
come to be constantly and universally begun, at 
written on and from 1 January. 

The beginning of the year has been reckoned from +] 
day celebrating the birth of Christ, 25 Dec. ; his ci 
cumcision, 1 Jan. ; his conception, 25 March ; and h 
resurrection, Easter. | 

The English began their year on the 25th of Decembe 
until the time of William the Conqueror. This prin 
having been crowned on 1 Jan. gave occasion to 
English to begin their year at that time, to make 
agree with the then most remarkable period of the 
history. Stow. Until the act for altering the sty] 
in 1752 (see Style), when the year was ordered | 
begin on Jan. 1, it did not legally and gener 
commence in England until 25th March. In Scotla 
at that period, the year began on the rst of Janua 
This difference caused great practical inconvenience 
and January, February, and part of March sometim 
bore two dates, as we often find in old records, 17 
1746, OY 1745-6, or 1748. Such a reckoning often 
to chronological mistakes ; for instance, we pop 
say the ‘‘ revolution of 1688,” as that event was €o! 
pleted in February, 1688, according to the then mo 
of computation : but if the year were held to begin, 
it does now, on the first of January, it would be th 
revolution of 1689. ; 

The year in the northern regions of Siberia and Laplan 
is described in the following calendar, given by 
traveller :—‘‘ 23 June, snow melts. 1x July, snow gol 
9 July, fields quite green. 17 July, plants at fu 
growth. 25 July, plants in flower. 2 Aug., fruits rip 
1o Aug., plants shed their seed 18 Aug., SNOW, 
The snow continues upon the ground from 18th Au 


ae i 


YEAR-BOOKS. 


935 


YOKE. 


of one year to 23rd June of the year following, being 
309 days out of 365 ; so that while the three seasons of 
‘Spring, summer, and autumn are together only fifty-six 
days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four weeks’ 
duration in these countries. 

ee New Style, Platonic Year, Sabbatical Year, Mahomet- 
anism, French Revolutionary Calendar. 

EAR OF OUR LORD; see Anno Domini. 

EAR OF THE REIGN. From the time of William the 
Conqueror, 1066, the year of the sovereign’s reign has 
been given to all public instruments. The king’s 
patents, charters, proclamations, and all acts of parlia- 
ment have since then been generally so dated. The 
same manner of dating is used in most of the European 
states for all similar documents and records; see List 
of Kings under England. 

EAR AND A Day. A space of time in law, and in many 
eases establishes and fixes a right ; as in an estray, on 
proclamation being made, if the owner does not claim 
it within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in 
the Norman law, which enacted that a beast found on 
another’s land, if unclaimed for a year and a day, be- 
longed to the lord of the soil. It is otherwise a legal 
space of time. 


YEAR-BOOKS contain reports in Norman- 
‘rench of cases argued and decided in the courts 
fcommon law. The printed volumes extend from 
he beginning of the reign of Edward II. to nearly 
he end of the reign of Henry VIII., a period of 
bout 220 years; but in this series there are many 
missions. ‘These books are the first in the long 
ine of legal reports in which England is so rich, 
nd may be considered as, to a great extent, the 
sundation of our unwritten law, ‘‘ Lex non scripta.’’ 
n 1863 e¢ seg. various year-books of Edward I. 
[292-1304) edited by Mr. A. J. Horwood, for the 
eries of the Chronicles and Memorials, were pub- 
shed at the expense of the British government. 


YEAST, a substance causing fermentation, was 
iscovered by Cagniard de la Tour and Schwann, 
adependently, in 1836, to be a vegetable cell or 
ungus. 


YELLOW FEVER, an American pestilence, 
aade its appearance at Philadelphia, where it 
ommitted great ravages, 1699. It appeared in 
everal islands of the West Indies in 1732, 1739, 
nd 1745. Itraged with unparalleled violence at 
hiladelphia in Oct. 1762; and most awfully at 
Yew York in the beginning of Aug. 1791. This 
ever again spread great devastation at Philadelphia 
n July 1793; carrying off several thousand persons. 
Zardive. It again appeared in Oct. 1797; and spread 
ts ravages over the northern coast of America, 
sept. 1798. It reappeared at Philadelphia in the 
ummer of 1802; and broke out in Spain, in Sept. 
803. The yellow fever was very violent at 
yibraltar in 1804 and 1814; in the Mauritius, July 
815; at Antigua, in Sept. 1816; and it raged with 
lreadful consequences at Cadiz, and the isle of St. 
4eon, in Sept. 1819. A malignant fever raged at 
xibraltar in Sept. 1828, and did not terminate until 
he following year. Yellow fever raging in the 
jouthern of the United States, Sept. Oct. 1878; at 
Memphis, autumn, 1879. 

YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK, 
bout 3300 square miles, in territory of Wyoming. 
‘t includes Yellowstone lake, about 330 square miles, 

with numerous geysers, volcanic and other grand 

natural phenomena, rugged mountains, forests, mea- 
dows, rivers, and much beautiful scenery. Its forma- 


tion was authorised by congress in March, 1872. It 
was visited by president Arthur in 1883. 


YELVERTON CASE, see Zriais, 1861. 
YENIKALBE, see Azof. 
YEOMANRY, see under Volunteers. 


YEOMEN oF THE GUARD, a peculiar body 
of foot guards to the king’s person, instituted at 
the coronation of Henry VII. 30 Oct. 1485, which 
originally consisted. of fifty men under a captain. 
They were called beef-eaters, a corruption of buffe- 
tiers, being attendants on the king’s buffet or 
sideboard ; see Battle--Axve. They were of a larger 
stature than other guards, being required to be 
over six feet in height, and were armed with 
arquebuses and other arms. The band was in- 
creased by Henry’s successors to one hundred men, 
and seventy supernumeraries; and when one of the 
hundred died, it was ordered that his place should . 
be supplied out of the seventy. They were clad 
after the manner of king Henry VIII. -Ashmole’s 
Instit. 'This is said to have been the first perma- 
nent military band instituted in England. John 
earl of Oxford, was the first captain in 1486. Beat- 
son’s Pol. Index. 


YERMUK (Syria). Near here the emperor 
Heraclius was totally defeated by the Saracens, aftera 
fierce engagement, Nov. 636. Damascus was taken, 
and his army expelled from Syria. 


YEW-TREE (Zaxus). The origin of planting 
yew-trees in churchyards was (these latter being 
fenced) to secure the trees from cattle, and in this 
manner preserve them for the encouragement of 
archery. A general plantation of them for the use 
of archers was ordered by Richard III. 1483. Stow's 
Chron. Near Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire, were 
seven yew-trees, called the Seven Sisters, supposed 
to have been planted before 1088; the circum- 
ference of the largest thirty-four feet seven inches 
round the trunk. In 1851 a yew-tree was said to 
be growing in the churchyard of Gresford, North 
Wales, whose circumference was nine yards nine 
inches, being the largest and oldest yew-tree in the 
British dominions; but tradition states that there 
are some yews in England older than the introduc- 
tion of Christianity. The old yew-tree mentioned 
in the survey taken of Richmond palace in 1649, is 
said to be still existing. 


YEZIDIS, an eastern tribe, living near the 
Euphrates, visited by Mr. Layard in 1841: see 
Devil Worship. 


YEZDEGIRD, or PerstaAn ERA, was 
formerly universally adopted in Persia, and is still 
used by the Parsees in India, and by the Arabs, in 
certain computations. This era began on the 26th 
June, 632, when Yezdegird was elected king of 
Persia. The year consisted of 365 days only, and 
therefore its commencement, like that of the old 
Egyptian and Armenian year, anticipated the Julian 
year by one day in every four years. This difference 
amounted to nearly 112 days in the year 1075, 
when it was reformed by Jelaledin, who ordered 
that in future the Persian year should receive an 
additional day whenever it should appear necessary 
to postpone the commencement of the following 
year, that it might occur on the day of the sun’s 
passing the same degree of the ecliptic. 


YNGLINGS (youths, or off-shoots), descend- 
ants of the Scandinavian hero Odin, ruled Sweden 
till 830, when the last of the pontiff kings, Olaf 
Treetelia, being expelled, led to the foundation of 
the Norwegian monarchy. 


YOKE is spoken of as a type of servitude. The 
ceremony of making prisoners pass under it was 
practised by the Samnites towards the Romans, 
321 B.c.; see Caudine Forks. This disgrace was 
afterwards inflicted by the Romans upon their van- 
quished enemies, Dufresnoy. 


Onl 
es 


i 


YOKOHAMA. 936 YORK. . 
YOKOHAMA, see Japan. At Bois-le-Duc, 14 Sept.; and at qe 
i 17 Sept. 17 
YORK (N. England), a town of the Brigantes, Appointed commander-in-chief .° . . i 
named Evraue, settled by the Romans during the Defeated near Alkmaar, 19 Sept. and 6 Oct. 179 
second campaign of Agricola, about 79, and named Accused by colonel Wardle of abuse of his 
Eboracum or Eburacum, and became the metropolis Peano. Nah CRY we Jan. a 
Px ag € - - = II 
of the north. See Population. Strongly opposes the catholic claims 182 
The emperor Severus died here. : 4 Feb. 211 Digs ae f : ; ; 5 Jan. 182 
Here Constantius Chlorus died, and his son Con- See Albany. 
stantine the Great was proclaimed emperor, 
25 July, 306} YORK, ARCHBISHOPRIC OF, The most an 


Abbey of St. Mary’s, founded by Seward the Dane 1050 
York burnt by the Danes, allies of Edgar Atheling, 


and all the Normans slain 4 A z elas SOOO 
The city and many churches destroyed by fire, 

3 June, 1137 

Massacre and suicide of many Jews 1190 


York received its charter from Richard II., and the 

mayor was made a lord 4 5 BSS etl) 
The Guildhall erected : ' - 1446 
Richard III. crowned again here : 8 Sept. 1483 
At a parliament held here Charles I. professed his 


intention to govern legally : : 13 June, 1642 
York taken for the parliament, after the battle of 

Marston-moor . 2 : ; 16 July, 1644 
Injured during the civil war by Fairfax CA PIiLeye. 


The corporation built a mansion-house for the lord 
mayor : : : : : F : take 
The castle was built by Richard III., 1484, and was 
rebuiltasagaol . ; A 3 : ; “ 
The York petition to parliament, to reduce the 
expenditure and redress grievances . = Deen 779 
Yorkshire Philosophical Society established . . 1822 
First meeting of the British Association held here 
27 Sept. 


1728 


I741 


1831 
1844 
1861 


British Association (2nd time) 
Population, 45,385 : ‘ ; x ied 
Fall of the iron bridge over the Ouse; five persons 

killed : : : 2 : 27 Sept. 
Social Science Association met here . 22 Sept. 


1864 
Fine Arts and Industrial Exhibition opened 


24 July, 1866 
Visit of prince and princess of Wales. 9-11 Aug. ,, 
Meeting of the Church Congress. : OCta iss 


9 

The provincial mayors gave a festival to the lord 
mayor of London, &c., at York 25 Sept. 
Permanent Fine Art Exhibition opened by the 
archbishop . i A 5 : : 7 May, 
British Association jubilee meeting 31 Aug.-8 Sept. 
Royal Agricultural Society’s annual meeting, 
16 July, 

Yorkshire Institute, memorial stone laid by the 
prince of Wales 18 July, 1883; opened by the 
marquis of Lorne : > 5 x ro June, 1885 
Population, 50,761, 3 April, 1871; 59,596, 4 April, 188t. 


1873 


1879 
1881 


1883 


DUKES. 


Edmund Plantagenet (fifth son of king Edward 
III.) ; created duke, 6 Aug. ; died 1402. 

Edward (his son), was degraded by Henry IV. in 
1399, but restored in 1414; killed at Agincourt, 
1415 ; succeeded by his nephew, 

Richard (son of Richard, earl of Cambridge, who 
was beheaded for treason in 1415); became 
regent of France in 1435; quelled the rebellion 
in Ireland in 1449; claimed the throne, and was 
appointed protector in 1454: his office was an- 
nulled, and he began the civil war in 1455, and 
was slain after his defeat at Wakefield in 1460. 

Edward (his son) afterwards king Edward IV. 

Richard (his second son), said to have been mur- 
dered in the Tower, 1483. 

Henry Tudor, afterwards Henry VIII. 

Charles Stuart, afterwards Charles I. 


1385. 
1406. 


1415. 


1400. 
1474- 


1494. 
1605. 


DUKES OF YORK AND ALBANY, 


James Stuart (his second son), afterwards 
James II. 
Ernest (brother of George I.) ; died 1728. 
Edward (brother of George III.) ; died 1767. 
Frederic (son of George III.), born 16 Aug. 
Marries princess Frederica of Prussia, 
; ag Sept. 
Commands the British forces at Antwerp, 
8 April, 
Present at the siege of Valenciennes 23 May, 
Defeated at Dunkirk . . 


1643. 
1716. 
1760. 


1784. 1763 


1791 
1793 


39 


7 Sept: |, 


cient metropolitan see in England, being, it ; 
said, so made by king Lucius about 180, whe 
Christianity was first partly established in Englan¢ 
The bishop Eborius was present at the council ¢ 
Arles, 314. The see was overturned by the Saxons 
and was revived by pope Gregory on their con 
version, and Paulinus is said to have been conse 
erated archbishop, 21 July, 625. York and Dur 
ham were long the only two sees in the nortl 
of England, until Henry I. erected a bishopric a 
Carlisle, and. Henry VIII. another at Chester 
York was the metropolitan see of the Scottis) 
bishops; but during the time of archbishop Neyil 
1464, they withdrew their obedience, and had arch 
bishops of their own. Much dispute arose betwee 
the two English metropolitans about precedency, a 
by pope Gregory’s institutions it was thought h 
meant, that whichever of them was first confirmed 
should be superior: appeal was made to the cour 
of Rome by both parties, and it was determined ii 
favour of Canterbury. The archbishop of York wa 
allowed to style himself primate of England, whil 
the archbishop of Canterbury styles himself primat 
of ali England. The province of York now con 
tains the dioceses of York, Carlisle, Chester, Dur 
ham, Sodor and Man, Manchester, and Ripo1 
(which see). York has yielded to the church o 
Rome eight saints and three cardinals, and t 
England twelve lord chancellors, two lord trea 
surers, and two lord presidents of the north. Iti 
rated in the king’s books, 39 Henry VIII. 1546, a 
1609/. 19s. 2d. per annum. Jeatson. Present in 
come I0,000/. 
ARCHBISHOPS. 


t5or. Thomas Savage, died, 3 Sept. 1507. 
1508. Christopher Bainbrigg, poisoned at Rome, 14 July 


I5I4. 
Thomas Wolsey, died, 29 Nov. 1530. 

Edward Lee, died, 13 Sept. 1544. 

Robert Holgate, deprived, 23 March, 1554. 
Nicholas Heath, deprived, 

Thomas Young, died, 26 June, 1568. 

Edmund Grindal, translated to Canterbury, 10 Jat 


I514. 
1531- 
1545: 
1555: 
1561. 


1570. 


1570. 

Rdwin Sands or Sandys, died, 10 July, 1588. 
John Piers, died, 28 Sept. 1594. 
Matthew Hutton, died, 16 Jan. 1606. 
Tobias Matthew, died, 29 March, 1628. 
George Mountaigne, died, 24 Oct. 1628. 
Samuel Harsnet, died, 25 May, 1631. 
Richard Neyle, died, 31 Oct. 1640. 
John Williams, died, 25 March, 1650. 

[See vacant ten years. ] 
Accepted Frewen, died, 28 March, 1664. 
Richard Sterne, died, 18 June, 1683. 
John Dolben, died, rz April, 1686. 

[See vacant two years. } 
Thomas Lamplugh, died, 5 May, 1691. 
John Sharp, died, 2 Feb. 1714. 
Sir William Dawes, died, 30 April, 1724. 
Launcelot Blackburn, died, 23 March, 1743. 
Thomas Herring, translated to Canterbury, Oct 


1577- 
1589. 
1595: 
1606. 
1628. 
1632. 
1641. 
1660. 
1664. 
1683. 


1688. 
1691. 
1714. 
1724. 
1743- 


1747. ws 
M atthow Hutton, translated to Canterbury, March 


I ° 
J aN Gitbert, died, 176r. 
Robert Hay Drummond, died, 10 Dec. 1776. 3 
William Markham, died, 3 Novy. 1807. | 
Edward Venables Vernon, died, 5 Nov. 1847. 
Thomas Musgrave, died, 4 May, 1860. 
a) 


1747- 
i 
1757- 
1761. 
1777: 
1808. 
1847. 


* YORK MINSTER. 


937 


YVRES. 


o. Charles T. Longley, translated to Canterbury (from 
| Durham), 1862. 
2. William Thomson, translated from Gloucester. 


YORK MINSTER (dedicated to St. Peter). 
e first Christian church erected here, which 
gears to have been preceded by a Roman temple, 
8 built by Edwin, king of Northumbria, of wood, 
out 625, and of stone about 635. It was damaged 
fire In 741, and was rebuilt by archbishop 
gert, about 780. It was again destroyed by fire 
the year 1069, and rebuilt by archbishop 
omas, of Bayeux. It was once more burnt down 
1137, with St. Mary’s abbey, and 39 parish 
arches in York. Archbishop Roger built the 
mr, 1154-81; Walter Gray added the south 
nsept in 1227; John de Romayne, the treasurer 
the cathedral, built the north transept in 1260. 
8 son, archbishop Romanus, laid the foundation 
the nave in 1291. In 1330, William de Melton 
ilt the two western towers, which were finished 
John de Birmingham in 1342. Archbishop 
oresby, in 1361, began to rebuild the choir, in 
sordance with the magnificence of the nave, and 
also rebuilt the lantern tower. The minster was 
on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, and the 
if of the choir and its internal fittings destroyed, 
Feb. 1829; the damage, estimated at 60,000/., 
iS repaired in 1832 under sir Robert Smirke. An 
sidental fire broke out, and in one hour reduced 
2 belfry to a shell, destroyed the roof of the 
ve, and much damaged the edifice, 20 May, 
40. This was restored by Sidney Smirke, at a 
st of 23,000/., 1841. 


YORK AnD LANCASTER, WARS OF, see 
SES, 


YORK (Upper Canada), founded in 1794; since 
34 named Toronto. In the war between America 
d Great Britain, the United States’ forces made 
veral attacks upon the province of Upper Canada, 
d succeeded in taking York, the seat of the 
vernment, 27 April, 1813; but it was soon after- 
ids again retaken by the British. 


YORKSHIRE Exhibition of Arts and Manu- 


factures, opened at Leeds, by the duke of Edin- 
burgh, 13 May, 1875. The Yorkshire Registries 
Act passed 7 Aug. 1884. pats 


YORK TOWN (Virginia, United States). 
Lord Cornwallis had taken possession of York town 
in Aug. 1781; but after sustaining a disastrous 
siege, he was obliged to surrender his army, con- 
sisting of about 7000 men, to the allied armies of 
France and America, under the command of general 
Washington and count Rochambeau, 19 Oct. 1781. 
This mischance was attributed to sir Henry 
Clinton, who had not given the garrison the 
necessary succour they expected; and it mainly 
led to the close of the war. The centenary was 
celebrated 16 Oct. 1881 e¢ seg. On 19 Oct. the 
British flag was saluted generally. The town was. 
strongly fortified by the confederates in the American 
civil war, but surrendered to M‘Clellan, May, 1862. 


YOUNG IRELAND, sée Jreland, Young. 


YOUNG MEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSO- 
CIATION, for improvement of young men by 
means of classes, meetings, &c., founded 1844. 
Exeter-hall, Strand, was bought for the associa- 
tion about July, 1880. It met there, 29 March, 1881. 
The Young Men’s Christian Institute bought the 
Polytechnic Institute, about Dec. 1881. 


YTTRIUM, 2 rare metal. The earth yttria 
was discovered by professor Gadolin in a mineral at 
Ytterby, in Sweden, 1794. The metal was first 
obtained by Wohler in i908, It is of a dark grey 
colour, and brittle. 


YUCATAN, Mexico, discovered by Hernandez 
Cordova, 1517; conquered by Bernal Diaz, 1522; 
declared for independence, 1813. Its ancient cities 
are described in works by the American traveller 
Stephens, 1838 and 1842. 


YVRES (now Ivry, N. W. France), where a 
battle was fought, 14 March, 1590, between Henry 
IV. of France, aided by his chief nobility, and 
the generals of the catholic league, over whom the 
king obtained a complete victory. 


SALISBURY ADMINISTRATION. — 
r. Gladstone resigned in consequence of a defeat 
the house of commons on the Budget Bill (264— 
2), 8-9 June, and was succeeded by the marquis 
Salisbury, whose ministry received the seals, 24 
ime, 1885. 


ime Minister and Foreign Secretary—Robert Arthur 
Talbot Gascoigne-Cecil, marquis of Salisbury.* 

rst lord of the treasury—Sir Stafford Northcote (Earl of 
[ddesleigh). , 

rd chancellor—Sir Hardinge Giffard (Lord Halsbury). 
rd president of the councii—Gathorne Gathorne-Hardy, 
viscount Cranbrook. 


* He was born 3 Feb. 1830; lord Cranborne, on the 
ath of his brother, 1865 ; succeeded his father as mar- 
lis in 1868; M.P. for Stamford, 1853-68 ; secretary for 
dia, July, 1866, to March, 1867; and Feb. 1874 to 
oril, 1878; for foreign affairs, April, 1878, to May, 
80 ; special ambassador to Constantinople, Nov. 1876; 
ancellor of the University of Oxford, 1869. 


Lord privy seal—Dudley Francis Stuart Ryder, earl of 
Harrowby. 
Secretaries: home—Sir Richard Assheton Cross, 
the colonies—Col. Frederick Arthur Stanley. 
India—Lord Randolph Henry Spencer- 
Churchill. 
war— William Henry Smith. 
First lord of the admiralty. — Lord George Francis 
Hamilton. 
Chancellor of the exchequer—Sir Michael Edward Hicks- 
Beach. 
Lord lieutenant of Ireland —Henry H. M. Herbert, earl of 
Carnarvon. 
Lord chancellor of Ireland—Edward Gibson (with a 
peerage). 
President of board of trade—Charles Henry Gordon- 
Lennox, Duke of Richmond. 
Postmaster-general—Lord Jolin Manners. 
Vice-president of the council—Edward Stanhope. 
The above form the cabinet. 
Chancellor of Duchy of Lancaster—Henry Chaplin. 
President of local government board—Arthur Balfour. 
Chief secretary of Ireland—Sir William Hart-Dyke. 
First commissioner of works—David Robert Plunket. 
Times, 26 June, 1885. 


L. 


ZAGRAB. 
ZAGRAB (Hungary). Here Andrew II. de- 


feated the invader Charles Martel, to whom the | 


pope had assigned his crown, 1292. 


ZAHRINGEN (Baden), the seat of dukes, 
ancestors of the grand dukes of Baden, descended 
from Herman I., margrave, 1074; see Baden. 


ZAMA (near Carthage, N. Africa), the scene of 
the battle between the two greatest commanders in 
the world at the time, Hannibal and Scipio 
Africanus. The victory was won by Scipio, and 
was decisive of the fate of Carthage; it led to an 
ignominious peace the year after, which closed the 
second Punic war. The Romans lost about 2000 
killed and wounded, while the Carthaginians lost 
in killed and prisoners more than 40,000; some 
historians make the loss greater; 202 B.C. 


ZAMBESI, river of E. Africa, explored by 
Livingstone 1851-6, 1858-64. His book published, 
Nov. 1865. 


ZAMORA (Spain). Here Alphonso the Great 
defeated the Moors, in gor. 


ZANTE. One of the Ionian Islands (which see). 
ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, 


under Zanzalee, 535; he taught that water baptism 
was of no efficacy, and that 1t was necessary to be 
baptized by fire, with the application of a red-hot 
iron. The sect was at one time very numerous. 


ZANZIBAR or ZANGUEBAR, an island, 
east Africa, metropolis of the possessions of the 
Imaum of Muscat, and chief market for ivory, 
gum, coral, and cloves, and also for slaves. At the 
death of the Seyyid (or lord), miscalled ‘‘imaum”’ 
and “sultan,” of Muscat, 1856, his dominions 
were divided between his sons; see Muscat. Majid 
obtained Zanzibar, after a contest with his brother, 
Barghash Seyyid, who, however, succeeded at his 
death, 7 Oct. 1870. An expedition for the pur- 
pose of suppressing the slave trade was sent to 
Zanzibar, under the command of sir Bartle Frere, 
20 Nov. 1872, arrived about 12 Jan. 1873. After 
some delay and negotiation by Dr. Kirke, a treaty 
was signed, abolishing the trade, 5 June, 1873. The 
contract for the mail to Zanzibar was censured as 
too expensive in July, 1873, and altered. The 
Seyyid Barghash visited England in 1875, arrived 
9g June; received by the queen, 21 June; received 
freedom of London, 12 July; sailed for France, 
15 July. He decreed confiscation of slaves brought 
to Zanzibar, 18 April, 1876. The sultan made 
knight of St. Michael and St. George, 14 Sept. 1883. 
Territorial disputes with the East African German 
company, May ; settled, reported, 15 June, 1885. 

ZARA, capital of Dalmatia, a Roman colony 
under Augustus. It revolted from Venice and was 
recaptured, 18 Nov. 1202; unsuccessfully besieged 
by the Turks 1572,1577; given up to Austria, 1791. 

ZEKE, ZOW, ZIERES, for ye, you, and yours. 
The letter z was retained in Scotland, and was 
commonly written for the letter y so late as the 
reign of queen Mary, up to which period many 
books in the Scottish language were printed in 
Edinburgh with these words, 1543. 


ZEALAND, one of the 13 provinces which 


ZIRCONIUM. 


formed the League of Utrecht, 1579; see Holland 
and New Zealand. 


ZELA, N.E. Asia Minor, where Julius Casa 
defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, son @ 
Mithridates. Cesar, in announcing his victory. 
sent his famous despatch to the senate of Rome, ir 
these words: ‘* Veni, vidi, vict,’’—‘* I came, I saw, 
I conquered”? (perhaps the shortest despatch or 
record). This battle ended the war; Pharnace 
escaped into Bosporus, where he was slain by hii 
lieutenant, Asander; Pontus was made a Romat 
province, and Bosporus given to Mithridates o 
Pergamus, 47 B.C. ; 


ZELL (Hanover), see Denmark, 1772. . 
ZEND-AVESTA, ancient sacred books of thi 


Parsees; of which 3 out of 2I are extant. t 
age of these books is much disputed. Professo 
Max Miiller says that the MSS. had been preservet 
by the Parsee priests at Bombay, where a colon 
of fire-worshippers had fled in the roth century 
Anquetil Duperron’s French translation, from + 
modern Persian version, was published in 1771 
edition by Eugene Burnouf, 1829-43. 


ZENO or ZENON, see Stoies. | 
ZENOBIA, Queen of the East, see Palmyra. 


ZENTA, in Hungary, the scene of a battl 
where the Germans, under prince Eugene, defeate 
the Turks, 11 Sept. 1697. This victory led to th 
peace of Carlowitz, ratified January, 1699. 


ZETETICAL SOCIETY, established i 
1878, to afford opportunities for the unrestricte 
discussion of a variety of questions. | 


ZETUNIUM. After defeating Samuel king ¢ 
Bulgaria here, 29 July, 1014, the emperor Basil II 
blinded his 15,000 prisoners, except one in a hun 
dred, to whom he left one eye. The king died ¢ 
grief. 


ZIDON, see Sidon. 


ZINC. The ore of zinc, calamine or speltel 
known to the Greeks, who used it in the manufac 
ture of brass. It is said to have been known 1 
China also, and is noticed by European writers a 
early as 1231; though the method of extracting | 
from the ore was unknown for nearly five hundre 
rears after. The metal zinc is mentioned } 
Pabeckae (died 1541). A mine of zine was dis 
covered on lord Ribblesdale’s estate, Craven, Yor 
shire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced 1 
London shortly after lithography became known j 
England, in 1817; see Lithography. Zinc is mue 
used in voltaic batteries; and its application 1 
manufactures has greatly increased of late years 
see Photozincography. 

ZINC OBTAINED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 


tons. < 
1875. 6,713 162,790 
1880. 7,162 123,544 
1882. 16,130 . 286,710 


ZIRCONIUM, the metallic base of the eart 
Zirconia, which was discovered by Klaproth 1 
1789; from this Berzelius obtained the metal 1 


é 


an 


| ZIZYPHUS VULGARIS. 
2 ‘ 

~yion, 
ater. 


ZIZYPHUS VULGARIS. A shrub brought 
‘m the south of Europe about 1640. ‘The 
typhus Paliurus shrub (Christ’s Thorn) wae 
yught from Africa before 1596; see Flowers. 


‘ZODIAC. Its obliquity was discovered, its 
‘elve signs named, and their situations assigned 
2m by Anaximander, about 560 B.c. The Greeks 
1d Arabians borrowed the zodiac from the Hindoos. 
+ W. Jones. The zodiacal light was observed 
Tycho Brahe, Descartes, and others, and named 
Cassini, 1683. 


ZOLLVEREIN (Customs’ Union), the name 
ven to the Germar. commercial union, pro- 
sted by Prussia 1818, and gradually joined by 
arly allthe German states except Austria. On 
_ Feb. 1853, an important treaty of commerce and 
vigation, between Austria and Prussia, to last 
mm Jan. 1854 to Dec. 1865, was signed, to which 
e other states of the Zollverein gave in their ad- 
sion on 5 April, 1853. In Novy. 1861, Prussia 
reatened to withdraw unless certain changes 
ere made. By the treaty of 8 July, 1867, be- 
veen the North German confederation, and the 
juthern states (Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Baden, and 
esse), various changes were made, and by other 
eaties signed in Oct. these states agreed to send 
‘legates to a customs parliament to be held at 
erin. A session of this parliament was opened 
7 the king of Prussia, 27 April, and closed 23 May, 
468. Federal chancellor, the count von Bismarck. 
nports, 1882, valued at 158,235,000/.; exports, 
382, 162,235,000/. 


ZOOLOGY (from zoon, Greek for animal) is 
ie division of biology which treats of animals; 
ristotle (322-284 B.c.) the founder of the science. 
ystems of classification have been made by John 
‘ay es , Charles Linné (1707-78), G. 
uffon (1707-88), and George Cuvier (1769-1832). 
inneus divided the animal kingdom into six classes, 
—Mammalia, which includes all animals that suckle 
their young; Aves, birds; Amphibia, or amphibious 
animals; Pisces, fishes; Insecta, insects; Vermes, 
WOIMS ; 1741. 
uvier (died in Paris, 13 May, 1832), in his great work, 
Regne Animal, published in 1816, distributed the 
animals into four great divisions, the Vertebrata (back- 
boned); the Mollusca (soft-bodied); the Articulata 
(jointed) ; and the Radiata (the organs disposed round 
a centre). 
1 1859, professor Owen made known a system of 
arranging the class Mammalia according to the nature 
of their brains. 
he Zootogicat Society oF Lonpon (originally the 
_ Zoological Club) was founded in 1826, and its gardens 
in the Regent’s Park were opened in April, 1827; the 
society was chartered 27 March, 1829. 2072 animals 
in the gardens, 31 Dec. 1871; about soo animals from 
India given by the prince of Wales, May, 1876. 
‘vr, James Murie was appointed by the society to be 
_ their first ‘‘anatomical prosector,” 3 May, 1865. 
‘ew reptile house opened, 6 Aug. 1883. 
m the demolition of Exeter ’Change, in 1829, the 
menagerie of Mr. Cross was temporarily lodged in the 
King’s Mews, whence it was removed to the Surrey 
Zoological Gardens, 1832. 
the Zoological Gardens of Dublin were opened, 1832. 
oological Station for study, open to the public, esta- 
_ blished at Naples by professor Anton Dohrn, opened 
igOCt. 1873. 
VYombwell’s (latterly Edmonds’) great collection of 
trained animals sold, 29, 30 July, 1884. 
ee Aquarium, Hippopotamus, Giraffe, and Acclimatiza- 
tion, &e. 


~ZOOPRAXISCOPE, optical apparatus in- 


Zirconia is found in the sand of the rivers of 
The metal exists in the form of a black 


939 


ZULULAND. 


vented by Mr. Edward J. Muybridge to exhibit 
photographs of moving animals, about 1881. 


ZORNDORFF, Prussia, where a battle was 
fought between the Prussian and Russian armies ; 
the former, commanded by the king of Prussia, 
obtained a victory over the forces of the czarina, 
whose loss amounted to 21,529 men, while that 
of the Prussians was about 11,000; 25, 26 Aug. 


1758. 
ZOUAVES AnpD Foot CHASsEURS. When 


the French established a regency at Algiers, in 
1830, they hoped to find the employment of native 
troops advantageous, and selected the Zooaouas, a 
congregation of daring Arab tribes. In time, 
numbers of red republicans, and other enthusiastic 
Frenchmen, joined the regiments, adopting the 
costume, &c. : eventually the Africans disappeared 
from the ranks, and no more were added. Among 
their colonels were Lamorici¢ére and Cavaignac. 
The French Zouaves formed an important part of 
the army in the Crimean war, 1854-5.* 


ZUG, the smallest canton of Switzerland, joined 
the confederation, 1352, and the Sonderbund, 1846. 


ZUIDER ZEE, or Sovury SEA, a gulf in 
the Netherlands, formerly a lake, united with the 
North Sea by inundations in the twelfth and 
thirteenth centuries. In 1875, the Dutch chamber 
voted 9,500,000/. to reclaim the submerged land by 
drainage, and to erect a dyke, 26 feet high above 
the water, and 25 miles long; thus adding 759 
square miles to the country. The Dutch Texel 
fleet here surrendered to admirai Mitchell, 30 Aug. 
1799- 

ZUINGLIANS, the followers of the reformer, 
Ulric Zuingli, who at Zurich declaimed against the 
church of Rome, and effected the same separation 
for Switzerland from the papal dominion which 
Luther did for Saxony. He procured two assemblies 
to be called; by the tirst he was authorised to pro- 
ceed, by the second, the ceremonies of the Romish 
church were abolished 1519. Zuingli died in arms, 
being slain in a skirmish against his popish 
opponents, 11 Oct. 1531. ‘The Zuinglians were also 
called Sacramentarians. 


ZULLICHAU (Prussia). Here the Russians, 
under Soltikow, severely defeated the Prussians 
under Wedel, 23 July, 1759. 


ZULPICH, see TZolbdiac. 


ZULU CELIBATE MILITARY SYS- 
TEM, founded by Godongwana, confirmed by 
Chaka and Durgaan ; completed by Cetywayo. 


ZULULAND, South-east Africa; near the 
British colony, Natal. In the last century, the 
Zulus were a peaceful pastoral people. 


Godongwana, a chief, (termed Dingiswayo, ‘‘ the 
Wanderer,” from his early life,) began a military 
organisation by forming a celibate army ; killed 
in battle and succeeded by his vigorous and merci- 
less ally, Chaka, styled king, by whom Zulu 
supremacy was mainly established over the Fin- 
goes and other tribes . ; ; : . about 

Chaka assassinated ; succeeded by his brother Din- 
gaan, crafty, treacherous, and cruel; at first 
friendly with the British at Natal (which see) ; 
made treaty with capt. Allen Gardiner, 6 May, 

Massacres, Retief, 7o Boers, and their servants 


1812 


1835 


* The Zouave organization and drill were introduced 
into the federal army in the great civil war in America, 
by Ephraim E. Ellesworth, early in 1861. He was 
assassinated on 24 May same year, at Alexandria, just 
after taking down a secession flag. 


ZULULAND. 940 ZURICH. 
(who had recovered his stolen cattle), 2 Feb., and ment by treaty ; Zululand to be divided into 13 
about 600 afterwards; defeats the British and independent districts ; John Dunn to be a chief ; 
Dutch in several encounters; but is severely lands reserved for the British ; British residents 
beaten by Andries Pretorius Dec. 1838 in each district (to be eyes and ears); celibate 


Dingaan again defeated ; killed by one of his chiefs ; 
succeeded by his brother Umpanda, peaceful and 
crafty ; who keeps peace with the English and 
Dutch ‘ . | 1840, et seq. 

Cetywayo (pronounced Ketchway 0) his eldest son, 
kills his brothers ; succeeds athis father’s death ; 
organises still further his army, named by Frere 


“the celibate man-slaying war-machine” . Oct. 1872 
Recognised on behalf of the British by Mr. Shep- 
stone ; crowned 1 Sept. 1873 


Opposes missionaries ; organises armed resistance 
to the British ; when remonstrated with for out- 
rages, defies them . - 1876 
Sir Bartle Fr ere, governor of the Cape, requests 
help from England ; aan regiment and a battery 
sent. Jan. 
Cetywayo refuses to give up “leaders of a raid on 
British territory (in iD uly); and tenders a fine ; sir 
Bartle Frere, demands} as an ultimatum their 
surrender within 30 days . IDECs\is5 
The time (extended) having elapsed, 11 J an., the 
British, under lord Chehusford, cross the Tugela 
and enter Zululand . 2 dan. 
Col. Pearson defeats the Zulus and advances to 
Echowe (which he fortifies) A ar Jan. ;, 
British camp at Isandula or Isandlwana, about 10 
miles from Rorke’s Drift (on the Tugela), sur- 
prised and attacked by about 15,000 Zulus; 5 com- 
panies of the 24th regiment, and many natives 
killed; with cols. Durnford and Pulleine, and 
other officers ; total loss about 837; 2000 Zulus 
said to have been killed; (lieuts. Melville and 
Coghill said to have perished while preserving the 
colours) : . 22 Jan. 55 
Rorke’s Drift severely attacked ; successfully de- 
fended by lieuts. Chard and Br omhead 22 Jan. . 
Zulus attack Inkanyana ; defeated by col. Evelyn 
Wood 24 ADs 5 
Reinforcements requested ; troops rapidly sent off 
from England g:Feb. et seq. ,, 
Prince Louis N apoleon bogerating * 40 join the 
British, permitted to go as a guest; sails 27 Feb. ,, 
Arrival of the Tamar with 800 men, &e. ., at Maritz- 
burg 4 sy ir Marcha, 
Cetywayo’ s brother Oham, with 600 men, joins the 
British ; announced . 18 March, ,, 
British convoy near Itombi river cut to pieces by 
Zulus ; waggons and stores captured; capt. 
David Moriarty killed . zciMarchin,, 
Col. Evelyn Wood attacks the Zulus on the Zlobani 
mountains ; suffers much loss, 28 March; gains 
victory at Kambula . : : 29 March, 43 
British advance to relieve Echowe - 29 March, ’,, 
Zulus defeated at Ginghilovo . 2. April, ,, 
Col. Pearson marches out of Echowe . 2,3 April, ,, 
Sir Garnet Wolseley appointed commander-in-chief, 
governor of Natal, &c., sails forthe Cape May, ,, 
British total loss ; 1186 killed ; 86 died of disease ; 
announced * 27 May, “ 
Cetywayo said to have suppressed an pes ee 
and retired to his kraal (or village) at erage 
ay, ” 
Reconnoitring party, under capt. J. Brenton 
Carey, on Imbabani, near the Mozani river, sur- 
prised ; prince Louis Napoleon (acting as com- 
mander) killed - : r1June, ,,; 
Ultimatum sent to Cetywayo, requiring restitution 
of cannon, and total submission ; time expired, 
r2Uune, ,, 
Sir G. Wolseley arrives at the Cape 23 June, ,, 
Stafford House South African aid committee formed, 
June; 5; 
Zulu raid on cattle ; which are recovered 25 Jure, 
Sir Garnet Wolseley sworn in as high commissioner 
at Pietermaritzburg . - 280re29g June, ,, 
Cetywayo totally defeated at Ulundi (whieh see) : 


1878 


ALOU aes 

Sir G. Wolseley receives chiefs . 12d uly, et seq, a 

Lord Chelmsford resigns . 5J uly, As 
Sentence upon capt. Carey, respecting acai of 

prince Napoleon, quashed . + 822 7AUgs ay; 
geet i Cetywayo: captured by: major Richard 

Mart 28 Aug. 4; 


Resting ‘of Sir G. Wolseley with Zulu ichiefs ; settle- 


inilitary system abolished; no arms to be im- 
ported; ancient, laws and liberties retained; 
[John Dunn, 20 years in Zululand; conformed to 


Zulu ways]. . Sept. 18 
Sir G. Wolseley’s despatch, announcing end of the 
war, dated 3 Sept. ,, 


Cetyway () (dignified) arrives at Cape Town 1 - Sept. 
His petition to the Queen for restitution declined, 
about 11 July, 186 

John Dunn energetically subdues a revolting chief 
about 30 July, ,. 

Cost of Zulu war, 4,922,1411. 

Sir Evelyn Wood visits Zululand and makes im- 
portant changes . : . Sept. 
Reported fighting among the chiefs - Nov. a, 
The country reported quiet by John Dunn . Dec. ,, 
Cetywayo lands at Plymouth and popes to 
London . 3 Aug. 
Visited Mr. Gladstone 9 Aug. "received oy the 
Queen, 14 Aug. ; by the prince of Wales 16 Aug. ,, 

His restoration to ‘part of his kingdom with restric- 

tions, proposed by the British government Aug. ; 
sails from Southampton - c - Sept. ay, 

Changes made in the territories previous to Cety- 
wayo’s return, announced 4 29 Dec, 
Cetywayo’s restoration accepted 5 proclaimed at 
Ulundi . 29 Jan. 
Struggle between Cety way o and chiefs, announced 
25 April,. %, 

Cetywayo defeated by Oham and others with heavy 


loss, announced : = 16 May, ,, 
My. Fynn, British resident, resigns, announaa 
June, ,, 


Cetywayo is attacked at Ulundi, by Usibepu, 20 
July ; and said to be killed : - 20 uly, 4 
Usibepu said to be all-powerful, Cetywayo a living 
fugitive, announced 8 Aug. 4 
Great battle ; Usibepu defeated by Cetywayo’s 
supporters, ‘announced - 4 «16 ADg aa, 
Cetywayo demands a British enquiry into his 
treatment, announced . 20 Aug. 0 
Cetywayo surrenders to Mr. Osborn, and is taken 
to Durban, about 15 Oct. ; at Lkowe » 5 Novia, 
Defeats of Usibepu by other chiefs . Novoom, 
Flight, and recapture of Cetywayo 27, 28 Jan. 18! 
Zibedu defeats Usutus about 31 Jan. ,, 
Cetywayo dies of heart disease 2 8 Feb. ,, 
Much warfare 5 ¢ . March-May, ,, 
Dinizulu, son of Cetywayo, crowned king by the 
Boers, in presence of 1o,ooo people; grants an 
amnesty, and promises fidelity to the British 
21 May, ,, 
Usibepu, severely defeated by the Boers and 
Usutus, flies, announced 14 June, ,, 
A Boer republic established ; J oubert, president 


Aug. 
Dinizulu said to be deposed 5 * 24 Oct. z 
British flag hoisted at St. Lucia’s bay - « Dec. 


ZURICH was admitted a member and ma¢ 
head of the Swiss confederacy, 1351, and was th 
first town in Switzerland that separated from th 
church of Rome; see Zuinglians. A grave-digge 
at Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by whic 
8 persons lost their lives and many others wei 
grievously injured, 4 Sept. 1776. The Frenel 
under Massena, after repelling an attack of a 
Austrians, retired from Zurich, . June, 1799 
Imperialists were defeated by Massena, the can 
losing 20,000 men in killed and wounded, 2: 
26 Sept. 1799; see Switzerland. A new democrat: 
constitution was adopted, 18 April, 1869. 


On 24 June, 1859, the Austrians were defeated by tl 
allied French and Sardinian army at Solferino. 

Preliminaries of peace were signed at Villa Franca } 
the emperors of Austria and France on 12 Jul 
following. 

A conference between the representatives of the powel 
concerned having been appointed, the first meetiu 
took place at Zurich, on.8 Aug. 

After many iicathe a treaty was signed ro Noy. Lom 


; 


YT 


ZUTPHEN. 


yardy was ceded to Sardinia; the formation of an 
talian Confederation, under the presidency of the 
ope, was determined on, and the rights of the ex- 
rene of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma were re- 
erved., 

e formation of the kingdom of Italy in 1861 annulled 
he treaty of Zurich. 

iss National exhibition, 1 May—27 Dee. 1883. 


ZUTPHEN, in Holland. At a battle here 
Sept. 1 580, between the Spaniards and the Dutch, 
» amiable sir Philip Sidney, author of ‘‘ Arcadia,”’ 
smortally wounded. He died 7 Oct. He was 


941 


ZWITTAU. 


serving with the English auxiliaries, commanded 
by the earl of Leicester. 


ZUYDER ZEB, see Zuider Zee. 


ZUYPER SLUYS (Holland). 


Here sir 


Ralph Abercromby defeated an attack of the French 
under Brune ; the latter suffered great loss, 9 Sept. 
1799- 


ZWITTAU, Moravia. 
feated the 


Here the Prussians de- 
Austrians and captured provisions, 


10 July, 1866. 


AD 


3E 

» ADMIRALTY.—Explosion in clerks’ room (as- 
cribed to gunpowder in an iron pot); Mr. Swain- 
son much hurt; about rz A.M., 23 April, 1885. 

). AFGHANISTAN.—Penjdeh assured to Afghanis- 

tan by Lord Auckland, 1840; Russian advances 
resisted up to Noy., 1884. The Ameer meets Lord 
Dufferin, the viceroy, at Rawul Pindi, 2 April; 
declares at a grand durbar, England and Afgha- 
nistan to stand side by side, 8 April; leaves 12 
April, 1885. See Jndia.and Russia. 


» ALEXANDRA PARK. — Industrial exhibition 
opened 31 March, 1885. 
AMERICA, Cenrrau.—Gen. Barrios, president 


of Guatemala, attempts the union of the five 
states, himself to be dictator ; opposed by all 
except Honduras, Feb. He is defeated and killed 
in a prolonged battle at Chalchuapa, 2 April; 
peace with the states signed 16 April, 1885. 

. AUSTRIA.—Dissolution of the reichsrath, 22 April, 
1885. 

Imperial assent given to the reform act of the 
upper house, 30 April. 

. BANK.—Discount reduced to 3 per cent. May 7; to 
ay, May 143 to 2, May 28, 1885. 

- BECHUANA LAND.—Arrest of Mr. Van Niekirk, 
president of Stellaland republic, and others, on 
charge of murderof Mr. Honey, an Englishman, in 
1883. Announced 24 March, 1885 ; released about 
27 May. 

The country made a crown colony, June, 188s. 

. BELGIUM.—King Leopold proclaimed sovereign of 
the new Congo state, 2 May, 188s. 

Universal exhibition opened at Antwerp by the King, 
2 May, 188s. 

Death of Charles Rogier (aged 85), member of the 
provisional government in 1830, six times minis- 
ter, 27 May, 1885. 

3. BIBLE.—Revised Old Testament published, 19 
May, 188s. 

. BRAZIL.—Resignation of Dantas, anti-slavery 
minister, on account of minority in the chamber, 
5 May, 1885. 

». BUDGET.—Budget of Mr. Childers, 30 April, 1885, 
to provide for estimated expenditure of 88,872,600l., 
and a vote of credit for 11,000,000. on account of 
war in the Soudan, and probable war with Russia. 

Income tax raised to 8d. Increase of duty on beer 
and spirits, succession duties, duty on property of 
corporate bodies. 

Bill rejected on second reading (264-252), 8-9 June, 
1885, 

2 BURMAH.—Bhamo recaptured by the Burmese 
about 16 March, 188s. 

» CAMEROONS.—Mountains and river West Africa. 
Dr. Nachtigall founded a German colony here, 
Aug., which was recognised Oct. 1884. He died 
24 April, 1885. 

. CANADA.—Insurrectionin N.W. territories, headed 
by Louis Riel, of Batoche (see Hudson’s Bay, 1870), 
supported by French half-breeds and Indians, 
claiming political social rights alleged to have 
been promised in 1870 ; government stores seized, 
&e., about 24 March. Capt. Crozier attacks and 
kills many rebels, but retreats. Col. Irvine evacu- 
ates and burns Fort Carleton, 25-27 March, 1885. 

Troops despatched from various parts of the 
dominion, March, April. 

Battleford besieged by Indians, x April. 

Col. Irvine at Prince Albert waiting help, x April. 

Col. Otter, after conflict with Indians, relieves 
Battleford, 24 April. 


a 


be 


Lm 


169. 


180. 


196. 


207. 


209. 


2106. 
245- 
247+ 


280. 


DENDA. 


Gen. Middleton defeats rebels at Fish Creek after 
severe conflict, and suffering much by an ambush 
of sharpshooters, 24 April. 

Col. Otter defeats the rebels after desperate resist- 
ance near Battleford, 3 May. 

Gen. Middleton attacks Batoche on the Saskatche- 
wan river, well defended by Riel, with rifle-pits, &c. 
British success greatly due to the skill and courage 
of Capt. Howard, U.S., in using the Gatling gun, 
which mowed down the enemy, 9 May. 

Batoche captured. 

The Indian Chief Poundmaker captures a supply 
train, 31 waggons ; defeated in an engagement but 
supplies not recovered, 14 May. 

Riel surrenders to Gen. Middleton’s scouts; many 
of his followers surrender, 15 May. 

r,500 Indians under Big-Bear and Poundmaker 
hold out, reported 15 May. 

Surrender of the Indian chiefs; Poundmaker sur- 
renders, 26 May. 

General Strange attacks Big-Bear’s entrenched 
camp, about 20 miles from Fort Pitt, but retreats 
in good order, 28, 29 May. 

Big-Bear’s army divided pursued by generals Mid- 
dleton and Strange ; his escape reported, 7 June. 
Communication of the Canadian Pacific Railway 
(from Halifax, Nova Scotia, to Port Moody, British 

Columbia), 18 May, 1885. 

CHANCELLOR, lord high; Ireland: Sir Edwd. 
Sullivan died, 13 April ; succeeded by John Naish, 
about 25 April; Edward Gibson (with a peerage), 
24 June, 1885. 

CHINA.—Siege of Tuyen Quan, much slaughter, 
2-3 March. 

Several forts at Kelung captured. 

Sanguinary conflicts, 4-12 March. 

Sir Henry Parkes, ambassador, dies, 22 March. 

Pescadores Islands captured, 30-31 March. 

Preliminaries of peace, through intervention of Sir 
Robt. Hart, signed at Pekin about 6 April ; treaty 
signed, 9 June, 188s. 

Sir Robert Hart, British ambassador, 23 June, 1885. 

COAL.—Explosions, 1885: At Camphausen, near 
Saarbrtick, about 140 perish, 17 March, 1885 ; 
Dombrau, Ostrau, Moravia, about 41 deaths, 
27 March; Fenton Colliery, near Stoke-on-Trent, 
8 deaths, 7 April; Houghton-le-Spring, about 12 
perish, 3 June; Clifton Hall, near Pendlebury, 
Lancashire, about 170 perish, 9.30 A.M. 18 June. 


COMPREHENSION BILL.—Passed by the House 
of Lords in 1689, it proposed changes likely to 
induee Nonconformists to join the Church of 
England—it was dropped in the Commons, being 
unsatisfactory to all parties. 

CONGO RIVER.—King Leopold II. proclaimed 
sovereign of the new Congo state at Brussels, 
2 May, 1885. 

COREA.—British flag set up at Fort Hamilton, as 
a station (not annexed), announced, 3 April, 1885. 
DENMARK.—Importation and possession of arms. 

and drill prohibited, 5 May, 188s. 

DERBY-DAY. — Winner, 1885, Melton (lord Has- 
tings), 3 June. 

EGYPT.—Gen. Grenfell succeeds Sir E. Wood as 
commander-in-chief, about x April, 1885. 

Bosphore Egyptien, a Cairo newspaper, suppressed 
by decree, 29 Feb. 1884; carried into effect, for 
publication of a proclamation of the Madhi, on 
g April, 1885; the French government much 
offended by the manner of suppression ; the dis- 


319: 


326. 


353° 


386. 


391. 


397: 


398. 


409. 


425- 


ADDENDA. . 


political education and to stimulate liberal 
organisation. 

FELIBRIGE.—A literary septennial festival held 
in Provence by félibres, writers in prose and verse 
in the langue d’oc, founded in 1854, in honour of 
seven eminent troubadours. 

FIRES (in London).—Mr. H. Chandler’s, 194, 
Union-st., Borough ; 5 lives lost, including Alice 
Ayres, who courageously saved 3 children, 23-24 
April, 1885. 

Japanese village burnt; 1 life lost, 2 May, 1885. 

Jackson and Graham’s upholstery workshops, near 
Oxford-st., 6 May. 

Messrs. Groom’s wood-yard at Camberwell de- 
stroyed, 9 May. 

Mr. Wm. Whiteley’s establishment, Westbourne- 
grove, Over 100,ooo0l. damage, 17 June, 1885. 

FRANCE.—Duty on foreign corn voted by the 
senate, 27 March, 1885. 

M. Ferry’s ministry defeated on vote of credit for 
Chinese war (308—161) ; resigns 30 March, 1885. 
Vote of credit for 2,000,c0col., 31 March; for 

6,000,0001., 7 April, 1885. 

New ministry: H. Brisson, president and justice ; 
D. EB. Freycinet, foreign ; Allain Targé, interior ; 
Goblet, public instruction and worship; gen. 
Campenon, war; adm. Galiber, marine ; Clama- 
geran, afterwards Sadi.Carno, finance ; and others, 
6 April. 

Bosphore Eqyptien atfair, see Egypt, May. 

Anarchist demonstration at Pere la Chaise ; many 
wounded by the police, 24 May. 

Death of Victor Hugo, poet, dramatist and novelist, 
aged 83, 22 May; buried in the Panthéon ; pro- 
cession 3 miles long, all Paris spectators, 1 June, 
1885. 

Scrutin de liste bill passed with the Senate’s amend- 
ments, 8 June. 

Death of admiral Courbet, rz June. 

See China and Tonquin. 

GLADSTONE’S ADMINISTRATION.— Resigned 
on account of minority on the Budget bill (264- 
252),9 June; he declines an earldom, 16 June, 1885. 

GORDON MEMORIALS. — Subscriptions to 20 
June, 1885, about 17,5001. Port Said Hospital 
scheme given up, 30 May, 188s. 

Opening of penny subscription to establish a Gordon 
camp at Aldershot for the military training of desti- 
tute boys; originated by Mr. Hallam Tennyson, 
May, 1885. 

Gordon League to provide entertainment for the 
very poor, instituted by the princess Louise and 
others, 19 May, 188s. 

GREECE.—Railway between Athens and Corinth 
opened rs April, 1885. 

Tricoupi’s ministry resigns through minority in 
elections about 20 April; Delyanni’s ministry 
formed 1 May, 1885. 

GREEN WICH.—Construction of great steam-ship 
ferry over the Thames, authorised by the Commons 
1 May, 1885 

HARTLEPOOL, E. Durham, an ancient seaport, 
said to have been burnt by the Danes, 800, forti- 
fied by the Bruces and others, and chartered by 
John. The foundation of West Hartlepool, with 
its harbour, docks, churches, &c., is due to the 
sagacity, skill, and energy of Mr. Ralph Ward 
Jackson. The work began in 1844, and the har- 
bour was opened xz June, 1847. The population, 
about 400 Im 1840, Was 28,167 in 1881. Mr. R. W. 
Jackson, first M.P. for ‘‘The Hartlepools” in 
1868-74, died 6 Aug. 1880, much honoured at home 
and abroad. 

HUGUENOT SOCIETY of London, established by 
sir H. Austen Layard and other descendants of 
Huguenots, about 15 April, 1885. 


427. HUNGARY.—National exhibition at Pesth opened 


by the emperor, 2 May, 1885. 


442. INDIA.—The Nawab of Moorshedabad and other 


princes offer to sell their jewels, &c., to provide 
money to aid the British government in India 
against Russia, April—May, 1885. 

Thorough defence of India determined on by the 
British government, declared 12 May, 1885. 


490. 


617. 


617. 


636. 


641. 


683. 


735: 


737: 


772. 


852. 


942 
PAGE FAGE 
pute settled by British intervention, announced, Proposed loan of 10,000,000l., 21 May et seq. 188s. 
28 April, 1885 ; paper reappears, 20 May, 188s. 455. IRELAND.—The prince of Wales arrives at Dubli 
281. EIGHTY CLUB.—Hstablished in 1880, to promote 8 April; sails from Larne, 27 April, 188s. 


The [rish R. C. bishops summoned to Rome; arri 
21 April; rebuked by the Pope for disloyalty, & 
in separate interviews, 27 April—15 May; bish 
Nulty’s pastoral, foretelling secession of. Irela; 
from Rome, causes great displeasure ; the bisho 
oppose projected reforms at Maynooth, but a 
said to submit, ‘announced 19 May; dismiss 
about 25 May, 188s. 

LAND.—The National Land Company, founded ' 
the dukes of Argyll and Westminster, the earl 
Ripon, and others, for the object of buying la 
to be sold in small portions to be farmed, 
April, 1885. 

PANAMA.—Colon and Aspinwall, with consulat 
burnt by the rebels under gen. Aizpurn, announce 
1 April, 1885. 

United States marines defeat the rebels; destr 
barricades and occupy Panama, to protect pr 
perty and railway transit, about 24 April, 1885. 

The Columbian government resume possession 
Panama; amnesty granted, with exceptions, 
April, 1885. 

Canal works proceeding, 2 May, 1885. 

Gen. Aizpurn arrested, 4 May, 1885; martial-la 
about 12 June. 

PANTHEON, Paris, a magnificent building found 
by Louis XV. in pursuance of -a vow, dedicated 
Ste. Genevieve ; built by Soufflot, 1757-90; nam 
Pantheon, and decreed to be a mausoleum { 
eminent men, 1791; made a church, 1806; nam 
Ste. Genevieve, 1821 ; re-named Pantheon, 183 
again a church, Nov. 1852; again secularised, 
May, 1885; received the remains of Victor Hu: 
xr June, 1885. 

PERU.—Insurrection ; government troops ¢ 
feated at Ayacucho, announced 2 May, 1885. 


PHOTOGRAPHY.—By means of the gelatine d 
plate, the results of the astronomical work 
years is now obtained in hours. Delicate deta 
are obtained not only of comets, nebule and fai 
stars, but also of stars invisible by the mc 
powerful telescopes. Since 1876, Dr. W. Huggi 
and Mr. Andrew A. Common in England, and \ 
Draper in America, have been eminently succe: 
ful in celestial photography. About 4oo sti 
have been depicted in the space of two squa 
inches. 

PRUSSIA.—Death of prince Frederick Charles, t 
**Red Prince,” aged 57, 15 June, 1885. 


. RUSSIA.—The Russian general Komaroff, near t 


Kushk and Murghab rivers, commands t 
Afghans to retire; on their refusal, attacks th: 
at Ak-tapa (or Akteépe or Pul-i-khusti), ne 
Penjdeh ; defeats them with much slaughter, a 
captures artillery and stores; many Afgha 
perish in the retreat through exposure, 30 Marc 
sir Peter Lumsden reports the attack on t 
Afghans to have been unprovoked, about 21 Apr 
1885. 

The British government prepares for war with gre 
energy ; strongly supported by the colonies a: 
Indian princes. 

British government statement; new agreeme 
with Russia; arbitration respecting fight | 
March 30 accepted 4 May.; Denmark accepts wo 
of arbitration, May, 188s. 

Agreement on delimitation settled by earl Gra 
ville and earl of Kimberley, with MM. de St: 
and Lessar ; approval reported, 30 May. 


SALISBURY ADMINISTRATION, see page 93/ 


SANITARY LEGISLATION, &c. — Internatior 
Sanitary Conference at Rome, 28 states represent 
20 May-13 June, 1885. 

SOUDAN.—Major-gen. sir G. Greaves assum 
command at Suakim, 18 May ; leaves 15 June. 
Handoub evacuated by the British, 22 May, 188 
occupied by the Arabs, many of whom join Osm: 

Digma, June. : 

Dongola evacuated, 15 June. 

TRIALS.—Eugene Loraine, engraver, an acco! 
plished swindler, and chief of a seminary of crilt 
convicted of attempted fraud by forgery, 22 Ma 
1885. 


wh i 


INDEX. 


——— 


e references are to articles in the body of the work ; the italics refer to articles in this Index. The year given is 
A.D. when B.C. is not mentioned ; two dates after the name, thus, 1508-82, signify the year of the person’s birth 


and death; 0., born; d., died; fi., flourished; m. 


, murdered ; k., killed. The year of the birth and death is 


given of many eminent persons who are not mentioned in the body of the work. ] 
‘incent’s DicTIONARY OF BioGRAPHY was expressly compiled to give further details than those found in this Index.) 


BADIES expl. Ethiopia, 1837-45 
bas, Persia 
bot, abp.; Canterbury, 1611 
bot, Charles; speaker, 1802 


bot & Moulin ; Thessalonica, 1876 | 


bott, E.; concordance to Pope, 


875 
d-el-Kader; Algiers, 1835 
derahman I.—V., caliphs, 755- 


023 

dul-Medjid, Turkey, 1839-61 
dul-Aziz, Turkey, 1839 
dul-Rahman (or Abdur-rahman) ; 
\fghanistan, 1863-81 

dul-Hamid ; Turkey, 1774, 1876 
dul-Kerim, Russo-Turkish War, II. 


77 
el, F. A., glyoxiline, 1866, gun 
otton, explosives 
el Oghlan, Dzoungeria, 1864 
elard, d. 1142; Abelard, theology 
ercorn, Jas. marquis of, b. 1811; 
reland, Id. lieut., 1866; (duke) 
874 
ercromby, Jas., speaker, 1835 
ercromby, sir R., 1738 - 1801; 
‘yinidad, Alexandria 
erdeen, earl of, 1784-1860; Aber- 
leen adm., note 
ernethy, J., surgeon, 1764-1831 
ingdon, earl of; trials, 1794 
inger, ld., att.-gen., 1827; 
hequer 
hey, capt.; photography, 1882 
ou Saoud; Egypt, 1872 
out, Edm. F. C., Nov. 1828-85 ; 
france, 1872 
rantes, duke of; see Junot 
salom, killed 1023 B.C. 
ubeker; Ali, 632 
acius, Acacians, henoticon, 482 
cum, F.; adulterations, 1822 
hilli v, Newman; trials, 1852-3 
hmet; see Ahmed 
lius; statues, temples 
kermann, R.; lithography, 1817 
ron; acromatics, 473 B.C. 
con, Mrs., Royal Inst., 1838 
tuarius ; purgatives, 1245 
air, serj.; Junius, 1769 
albert, St.; Prussia, 997 
am; duels, 1779 
lam, and bros., 
728-92 
am, W. M.; mensuration 
am, W. P.; Madras, 1880, whip 
tladstone adm., 1880 
ams, J. C., mathemat.; Neptune, 
845; J. (1797) and J. Q. (1825), 
Jnited States (presidents) 


ex- 


architects 


Adams v, Dundas; trials, 1831 

Adderley, Mr.; Birmingham, 1856 

Adderley, sir C.; Disraeli adminis- 
tration, 1874 

Addington, H.,1757-1844; Addington. 


Addison, Joseph, 1672-1719, Spec- | 
tator, 1711; Stanhope administra- | 


tion, 1717; allegory, Clio, clubs 


Adelais ; Adelaide ; England, queens | 


(Henry I., William IV.) 

Adeodatus; pope, 672 

Adolphus, Frederic; Sweden, 1751 

Adrian, Rome; emperor, 117; edicts, 
persecutions; popes 

Aéetius, Aétians 

figeus; Athens, 1283 B.c. 

/figineta, Paulus; surgery, 640 

figisthus ; Mycene, 1201 B.C. 

/Emilianus; Rome, 146 B.c. 

/Hneas; Italy, Alba, 1182 B.c. 

Eschines, Gk. orator, 389-314 B.C. 

4Eschylus, Greek tragedy, 525-456 
B.c.; drama 

Esop; fables (about 600 B.C.) 

Afranio, bassoon 

Africanus; see Scipio 

Agamemnon; Mycens, r2oz B.C. 

Agathocles, d. 289 B.c.; Carthage, 
Sicily, Syracuse 

Age, proprietor of; trials, 1844 

Agesander; Laocoon 

Agesilaus; Sparta, 398 B.c. 

Agis; Sparta, 427 B.c. 

Agnew, Mr. Vans; India, 1848 

Agnodice; midwifery 

Agricola; Britain, d. 93; Lancaster, 
Caledonia, Roman wall 

Agricola, John, d. 1566; 
mians 

Agrippa, d. 12 8.c.; Pantheon, 27 B.c. 

Ahmed [.—III.; Turkey, 1603, e¢ seq. 

Ahmed Vefik, Turkey, 1878 

Aholiab; sculpture 

Ainsworth, W. H., Nov. 1805-82 

Airy, Sir G. B., b. 1801; Greenwich, 
1835; pendulum, standard, Royal 
Society, 1871 ; Albert medal, 1876 ; 
sun 

Aislabie, Mr.; Sunderland adminis- 
tration, 1718; South Sea 

Akbar, India; 1556 

Akenside, Mark, poet, 1721-70 

Alacocque, M. M.; sacred heart 

Alamayou, Abyssinia, 1868 

Alaric, d. 410; Rome, France 

Albemarle, Geo. Monk, duke of, 
1608-70; administration, 1660 

Alberoni, card, 1664-1752; Spain,1715 

Albert; Austria, Bohemia, Germany, 
Hungary 


Antino- 


Albert I., assassination, 1308 

Albert (prince consort), 1819 - 61: 
England, 1840; regency bill, duel- 
ling 

Albert - Edward ; 
family), Wales 

Albertus, Magnus; automatons 

Alboin the Longobard, killed 573 

Albrecht; Austria, 1866; Custozza 

Albuquerque (viceroy), d. 1515; In- 
dia, 1503 

Alcantara, gen.. Venezuela, 1876 

Alcibiades, killed 404 B.c.; Athens 

Alcippe; Areopagitze 

Alcock, Mr. ; duelling, 1807: sir R., 
Japan Z 

Alcuin (theologian), about 725-804 

Aldebert; impostors, 743 

Aldhelme; Salisbury, 705; ballads: 

Alectus; Britain, 294 

Aleko pasha, Roumelia 

Alencon, duc d’; Agincourt, 1415 

Alexander of Paris; Alexandrine 

Alexander the Great, 356-323 B.C.; 
Macedon, Egypt, Gordon, Tyre, 
Memphis 

Alexander Severus; Rome, em., 222 

Alexander I., d. 1825; Russia, 1801 ; 
Austerlitz, 1805; Leipsic, 1813 

Alexander II., Russia, 1855, assassi- 
nations 

Alexander III.; Russia, 188x 

Alexander ; Scotland (kings) ; Pope 

Alexander, sir W.; Nova Scotia, 


England (royal 


1722 

Alexius, East (emperors), 1081-1203 

Alfieri, Victor, Ital. poet, 1749-1803 

Alfred the Great, 849-901 ; Ashdown, 
England, councils, clocks, crown, 
militia 

Alfred, prince ; Godwin, 1053 

Alfred, duke of Edinburgh, 0. 1844 ; 
aquarium, England (royal family), 
music, Plymouth. 

Alibaud ; France, 1836 

Alice, princess, 1843-78; England; 
royal family ; Hesse ; diphtheria 

Ali Pacha; Rosetta; Turkey, 1820 3 
Albania 

Alison, Arch., hist., 1792-1867; — 
sir A. (soldier), Ashantees, 1874 ; 
Egypt, 1882 

Allen, R., post-office, 1720 

Allen and others ; Fenians, 1867 

Alleyne, Edwd., d. 1617; Dulwich 

Almagro ; Abancay, 1537 

Almansour ; Bagdad, 762 

Almeida, L. ; Madagascar, 1506 

Alphonso; Sicily, Spain, Portugal 
(kings) 


944 


INDEX. 


Alsop, Joseph; trials, 1839 

Althorp, vise. ; Grey administration, 
1830; Melbourne, 1835 

Aluinayu, Abyssinia, 1868-79 

Alva, duke of, 1508-82; Antwerp, 
Holland 

Alvanley, lord; duel, 1835 

Alvinzi, marshal; Arcola, 1796 

Alyattes ; Lydia, 761 B.c. 

Alypius of Alexandria ; dwarfs 

Amadeus, Savoy; annunciation 

Amadeus, duke of Aosta, b. 1845; 
king of Spain, 1870-3 

Amalric, pantheism 

Ambrose, St., d. 397; anthems, Te 
Deum, liturgies 

Ambrosius ; Stonehenge 

Amenophis ; Egypt, 1821 B.C. 

Americus Vespucius, 1451-1516; 
America, note 

Amherst, lord; China, 1816; India, 
182 

Arnisens Marcellinus, Lat. hist., 
d. 390 

Amontons, W. ; 1663-1705, telegraphs 

Amos, prophesies about 787 B.C. 

Ampere, O. M,, 1775-1836; electricity 
(galvanism and telegraph) 

Amulius ; Alba, 974 B.C. 

Amurath; Turkey, Beyrout 

Amyntas ; Macedon, 540 B.C. 

Anacharsis, 592 3B.C.; anchors, 
bellows ; 

Anacletus:; pope, 78 

Anacreon, Gr. poet, fl. abt. 557 B.C. 

Anastasius ; pope; East; emperors 

Anaxagoras, 480 B.C. ; earthquakes 

Anaximander, 547 B.C. ; maps 

Anaximenes, 548 B.C. ; air 

Andersen, Hans C., Dan. novelist, 
1805-75 

Anderson, J.; slavery (in United 
States), 1853 ; Wizard of the North, 
masquerade, 1856 

Anderson, Mrs. physic, 1865 

Anderssen, chess, 1851-70 

Anderwert, M.; Switzerland, 1880 

Andrassy ; Hungary, 1867 

André, maj. ; United States, 1780 

Andrew ; Hungary, kings 

Andrews, H., d. 1820; almanacs 

Andrews v. Salt; trials, 1873 

Andronicus, 240 B.c. ; drama 

Andronicus; Eastern empire, 1113, 
1328 

Angela, St.; Ursuline nuns, 1537 

Angerstein, J., d. 1823; National 
Gallery 

Anglesey, Henry, marquis of, 1768- 
1854; Ireland (lord-lieutenant), 
1828, 1830 

Angus, earl of ; Linlithgow 

Anjou, Plantagenet, Jarnac, 1569; 
Naples, 1266 

Ankerstrom (kills Gustavus III.), 
Sweden, 1792 

Anna, Santa ; Mexico, 1853-76 

Anne of Brittany, d. 1514; maids of 
honour 

Anne of Austria, d. 1666; iron mask 

Anne, queen, b. 1664 ; England, 1702- 
14; semper eadem 

Ansell, G. ; fire-damp, 1865 

Anselm, abp. ; Canterbury, 1093 

Anson, admiral; Acapulco, 1744; 
naval battles, 1747 

Anson, general; India, 1857 

Anthony ; monachism, 4th century ; 
—arson, 1871 

Antigonus ; Ipsus, 301 B.c. ; profiles 

Antiochus I.—X., 280-65 B.c. ; Syria, 
Jews, 170 or 168 B,C. 

Antipater ; Cranon, 322 B.C. 

Antisthenes ; cynics, 396 B.C. 

Antonelli, card. 1806-76; Rome, 1848 

Antonelli case, Italy. 1877-8 

Antoninus Pius, Rome, emperors, 
138; Roman wall 


Antony, Mark, d. 30; Rome, 43B.¢.; 
Armenia, Philippi, 42B.c.; Actium, 


T BiG, 
Anviti, col., killed ; Parma, 1859 
Apelles, painter, 352-308 B.C. 
Apollodorus ; Trajan’s pillar, 114 
Apollonius ; Syria, 168 B.c. 
Appian, hist., fl. about 147 
Appius Claudius; Rome, 449 B.C. ; 
aqueducts, decemviri, Virginia 
Applegath ; printing machines 
Apries ; Egypt, 571 B.C. 
Apsley, ld. ; North adminis., 1770 
Apuleius, Latin novelist, d. 174 
Aquinas, Thos., theol., d. 1274 
Arabi Bey ; Egypt, 1881-2 
Arago, D. F., nat. phil., 1786-1853 
Aram, Eugene ; trials, 1759 
Aratus ; Achaia, 245 B.C. 
Arbogastes ; Aquileia, 394 
Arcadius and Honorius; eastern and 
western empire, 395 
Arch, J. ; agriculture, 1872 
Archdale, J., quaker, 1699 
Archelaus ; Cappadocia, 
Macedon, 413 B.C. , 
Archemorus ; Nemzan games 
Archer, F. 8. ; collodion, 1851 
Archidamus ; Sparta, 648 B.c. 
Archilochus, 708 B.c. ; Iambice verse 
Archimedes, 287-212 B.c.; circle, 
cranes, mechanics, mensuration, 
organs, reflectors, screw, spheres 
Archytas ; math., about 400 B.C.; 
automaton, pulley 
Ardesoif, Mr. ; cockfighting, 1788 
Ardgillan, lord; Disraeli adm., 1874 
Aretin, Gui; musical notes, 1025 
Arfastus, chancellor, 1067 
Arfwedson, Mr. ; lithium, 1817 
Argyll, duke of; Dunblane, 1715 ;— 
Gladstone adm., 1868, 1880 
Ariarathes ; Cappadocia (kings) 
Ariobarzanes, 322 B.c. ; Cappadocia, 


2O0Nn BOs 


93 B.C. 

Ariosto, L. Ital. poet, 1474-1533 

Aris, gov. ; prisons, 1800 

Aristarchus, 156 B.C. ; sun, globe 

Aristeus ; conic sections, 330 B.C. 

Aristides the Just, d. 468 B.C.; 
Athens 

Aristippus ; Cyrenaic sect, 392 B.C. 

Aristocrates ; Arcadia, 715 B.C. 

Aristodemus ; biarchy, rro2 B.C. 

Aristophanes, d. 380 B.c. ; comedy 

Aristotle, 384-322 B.c. ; Aristotelian 
philosophy, acoustics, botany, 
Macedon, mechanics, metaphysics, 
philosophy 

Arius, d. 336; Arians 

Arkwright, R., 1732-92 ; cotton, Man- 
chester, spinning 

Arles-Dufour ; see Dufour 

Arlington, lord; cabal, 1670 

Armati; Rome, 1875 

Arminius, or Hermann; Teutoburg, 9 

Arminius, J., d. 1609; Arminians, 
Dort 

Armitage, sir E. ; Manchester, 1876 

Armstrong, sir W. G. ; electricity, 
1840; Cannon, 1859 

Arne, T., music composer, 1710-78 ; 
Rule Britannia 

Arnim, H.; Germany, Prussia, 1874- 
81 

Arnold, gen. ; United States, 1780 

Arnold, M. ; culture 

Arnold, Dr. Thos., hist., 1795-1842 

Arnott, Neil, 1788-1874 ; stove, 1821 ; 
bed, 1830; ventilators 

Arrian, hist., fl. 148. 

Arsaces ; Arsacidee, Parthia, 250 B.c. 

Arsenius, Arsenians, 1261 

Artabazus ; Pontus, 487 B.C. 

Artaxerxes ; Persia (kings) 

Artemisia; mausoleum, 350 B.C. 

Artemon ; battering-ram, 441 B.C. 

Arthur, king; Britain, 506 


Arthur, prince ; Connaught, 1874 
Artois, count d’; duelling, 1778 
Arundel, abp. ; Canterbury, 1397- 
Arundel, Henry, earl of; admin 
trations, 1547; Thos., Arundel 
marbles 
Ascunius ; Alba, rr52 B.C. 
Ascham, Roger, 1515-1568 ; arche 
Asdrubal ; see Hasdrubal 
Aselli, G. ; lacteals (1622), lymphat 
Ash, Dr. ; Birmingham, 1766 
Asgill, Mr. ; translation, 1703 
Ashburton, lord ; Ashb. treaty, x: 
Ashe, gen. ; Briar’s creek, 1779 
Ashford, Mary ; appeal, 1818 
Ashley, lord ; cabal, 1670 
Ashley, sir Arthur ; cabbages 
Ashton, colonel; Wigan, 1643 
Aske; pilgrimage of grace, 1536 
Aslett, Rob. ; exchequer bills, 1& 
Aspden, J. ; Portland cement 
Aspinall ; trials, 1876 
Assheton, Wm. ; clergy charities 
Astley, lord; Naseby, 1645 
Aston, sir A. ; Drogheda, 1649 
Astyages ; Media, 594 B.c. 
Athanasius, d. 373 ; Athan. creed 
Athelstan; England (king), 9: 
mint, 928 
Atheneus, Greek, fl. 228, quotatic 
Atherton, sir Wm., att. gen., 186z 
Athol, duke of ; Man, sold by, 17¢ 
Athothes ; hieroglyphics, writing 
Atlay, bp., Hereford, 1868 
Atossa; marriage by sale 
Attalus, d. 197 B.c. ; seven church 
(Pergamus), parchment 
Atterbury, bp. F. ; banished, 172 
Attila ; Hungary, Chalons, 452 
Attwood, B.; hospitals 
Attwood, T. ; chartists, 1838 
Atwood, G., d. 1807; Atwood’s n 
chine 
Atwell, W. ; trials, 1857 
Auber, D., music composer, 1784-1! 
Auchmuty, sir Samuel; Batav 
1811; Monte Video, 1807 
Auckland, ld. bp. ; Bath and Wel 


185 
Anotiand: lord ; Grey administrati¢ 
1830; India, 1835 
Audiffret, see D’ Audiffret 
Audubon J. J. 1780-1851 ; birds 
Auerbach, B. Ger., Nov. 1805-82 
Augereau, gen. ; Castiglione, 1796 
Augustenburg, duke of; Denmai 


1863 
Augustin, St. (of Hippo), 354-430 
Augustin the monk, abp. Canterbui 
602; Rochester 
Augustus (emperor); Rome, 27 B.¢ 
preetorian guards ; calendar 
Aulus Gellius, Latin misc., jl. 169 
Aumale, duc d’; France, 1871- 
Orleans ; assassinations 
Aurelian; Rome, emp. 
manni 
Aurelius ; Rome, emp. 16t | 
Aurelle de Paladines, Franco-Germi 
war; d. 1877 
Aurungzebe ; India, 1658 , 
Ausonius, Lat. poet, d. 3942)» 
Austin ; see Augustin ' 
Austin, capt. ; Franklin 
Austin, W. ; trials, 1855 ; 
Austria, John of; Lepanto, 1577 © 
Averroes, med. writer, jl. 1149-1198 
Avicenna, med. and phil., 980-1037 
Avisa; queens (John) 
Ayesha, Mahomet’s widow; camé 
day of, 656 : 
Ayoob or Ayoub Khan; Afghanistal 
Herat, and Candahar ¥- 
Ayrton, A. A. ; Gladstone adm., 18 
—W. harmonica ; 
Azeglio, marchese d’ ; Italian patrio 
1800-66 ; 
Azim ; Affghanistan, 1863 


270: A 


INDEX. 


945 


‘ 


B. 


ybage, C., 1792-1871; calculating 
iachine 

cock, general, United States, 1876 
yer; India, 1525 

yeuf, d. 1791; agrarian law 

rius ; fable 

yyngton (which see), 1586 

h, A. ; resonator 

h, J. Sebastian ; passion music ; 
lusic., 1685-1750 

helier, M. ; encaustic, 1749 
ciocchi, princes Piombino 
hmeier, A.; pasigraphy, 1871 

k, G. ; north-w. passage, 1833 
on, F., lord, 1561-1626; lawyers, 
sronautics. 

on, sir Nicholas; keeper, 1d., 
58; baronet 

on, John, sculptor, 1740-99 

on, Roger, 1214-1292; astrology, 
mera lucida, loadstone, magic- 
ntern, magnet, optics, spectacles 
on, T. F.; trials, 1857 

cock, Mr. ; vaccination 

Z, B. Hayti, 1859-68 

in, W. M.; Baffin’s Bay, 1616 
shot, Walter, essayist, 1826-77 
gallay, sir R. 3; solicitor-general, 
73; attorney-general, 1874 ; jus- 
ces, lords, 1875 

nal, lieut.; duel, 1812 

ot, bishop; Oxford, 1829 

ot will case, trials, 1878 

ration, pr.; Mohilows, 1812 

ster, Miss M.; trials, 1828 ; E. lon- 
Vvity, 1877 

ey, rev. W.; trials, 1843 

lie, col.; Arcot, 1780 

lie, general; Alford, 1645 

lie, Joanna, poet, 1762-1851 

ly, M., philos., executed, 1793 
vbrigg, abp.; York, 1508 

1, A. : education society 

bridge, W. ; flageolet 

ies, M. T.; Palmerston adm. 1855 
d, sir David ; Cape, 1806; Seringa- 
tam, 1799 

zet; Turkey, 1389 

er, colonel; Bull’s Bluff, 1861 

er, H.; Bakerian lecture, 1765 

er, Sir S. W.; Africa, 1864; Egypt, 
uve trade, 1869-74; col. Vz, 
als, 1875; Russo-Turkish war 
3 1878; Egypt, 1882; Soudan, 


er v. Loder; trials, 1872 

er, gen. ; Char-asiab 

x pasha ; Turkey, 1879; Egypt, 
udan, 1883-4 

rd, M.; amylene, 1844 

han, admiral; Alderney, 1744 
win I.—V.; Jerusalem, 1100-85; 
ist Flanders 

s, P. ; caligraphy 

2, M. W., mus. comp., 1808-70 
our, John; Scotland, 1679 

J.T. ; chancellor (Ireland), 1874 
rat, Melbourne, 1854 

wd, John; Babyngton’s con- 
iracy, 1586 

usteros, gen. ; Ximena, 1811 

ol, Edw.; Scotland, kings, 1329 
ol, John; Scotland, 1293; Ox- 
‘d, Dunbar 

iain, W. H. ;. luminous paint 
lerino, lord ; rebellion, Scotland, 
15; trials, 1746 
more, lord; 
als, 1768 

roft, abp.; Canterbury, 1604 
roft, G., Am. hist., b. 1800 
roft, Mr. and Mrs., theatre 
aymarket) 

lmann, M.; trials, 1878 


America, 1632 


Banks, sir J., 1743-1820; hort. soc., 
Royal Institution, 179 

ea H. C.; Gladstone adm., 
I600 

Bannister, Mr., actor; retired, 181 5 

Bar, duc de; Agincourt, 1415 

Baradeus ; Eutychians, Jacobites 

Baranelli, L. ; trials, 1855 

Barante, A. G. de, Fr. hist., 1787-66 

Barantz, north-west passage, 1504 

Barbarossa, Fred. I.; emp. Germany, 
II52-90 

Barbarossa, d. 1546; Tunis, Algiers 

Barbauld, Mrs. A. L., 1743-1825 

Barber, Fletcher, Saunders, 
Dorey : trials, 1844, and note 

Barberini; Portland vase 

Barbey, M.; France, 1883 

Barbou; printers, 1539-1813 

Barbour, J.; trials, 1853 

Barbour, John, Scot. poet, 1 316-95 

Barclay, capt.; pedestrianism, 1809 

Barclay, Perkins, & Co.; porter 

Barclay, Rob., 1648-90; quakers 

Barham, lord; admiralty, 1805 

Baring, Alex.; Peel administ. 1834; 
sir F.; London Inst. 1805; Russell 
adm. 1846 

Baring, Mr. ; Egypt, 1879 

Baring, sir Evelyn; India, 1880; 
Egypt, 1883 

Barker, Robert ; panorama, 1788 

Barkly, sir H.; cape, 1870 

Barlaam ; Barlaamites, 1337 

Barlow ; clocks, 1676 

Barlow, rev. J.; Royal Institut., 1842 

Barlow, sir G,; India (governors), 1805 

Barlowe, William; compass, 1608 

Barnard, general; India, 1857; judge, 
United States, 1872 

Barnardo, Dr., Barnardo’s homes, 
cottee-palaces 

Barnes, T., d. 1841; Times 

Barnett, Geo.; trials, 1816 

Baroux, M.; serutin 

Barraud and Lund : clocks, 1878 

Barré, Isaac; Rockingham adminis- 
tration, 1782 

Barrett; Cumberland, naval battles, 
1811; Fenians, 1868 

Barrie, capt. ; naval battles, 181z 

Barrington, bp. ; Durham, 1791 

Barrington, Mr.; duel, 1788 

Barrington ; trials, 1790 

Barrios, gen. R.; Guatemala, 1873; 
America, Central, 1885 

Barrot, Odilon, 1791-1873; France, 
1848 

Barrow, Isaac, theol. and philos., 
1630-77 

Barry, sir Charles, architect, 1795- 
1860; parliament, note; Reform Club 

Barth, Dr.; Africa, 1849 

Barthélémy, E.; trials, 1855 

Bartholdi, M., sculptor; 
States, 1884 

Bartlet, W. M.; trials, 1882 

Barton, Bernard, poet, 1784-1849 

Barton, Dr.; insurance, 1667 

Barton, Elizabeth ; impostor, 1534 

Baschi, Matt.; Capuchins, 1525 

Basil, St., d. 380; Basilians 

Basil; East. emp. 867; Russia 

Basilowitz; Russia, czars, 1462 

Bass, M. T., Derby 

Bastendorff ; trials, 1879 

Bastian, Dr., spontaneous generation 

Bateman, J. F. Glasgow, 1859; tun- 
nels, 1869; water, 1867 

Bates, M. van Buren: giants, 1871 

Bates, W.; United States, 1872 

Bath, earl of; Bath adimin., 1746 

Bathou; Transylvania, 1851, &c, 

Bathurst, bp.; Norwich, 1805 

Bathurst, earl; Liverpool administra- 
tion, 1812 

Bathyllus ; pantomimes 

Batman, J.; Victoria, 1835 


and 


United 


Batthyany ; Hungary, 1848 

Battus ; Cyrene, 631 B.C. 

Baumbos, C. E. ; mutinies, 1876 

Baumé, areometer, 1768 

Baumgarten ; esthetics, 1750 

Bavaria, elector of; Ramilies, 1706 

Baxter, sir D.; Dundee, 1863; d. 1872 

Baxter, miss M. A.; Dundee, 1882 

Baxter, G.; printing in colours, 1836 

Baxter, Rd., theologian, 1615-91 

Baxter v. Langley; trials, 1868 

Bayard, chevalier, killed, 1524 

Bayle, P., d. 1706; dictionary, 1697 

Bayley, lieut.; duel, 1818 

Baynard, Geoffrey ; combat 

Bazaine, marshal, Mexico, 1863-6; 
Franco - Prussian war, 1870-1 ; 
Metz ; France, 1873-43; 1883 

Bazalgette, J. W., b. 1819; sewers, 
Thames 

Beach, sir M. H., Disraeli adm. 1878 

Beaconsfield ; see Disraeli 

Beadon, bishop; Bath, 1802 

Beamish, capt. ; trials, navy, 1871 

Bean aims at the queen; trials, 1842 

Beaton, card. ; assassinations, 1546 

Beattie, Jas.; poet, 1735-1803 

Beauclere, lord Charles, drowned 
while assisting at a wreck, 1861 

Beau Nash; Bath, ceremonies 

Beauchamp, Henry de; Wight 

Beauchamp, John de; barons 

Beaufort, cardinal, d. 1447 

Beauharnais, Eugene, 1781-1824; 
Italy, 1805; Mockern—Hortense, 
*“Partant pour la Syrie’ 

Beaulieu, general; Lodi, 1796 

Beaumont, sir G., painter, 1753-1827 
National Gallery 

Beaumont, Mr.; duel, 1821-1826 

Beaumont ; viscount, 1440 

Beauregard, P. G., b. 1818; United 
States, 1861 

Beaurepaire, gen.; Verdun, 1794 

Beauvoir, sir J. de; trials, 1835 

Beer, Dr. La Crosse 

Beck, T.; volunteers, 1881 

Beckett, T., m. 1170; Becket 

Becket (Denison), sir E. ; bells, locks, 
trials, 1881 

Beckford, W.; Fonthill abbey 

Beckwith, Agnes ; swimming, 1876 

Bedborough, A. ; aquarium, 1876 

Bede, Venerable, d. 735 

Bedford, duke of ; duel, 1822; Ireland, 
lord-lieutenants, 1490-1757; France, 
1422; admiralty, 1744; nobility, 1470 

Bedingfield, Ann; trials, 1763 

Beeby, William ; longevity 

Beecher, rev. H.; United States, 
1874-5 

Beeching, J.; lifeboat, 1851 

Beethoven, L., mus. comp.,1770-182753 
sonata 

Begum charge; Chunar, 1781 

Behmen ; see Bohme 

Behem, Martin; Azores 

Behnes, Wm., sculpt., 1800-64 

Behring, d. 1741; Behring’s straits 

Bela; Hungary, kings 

Belasyse, lord L.; adm., 1687 

Belcher, sir E., 1799-1877; circum- 
navigation, 1836; Franklin 

Belcredi, count Rd., b. 1823; Austria, 
186 

Haviec visa) d. 565; Africa, east emp. 

Belknap, gen. ; United States, 1876 

Bell, And., 1752-1832; Lancasterian 
schools 

Bell, sir C., 1774-1842; nerves 

Bell, Henry; steam, 1812 

Bell, Mr. ; cattle, 1873 

Bell, A. Melville ; visible speech 

Bell, A. Graham ; telephone, 1877; 
photophone 

Bell, rev. Patrick; reaping machine, 
1826 

Bellamont, lord; duel, 1773 


3 P 


946 


- 


Bellamy ; trial, 1844 

Bellarmine, card., 1542-1621 

Bellingham, Perceval adm., 1812 

Bellingham, sir Daniel, (mayor of 
Dublin), 1665 

Bellini; Ital. music., 1802-35 

Bellot, lieut., d. 1853; Franklin 

Belochus; Assyria, 1446 B.C. 

Belt v. Lawes ; trials, 1881 et seq. 

Belus; Assyria, 2245 B.C. 

Belzoni, J. B., traveller, d. 1823 

Bem, gen. Joseph, d. 1850; Hungary 

Benbow, adm.; naval battles, 1702 

Benedek, L., 1804-78; Konigeratz 

Benedict, Benedictines; popes, 574- 
1758 

Rehedion sir Julius, mus. 1804-85 

Bennett, James; Africa, 1872 

Bennett, sir John ; alderman, 1877; 
London, 1877 

Bennett, sir Wm. 
1816-75 

Benson and others ; trials, 1877 

Benson, bp. ; Truro, 18773 Canter- 


Sterndale ; mus., 


bury, 1883 

Bentham Jer. (1748-1832); savings’ 
banks; deontology ; panopticon ; 
utilitarianism 

Bentinck, lord G., d. 1848; protec- 
tionists. 

Bentinck, G. A. F. C.; judge advo- 
cate, 1875 


Bentinck, ld. W.; Assam, India, 1827 

Bentley, Rd., scholar, 1662-1742 

Beranger, J. P. de, poet, 1780-185 

Berengaria, queen (of Richard I.), d. 
I230 

Berengarius; féte de Dieu 

Berenger, Butt, lord Cochrane, and 
others; trials, 1814 

Beresford, lord; Albuera, 1811 

Beresford, lord J.; suicide, 1841 . 

Beresford, Wm.; Derby adm., 1852 

Beresford, lord C.; Soudan, 1885 

Berg, gen.; Poland, 1863 

Bergeret, gen.; France, 1871 

Beriot, Ch. A. de; mis., 1802-70 

Berkeley ; trials, 1811, 1858 

Berkeley, hon. C. ; duel, 1842 

Berkeley, G.; Antigua, Leeward Isles, 


1874 

Berkeley, lord ; admiralty, 1717 

Berkeley, lord; America, N., 1644 

Brest, 1694 ; Carolina 
Berlioz, L. H., Fr. nus., 1803-69 

Bernadotte, 1764-1844; Dennewitz, 
Sweden (king) 

Bernard, Claude, Fr, physiologist, 
1813-78 

Bernard, St., rog1-1153 

Bernard, 8S. ; trial, 1858. 

Bernard, sir Thomas; British Inst., 
1805; Royal Institution, 1799. 

Bernini, G. L. Ital. artist, 1598-1680 

Berri, duke and duchess of; France, 
1820 & 1833, assassinations 

Berrington, rev. J. ; trials, 1873 

Berry, lieut. ; trials, 1807 

Berry, G. ; Victoria, 1875 

Berryer, P. A., Fr. advt. 1790-68 

Berthelot, P. M., b. 1827; acetylene, 
olefiant gas, 1862 

Berthier, gen. ; marshal, 1753-1815 

Berthollet, C. L., Fr. chemist, 1748- 
1822; chlorine 

Berthon, rev. E. L.; life-boat, 1882 

Bertie, lady G. C.; lord great cham- 
berlain 

Berwick, duke of, 
Almanza, Newry 

Berzelius, Jas., 1779-1848 ; chemistry, 
silicium 

Besant, Mrs. A. ; 

Bessel, F.; stars 

Bessemer, H.; iron, 
steam-gun 

Bessus ; ‘Persia, 331 B.C 

Lest, capt. ; ; duel, 1804 ; Surat, 1611 


d. 1734; Landen, 


trials, 1877 


steel, steam, 


INDEX. 


Beswick, F. trials, 1869 

Bethell, bp. ; Gloucester, 1824 

Bethell, sir R., solicitor-gen., 1852, 
attorney-gen., 1859 (see Westbury) 

Bethencourt ; Canaries, 1400 

Betty, master; theatres, 
Roscius 

Beulé ; France, 1874 

IBeust; hs ie ves 
1866 

Bevern, prince; Breslau, 1757 


1804 5 


1809; Austria, 


Bewick, T., 1753-1828; wood en- 
graving 

Bexley, Vansittart, lord; Liverpool 
adininistration, 1812 

Beza, Theodore, theologian, 1519- 
1605 


Bialobrzeski, abp.; Poland, 1861 


Bianconi, C., d. 1875 5 carriages 
Bickorateth, R. bp. ; Ripon, 1856 
Bickersteth, EK. H., bp.; Exeter, 


1885 
Biddulph, sir R.; Cyprus, 1881 
Bidwells and others ; trials, 1863 
Bidwell, 8. ; telephotography 
Biela, W. von, comet, 1826 
Big Sam ; giants, 1809 
Bingley, lord ; Oxford adm. 1711 
Binney, rev. Thos. » 1798-1874 
Birch, J. W.; Straits, 1875 
Birch, S55 biblical 
Bird, the boy ; trials, 1831 
Bird, I. ; Japan 
Birde, W. ; canon 
Birkbeck, Dr: G., 1776-1841 ; mecha- 
nics’ institutes 
Biscoe, capt.; southern continent, 


1832 
Bishop ; burking, 1831 
Bishop, A. ; derrick, 1857 


Bishop, sir H. 1786-1855; music, 
ancient concerts ; home 

Bishop, Irving ; thought reading 

Bishop, J. F. ; Italy, 1862 

Bismarck, O. von, 3, 1813; Prussia, 
1862-76; France, 1870-3; Franco- 
Prussian War, Germany. 

Black, Dr. ; duel, 1835 

Black, Jos. ; chemist, 1728-g9 ; 
nesia, air, balloon 

Blackburn, abp. ; York, 1724 

Blackall, Mr. ; Queensland, 1868 


mag- 


Blackstone, sir W., 1723-80; law 

Blackwood, 8. A. ; post-office secre- 
tary 

Blaine,, James; Panama, United 
States, 1884 

Blair, Hugh, 1717-1800; rhetoric, 


verse ;—John, chronologist, d. 
1797 

Blake, adm. R., 1599-1657; Algiers, 
Dover straits, Portland isle, Santa 
Cruz 

Blakesley, Robt. ; trials, 1841 

Blanc, Louis, 1811-82; France, 1848 

Blanchard ; balloon, 1734- -1819 

Blanchard, Laman ; suicide, Tae 

Blanchard, Ls timber bending, 1855 

Bland’s silver bill, United States, 
1878 

Blandy, Miss ; trials, 1752 

Blanqui, France, 1872-79 

Bligh, captain; bread fruit tree; 
Adventure bay, Bounty mutiny 

Bligh, captain, v. Mr. Wellesley Pole; 
trials, 1825 

Bligh, Mr. ; trials, 1806 

Blizard, sir W.; Hunterian soe. 

Blomfield, bp.; Chester, 1824; 
London, 1828 

Blondin ; crystal palace, 1861 

Blood, col., d. 1680; Blood, crown 

Blood, Mr. ; trials, 1832 

Bloomer, Mrs. ; dress, 1849 

Bloomfield, R., poet, 1766-1823 

Blucher, marshal, d. 1819; Jan- 
villiers, Ligny, Waterloo 

Blum, R., shot in 1848 


Blumenbach, J. F.; physiol. 17: 
1840 

Blundell, lieut. ; duel, 1813 

Blunt, Wilfred ; Egypt, 1882-3 

Boabdil, Abencerrages 

Boadicea, d. 61 ; Britain, Iceni 

Boardman, captain; duel, r8rz 

Boccaccio, 1313-75; Decameron 

Boccold, J ohn, anabaptists, 1534 

Boddington ; trials, 1797 

Boden, ‘col; Sanscrit, 1832 

Bodley, Pore Bodleian lib., 1602 

Boehm, J. E. Tyndale mem. 

Boerhaave, H., en writ., 1668-17: 

Boethius, killed, 5 

one (Battcher) Dresden chir 


Bowes v. Lawson ; trials, 1841 
Bohme, or Behmen, J., mystic, 16; 
Bohemia, king of, ‘Ich Dien 
Crecy, 1346 
Boileau, Nic., Fr. poet, 1636-1711 
Bois de Chéne, Mdlle. ; beards, 18; 
Bolam, Mr. ; trials, 1839 
Bolckow, H. W. ; Middlesborough 
Boldero, capt. ; duel, 1842 
Boleslas ; Poland (kings), 992 
Boleyn, Anne; England (queen He 
VILE 


Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire; admin: 
trations, 1532 
Bolingbroke, lord: Oxford admini 
tration, 1711; deism ; schism ac 
T4913 
Bolivar, gen., 1783-1830 ; Columbia 
Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, 1643 
Bonaparte family ; France 
Bonaparte, P.; France, 1870 ;—Nap 
leon Jerome ; France, 1859-72 
Bonar, Mr. and Mrs. ; trials, 1813 
Bonaventura, I22I> 74: conclave 
Bonavisa, Anthony ; distaff, I505 
Bond ; magnetism, 1668 
Bond, E. A. B Brit. Museum, 1875 
Bond, prof. ; photography, 1851 
Bonelli ; electric loom, 1854 


Bonheur, Rosa, Fr. painter, b. 182: 


Bonnechose, Emile de, Fr. hist 
1801-74 

Bonner, bishop of London ; admini 
trations, 1554 

Bonnet, C., Fr. naturalist, 1720-93. 

Bonnet- Duverdier ; France, 1877 

Bonnyeastle, J., mathematician, | 
1821 

Bonpland, A., naturalist, 1773-1858 

Bontou and others ; : France, i{ 

Bonwell, rev. J.; trials, 1860 

Boole, G. A logic 

Boon, colonel ; America, 1754 | 

Boosey : copyright, 1854; al 


1876 
Booth, B. ; book-keeping, 1789 
pa Wilkes, assassin; U. Stat 


Booth. Mr. ; theatres, 1817 
Booth, W. ; salvation army 
Bopp, F. Ger. linguist, 1781-67 
Borde, Andrew ; Merry-andrew 
Borden, Gail; milk, meat 
Borelli ; mechanics, 1679 
Borghese, H. ; diamond 
Borgia, Cesar, killed, 1507 
Boroimhe, Brian ; Ireland, ror4 
Borowlaski, ct. ; dwarf, 1739-1837 
Borrington, lady ; trials, 1808. 
Borromeo, abp. Carlo, 1538-84; Mi 
1570 r 
Beran sir A.; Malta, 1878 if 
Bosean, Span. ‘poet, abt. 1496-1544 
Boscawen, adm., 1711-60; Lagos — 
Bosquet, marshal, 1810-61; Inke 
mann, 1854 if 
Bossuet, J., Fr. theol., 1627-1704, 
Boswell, sir A. ; duel, 1822 4 
Boswell, James, 1740-95, biography 
Bosworth, rev. Jos., Ang: 
scholar, 1790-1876 


INDEX. 


othwell, earl of ; Scotland, 1567 
ottle conspirators ; trials, 1839 
ouch, sir T. ; Forth ; Tay bridge 
ouchet, Anthony ; illuminati 
yuchier ; Canterbury, abp. 1454 
suffers, Fr. marshal; 1644-1711 
yugainville, d. 1811; circumnavi- 
gation, New Hebrides 

uillé, marquis de; Eustatia, 178x 
yulby, Mr. ; China, 1860 
julton, Mat.. d. 1809; 
ham 

yalton and others, trials, 1871 
yulton and Watt ; coinage, 1788 
vurbaki, gen. ; Franco-Pruss. war, 
1870-1 

murbon family ; Bourbon, duke of ; 
duels, 1778 

urgeois, sir F, ; Dulwich, 1813 
urke, sir R. ; Victoria, Australia, 
(831 

Shhont, marshal ; Algiers, 1830 
urne, Sturges; Canning adminis- 
ration, 1827 

usfield, W. ; executions, 1856 

vill, sir W., 1814-73; com. pleas, 
£866 ; trials, 1871-72 

wdler, C. A.; balloons, 1874 _ 
wen, sir G. F.; Queensland, i859 ; 
Victoria, 1873 

wer, Mr. Elliott; trials, 1852 

wer, G.; gas light, 1884 

wes, Miss ; Strathmore, 1766 
wley, R. ; crystal palace, 1870 
wman, sir William ; Royal Insti- 
ution 

wring, sir John, scholar, &c., 
792-1872 ; Canton, China, Siam 
wstead, bishop ; Lichfield, 1843 
wyer, bp. ; Ely, Chester, 1812 
xall, sir W. ; national gallery 

yd, captain; duel, 1808 

yd, Hugh; Junius 

ydell, ald., d. 1804; British In- 
titution 

rle, earl of Orrery ; Orrery 

yle, Rob., 1626-91 ; phosphorus, 
toyal Society 

‘le, Henry; Godolphin adminis- 
ration, 1702 


Birming- 


nature-printing, 


dlaugh, C. ; Northampton, 1874 ; 
‘als, 1877, et seg.; parliament, 
80- 

dley, admiral ; trials, 1814 

dley, G. G.; Westminster (dean), 
8 


4 
ley, Jas., 1693-1762 ; aberration, 
tronomy, Greenwich 
lwardine, abp.; Canterbury, 
49 

ly, capt. ; China, 1874 

janza, John of ; Portugal, 1640 
58, gen. ; United States, 1862-3-76 
1am, John, singer, 1774-1856; 
eatres 

ee Tycho, 1546-1601 ; astronomy, 
) 


dwood, Jas. ; fires, k. 1861 

aah, J., 1749-1814 ; hydrostatics, 
ming-machine, lock (addenda) 
nwell, sir Frederick J.; Royal 
stitution 

id, H. B., speaker, 1872-84; 
ict. Hampden, 1884 

de, W. T., chemist, 1788-1866 ; 
yal and London Institutions 
dreth, the Luddite; Derby 
als, 1817 

dt, count; Zell, 1772 

dt; cobalt, phosphorus, 1667 
tome, P., historian, 1527-1614 


Brassey, Mrs., book (cheap) 
Brassey, Thos. ; rail. eng., 1805-70 
Brasidas; killed, Amphipolis, 422 B.C. 
Braun, K. nephoscope, 1868 

Bravo case, Bravo, 1876 

Bray, Dr. ; Bray’s associates 
Breadalbane peerage ; trials, 1866-7 
Breakspeare, Nicholas ; pope, 1154 
Brederode, H. de; gueux, 1566 
Bremer, sir Gordon ; China, 1840 
Bremer, Fred., novelist, 1802-65 
Brendon, St. ; Clonfert, 558 

Brenn, captain; Hibernia, 1833 
Brennus ; Rome, 390 B.0. 

Brereton, col. ; Bristol, 1832 
Brereton cases ; railways, 1881-4 
Bressa, C. A.; Bressa prize 
Bresson, count; suicide, 1847 

Brett, J. W. ; submarine telegraph, 


1845 

Brett, sir W. B., solic. gen. 1868; 
master of rolls, 1883 

Brewster, sir David, nat. phil., 1781- 
1868; kaleidoscope, British asso- 
ciation ; lithoscope 

Bridges, Mr.; pecul. people 

Bric, Mr. ; duel, 1826 

Bridgewater, earl ; admiralty, 1699 

Bridgewater, duke of, 1736-1803; 
Bridgewater Canal 

Bridport, lord ; L’Orient, 1795 

Brienne, M. de; notables, 1788 

Bright, corpulency, 1809 

Bright, John, 6. 1811; Adullam, 
agitators, peace congress; Glad- 
stone adim., 1868, 1880 

Bright, T. ; shorthand 

Brindley, Jas., 1716-72; 
Bridgewater canal, Barton 

Brinklett ; trials, 1828 

Brinvilliers, madame de, executed, 
1676; poisoning 

Bristol, mayor of ; trials, 1832 

Bristol, John, earl of ; administ. 1621 

Brock, C. F., fireworks 

Brodie, sir B. C., surgeon, 1783-1862; 
—(son) chemist, b. 1817; graphite, 
1862; ozone 

Broglie, due de; France, 1873, 1879 

Broke, captain ; Chesapeake, 1813 

Brome, Adam de; Oriel, 1337 

Bromley, sir Thomas; administra- 
tions, 1579 

Brongniart, A., geol., 1770-1847 

Brooke, sir James, 1803-68 ; Borneo 

Brooks, prof.; oysters 

Brothers, R., d. 1824 

Brough, M. A. ; trials, 1854. 

Brougham, H., 1779-1868 ; chancellor, 
charities, impeachment, social 
science 

Broughton v. Knight, trials, 1873 

Broughton, lord, 1786-1869 ; Russell 
adm., 1846, 1851 

Brown, gen. ; Prague, 1751 

Brown, H., trials, 1858 

Brown, sir J. ; iron, 1867 

Brown, captain John ; United States, 


tunnels, 


1859 

Brown, Mrs. ; fountain, 1875 

Brown, R., d. 1630; Brownists, 
independents 

Brown, Rob., botanist, 1773-1858; 
Brownian 

Brown, W., 1783-1864; 
1857 4 

Browne, American gen. ; Chippawa, 
1814 ; Fort Erie 

Browne, col, H., China, 1874 

Browne, George ; Dublin, 1554 

Browne, Hannah ; trials, 1837 

Browning, R., poet, b. 1812 

Browning ; Mrs. E., 1809-1861 

Brownrigg, Eliz. ; trials, 1767 

Brownrigg, gen. ; Candy, 1815 

Bruck, baron; Lloyd’s, note 

Bruce, David ; Scotland, king, 1328 ; 
Nevill’s cross, 1346 


Liverpool, 


Bruce, Edward ; Dundalk, x 318 
Bruce, H. A. ; Gladstone adm. 1868 
Bruce, Michael; Lavalette, 1816 
Bruce, Robert, d. 1329; Scotland, 
king, 1306; Bannockburn, 1314 
Bruce, com. ; Lagos, China, 1851 
Bruce, V., traveller, 1730-94; Africa, 
Bruce, Nile, Palmyra 
Brucher, Antonio ; coinage, 1553 
Brudenell ; trials, 1834 
Brueys, admiral; Nile, 1798 
Brunck, anthology, 1772-6 
Brunel, I. K., 1769-1849; blocks, 
steam, Thames tunnel 
Brunel, I. K., jun., 1806-59; steam 
Brunetti, prof. ; burning dead, 1874 
Bruno, d. t101; Benedictines, Char- 
treuse, Cologne, turnery 
Brunswick, duke of; Valmy, 1792; 
Quatre Bras, 1815 
Brunt, Davidson, Thistlewood, Ings, 
and Tidd ; Cato-street, 1820 
Brush, C. F. ; electric light, 1878-9 
Brutus, Lucius Junius; consuls, 
Rome, 508 
Brutus and Cassius; Philippi, 42 
BiG 
Bryan (or Brian) Boroimhe ; harp, 
Clontarf, Ireland, 1014 
Bryant, Wm. C. Am. poet, 1784-1878 
Bryce, James ; Ararat 
Bubb; opera-house, 1825 
Buccleuch, duke of ; Granton 
Buchan, captain; N.-W. passage, 
1819-22 
Buchan, M.; Buchanites, 1779 
Buchanan, J., 1791-1868; pres. U. 
States, 1856, 
Buchanan v. Taylor; trials, 1876 
Buckhurst, Thomas, lord; adminis- 
trations, 1599 
Buckhurst peerage ; trials, 1876 
Buckingham, Stafford, duke of; 
constable, 1521 
Buckingham, G. Villiers, duke of: 
administrations, 1615, 1621; dress : 
killed, 1628 
Buckingham, duke of; cabal ministry, 
1670; Peel administrations, 1841 ; 
duel, 1822;—(b. 1823); Disraeli 
adm., 1868; Madras, 1875 
Buckingham, marquis of; Ireland, 
lord lieutenant, 1787 
Buckinghamshire, earl of; Liverpool 
administration, 1812 
Buckland, F. ; fisheries, 1863 
Buckland, rey. W. ; geologist, 1784- 
1856 
Buckle, H. T. ; historian, 1822-62 
Buckle, capt., Amoaful, 1874 
Bufalmaco ; caricatures, 1330 
Buffet ; France, 1873-6 
Buffon, G., 1707-88 ; geology, zoology, 


1749 
Bugeaud, marshal, 1784-1849; Mo- 
rocco, 1844 
Bulkeley, bishop ; Bangor, 1553 
Bull, J., ‘‘ God save the King,” 1606 
Bull, G., bishop, 1634-1710 
Bulwer, see Lytton, ld. 


Bulwer, sir H. E.; Natal, 1875 


Bunbury, E. H. ; geography 


Bunning, J. B. ; coal-exchange, 1849 
Bunsen, baron C. J.; Germ. hist. 


and phil., 1791-1860 


Bunsen, R. ; voltaic pile, 1842; spec- 


trum, 1860 


Bunyan, J., 1628-88; Bedford, al'e- 


gory, pilgrim’s progress 


Buonarotti, Michael Angelo, 1474- 


1564 


Burbage, James ; plays, drama 
Burdett, sir F., 1770-1844; duel, 


1807; riots, trial, 1820. See Coutts. 
Burdock, Mary Anne; trials, 1835 
Burdon, Mr. : trials, 1841 
Burdwan, rajah of; Calcutta, 1878 
Burger, G.; Germ. poet, 1748-94 

3P 2 


? 


948 INDEX. 

Burgers, T. F. ; Transvaal, 1872 Caithness, earl of; steam-carriage, | Car; augury 

Burgess, bishop; David's, St. 1825; 1860 Caracalla; Rome, emp. 211; A 
Salisbury Cairns, Hugh, earl, 1819-85, att.-gen. manni 

Burgh, Hubert de; Whitehall 1866, lord chan. 1868-1874 Caracci, L., painter, 1555-1619; At 

Burgoyne, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777; sir | Cairns, W. W.; Queensland, South 1568-1609 


J. F. 1782-1871 ; capt. H. Captain, 


1870 

Burke, Edmund, 1729-97; Rocking- 
ham administrations, 1782; Canada, 
Junius aa). 

Burke, sir J. B., 6b. 1815; armorial 
bearings, heraldry 

Burke, R.; Fenians, 1867-8 

Burke and Wills; Australia, 1860-3 

Burleigh, lord ; administrations, 1558 

Burlington, Rd. earl of, 1695-1753 

Burmann, P. thesaurus 

Burnaby, col. F. A.; balloons, 1874 ; 
Khiva ; Soudan, 1885 

Burnes, sir A., murdered; India, 
1841 

Burnet, Dr. ; antediluvians 

Burnet, bp. Gilbert, 1643-1715 

Burnett, Mr., d. 1784; Burnett prizes 

Burns, R., Scot. poet, 1759-96 

Burnside, gen. A. ; U. States, 1862 

Burr, colonel; duel, 1804 

Burrows, gen. J. ; Afghanistan, 1880; 
Maiwand 

Burton, F. W.; national gallery, 1874 

Burton, Robt. (Anat. of Melancholy), 
1576-1640 ; quotations 

Burton, Richd. F.; Midian 

Bury, Richard de; libraries, 1341 

Bute, earl of, 1713-92; Bute adm. 

Butler, bp. 8. ; Lichfield, 1840 

Butler, bp. J., 1692-1752 

Butler, captain ; Silistria, 1854 

Butler, Sam. (Hudibras), abt. 1612-80 

Butler, gen. B. ; New Orleans, 1862 

Butt, Mr. ; trials, 1871 

Butt, I. ; Ireland, home-rule, 1871-8 ; 
d. 1878 

Buttevant ; viscount, 1385 

Button, sir Thomas ; N.-W. passage, 
1612 

Buxton, Mr. ; trials, 1829 

Buxton, sir T. F., 1786-1845 ; prisons, 


1815 

Buxton, E. N., metropolitan school 
board, 1881 

Byng, adm. J., exec. 1757; Gibraltar, 
Byng, 1757 

Byrne, Miss; riot, 1819 

Byron, comm. ; port Egmont, 1765 

Byron, George, lord, poet, 1788-1824 ; 
Greece, Missolonghi, swimming; 
Byron national memorial, 1875 

Bysse, Dr. ; music (festivals) 


C 


Cabot, Sebastian and John; Ame- 
rica, 1497 

Cabral, Alvarez de; Brazil, 1500 

Cabrera, general; Ramon, 1810-77; 
Spain, 1840 

Cade, Jack; 


1450 

Cadell, Captain; Australia, 1867 

Cadmus, 1453 B.C.; alphabet, Beeotia 

Cadogan, captain; duels, 1809 

Cadwallader; Britain, 678 

Cecilius Isidorus; slavery in Rome, 
12 B.C. 

Cedmon; Anglo-Saxons, 680 

Cesar, Julius, 100-44 B.c.; Rome, 
Britain, calendar, ides, Dover, 
Pharsalia, Rubicon, Zela 

Cesar, Octavius, 63 B.C.-r4 A.D.; 
Rome, Actium, massacres,  tri- 
umvirate, Philippi, emperor 

Cxsalpinus; blood, circulation, 1569 

Cagliostro, d. 1795; diamond neck- 
lace 

Cailletet, air, gases, 1877 hydrogen 


Cade’s insurrection, 


Australia 
Cairoli ministry, Italy, 1878, 1879-81 
Calaphilus; wandering Jew 
Calas, J., judicially murdered, 1761 
Calder, sir Robt.; naval batt. 1805 
Calderon, P., Span. dramatist, 1601-87 
Calderon, Peru, 1881 
Calepino; dictionaries, 1500 
Calhoun, Mr.; temperance soc., 1818 
Caligula; Rome, emperor, 37 
Calippus ; Calippic period, 330 B.c. 
Calixtus, pope; Calixtins, 1656 
Callaghan, T.; Falkland isles, 1876 
Callan ; trials, 1874, 1880 
Callecott, J. W.; music. 1766-1821, 
glee-club 
Callicrates ; calligraphy 
Callimachus; abacus, architecture, 
Corinthian, 540 B.C. 
Callinicus; Greek fire, wildfire 
Callisthenes; Chaldean, Macedon, 
328 B.C. 
Calonne; notables, 1788 
Calthorpe, ld.; Birmingham, 1857 
Calverly; pressing to death, 1605 
Calvert, F. Crace, d. 1873; carbolic 
acid 
Calvert and Co.; porter, 1760 
Calvin, John, 1509-64; Calvinism 
Cambacérés; directory, 1799 
Cambridge, dukes of; Cambridge 
Cambridge, George, duke of, 6. 1819; 
com.-in-chief, 1856; army, 1872 
Cambyses; Egypt, Persia, 525 B.C. 
Camden, lord; chancellor, Percival 
adm., 1809; exchequer, Ireland 
(ord. Weuty 
Camden, W., antiquary, 1551-1623 
Camelford, lord; duel, 1804 
Cameron, H. L.; trials, 1858 
Cameron, V. L.; Africa, 1872 
Cameron, consul; Abyssinia, 1863 
Camillus, Rome; 391 B.C. 
Camoens, Port. poet, 1524-79 
Campbell, bishop; Bangor, 1859 
Campbells; disciples of Christ, 1812 
Campbell, sir C.; see Clyde 
Campbell, John, lord 1781(?)-1861; 
attorney - general, king’s bench, 
chancellor, Palmerston 
Campbell, J. F., sunshine recorder 
Campbell, Rev. J.; trials, 1863; 
Campbellites, 1831 
Campbell, major; duel, trials, 1808 
Campbell, capt.; marriages, forced, 


1690 
Campbell, Thos., poet, 1777-1844 
Camper, Peter, 1722-89; facial angle 
Campion; trials, 1857 
Campos, M. Carthagena, 1873; Spain, 
1874, Cuba 
Canaris ; Greece, 1863-4-77 
Canaletti, Ven. painter, 1697-1768 
Canby, gen.; killed, Modoc, 1873 


Canning, George, 1770-1827; Can- 
ning, duel, 1809; grammarians, 


king’s speech 

Canning, viscount, 1812-62; India, 
1855 

Canova, A., sculptor, 1757-1822 

Canovas del Castillo, A.; Spain, 
1874-6 

Cantillon; wills (Napoleon’s), 182r 

Canton, J., d. 1772; phosphorus, 
phosphorescence, magnetism 

Cantor, Theod.; Cantor lectures, 
1853 

Canute; England, 1017; Alney 

Cape Town, Gray, bp. of; Africa, 
1866; Church of England 

Capel, H.; admiralty, 1679 

Capet family; France, 987 

Capo d’Istria, count; Greece, 1831 


Caraccioli, adm., executed, Napl 


I 

Corsrbacnie Britain, 50 

Caraffa, bishop; Theatines, 1524 

Carapanos, M.; Dodona 

Carauasius; Britain, 281 

Cardan, J., 1501-76; algebra 

Carden, Mr.; trials, 1854 

Cardigan, lord; duel, 1840; tria 
1841 and 1863; Balaklava, 1854 

Cardross case; trials, 1861 

Cardwell, Edward, visct., 6. 187 
Palmerston adm., 1855-59; Gla 
stone adm. 1868; army, 1872 

Carey, bishop; St. Asaph, 1830 

Carey, James; Ireland, 1883 

Carleton, sir Guy; U. States, 1782 

Carlingford, lord ; Gladstone adi 
1880 

Carlier, fire-annihilator 

Carlile, R.; atheist; 
1831 

Carlisle, earl of; Ireland, lord-lie 
tenant, 1859 

Carlos, don; Spain, 1833-73 

Carlyle, Thos., phil. and _ hist 
1795-1881; Carlyle 

Carmarthen, marquis of; admini 
trations, 1689 

Carnarvon, earl of; Disraeli admiu 


trials, 18r 


1874 
Carnot, L., French mathematicia 
1753-1823 
Caroline; queen (George II.), parks 
Caroline; queen (George IV.), Bra 
denburg-house, delicate investig: 
tion 
Carpenter, W. B.; 6. 1813; deep se 
bp. Ripon, 1884 
Carpenter, gen.; Preston, 1715 
Carr, bishop; Worcester, 1831 , 
Carr, Howell; national gallery, 1824 
Carrol, balloons, 1878 
Carré; congelation, 1860 | 
Carstares, rev. W.; thumbscrew _ 
Carte, D’Oyly ; Savoy 
Cartier; America, 1534 
Cartier, Richard; alchemy, 1476 
Carteret; circumnavigator, 1766 
Carteret, lord; Walpole adm., 172 
Carthage, St.; Lismore, 636, 
Cartwright, major; trials, 1820 
Carvilius, Spurius ; divorces, 231 B. 
Casella, L.; thermometer, 1861 
Cashin, Miss; quackery, 1830 
Cashman; Spafields, riots, 1816 
Casimir; Poland 
Cassagnac, P. de; duels, France, 1 
Cassander; Macedon, 316 B.C. 
Cassibelaunus; Briton, 54; chari 
Cassini, 1625-1712; astronomy; 
logna, latitude, Saturn, 1655 
Cassius; Philippi, 42 B.c. 
Castanos; Spain, 1852 
Castel, M.; Dartmouth, 1404 
Castelar; Spain, 1869-73. 
Castillo, Spain, 1879 : 
Castlereagh, lord; union with I 
land, 1800; Pitt admin., 
Liverpool admin., 1812; duel, 1 
suicide, 1822 
Catesby, Rob.; gunpowder, 1605 
Catch v. Shaen, trials, 1870 7 
Cathcart, 1d.; Copenhagen, 1807 | 
Catheart, general; Kaffraria; Ink 
mann, 1854 
Catherine ; England (queens, +P 
V., VIII., Charles II.) yy 
Catherine; Russia, 1725; O8e ai 
Sebastopol f B' 
Cato (the censor) ; agriculture ; salt 
-y 


B.C. :—(the tribune), kills him 
46 B.C. 


| re 


a eee ee 


INDEX. 


949 


a a ee eee Se ee ee 


tullus, poet, d. abt. 47 B.c. 

tulus ; Cimbri, ror B.c. 
ulaincourt ; Chatillon, 1814. 

us, 8. de ; steam-engine, 1615 
utley, sir P., 1802-71 ; Ganges, 
1854 

vagnari, L. ; Afghanistan, 1878-9 
vaignac, general ; France, 1848 
valier, camisards 

valiere, Emilio di; opera, recita- 
tive, 1600 

ve, S. judge-advocate, 1874 ; Egypt, 
1875-6. 

vendish, circumnavigator, 1586 ; 
= Whist’”’ 

vendish, H., 1731-1810; balloons, 
lectricity, chemistry, nitrogen, 
1ydrogen, water 

vendish, John de ; judges, 1382 
vendish, lord Frederick; Glad- 
stone adm., 1880; murdered, Ire- 
land, 1882 

vendish, lord John; Portland ad- 
ninistration, 1783 

vendish, W. ; Devonshire, 1618 
vill, Mr. ; swimming 

vour, Camille de, 1809-61; Sar- 
linia, Austria, Italy 

xton, Wm., about 1412-91 ; print- 


ng 
yley, sir G.; heat 

ylus, count; encaustic painting, 
1765 

cil, Wm. ; administrations, 1572 
crops ; Athens, 1556 B.c. 

leste, madame ; theatres, 1844 
lestin ; popes, 1143 

sus ; midwifery, &c., 37 

rdic ; Britain (Wessex) 

rinthus ; apocalypse 

muschi, H. ; bi-metallism (ad- 
lenda) 

rvantes, M. S., 1547-1616; 
Juixote 

spedes, C. M. de; Cuba, 1868 
tywayo, (Zulu chief); Transvaal, 
“ululand, 1872-81, Ulundi 
abannes, écorcheurs, 1438 
acornac ; planets, 1853 

ad, St. ; baths, 667 

uffers, Alexander, statutory decla- 
ation 

alloner, T. ; alum, 1608 

aulmers, Dr. T., 1780-1847 

am berlain, Joseph, Gladstone adm. 
880; bankrupts ; Merchant ship- 
ing Act 

unberlain, sir N.; Afghanistan, 
878, Khyber 

ambers, W. O., fish, 1884 

imbers, bishop ;Peterborough,1541 
unbers ; encyclopzedia, 1728, 1859; 
yhambers’ journal; —R., 1802-71 ; 
-W., 1800-83 ; Edinburgh, 1883 
imbers, sir T. ; recorder, 1878 
unbers, sir William; Somerset- 
ouse, 1775 

imbord, comte de,1820-83 ; France, 
870-6; flag 

imcellor, R. ; north-east passage 
ingarnier, general, 1793-1877 ; 
Trance, 1851, 1873 

mning, W., 1780-1842 

intrelle, E. M. ; trials, 1878 
intrey, F., sculpt., 1782-1841; 
ioyal Academy 

mzy, Fr. gen., 1823-83; Franco- 
russian war, 1870-1 ; Algiers, 1878 
ipman, Mr. ; armada sermon 
ippe, M. ; telegraphs, 1793 

rd and Bromhead, lieuts. ; Zulu- 


don 


ind, 1879 
Tes ; colossus, 288 B.c. 
Wlemagne, 742-814; academy, 


duriers, Avars, Bavaria, Chris- 
anity, France, Germany, Navarre 
Tles Albert ; Sardinia, 1831 ; No- 
ara, 1849 


Charles; England, France, Spain, 

Savoy, Germany, Sweden, Sicily, 
c. 

Charles V. ; emperor, 1 500-58; Spain, 
Austria, Germany, Spires 

Charles V. ; Bastile, 1369 

Charles VI. ; picquet, 1390 

Charles XII., 1682-1718; 
Frederickshald 

Charles the Bald, Fontenaille 

Charles the Bold ; Burgundy, 1468, 
Nancy, Liege 

Charles, archduke, 1771-1847; As- 
perne, Eckmiihl, Essling 

Charles of Anjou; Naples, 1266 

Charles of Lorraine ; Lissa, 1757 

Charles of Hohenzollern, prince of 
Roumania, 6. 1839; Danubian 
principalities ; Russo - Turkish 
war II. 1877 

Charles Stuart, prince; pretender, 
Culloden, 1746 

Charlesworth, J. C. ; trials, 1861 ;— 
Charlesworth, Mr. and Mrs. ; con- 
valescent, 1866 

Charlotte, queen, England (Geo. III.) 

Charlotte, princess of Wales, 1796- 
1817; Claremont 

Charlton v, Hay and others ; trials, 


Sweden, 


1875 

Charteris, col. ; trials, 1730 

Chassé, gen. ; Antwerp, 1832 

Chateaubriand, viscount, 
writer, 1768-1848 

Chatham, earl of, 1708-78; Newcas- 
tle admin., 1757 ; Chatham admin., 
1766; Walcheren, 1809 

Chatterton, T., poet, 1752-70 

Chaucer, G., 1328-1400; Canterbury 
tales 

Chaves, marq. of; Portugal, 1826 

Chelmsford, ld.; Derby adm., 1858 ; 
Zululand, 1879, Ulundi 

Cheltenham Chronicle ; trials, 1873 

Cherubini, music. comp., 1760-1842 

Chesham, Sarah ; trials, 1851 

Cheshire rioters ; trials, 1842 

Chesney, col.; Assyria, 1835; Eu- 
phrates, 1850 

Chetwind, capt.; oil on waters 

Chevallier, M., 1806-79; Albert medal, 
1875, Liverpool, 1875 

Chevreul, E., chemist, &c., b. 1786; 
candles, glycerine, Albert medal, 
1873 

Chicheley, archbishop; Canterbury, 
1414-1443 Baht Fe 

Childe, H. L. ; dissolving views 

Childeric ; France (kings) 

Childers, H. C., admiralty; Glad- 
stone, 1868, 1880; Greenwich 
schools, 1870; nat. debt 

Chillingworth, W., theol., 1602-44 

Ching Noung; China, wine, 1998 


French 


BC 
Chisholm, H. W. ; weights, 1877 
Chladni, E., 1756-1827; acoustics 
Choiseul, E., duc de, 1719-85 
Cholmeley, sir R., Highgate 
Cholmondeley, gen. ; horseguards, 
1693 
Chopin; F., Hung. mus., 1810-49 
Chosroes I. ; Persia, 531 
Christian ; Denmark, Sweden, 1448 
Christian LV. ; Christiania, 1624 
Christian VII.; Denmark, 1775, 
Oldenburg 
Christie, life-raft, &c., 1875 
Christie, W. H. ; Greenwich (astro- 
nomer royal) 
Christina; Sweden, 
1833 
Christine, M., twins 
Christophe ; Hayti, 18s1 
Christopher ; Denmark (kings), 1252, 


1320 
Christopher, Robt. Adam; Derby 
adm., 1852 - 


1633; Spain, 


Chrysostom ; fathers, 354-407 

Chubb, Mr., locks (addenda) 

Church, dean, Church of England 
1881 : 

Churchill, C. ; satires, 1731-64 

Churchill, ld. R. ; fourth party, 1880 

Cialdini, gen.; Italy, 1860; Castel 
Fidardo, Gaéta 

Cibber, C., 1671-1757; poet-laureate 

Cicero, 106-43 B.c. ; Athens, Rome, 
Catiline, Philippies 

Cid (Spanish hero), d. 1099 

Cimabue, painter, 1240-1300 

Cimarosa, musician, 1754-1801 

Cimon ; Eurymedon, 466 B.c. 

Cincinnatus, dictator, 458 B.c. 

Cinna, consul, killed, 84 B.c. 

Clanny, Dr. Reid ; safety lamp, 1817 

Clanricarde, marq. of; postmaster, 
1846; Russell  adininistration, 
1851; Palmerston administration, 


1855 

Clapperton, Hugh, traveller, 1788- 
1827 

Clare, John, poet, 1793-1864 

Clare, earl of ; duel, 1820 

Clarence, duke of; Anjou, Claren- 
cieux ; rebellion, 1478; admiralty, 


182 

Clarendon: earl of (Hyde), 1608-74 ; 
administrations, 1660, 1685 ;—earl 
of, G. F. Villiers, 1800-70 ;—Ire- 
land, lord-lieut.; Aberdeen, Pal- 
merston 

Clark, sir James, phys., 1788-1870 

Clarke, Adam, theol., 1760-1832 ;— 
Sam., theol., 1675-1729 ;—Edw. D., 
traveller, 1768-1822 

Clarke, sir Andrew ; Straits, 1874 

Clarke, M. A. ; trials, 1814 

Clarke, gen. ; Cape, 1795 

Clarke, J. Algernon ; automaton. 

Clarke, M. C., b. 1809 ; Shakspeare, 
concordance, 1847 

Clarkson, Thos., 1760-1846; slave- 
trade, slavery 

Claude Lorraine, painter, 1600-82 

Claudian, Latin poet, d. about 408; 
archery 

Claudius ; Rome, emperor, 41 ; II., 
Goths, 269 ; Naissus 

Claudius, App. ; decemviri, 451 B.c. 

Claughton, bp. ; Rochester, Albans, 
St 


Clausel, marshal; Algiers, 1836 

Claussen, chev. ; flax, 185r 

Claverhouse ; Bothwell, 1679 

Clay, F., mus. comp., b. 1840 

Clay, Mr.; slavery, U. &., 
Liberia ; whist 

Clayton, Mr. ; duel, 1830 

Clayton, Dr. ; gas, 1739 

Cleaver, bishop ; Bangor, St. Asaph, 
1806-1815 

Cleisthenes ; ostracism, 510 B.C. 

Clémenceau, M., Fr. polit.; France, 
1882-4 

Clemens Romanus; popes, 662 ;— 
Alexandrinus, d. abt. 213 

Clement ; popes, g1; IV. ; conclave, 
1268; — VII.; pontiff, benefices, 
Clementines, 1378 ;—VIII. ; index ; 
—XIV. (Ganganelli), 1769 ; Jesuits 

Clement, Jacques; France, 1589 ;— 
Joseph ; planing machine, 1825 ;— 
Julian ; midwifery, 1663 

Clementi, M., music, d. 1832; sonata 

Cleombrotus ; Sparta, 380 B.c, 

Cleomenes ; Sparta, 520 B.c. 

Cleon, Athenian demagogue, killed 
422 B.c. ; Amphipolis 

Cleopatra ; Egypt, 69-30 B.C. ; rose 

Cleveland, Grover, b. 1837; president 
United States, 1884 

Clifford, C. ; life-boat, 1856 

Clifford, J. ; trials, 1870 

Clifford, lord; Roman Catholics, 
1829 ;—sir Tho., cabal, 1670 


1820 3 


950 


Clinton, H. Fynes, 1781-1852 ; chro- 
nology 

Clinton, sir H. ; Yorktown, 1781 

Clinton, Geoffrey de; Kenilworth, 


I120 

Clive, Robt., lord, 1725-74; Arcot, 
India, Plassey 

Cloncurry, lord, v. Piers ; trials, 1807 

Close, Mr. ; duels, 1836 

Clotaire ; France (kings), 558 

Clovis (Chlodowig, Ludwig, Ludo- 
vicus, Louis); France, 481; Nor- 
mandy, Paris, Clovis, Salique, 
fleur-de-lis, Alemanni 

Cloots, Anacharsis, exec. 1794 

Clouet ; gas 

Clune, &c. ; trials, 1830 

Cluseret, gen. ; Lyons, 1870; France, 
1871 ; Fenians, 1872 

Clyde, lord, 1792-1863 ; India, 1857 

Clymer ; printing-press, 1814 

Cobbett, William, 1762-1835; trials, 
1809, 1811, 1831 

Cobden, R., 1804-65; anti-corn-law 
league, free trade, French treaty, 
peace congress 

Cobham, 1d. ; Lollards, 1418 

Coburg, prince of ; Fleurus, 1794 (see 
Sawe-Coburg) 

Cochrane, lord (afterwards Dun- 
donald), d. 1860; Basque roads, 
stocks, trials, 1814 

Cockburn, sir A., 1802-80; solicitor- 
general, 1858; attorney-general, 
king’s bench, ch. j., Alabama 

Cockerill, J. : Seraing 

Cocking, Mr. ; bailoons, 1837 

Codrington, admiral sir HE. ; Nava- 
rino, 1827; — sir W. J., 1804-84; 
Crimea 

Codrus ; Athens, 1092 B.C. 

Coe ; trials, 1876 


Coggia; comets, 1874 ; planets, 1868, 
1878 

Cohorn, B. van, military engineer, 
1641-1704 


Coke, sir Edw., 1550-1634; parlia- 
ments, 1592 

Colbert, J. B., 1619-83 ; tapestry 

Colborne, sir John; Canada, 1838 

Colclough, Mr. ; duels, 1807 

Cole and Cox (police); parliament, 
1885 

Coleman, St. ; Cloyne, 6th cent. 

Coleman, Mrs. ; actress, 1656 

Colenso,' bp., 1814-83; church of 
England, 1863; trials, 1866; Natal 

Coleridge, Samuel T., poet, &c., 
1772-1834; method 

Coleridge, sir J., solic.-gen. ; 
gen., 1871,° com. pleas, 
king’s bench, 1880 

Coles, capt. Cowper, 1831-70; navy 
of England, 1855-70 ; captain 

Colet, J. ; Paul’s school, r5r2 

Coligni, adiniral, killed, 1572 

Collard, dwarf, 1873 

Collard, rear- adil, ‘ suicide, 1846 

Colley, sir G. P. ; ; Transvaal, Natal, 
Majuba 

Collie, Alex. ; London, 1875 

Collier, J. P., 1789-1884; Shakspeare, 
1849 

Collier, 
1726 

Collier, sir R. P. ; att.-gen., 1868 

Collings, Jesse ; restitution bill 

Collingwood, lord, 1748-1810 ; Trafal- 
gar, “1808 ; ‘naval battles, 1809 

Collins, govr. ; Hobart Town, 1804 

Collinson, sir R. , 1811-83 ; Franklin, 
1850 

Collacel, V.; trials, 1861 

Colman, G., d. 1794 ;—G. jun., 1762- 

‘1836; theatres, 1777 

Colonna family flourish, 1288-1555 

Colonna, V., poetess, 1490-1547 

Colpoys, adiniral ; mutinies, 1797 


att.- 
1873 ; 


Jeremy ; eccles.-hist., 1650- 


INDEX. 


Colt, colonel; pistols, 1853 
Columba, St., 521-97; isles 
Columbanus, d. 614 or 615 
Columbiere ; armorial bearings, 1639 
Columbus, Chr., 1436 or 1442-1506 ; 
America, Bahama, Caraccas, 
Christopher’s, Salvador, Domingo 
Columbus, Bartholomew ; maps, 1489 
Columella, medical writer, abt. 46 
Colville, sir C. ; Cambray, 1815 
Colvin, sir A.; India and Egypt, 
1883 
Colvin, prof. 8. ; 
Slade prof. 
Combe, G., 1788-1858 ; craniology 
Combermere, ld. ; Bhurtpore, 1826 
Comines, Ph, de, Fr. hist., 1445- 


ancient buildings ; 


1509 
Commerell, comm. ; Ashantees, 1873 
Commodus ; Rome, emperor, 180 
Comneni; eastern emperors, 1057 ; 
Pontus, Trebizond, 1204 
Comte, A., 1795-1857 ; calendar, posi- 
tive philosophy 
Comyn, Mr. ; trials, 1830 
Concha, gen. ; Spain, 1868, 1874, Es- 
tella 
Condé, Louis ; Jarnac, 1569 
Conflans ; Quiberon, 1759 
Confucius, d. 479 B.c. ; China —— 
Congleton, lord ; suicide, 1842 
Congreve, R.; positive phil. 
Congreve, W., dramatist, 1670-1729 
Congreve, sir Wm., 1772-1828 ; fire- 
works, 1814 
Connaught, duke of ; 
Conolly,  J.,; 
1839 
Conon; Sparta, 394 B.c. ; Arginusze 
Conrad ; Germany, emperor, QII 
Conrad IL; Germany, 1024; Bur- 
gundy 
Conradin ; 
Constans ; 


Egypt, 1882 
1795-1866; lunatics, 


Naples, Germany, 1268 
Aquileia, 340 


Constantine; Rome, emp., 323; 
Adrianople, aruspices, banner, 
Britain, Eastern empire, Rome, 


York, Scotland 
Constantine II. ; Aquileia, 340 
Constantine 1V. ; monasteries 
Constantius ; Rome, emps., 305 
Contarini (doges at Venice), 1oq1- 


1694 

Conway, sir Edw. ; administrations, 
1621 :—general, Chatham adminis- 
tration, 1766 

Cook, capt James, 1728-79 ; Austra- 
lia, Cook’s voyages, Behring’ s 
Straits, Botany Bay, Flattery Cape, 
New Hebrides, New Zealand, Nor- 
folk Island, Otaheite, Owhyhee, 
Port Jackson, Society isles 

Cook, Mrs., murdered ; trials, 1841 


Cook, J. P., murdered; trials, 1856 
Cooke, sir George ; Chatham 1766 
Cooke, E. W., R.A., b. 1810 


Cooke, Eliz. ; "trials, 1832 
Cooke, Geo. Fred. , actor, 1755-1812 
Cooke, W. F., electric teleg., 1837 
Cooper, Astley, surgeon, 1768-1841 
Cooper, J. Fenimore, Am. novelist, 
1789-1851 
Cooper, Mr.; slave trade, 1787 
Cooper, P., philan.; New York, 1883 
Cooper; trials, 1805, 1842 
Coote, sir Eyre; India, Arcot, 1760; 
Carnatic, Cuddalore, Porto Novo 
Cope, sir John; Prestonpans, 1745 
Copernicus, Nic., 1473-1543; astro- 
nomy, attraction, solar system 
Copleston, bishop; Llandaff, 1827 
Copley, J., painter, 1738- 1815 
Coram, capt. Thos.,«d. 1751; 
ling hospital, 1739 
Corday, Charlotte; France, 1793 
Corder, Willian; trials, 1828 
Cordova, general de; Granada, 1492 
Corelli, A., musician, 0. 1653 


found- 


Corin; libertines, 1525 

Coriolanus; Rome, Volsci, 490 B.c. 

Cormac; Cashel, gor 

Corneille, P., tragedy, 1606-84 

Cornelia, *Maximiliana ; vestals, g2 

Cornelius ; Spitzbergen, 1595 

Cornelius, P. von; Ger. paint., 178: 
1867 

Cornell E.; Cornell univ., 1868 

Cornhill, Henry; sheriff, 1189 

Cornwall, bp.; Worcester, 1808 > 

Cornwallis, abp.; Canterbury, 176: 
Lichfield, 1781 

Cornwallis, shares 1738-1805; a 
miralty, India, America, Bang 
lore, Ireland (lord- lieut. ), Sering 
patam 

Cornwallis, E.; Halifax, N.S. 

Corcebus ; Olympiads, 776 B.C. 

Correggio, A .» painter, 1494-1534 

Corry; duel, "1800 

Corry, H. T. 1. .» 1803-83; adimiralt) 
1867 

Cort, Mass iron, 1781 

Corte Real ; America, north-west 
passage, 1500 

Cortez, F., 1485-1554; Mexico, 1521 

Coryate, Thomas, forks, 1608 

Cosiny, L.; Port Ferrajo, 1548 

Costa, M., 1810-84; musician. 

Coster, L.; printing 

Cottenham, lord; 
high, 183 6 

Cottenot, janet 1878 

Cottington, lord ; administration 


chancellor, lor 


1635, 
Cotton, R.; Cottonian library, 1600 
Cotton, M. A.; poisoning, 1873 
Cotton, sir Stapleton ; Villa France: 


Cotton, W. J. R.; mayor, lord, 187: 
couldiag Cr 1736-1806 ; electricity 


Courket China, 1884; Tonquin 
Courier, P. L.; pamphlets ; 
Courtanvaux ; ether, 1759 
Courtenay, abp. Canterbury, 1381 — 
Courtenay; Thomites, 1838 ‘ 
Courtenay, sir Wm.; Exeter, 1469 
Courtois, M. de; iodine, 1812 
Courvoisier ; trials, 1840 
Cousin, V., Fr. philos., 1792- 1867 
Coutts, baroness A. Burdett, b. 181 
trials, 1847; Columbia, 1869; C 
chester, 1874; Edinburgh, 187 
flower- girl brigade, 1880; childr 
1884 
Goventies sir John; Coventry a 
1670 
Coventry ; 


administrations, 4 
Bi 


t 


1672 
Coverdale, Miles, 0. 1487; 
1535 
Cowan, Mr. Kookas, 1872 
Cowen, J., Newcastle, 1871; den 
cratic federals { 
Cowley, Abraham, poet, 1618-67 
Cowper, lord ; "Burford, Halif 
171 
Coveee earl; Gladstone adm., 3 
Cowper, E. ; ‘printing-machine, 
—E. A. electric telegraph, 1879 | 
Cowper, wm. , poet, 1731-1800 © 
Cox, Walter; trials, 1811 + 
Coxwell, Mr balloons, 1862-73 
Coyle, Mr. Bernard; duel, 1802 — 
Crabbe, Geo., poet, 1754-1832 
Crabtree, W.; Venus 
Craggs, "Mr.; Sunderland ey 
1718 
Crampton, Mr.; United States, 38 
Crane, sir Francis; tapestry, 1 
Cranbrook, lord ; see Hardy, G._ 
Cranfield, Lionel, lord; co 
tions, 1621 zg 
Cranmer, archbp., 1489-15563 
terbury, administrations, 45 
homilies, martyrdom 


if 
r 
! 
i 
P, 


INDEX. 


951 


ee ee eee ee ee 


anworth, lord; chancellor, 1852 
assus, Marcus, slain; ovatioh 53 
B.C. 

aterus; Cranon, 322 

wwford, earl of ; Dunecht, trials, 
1882 

uwfurd, earl of; Brechin, 1452 
wwley; trials, 1802-1863; steel 
allin, Miss; trials, 1842 

aspigny, Mr.; duel, 1828 

2sswell, sir C., 1794-1863 ; probate, 
857 

»sswell v. Walrond ; trials, 1877 
»swick, T.; paint., 1811-69 

wwe, bp.; Bambrough, 1778 
chton, Jas. (the admirable), m. 
bout 1560 A 

llon, duc de; Gibraltar, 1782 
istofalli, pianoforte 

stovitch ; Roumelia, 1884 

katt v. Dick; trials, 1818 
»ekett, Messrs. ; leather-cloth 
esus; Lydia, 560 B.c. 

ft; impostors, 1553 

wt, sir Richard; suicide, 1818 
ofts, Mr.; dwarfs, 1653 

ike, abp.; Ireland, 1881 

ius; calomel, 1608 

‘ly, Geo.; poet, 1780-1860 

mpton, Sam., 1753-1827; cotton; 
oule, 1779 

miwell, Oliver, 1599-1658; admin- 
strations, 1653; Amboyna, agita- 
ors, .commonwealth, England, 
Jrogheda, Dundalk, mace,  Ire- 
and, Marston Moor, Naseby, Wor- 
ester, Manchester, 1875 

mwell, Richard ; administrations, 
658; England 

mwell, T., lord Essex; adminis- 
ration, 1532; registers 

okes, Win.; thallium, 1861; spirit- 
alism, radiometer, light, otheo- 
cope 

sbie, sir Edward; trials, 1798 

sS, E.; Surrey Gardens, 1831 

iss, R. A.; Disraeli administra- 
ion, 1874 

issley, F.; Halifax, 1857 

uch; trials, 1844 

iwse, E.; needles 

wther, lieut.; duel, 1829 

zier, capt.; N.-W. passage, 1845 
iden, Alex.; concordance, 1737 
likshank, G., 1792-1878; wood-en- 
raving 

sias; hist., 398 B.c. 

sibius, 140 B.C.; clock, organ, 
ump 

vitt, Mr.; treadmill, 1817; J., 
lackfriars, 1867 

len, Paul, cardinal ; 1803-78 

len, W., physician, 1712-90 
nberland, duke of; Closterseven, 
ulloden, Fontenoy, 1745 
nberland, R.; comedies, 
314 

nberland S.; thought reading 
uming, lord de Roos v.; trials, 
33 
eine. Gordon; lion 

nming, rev. Dr. John, 1810-81 
umins, Dr. ; reformed episcopal 
aurch 

ard, Sam., 1787-1865; steam 

ci, Father; Italy, 1877; Jesuits 
io; amphitheatres, abt. 50 B.c. 
ran, John Philpot, Irish orator, 
750-1817; duel, 1790 

sor, Papirius; dials, 293 B.c. 
tius, prof, E.; Olympieium, 1875; 
hilology 

tius, Quintius; earthquakes, 364 
Co} 


1732- 


hing, C., United States, 1878 
ter, gen. ; Indians, 1876 
hbert, St., d. 686; Canterbury 
hbert v. Browne; trials, 1829 


Cuvier, G., naturalist, 1769-1832 
zoology 

Cuyp, A., painter, 1606-67 

Cyprian, father, m. 258 

Cyriacus; Abrahamites 

Cyril, father, d. 386 

Cyrus the Great, killed, 529 B.c.; 
Bactriana, Cyprus, Jerusalem, 
Media, Persia 

Cyrus the younger; Cunaxa, gor B.C. 

Czermak, Dr. ; laryngoscope, 1861 


Dz. 


Dacier, mad., 1654-1720; Delphin 

Dacre, lady Anne; Emmanuel hos- 
pital, 1594 

Dedalus ; labyrinth, axe, 1240 B.C.? 

Dagobert; Denis, St., 673 

Daguerre, M., 1789-1851; 
graphy 

Dahl, professor; dahlias 

Dale, Rev. T. P.; public worship, 
1877-1881 

Esp lea? Fr. phil., 1717-83 ; acous- 
‘ics 

Dahlgren, J. A.; engin., 1809-70 

Dalhousie, marquis of, 1812-60; India 
(gov.-gen.), 1848 

Dallinger, W. H.; animalcules, spon- 
taneous generation 

Dalmas, A.; trials, 1844 

Dalling, H. Bulwer ld.; 1805-72 

Dalmatia; see Soult 

Dalrymple, sir Hew; Cintra, 1808 

Dalton, John, chemist, 1766-1844; 
atomic theory, 1808 

Damasus, pope, 366; pontiff, crown, 
pope, tiara 

Damian, accordion 

Damiens, Damiens’ attempt, 175 

Dampier; circumnavigator, 1689 

Dampier, bishop; Ely, 1808 

Damremont, marshal; Algiers, Con- 
stantia, 1837 

Dana, R. H. ; United States, 1876 

Danaus; Greece, 1485 B.C. ? 

Danby, earl of; administrations, 
1673; physic garden 

Dangerfield; meal-tub plot, 1679 

Danican, chess, concerts 

Daniel prophesies, 606 B.C. 

Daniel, Sam.; poet-laureate, 1619 

Danneker, J., sculptor, 1758-1841 

Dannenberg, gen.; Oltenitza, 1854 

Dante, Alighieri, Italian poet, 1265- 
1321 

Danton. G., exec. 1794; clubs, Fren. 

Darboy, abp. of Paris ; killed, France, 
1871 

D’Arblay, mad, (Burney), novelist, 
1752-1840 

Darbon v. Rosser; trials, 1841 

D’Arcon, M.; Gibraltar 

Dardanus, Ilium, 148 B.c. 

Dargan, W., d. 1867; Ireland, Dublin 
exhibition, 1853 

Darius; Persia, 521 B.c.; Greece 

Darling, Grace; Forfarshire, 1838 

Darling, sir C.; Jamaica, 1857; Vic- 
toria, 1863 

Darmes; France, 1840 

Darnley, lord; Scotland, 1565 

Dartmouth, earl of; Oxford adminis- 
tration, 1711; Rockingham adniin., 
1766 

Darwin, Charles R., naturalist, 1809- 
82; origin, species, development 

Darwin, Erasmus, naturalist, 1731- 
1802; lunar society 

Dashwood, sir Fr. ; 
1762 

D’Aubigné, Merle, ecclesiastical hist., 
1794-1872 

Daubeny, C.; 1795-1867; atomic the- 
ory, 1850 

D’Audiffret Pasquier; France, 1875-6 


photo- 


Bute admin., 


Dauglish, Dr.; bread, 1856 

Daun, count, d. 1766, Hochkirchen, 
Torgau 

Davenant, William; drama, opera, 
1684 

Davenport, Miss; theatres, 1844 

David; Jews, 1065 B.C. 

David, George; impostors, 1556 

David, I.; Scotland, 1124; Carlisle 

David, J., painter, 1748-1825 

Davila, E. C., Italian historian, 1576 
16031 

Davis, Jefferson, b. 1808; confede- 
rate states ; United States, 1861 

Davis; N.-W. passage, 1585; quad- 
rant, China 

Davis, N. ; Carthage, 1861, 1876 

Davitt, M., and Wilson; trials, 1870 ; 
fenian, 1870, 1881 ; Ireland, 1882 ; 
parliament, 1882 

Davoust, marshal; Krasnoi, Mo- 
hilow, Jena, Eckmiihl, 1809 

Davy, sir Humphry, chemist, &c., 
1778-1829 ; Penzance, Royal Institu- 
tion, barium, electricity, calcium, 
magnesium, potassium, sodium, 
safety lamp, strontium: 

Davys, bp.; Peterborough, 1839 

Dawes, abp.; York, 1714 

Dawkins, capt.; navy of England, 
1875 

Dawkins, W. B. ; caves 

Dawson, lieut.; Africa, 1872 

Dawson, J. W. ; Eozoén 

Day (Kossuth’s notes case), trials, 
1860 

Day, Mr.; Fairlop fair 

Daza, H., Bolivia, 1876 

Deacle v. B. Baring; trials, 1831 

Deak, F.; Hungary, 1865-75 

Deane, abp.; Canterbury, r50r 

Deane, adml.; naval battles, 1653 

Debain ; harmonium 

De Balton; duels, 1811 

De Bligniéres, M. ; Egypt, 1879 

De Brazza; France, 1882; Congo, 
1883 

De Broglie, France, 1879 

De Burgh, Hubert; Whitehall 

De Candolle, A., botanist, 1778-1841 

Decazes, duc ; France, 1873-6 

Decius Mus sacrifices himself, 
295 B.C. 

De Courcy, baron; peers, 1181 

Dee, Dr. J., d. 1608; astrology 

Deerfoot, pedestrianism, 1861 

D’Etrees, see D’ Estrees. 

De Fallieres, M.; France, 1883 

De Foe, Daniel, 1663-1731; Robinson 
Crusoe, Juan, plague 

De Foix, Gaston; Ravenna, 1512 

De Gasparis, A.; planets, 1849 

De Genlis, mad., 1746-1830 

De Giers, chancellor, Russia, 1882 

De Grasse, admiral; Chesapeake, 
naval battles, Tobago, 1781 

De Grey, earl; Ireland, lord lieu- 
tenant, 1427 

De Grey, Gladstone adm., 1868 

De Groof, V.; balloons, 1874 

De Haven, lieut.; Franklin, 1850 

De Horsey, adm., Peru, 1877 

Delabeche, H., 1796-1855; geology 

De la Clue, admiral; Lagos, 1759 

Delafontaine, M., decipium 

Delambre, J., Fr. mathemat., 1749- 
1822 

De la Rive ; Swiss nat. phil., d. 1873 

De la Roche, Paul, Fr. paint., 1797- 


1856 

De la Ronciére le Noury,adin. ; France, 
18 

De pthc trials, 1845 

De la Rue, Warren, b. 1815; enve- 
lopes ; electric battery ; photo- 
graphy, 1857; eclipse, 1860 

De la Vigne, C. ; Parisienne 

De lEpeée, abbe, 1712-89; deaf 


952 


INDEX. 


De Lesseps, M.; Suez, 1857 

Delille, J., Fr. poet, 1738-1813 

Delisle ; Venus 

De Loundres, Henry; Dublin, 1205 

De Meritens, electric light, 1879 

Demetrius; Athens, Macedon, im- 
postors, Poland 

Democritus, about 400 B.c. ; atoms 

De Moivre; annuities, 1724 

De Morgan, A., mathemat., 1806-71; 
almanacs, 1851 ; paradoxes, 1872 

Demosthenes, about 382-322 B.C.; 
philippics 

Denayrouze, M. ; aérophore, 1875 

Denison, archdeacon; trials, 1856; 
auricular confession, 1873, Church 
of England, 1873 

Denison, bishop; Salisbury, 1801 

Denison, E. B.; bells, 1856 

Denison, J. E.; speaker, 1857 

Denman, lord, 1779-1854; att.-gen., 
king’s bench 

Denmark, prince George, admiralty, 
1702, queens (Anne) 

Denner, J., clarionet, about 1690 

Dennis, W. ; fire engine 

Denny, J.; trials, 1851 

Depretis, A. ; Italy, 1876, 1884 

De Quincey, Thos., essayist, 1785- 


185 

Erte, countess of; Latham-house, 
1644 

Derby, earl of, races, 1779 

Derby, earl of, 1799-1869; Derby 
admin., 1852, 1858, 1866 

Derby, earl of; Man, Wigan, Derby 

Derby, earl of, b. 1826, see Disraeli 
adm. (Stanley), 1868, 1874; Edin- 
burgh, 1874; Brussels conference, 
1874; Turkey, 1876; Berlin, 1876; 
Russo-Turkish war, II. 1877; Tur- 
key, 1876-7; Gladstone adm., 1880 

De Roos, lord, v. Cumming; trials, 
1837 

De Rossi, catacombs 

De Ruyter, adml.; Sheerness, 1667; 
Chatham, Texel 

Dervish pasha, Albania, Dulcigno 

Derwentwater, earl of, executions, 
1716; Greenwich 

Des Cartes, René, 1596-1650; carte- 
sian, rainbow 

Desmoulins, Camille, 
clubs, 1782 

Desnoyers, L.; charivari 

Dessaix, general; Marengo, 1800 

Dessalines ; Hayti, 1803 

De Staél, madame, 1766-1817 

D’Estaign, count; Bencoolen, 1760; 
Georgia 

D’Esterre, Mr.; duels, 1815 

D’Estrees, adml.; Texel, 1673 

Deucalion ; deluge, 1503 B.C. 

De Veres, earls of Oxford; ld. gt. 
chamberlain, marquis, duke 

Devigne, Hen.; billiards, 1571 

Deville, H. St. C.; aluminium, 1856; 
platinum, 1859 

Devon, W. R., earl of, b. 1807; Dis- 
raeli, 1868 

Devonshire, duke of ; Devonshire ad- 
ministration, 1756 ; Cavendish col- 
lege 

Dewar, prof. J.; gases ; Royal Insti- 
tution, 1877; elements, 1880-1; 
oxygen 

De Wimpffen, gen.; Sedan, 1870 

De Winter, adm.; Camperdown, 1797 

De Winton, sir F.; Congo, 1884 

De Witt; chain shot, 1666; (pen- 
sionary) murdered, 1672; Hague 

Dhuleep Singh; India, 1849; Punjab 

Diaz, B., discovers Cape of Good 
Hope, 1487 

Diaz, P. ; Mexico, 1867-77 

Di Bardi, Donato; sculpture, 1383 

Dibdin, C., 1745-1814; ballads 

_ Dibutades; models 


exec. 1794; 


Dicey, W. T.; steam, 1875 

Dick, Mr.; trials, 1818 

Dickens, Chas., novelist, 1812-70 

Dickinson, capt.; trials, 1829 

Dickson, col.; trials, 1859, 1863 

Diderot, D., philos., 1713-54 

Didius Julianus; Rome, emp. 193 

Dido; Carthage, 869 B.c. 

Didot, M.; paper-making, stereotype 

Diebitsch, gen.; Balkan, 1829 

Diefenbach, L. ; philology 

Diesbach ; prussic acid, 1709 

Digby, E.; gunpowder plot, 1605 

Digges, L.; optics, 1671 

Dilke, C. W.; Athenzeum 

Dilke, sir C., b. 1843; Gladstone 
adm. 1880; corporations 

Dilke, lady ; burning dead, 1874 

Dillon, Mr. Luke; trials, 1831 

Dillon, Mr., Ireland, 1880-1 

Dimsdale and others ; trials, 1878 

Diocletian; Rome, emp. 284; Dal- 
matia 

Diodati, J., theologian, 1576-1649 

Diodorus Siculus, 50 B.C.-13 A.D. ; 
Etna 

Diogenes, cynic, d. 323 B.C. 

Dionysius; Portugal, anno domini, 
catapult 

Dionysius Halicarnassns, Gr. poet, 
jt. 30 B.C. 

Dionysius ; Syracuse, 406 B.C. 

Diophantus ; algebra, 370 

Dipcenus ; sculpture, marble 

Dircks, H.; ghosts, 1858 

Disraeli, I., 1767-1848 ;—Benjamin 
(earl of Beaconsfield, 1876), 1805-81 ; 
Derby admin., 1852, 1858; Disraeli 
admin., 1868, 1874 ; cottage ; 
people’s tribute 

Ditmar, C.; dualin, 1870 

Diver, Jenny; trials, 1740 

Dixblanes, M.; trials, 1872 

Dixon, capt.; Apollo 

Dixon, Hepworth, 1821-79 ; Ebelians, 
mormonites ;—v. Smith (Pall Malt 
Gazette); trials, 1872 

Dixon, J.; obelisks, (Cleopatra’s 
needle), 1877-8 

Dixon, Mr. ; education, 1874, 1876 

Dobell, Sydney ; poet, 1824-74 

Dobereiner, J. W., nat. phil., 1780- 
1849; diffusion, philos. lamp 

Dockwra, Mr.; penny post, 1683 

Dodd, Mr.; steamer, 1815 

Dodd, Dr.; trials (executed for for- 
gery), 1777; Magdalens, forgery 
odd, P. ; epigrams 

Doddridge, Philip, theol., 1702-51 

Dodsley, R. ; annual register, 1758 

Dodson, sir John; admiralty court, 
1857 ; —J. G. Gladstone‘adm., 1880 

Dodwell, rev. H. J. ; trials, 1878 

Doggett, Thos.; Doggett prize, 1715 

Dolbear, prof.; telephotography 

Dolben, abp.; York, 1683 

Dolce, gen.; Spain, 1868-9 

Dolci, C., painter, 1616-86 

Dollinger, Dr.; papal infallibility, 
old catholics, 1871 

Dollond, John, 1706-61; achromatic 
telescopes, 1753; optics 

Domenichino, Z., painter, 1581-1641 

Domingue, M. ; Hayti, 1874 

Dominguez, L.; Carthagena, Spain, 


xOys4 AS: 
Dominic, St.; Dominicans, 1215 
Domitian; Rome, emp. 81 
Donald of the Isles; Harlaw, 1411 
Donaldson, W. J. ; balloons, 1875 
Donatus, grammarian, fl. 355 
Donders, phenophthalmoscope, 1870 
Donizetti, G.; music, 1798-1848 
Donkin, sir R.; suicide, 1841 
Donne, W. B., examiner (or plays), 
185 
Govan duels, 1779 
Doré, Gustave, artist, 1832-83 


Doria, And., Genoese adml. ,1468-156 
Dormer, lord; Roman Catholies 
182 : 
Dorresura gen. ; Spain, 1874-5 
Dorset, duke of; administrations 
1689; Pelham administration, 174 
D’Orvilliers ; Ushant, 1778 
Dost Mahomed ; Afghanistan, 1829-4 
Douay, gen. A.; Wissembourg, 1870 
Douglas, earl of; Homildon, 1402 
Douglas, James; British Columbia 
1858 
Douglas, Wm.; Otterburn, 1388 
Douglass, sir John; delicate invest 
gation, 1806 ; — sir James, Eddy 
stone 
Doulton, strikes, 1876 
Douw, Gerard, Dutch paint., 1613-7 
Dové, H., b. 1803; dichroscope, 1860 
Dove, W.; trials, 1856 
Dowdeswell, William; 
administration, 1765 
Doyle, sir John; Portugal, 1828 
Doyle, J.; caricatures ; — R., 1826 
83; Punch 
Doyle v. Wright; trials, 1851 
Draco, Athens, 621 B.c.; laws, Draci 
Drake, Francis, 1545-96; Armada 
Cadiz, California, Chatham, cireum 
navigators, Drake’s circumnayiga 
tion, Deptford, New Albion 
Drayton, M., poet, 1563-1631 
Drebbel; optics, 1621; microscope 
thermometer 
Dred Scott case; slavery, U.S. 
Drentelen, Russia, 1878 
Dreyse, J. N., 1788-1867; needlegu 
Drouet; Varennes, 1791 
Druitt, G.; trials, 1867 
Drummond, abp.; York, 1761 
Drummond, gen.; Chippawa, 1814 
Drummond, lieut.; lime-light, abou 
1826 
Drummond, Mr., m.; trials, 1840 
Druscovitch, N. ; and others (police 
trials, 1877 
Dryden, John, poet, 1631-1701; poe 
laureate 
Drysdale, Dr. ; animalcules 
Dubois, cardinal, 1656-1723 
Duboscq, M.; electric lamp, 1855 
Du Breil de Rays ; Port Breton — 
Dubritius, St.; Caerleon, Llandaff 
612 
Duchesne, Pére, see Hebert 
Duchesne ; Belgium, 1875 
Duckworth, sir J.; Dardanelles, 180; 
Duclere, M.; France, 1882-3 g 
Ducrot, gen., France, 1878 ; Franc 
German war, 1871 
Ducrow ; theatres, Astley’s, 1825 _ 
Dudley, earl of Leicester; adminis: 
trations, 1558 
Dudley, lord; administrat., 1551 
Dudley, Mrs. L. Y.; Fenians, 1885 
Dudley, W., Birmingham, 1876 — 
Duell, William; trials, 1740 i 
Dufaure, France, 1876-9 ; d. 1881 
Dufay ; electricity, 1733 , 
Duff, captain ; trials, 1847 
Dufferin, ld.; Gladstone adm., 1868, 
1880 ; Canada, 1872; Egypt, 1833 
Turkey, 1881-4 ; India, gov. gel. 
1884 
Duffy, E. G. ; Ireland (Young) 
Dufour-Arlés, J. B.; France, 187 
Dugdale, W., antiquary, 1605-86 
Duggan, Wm.; trials, 1832 
Du Guesclin, B.; Montiel, 1369 
Duilius defeats Carthaginians, 


Rockinghan 


B.C. 

Dulong, P. L., 1785-1838; acids 

Dumas, A. D., Fr. noy., 1803-70 

Dumas, J. B., Fr. chemist, 1800-54. 
Faraday medal, 1869; Albert meda 


1877 
Dumouriez, gen., 


1739-18233 J 
Mappes, 1792 “a 


in, John; bailiff 


INDEX. 


953 


Edward VI.; England, kings, 1547; 


mant, H., Geneva convention 
incan, H. ; savings-banks, 1810 
mincan, Dr.; ichnology, 1828 

ican; Burmah, 1875 

mean I.; Scotland, 1033 

incan, admiral lord ; Camperdown, 
1797; Texel 

incannon, viscount ; Melbourne ad- 
ministration, 1834-5 

mncombe, F.; sedan chairs, 1634 
indas, sir D.; com.-in-chief, 1809 
indas, sir David ; solicitor-general, 
1846 

indas, Henry ; Pitt administration, 
1804 

indas, gen.; Kilcullen, 1798 

andas, lieut.-col.; Prescott, 1838 
indas, major; trials, 1831 

undas, sir R.; Baltic, 1855 

undee, vise.; Killiecrankie, 1689 
indonald, earl, 1775-1860 (see Coch- 
rane) 

unn, sir David, vice-adm., 1786-1859 
unn, John, Zululand, 1879 

unn, Richard; trials, 1847 

uns Scotus, d. 1308; burying alive, 
Scotists 

unstan, abp., d. 988; Canterbury, 
959; coronation 

upanloup, F. A. P., bishop of 
Orleans, 1802-78 

upetit-Thouars ; Otaheite, 1843 
upont, gen.; Baylen, 1808 

urand, sir H.; India, 1871 

urazzo, Charles of, m. 1386; Naples, 
kings, 1381 

lirer, A., 1471-1528; engraving 
urham, Joseph, sculptor, 1813-77 
urham, earl of, 1792-1840; Grey 
admin., 1830; Canada, 1838 

uroc, marshal; Bautzen, 1813 
uruof ; balloons, 1870-74 

utrochet, R. J. H., 1776-1847; en- 
dosmosis 

u Val, Claude; robbers, 1670 
uvernois, C.; France, 1874 

wyer; trials, 1843 

yce, Wm.; painter, 1806-64 

ymocke family ; championship 
ysart peerage, trials, 1881 


E. 


adbald ; convents, 630 

admer, d. about 1124 

arle, gen.; Soudan, 1885 

astlake, sir C., 1793-1865; Royal 
Academy ; National Gallery, 1850 ; 
—C. national gallery, 1878 

aton, Daniel; trials, 1796, 1812 
bdy v. McGowan; trials, 1870 
kart; mystic, 1251-1329 

den, bp.; Man, 1847 

dgar; England, kings, 958 

dgar, rev. Mr.; temperance, 1829 
dgeley, T.; trials, 1868 
dgeworth, Maria; novels, 1767- 
1849 

dinburgh, duke of, see Alfred, 
Eddystone 

dison, T. E.; electric pen, &c., 
microphone, micro-tasimeter, pho- 
nograph, telephone 

dmonds ; zoology 

dmund ; England, 940, 1016 
dmunds, Christiana; poisoning, 
trials, 1872 

dmunds, Mr.; patents 
dward the Confessor; 
kings, 1042; Danegeld 
\dward I.; England, kings, 1272; 
Lewes, Scotland, Wales 

dward III.; England, kings, 1327, 
Cressy, Sluys, garter 

dward IV.; England, kings, 1461; 
Barnet, Tewkesbury, Towton 


England, 


Christ’s hospital 

Edward, Black Prince, 1330-76 ; duke, 
Cressy, Poitiers 

Edwardes, lieut.; India, 1848 

Edwards, rev. T., public worship ; 
—Miss A. B.,Nov.; Egypt Explora- 
tion Fund 

Edwy ; England, 955 

Egan, Mr.; trials, 1843 

Egbert; England, kings, 828 

Egerton, sir Thomas ; chancellor, lord 
high, 1596 

Egerton, Mr. ; burnt, Dublin, 1880 

Egg, Aug., painter, 1816-63 

Eglinton, earl of; Ireland, lord-lieu- 
tenant, 1852; tournament 

Egmont, lord; administrations, 1763 

Egremont, earl of ; Grenville adininis- 
tration, 1762 

Ehrenberg, C., naturalist, 1795-1876 

Kick, H.; trials, 1859 

Kirinus, Dr., asphalt, 1712 

Ekenhead, lieut., swimming 

Elcho, ld. (aft. earl of Wemyss), 0. 
1818; Adullam, 1866; cabs, volun- 
teers ; liberty and reform, 1884 

Elder, John ; Glasgow, 1883 

Eldon, lord, 1751-1838; chancellor, 
1801 

Eleanor; queens (Edward I., Hen. II. 
and III.) 

Elgin, Lord; Elgin marbles; d. 1841 ; 
—James, lord, 1811-63; Canada, 
1846; China, 1857; Japan, Palmer- 
ston, India, 1861; govr.-gen., 1861 

Elgin, lord, v. Ferguson; trials, 1807 

Elijah prophesies about gro B.C. 

Eliott, gen. ; Gibraltar, 1781 

Eliott, sir Gilbert ; North adminis- 
tration, 1770 

Elisha prophesies, 896 B.C. 

Elizabeth, queen, 1533-1603; England, 
1558; goose, poor laws, Richmond, 
Whitehall 

Elizabeth ; England, queens (Edward 
IV. and Henry VII.) 

Elizabeth ; France, trials, 1794 

Elkington ; gilding, electrotype 

Ellenborough, lord; att.-gen., 1801; 
king’s bench, delicate investiga- 
tion; lord (son), 1790-1872; Wel- 
lington admin., 1828; India, govr.- 
gen., 1842, 1858, note ; Derby adm., 

858 


ba 

itToruiene: lord; administrations, 
1615; chancellors, ld., 1603 

Ellice, E.; Melbourne administra- 
tion, 1834 

Elliot, captain ; China, 1840 

Elliotson, Dr. J., 1785-1868 

Ellis, Agar ; trials, 1878 

Ellis, sir H., lib. Brit. Mus., 1777-1869 

Ellis, A. J. ; musical pitch 

Ellis, Wellbore; GrenviJle adminis- 
tration, 1770 

Elphinstone, lord ; electric light, 


18 

Elphinstone, admiral; Cape of Good 
Hope, 1795; Saldanha 

Elsynge, Wim. ; Sion college, 1340 

Elyot, sir T., ‘‘ governour” 

Elzevir family, printers, 1583-1680 

Emerson, R. W.; essayist, poet, 1803-82 

Emmet, Robert; rebellions, conspi- 
racies, trials, 1803; press 

Empedocles ; suicide 

Encke, J. F., 1791-1865; comets, 1818 

Enderby, Messrs.: southern conti- 
nent, 1838 

Engels, prof. ; lithofracteur, 1869 

Enghien, duce d’, executed, 1804 

Ennius, 239-169 B.c. ; stenography 

Enraght, rev. R.; public worship, 
1880 

Kétvos, Joseph ; Hung. noy. 1813-71 

Epaminondas, 371 B.c.; Leuctra, 
Mantinea 


Epictetus, philosopher, fl. 118 

Epicurus, 342-270 B.c. ; atoms; phi- 
losophy 

Epiphanius, St. ; abstinence, heresy 

Erasistratus ; anatomy, ab. 300 B.C. 

Erasmus, D., 1467-1536; Greek lan- 
guage, Rotterdam 

Eratosthenes ; degree, 250 B.C. ; ar- 
millary sphere 

Eratostratus (or Herostratus) fires 
Diana’s temple, 356 B.C. 

Erechtheus ; Athens, 1383 B.C. 

Eric ; Denmark 

Erichthonius ; Troy, 1449 B.C., car 

Ericsson, capt. ; heat, 1853 

Erle, sir W. ; common pleas, 1859 

Ermeland, bp. of; Prussia, 1871 

Ernley, sir John; administrations, 
1685 

Erroll, earls of; constable of Scot- 
land, lord high 

Erskine, lord; chancellor, lord; 
Grenville administration, 1806 

Erskine, gen. ; India, 1795 

Esdaile, E. ; trials, 1858 

Esmonde case; trials, 1868 

Espartero, Marshal, Spain, 1841-75 3 
Bilbao, 1836; d. 1879 

Esquirol, E. ; lunatics, 1810 

Essex, earl of ; administrations, 1532, 
1579; Newbury, 1643 

Este, sir Augustus d’; marriage act, 
royal, 1844 

Ethelbert, 560, Canterbury 

Etheldreda ; Ely, 673 

Ethelred, 979; coronation, Danegeld 

Ethersey, com. ; suicide, 1857 

Etty, W. painter, 1787-1849 

Euchidas ; pedestrianism 

Euelid ; geometry, 300 B.C. 

Eugene, prince, 1663-1736 ; Belgrade, 
Turin, Zenta 

Eugénie, empress ; 
Marseilles, 1882 

Eugenius ; popes, Aquileia 

Eulenburg, count, Prussia, 1873 

Eulenstein, Jew’s harp 

Euler, L., 1707-83; acoustics 

Eumenes; parchment, 190 B.C. 

Eumolpus; Eleusinian mysteries 

Eupion gas co. ; trials, 1876 

Euripides, 480-406 B.c. ; tragedy 

Eurysthenes ; biarchy, 1102 B.C. 

Eurystheus ; Mycenex, 1289 B.C. 

Eusden, L. ; poet laureate, d. 1730 

Eusebius, of Ceesarea, ab. 275-340 

Eustachius ; thoracic duct, 1563 

Euston divorce case ; trials, 1884 

Kuthalius ; accents, 458 

Eutyches, fl. 447 

Evander ; Circensian games 

Evans, general de Lacy; British 
legion, 1835; Spain, 1835; Irun, 
Sebastian 

Evans ; trials, 1858 

Evans, J. ; man, 1872 

Evans, M. (G. Eliot), 
1820-80 

Evans, W. E. ; harmonium, 1841 

Evelyn, J., 1620-1706; horticulture, 
lime-tree, trees 

Examiner, the ; trials, 1812 

Exmouth, lord; Algiers, 1816 

Eyre, E. J.; Jamaica, 1864-7 

Eyre, John ; transportation, 1771 

Ezekiel prophesies about 595 B.C. 


France, 1853>5 


novelist, 


F. 


Faber, F. ; oratorians, 1848 

Fabius, Quintus ; painting, 3r1 B.C. ; 
—Maximus; Allobroges, rzr B.c. 

Fabii, killed, Cremera, 477 B.C. ; 
Fabii 

Fabre, M.; France, 1883 

Fahrenheit, G. D., 1686-1736; ther- 
mometer, about 1726 


954 


INDEX, 


| 


Faidherbe, gen. ; Franco-Pruss. war, 
1871; St. Quentin, 1877 

Fairbairn, Mr. ; tubular bridge, 1849 

Fairfax, T. ; Naseby, 1645 

Fairland, Miss ; trials, 1874 

Falck, Dr. ; steam-engine, 1779 

Falconbridge; London, 1453 

Falconer, H. ; geologist, d. 1865 

Falieri, Marini; Venice, 1335 

Falk; Prussia, 1873; Germany, 1879 

Falkland, visct. ; Newbury, 1643 

Falstaff, sir John ; taverns 

Fancourt, Samuel; circulating l- 
braries, 1740 

Faraday, Michael, 1791-1867; Royal 
Institution, chemistry, electricity, 
gas, magnetism, magneto-electri- 
city, ice, Albert medal, Faraday 

Farewell, lieut., Natal, 1823 

Farmer and Wallace, electric light, 
1879 

Farquhar, My. 


1822 
Farr, Dr. W., 1807-83 ; 
1864 ; statistics 
Farragut, D., 1861-79, admiral, 1866; 
United States, 1864 
Farrar, F. A.; trials, 1868 
Farrell v. Gordons ; trials, 1873 
Farren, Miss, actress, retires, 1797 
Farrer ; trials, 1859 
Fatima ; Mahometanism, note 
Faulkner, G 3; newspapers, 1728 
Fauntleroy, H. ; forgery, 1824 
Faure, M., electric battery, 1881 
Faust, J ohn 5 printing, 1442 
Faustin I. ; Hayti, 1849 
Faustulus : Alba, 770 B.C. 
Faux, Guy; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Favre, Jules ; France, 1870-2, d. 1880 
Faweett, col. ; duel, 1843 


, buys Fonthill abbey, 


annuities, 


Fawcett, H., 1833-84; Gladstone 
adm., postmaster, 1880; parcel 
post 


Fazy, M. ; Switzerland, 1878 

Felix, popes, 269 et seq. 

Fellows, C. ; Lycia, 1840 

Felton assassinates Buckingham at 
Portsmouth, 1628 

Fénélon, abp., 1651-1715 ; Cambray 

Fenning, Eliza ; executions, 1815 

Fenwick, J. ; executions, 1697 

Feramoz ; Afghanistan, 1871 

Ferdinand ; Austria, Naples, Portu- 
gal, Sicily, Spain, Tuscany, Castile, 
Cordova 

Ferdinand of Brunswick, Minden, 


1759 
Fergus ; Scotland, coronation 
Ferguson, J. ; planets, 1854 
Fergusson, sir J. ; Bombay, 1880 
eee James; architecture, 
-76 
fon at probability 
Ferrand ; France, 1874 
Ferré ; France, 1871 
Ferrers, earl; trials, 1760 
Ferrier, Dr. J.; vivisection 
Ferry, J. ; France, 1879-84 
Fessel ; gyroscope, 1852 
Festing, col. ; Ashantees, 1873 
Fichte, Germ. philos., Fi G., 1762- 
1814 3 ; Im. H., son, 1797-1879 


Field, Cyrus ; electric telegraph, 
1868 

Field, J., nocturne 

Fielding, H., novelist, 1707-54; 
magistrates 

Fieschi ; France, 1836 

Figueras ; Spain, 1873 


Figueroa : Spain, 1868 

Fillmore, M.; United States, presi- 
dent, 1850 ; fi 1874 

Finch, D. ; admiralty, 1680 

Finch, sir John; chancellor, lord ; 
administrations, 1640; Heneage, 
chancellor, 1673 

Finiguerra ; engraving, 1460 


Finnerty, Peter; trials, 1808, 1811 

Finnis, T. ; lord mayor, 1856 

Finnis, col. ; India, 1857, note 

Firth, M., Sheffield, 1879 

Fish, W. ; trials, executions, 1876 

Fisher, bp. ; administrations, 1509 ; 
Salisbury ; executed, 1535 

Fisher; duels, 1806 

Fisk, James ; New York, 1871 

Fitzgerald, H. ; life-boat, 1856 

Fitzgerald, lord ; attainder, 1798 

Fitzgerald, lord, v.. Mrs. Clarke; 
trials, 1814 

Fitzgerald, lord ; Wellington adminis- 
tration, 1830 

Fitz-Osborn ; justiciars, 1067 

Fitzpatrick; Grenville adiministra- 
tion, 1806 

Fitzpatrick, Hugh ; trials, 1813 

Fitz-Roy, R., 1805-65; circumnavi- 
gation, 1826; New Zealand, 1843 ; 
ineteorology, 1857 

Fitzwalter, Robert de; Dunmow, 
1244 

Fitzwilliam, earl; Grenville admin., 
1806 ; Ireland (lord-lieut.); strikes, 


1875 
Flad, Mr. ; Abyssinia, 1866 
Flaminius ; Thrasymene, 217 B.c. 
Flamm, A. L. ; cryptography, 1875 
Flammock; rebellions, 1497 
Flamsteed, J. ; Greenwich, 1745 
Flanagan, Cath.; poisoning, 1884 
Flavius, Titus Lartius ; dictators, 
498 B.C 
Flaxman, J., sculptor, 1754-1826 
Fleischer, E: ; hydrostatics 
Fleuss, diving, safety lamp 
Fletcher of Saltoun, jl. 1700 ; ballads 
Fletcher, will forger ; trials, 1844 
Fletcher, 8. W., trials, 1881 
Flight and Robson; apollonicon, 
1817 
Flinders, captain, explores New Hol- 
land, 1801 
Flood, “Mr. ; absentees, 1773 
Floquet, M.; France, 1883 
Florence, Eliz, ; trials, 1822 
Flores, gen. : Uruguay, 1863-8 
Florus, Rom. historian, fi. 106 


Flotow, F,. F. A. von; Ger. mus., 
1812-83 
Flourens, M. J. P., philos., 1794- 


1867 ;—Gustave ; France, 1870-1 

Fohi; China, 2240 B.c. 

Foix, Gaston de; Ravenna, 1512 

Folengio, Theo. ; macaroni 

Foley, J. H., sculp., Albert mem., 
Faraday mem. 

Folkestone, lord; arts, soc. of, 1754 

Folkestone v. Ridsdale ; trials, 1876 

Follett, sir Wim. ; solicitor-gen., at- 
torney-gen. . 1844 

Folliott, bp. ;. Hereford, 1803 

Fontaine, M., electric light, 1877 

Fontana, Mars, 1636 

Foote, Sam., 1721-77; theatres 

Foote v. Hayne; trials, 1824 

Forbes, lord ; horse guards, 1702 

Forbes, Edwd., naturalist, 1815-54 

Forbes, J. D., nat. philos., 1809-68 

Forster, abp, ; Prussia, 1875 .. 

Forster, Mr. ; Preston, 1715 

Forster, John; South Kensington 
Museum, 1876 

Forster, M. ; planets, 1860 

Forster, W. E.; Gladstone adm., 
1868, 1880; imperial fed. 

Forsyth, sir D., Burmah, 1875 

Forsythe, Rev. Mr. ; fire-arms, 1807 

Fortescue, lord; Ireland, lord-lieu- 
tenant, 1839 

Fortescue, C. 8. ; Gladstone, 1868 

Forwood, 8. (Southey) ; executions, 
1866 

Fosearo, doge,; Venice, 1457 

Foster, John, essayist, 1770-1843 

Fottrell, capt. ; duels, 1817 


Foucault, J. B. L., 1819-68; pendu- 
lum, siderostat 

Fouche, J., duc d’Otranto, 1763-1820 

Fould, Achille, 1800-67; France, 
1861 

Foulis, R. & A., printers, 1740-76 

Fourdrinier, M. ; paper, 1807 

Fourier, C., d. 1837; Fourierism 

Fourtou, M. de; France, 1877 

Fowke, capt. ; exhibition, 1862; 
bert hall 

Fowler, Mr. ; canoe, 1878 

Fox & Henderson; crystal palace, 


Al- 


1851 

Fox, bishop of Winchester ; adminis- 
trations, 1509; privy seal 

Fox, Charles James, 1749-1806 ; duel, 
1779; Portland admin., 1783; India 
bill, people 

Fox, George, 1624-90; quakers 

Fox, Henry; Newcastle administra- 
tion, 1757 

Fox, sir Stephen; Chelsea, 1628 

Fox, St. G. Lane ; electricity (lamp- 
lighting by), gas 

Foxe, John, martyrologist, 1517-87 

Francia, Dr. .» 1755-1840; Paraguay 

Francis, St., 1182-1226 ; Cordeliers 

Francis I., emperor ; Germany, 1745; 
Austria, 1804 

Francis I. ; France, 1515; duelling, 
cloth of gold, Marignan, Pavia, 
Sicily 

Francis Joseph; Austria, 1848 ; as- 
sassinations, Hungary, 1848 

Francis; trials, 1842 

Francis, sir Philip, 1740-1818; Ju< 
nius 

Francis de Sales, St., 1567-1622, “‘ De- 
vout Life” 

Francisco d’Assise ; Spain, 1846 

Francke, A. ; orphan houses, 1698 

Frankfort, lord, v. Alice Lowe ; trials, 
1842, 1852 

Frankland, Edw. ; ethyl, 
methyl, 1849 

Franklin, Benjamin, 1706-90; elec: 
tricity, 1752; lightning 

Franklin, sir John ; north-west pas: 
sage, 1825; Franklin 

Franks ; suicide, trials, 1825 

Fraser v. Bagley ; trials, 1844 

Frederick, trials, 1874 

Frederick, duke of York, 1762-1827 | 
York 

Frederick II. ; Corte Nuova, 1237 

Frederick ; Germany, Prussia, Hesse, 
Nuremberg, Palatinate, Prague, 
Hochkirchen, Torgau 

Frederick-Augustus ; Poland, 1697 

Frederick- Charles, prince of Prussia, 
Franco-Pruss. war, 1870-1; Mety, 
1870 

Frederik. Lewis, prince ; Wales, 172¢ 

Frederick William, I. Lak Van Prussia 
assassinations 

Freeling, 8.; Grenada, 1871 

Freeman, E. A., conquest, 1870-6 

Fy elinghuysen, "My; United States, 
1881 | 

arte Rev. W. H.; dissenters, 


renee J. C., b. 1813; U. States, 
1856 
Heaney M. ; steel, 186z 
French, col. ; trials, 1820 
Freney ; trials, 1749 . 
Frere, sir Bartle, 1815-84; slave 
trade, Zanzibar, 1872 ; cape, 1876 ; 
Katfraria, 1878, "celibacy . 
Frere- Orban ; Belgium, 1868, 1878 
Frewen, abp. ; York, 1660 
Freycinet, M. de, France, 1879 & 
Frichot,’ ophicleide ‘ 
Frith, W. P., painter, 0. 1819 
Frivell, Wim., post-office, 1631 
Frobisher, sir Martin, d. 1594; 0) 
west passage, 1576 


amyl, 


geatt, E.; trials, 1877-1879 
issart, historian, 1337-1410 

st, John, chartist; Newport, 1839 
st, W. E. R. A., 1810-77 

ude, J. A., historian, b. 1818; 
outh African confederation, 1875 
mentius ; Abyssinia, 329 

d Pasha, 1814-69; Damascus, 
urkey, 1860-9 

ler, J. ; Royal Institution, 1833 
ler case ; India, 1876 

ton, It., 1765-1815 ; steam-engine, 
303 

ley, Mary; trials, 1844 

neaux, capt.; Adventure Bay, 
ew Holland ; returns, 1774 

ness, Mrs. H.; concordance, 1876 
eli, H., painter, 1741-1825 


G. .» 


elentz, H. C. von der; language, 
374 

e, gen. ; America, 1775 

war 

ne, W. ; parchment paper, 1857 
isborough, Thomas, painter, 1727- 


ba; Rome, emp., 68 

2, balloons, gunpowder, 1865 

2, Sarah, and Greenacre ; trials, 
357 

Nn, 130-200 ; physic 

zacus, 84; Grampians 

leo di Galilei, 1564-1642 ; acous- 
es, astronomy, falling bodies, 
monic curve, ice, inquisition, 
sndulum, planets, sun, tele- 
copes 

, J., 1758-1828; craniology 
lagher, J.; trials, 1883 

e, Dr. ; Neptune, 1846 

‘ien ; balloons, 1755 

ienus ; Rome, emp. 260 

on, F.; composite portraits, 1877 
sredity 

vani, Louis, 1737-98 ; electricity, 
791 ; voltaic pile ° 

way, earl of ; Almanza, 1707 

1a, Vasco de, d. 1525 

betta, L. 1838-82; France, 1870-81; 
yportunists, scrutin 

ibier, lord; Basque Roads, 1809 ; 
openhagen 

ibier and Rumble, trials, 1869 
brill, trials, 1878 

agee, A.; Roy. Inst. 1884 

igee, J.; glaciarium, 1876 

1ond, Thomé de; tunnels, 1867 
ganelli; Clement XIV., popes, 
69 

geland ; apothecary 

diner, A.; Natal, 1835 

diner, bp. ; administrations, 1529 
diner, lieut. Alan; missions, 1850 
field, gen., United States, 1880 
ibaldi, Joseph, 1807-82; Italy, 
59-76; Solferino, Sicily, Naples, 
olturno; Franco-Prussian war, 
}70 

nerin, M.; balloons, 1802 

net ; gunpowder plot, 1605 

net, Dr. Thos. ; Royal Institu- 
on, 1801 

rett-Anderson, Mrs. ; physic, 1865 
rick, David, 1716-79; theatres, 
rury-lane, jubilees 

rison, W. L.; slavery in United 
ates, 1831 

rod, A. H.; Royal Institution, 1875 
row, Wim. ; att.-gen., 1813 

th, Dr. ; Kit-Cat club, 1703 

kell, Mrs. E. C, novelist; 1811-65 
sendi, 1592-1655; atoms, sun, 
und 

on de Foix; Ravenna, r512 


INDEX. 


955 


| Gates, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777; Camden, 
1780 

Gauden, bp. ; eikon basilike, 1649 

Gauden, M. ; sapphire, 1857 

Gaunt, Joln of, b. 1340; Ghent, 
roses, wars 

Gausius, 335 B.C. ; caustic 

Gavarni, French caric. 1801-66 

Gavestons, beheaded, 1312; rebellions 

Gay, John, 1688-1732; fables, operas 

Gay-Lussac, J., 1778-1850; balloons 

Gayer, J., lion-sermon 

Ged, William ; stereotype, 1730 

Gefirard, gen. Fabre; Hayti, 1858 

Gelasius I.; popes 492; breviary, 
pall ; Candlemas 

Gellert, C. F., Germ. fabulist, 1715-69 

Gellius, Aulus, Latin .miscellany, jl. 
117-180 

Gelon : Syracuse, 485 B.c., Himera 

Genghis khan ; see Jenghis Khan 

Genseric lands in Africa, 429 

Geoffroy, M. H.; asbestos 

George, David, d. 1536 ; family of love 

George, St. ; garter 

George I.—IV., England ; 
assassinations 

George I.—V. ; Hanover (kings) ; as- 
sassinations 

George I. ; accession, 1714 

George II. ; Dettingen, 1743 

George, H.; land nationalization 


kings, 


George, king, Bonny 

Georgi ; dahlia, 1815 

Gerainb, baron; aliens, 1812 

Gerard, J.; physic garden, 1567 

Gerbert, d. 1003 ; arithmetic 

Germaine, lord George Sackville; 
Minden, 1759 

Germanus ; Sodor, 447 

Gerstenzweig, general; Poland, m. 
1861 

Gervinus, G. G., Germ. hist. 1805-71 

Gesler ; Switzerland, 1306 

Geta; Rome, emp. arr 

Gholam Hussein, Afghanistan, 1878- 
81 ; India, 1881 

Gibbins, Mr., killel; riots, 1831 

Gibbon, Edward, historian, 1737-94 

Gibbons, Grinling, sculptor, 1648-1721 

Gibbons, Orlando ; music, 1583-1625 

Gibbs, J., architect, 1674-1754 

Gibbs, sir V.; attorney-gen., 1807 ; 
common pleas, 1814 

Gibbs, W. A.; corn, 1868; hay, 1875 

Gibbs, W.; Keble college, Christ’s 
hospital, 1877 

Gibson, J., sculptor, 1791-1866; Royal 
academy 

Gibson, T.; concordance, 1535 

Gibson, T. M., 1807-84; Palmerston 
administration, 1859 

Giesmar, general ; Praga, 1831 

Giffard, sir Hardinge ;  solicitor- 
general, 1875 

Gifford, lieut. ; Kildare, 1798 

Gifford, R. ; attorney-gen., 1819 

Gifford ; steam-injector 

Gifford, Wm., 1757-1826; Quarterly 
Rev., 1809 

Gilbert v. Enoch (Pall Mall Gaz.) 
trials, 1873 

Gilbert, archbp. ; York, 1757 

Gilbert, sir Humphry, 1539-84; 
Newfoundland 

Gilbert, Dr., 1540-1603; electricity, 
1600 ; magnetism 

Gilbert, gen. ; Ferozeshah, 1845 

Gilbert, G. ; executions, 1862 

Gilchrist, earl (of Angus), 1037 

Gilchrist, steel 

Gildas, historian, 516-570 

Gill, D.; star 

Gillam, Rd. ; trials, 1828 

Gillespie, col. ; Vellore, 1806 

Gillespie, gen. ; Kalunga, duel, 1788 

Gillott, J.; steel pens 


Gillray, J. 1785-1815 ; caricatures 


Ginckel, gen.: Aughrim, 1691 
Gintl, Dr.; electric telegraph (duplex) 


1853 
Gioberti, Italian writer, 1801-52 
Gioja, F. ; compass, 1302 
Giotto, painter, 1276-1336 
Giudetti, passion music 
Gladstone, rev. Mr. ; trials, 185 
Gladstone, J. H. ; copper-zinc couple, 
1872; physical society, 1874; edu- 
cation society 
Gladstone v. Gladstone ; trials, 1875 
Gladstone, W. E. ; b. 1809, Gladstone, 
1868-80, suspensory act ; England, 
1877-8 ; Dublin, 1878; parliament, 
1881; Kilmainham 
Glaisher, J.; meteorology, 
balloons, 1862 
Glanville, R. de, ch. justice, 1180 
Glas, capt., murdered ; trials, 1766 
Glas, John, 1698-1773 ; Glasites, 1727 
Gleichen, count ; England, 1877 
Glendower, Owen; Wales, 1400 
Glenelg, lord (Charles Grant), d. 1866 ; 
Wellington adm., 1828 
Glerawley, lord, v. Burn; trials, 1820 
Gloucester, duke of; marriage act, 1772 
Glover, col. ; Ashantees, 1874 
Glover, EH. A. ; trials, 1858 
Glover, sir H.; Leeward Isles 
Gluck, C. ; music, 1714-87 
Gobelin, G. ; tapestry, Gobelins 
Goderich, lord, d. 1859; Goderich 
Godfrey, M.; bank of England, 1694 
Godfrey of Bouillon; Jerusalem, 


1850 ; 


1099 

Godolphm, earl; Godolphin adm. 
1684 

Godoy, M., prince of the peace; 
Spain, 1806 ; d. 1851 

Godwin, sir G.; Pegu, 1852 

Godwin, Wm., 1756-1836; politics, 
novels 

Goethe, or G6the ; German miscel. 
1749-1832 

Goffart, M.; ensilage 

Gog and Magog ; Guildhall 

Gold, F. I., 1881, railways, 
trials ; 

Goldeni, Ch., Ital. dramatist, 1707-93 

Goldschmidt (Jenny Lind), b. 1821 ; 
Nightingale fund 

Goldschmidt, H., 1802-66: planets, 
1852 

Goldsmids ; trials, 1873 

Goldsmith, Oliver ; poet, miscel. 1728- 


1881, 


4 

Gancourt naturalism 

Gonsalvo de Cordova, gen., d. 1515 
Garigliano 

Gonzales, F. O., Spain, 1879, Mexico, 
1880. 

Gooch, lady, trials, 1878 

Good, Daniel; trials, 1842 

Goodenough, lieut. ; massacres, 1875 

Goodrich, bp. ; administrations, 1551 

Goodwin, bp., H., Carlisle, 1870 

Goodyear, C. ; caoutchoue 

Gordian ; Rome, emperors 

Gordon, col.; duels, 1783 

Gordon, lord G., d. 1793; riots, libel, 
trials, 1781, 1788 

Gordon, gen. Charles George ; China, 
1863; Egypt, 1874; Abysinnia ; 
Basuto, Congo, Khartoum, Soudan, 
1883-4 

Gordon, sir A. H., Fiji, 1875 ; N. Zea- 
land, 1880 

Gordons, L. and L. ; trials, 1804 

Gorgey, gen. ; Hungary, 1849 

Gorham v. bishop of Exeter; trials, 


1849 

Gortschakoff, gen.; Kalafat, 1854; 
Silistria, Tchernaya 

Gortschakoff, prince A., statesman, 
1798-1883 ; Vienna conference, 
1853; Poland, 1861 ; Russo-Turkish 
war, II. 1877-8; Russia, 1856-83 


956 


INDEX. 


Goschen, J. G. b. 1831; Gladstone 
adm., 1868 ; Egypt, 1876; Turkey, 
1880-1 3; parliament, 1883 

Goss v. Whitlake, trials, 1870 

Gossett, sir W. ; trials, 1842 

Gough, sir Hugh, 1772-1869; China, 
1841; India, 1846; Goojerat, So- 
braon, Ferozeshah 

Goulard ; France, 1874 

Goulburn, H.; Wellington admin- 
istration, 1828 

Gould, J., 1804-81; birds, works on, 
1832-78; humming-birds, 1862 

Gould, Jay, New York, 1872 

Gould, Miss ; trials, 1822 

Gould, murderer ; trials, 1840 

Gourko, gen. ; Russo-Turkish war, 
Il. 1878; Schipka 

Gourlay, captain; duels, 1824 

Gower, earl ; Wilmington adm. 
North adm., 1770 

Gower, F. A., telephone 

Gower, J., poet; d. 1402 * 

Graechus, Tiberius, slain, 
Caius slain, 121 B.C. 

Grady, Mr. ; duel, 1827 

Grebe and Liebermann, alizarine 

Greevius, J. G. and G. ; thesaurus 

Grafton, duke of; Rockingham adm., 
1765: Grafton adm., 1767 

Graham, bp. ; Chester, 1848 

Graham of  Claverhouse, 
Killiecrankie 

Graham, A. ; planets, 1848 

Graham, C. C. ; Grenada 


» 17423 


1339 


1650-89 ; 


Graham, gen.; Barossa, 1811; Se- 
bastian, Bergen-op-Zoom 

Graham, Mr.; pendulum, 1715; 
magnetism, 1722 

Graham, Mr. ; duels, 1791 

Graham, gen. sir Gerald; Egypt, 


1882 ; Soudan, 1884 

Graham, sir James, 1792-1861; Grey, 
Peel 

Graham, Thos., 1805-69; mint, dif- 
fusion, dialysis, atmolysis 

Grammont, duc de, Dettingen, 1743 

Granard, Arthur, earl of; Kilmain- 
ham, 1675 

Granby, marquis of; 
minis., 1766 

Grant, Alb. ; Leicester square, 1874; 
trials, 1875-6 ; painting, 1877 

Grant, capt. John; cookery, 1857; 
cottager’s stove 

Grant, sir Colquhoun; duel, 1835 

Grant, sir F., 1807-78; Royal Academy, 
1866-78 

Grant, G. B.; calculating machine, 


Chatham ad- 


1874 

Grant, lieut.; trials, 
Central Africa, 1863 

Grant, see Glenelg 

Grant, gen. Ulysses, 6. 1828; United 
States, 1863-73; Pittsburg, 1862 

Grantham, ld. ; Shelburne adm. 1872 

Grantley, F. Norton, ld.; attorney- 
gen., 1763 

Granville, earl; Russell, Palmerston 
admin., 1851; Gladstone adin. 1868, 
1880 

Gratian ; canons, 1140 

Gratian, Rome, emp. 367-83 

Grattan, Henry, orator, 1750-1820; 
duelling, 1800, 1820 

Grattan, T. Colley, novelist, 1796- 
1864 

Grattoni, Alps (tunnel) 

Graves, adm. sir T. , Basseterre, 1782 

Gray, bp. ; Bristol, 1827; see Cape- 
town 

Gray, ld. payee E. D.; Ireland, 1882 

Gray, E. ; telephone, 1873 

Gray, Thomas, poet, 1716-71 

Greathead, Mr. ; life- dat, 1789 

Greatrix, Val. ; ‘impostors, 1666 

Greaves, lord; suicide, 1830 

Grechi, prof. ; fire-detector 


1816, 1844; 


Greeley, Horace, 
States, 1872 

Greeley, lieut.; N. 
1881-4 

Green, Charles, 1786-1870; balloons, 
1828 

Green, rey. 8., public worship, 1880 

Green, J. R.; hist., 1837-83 

Green, J.; seraphine 

Greenacre, J. ; trials, 1837 

Greene, general; Camden, 1781 

Greenwood, T. ; file, 1860 - 


1811-72; United 
E. & W. pass., 


Gregg, Dr.; reformed episcopal 
church 

Grégoire, M.; national convention, 
1792 

Gregory the Great; chanting, 
Christianity 


Gregory I.—XVI. ; popes, 590 et seq. 

Gregory Vit: Italy, 237 

Gregory XI., pope ; pallium 

Gregory XIII. ; calendar, 1582 

Gregory Nazianzen, Greek father, 
326-390? 

Grenville, George; Neweastle ad- 
ministration, 1754; Grenville ad- 
ministration, 1763 

Grenville, F. ; British Museum, 1846 

Grenville, lord; Grenville admin., 
1806; delicate investigation 

Gresham, sir T., d. 1579; Gresham 

Grévy, Jules, France, 1871-81 ;—A., 
France, 1877 

Grey, bp. ; Hereford, 1832 

Grey, earl, 1764-1845; Grey, reform 

Grey, Henry, earl; Russell adininis- 
tration, 1835 

Grey, lady Jane, exec. 
land, queens 

Grey, lord; Pomfret castle, 1483 

Grey, sir George; Russell adinin., 
1846; Palmerston admin., 1855 

Grey, sir G.; Cape, 1856 

Grey, Stephen ; electricity, 1720 

Griesbach, J., critic, 1745-1812 

Griffith, sir R., Griftith’s valuation 

Grimaldi, Joseph, clown ; retires, 
1828 

Grimm, Jacob, 1785-1863; Wilhelm, 
1786-1859; dictionary (German); 
Grimm’s law 

Grindall, abp. ; 
bury, liturgy 

Grinfield, general; Demarara, 1803 ; 
Tobago 

Grinnell, Mr.; Franklin expedition, 


1554; Eng- 


York, 1570; Canter- 


1850 

Grinstead, Capt.; Princess Alice 

Grisi, madame, d. 1869 

Grissell, C. E., parliament, 1879-80 

Grocyn, Wm. ; Greek, 1490 

Grogan, col., captured; U. States, 
1841 

Gronovius, J., thesaurus, 1657-1702 

Gros, baron; China, 1858 

Grote, G., historian, 1794-1861 

Grotius, H., 1583-1645; philosophy 

Grove, sir G.; crystal palace, 1874; 
music (dict.), 1878 

Grove, sir W. R., nat. phil. & judge, 
b. 1811; voltaic battery, 1839; cor- 
relation, 1842; continuity, 1866 . 

Groves, W., electric balance, 1879 

Growse, Elias ; needles 

Guelph ; Bavaria, Brunswick 

Guericke, Otto von, 1602-1686; air, 
electricity, 1647; Magdeburg 

Guérin-Meneville, silk (ailantine), 
1858 

Ciena W. H. ;: trials, 1858 

Guesclin, B. du, d. 1380 

Guibert, ‘abp.; France, 1876 

Guibord, J. ; Montreal, 1875 

Guicciardini, F., hist., 1482-1540 

Guido, Aretino, "fl 1030 

Guido, Reni, painter, 1575-1642 

Guilford, earl of; trials, 1853 

Guillemin, A. ; comets 


Guillermo ; Hayti, 1877 


Guinness, sir B., 1798-1868; Patrick 
St., 1863 | 

Guiscard; Naples, 1059; conspira 
cies, 1710 

Guise, dukes of ; Guise 

Guiteau, C. J., assassin, Unite 
States, 1881-2 : 


Guizot, F., 1787-1874; France, 1840 
48-70 
Gunter, E. ; Gunter’s chain, 1606 


Gurney, G.; Bude light, 1841 


Gurney, Messrs. ; trials, 1869 
Gurney, Russell ; recorder, 1856-78 
Gurwood, colonel ; suicide, 1845 
Gussfeld, Dr. ; Africa, 1873 
Gustavus Adolphus, killed, Lutzen 
1632; Sweden, Munich 
Gustavus Vasa; Sweden, 1521 
Gustavus I.—IV. ; Sweden 
Gutenberg, J., d. 1467; printing 
Guter, of Nuremberg; air, 1659 _ 
Gutierrez, T., Peru, 1872 
Guy Faux; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Guy, Thos. ; ; Guy’s hospital, 1721 
Guyton-Morveau ; balloons, 1784-04 
Guzman, Dominic de ; beads, 1202 
Gwynne, Nell; bell-ringing, 1687 
Gyges ; Lydia, 718 B.C. 
Gylippus, 414 B.c. ; Syracuse 


H. 


Habakkuk, prophet, ab. 326 B.c. 
Hachette, Jeanne de la; Beauvais 


1472 
Hacker L. ; Sunday schools, 1740 © 
Hacker, Matilda, trials, 1879 
Hackett, Wm. ; impostors, 1591 
Hackman, Mr. ; trials, 1770 | 
Hackworth, T. ; steam, 1825 
Haddington, earl of ; Ireland (ord 

lieut. ), 1834 
Haden, Seymour ; burials, 1875 | 
Hadley ; quadrant, 1731 | 
Hadrian; Rome, emperor, 117 
Heckel, prof. ; development 
Hecker ; magnetism, 1851 
Hafiz, Persian poet, fl. x4th century 
Haggai prophesies about 630 B.c. 
Haggart, David; trials, 1821 
Haggarty and Holloway ; trials, 180; 
Hahnemann, Sam., 1755-1843 

homeopathy | 
Hakluyt, R. ; geog., 1553-1616 
Hakon ; Tesland 
Hale, sir Matthew, judge, 1609-76 — 
Hales, Stephen, philosopher, a | 

17 61 
Halivas J. E. F. mus. comp. of 

1862 
Halifax, earl of ; Halifax administra 

tion, 1714; trimmer; see Wi 
Hall, A. ; astronomy ; Mars, 87 
Hall; ee 1840 
Hall, sir B. ; health, Palmerston ad 

ministration, 1855 | 
Hall, sir C., vice-chancellor, 1873 
Hall, Marshall, physiol., 1790-1857 
Hall, Rev. Robert, 1764-1831 
Hall, Sam., d. 1862 ; lace ¢ 
Hall v. Semple ; trials, 1862 1 
Hallam, Henry, hist., 1778-1859 
Haller, A. von; phyatene 1708-77 
Halley, Edmund, Tnetrondaie Grecn 

wich, 1719 ; Venus 
Halloran, Dr., transported for forging 

a frank, 1818 
Hamdi Pasha ; Turkey, 1878 ‘ 
Hamel, J. ; Mont Blanc, 1820 
Hamilcar; Carthage, 237 B.C. 
Hamilton ; duels, 1748, 1804 
Hamilton and Douglas cause; ti 


1769 
Hamil! bp. ; Salisbury, 1854 
Hamilton, duke of; duelling, 1712 


trials, 1813 


a ee a 


INDEX. 


957 


a a a a 


milton, F. W., guards 

milton, James, marquis of; ad- 
ninistrations, 1640 

milton, J. ; court of honour 
milton, J. B.; vocalion 

milton, Mary ; trials, 1736 
milton, sir W.; Herculaneum 
milton, W. R. ; Elgin marbles 
milton, sir W.; quaternions 
mmond, Mr. ; ambassadors, 1791 
mpden, Richard; administrations, 
6 


Boden’ John, killed, 1643; ship- 
1oney, Chalgrove 

naln, E.; boat race, 1882 

ncock, T. ; caoutchouc, 1843 
ndeock ; trials, 1855 

ndel, G. F., 1684-1759; Handel, 
pera, oratorios, Judas, Joshua, 
lessiah, Rule Britannia 

men, sir James; divorce ct., 1872 
nnibal, Carthaginian, 247-183 B.C. ; 
ome, Bernard, Saguntum, Spain, 
anne, Carthage, Zama 
as Sachs, 1494-1578; 
ingers 

nsom, Joseph; cabs 
ison, capt. ; duels, 1776 
way, Jonas, d. 1786; marine 
ciety ; umbrella 

court, lady ; féte de vertu 

court, lord; Oxford administra- 
on, 1711 

‘court, sir W. V., solicitor-general, 
373; Gladstone admin., 1880 ; 
ondon Municipal Bill 

‘dicanute ; England, 1039 

‘ding, prof. ; planets, 1804 

‘dinge, sir Henry (aft. lord), 1846; 
idia 

‘dinge, Mr. ; journals, 1752 
‘dwicke, earl of ; Pelham admin., 
7443 Derby admin., 1852; Ireland 
ord-lieut.), 1801 

dy, Gathorne, b. 1814; Disraeli 
Iministration, 1868 and 1874 

e, R. ; blowpipe, 1802 

graves, E.; Australia, 1851 
‘greaves, J.; cotton, 1767 

ley, Robert ; Godolphin adminis- 
ation, 1702 ; Harleian library, see 
tford 

ley, R. W.; Tobago, 1875 
modius kills Hipparchus, 514 B.c. 
mney, gen.; United States, 1855 
old II. ; Hastings, 1066 
‘oun-al-Raschid, caliph, 765-809 
pur, W. ; Bedford, 1561 

rington, J.; oceana, 1656; trials, 
78 

Bicton, earl of; Pelham admin- 
tration, 1744 

riot, T., algebra, 1631 

ris, Mr.; organs, 1682; clocks, 
yples, fluxions, pendulum 

ris, sir W. S., 1792-1867; light- 
ng conductors, 1820-54 

rison, F.; positive phil. 

rison, gen. ; United States, presi- 
nt, 1841 

rison, J. ; pneumaticloom, 1864; 
arrison, 1714 
rison, Mr.; 
73 a, 
rowby, earl of ; Pitt administra- 
on, 1804 et seq. 

snet, archbp.; York, 1628 
tinger, Mr. ; duels, 1820 

tington, marquis of; Gladstone 
ministration, 1868 & 1880 

tland, sir R.; Madras, 1771 
tmann, Russia, 1880 

vey, B. Bagenal; trials, 1798 
vey, Dr. William, 1578-1657; 
ood, anatomy, midwifery, gene- 
tion 

wood ; porter, 1730 

okka, emperor’s hymn, 1797 


minne- 


congelation, 1857, 


Hasdrubal; Carthage, Spain; Me- 
taurus, 207 B.C. 

Hassall, A. H. ; food 

Hassan and Hussan, drama 

Hastings, marquis of; India, gov.- 
gen. 1813 

Hastings, Warren, 1733-1818; India, 
1772; Chunar, Hastings 

Hatchell, Mr. ; duels, 1814 

Hatfield fires at George III. ; trials, 
1800 

Hatfield ; executions, 1803 

Hatherley, ld. chancellor, 1868 

Hatton, sir Christopher, d. 1591; 
chancellor (lord high), master in 
chancery 

Hausmann ; Paris, France, 1869 

Haiiy, R., 1743-1822; crystallography 

Haiiy, V. ; blind school, 1804 

Havelock, gen. ; India, 1857 ; Cawn- 
pore 

Hawke, adm. ; naval battles, 1747 

Hawkesbury, lord ; administrations, 
1807; Amiens 

Hawkey, lieut. ; duels, trials, 1846 

Hawkins, J. ; piano 

Hawkins, sir John, d. 1595; Guinea, 
slave trade, 1562; potatoes, 
tobacco, Chatham 

Hawthorne, Nat., Amer. nov. 1804-64 

Hay, lord John; _ British legion, 
1835 ; St. Sebastian’s 

Haydn, Joseph [first compiler of this 
book], d. 1856 

Haydn, Joseph, mus. comp. ; 1732- 
1809 ; Creation, Emperor’s hymn 

Haydon, Benj., painter, 1786-1846 

Hayes, Mr. ; duels, 1728, 1806; trials, 
1802 

Hayes, sir H..B. ; trials, 1800 

Hayes, R. B., ; United States, 1876 

Hayman, Dr. H.; Rugby; trials, 
1874 

Haynau, gen; Hungary, 1849 

Hayter, sir G. ; painter, 1792-1871 

Hayter, sir Wm., whip 

Hayward ; trials, 1821 

Haywood, W. ; Holborn, 1869 

H. B. ; caricatures 

Head, sir Francis ; Canada, 1836 

Headfort, marquis of ; trials, 1805 

Hearn, north-west passage, 1769 

Heath, archbp. ; York, 1555 

Heberden, Dr.; Humane Society, 


1774 

Hebert, J. R. (pére Duchesne), exe- 
cuted, 1794 . 

Hector of Troy, slain, 1183 B.c. 

Heenan, J. ; boxing, 1860 

Hegel, G., philosopher, 1770-1831 

Hehl; animal magnetism, 1774 

Heine, H., German poet, 1799-1856 

Helena, St. ; cross, 328; Bethlehem 

Heliodorus, fl. 398; romances 

Heliogabalus; Rome, emp. 
silk 

Helmholtz, H., b. 1821 ; ophthalmo- 
scope, 1851; acoustics 

Heloise, d. 1164; Abélard 

Helps, sir Arthur, hist. and miscel., 
b. 1811-75 

Helsham, capt ; duels, 1829 

Hemans, Felicia, poet, 1794-1835 

Hencke ; planets, 1845 

Henderson, sir E., police, —. A.; pro- 
verbs 

Henderson, T.; stars 

Hengist ; octarch, Salisbury 

Henley, lord; Grenville admin., 1763 

Henley, Jos. ; Derby adin., 1852 

Henley, orator, d. 1756 

Hennessy, J. P. ; Bahama, 1874 ; Bar- 
bados, 1875-6 ; Mauritius 

Hennis, Dr. ; duels, 1833 

Henrietta ; queens (Charles I.) 

Henry; kings; England, France, 
Germany, Spain 

Henry I. ; Tinchebray, 1106 


218; 


Henry V. ; Agincourt, 1415; Cher- 
bourg 

Henry VII. ; Bosworth, 1485 

Henry VIII.; England, 1509; age, 
defender, field, monasteries, spurs 

Henry II., France ; tournaments, 1 559 

Henry III., France ; assassinations 

Henry IV. ; France, 1589; Nantes, 
Ravaillac, Yvres, assassination 

Hea Joseph, Am. nat. phil. 1797- 
1878. 

Henry, Paul and Prosper; planets, 
1872-8 

Henry the Lion; Brunswick, 1139 

Henshaw, Mr. ; duels, 1820 

Henty, Mr. ; Victoria, 1834 

Hepburn, ensign; trials, 1812 

Heraclitus, philosopher, fl. 500 B.C. 

Heraclius ; cross, 615 

Herbert, adm. ; Bantry Bay, 1689 

Herbert, George, ch. poet, 1593 


1633 

Herbert of Cherbury, lord, 1 581- 
1648; deism 

Herbert, Sidney (aft. lord), 1810-6r ; 
Peel, Palmerston admins. 

Herbert, W., trials, 1880 

Hercules Tyrius ; purple 

Herder, J. G. von, philosopher, 1744 
1803 

Herkomer, M.; art school, 1883 

Hermann (Arminius), Germany, 9 

Hero of Alexandria, fl. 284-221 B.C. 

Herod ; Jews, 42 B.¢. 

Herodian, hist., fl. 173 

Herodotus, b. 484 B.c. ; history 

Herophilus ; anatomy, 302 B.c. 

Herostratus fires the temple at 
Ephesus, 356 B.c. 

Herries, J. C. ; Peel adm. 1834 

Herring, abp. ; Canterbury, 1747 

Herring, Mrs. ; trials, 1773 

Herrmann, R. ; ilmenium 

Herschel, J. F., 1792-1871; actino- 
meter, photography 

Herschel, W., 1738-1822; Saturn, 
astronomy, telescope, sun, Uranus, 
nebular hypothesis 

Hertford, earl of; administrations, 
1547; Pinkey 

Hertford, marquis of; his executors 
v. Suisse, trials, 1842 

Hertz, James ; cheque bank, 1873 

Hervie, H.; doctors’ commons, 
1560 

Hesiod, Greek poet, jl. 850 B.c. 

Hess, gen. ; Solferino, 1859 

Bee adin.; Egypt, 1882; Soudan, 
1884 

Hewett, comm. ; Congo, 1875 

Heytesbury, lord; Ireland (lord- 
lieut.), 1844 

Heywood, Mrs. ; Manchester, 1875 

poe Ce ; pub. worship reg. act, 
1883 

Hibbert, R.; Hibbert fund 

Hicks ; life-boat, &c,, 1874 

Hicks, col.; Soudan, 1883 

Hiero, Syracuse, 478-275 B.c. 

Hieronymus, see Jerome 

Hilary ; hymns, 431 

Hill, lord ; commander-in-chief, 1828 

Hill, rey. R., Surrey chapel 

Hill, Rowland, b.1795-1879; post-office 

Hill, bp. R. ; Man 

Hillsborough, lord ; North adminis- 
tration, 1770 

Hilton, James ; chronogram 

Hind, J. R., b. 1823; planets, 1847; 
comets 

Hindes, lieut. ; duel, 1817 

Hinds, bp. ; Norwich, 1849 

Hinrichs, professor ; atomic theory, 


1855 

Hipparchus, fl. 162 B.c. ; astronomy, 
Canary, constellation, degrees, 
latitude, longitude 

Hippias ; ostracism, 510 B.c, 


958 


INDEX. 


Hippocrates, d. 357 B.c.; anatomy, 


surgery, loadstone 


Hoadley,, B., bp., d. 1761; Ban- 
gorian 

Hobart, lord; Addington adm., 
1801 


Hobbema, painter, jl. 168 
Hobbes, T., 1588-1679 ; academies 


Hobhouse, sir J. C. (aft. lord 
Broughton), 1869; Melbourne, 


adm., 1834 
Hoche, gen. ; Dunkirk, 1793 
Hochstade, C. von, Cologne, 1248 
Hocker, murderer ; trials, 1845 
Hodel ; Germany, Prussia, 1878 
Hodgson, gen. ; Belleisle, 1761 
Hodgson v. Greene ; trials, 1832 
Hofer, Andrew ; Tyrol, 1809-10 
Hoffmann, A., Kladderadatsch 


Hofmann, Dr. A. W., 0. 1818; chemis- 
try, ammonia, aniline, crith, Fara- 


day 
Hogarth, W., painter, 1697-1764 
Hogg, James, Se. poet, 1772-1835 
Holbein, Hans, Ger. paint. 1498-1543 
Holcombe, lieut. ; India, 1875 
Holcroft, T., 1745-1809 ; melodrama, 


1793 ni 
Holdernesse, earl of ; Devonshire ad- 


ministration, 1756 

Holgate, abp. ; York, 1545 

Holinshed, Ralph; d. about 1580 

Holkar ; India, 1804 

Holker, sir J.; solicitor-gen., 1874 ; 
att.-gen., 1875 

Holland, lord; Melbourne adm., 1835 
et seq. ; trials, 1797 

Holland, sir H., 1788-1873; pres. 
Roy. Inst., 1865-73 

Hollest murderers ; trials, 1851 

Holloway, T.; Holloway hospitals, 
1873 

rolines: adm. ; Cape Coast, 1663 

Holt, sir John; king’s bench, 1689 

Holt ; trials, 1844 

Holtz; electricity, 1865 

Holwell, Mr. ; suttees, 1743 

Holyoake ; secularism 

Home. or Hume, D. ; 
trials, 1868 

Home, lieut. ; Delhi, 1857 

Homer, jl. 962 B.c. (Clinton) ; poetry 

Hompesch, baron; duels, 1806 

Hone, Wm., 1779-1842; trials, 1817; 
almanacs 

Honey and Francis ; riots, 1821 

Honorius ; West. empire, 395 

Hood, admiral; Madeira, 
Toulon 

Hood, Thomas, comic writer, 1798- 
1845; Tom, son, 1835-74 

Hook, Theodore, novelist, 1788-1841 

Hook, W. F. J. D., dean, hist., 1798- 


spiritualism ; 


1807 ; 


18 

iors. Rob., 1635-1702; air, boiling, 
camera, clocks, geology, mechanics, 
microscope, telegraphs 

Hooker, Rich., theol., 1553-1600 

Hooker, W., botanist, 1785-1865 ;—J. 
D. (son), b. 1816 ; Kew, 1865 ;—Gen. 
R.; United States, 1862-3; Fre- 
dericksburg 

Hopkins, miss Ellice; white cross 
army 

Hopkins, Matthew ; witches, 1645 

Hopley, T. ; trials, 1860 

Horace, 65-8 B.c., Latin poet ; Athens, 
satires 

Horler, H. ; trials, 1853 

Hormisdas ; Persia, 272 

Horn, count; Nordlingen, 1634 

Horne, G., bp. ; Norwich, 1790 

Horne, rey. T. H., bibl. critic, 1780- 
1862 

Horne Tooke, John, d. 1812; Horne 
Tooke, &c. f 

Horner, Fr. ; bullion, 1810 

Hornor, Mr. ; Colosseum, 1824 


Hornsby, 


chine, 1862 
Horrebow ; astronomy, 1659 
Horrocks or Horrox, Jer., d. 1641; 
astronomy, Venus 
Horsfall, Mr. ; trials, 1813 
Horsfall, Messrs. ; cannon, 1856 
Horsley, bp. ; St. Asaph, 1802 


Horsman, Edwd., 1807-76 (see. for 


Treland, 1855-7) ; Adullam, 1866 
Hosea prophesies about 785 B.C. 
Hoste, capt. Wm.; Lissa, 1811 
Hotham, adm. ; naval battles, 1795 
Hotspur ; Otterburn, 1388 
Houblon, sir J. ; bank of England, 

1695 
Houdin, R. J. E., conjuror, 1815-71 
Houghton, John, executed, 1535; 

Charterhouse 
Houghton, lord; ancient buildings 
Howard, C. ; trials, 1876 


Howard, adm. sir Edward; nayal 


battles, 1513 

Howard, John, 1726-90; prisons ;— 
potatoes 

Howard, Luke, d. 1864; clouds 

Howard, col. J. E.; quinine 

Howard of Effingham, lord ; armada, 
1588 

Howard v. Gossett; trials, 1842 

Howards, ploughs 

Howe, sir William; Long Island, 
1776 

Howe, lord, 1784; Pitt, 1783; Brest, 
Ushant 

Howel Dha; Wales, 920 

Howitt, Wm., author, d. 1879 

Howley, Dr., abp.; Canterbury, 
1828 ; Lambeth 

Hoyle, W., drunkards 

Huber, F., 1750-1831; bees 

Hudson, Jeffrey, 1626; dwarf 

Hudson, H.; Hudson’s Bay 

Hugelmann, G.; France, 1874 

Huggins, Wim. ; spectrum; sun (co- 
rona) 

Hughes, D. E. ; microphone 

Hughes, sir E. ; Trincomalee, 1782 

Hughes, J., bp., Asaph, 1870 

Hughes, Mr., audiometer 

Hughes, T.; socialism, Ashdown, 
New Rugby 

Hugo, Victor, Fr. poet and novel., 
1802-85; France, 1876; literary 
congress 

Hugues, mad.; France, 1884 

Hullah, J., 1812-84; music, 1840 

Humbert I.; Italy, 1878; Naples, 
1884 

Humbert, gen. ; Killala, 1798 

Humboldt, A. de., Ger. phil., 1769- 
1859; Andes 

Humboldt, W. de, Ger. lit.,1767- 


1835 

Hume, David, hist., 1711-76 ;—Jos., 
politics, 1777-1855 ; see Home 

Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, d. 
at Bury, 1447 

Hungerford, sir T. ; speaker, 1377 

Hunniades, J.; Hungary, 1442; 
Turkey, Varna 

Hunt, Geo. Ward, 1825-77; Disraeli 
administrations, excheq., 1868; 
admiralty, 1874-7 : 

Hunt, Henry, reformer ; trials, 1820; 
Clerkenwell, Manchester 

Hunt, John and Leigh; trials, 1811- 
1812; James, d. 1869, anthro- 
pology. 

Hunt, Wm. Holman, painter, b. 1827; 
pre-Raphaelite 

Hunt, W. T.; trials, 1875 

Hunter, John, surgeon, 1728-93 ;— 
W., 1718-83 

Huntingdon, countess of, 1707-91 
Cheshunt, Whitfieldites 

Huntingford, bp. ; Hereford, 1802 


Dr. ; Radcliffe, observa- 
tory, 1771 ;—Messrs., washing-ma- 


Huntly, earl of ; Brechin, 1452 

Hunton, Jos., forgery; executior 
1828 © 

Hurd, bishop ; Worcester, 1781 

Huskisson, Wm., 1770-1830; We 
lington admin., 1828; Liverpoc 
1830 

Huss, John, burnt, 1415 ; Hussites 

Hutchinson, Amy; trials, 1750 

Hutchinson, John, d. 1737; Hute 
insonians 


Hutchinson, major; Alexandri 
1801 
Hutchinson, J . H.;  Layalette 


escape, 1815 

Hutton, abp. ; Canterbury, 1757 

Hutton, W., d. 1815; geology 

Huxley, T. H., b. 1825; abiogenesi. 
bathybius, Birmingham, 187, 
germ, minimisers, oysters, Ro) 
Soc. pres. 1883 

Huyghens, d. 1695; astronomy} 
optics, pendulum — 

Hyacinthe (Loyson) father, Franc 
1869 

Hyde, capt. ; Chili, 1874 

Hyde, sir Edward ; chancellor, lor 
high, 1660 

Hyde, Laurence; 
1689 et seq. — | 

Hyder Ali, d. 1782; India, Arcot 
Carnatic, Mysore 

Hyginus, pope, 139; martyr 

Hypatia, philosopher, m. 415 B.¢. 
hydrometer 

Hyperides ; Cranon, 322 B.c. 

Hyrcanus, John, d. 106 B.c.; §$a 
maritans . 

Hyslop and Denham ; trials, 1877 _ 


administrations 


: : 


Ibrahim Pacha, 1789-1848; ana 
Beyrout, Egypt, Greece, Sa 
Turkey, Damascus, Wahabees 

Iglesias; Mexico, 1876-7; Peru 
1883-4 

Ignatief, M.; Russia; resigned, 18 

Ignatius, St., mart., xrrs; liturgie 


250 
Ibert bill, 1883-4 
Ilchester, ld.; Oxford uniy.; §I 
vonia, 1876 
Impey, major; duels, 1801 
Inachus ; Argos, 1856 B.C. 
Incledon, C., d. 1826 
Ifiez de Castro; Coimbra, 1355 
Ingham, sir J. T. ; magistrate, 187 
Ingle, L., trials, 1880 
Inglefield, capt. ; Franklin, 1852 
Inglis, col. ; Albuera, 1811 
Ingram, Herbert, d. 1860; Illus 
London News, 1842—W. J., print 
ing machine, 1877 
Inman, W.; steam, 1850 
Innocent I.—XII. ; popes, 402 et sey. 
Innocent III., pope, 1198; transu 
stantiation A 
Treneeus, martyr, 202 4 | 
Irving, E., 1792-1834; Irvingite 
trial, 1832 ; unknown tongues _ 
Irving, H.; theatres (Lyceum, 1874- 
Irving, H. T.; Antigua, 187350 
ward Isles, 1873 
Irving, Washington, 1783-1859 _ 
Isaac, major ; tunnel (Mersey) 
Isabella ; salique law, Spain, 1833 
Isaiah prophesies about 760 B.C. 
Islip, abp. ; Canterbury, 1349° 
Isocrates, Gr. orator, 436-338 B.C. 
Iturbide ; Mexico, 1821-1865 
Ivan; Russia, 1462; czars 


8 


Ad rtd deat : P ;: 


4 


; 


INDEX. 


959 


a 


John, St., d. 100 ; baptism, accusers, 
evangelists, gospels 

John I.—XXIII. ; popes, 523 et seq. 

John of Austria ; Lepanto, 1571 


J. 


lochkoff ; electricity (electric | John, king; Bohemia, Portugal, 
andles) Spain, France, Poitiers 


lonsky ; assassin ; Russia, 1883 
k, capt. ; Modoe, 1873 

kson, bp.; Oxford, 1812; Lin- 
oln, 1852; London, 1869-1885 ; 
uricular confession, 1873 

kson, gen. ; United States, 1829 
kson, C. T.; ether, 1846 

kson, J. B. ; printing in colours, 
20 

Bion, Thos., ‘‘Stonewall,” 1826- 
3; Manassas, United States, 1862; 
hancellorsville, Richmond, 1875 
kson, T. ; executions, 1861 

ob, Dr. ; Christ’s hospital, 1854 
obi; Baltic, note, electrotype 
obs, S. ; abstinence 

quard loom, 1806 

les; England, Scotland, Spain 
cings); assassinations 

les IV. ; Flodden, 1513 

les, sir H., 1803-77; photozin- 
graphy, 1860; ordnance survey 
es, Sir H.; sol.-general, att.-gen., 
373, 1880 

es, W. H., companies, 1876 
ieson, G. ; volunteers (18th 
eeting), 1877 

e, England, queens, 1554 ; Sicily 
isch, H. R.; Helena, 1873 

sen, C., 1585-1638; Jansenism 


John, king ; England (1199), charter 
of forests, magna charta, ‘* We” 

John of Leyden ; anabaptists, 1 534 

John the Fearless ; Burgundy, 1404 

Johnson, A. ; boats 

Johnson, Andrew, 1809-75; United 
States, 1865-8 

Johnson, Sam., 1709-84 ; dictionary, 
literary club, 1764 

Johnson, capt. ; trials, 1346 

Johnson, judge ; trials, 1805 

Johnson, Mr. ; swimming 

Johnston, capt. ; steam, 1825 

Johnston, gen. ; Ross, N., 1798 

Johnston, Albt., k. Pittsburg, 1862; 
—Jos., U. S., 1863 

Johnston, Alex. K., geographer, 1804- 
71, Africa, 1878 

Johnston, Robert; trials, 1818 

Johnston,sirJohn ; marriages, forced 
1690 

Johnston, W. ; orangemen, 1868 

Joinville, Jean de, French historian, 
1224-1318 

Joinville, prince de, b. 1818; Ocean 
Monarch, 1848 

Jomini, baron H., strategist; 1779- 
1869 ; Brussels conf., 1874 

Jonah prophesies about 862 B.c¢. 

Jones, colonel ; Dungan, 1647; Rath- 


ssen, M. ; eclipse, 1868 mines 

vier de la Motte ; France, 1872 Jones, H. Bence, 1813-73; Royal 
line, sir Wm., naturalist, 1800-74 Institution, 1860; fluorescence, 
lac; Jarnac ; France, 1874-5 spectrum 


m, argonautic exp., 1263 B.C. 

1s, J. S., steel 

», Joshua, prison reformer, 1793- 
6 


Jones, Gale; trials, 1811 . 

Jones, Horace; Billingsgate, foreign 
cattle market, guildhall 

Jones, Inigo, architect, 1572-1652 

Jones, Jane; trials, 1842 

Jones, J. 8., Kensington Mus. 

Jones, J.; trials, 1870 

Jones, J. W.; Brit. Museum, 1866-78 

Jones, Mr. ; riots, 1819 

Jones, Qwen, 1809-74, Alhambra, 
1842; James’s-hall, St. 

Jones, T. ; book-keeping, 1821 

Jones, Mr. Todd ; duel, 1802 

Jones, sir Wm., 1746-94; Asiatic, 
chess, Menu, Sanskrit 

Jones v. Stannard, trials, 188z 

Jones, W. B. T., Davids, St., 1874 

Jonson, Ben, 1574-1637; poet-laur. 

Joquemin, M. ; picquet, 1390 

Jordan, J. B., barometer; sunshine 

Jordan, Mrs., actress, d. 1816 

Jordan, R., gold 

Joseph ; Germany, Namur, Portugal 

Josephine, empress, 1763-1814; 
France, 1809 

Josephus, Jewish hist., 38-100 

Jotham ; fables, 1209 B.C. 

Joubert, gen.; Novi, 1799. Transvaal, 
1880 

Jourdan, marshal ; Cologne, Fleurus, 
Vittoria, 1813 

Jovellar ; Spain, 1874-5 

Jovian, Rome, emps., 363 

Joyce, family murdered, 1882 

Juarez, B. ; Mexico, 1858-72; d. 1872 

Judas Maccabeeus rules, 168-160 B.C. 

Judith ; Abyssinia, 960 

Jugurtha, d. 104 B.C.; 
Jugurthine war 

Julian; Rome, emp., 360; edicts, Paris 

Julianus Salvius ; edicts, 132 

Julius v. bishop of Oxford, trials, 
1879 

Julius Cesar ; see Cesar, Julius 

Julius, Mr. ; duels, 1791 

Julius II.; popes, 1503; Rome, 
Bologna, Laoco6n, Cambray 

Jullien, M., concerts 


ott, sir John W. ; duels, 1833 
rson, Thos., 1743-1826; United 
ates, president, 1801-8 

ry, Robert ; Sombrero, 1807 

ey, Francis, critic, 1773-1850 
eys, George (afterwards lord); 
ministrations, 1685; king’s bench, 
ancellor, lord high, bloody as- 
72; dl. 1689 

ies, Dr. J., colour blindness 
ebhoy ; Bombay, 1859 ; Parsees 
ichich ; Hungary, Vienna, 1848 
this Khan ; Tartary, 1206 ; Hun- 
ry, India, Moguls, Afghanistan 
in, F., telpherage 

ins v. Cook ; trials, 1875-6 

‘ins, Henry ; longevity, d. 1670 
‘inson, bp. ; David’s, St., 1825 
‘S, gaines, 1884 

er, E., 1749-1823 ; vaccination 
‘ings, Mr. ; tontines, 1798 

miah prophesies about 629 B.C. 
ingham, Mrs. ; blue-stockings, 


ie) 

me, St., Latin father, 345-420 ; 
ension, liturgies 

ne of Prague; burnt, 1416 

ld, Douglas, Nov. Drain., 80: 
7; W. B., 1826-84 

y, countess of ; delicate investi- 
lon, 1806 . 

8, sir John, 1734-1323 ; Cape St. 
1cent ;—solicitor-gen., at.-gen., 
nmon pleas, d. 1856 

is, sir W. F. D.; straits, and 
ith Australia 

1, sir Geo. 1824-83; master of 
ls, 1873 

ns, W. Stanley ; polit. econ. &e. 
5-82; abecedarium,1874; method 
of Arc, burnt, 1431; Joan 

; queens (Henry IV.), Naples 
prophesies about 800 B.c. 

nni; Abyssinia, 1872 


Numidia, 


Jung Bahadoor ; Nepaul, 1857-60 

Junot, marshal, 1771-1813; Cintra, 
Vimiera, 1808 

Jussieu, A. L. de ; Fr. botanist, 1743- 
1836 

Justin, emp. ; Rome, 518 and 565 

Justin Martyr, 164; millennium 

Justin, St. ; Rochester, 604 

Justinian ; eastern empire, 527 

Juvenal, 59-128 ; satires 

Juvigny, flageolet 

Juxon, apb. ; administrations, 1640 53 
Canterbury, 1660 


K. 


Kabba Rega ; Egypt, 1872 

Kalakaua, Sandwich Islands, 1874 

Kane, Dr. ; Franklin, 1843 

Kant, Imman., 1724-1804 ; metaphy- 
sics 

Karaman, Joseph; Syria, 1866-7 

Karslake, sir J., b. 1821; att.-gen., 
1867-74 

Kaspary; humanitarians 

Kassa; Abyssinia, 1871 

Kastenbein ; printing, 1872 

Kastner, F. ; pyrophone 

Kauffman, harmonica 

Kaufmann, gen. ; Samareand, 1868 ; 
Khiva, 1873; Khokand, L875 sie 
1882 


Kaunitz, prince W. A., Aust. states- 
man, 1711-94 

Kaye, bishop ; Bristol, 1820; Lincoln 

Kean, Charles, 1811-68 ; theatres 

Kean, Edmund, actor, 1787-1833 

Keane, lord ; Ghiznee, 1839 

Kearney, D.; California, 1878 

Keats, John ; poet, 1796-1821 

Keble, rev. John; poet, 1792-1866; 
Keble 

Keenan ; trials, 1803 

Keet v. Smith ; reverend, trials, 1876 

Keith, George; earl-marischal of 
Scotland, Aberdeen, 1593 

Keith, George ; quakers, 1646 

Keith Johnston v, Atheneum ; trials, 
1875 ; see Johnston 

Keller, Dr. ; lake dwellings, 1865 

Kellerman, gen. ; Valmy, 1792 

Kellet, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 

Kellogg ; United States, 1874 

Kelly ; trials, 1869, 1871 

Kelly, Miss ; theatres, trials, 1816 

Kelly, Ned, Victoria, 1880 

Kelly, sir Fitzroy, 1796-1480; sol.- 
general, att.-gen., ch. baron, 1866-80 

Kemble, Charles, actor, 1775-1854 

Kemble, Fanny, actress, b. 1811 

Kemble, John, actor, 1757-1823 

Kembles ; examiners (of plays) 

Kemp, abp. ; Canterbury, 1452 

Kempe, John ; wool, 1331 

Kempenfeldt, adm. ; Royal George, 
1782 

Kempis, T. 4, 1380-1471; imitation, 
theology 

Kenealy, Dr.; Englishman ; trials, 


1874 
Kennedy, alderman ; trials, 1358 
Kennedy, Mr. ; Franklin, 1851-53 
Kennedy, C. R. ; trials, 1858 note 
Kennedy, sir A. E.; Hong Kong, 
1872 
Kent, Constance, Road murder 
Kent, Edw. duke of, 1767-1820 
Kent, Odo, earl of ; treasurer, 1066 
Kent, G. ; knives (cleaner), 1844 


-Kentigern, St. ; abstinence, Glasgow, 


Asaph, 560-83 

Kenyon, lord ; attorney-general, 1782; 
king’s bench 

Kepler, J., 1571-1630; optics, plane- 
tary motions, 1609 ; rainbow, tides, 
dyehouses, Venus 


960 


INDEX. 


Keppel, adm.; Belleisle, Ushant, 
trials, 1799; coalition, naval battles 

Keppel, commodore ; China, 1857 

Keratry, gen. ; Franco-Pruss. war, 


1870 

Kerford, Mr., Victoria, 1875 

Kern; davyum 

Keshub Sen, deisin. 

Kettel, E. ; trials, 1872 

Kettlewell, C. ; Bartholomew's, St., 
1881 

Keying; China, 1842-58 

Killigrew, Thos. ; drama, 1662 

Kilmarnock, lord; rebellions, trials, 
executions, 1746 

Kilwarby, abp. ; Canterbury, 1272 

Kilwarden, lord; king’s bench; trials, 
180 

Pinberiey. see Wodehouse; Glad- 
stone adm,, 1868, 1880 

King, Thos. ; ventriloquism, 1716 

King, Mr. Locke; administrations, 
1851 

es Dr. ; Ceesarean operation 

King, E., bp. ; Lincoln, 1885 

King, col. ; suicide, 1850 

King, C. ; trials, 1855 ; gems, 1860 

Kinglake, Dr. ; trials, 1870 

Kinglake, A. W. ; hist., b. 1802 

Kingsford, A. ; hermetic soc. 

Kingsley, Rev. C. ; novels, &c., 1819- 
75; socialism ; — Henry, nov. 1830- 
6 

iingaton, duchess of ; trials, 1776 

Kingston, Evelyn, duke of ; Walpole, 
1721 

in iiorett: C: T. ; sanitas 

Kinnaird, A. 3 eabmen’s rest, 1875 

Kirby and Wade, capts. shot, 1702 5 
naval battles, note 

Kircher; Holian harp, 1653 ; philoso- 
pher’s stone, trumpet 

Kirkman; pianoforte 

Kirwan, Richard B. ; trials, 1852 

Kiss, Karl, Ger. sculptor, 1802-65 

Klapka, general G., b. 1820 

Kleber, J..B., Fr. gen., 1754-1800; 
El Arisch 

Klein, E. ; histology, germ theory 

Kleist ; electricity, 1745; Leyden 

Klopstock, F. T., Germ. poet, 1724- 
1803 

Kluber ; cryptography 

Kmety, gen. (Ismail Pacha), d. 1865 ; 
Hungary, Kars 

Knatchbull, sir E. ; Peel administra- 
tions, 1834-5 

Kneller, sir Godfrey, painter, 1648- 


1723 
Knipht, Chas., 1791-1873 ; hist., &.; 
diffusion soc., 1827; England 
Knight, G. ; magnetism, 1756 
Knivht, Mr.; north-west passage, 
1602; South Sea bubble, bribery ; 
free church 
Knight v. Wolcot ; trials, 1807 
Knowles, James ; Nineteenth Century 
Knowles, J. 8., dramat., 1784-1862 
Knox, John, 1505-72; Presbyterians, 
congregation, queen, Scotland 
Knutzen, Matthias ; atheism, 1674 
Koch ; germ theory ; vivisection 
Kock, Charles Paul de, Fr. novelist, 


1794-1871 
Koffee Kalealli ; Ashantees, 1874 
Kohl, F. ; execution, 1865 
Komaroff, Gen. : Russia, 1885 
Konig, F. ; printing machine, 1814 
Konig, M.; phonoscope, tonometer, 
1862 
Korner, Th., Germ. poet, 1791-1813 
Kortright, C. ; Demerara 
Kosciusko; Poland, 1794 ; Cracow 
Kossuth, L., b. 1802; Hungary, 1849- 
68 ; United States, 1851 
Koster, Laurence ; printing, 1438 
Kotzebue ; north-west passage, 1815 ; 
Aug., dramatist ; assassinations 


Kouli Khan; Moguls, India, Persia, 


1730 

Krapotkine, prince, Russia, 1878 ; 
France, 1883 

Kreli; Kaffraria, 1877 

Kruger, P., Transvaal, 1879-81 

Kuenen, prof. ; Hibbert fund 

Kullmann ; attempt to kill Bismarck, 
Prussia, 1874 

Kunckel, J., 1630-1703 ; phosphorus, 
1670 

Knbasot? gen. M., 1745-18133 Russia, 
Borodino, Smolensko, 1812 

Kyhl, P. ; nature- ‘printing, 1833 


L. 


Laborde, A. de, ‘‘Partant pour la 
Syrie” 

Labouchere, Henry, lord Taunton ; 
Russell administration, 1846; Pal- 
merston administration, 1855 

Labourdonnaye ; Tournay, 1792 

La Bruyere, French essays, 1639-96 

Lachaise, Pére, 1624-1709 ; cemetery 

Lacon, W. S. ; seas 

Lacordaire, Pere H. D., 1802-61 

Lactantius, d. abt. 325 ; fathers > 

Ladislas ; Bohemia, Hungary 

Ladmirault ; Frauce, 1873 

Laénnec, R., physician, 1781-1826 

Lafarge, Madame ; trials, 1840 

Lafayette, marq. 3 1757- 1834 

Lafitte, d. 1844; wills (N Ba pdt s) 

La Fontaine, J., Fr. fabulist, 1621-95 

Lagava, &c. ; execution, 1856 

Lagny, circle, 1719 

La Grange, J. L., 1736-1813 ; acous- 
tics, astronomy, 1780 

Laing, Sam., cryst. pal. 1852; India, 
1861-2 

Laird, Mr.; Birkenhead, Alabama, 
navy, 1870 

Lake, gen. ; Bhurtpore, 1805; Delhi, 
Lincelles 

Lake, capt. ; Sombrero, 1807 

Lalande, J., astron., 1732-1807 

Lalanne ; abacus 

Lally, gen. Thos. de; beheaded, 1766 

Lamarck, 1744-1829 ; species 

La Marmora, gen. A.,1804-78 ; Tcher- 
naya, 1855; Italy, 1862 

Lamartine, A. de, 1792-1869, miscel. 
writer ; France, 1848 

Lamb, C., 1775-1834 ; essays 

Lamb, Dr., killed, 1628 ; riots 

Lamballe, princesse de; France, 
1792 

Lamberg, ct. ; Austria, 1848 

Lambert, Mr., d. 1809; corpulency 

Lambert (Latham), J. ; trials, 1855 

Lambrecht, Mr. ; duels, trials, 1830 

Lambton, Mr. ; duels, 1826 

Lamennais, Pere, F. R. de, 1782-1854 

Lamirande, M. ; extradition, 1866 

Lamoriciére, gen., 1806-65 ; France, 
1851; Rome, 1860 

Lamplugh, archbp. ; York, 1688 

Lamson, Dr. G. H.; trials, 1882 

Lancaster, capt. ; Bantam, 1603 

Lancaster, duke of; Lancaster 

Lancaster, J oseph, 1771-1838; Lan- 
casterian schools, educatiou 

Lander, Richard, 1804-34; Africa 

Lane, E. W., orientalist, 1801-76 

Landseer, sir E., painter, 1803-73 

Lanfranc, archbp. Canterbury, 1070 

Lanfrey, Pierre, Fr. hist. 1828-77 

Langalibalele ; cape; Natal, 1873 

Langara, adm.; naval battles, 1780 
Langdale, 1d. ; ; master of rolls, 1836 

Langdale, sir M.; Naseby, 1645 

Lange, sire Suez, 1858 

Langham, abp.; Canterbury, 1366 

Langiewicz, M.; Poland, 1863-5 


Langley, Dr. Baxter ; recreative reli- 
gionists ; artisans, trials, 1877 
Langley, prof. 8. Bas bolometer 
Langton, abp.; Canterbury, 1206 
Laer E. R.; ; Owens College, 


Lanktatee E. Ray; spontaneous 
generation, 1876-7 ; spiritualism 

Lannes ; marshals, Asperne, 1809 

Lansdowne, marquis of, 1780-1863; 
see Petty, Shelburne; Goderich 
adm. 1827; Russelladm. 1846, 1851; 
Aberdeen adm. 1852; Palmerston 
adm. 1855, et seq. ; Canada, 1883 

Lanyon, sir W. O., Transvaal, 1879 

Laomedon ; Troy, tho B.C. 

Laplace, P. de; Fr. mathemat. +» 1749- 
1827 

TLastioue! M. ; railway (balance) 

Lasker ; ‘Germany, 1884" 

Lateau, L. ; abstinence ad 

Latham, J. . birds 

Latimer, bp., burnt, 1555; 
testants 

Latimer, viscount; administrations, 
1672-3 

Latorre, col. ; Uruguay, 1876 i 

Laud, William, abp., 1573-1645 ; Can- 
terbury, administrations é 

Lauderdale, duke of; cabal, 1670 


Bios 


Laura; Petrarch, 1327 
Laurent ; carbolic acid, 1846 ; 
Lautrec, Fr. gen., d. 1528 
Lavalette’s escape, 1815 
Lavater, J., 1741-1801; physiognomy 
Lavoisier, A., 1743-94; carbon, hydro 
gen, nitric acid, phlogiston, wate 
Law, bishop ; Chester, Bath, 1824 
Law’s bubble, 1720 
Lawes, H., mus. comp., 1600-62 
Lawless, Mr.: ; riots, 1828 
Lawrence, gen. H., 1800-57; India, 185 
Lawrence, sir J., aft. Id., 1811-79} 
India, 1863 
Lawrence, sir T., painter, 1769-1830 
Lawson, sir Wilfrid ; permissive bill 
Layard, sir A. Henry, b. 1817 ; Nine 
veh, Gladstone, 1868 ; Turkey, 1877 
Layer’s conspiracy, 1722; Layer — 
Lazareff, Russia, 1879 
Lazzaretti, David ; Italy, 1878 
Leake, adm., d. 1720; acdniralty, Gib. 
raltar, Mediterranean, Minorca 
Leatham, W..Hes trials, 1861 
Le Clere, critics, 1696 
Lecky, R. J.,; sunshine recorder 
Lecomte, gen. ; France, 1871, 1876 
Lecoq de Boisbaudran ; gallium, 187 
Ledochowski, ae Prussia, 1873-6 
Ledru Rollin, A. A., 1808-74; France, 
1848, 1874 . 
Lee, *Tiexander theatres, 1830 
Lee, Ann, shakers 
Lee, bp., J. D.; massacres, 4 
Mormonites 
Lee Boo, prince; Pelew Islands, 17 
Lee, C. C.; Leeward isles 
Lee, John ; trials, 1885 
Lee, abp.; York, 1544 
Lee, W.; stocking-trame, 1589 
Lee, gen. Robt., 1808-70; U Unit 
States, 1862 
Leech, John, 1817-64; caricatures 
Punch 
Leeds, duke of; administrations, 16° 
Leeke, H.: Bushire, 1856 
Leeuwenhoek, 1632-1723; animal 
cules, polypus ‘ 
Lefevre, C. Shaw (id. Eversley) 
speaker, 1839-57 
Lefevre, G. 8.; Gladstone adm., 188 
Lefroy, “al. Mapleton, railways, 188 1 
Leggatt, B.; burning, 1612 
Legge, bishop ; Oxford, 1827 
Legge, H. B., Newcastle adm., 17 
Le Gros, Raymond; Dublin, 1172 
Leibnitz, Gottfried, "1646-1716; at 
matics, fluxions 


i } ’ 
ee ee ee 


cester, earl of ; administrations, 
558; national associations 

icester, earl of, v. Morning Herald ; 
rials, 180 

ighton, Prev s artist, 0, 
toyal Academy 

ghton, J. & A.; christmas cards : 
rinting surface 

ghton, abp. Robt., 1613-84 
ghton, G. C. ; printing in colours, 
849 

trim, earl of ; murd., Ireland, 1878 
Jay ; polyglot, 1628-45 

ewel; Poland, 1863 

y, Sir P., painter, 1617-80 

Maire ; cireumnavigator, 1615 
noinne, J. ; France, 1873-6 

non, Mark, humorist, 1809-70; 
unch : 

nox, col.; duels, 1789 

mox, lord H.; Disraeli adm., 
874-6 

lOir; gas, 1861 

Notre ; James’s-park, St., 1668 

}; popes, 440; Hastern empire, 457 
I. ; coronation 

)IV.; Leonine city 

X.; popes, 1513; indulgences 
XIII., 6. 1810; pope, 1878 

n, Diego de; Spain, 1841 

n, Ponce de; America, 1512 
narda of Pisa; algebra, 1202 
nardo da Vinci, painter, 1452-1519 
nidas ; Thermopylee, 480 B.C. 
pardi, Italian orat. 1798-1837 
pold, Germany ; Morgarten, 1315; 
empach, 1386; Belgium, 1830; 
pain, France, 1870-84 

pold, prince, 1853-84; England, 
ud.; Albany, 188: 

pée, abbé de, 1712-89, deaf 

idus ; triumvir, 43 B.C. 

Pique, M.; duels, 1808 
sius, K. R., 1810-84 ; Egypt 

do de Tejado; Mexico, 1872 
othodi, Basuto 

Sage, Krench novelist, 1668-1747 
lie, C. R., painter, 1794-1859 

lie, H., music 

seps, M.; Suez, 18523; Corinth, 
381; Panama 

sing, G. E., German philosopher, 
129-81 

tock, admiral; Toulon, 1744 
strange, sir R. ; newspapers, 1663 
heby, Henry, M.B., chemist, 
316-76 

tsom, Dr. ; Humane soc., 1774 
er, sir Ashton ; museum 

er, C. J., Irish novelist, 1809-72 
erson, S. R.; trials, 1868, 1878 
errier, U., 1811-77; Neptune, 1846 
y, Mr. Lyon ; monument, 1810 
es, Geo. Hen., philosopher, &c., 
317-78 

ris, John Fred., R.A., 1805-76 


1830 5 


is, Mr. ; theatres (Covent-garden), : 


73 

i sir G. Cornewall, 1806-63; 
almerston adm., 1855 

‘is v. Higgins, trials, 1876 

isha, vise.; Addington adm., 
fosa 

bourne, William de; admiral, 1297 
cut, Ali; India, 1871-2 

unius, Gr. orator, 314-390 

lon, lieut. ; north-west passage, 
I 

yer, T. ; Erastianism, 1523-84 

vig, J., 1803-73; acids, agricul- 
ire, chemistry, chloroform, 
iloral 

reich, O. ; chloral, 1869 

it, F. ; Penang, 1786 

mier, lord; Bute, 1762 

uurne, col. ; levellers, Wigan, 1651 
y, Wm., 1602-81 ; astrology, 1647 
, George, d. 1559; charts © 


INDEX. 


Lily, Wm., grammarian, d. x 523 

Lin; China, 1840 

Linacre, Dr., d. 1 524; gardening, 
lectures, physicians 

Lincoln, Abm., 1809-65; United 
States, 1860-5 

Lincoln, earl of ; administrations, 1759 

Lind, Dr. ; anemometer, wind 

Lind, Jenny (Goldschmidt), b. 1821 

Linfield, H. C. ; flying 

Lindiey, John; bot., 
horticulture 

Lindsay, earl of ; Edgehill, 1642 

Lindsay, sir C. ; Grosvenor gallery 

Lindsay, sir John; Madras, 1770 

Lingard, J., 1771-1851 ; historian 

Linlithgow, lord ; guards, 1660 

Linne, Linn, C. von, 1707-78; botany, 
Linnean, zoology ; 

Linnell, John ; painter, 1792-1882 

Linus, poet, jl. 1281 B.c. 

Liprandi ; Balaklava, Eupatoria, 1855 

Lisle, lord; administrations, 1544 

Lisle, sir G. ; Colchester, 1648 

Lisle, visct. ; Portsmouth, 1545 

Lister, J.; germ theory 

Liston, J., actor, retires, 1838 

Liszt, F. ; music., b. 1811 

Little John ; Robin Hood 

Littleton, Mr. ; Melbourne adminis- 
tration, 183 

Littré,M. O. ., 1801-81; dictionaries, 
positive philosophy 

Liverpool, earl of, 1770-1828 ;—Liver- 
poo] adin., 1812 

Livingstone, D., 1813-77; 
1856 ; Edinburgh, 1876 

Livius, Titus, Roman hist., d. 18 

Lizarraga, gen. ; Spain, 1875-6 

Llewellyn ; Wales, 1194 

Lloyd, bishop; Oxford, 1827 

Lloyd, Catherine ; quackery, 1831 

Lloyd, Charles ; Junius, 1769 

Lloyd, W. ; Portland vase, 1845 

Lloyd, Clifford ; Egypt, 1884 

Loch, sir H. B.; Victoria, 1884 

Locke, J., 1632-1704; physics, car- 
tesian, coin 

Locke, W. ; ragged schools, 1844 

Lockwood, P. E. ; beer 

Lockyer, major ; ‘duel, 1817 

Lockyer, J. N.; eclipse, 1866; Na- 
ture, 1869 ; elements, 1878 

Lofting, John ; thimble, 1695 

Loftus, 1d. A., New 8. Wales, 1879 

Logeman ; magnetism, 1851 

Logier, J. B. ; chiroplast 

Lollard, Walter; Lollards, 
burned, 1322 

Lomakine, gen , Russia, 1879 

Lombe, sir Thomas ; silk, 1714 

Lond, T.; piano, 1802 

London dock company ; ‘trials, 1851 

Londonderry, lord ; see Castlereagh ; 
suicide, 1822 


1799-1865 ; 


Africa, 


1315} 


Long, sir R. ; administrations, 1660 


Long, Misses Tilney ; trials, 1825 

Long, St. John; quack, trials, 1830-1 

Longden, J. R. ; Demerara, 1874 

Longfellow, H.W. ; Am. poet, 1807-82 

Longford v. Purdon ; trials, 1877 

Longinus, Gr. philos., killed, 273 

Longley, abp. York, 1860; Ripon 

Longman, W.; Paul’s, St.,.1873 ; Pub- 
lishers’ Circular 

Longstreet, gen. ; Chicamauga, 1863 
U. States 

Lénnten, M. E. ; Finland 

Lonsdale, bishop ; Lichfield, 1843 

Lonsdale, earl of; duels, 1792; Der- 
by administration, 1852 

Lopez; Cuba, 1850; United States 

Lopez, gen. ; Paraguay; Aquidaban, 


1670 
oes: sir Manasseh; Grampound, 
trials, 1819 , 
Lorenz, J. F.; cryptography, 1806 
L’Orme, Philibert de; Tuileries, 1564 


961 


Lorne, marquis of, England, end. 
1870-1; psalms, 1877; Canada,1878; * 
United States, 1882 

Lorraine, cardinal ; assassination, 1588 

Lorraine, Chas. of; Lissa, Mohatz, 
1687 

Lorraine, duke of ; Crecy, 1346 

Lorraine, Claude, painter, 1600-82 

Losinga, H. ; Norwich, 1091 


| Loudon, C. J., 1783-1843; botany 


Lough, John G., sculptor, 1804 7-76 

Loughborough ; att.-gen., coalition, 
1783 

Louis ; France, kings ; Spain, 1724 

Louis I.—IV. ; landgrave, Hesse 

Louis XI.; ‘‘Christian;” blood, - 
posts, 1470; Provence 

Louis XII. ; tester, 1513 

Louis XIII. ; Louis dor, 1640 

Louis XIV.; Dieu-donné, Nantes, 
1685 

Louis XV. : France, 1757; Damiens 

Louis XVIII. ; Hartwell, 1807-14 3 
France 

Louis, king ; Hungary, Buda, 1526 

Louis, prince of Condé; Jarnac, 1569 

Louis Bonaparte ; Holland, 1806 

Louis Napoleon ; Bonaparte ; France, 
1848-70; see Napoleon III. 

Louis Napoleon, France, end; Zulu- 
land, 1879 

Louis Philippe; France, 1830; assas- 
sinatious 

Louisa Maria, infanta; Spain, 1846 

Louise, queen; Belgium, 1832; d. 


1850 

Louth, lord; trials. 181rz 

Loutherbourg, Mr. ; panorama 

Lovat, lord ; conspiracy, trials, 1747 

Lovell; trials, 1812 

Lover, Sam., Irish nov., 1797-1868 

Lovett, W.; chartists 

Lowe, Alice ; trials, 1842 

Lowe, R. ; Gladstone, 1868 ; London 
univ. 

Lowe, gen. Drury, 1882 

Lowell, J. Russell, Amer. sat. poet, 
b. 1819 

Lowenthal, J. J. ; chess, 1876 

Lower, M. A., antiquary, 1813-76; 
names 

Lowther, vise. ; 
1828 

Loyd ; see Overstone. 

Loyola, Ignatius, 1491-1556; Jesuits, 


Wellington adm., 


x 

at cone sir J. W., mathemat., 1803- 
6; — sir John, b. 1834; ancient 
monuments, bank holidays, bees, 
proportional -representation, bio- 
logy, pre-historic 

Luby, Thos. ; Fenian, trials, 1865 

Lucan, earl of ; trials, 1856 

Lucan, killed, 65; Rome, Cordova 

Lucas, Mr. ; steel, 1804 

Lucian, Gr. satirist, about 120-200 

Luciani ; Rome, 1875 

Lucilius ; satire, 116 B.c. 

Lucretia, d. 47 B.c. ; Rome, spinning 

Lucretius, Lat. phil. poet, d. 52 B.C. ; 
atoms 

Luie ; trials, 1874 

Lully; nitric acid, 1287; (music), 
1633-72 

Lumby; Athanasian creed, confes- 
sions, 1874 

Lumley v. Gye ; trials, 1854 

Lumsden, Sir P. ; Afghanistan, 1884 ; 
Russia, 1885 

Lunardi, M. ; balloons, 1784 

Lushington, 8.; admiralty court, 1838 

Lusk, A. ; mayor, ld. 1873 

Lutatius ; naval battles, 241 B.c. 

Luther, Martin, 1483-1546; Augus- 
tins, Lutheranism, Dort, Protes- 
tantism, Augsburg, Calvinists, 
Worms 

Luther, Rs; planets, 1852) 

=< 3 Q —* 


Luvini, G. dietheroscope, 1876 

Luxemburg, marshal; Enghien, 1692 

Luxmoore, bishop ; Bristol, 1807 

Lycurgus ; Sparta, 881 B.c. 

Lyell, sir Charles, 1797-18753 geo- 
logy, man 

Lyly, W. ; euphuism, 1581 

Lynall Thomas ; trials, 1877 

Lynch murder; trials, 1817 

Lyndhurst, lord, 1772-1863; chancel- 
lor ; Canning adin. 1827; Welling- 
ton adm. 1828; Peel adm., 1834, 


1841 

Lynedoch, lord ; Barrosa, 1811 ; Ber- 
gen-op-Zoom, St. Sebastian 

Lyon, capt.; north-west passage, 
1821 ;— general Nathaniel, Spring- 
field, 1861 

Lyon, col. F., killed ; Shoeburyness, 
1885 

Lyon, John ; Harrow school, 1571 

Lyons v. Thomas; trials, 1869 

Lysander; Sparta, 405 B.C. 

Lysimachus ; Ipsus, 301 B.c. ; Corus 

Lysippus ; ‘Ly sistratus, sculpture, 
busts, 328 B.C. 

Lyttelton, lord; chancellor, ld., 1641 

Lyttelton, Geo., lord; dreams, 1779 

Lytton, E. Bulwer, ld., novelist and 
poet, 1805-73 ; euilds 

Lytton, R. B., lord, India, 1876 


M. 


Macadam, J. ; macadamising, 1819 

Macarthy, sir Charles ; Sierra Leone, 
Ashantees, 1824 

Macartney, earl; duel, 1786; China, 
1793; India 

Macaulay, T. B., ld., 1800-1859; Mel- 
bourne adm., 1837 

Macbeth ; Scotland, 1057 

McCabe, abp., Ireland, 1879-80 ; 
dinal, 1882; d. 1885 

MacCabe ; robbers, 1691 

McCarthy, Justin, home rule 

McHale, abp., d. 1881 

MacClellan, gen. George, b. 
United States, 1861-4 

Macclesfield, earl of ; chancellor, lord 
high, 1718 

MacCormack ; reaping machine, 1831 

Macdonald, marshal; Parma, Trebia, 


Car- 


1826; 


I 
Macdousles Mr. ; Times, printing 
Macdonald, capt. ; Prussia, 1861 
Macdonald, sir J., Canada, 1874 
Macdonalds massacred ; Glencoe, 
1692 
Macdonnel, quotations 
MacDowell, gen. J.; Manassas, 1861 
Macduff, Mr. ; duel, 1790 
Macfarlane, S ; trials, 1844 
Macfarren, & 5 oratorio 
MacGrath ; dogs 
Macgregor, J. ; bank, British, 1849; 
canoe, 1865 
Machiavelli, N., 1469-1527 
Machiewicz, abbé; Poland, 1863 
Maceo, gen. ; Spain, 1882 
Mack, gen. ; "Ulm, 1805 
Mackay, gen. ; Kiliiecrank{, 1689 
Mackay and Vaughan ; trials, 1816 
Mackenzie, Rev. H., Nottingham, 
1870, d. 1878 
Mackenzie, bp. C. F.; Africa, 1860 
Mackie, A. ; printing, 1871 
Mackintosh, sir James, 1765-1872 
Macklin, C., actor, d. 1797 
Macklin ; Bible, books 


Mackonochie, rev. Mr.; Church of 


England, 1867-76; trials, 1867; 
Titualists, public worship, holy 
cross 


MacLachlan, Jessie; trials, 1862 
Maclagan, bp. ; Lichfield, 1878 


INDEX. 


| Maclagan, Dr. ; germ theory 


Maclean, R. ; trials 1882 
Macleod, H. D. ; trials, 1858 
Macleod, Mr. ; United States, 1841 
Macleod, Norman, D.D., 1812-72 
Macleod, Dr. ; glaciarium 
Maclise, D., painter, 1811-70 
M‘Clure, capt.; Franklin, 
north-west passage 
MacMahon, marshal, b. 1808; Magen- 
ta, 1859 » Franco-Prussian, Sedan, 
France, 1873-8 
MeMillan, J. ; trials, 1861 
MacNamara, capt. ; duels, 1803 
M‘Culloch, J. R., polit. econ,, 1789- 
1864 
McCulloch, sir Jas., Victoria, 1875-6 
M‘Neill, sir J. ; Sebastopol, 1855 
McCarty, gen. ; Enniskillen, 1689 
McClintock, capt. ; Franklin, 1859 
McGill, Mr. ; trials, 1842 
McKendrick, J. G.; 
1881-4 
McKenzie, Mr. ; duel, 1788 
McNaghten, sir W., killed, 1841 
McNaughten, Mr. ; trials, 1761, 1843 
McSwiney, Mr., Ireland, 1875 
Macready, W. ; actor, 1793-1873 
Macreath, Mr. ; trials, 1841 
Macrobius ; Lat. writer, d. 415 
Madan, bp. ; Peterborough, 1794 
Madiai, the ; Tuseany, 1852 
Madison, James; United States, 
president, 1809 
Mecenas, d. 8; dedications, baths 
Meelzel, J. ; metronome, 1815 
Magee, J.; trials, 18133 ; Guatemala, 


1850 ; 


Roy. Inst., 


1874 ] 
Magee, W. C., bp. 
1868 
Magellan; killed, 1521 ; cireumnavi- 
gation, Philippine 
Magi; fire worshippers, Epiphany 
Magnin, C. ; puppets, 1872 
Magnus; king, Norway, Sweden 
Maguire, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 
Magus, Simon ; Simonians, heretics 


Peterborough, 


Mahdi; Soudan 
Mahomet, 570-632 ; Hegira, 622 ; 
Mahometanism, Mecca, Medina, 


Beder, Turkey, Koran 
Mahomet II., d. 1481 ; eastern empire, 
Turkey, Adrianople, Constantino- 
ple, Albania 
Mahony, F. (Prout), d. 1866 
Maimonides (Maimoun), 
Jewish writer, d. 1208 
Maitland, capt. ; France, 1815 
Maitland, sir Fred. ; China, 1838 
Majendie, bishop ; Chester, 1800 
Major ; conchology, 1675 
Majorian, coronation 
Makart, J.; painter, 
Austria 
Makomo, Kaffraria, 1873 
Malachi prophesies about 397 B.c. 
Malcohn ; Scotland, kings, clanships, 
Alnwick, Dunsinane 
Malebranche, N. ; philos., 1638-1715 
Malherbe; Fr. poet, 1556-1628 
Malibran, madame ; music, 1808-36 
Malet, sir H.; Egypt, 1881; Ger- 
many, 1884 
Mallet, R. ; 
meter, 1858 
Mallory, W. 
1878 
Malmesbury, lord, b. 1807; Derby 
and Disraeli adms. 1852, 1858, 1874 
Malou ; Belgium, 1871 ; 1884 
Malpighi, M. ; anatomist, 1628-94 
Maltby, bishop ; Durham, 1836 
Malthus, T., 1766-1834, polit. econ. 
Manasseh, Ben Israel; Jews, 1657 
Manby, capt. ; life-preserver, 1809 
Mance, H., heliography 
Manchester, bp. of, pub. 
reg. act, 1883 


Moses, 


1840-1884 ; 


earthquakes, seismo- 


H.; serew-propeller, 


worship 


—— a 


Manchester, earl of ; administratior 
1620 
Manchester will; trials, 1854 
Mandeville, visct. * administratior 
“1620 
Manes, killed, 274; Manicheans 
Manfred, killed, 1266 ; Naples 
Manlius ; Cimbri, 102 B.c., Rome 
Mann, Wm., air (compressing), 182 
Manners, lord John, 6. 1818; Der 
adm., 1852, 1858, 1866; Disrai 
administrations, 1868, 1874 3 R 
form, 1884 
Manning, Na Bey ti 
1865 
Mannings ; murderers, trials, 1849 
Manny, sir W. ; charter -house, 137 
Mansel, bishop ; Bristol, 1808 
Mansell, ihe executions, 1857 
Mansfield, Jord ; att.-gen. 
fictions in law, king’ s bench 
Mansfield, C.B. ; benzole, 1849 
Mantegazza, marchese, Italy, 1876 
Mantell, G. oe weald 
Manteuftel, gen., Frauco-Pruss. wa 
1870-1 
Manuel ; Eastern empire, Trebizon: 
Manutius, see Aldus 
Manzoni, ‘A., Ital. nov., 1784-1873 
Mapleson, Mr. , hational opera lous 


1809; archbisho 


175- 


1875 

Mar, earl of; Harlaw, 1411; Du 
blain, 1715 

Mar, earl of; trials, 1831 

Marat, stabbed ; France, 1793 

Marbeck, ds concordance, 1550 
chanting te 

Marceau, gen., killed, Aitenkireh4 
1796 

Marcel, S.; communes, 1356 , 

Marcellus ; Rome, 212 B.c. Rs : 

March, H. ; executions, 1877 

March, Roger, earl of ; rebellion 
139 8 ne 

Marois R. ; rope-making, 176i 

Marchmont ; trials, 1858 

Marcion ; Marcionites, 140 

Marcus Aurelius ; Rome, emp. 16r 

Marcus Curtius ; Rome, "362 B.C, 

Mardonius ; Myeale, Plateza, 497 8. 

Margaret; England, queen of 
ward I. 

Margaret of Anjou, England (que 
of Henry VI.), d. 1481; Tewke 
bury, Towton, Wakefield 

Margaret of Norway ; Calmar, 1393 

Margaret (governess of the Nethit 
lands, 1559) ; beards 

Margary, Mr., killed ; China, 18757 

Margratff ; beet-root, 1747 

Maria da Gloria ; Portugal, 1826 

Maria Louisa, d. 1847 
1810, and p.319; wills “(Napoleon 

Maria Theresa ; Germany, 1711 

Marie Antoinette ; France, 4 
diamond necklace 

Mariiio, Hayti, 1880 

Marius, d. 86 B.c.; Ambrones, Cin 

Mario, G. ; Italian singer, 1808 ) 

Marius ; pianoforte 

Markham, abp. ; York, 1776 

Marks, L. ; execution, 1877 ' 

Marlborough, earl of ; adminis 


tions, 1628 
Marlborough, duchess of, 
1880 
Marlborough, duke of, me | 22 


com.-in-chief, marshals, Blenbei 
Douay, Liege, Lisle, Malpleat 
Oudenarde, “Ramilies 
Marlborough, John, duke of, bat 
Derby adi. , 1867; : Disraeli a 
1868, 1878, gems a 
Marlowe, Chr. ; dramatist, d. 
Marmont, marshal ; Salaman 
Marmontel, J. Fr. novel. 
Marot, Clement ; Fr. poet, 1495-1 
Maroto, gen., Spain, Vergara, 1 


INDEX. 


963 


sh, bp. ; Llandaff, 1816 

sh, Catherine, convalescent insti- 
tion, 1866 

sh, professor ; Indians 

shal, T. R. ; trials, 1859 

shall, Mr. ; California, 1847 
shall, capt., naval battles, 1778 
tel, Charles ; France, 714 

fel, France, 1879 

fen, Maria; trials, 1828 

th ; planets, 1854 

‘ial; epigrams, jl. 100 
in, John, painter, 1790-1854 

in, Jon.; York minster, 1829 
in ; popes, 640 et seq. 

in, Rd. ; animals, 1822 

in, rev. G. ; suicide, 1860 

in v. Mackonochie, Church of 
gland, 1867-76 

in, sir Theodore, b. 1816 ; Albert 
ineau, Harriet, hist. novelist, 
.» 1802-76 

yr, Peter, reformer, 1500-62 

ell, And., d. 1678 ; ballot 

in, C.; trials, 1878 

, C., socialists 

1, 1516-58; England (queen), 
33; Calais 

IL, 1662-94 ; England (queen), 
9 


» queen of Scots, 1542-87; 
ytland, Carlisle, Edinburgh, 
amore, Langside, Lochleven- 


tle, Fotheringay 
borough, lord ; postmaster, 
5 

niello; Naples, 1647 

elyne, J. N., automaton, 1875 
elyne, N., astronomer, 1732-1811; 
enwich, 1765 ; almanacs, Schie- 
lien, Venus 

n, Mr. ; U. States, 1861 

nand Hamlin; American organ 
n, Josiah, orphan houses, Bir- 
igham, 1869-75 

na; Zurich, 1799 ; 
32C0 

ey v. Headfort ; trials, 1804 

ey, W.; India, 1865 

lon, J. B. ; Fr. preacher, 1663- 


Almeida, 


2 

pha, Basuto 

ew, Theobald, d. 1856; tem- 
ance 

ews, Chas.; actor, 1776-1835; 
1) C. J., 1803-78 

las ; anabaptists, 1534 

da; England (queen of, Wil- 
nI.); Bayeux tapestry, 1066 
da; England (queen of Stephen) 
da (empress); England, 1135 
da; Denmark, 1772; Zell 

da, countess; Canossa, 1077; 


y 

lew, T., abp. ; York, 1606 

ews, adm. ; Toulon, 1744 

; See Matilda 

, Fox (lord Panmure); Russell 
linistration, 1846 

», J. B., prosecutor 

sell, bookseller ; meal-tub plot, 


jell, Capt. C. 8. ; trials, 1874 
ertuis, P. L. de, 1698-1759; 
tude 

r, J. and G. (German enthu- 
ts), killed ; Brazil, 1874 

ce, rev. F. D., 1805-72; broad 
rch, working-men’s college, 1854 
r, lieut. M., 1806-73; sea 


lus, 377 B.C.; mausoleum, 
ders 
lilian ; emperors, Germany, 


3; Mexico, 1864-67 

lin; Rome, emp. 235; giants, 
ecutions : 
G, A. C.; king’s (or queen’s) 
sh, 1877 : 


Mayne, sir Richd., 1796-1868 ; police, 


1829 

Mayo, earl of, b. 1822; Disraeli adm. 
1868 ; assassinated, 1872; India, 
Andaman 

Mazarin, cardinal; France, 1643 ; 
tontines ; printing, 1450 

Mazzini, J., Ital. patriot, 1808-72 ; 
Rome, 1831 ; triumvirate, 1849 

Mazzuoli, F. ; engravifig, 1532 

Mead, Dr. Rich. 1673-1754; inoculation 

Mead, Geo., gen., 1816-72 ; United 
States, 1863 

Meagher ; Ireland, 1848 

Mecklenburg, grand duke, Franco- 
Pruss. war, 1870-1 

Medail, M. ; Alps (tunnel), 1848 

Medhurst, Frs. H. ; trials, 1839 

Medici; Medici family 

Medicis, Catherine de, d. 1589 ; Bar- 
‘tholomew, St. 

Medina-Sidonia, duke of ; armada 

Medon ; Athens, 1044 B.C. 

Mehemet Ali; Egypt, Syria 

Mehemet Ali; Russo-Turkish war, 
II., 1877 

Mehemet Ruchdi, Turkey, 1871-2 

Meikle, A., threshing machine, 1776 

Melanchthon, Philip, 1497-1560; 
adiaphorists, Augsburg confession 

Melas, general ; Marengo, 1800 

Melbourne, viscount, 1779-1849 ; Mel- 
bourne ; trials, 1836 

Melikoff, L. Aladja Dagh; Russo- 
Turkish war, II., 1877; Russia, 
1880-1 

Mellon, Miss (afterwards duchess of 
St. Alban’s), first appearance, 1795 

Melville, lord ; impeachment, 1806 

Memnon ‘said to invent alphabet, 
1822 B.C. 

Menabrea, count L. F. ; Italy, 1867 

Menander, d. 291 B.c. ; drama 

Mendelssohn, F. Bartholdy, 1809-47 

Mendiri ; Spain, 1874-5 

Mendizabal ; Spain, 1835 

Mendoza, Pedro de; BuenosAyres, 1530 

Menier ; balloons, 1874 

Menou, general; Alexandria, 1800 

Menschikoff, prince; holy places, 
1853; Russia, Alma, Russo-Turk- 
ish war 

Mercadier, M., teleradiophone 

Mercator, Ger., 1512-94 ; charts 

Mercedes (queen) ; Spain, 1878 

Mercier, C. H.; hospital Saturday, 
18 

Mev nce, Prosper, Fr. hist., 1803-70 

Meroveus ; Merovingians, France, 448 

Mesentzoff, gen.; assassinated, 
Russia, 1878 

Mesmer, Frederic Ant.; mesmerism, 
1766 

Metastacio. Pet., It. poet, 1698-1782 

Metellus; Achaia, 147 B.c. 

Metius ; telescopes, 1590-1609 

Meton; golden numnher, 432 B.C. 

Metternich, prince, Aust. statesman, 
1773-1859 

Metz, M. de; reformatory, 1839 

Meux and Co.; porter 

Meyer, H. von, archeopteryx, 1861 

Meyer, Simon; Saturn, 1608-9-10 

Meyerbeer, J. M., Germ. mus., 1794- 
1864 

Meyerstein, E.; printing (in colours), 
1876 

Maronite, indiction, 312 

Miall, E. ; nonconformists 

Micah, prophesies about 750 B.c. 

Michael Angelo Buonaroti, Ital. ar- 
tist, 1474-1564 ) 

Michael; eastern empire, assassina- 
tions, Servia, 1860-8 

Michael, grand duke ; Russo-Turkish 
war, 1877 

Michaelis, J. W., bib. critic, 1717-91 

Michaud, abbé ; old catholics, 1872 


Michel, Louise ; France, 1883 

Michelet, J., Fr. hist., d. 1798 

Middlesex, earl of; administrations, 
1621 

Middleton, Con.; (Cicero), 1683-1750 

Middleton, gen., Canada (ADDENDA) 

Middleton; N.W. passage, 1742 

Middleton (or Myddelton), sir Hugh, 
1565-1631; New River 

Middleton, John; giants, 1578 

Middleton, rey. T. ; Manchester, 1876 

Midhat Pasha, Turkey, 1878-81, Syria 

Miecislas ; Poland, 962 

Mieroslawski, L.; Poland, 1863 

Mignet, Francois, Fr. hist., 1796- 
1884 

Miguel, dom, 1802-66; Portugal, 1824 

Mildmay, sir J. H.; trials, 1814 

Mildmay, sir Walter; administra- 
tions, 1579 

Mill, Jas., hist. of Ind., 1773-1836 

Mill, John Stuart, d. 1873, logic 

Millais, J. E., painter, 6. 1829 ; pre- 
Raphaelites 

Miller, Hugh; geology, suicide, 1856 

Miller v. Salomons; trials, 1852 

Miller, W.; trials, 1870 

Millie, Mr.; trials, 1839 

Milman, H. H., 1791-1868; poet and 

hist. 

Milosch; Servia, 1815 

Miltiades; Marathon, 490 B.c. 

Milton, John, 1608-74; Paradise Lost, 

Cripplegate ; press, liberty of 

Mina, gen., d. 1836; Spain, 1835 

Minghetti ministry ; Italy, 1873-6 

Minos; Crete, rors B.c. 

Minto, earl of; India, goy.-gen., 1807 

Miramon, gen.; Mexico, 1859; exe- 
cuted, 1867 

Mires, M.; Mexico, 1861 

Mirsky, L., Russia, 1879 

Mister, Josiah; trials, 1841 

Mitchell, sir F.; monopolies, victual- 
lers, 1621 

Mitchell, D ; aquarium, 1853 

Mitchell, adm.; Bantry bay, 1801-2 

Mitchell, J.; Ireland, 1848, 1874 

Mitchell, 8S. ; Glasgow, 1874 

Mitford, sir John; att.-general, 1800; 
speaker, 1801 ;—W., hist. of Greece, 
1744-1827 

Mithridates the Great, 131-63 B.c.; 
Pontus, comets, electuary, massa- 
cres, omens 

Mitre, gen. B.; Buenos Ayres, 1859-75 

Moffat, colonel; wrecks, 1857 

Moffat, Dr. C. ; ammoniaphone 

Moffat, Rev. R., 1790-1882 ; mission- 
ary; Africa 

Mohun, lord; duels, 1712 

Moir, capt.; trials, 1830 

Moira, earl of; India, gov.-gen., 1813 

Moiroso, Basuto 

Molé, count, d. 1855 

Molesworth, sir William; Aberdeen 
adm., 1852 

Moliére, Fr. comic dram., 1622-73 
comédie Frane. 

Molinos, 1627-96 ; quietists 

Molteno, Mr. ; Cape, 1875 

Molyneux, Mr.; absentee, 1738 

Mompesson, Giles; monopolies, vic- 
tuallers, 1621 

Monasterio, mad. ; France, 1883 

Moneasi, J. O., Spain, 1878 

Monck, visct. C. 8., b. 1819; Canada, 
1861 

Moncrieff, capt.; cannon, 1868, 1872 

Monge, gas 

Monk, general ; administrations, 
1660; guards; d. 1670 

Monk, bishop; Gloucester, 1830 

Monmouth, duke of, 1649-85; Mon- 
mouth, Bothwell, Sedgemoor, iron 
mask 

Monroe, Mr.; United States, presi- 
dent, 1817-21 

38Q 2 


964 


Monstrelet, BH. de, French historian, 
a.r453 

Montacute, marquis of; Man, 1314-43 

Montagu, lord ; administrations, 
1660-89 

Montagu, lady M. W.; inoculation, 1718 

Montague, Mrs., d. 1800; May-day 


Montaigne, M. de, Fr. essayist, 
1533-92 
Montileubert comte de; 1810-70; 


France, 1858 
Montanus S Mon tasists) polyglot, 1559 
Montetiore, sir Moses, b. 1784 ; Jews, 
1837; 1883-4 
Montemolin, comte de; Spain, 1860-1 
Montero, pres. Peru, 1882 


Montesquieu, C. de L., Fr. phil., 
1689-1755 

Monteverde; opera, 1607 

Montfort, Amauri de ; Albigenses, 


barons’ war, 
steward, 
killed 


1268 
Montfort, Simon de; 
commons, Kenilworth, 
lord high, speaker, Lewes; 
at Evesham, 1265 
Montgolfier, M.; balloons, 1782 


Montgomerie, comte de; tourna- 
ments, 1559 
Montgomery, Mr.; suicide; duels, 


1803; trials, 1873 

Montholon, comte de; 
leon’s), 1821 

Monti, Ital. poet, 1754-1828 

Montpensier; France, Spanish mar- 
riage, 1846; Spain, 1868-72 

Montrose, duke of; Pitt adm. 1804, 
Derby adm.. 1866 

Montrose, marquis of, executed, 1650; 
Corbiesdale, Scotland, Alford, 
Philiphaugh 

Moody and Sankey ; revivals, 1875 

Moore, abp.; Canterbury, 1783 

Moore ; almanac, 1698-1713 

Moore, murdered ; trials, 1853 

Moore, capt.; Franklin, 1848 

Moore, serjeant; leases, 1535 

Moore, Anne; abstinence, 1808 

Moore, Geo.; mansion house fund, 
1871 

Moore, sir John, k. at Corunna, 1809 

Moore, sir Jonas; Greenwich 

Moore, Thos., poet, 1780-1852 

Morales, EL, As, Bolivia, 1872 

Mordaunt, Charles, viscount; 
ministrations, 1689 

Mordaunt divorce; trials, 1870, 1874-5 


will (Napo- 


ad- 


More, sir Thomas, 1480-1535; ad- 
ministrations, 1529; chancellor, 
supremacy 


More, Hannah, 1745-1833 
More, Roger; rebellion, 1651 


Moreau, general, 1763-1813; Ales- 
sandria, Augsburg, Wiirtemberg, 
Dresden 

Morelli; tourniquet, 1674 


Moreton, John, earl of; Ireland, 1177 
Morgan ; buccaneer, 1668 
Morgan, colonel; Lincoln 


Morgan, confederate general; U. 
States, 1862 

Moriarty, bp. Ireland, 1877 

Moriones, gen. ; Spain, 1873-5 

Morland, Sam., d. 1695; capstan, 


speaking-trumpet 

Morland, Geo., animal painter, 1763- 
1804 

Rinkley, J., 0. 1838 3 anti-aggressive ; 
Pali Mall 

Morley, T.; music; d. 1604 

Morning Chronicle; trials, 1810, 1830; 
France, 1862 

Morning Herald; trials, 1809 

Morning Post; libel, 1792 

Mornington, lord; India, 1798 

Morpeth, viscount (aft. earl of Car- 
lisle); Melbourne adm., 1835; Ire- 
land, lord-lieut. 

Morris, George ; flowers, 1792 


INDEX. 

Morris, Mr.; theatres, 1805 

Morrison, E.; Australia, 1882-3 

Morse, 8. F. B., Am. electrician, 
1791-1872 

Mortara, E.; Jews, 1858 

Mortier, mar.; Romainville, 1814 

Mortimer, E. A.; trials, 185 

Mortimer, earl of March ; Berccleds 
1327 

Morton, arch.; Canterbury, 1486 

Morton, earl of, regent of Scotland, 
1572 : Tulchan bishops 

Morton, sir Albert; administrations, 
1628 

Morton, Thomas; ether, 1846 

Morton; trials, 1852 ~ 

Moryson, Fynes; forks 

Moscrop, HE. H., salmon ova 

Moseley, Wolf, &c.; trials, 1819 

Moses, 1572-1451 B.C. 

Moshesh, cape of G. H., 1870 

Mosquera, gen.; New Granada, 1861 

Moss, bishop; Oxford, 1807 

Mosse, Dr.; lying-in hospital, 1745 

Mossol, M., plethysmograph 

Most, J., trials, 1881 

Mothe-Guyon, madame de la; 
ists, 1697 

Motley, J. L., Am. historian, 1814.77 

Mouchot, M., sun, 1880 

Moule, Rev. H.; Kimmeridge 

Mountaigne, abp.; York, 1628 

Mount- Sandford, lord, killed ; trials, 
1828 

Mouravieff; Kars, 1855 

Mourzoufle : Constantinople, eastern 
empire, 1204 

Mozart, W. A.; music, 1756-91 

Mudie, C.; circulating library, 1842 

Muirhead, J. G.; trials, 1825 

Mukhtar Pasha, Turkey,1876; Russo- 
Turkish war, II. 1877-8 

Mulgrave, earl; Liverpooladm., 1812; 
Ireland, lord-lieut. 

Mullens, J.; trials, 1860 

Miiller, F.; execution, 1864 

Miiller, F. Max, 0. 1823; Vedas, San- 
skrit, language, Hibbert fund 

Miller, Geo.; 6. 1805; orphan houses; 
scripture knowledge 

Mulot, M.; Artesian well, 1841 

Mulready, "Wm.; painter, 1786- 1863 


quiet- 


Mummius, L.; Corinth, 146 B.c. 
painting 
Mundy, R. M., Honduras, 1874 


Munich, marshal; Perekop, 1736 
Muiioz, duke; Spain, 1833, 1873 
Munro, H.; Buxar, 1764 
Munster, earl of; suicide, 1842 
Munzer, T.; anabaptists, 1524-5, level- 
lers; Frankenhausen 
Murat, Joachim, 1771-1815; Erfurt, 
Naples 
Muratori, L.; hist., 1672-1750 
Murchison, sir Roderick L., 
1871; geology, Brit. Assoc. 
Murdoch, Mr.; gas, 1792 
Murillo, Bravo, Spain, 1865, 1868 
Murillo, B. 8., Sp. painter, 1618-82 
Murray, R. ; post-office, 1681 
Murray, earl of; Scotland, 1567 
Murray, lady Aug. ; marriage act, 1793 
Murray, B. ; trials, 1841 
Murray, bishop; David's, St., 1800 
Murray, James, earl of, Scotland, 
1567 3; assassinations 
Murray, sir Geo.; Peel adm., 1834 
Murray, sir James; Tarragona, 1813 
Murray, Dr. J. H. : dictionaries. 
Musa; Spain, 712 , 
Muswus, jl. 1413 B.C: 
Musgrave, abp.; Hereford, 1837 
Musgrave, sir Richard ; duel, 1802 ;— 
sir A., Jamaica, 1876 ; Queensland, 


1883 
Mushat, Mr.; steel, 1800 
Muybridge, E. J.; photography, 
1881 3 zoopraxiscope ‘ 


1792- 


Myall, rhubarb 

Myddelton, sir Hugh, 1565? - 1631 
New River 

Mylne, R.; architect, 1734-1811; Blac} 
friars 

Myron, sculptor, fl. 480 B.c. 

Mytton, general; Wales, 1645 


N. 


Nabis; Sparta, 206 B.c. 

Nabonasser, jl. 747 B. c.; astronom 

Nachimoff, admiral ; Sinope, 1853 

Nadar ; balloon, 1863 

Nadir Shah ; pea 1732; Delh 
Afghanistan, Cabul 

Nagel, H., trials, 1872 

Nahum prophesies about 713 B.c. 

Nana Sahib; Cawnpore, India, 1857 

Napier of Merchiston ; logarithms 
Napier’s bones, 1614 

Napier, admiral sir C.; Portugal 
Sidon, cape St. Vincent, Bam 
1854 

Napier, gen. sir C. ; Meeanee, 1843 


Napier, lord ; China ; — 7 
United States, 1856 

Napier, Mr. ; coin, 1844 

Napier, sir R., aft. lord (of val 


b. 1810; Abyssinia, 1867 ; Ar 
Magdala, Gibraltar, 1876 
Napoleon, Jerome, 1784-1860 son, 
1822, France, 1861- -76 ; Bonapar 
Napoleon I., 1769-1821, France, abat 
toirs, Bonaparte, ‘confederation 
legion of honour, models, notables 
Cairo, Egypt, Elba, Fontaineblear 
Malta, Mamelukes, St Helena 
Simplon, vaccination ; his battles 
Acre, Arcola, Asperne, Auerstadt 
Austerlitz, Bautzen, Borodin 
Castiglione, Charleroi, Dresdet 
Eckmiihl, Essling, Eylau, Fried 
land, Hanau, Italy, Jena, L 
Rothiere, Leipsic, Ligny, Lod 
Lutzen, Marengo, Montereau 
National guard, Pultusk, SI 
Dizier, Simplon, Tilsit, Troy 
Vienna, Waterloo, Wurtzburg 
Napoleon IL., king of Rome; France 


P. 3 
ee naiean IIL., 1808-73 ; Fran 
(sovereigns) ; Boulogne, Strasburg 
Cherbourg, Italy, Magenta, 80 
ferino, Sedan, wills, assassination 
Napoleon, imperial prince, b. 185 
Bonaparte ; France, 1873-6), 
briick 
Nares, capt., deep sea, 18723 nor 
west passage, 1874-8 ; soundings 
Narses; East, empire, 5525 Got 
Italy, Rome 
Narvaez, gen. Raman 1800-18 
Spain, 1846 
Nash, Beau, 1674-1761 ; Bath, ee 
monies 
Nash, Mr. ; theatres, parks, 1818 
Nash, J 08.5 architect, 1812-78 
Nasmyth, J.; steam-hammer, 4 
moon 
Nasmyth, lieut. ; Silistria, 1854 
Nasr-ed- Din; Persia, 1848-73 
Naville, M. Egypt. expl. fund — 
Nearchus : sugar, 325 B.C. ™ 
Neave and others, trials, 1875 4 
N ebuchadnezzar ; Jews, come f 
Tyre, Babylon | 
Necho; Egypt, 634 B.c. 
Neil, col. ; India, 1857; Allaha @ 
Benares | 
Neild ; legacy to the queen, 1 
Neilson, J., 1792-1865; 
machine, 1828 
Neison, Edm. ; moon, 1876 
Nelson, Horatio, admi 
1805 ; Nelson 


965 


a 


‘0; Rome, emperor, 54 

sselrode, comte de, Russian states- 

1an, 1780-1862 

veastle, marquis of; Marston- 

loOr, 1644 

veastle, duke of; Pelham adm. 

749 ; Newcastle adm., 1754; Aber- 

een adm., 1852 

vcomen, T., steam, 1712 

venham, W. B. ; trials, 1844 

vington, H. (Flora Davey), trials, 
fs 


vman, rev. J.,and Achilli; trials, 
352; Tractarians 

vport, sir John; exchequer, 1834 
vsham, R.; Preston, 1883 

vton, sir Isaac, 1642-1727; air, 
inomial, coin, diamond, astro- 
omy, royal society, hydrostatics, 
ravitation, mechanics 

’, marshal, 1769-1815 ; Dennewitz, 
rance, Quatre-Bras, Ulm, Ney 
‘le, archbp. ; York, 1632 

 Percés, Indians 

coli, Nicholas ; libraries, 1436 
ephori, emperors; east. empire, 
92-963 

ephorus ; comets 

holas I., Russia, 1825-55 
holas V.; popes, 1447-55; 
eter’s, Rome 

holas, grand duke, Russo-Turkish 
ar II., 1877 

holls, comm. navy, 1884 

hols, col. ; New York, 1664 

hols, H., Manchester, 1875 
holson ; trials, 1813 

buhr, B. H. ; hist., 1776-1831 

pce ; photography, 1814, veloci- 
des, 1818 
ed Sane 


St. 


Rome, emp.; killed, 

7 

htingale, F., b. 1820; Scutari, 

ightingale 

ita, Montenegro, 1860 

son, Mr., prehistoric archeology 

us ; Assyria, 2059 B. C. 

et, sir John ; advocates, 1685 

mn, Alf. ; velocipede, 1882 

d, H. M. ; electricity, 1855 

h, 2347 B.c. ; ark, Armenia 

illes, marshal ; Dettingen, 1743 

el, Alf.; nitro-glycerine, 1864, 

mainite, 1868; blasting gelatine 

el, L. & R.; petroleum, 1875 

ert, F. A.; ruling machine 

iling, Dr. ; Germany, 1878 

le, Matt., sculptor, 1820-76 

leuskjold, professor, north-east, 

my 1972- 

olk, duke of; administrations, 

40; people; catholic union, 
I 


- ; 
nan, sir H. ; Jamaica, 1883 

nan, sir J. ; mayor, 1453 

nan, Robert ; magnet, 1576 

nan, justice, murdered, India, 
71 

nanby and Buckingham, duke 
; Godolphin adm., 1702 

nanby, marquis of ; Ireland (lord- 
ut.), 1835; Queensland, 1871; 
ctoria, 1879 

nandy, Dr.; filterers 

h, bishop ; Winchester, 1781 

h, lord ; North adm., 1770 

h, sir F. ; king’s counsel, 1663 
sh, miss M. ; Kew, 1882 
hampton, Henry, earl of; ad- 
nistrations, 160 

hbrook, 1d., iia: 1872; earl of, 
miralty, 1880 

heote, sir Stafford, b. 1818; 
rby adm., 1366; Disraeli adm., 
68, 1874 ; parliament, 1881 ; Suez, 
g 


3 
heott and others, trials, 1876 
hmore, gas 


Northumberland, Algernon, duke of ; | Ommaney, capt. 


Derby administration, 1852; 


Algernon George, Disraeli adminis- 


tration, 1878; Royal Institution 


Northumberland, Dudley, duke of ; 


administrations, 1551 


Northumberland, Hugh, duke of; 


Treland (lord-lieut. ), 1763 
Northumberland, earl of; coaches, 
Man 
Norton, sir Fletcher; att.-gen., 1763 
Norton, Jeffrey de ; recorder, 1298 


Norton v. lord Melbourne; trials, 18 36 


Nostradamus ; almanacs, 1566 

Nott, gen. ; Ghiznee, 1842 

Nottingham, earl of; administra- 
tions, 1684 


Novaliches, marquis de, Spain, 1868, | 


Alcolea, 1868 
Nubar Pacha, Cairo, Egypt, 1876-9 
Numa Pompilius; Rome, kings 715 
B.C. ; calendar 
Numitor, Alba, 795 B.C. 
Nufiez, A.; Paraguay, 153 


O. 


Oakley, sir Charles ; Madras, 1792 

Oakley, R. B., trials, 1876 

Oates, T. ; Oates’ plot, 1678 

Obadiah prophesies about 587 B.c. 

Obeid-ullah, Kurdistan 

O’Brien, king; Limerick, 1200 

O’Brien, W. 8. ; Ireland, 1846, 1848 

O’Brien, giants, 1785 

O'Connell, Mr. Daniel, 1775-1847; 
duels, 1815; agitators, emancipa- 
pation, repeal, trials (1831, 1844), 
Treland ; Dublin, 1883 

O’Connell, Mr. Morgan; duels, 1835 

O’Connor, Arthur; press, riots, 
trials, 1798 

O’Connor, Fergus, d. 1855; chartists 

O’Connor, Roger ; trials, 1817 

Ochus ; Persia, 359 B.c. 

Octavius ; Rome, 37 B.c. 

Odin ; Sweden, 70 B.c. 

Odo, earl of Kent; treasurer 

Odo, abp. ; Canterbury, 941-58 

Odoacer ; Italy, 476, Heruli 

O'Donnell, marshal Leopold, 1808-67 ; 
Spain 1841 

O’Donnell, Mr. ; parliament, 1882 

Cidipus ; Boeotia, 1266 B.C. 

Cinotrus; Arcadia, Greece, 1710 B.C. 

Oersted, H. C., 1777-1851; 
tricity, 1819 

Ofenheim (financier), Austria, 1875 

Ogle, George; duel, 1802 

Oglethorpe, gen. ; Georgia, 1732 

O’Grady, Mr. ; duels, 1803 

Ogyges ; deluge, 1764 B.C. 

O’Hagan, lord chancellor (Ireland) 
1868 ; Roman Catholics ; d. 1883 

O’Halloran, Dr. ; trials, 1818 

O’Keefe ; trials, 1825 

O’Keeffe v. Cullen, trials, 1873 

O’Kelly, Mr. ; parliament, 1883 

Oken, German union, 1822 

Okubo, Japan, 1878 

Olbers, M.; planet, 1802 

Oldcastle, sirJ., burnt, 1418 ; Lollards 

O’Leary, pedestrianisin, 1877 

Oliphant, sir Wm., advocate 

Olivarez governs Spain, 1621-43 

Oliver ; trials, 1858, 1869 

Ollendorff, H. G. (linguist) ; 1803-65 

Ollivant, bp. ; Llandaff, 1849 

Ollivier, E. ; France, 1870 


O’Loghlen, sir M. ; Roman catholics, 


1836 

Olozaga, Spain, 1871 

O’Mahony, Fenians, 1877 

Omar, caliph, 634; Alexandria, Ali 

Omar Pacha; Citate, Montenegro, 
Oltenitza, Ingour, Russo-Turkish 
war, 1855 


elec- | 


; Franklin, 1850 

O’Moore, Rory; Carlow, 1577 

| O’Neil, rebellion; massacre, Black- 

water, 1598 

| O'Neil, Miss (lady Becher), appears 

_ _ at Covent Garden, 1814; d. 1872 

, Onslow, G. and Whalley, G. H.; tria!s 

1872 

| Onslow, sir R. ; Halifax adm., 1714 
Opie, John; painter, 1761-1807 
Oppian, poet, fl. 171 

| Orange, William, prince of ; Holland, 

|  Maestricht, revolution, 1572; Eng- 

| _ land, 1689 ; assassinations 

| Orange, prince of; Quatre Bras, 1815 

| Orbelliana; Circassia, 185 

| Ord, Sir H. St. G., West Australia, 

18 

Orellana ; Amazonia, 1540 

Orestes ; Mycene, Sparta, 1175 B.C. 

. Orfila, M. J. ; physician, 1787-1853 

| Orford, earl of ; admiralty, 1709 
Orloff, count ; diamonds, 1772 
Ormond, James, duke of; Ireland, 

| lord-lieuts., 1643 et seq. 

| Ormond, earl of ; combat, 1446 


/ Ormond, marquis of; Rathmines, 
1 e649 . 
| Orr, Wm. ; trials, 1797 


|; Orrery, earl of ; orrery 
| Orrock 3 trial, 1884 
| Orsini, Felix, 1819-58; France, 1858 
| Ortega, gen. ; Spain, 1860 
| Osborn, Sherard ; Franklin, 1854 
; Osborne, sir Thomas; administra- 
tions, 1672 
Osborne, T., Ireland, young 
| Oscar ; Sweden, 1844 
_ Osgodeby, Adam de; master of the 
rolls, 1295 
| Osman Digna; Soudan 
| Osman Pacha, Pleyna, Russo-Turkish 
|  Wwarll., 1877 
| Ospina; New Grenada, 1857 
| Ossory, lord; tea, 1666 
| Osyinandyas ; Egypt, 2100 B.C. ; ob- 
servatories, painting 
Othman ; Turkey, 12098 
Otho; Rome, emp., 69; Germany, 
936; Greece, 1832-62 
Otto, gas (engine) 
| Otto, M.; Amiens, 1802 
' Ottocar ; Bohemia, 1197 
' Oudinot, marshal; Rome, 1849 
| Oudry, cafeine 
| Outram, sir James; 1803-63; 
hammerah, India, 1857 
Ouvry, F. ; antiquaries, 1876 
Overbury, sir T., poisoned, 1613 
Overdank ; assassin., Austria, 188r 
Overend, Gurney, & Co. ; trials, 1867 
' Overstone, S., Jones Loyd, lord 
| financier, 1796-1883 ;. metric sys 
| tem, 1855 
| Ovid; poet, d. 18 
| Owden, J. 8., mayor, 1877-8 


Mo- 


| Owen, W. D. ; trials, 1858 


| Owen, Robert; socialists, 1834 
' Owen, Richard, b. 1804; odonto- 
logy, paleontology, zoology 
Owens, J., Owens college 
Oxenden, sir George ; Surat, 1664 
Oxford, Edward ; trials, 1840 
Oxford, earl of; Godolphin adm 
1702; Oxford adm. 
Oxford, John, earl of ; yeomen, 1486 
Oxley ; Brisbane, Queensland, 1823 


Es 


Paciolo; algebra, 1494 

Paddon, lieut., takes Cerbére, 1859 
Paderborn, bp. of ; Prussia, 1874 
Page, Flood, crystal palace, 1874 
Page, telephone, 1837 

| Paget, lord; duels, trials, 1809 


966 


Paget, lord Win., v. Cardigan ; trials, 
1844 

Paget, sir A. ; trials, 1808 

Paget, J. ; paradoxes 

Paget, sir William; administns., 


1547 
Paine, Thomas ; trials, 1792 
Pakington, sir John, b. 1799; Derby 
and Disraeli adm. 
Palafox, gen. ; Saragossa, 1809 
Palamedes ; alphabet, backgammon, 
battle, dice, chess, 680 B.c. 
Palestrina, 1529-94 ; music; requiem 
Palisa, J. ; planets 
Palladio, A. ; architect, 1518-80 
Pallavicino, G., Italy, 1878 
Palles, Christ. ; exchequer (Ireland), 


1874 

Palliser, capt., cannon, 1866 

Palliser, sir Hugh ; Ushant, 1778 

Palm, the bookseller; trials, 1806 

Palm, cardinal, shot; Rome, 1848 

Palmer, J. ; mail coaches, 1784 

Palmer ; duels, 1815 ; trials, 1856 

Palmer, prof., and others murdered ; 
Egypt, 1882; Paul’s, St. 

Palmer, Roundell; see Selborne 

Palmer, S., Times (index) 

Palmerston, Henry, vise. ; 1784-1865 ; 
Palmerston, lady, d. 1869 

Panckoucke, C. J.; Moniteur, 1789 

Panizzi, sir Antonio; British Mu- 
seum, 1859 

Panmure, lord ; Russell adm., 1851 

Paoli, Pascal; Corsica, 1753 

Papachin, adm. ; flag, 1688 

Papin ; steam-engine, 1681 

Papineau ; Canada, 1837 

Papirius Cursor ; sun-dial, 293 B.c. 

Pappa, D. ; trials, 1870 

Paracelsus, 1493-1541 ; alchemy, phy- 
sic, theosophists 

Pardo, president, Peru, 1879 

Pareja, adm. ; Chili, 1865 

Parini, Guis., Ital. poet; 1729-99 

Paris, count of, 6. 1838 ; Orleans 

Parke, Mungo, d. 1805; Africa 

Parke v. Lewis and others; trials, 
1873 

Parker, Emily ; swimming, 1875 

Parker, adm. ; Copenhagen, 1801 

Parker, Dr. ; temple 

Parker, abp. Matthew ; Canterbury, 
1558; liturgy, Nag’s Head 

Parker (mutineer) ; trials, 1797 

Parker, capt. ; Boulogne 

Parker, J. H., Rome 

Parker, sir Peter ; Bellair, 1814 


Parker, Thomas, lord; chancellor, 
lord, 1718 

Parkes, Sir H. consul; China, 1860- 
1883 3 d. 1885. 


Parma, duke of ; Parma 

Parma, prince of; Antwerp, 1585 

Parmenio ; Macedonia, 329 B.c. 

Parnell, sir Henry ; Melbourne adm. 
1835 

Parnell, C. 8., Biggar, and others ; 
parliament (obstructives), 1877-81 ; 
home rule, 1880; trials, 1880-1; 
Ireland, 1883, et seg.; Kilmain- 
ham 

Parr, Thomas ; 1483-1635? longevity 

Parrhasius ; painting: jl. 397 B.c. 

Parrot, Dr., Ararat 

Parry, bp., church of England 

Parry, E. ; north-west passage, 1818 

Parsons, bp. ; Peterborough, 1813 

Parsons, P.M., brass, manganese, 
bronze 

Parsons family ; cock-lane ghost, im- 
postors, 1762 

Pascal, B. ; 1623-62; air, calculating 
machine, barometers, probability, 
hydrostaties 

Passanante, G., Italy, 1878 

Paskiewitch ; Silistria, 1854 

Pasta, mad., vocalist, 1798-1865 


INDEX. 


Pasteur, M.; fermentation, 1861 ; 
germ theory ; hydrophobia ; vacci- 
nation 

Patch, Mr. ; trials, 1806 

Pate, lieut. ; trials, 1850 

Paterculus, Rom. hist., d. 31 

Paterson, W. ; bank, 1694; Darien 

Paton, Miss, at Haymarket, 1822 

Paton, Dr. ; pyroleter 

Patrick, St., preaches, 433; Ardagh, 
Armagh, Dublin, isles, shamrock 

Patrocinio, nun ; Spain, 1861, 1866 

Patten, col. John W., 0. 1802; Dis- 
raeli adm. 

Patteson, J. C., Melanesia, murdered, 


1871 

Paul, St., martyred, 65 

Paul, see Sarpi 

Paul I. ; Russia, 1796 

Paul IL. ; popes, 1464; purple 

Paul, sir’ J.; &c. > trials, 
fraudulent trustees 

Paulinus ; bells, 400 

Paull, Mr. ; duels, 1807 

Paululio, Anafesto ; doge, 697 

Paulus Amilius ; Canne, 216 B.C. 

Paulus, Marcus ; compass, 1260 

Paulus ; Abrahamites 

Pausanias ; Sparta, 480 B.c. ; Plateea, 
Macedon, 336 B.C. 

Pausias of Sicyon, 360-330 B.C. ; 
painting 

Pavey, G., trials, 1880 

Pavia, gen. ; Spain, 1873-4 

Paxton, sir Joseph, 1803-65; exhibi- | 
tion of 1851 ; crystal palace 

Payne, L., trials, 1879 

Payne, Mr. G.; duels, 1810 

Payne, J. H.; home! 

Peabody,.G., 1795-1869 ; Peabody 

Peace, C., trials, 1878 

Peace, the prince of the ; Spain, 1806 

Pearce, &c. ; gold robbery, 1857 

Pearson, col., Zululand, 1879 

Pease, W., Benwell 

Peaucillier ; motion 

Peckham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1279 

Pedro; Portugal, Brazil, 1822 

Peek v. Gurney ; trials, 1871 

Pee], A. W.; speaker H. C., 1884 

Peel, capt. sir F. ; India, 1858 

Peel, col. ; West Australia, 1828 

Peel, sir Robert; cotton manuf., © 
1750-30;— (son) statesman, 1788- 
1850; Peel adm. (see note), 1834- 
1841; acts of parliament, conserva- 
tive, corn bill, duels, 1815; in- 
come-tax, tariff; — (grandson), 0. 
1822 

Peele, James ; book-keeping, 1509 

Pelham, H.; Wilmington adm., 1742 ; 
Pelham adm., 1744 

Pelham, bp. ; Bristol, 1807 ; Norwich, 
1857 

Pelham, sir W. ; engineers, 1622 

Pelissier, duc de Malakhoff; 1794- 
1864; Algiers, Dahra 

Pell, Mr. ; education, 1876 

Pelletier ; quinine, 1820 

Pellew, sir Ed.; naval battles, 1795 

Pelouze, F. J., b. 1807; formic acid 

Peltier, M. ; libel, trials, 1803 

Peltzen, A. & L., murderers; Bel- 
gium, 1882 

Pemberton, sir Francis ; king’s bench, 
1681 

Pembroke, earl of ; Godolphin adm. 


1855; 


1702 ;  lord-lieutenant, Lincoln, 
protectorates, Salisbury, adiir- 
alty 


Pengelly, W. ; man 

Penn, admiral; Jamaica, 1655 

Penn, Wm., d. 1718; Pennsylvania, 
Quaker 

Penny, captain ; Franklin, 1850 


} 


Penzance, lord (Wilde); arches, 1876; 
publie worship 
Pepé, gen. F. ; Naples, 1820 


Pepin ; ‘France, 752; Ferara 

Pepper, prof., Polytechnic, telephon 

Pepys, bp. ; Worcester, 1841 ; Pepy 

Perceval, Spencer; Perceval 

Percy (Hotspur) ; Otterburn, 1388 — 

Percy, lord ; Durham,1346; Homildo: 

Perdiccas ; Macedon, 454 B.c. 

Perdita, Mrs. Robinson; theatres 
1779 (P. 736) Ag 

Péreire, M. ; crédit mobilier 

Pereyra; Uruguay, 1856 

Pericles ; Athens, 469 B.C. 

Périer, C. ; France, 1874-6 

Perillus ;-brazen bull, 570 B.c. 

Perkin Warbeck ; Warbeck, 1492 

Perkin, W. H. ; aniline, 1857 

Perkins ; engraving, copper-plat 
printing, 1819 


Perreaus ; forgery, trials, 1776 
Perring, John ; mayor, 1803 
Perrotin ; planets . 
Perry, Mr. ; trials, 1810 . 
Perry, lieut. ; trials, 1854 
Persano, adm. ; Lissa, Italy, 1866-7 
Perseus; Pydna, 168 B.c. . 
Persigny, J. G., 1808-72; France, 186 
Persius, 34-62; satires 
Perugino, Paolo, 1446-1524 | 
Peter the Cruel; Montiel, 1369 
Peter the Great; 1672-1725; Russi 
Deptford, Petersburg, Narva, Pi 
towa, wills 
Peter the Hermit; crusades, 1094 
Peters, C. H.; planets, 1862 
Petion ; Port-au-Prince, 1806 
Peto, S. M., b. 1809 ; diorama, 185 
Petrarch, 1304-74 ; Petrarch, sonne 
humanism 
Petre, sir Wim.; administrations, 1547 
Petronius ; Ethiopia, 22 B.c. 
Petronius Arbiter, Lat. satirist, d. 6 
Pettigrew, T.; epitaphs, 1857 
Petty, lord H. ; Grenville adm., 180: 
Petty, Wm. ; Royal Society, 1660 
Pezet, J. A.; Peru, 1863-5 
Pheedrus writes fables, 8 
Phalaris, brazen bull, 599 B.C. 
Pharamond ; France, 418? 
Pharaohs ; Egypt, 1899 B.C. 
Pharnaces ; Pontus, Cappadocia, 74. 


BiG 
Phayre, col. ; India, 1874 
Phayre, sir A. P. ; Mauritius, 1874 
Pheidon, jl. 869 B.c. ; coinage, silvel 
scales, weights ‘ 
Phelps, Mr. 8.; theatres (Sadler’ 
Wells), 1844, 1878 ; 
Phepoe, Mrs. ; trials, 1797 
Phidias, jl. 43 B.c. ; statues 
Philidor, concerts, chess : 
Philip; France, Macedon, Spail 
Hesse, Orleans, 1640 
Philip Neri, St. ; oratorios, 1550 
Philip the Good; Burgundy, He¢ 
land, 1419-67 a 
Philip the Great, killed 336 BG 
Macedon, Atolia, Cheeronea, 10 
eri, Thessaly 
Philip II. ; Spain, 1556 
Philippa, England, queen 
ward III.); Durham, 1346 
Philipps, T. ; Newport, 1839 
Phillimore, sir R. J., 1810-85 ; ad 
ralty a 
Phillip, gov. ; Australia, 1788 
Phillips, J.; Brit. Assoe., 18317 
fire-annihilator, 1849 i. 
Phillips, John, geologist; Vesuvius, 
1869 
Phillips v. Eyre ; trials, 1869-70 
Phillips, Wendell ; Dutedl Stat 
1884 3 
Philopcemen ; Achaia, 194 B.C. — 
Philpott ; bp. ; Worcester, 186t 
Philpotts v. Boyd; reredos, W 


1m ¢ 


1875 “ia 
Phipps, capt. ; north-west passag 
1773 


cas ; east. emp., 602 

cion, killed 317 B.c. 

roneus ; Argos (1807 B.C.), sacri- 
2e, laws 

tiades, C. J. ; Samos 

tius, Gallus ; rhetoric, 87 B.c. 
-Margall; Spain, 1873 

tus ; Poland, 842 

Zi, M. ; planet, 1801 

wd, sir H. ; lord mayor, 1357 
legru; Manheim ; suicide, 1804 
et, R., air, gases, 1877, oxygen, 
ydrogen, distillation ; nav. archi- 
eture 

on, gen.; trials, 1806; Quatre- 
ras, Waterloo, 1815 

ce; United States, president, 


53 

ola, N. de, Peru, 1876-82 

re, adm. ; Madagascar, 1883 
repoint, Mr. ; United States, 1876 
s, abp. ; York, 1589 

t, David Richard; exchequer, 
46 

tt, Id. ; 
O2 

it, major-gen. ; Malta, 1800 
tt, Mr. ; trials, 1871 

, Miss ; Cork, trials, 1800 
ington, bishop; liturgy 
ay; Anvar, fables 

thbeck, C. ; pinchbeck 

lar, abt., 522-439 B.c., Odes— | 
ster (Dr. Wolcot), 1738-1819; trials, | 
O07 

, Sir B.C. ; Natal, 1873 

1, M. ; lunatics, 1792 

on; America, §., xr500; Peru, 
63 ; 
nder ; naval battles, 394 B.c. 
stratus ; Athens, 527 B.C. 

ian, I. ; phonography, 1837 ; ste- 
raphy 

; diamond, 1720 

, Wm. ; see Chatham, earl of 

, Wm., 1759-1806; Pitt adm., 
83; India company, E., reform, 
lels, 1798 ; income-tax 

}; popes, 142 et seq. 

IV. ; confession, 1504 

 VIT. ; concordat, 1801 

IX. 1792-1878 ; popes; 1846-78 ; 
pal aggression, conception 

ro ; America, 1524 

che, J. R. ; dress 

o, Gr. phil., 429-347-B.C. 3 avade- 
mics,anatomy, antipodes, names, 
“ily 

ts, John ; executions, 1847 

te, G., electric battery, 1860 
tus, Lat., b. 184 B.c. ; drama 


India, Pigot diamond, | 


fair, Lyon ; Gladstone adm., 
30 

ipton ; rink, 1875 

soll, 8.; parliament, seamen, 


73 

y the elder, 23-79; pearls, Vesu- 
Is ;—the younger, d. 100 

‘den, Mr. ; Abyssinia, 1849 

ner, sir Th. ; att.-gen., 1812 
nner, Eugenia ; trials, 1860 

ket, lord ; chancellor, lord (Ire- 
ul), 1830 

arch, fl. 80; biography 

elk, admiral ; Cuba, 1762 

io, C. ; Naples, 1850-59-60 

on, N. ; planets, 1856 

avin, M. ; balloons, 1852-58 

ers, Roger de; Liverpool, 1089 

, Wellesley ; mint, trials, 1825 
-abp. ; Canterbury, 1556 

nace, prince de; France, 1830 

, Jas. ; United States, president, | 
5 

Be) .G.. 3 furniture, 1874 
0, C. ; Slavery, 42 B.C. 
ck, gen. G.; Afghanistan, India, | 
12; tower 


INDEX. 


967 


Pollock, sir Frederick, 1783-1863 ; at- 
torney-general, exchequer, 1834- 
18 

Polo, Marco, writes about 1298 

Polybius, 207-122 (?) B.c.; signals, 
telegraphs, Achaia, physic 

Polycarp martyred, 166 

Polydorus ; Laocoén 

Pomare ; Otaheite, 1799 

Pompey, killed 48 B.c.; Rome, Spain, 
Pharsalia 

Pond, J. ; Greenwich, 1811 

Ponti, G. ; academies 

Pontius, C. ; Caucdine forks, 321 B.c. 

Pook, E.; trials, 1871 

Poole, bp. ; Japan, 1883 

Poole, A. ; auricular confession, 1858 

Poole, R. 8. ; Egypt. expl. fund 

Pope, Alex., 1688-1744; Alexandrine 
verse, satire ; Homer, 1714 

Pope, gen. J.; Manassas, United 
States, 1862 

Popham, sir Home; Buenos Ayres, 
Cape, trials, 1807 

Popoff, adm. ; circular ironclads, 1875 


| Popp, V., clocks, 188x 
| Poppea (wife of Nero) ; masks 


Porsenna ; labyrinth, 520 B.c. 

Porson, prof., 1759-1808 ; writing 

Porter, sir Charles ; Limerick 

Porteus, bp. ; London, 1787 

Portland, duke of, Portland adm., 
1783; Ireland (lord - lieutenant), 
Junius 


| Portman, sir Wm.; king’s bench, 


1554 : 
| Portsmouth, earl of ; trials, 1823 


Porus, Hydaspes, 327 B.C. 

Posidonius, jl. 86 B.c. ; atmosphere, 
moon, tides, air 

Potamon ; eclectics, about 1x 

Potter, abp. ; Canterbury, 1737 

Potter, Edm. ; Manchester, 1883 

Pottinger, sir H. ; China, 1841 

Pouchet, M. ; spont. generation, 1859 

Pouillet, C. 8S. M., Fr. nat. phil, 
1791-1868 

Poussin, N. ; painters, 1594-1665 

Pouyer-Quertier ; France, 1871 

Powell, Langharne, and Poyer, colo- 
nels ; Wales, 1647 

Powell; ballocns, 1881-3 


| Power, Mr. ; wrecks, 1841 
| Power, Frauk ; Soudan, 1884 


Powys, bishop ; Man, 1854 
Poyer, colonel ; Wales, 1647 
Poynter, E. J., R.A., b. 1836 
Prado, M.; Peru, 1824-67 
Praslin murder, 1847 
Praxiteles, fi. 363 B.C. ; mirrors 
Premislaus ; Poland, 1295 
Prescott, Wm., 1796-1859 


~ Preston, lord ; conspiracy, 1691 


Pretender, old, 1688-1765; young, 
1720-88; Pretender, Falkirk, Pres- 
tonpans, Culloden 

Pretorius, Natal, 1838; Transvaal, 
1880 

Pretsch, P.; photo-galvanography, 
1854 


_ Prevost, sir George; Plattsburg, 1814 
Priam ; Ilium, Troy, 1224 B.C. 


Price, Mr.; duels, 1816; alchemy ; 
annuities 
Price, bp.; B. Free church 


| Price, adm. ; Petropaulovski, 1854 


Prichard, Dr., 1785-1848 ; ethnology 


| Pride, col. ; Pride’s purge, 1648 


Priessnitz, V. ; hydropathy, 1828 

Priestley, Joseph, 1733-1804 ; earth- 
quakes, eudiometer, lunar society, 
nitrous gas, oxygen, fluorine, colour 
blindness 

Prim, gen. Juan, 1814-70; Castel- 
lejos, Guad-el-ras, 1860; Spain, 
1866-70 ; assassinations, 1870 

Prince, H. J. ; agapemone, 1845 

Prior, M., poet, 1664-1721 


—_— 


Priscillian ; gnosties, 384 

Pritchard, Dr. E. W.; trials, exe- 
cution, 1865 

Probert ; trials, 1824 

Probus ; Rome, emp. 276 } massacre 

Procles ; biarch, 1102 B.C. 

Procopius ; Nacolea, 366 

Procopius, Lat. hist. 500-565; Hus- 
sites, 1431 

Procter, poets; Bryan W. (Barry 
Cornwall), 1790-1874; Adelaide, 
daughter, 1835-64 

Propertius, Lat. poet, 26 B.c. 

Proudhon, P. de, socialist, 1809-65 

Prynne, W., legal antiquary, 1600-69 

Psalmanazar, G. ; Formosa, 1704 

Psammetichus, 650 B.c.; Egypt, 
labyrinth, languages, sieges 

Pseusennes, 971 B.C. ; Egypt 

Psycho ; automaton, 1875 

Ptolemy (astronomer), d. 16x 

Ptolemy; Egypt, Bible, Septuagint, 
Ipsus, pharos, arithmetic, acade- 
mnies 

Ptolemy Epiphanes, 205 B.c.; Egypt, 
Rosetta 

Puckering, sir John ; chancellor, lord 
high, 1592 

Pugin, A. W., 18r1-52, decorat. art; 
K. W. ; trials, 1874 

Pullan, R. P., dilettanti, 1861-70; 
Priene 

Pullen, capt. ; Franklin, 1852 

Pullinger, G.; banks, joint stock, 
1860 

Pulteney, Mr. ; Halifax adm., 1714 

Pulteney, sir James ; Ferrol, 1800 

Punshon, R. ; gunpowder, 1872 

Purcell, Henry ; music., 1658-95 

Purchas, Sam. ; 1577-1628 

Purdon, col. ; Ashantees, 1826 

Purefoy ; duels, 1788 ; trials, 1794 

Pusey, Dr. E., 1800-82; Puseyism ; 
Oxford univ. 

Pyat, F., France, 1880 

Pye, Henry J. ; poet-laureate, 1790 

Pye, J. ; engraver, d. 1874 

Pym, J. ; politician, d. 1643 

Pyrrho ; sceptics, 334 B.c. 

Pyrrhus ; Macedon, 287 B.c. ; Epirus, 
318-272 B.C. ; Tarentum, Asculuin, 
279 

Pythagoras, fl. 555 B.c. ; acoustics, 
astronomy, Copernicus, Egypt, the 
globe, harmonic strings, shoes, 
solar system, spheres 


Q. 


Quaritch, B.; buoks, 1882 

Queen v. Lords of Treasury; trials, 
1872 

Ouskate prof.; histology, 1857 

Quentin, col.; duels, 1815; trials, 
1814 

Quesnay, économistes 

Quevedo, Span. writer, 1580-1645 

Quinet, Edgar, Fr. philos., 1803-75 

Quintilia; Quintilians 

Quintin ; libertines, 525 

Quintus Fabius, 291 B.c.; painting 

Quiros; New Hebrides, 1606 


R. 


Rabelais, F., satirist, 1483-1553 
Rachel, mademoiselle, d. 1858 ;--ma- 
dame ; enamelling; trials, 1868, 1878 
Racine, J.; Fr. dramat., 1639-99 
Radcliffe, Dr. John ; Radcliffe library, 


173 
Benecy: marshal, 1766-1858; Aus- 
tria, Custozza, Novara, Italy 
Radetsky, gen., Russo-Turkish war 
II., 1878 


Radnor, earl of ; administrations, 1684 

Rae, Dr.; Franklin, 1848 

Raglan, lord; Russo-Turkish war, 
1857 

Ragotski; Transylvania 

Raikes, Mr., 1781; Sunday-schools, 
education, infanticide 

Raleigh, sir Walter, 1552-1618; dress, 
Pennsylvania, Trinidad, Virginia, 
England 

Ralston, W. C. ; California, 1875 

Rameses; Egypt, 1618 

Ramirez IT.; Semincas, 938 B.c. 

Ramsay, David; combat, 1631 

Ramsay, sir George; duels, 1790 

Ramsden, Jesse, 1735-1800; theodo- 
lite, 1787 

Rance; trappist, 1662 

Randolph, T.; post-office, 1582 

Randolph, bishop ; Bangor, London, 
1809 

Ranger, M. ; cotton (a speculator) ; 
1883 

Rankin, J., velocipedes, 1878 

Ransome ; Ransome, filterers, 
ploughs 

Raphael, 1483-1520; cartoons 

Raphael, Alex.; Roman catholics, 1834 

Rapieff, electric light, 1878 

Rarey, J. 8.; horse, 1858 

Rassam, H.; Abyssinia, 
Nineveh ; Brit. Mus. 

Rathbone, Wm. ; Liverpool, 1877 

Rattazzi, U., 1808-73; Italy, 1862 

Rauch, C.; sculptor, 1777-1857 

Rauscher, card. ; Austria, d. 1875 

Ravaillac kills Henry IV., 1610 

Rawdon, lord; Camden, 1781 

Rawlinson, col. sir H., b. 1810; As- 
syria, Babylon, Behisttn, 1844 

Ray, John, naturalist, 1628-1705 

Ray, Peter; volunteers (19th meet- 
ing), 1878 

Rayhere; Bartholomew’s, 1100 

Rayleigh, lords, 1879 

Raymond, lord; attorney - general, 
1725; king’s bench 

Rayneckers, L. ; fuel 

Reade, Chas. ; Nov. 1814-84 

Réaumur, d. 1757; light, steel 

Reay, Miss, killed; trials, 1779 

Reay, lord; combat, 1631 

Reay, lord ; Bombay, 1884 ; London 
University 

Rebeccaites ; trials, 1843 

Redanies, D.; execution, 1857 

Rede, sir R. ; Rede lecture 

Redesdale, lord; att.-gen., 1800 

Redpath, L.; trials, 1857 

Redwood, T. ; analysts, 1874 

Reece, R.; bogs, 1849 ; congelation, 
1868 

Reed, Andrew, 1787-1862; orphan, 
idiots, incurables 

Reed, Sir C.; metropolitan school 
board, 1873-81 

Reed, sir E. J., Japan 

Reed, E. J.; navy, 1863-71 

Reeves, Mr. John; levellers, 1792 

Regnier, gen.; Kalitsch, Maida, 
Ximera, 1811 

Regulus, 250 B.c.; Carthage 

Reich, F., and Richter, T.; indium, 
1863 

Reichardt, Wacht 

Reichenbach, C., 
ffine, 1831; odyl 

Reichenstein ; tellurium, 1782 

Reichstadt, duke de; France, p. 319 

Reid, gen.; India, 1857 

Reid, R. T.; vivisection 

Reinbauer; trials, 1829 

Reinkens, Old Catholic bishop; 
Prussia, 1873 

Reis, P. ; telephone, 1861 

Relly, Jas.; universalists, 1760 

Rembrandt, Paul; painter, 1608-69 

Remigius de Fescamp; Lincoln, 1086 


1864 5 


1788-1869; para- 


Remington, type-writers 

Remusat, C. de; France, 1871-3 

Remy, St.; Rheims 

Renard, capt. ; balloons, 1884 

Renata, Maria; witchcraft, 1749 

Renaudot, M.; newspapers, 163 

Rendel, J.; Holyhead, Portland 

Rennie, J. (1761-1821), and sir J.; 
breakwater, 1812; Waterloo-bridge, 
London-bridge 

Repton, Humphry, 
dener, 1752-1818 

Reschid Pacha; Turkey, 1853 - 

Reuchlin, J.,reformer,d. 1522; Talmud 

Reuss; engraving 

Reuter, J. de; Persia, 1872 

Reville, Mrs., Slough 

Reynere, Richard; sheriff, 1189 

Reynolds, sir Joshua, 1723-92; royal 
academy, 1768 

Reynolds, abp.; Canterbury, 1313 

Reynolds, capt.; trials, 1840 

Reynolds, George; duels, 1788 

Reynolds, O. ; explosives 

Rhodes, R. G., audiphone 

Rhodes, W. B., free hospital, life-boat 

Riall, gen.; Chippawa, 1814 

Ricard ; France, 1876 

Ricasoli, B., b. about 1803; Italy, 
1861-7 

Rice, Spring (lord Monteagle); ad- 
ministrations, 1834 

Rich, Richard, lord; chancellor, lord, 


landscape gar- 


1547 

Richard I., England, 1189; Acre, 
Ascalon, Coeur de Lion, Dieu et 
mon droit, laws, Oleron, naviga- 
tion laws 

Richard IIT., %. 1485; Bosworth 

Richards, Miss ; pedestrianism, 1874 

Richardson, B. W. ; hygeiopolis, 1876 

Richardson, sir John; naturalist, 
1783-1865; Franklin 

Richardson, H. ; lifte-boat,1852 

Richardson, Sam.; novels, 1689-1761 

Richelieu, card., 1585-1642; France, 
1624 

Richelieu, duke of ; Closterseven, 1757 

Richmond, duke of; Rockingham ad- 
ministration, 1782, &¢.; Ireland, 
duels : Derby and Disraeli admin- 
istrations 

Richter, J. Paul, Ger. novel.,1763-1825 

Ridding, Geo., bp. ; Squthwell 

Ridel, Stephen, 1189; chancellor, 
lord, Ireland 

Rider, William; silk hose 

Ridgeway, C. de, abstinence 

Ridley, bp., burnt, 1555 

Ridsdale, Rev. C. J.; public worship 
act, 1876 

Riego put to death; Spain, 1823 

Riel, L.; Hudson’s bay ; Canada, Ad- 
dende 

Rienzi, N., m. 1354; tribune, Rome 

Rigg, rev. A., technical education 

Rigoni, M. ; canal boats 

Riguet, M.; tunnels 

Rinuccini, Octavio, b. 1621; opera 

Ripon, earl of, 1782-1859; Goderich 
administration, 1827; — marquis 
of; freemasonry; Gladstone adm. 
1873; India, 1880 

Risakoff, Russia, 1881 

Risk Allah; trials, 1868 

Risties, Servia, 1880 

Ritson, Joseph, critic, 1752-1803 

Ritter, Karl, geographer, 1779-1859 

Ritter, J. W., electricity, 1812 

Rivers, earl, m. 1483; Pomfret 

Rivers, Mr., Egypt, 1879 

Riviere, R. T. ; Tonquin, 1883 

Rizzio, David, m. 1566; Scotland, 
France, Naples - 

Robert, duke of Normandy; Tinche- 
bray, 1106; Scotland, 1306 

Robert II.; pilgrimages, 1o60 

Roberts, D., R.A., 1796-1864 


| Roberts, J. R., Liberia . 
Roberts, sir F., Afghanistan, 1878-§ 


‘Romilly, sir J., aft. ld.; 1802- 


Mazra . 
Robertson, capt.; trials, 1862 
Robertson, T. W., dramatist, 1829- 
Robertson, Dr. Wm., hist., 1721-93 
Robertson, W., trials, 1878 
Robespierre, F. M.; reign of term 
France, 1793- 
Robin Hood; robbers, archery, 11 
Robinson; see Perdita 
Robinson, F.; Goderich, note 
Robinson, H. G. B., New Zealan 
1878 
Robinson, James; ether, 1848 
Robinson, R., 1735-90; independen 
Robinson, sir Thomas ; Neweast 
adininistration, 1754 
Robinson of York, murdered; tria 
18 ; 
Rounmon sir W. C. F.; Straits, 187 
Robiquet and Colin ; alizarine, 183: 
Robson, W.; trials, 1856 
Rochambeau; Yorktown, 1781 
Rochebouet, gen. ; France, 1877 
Rochefort, H.; France, 1870-8 
Tunis, 1881 
Rochefoucauld, F. De la, phil. 1630- 
Rochester, earl of; administratior 


167 
Rochfort, A. H.3; eryptography, 18 
Rock, Dan., 1779-1871; mass 
Rockingham, marq. of; Rockingha 
administrations, 1765 
Roderick; Spain, 709; Wales, 843 
Rodney, G.; Eustatia, 78: ~ } 
Rodolph of Hapsburg ; Austria, 12 
Rodolph of Nuremberg; wire, 141 
of Suabia, k. Fladenheim, 1080 
Roe, Henry ; Dublin, 1878 
Reebling, Mr. & Mrs.; New Yor 
188 
Roehneld J.; duel, 1835 Sebastop 
Roemer, light, 1676 | 
Roger; Sicily, Naples, 1130 
Rogers and others ; trials, 1882 
Rogers, John, burnt, 1555 , 
Rogers, Sam., poet, 1763-1855 
Rogers, Messrs. ; gas lights 
Rogers, J. E. T. ; wages 
Roget, P. M., M.D., philologist, 179 
186 
Rossewei circumnavigator; East 
Island, 1722 
Rogier, Charles, d. 1885; Belgi 
I 
Rotans card. ; diamond necklace, 1 
Rollin, Chas., Fr. hist., 1661-1741 
Rolt, sir J.; att.-gen., 1866; just 
of appeal, 1867 
Romain, M.; balloons, k. 1785 _ 
Romilly, sir Samuel; criminal 1 
suicide, 1818 ‘ 


solicitor-gen., master of the ro 
1851 ua 
Romney, Geo.; painter, 1734-1802 
Romulus; Rome, 753 B.c.; calent 
Alba, aruspices 
Romulus Augustulus; western 
pire, 475 : 
Ronalds, F., 1788-1873; electrie t 
graph, 1823 , ' 
Ronge, J.; kinder-garten, 1851 
Rooke, sir George; Gibraltar, 1 
snuff, Alderney, Cadiz, Cape 
Hogue, Cape St. Vincent, Vigo 
Roper, colonel; duels, 1788 
Rosas; Buenos Ayres, 1852 
Roscoe, sir H. E., indigo ; 
education 
Roscoe, W., hist., 1753-183r 
Rose, German chem., Gurt, 1 
1873 ; Hein, 1795-64 te. 4 
Rose, sir Hugh; India, Calpee,1 
Rosebery, earl of ; Gladstone @ 
1880 ey . 
Roseberry, countess of; trials 


. 


ee 


ysencrans, gen.; United S., 1862 
sS, Sir J.; Franklin, north-west 
passage, 1848 

88, colonel ; duelling, 1817 ; British 
museum, 1876 

88, gen.; Baltimore, Washington, 
1814 s 

ssa, O'Donovan ; Fenians, 1868-83 
sse, earl of, 1800-67; telescopes, 
1828; Royal Society, 1848 

ssel, France, 1871 

sser, Mr. and Miss Darbon; trials, 


1841 

ssi, count, Rome, 1848; assassina- 
tions 

ssini, G., mus. comp., 1792-1868 
stopchin; Moscow, 1812 

thery, H. C., Tay-bridge 

thsay ; duke, Scotland, r4orz 
thschild, Anselm (the first), d. 
812; Rothschild, Evelina hosp. 
thschild ; Jews, 1849; deaf and 
lumb, 1872 
ubiliac ; sculptor, 1695-1762 

uher, E., 1814-84 ; France, 1863-81 
upell, W., M.P.; trials, 1862 

us, F.; psalms 

usseau, J. J., Fr. phil., 1712-1778 
ustan, M., Tunis, 1881 

utledge v. Lowe; copyright, 1868 
wan, A. H.; trials, 1794, 1805 

we, Nicholas, 1673-1718; poet- 
aureate, d. 1715 

wlandson, Thos., caricaturist, 1756- 
827 

wley, admiral J.; Bourbon, 1810 
wsell, C. J. ; graphoscope 

xana; Macedon, 311 B.c. 

xburgh, duke of, 1812; Boccaccio 
zier, M.; balloons, 1783 

bens, P. P.; painters, 1577-1640 
bery v. Grant; trials, 1875 

chdi Pasha ; Turkey, 1866-71, et 


eq. 
dbeck, O1.; thoracic duct 

dolph; Austria, Germany | 
hmkorff, induction coil, 1857 
mford, Benjamin Thompson 
ount, 1752-1814; Royal Institu- 
ion 
nge, cafeine 

njeet Singh; Afghanistan, 1818; 
iamonds 

pert, prince, 1619-82; engraving, 
sirmingham, Edgehill, Marston- 
noor, Naseby, Newark 

ric; Russia, 862; Varangians 

sh, Bloomfield, murderer ; trials, 


849 

shworth, E, E.; Jamaica, 1877 
skin, John, art critic, b. 1819 ; 
heffield 

ssell, C. ; suicide, 1856 

ssell, colonel ; guards, 1660 

ssell, adm. Edw.; La Hogue, 


2 
a, J. Scott, engineer, 1808-82 ; 
res, steam-nav., Vienna, wave 
ssell, lord John, aft. earl, 1792- 
878; Russell administration, note, 
.berdeen ; Germany, 1874; papal 
geression ; reform 
ssell, Odo, ld. Ampthill; Ger- 
lany, 1871-8 
ssell, lord W., trials, 1840 
ssell, bp. W. A. ; China, 1872 
sell, W. H.; Times, 1854, 1857, 
861 
therford, J.; lectures 
thven, Mr. ; duels, 1836 
land, duke of; Ireland (lord 
eutenant), 1784 
yter, see De Ruyter 
ler, bp. ; Gloucester, 1815 
ler, sir Dudley, king’s bench, 
] 
ford ones, A. M., temnograph 
es, Mrs. ; trials, 1866 


INDEX. 


8. 


Sabatta, Levi, 1666 

Sabine, gen. sir Edw., 1788-1883; 
Royal Society, 1861; magnetism 

Sacheverel, Dr. ; high church, 1709 

Sackville, lord George ; Minden, 1759 

Sadleir, J.; suicide, 1856 ;—Dr., 
1858 

Sadler, Mr. ; balloons, 1812 

Sadler, Mr. ; Sadler’s Wells, 1863 

Sadler, sir Ralph; administrations, 


1540 

Sadyk ; Turkey, 1878 

Safford, Mr. ; planets, 1862 

Safvet Pasha; Turkey, 1877-8 

Sagarelli; Apostolici, 300 

Sagasta, Spain, 1871-83 

Saget, gen.; Hayti, 1870 

St. Arnaud, marshal; Russo-Turkish 
war, Alma, 1854 

St. Charo; concordance, 1247 

St. Clair, Bella; pedestrianism, 1876 

St. Cyr, marshal; Dresden, 1813 

St. George, Mr. ; trials, 1798 

St. John, John de; treasurer, 1217 

St. John Long ; quack, 1830 

St. John, Henry, aft. lord Boling- 
broke ; Oxford adm., 1711 

St. John, O. ; benevolences, 1615 

St. John, William ; chancellor, lord 
high, 1547 

St. Leonards, lord, 1781-1875 ; chan- 
cellor, lord high, 1852 : 

St. Mars, M. de; iron mask 

St. Ruth, general; Aughrim, 1691 

St. Vincent, earl; admiralty, 1801; 
Cape St. Vincent 

Sakya Muni, Buddhism 

Saladin, sultan, 1136-1193; Ascalon, 
Damascus, Egypt, Syria, Aleppo 

Salar Jung, Hyderabad 

Sale, lady ; Cabul, India, 1842 

Sale, sir Robert ; Moodkee, 1845 

Salgar, E., Colombia, 1871 

Salisbury, bishop of ; assay 

Salisbury, countess of; garter 

Salisbury, Robert, earl of ; adminis- 
trations, 1603 

Salisbury, earl of, 1604; coronets, 
Orleans 

Salisbury, marquis of ; Derby admin- 
istrations, 1852, 1858 ; Disraeli ad- 
ministration, 1874; Turkey, 1877; 
Berlin conference; conservatives, . 
1881 

Salkeld ; Delhi, 1857 

Sallo, Denis de; critics, reviews, | 
1655 

Sallust, Lat. hist., d. 34 B.c. ; Mauri- 
tania, Catiline 

Salmasius ; anthology, 1606 

Salmeron ; Spain, 1873 

Salnave, gen. ; Hayti, 1865-70 

Salomons, D.; Jews, 1835 ; mayor 

Salt, Titus; 1803-76; alpaca, 1852, 
Bradford 

Salvator Rosa; painter, 1615-1673 

Salviati, Dr. ; mosaic, 1861 

Salvino degli Armato ; spectacles 

Salvius Julianus ; edicts, 132 

Sampson, H. ; advertisements, 1874 

Samuel rules Israel, rr4o B.C. | 

Samuelson, sir B.; technical educa- | 
tion 

Sanballat ; Samaritan, 332 B.c. 

Sancho, king; Portugal, Spain, 970 

Sancroft, abp., Canterbury, 1678 ; 
bishops, England 

Sandeman, major; Beloochistan 

Sandeman, R. ; Glasites 

Sanderson, Dr. J. B.; Brown Institute | 

Sanders, will-forger ; trials, 1844 

Sandilli: Kaffraria 1877-8 

Sandon, lord; Disraeli admin., 1874, 
1878 ; elemen. education, 1876 


969 


Sandwich, earl of; administrations, 
1660 ; naval battles, Solebay, Aix- 
la-Chapelle 

Sandys; administrations, 1742, 1767 

Sandys, Edwin, abp. ; York, 1577 

Santa Anna ; Mexico, 1853-76 

Sapor; Persia, 240 

Sappho writes 611 B.c. ; Sapphic 

Sardanapalus ; Assyria, 820 B.c. 

Sarmiento, col. D., Argentine confed., 
1868 

Sarpi, Paul, 1552-1623; thermome- 
ter, blood 

Sassoon, sir A., Bombay, 1879 

Sassulitch, V. ; Russia, 1878 

Saul, Jews, 1096 B.c. ; Ammonites 

Saumarez, sir James ; Algesiras, 1803 

Saunders ; trials, 1853 

Saunders, com. ; Franklin, 1849 

Saunders, sir Charles; Chatham 
administration, 1766 

Saussure, d. 1799; hygrometer 

Saurin v. Star; trials, 1869 

Savage, John; Babyngton’s 
spiracy, 1586 

Savage, abp. ; York, 1501 

Savage, Rich., poet, 1698 ?-1743 

Savage, W.; printing in colours, 
1819-22 

Savary, trials, 1825 

Savary, capt. ; steam-engine, 1698 

Savas Pasha, Turkey, 1880-1 

Savonarola, Jerome ; burnt, 1498 

Saward, J. ; trials, 1857 

Sawtre, sir William; burning 
1401; Lollards 

Sawyer ; arithmetic, 1878 

Saxe, count; Fontenoy, 1745; Laf- 
feldt, 1747 

Say, Leon; France, 1873-7 

Say, T. ; colorado beetle 

Sayee, A. H.; Accadians 
1875 ; Babylonia 

Saye and Sele, lord ; administrations, 
1660 

Saye, lord, beheaded, 1450; Cade 

Sayers, T. ; boxing, 1860 

Scanderbeg ; Albania, 1443 

Scanlan, Mr. ; trials, 1820 

Scarlatti, D. ; spinet 

Schamyl; Circassia, 1859 


con- 


alive, 


Assyria, 


| Scheele, 1742-86; nitrogen, oxygen, 


prussic acid, tartafic acid, pho- 
tography, glycerine, chlorine 
Scheffer, Ary; painter, 1795-1858 
Scheibler M. ; tonometer, 1834 
Scheiner, Chr. ; heliometer, 1625 
Schenk, gen.; United States, 1870, 
1876 
Scheutz ; calenlating machine, 1857 
Schiaparelli; planets, 1861; comets, 
1866 
Schiff, Dr. : vivisection 
Schilders, general ; Silistria, 1854 
Schiller, F., Ger. poet, 1759-1805 
Schimmelpenninck ; Holland, 1805 
Schlegel, W., German writer, 1767- ’ 
1845 ;—F., 1772-1829 
Schlickmann, gen.; Transvaal, 1876 
Schliemann, Dr.; Mycene, Troy, 1872 
Schmidt; organs, 1682 ; moon, 1874 ; 
—shot, Spain, 1874 
Scheeffer, Peter; printing, 1452 
Schonbein, M. ; 1797-1868 ; gun cotton, 
1840 ; Ozone, 1846 
Schomberg, capt. ; 
1811 
Schomberg, duke of ; Boyne, Ireland, 
Londonderry, Carrickfergus, 1689 
Schomburgk, sir R. ; Victoria regia, 
1838 
Schopenhauer, A., pessimism 
Schroter ; pianoforte, 1717 
Schrotter ; phosphorus, 1845 
Schouten ; Cape Horn, 1616 
Schouvaloff, count, Russia, 1879 
Schubert, F. P. 5; Ger. mus., 1797- 
1828 


naval battles, 


Schumann, Robert ; Ger. mus., 1810- 


5 
Schwabe, sun 
Schwann ; cell theory, 1839 
Schwartz, C., missionary, d. 1798 
Schwartz, M. ; gunpowder, 1320 
Schwartzenberg, prince of ; Dresden, 


1813 

Schwatka, lieut., Franklin search, 
1879-81 

Schwerin, marshal; Prague, 1757 

Scialoia, A. ; Naples, 1877 

Scipio Africanus ; honour, Numantia, 
Rome, Zama, 202 B.C. 

Scindiah 

Scobeleff, gen. ; Russo - Turkish 
war, 1878 ; Russia, 1882 

Scott, sir G. Gilbert ; architect, 1811- 
1878 ; Alban’s; Asaph’s ; midland 

Scott, R..H. ; meteorology, 1865 

Scott, gen. Winfield, 1786-1866; 
Mexico, 1847; United States, 
1861-2 

Scott; duelling, 1821, 1836 

Scott, Walter, 1771-1832; Waverley 

Scott, Dred; United States, 1857 

Scott, Miss C. A., Girton college 

Scribe, E., dramatist, d. 1861 (eet. 80) 

Scudamore, lord ; apples 

Seabury, Samuel; bishoprics, 1784 

Seaforth, earl of ; thistle, 1687 

Seal, J.; trials 1858 

Searle ; planets, 1858 

Sebacon ; Egypt, 737 B.c. 

Sebastiani, marshal; Talavera, 1809 

Sebert ; Westininster Abbey 

Secchi, Padre, A., nat. phil., 1818-78 

Secker, abp: ; Canterbury, 1758 

Secocceni; Transvaal, 1876-82 

Sedgwick, Adam, d. 1873, geology 

Sefton v. Hopwood; trials, 1855 

Sejanus, d. 31 

Selborne, chancellor, ld. (aft. earl), 
B72 4s appeal; Gladstone adm., 
1660 

Selden, J., 1584-1654 ; 
laureate 

Seleucus Nicator; Seleucides, Syria, 
omens, Ipsus, 311 B.C. 

Selim ; Turkey, Syria, 1512 

Selkirk, Alexander; Juan Fernandez, 


seas, poet- 


1705 

Sellis, the valet; suicide, 1810 

Selmer, M. ; Norway, 1881-4 

Selwyn, sir C. J., justice, ld., 1868 

Semiramis ; Assyria, eunuchs, 2007 
B.C. 

Semmes, capt., Alabama, 1862 

Semple ; trials, 1795, 1862 

Sen, Baboo, deism, 1869 

Seneca, put to death, 65; Cordova 

Sennacherib ; Assyria, 710 B.C. 

Sennefelder ; lithography, 1796 

Sergius ; popes, nativity, 690; puri- 
fication, Koran 

Serrano, marquis de, and duke de la 
Torre, Spain, 1868-75, 1882; Alcolea, 
1868 

Serrin ; electric lamp 

Sertiirner; morphia, 1803 

Servetus, Michael, burnt, 
Unitarians, Arians, blood 

Servius Tullius ; coins, census, 566 


1553 > 


B.C. 
Sesostris ; Egypt, 1618 B.c. 
Setalla; burning glasses 
Severus ; Rome; emp. 193; Britain, 
Roman walls, Memphis, 202 
Sextus Pompeius ; Myle, 36 B.c. 
Seymour, sir Edw. ; speaker, 1678 
Seymour, sir M. ; China, 1856 
Seymour v. Butterworth; trials, 
1862 : 
Seymour, Edward, duke of Somerset; 
administrations, 1547; protectors, 
admiralty 
Seymour, lord; duels, 1835 
Seymour, lady ; tournament, 1839 


| Simnel, Lambert; 


INDEX. 


Seymour, adm. sir H. (aft. lord Al- 
cester), Egypt, 1882 

Sforza, cardinal ; Naples, 1877 

Shadwell, Thomas; poet-laureate, d. 


1692 

Shaftesbury, earl of; administrations, 
1672; (present-earl, b. 1801) Chi- 
chester ; costermongers, Shaftes- 
bury estate 

Shakspeare, W., 1564-1616; Shak- 
speare, drama, mulberry-tree 

Shalmaneser; Assyria, 730 B.C. 

Shapira, M. ; bible, nete 

Sharp, ‘A.; circle (squared), 1717 

Sharp, archbp.; Scotland, 1679 

Sharp, Granville; slavery, 1772 

Shaw, rev. Mr. ; Madagascar, 1883 

Shaw, sir James; mayor, 1805 

Shaw, sir John; Greenock 

Shaw, W., home-rule, 1879. 

Sheares, the Messrs.; trials, 1798 

Shedden.v, Patrick; trials, 1860 

Sheepshanks, R.; astronomy, stand- 
ard, 1855; Sheepshanks’ donations, 
1857-8 

Sheil, R. L.; mint, 1846 

Shelburne, earl of ; Shelburne ad- 
ministration, 1782; duel, 1780 

Sheldon, abp. ; Canterbury, 1663 

Sheldon, William ; tapestry 

Shelley, Percy B., poet, 1792-1822 

Shepherd v. Bennett; trials, 1870 

Sheppard, Jack; execution, 1724 

Shepstone, sir T. ; Transvaal, 1876-7 

Shere Ali, Afghanistan, 1863, 1879; 
Candahar 

Shere Ali, kills ld. Mayo, 1872; An- 
daman, India 

Sheridan, gen. ; United States, 1883 

Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 
1816; Grenville 
comedy, theatres 

Sheridan, Dr. ; trials, 18rz 

Sherman, gen. ; United States, 1861 

Sherward, Wm. ; Norwich, 1869 

Shield, Mr. ; oil on waters 

Shillibeer, G., 1807-66; omnibuses, 
1829 

Shipley ; arts, soc. of, 1754 

Shirley, bishop; Man, 1846 

Short, bishop; Man, St. Asaph, 
1841 

Shovel, sir Cloudesley ; Sicily, 1707 

Shrapnel, bombs 

Shrewsbury peerage cases; 
1858, 1859 

Shrewsbury, duke of; administra- 
tions, 1714 

Shrewsbury, earl of; Patay, 1429; 
Castillon, 1453 

Sibour, abp. ; France, 1857 

Sicard, abbé ; deaf and dumb, 1742 

Siddons, Sarah, actress; retired, 1819 

Sidmouth, Henry Addington, vis- 
count, d. 1844; Addington adin., 
1800; green bag, speaker 

Sidney, sir P., 1554-86; Algernon, 
1617-83; Rye house plot 

Sieniens, sir C. Win., 1822-83 ; heat, 
pyrometer, 1871; Albert medal, 
1874; attraction, bathometer, elec- 
tric telegraph, heat, light, light- 
houses, 1878 

Siemens, F. ; glass, 1885 

Siemens, Werner, electricity, electric 
railway, 1881 


administration, 


trials, 


Siéyés, abbé; directory, France, 1799 | 


Sigismond ;, Germany, Bohemia, 
Hungary, Nicopolis, Poland, Prussia 

Silius, Italicus, poet, about 25-99 

Sillim, Mr. ; trials, 1863 

Simeon the Stylite ; abstinence 

Simmonds; flying, 1875; balloons, 
1883 

Simmons ; trials, 1808 

Simmons, sir J. L. ; Malta, 1884 


bellion, 1486 ; Stoke 


175i- | 
Smith, Mr. Beaumont; exchequer 


conspiracies, re- | 


| 
| 


Simon Magus ; Simonians, 41 

Simon, J. ; France, 1876-7 ; 

Simonides ; letters, mnemonics, 477 
B.C. 

Simplicius, St. ; collar of SS., 1407 

Simpson, Dr. ; chloroform, 1848 

Simpson, traveller ; suicide, 1840 

Sims, G. R. ; London, 1883 

Sindercomb ; conspiracy, 1756 

Singh, Runjoor ; Aliwal, 1846 

Sismondi, C., hist., 1773, 1842 

Sisyphus ; Corinth, 1326 B.c. 

Sixtus ; popes, 119 

Sixtus V., pope ; interdict, 1588 

Skene, J. H.; Hittites 

Skipwith, Mr. ; trials, 1872 

Skobeleff, gen., Russia, 1880, Senova 

Skrznecki, gen. ; Praga, Wawz, 1831 

Slade, Dr. ; spiritualism, 1876-7 

Slade, F., Slade 

Slidell, Mr. ; United States, 186x 

Sligo, marquis of; trials, 1812 

Sloane, sir Hans, 1660-1752 ; apothe. 
cary, Jesuits’ bark, British Mu 
seum, Chelsea 

Sloanes ; trials, 1851 

Smart, A. ; suicide, 1856 

Smart, sir G. T., mus., 1776-1867 

Smart; chimneys, 1805 

Smeaton, Mr.; Eddystone, canal, 
175 

Sinastcrn sir John ; Wigan, 1643 

Smethurst, T. ; trials, 1859 

Smee, trials, 1879 

Smirke, R.; 1780-1867; post-office 
182 

Siiiiriee: 8S. ; Bethlehem, British Mu. 
seuin, d. 1877 

Smith, Adam, 
economy, 1776 


1723-90; politica 


trials, 1841 

Smith, Benjamin Leigh ; north-west 
passage, 1871-82 

Smith, capt. ; duel, trials, 1830 


_ Smithy F. P. ; screw propeller, 1836 
| Smith, Geo. ; Assyria, 1866-75; Brit 


Museum, 1873; forks; Nineveh 
Hittites ; d. 1876 

Smith, sir J. E.; botanist, 1759-1828 
his widow, Pleasance, longevity 


18 
smith, prof. W. Robertson, fre: 
church of Scotland 
Smith, J.; bribery, trials, 1854 
Smith, Joseph ; savings’ bank 
Smith, Joseph ; Mormonites, 1823 
Smith, Madeleine ; trials, 1857 
Smith, Miss v. earl Ferrers ; ‘trials 


1846 . 
Smith, Dr. R. Angus; chemist, 1827: 
843 air, 1858 . 
Smith, Dr. Southwood, 1790-1861; 
sanitary legislation, 1832 
Smith, sir Sidney; Acre, 1799 
Smith, rev. Sydney, 1769-1845 
Smith, rev. 8. ; trials, 1858 , 
Smith, Sam. Sidney ; trials, 1843 
Smith, sir C. Eardley; evangelical 
alliance, 1845 , 
Smith, sir Harry; India, Aliwal, 
Kafiraria, 1850 ‘ 
Smith, Mr. Thomas ; customs 
Smith, Thomas ; lord mayor, 1809 
Smith, Wm. ; geology, d. 1840 
Smith, W. H. ; admiralty, 1877 
Smith v. earl Brownlow ; trials,18 


| Smith, and Markhain, captains; duel Y 


trials, 1830 
Smithson, J. ; 
tion, 1846 

Smollett, Tobias, novelist, 1721-71 
Smyth (will case); trials, 1855 
Smyth, W. H., astron., 1788-1865 
Snellius ; optics, 1624 
Snider, Jacob, d. 1866 ; fire-arms 
Snorri, Sturleson; Iceland, killed, 


1241 
f 


Smithsonian Institu 


snow, Dr. ; amylene, 1856 

‘Soames ; Cocoa-nut tree oil, 1829 

soane, sir J., architect, 1753-1837 

Sobieski, John; Poland, Cossacks, 
Hungary, Vienna 

sobolett, gen., Bulgaria, 1883 

sobrero, nitro-glycerine, 1847 


socinus, Lelius (d. 1562), and Faus- | 


tus (d. 1604); anti-trinitarians, 
arians, unitarians 

ocrates, 468-399 B.c. ; Athens, philo- 
sophy 

oleil, saccharimeter 

olomon ; Jerusalem, 1004 B.C. 

olon ; Athens, 594 B.c. ; laws, tax 

olovieff, A., Russia, 1879 

olyman ; Turkey, Belgrade, Vienna, 
1529 

olyman II.; Hungary Buda, Mo- 
hatz, 1526 

omers, lord ; administrations, 1690 ; 
corn 

omers, sir George ; Bermudas, 1609 
omerset the black declared free, 
1772; Slavery in England 

omerset, see Seymour; admiralty, 


1859 
gmerville, Mary, mathemat. ce. 
1780-1872 
onzogno, R. ; murdered, Rome, 1875 
ophia, princess ; Hanover, 1659 
ophia Dorothea, d. 1796; England 
(queens, Geo. I.) 
ophocles, 495-405 B.c.; tragedy, 
drama 
orel, Agnes ; jewellery, 1434 
ro, Zuan ; cipher, 1516 
stratus ; pharos, 280 B.c. 
oto, Ferdinand de ; Louisiana, 1541 
jult, marshal, 1769-1851 ; Albuera, 
Oporto, Orthés, Pyrenees, Tarbes, 
Toulouse, Villa Franca, Douro 
yuthey, Rob., 1774-1843; poet-lau- 
reate 
juthwell, W. ; piano, 1807 
yer, A. (cook), d. 1858 
valding, Mr. ; diving-bell, 1783 
arks, George ; trials, 1853 
eilman, sir John; paper-making, 
Dartford, 1590 
eke, capt., 1827-64; Africa, 1863-4; 
—B.; London, 1868 
encer, D.; Coventry, 1883 
vencer, earl; Grenville adi., 1806 ; 
Roxburghe club ; Gladstone adin., 
1868, 1880; Ireland, 1868-73, 1882 
encer, Mr. ; electrotype, 1837 
ener, Phil. J. ; theolog. 1635-1705 ; 
pietists 
enser, E., § 1553-98; allegory, 
faery queen, poet-laureate, verse 
ert, sir Thos. ; Trinity-house, 1 512 
ina, Alexander de ; spectacles, 
1285 
inass, J. ; trials, 1870 
inoza, B. de, 1632-77; atheism 
ohr, L., mus. comp., 1783-1859 
ollen, Jas. ; trials, 1857 
ottiswoode, Wm. 1825-83 ; optics, 
(871, British association, 1878, 
Royal institution, 186s, ite) a 
Royal society, 1878 
rengel, Dr. ; air-pump, note 
rigg, J. G.; Cape, 1878 
urgeon, C. H., b. 1834; baptists, 
surrey gardens, crystal palace, 
abernacle 
urzheim, J. G. ; craniology, 1800 
ickpole, capt. ; duel, 1814 
ickpoles, trials ; 1853 
el, mad. de, novelist, d. 1817 
fford, abp. ; Canterbury, 1443 
fford, lord ; popish plot, 1680 
fford, marquis of, d. 1803 ; Blooms- 
yur 


hl, G. E.; chemist, 1660-1723 ; | 


hlogiston 


INDEX. 


| Staines, sir William ; 


lord mayor, 


1800 

Stair, earl of; Glencoe, 1692; Det- 
tingen, 1743 

Staite ; electric light, 1848 

Stalker, gen. ; Bushire, suicide, 1857 

Stanberry, John ; Eton, 1448 

Standen, T. ; pedestrianism, 18rx 

Stanhope, earl; Halifax adm., 1714 

Stanhope, Charles, earl, 1753-1816 ; 
printing-press; Philip Henry, earl 
(formerly lord Mahon, historian), 
1805-75; antiquaries 

Stanhope, col. ; trials, 1816 

Stanhope, hon. col. ; suicide, 1825 

Stanhope, lieut.-gen. ; Minorca, 1708 

Stanislaus ; Poland, 1704 

Stanley, dean A. P., 1815-81; Sun- 
day, 1877 

Stanley, colonel F. A. ; Disraeli, 2nd 
adm., 1878 

Stanley, bishop, Norwich, 1837 

Stanley, M.; Africa, 1872-82 ; Congo 


| Stanley, sir John; Man, 1406 


Stanley, sir W. ; chamberlain ; Bos- 
worth, 1485 
Stanley, lord; see Derby 


| Stanley, lord, of Alderley, b. 1802; 


Aberdeen, Palmerston adm. 

Stanley, Edw., lord, b. 1826; Derby, 
1866; Disraeli adm. 
Derby 

Stanton, Mr. ; velocipede, 1874 

Stapleton, J. ; trials, 1858 

Stapleton, Walter, bp. ; Exeter, x 319 

Stark ; electric telegraph, 1858 

Statius, Lat. poet, fl. 79 

Staunton, L. & P., ete. ; trials, 1877 

Staunton, Mr. ; China, 1840 

Stearns ; electric telegraph 

Steele, sir R., 1671-1729; Tatler, 

_ Spectator, clubs, Kit-Cat club 

Steele, Mr. ; murdered, trials, 1807 

Steel, sir J. ; Scotland, 1876 

Steenchel, Magnus ; Sweden, 1314 

Stein, Germany, 1819 

Steinmetz ; chess, 1873, 1883 

Stenhouse, J. ; dyes, charcoal, 1853 

Stephen ; popes, England, Hungary, 
997; Poland 

Stephen, Leslie ; biography 

Stephens, G.; Runes 

Stephens, Miss ; theatres, Covent- 
garden, 1813-1882 

Stephens, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1839 

Stephens, Robert ; Bible, 1551 

Stephenson, George, 1781-1848 rail- 
ways, Chatmoss ; steam, 1814; New- 
castle, 1881 

Stephenson, Robert, 1803-59 ; tubular 
bridges 

Stepniak ; Russia, 1884 

Sterne, Laurence, humorist, 1713-68 

Sternhold, T. ; Psalms, 1555 

Stesichorus ; choruses, 556 B.C. 

Stevens, A. ; Wellington (monument), 
x858 

Stevenson, Messrs.; Granton 

Stewart, col. ; Trincomalee, 1795 

Stewart, gen. ; Madras, 1783 

Stewart, sir D., Afghanistan, 1880 

Stewart, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 

Stewart, col.; Soudan, 1882 


Stewart, geu. H.; Soudan, 1884-5 
Stewart, Dugald, phil., 1753-1828 


Stewart, Duncan ; Cesarean 
Stewarts ; trials, 1829 

Stifelius ; algebra, 1544 
Stigand, abp.; Canterbury, ros2 
Stillingfleet, B.; blue-stocking 
Stirling, W. ; Glasgow, 1791 
Stirling, capt. ‘‘ Atalanta” 
Stock, Thos. ; Sunday-schools 
Stockdale; trials, 1826 
Stoddart, Dr.; Times, 1812 
Steecklin ; Boulogne, 1878 
Stokes, KE. 8.; New York, 1872 
Stokes, G. G., sunshine recorder 


1868, see: 


971 


Stone, D. H. ; mayor, lord, 1874 

Stopford, adin. ; Acre, Sidou, 1840 

Storace, madame, d. 1814 

Storck; anabaptists, 1524; levellers 

Storks, sir H.; Ionian Isles, 1859 ; 
army, 1868 

Stormont, vise.; Portland adm., 1783 

Strabo, geog., writes, 14 

Strachan, admiral sir Richard; Havre, 
Walcheren, 1809 

Straduarius ; viol., 1700-22 

Strafford, lord, adininistrations, 1640; 
beheaded, 1641 

Stratford, earl; admiralty, 1712 

Strahan, sir G. C.; Gold Coast, 1874, 
Windward isles, 1876; Grenada, 
1877; Van Dieman’s land, 1881 

Strangford, lord; bribery, 1784 

Stratford, abp.; Canterbury, 1 255 

Stratford de Redcliffe, lord, dip lo- 
matist, 1788-1880 

Strauch, capt.; Congo 

Street, Geo. E. 1824-813 architect, law 
courts 

Strelnikoff, gen., assassinated ; Rus- 
sia, 1882 

Strevens, Mr.; trials, 1857 

Strickland, Hugh; nat. hist., 1811- 


53 
| Stroh, A.; acoustics 


Stromeyer; club-foot, 1831 

Strongbow ; Ireland, 1176 

Strousberg, Dr. H. B. ; Russia, 1875- 
6; d. 1884 

Struensee, count; Zell, 1772 

Strutt, Edw.; Aberdeen adin., 1852 

Struve, F., astron., 1793-1864 

Strzelecki, count; Australia, 1838 5 
d. 1873 

Stuart, Alexander; marquis 

Stuart, conf. gen.; United States, 
1862 

Stuart, gen.; Cuddalore, 1783 

Stuart, sir John; Maida, 1866 

Stukeley, Dr.; earthquakes 

Stum, F.; trials, 1882 

Sturmius; magnet 

Sturt, capt.; South Australia, 1830 

Succoth (St. Patrick) preaches, 433 

Suchet, marshal; Valencia, 1812 

Sudbury, abp.; Canterbury, 1375 

Sudeikin, lieut., murdered ; Russia, 
1883 

Sue, Kug., Fr. novelist, 1804-57 

Suetonius, C. T., Lat. hist., 118 

Suetonius Paulinus; Menai, 61 

Suffolk, Thomas, earl of; adminis- 
trations; 1540 

Suffrein, Thos.; Trincomalee, 1782 

Sugden, sir Edward (aft. lord St. 
Leonards); chancellor, lord, 1852 

Sugden ; trials, 1875 

Suisse, Nicholas; trials, 1842 

Suleiman Pasha, Russo-Turkish war 
Il., 1877-8 ; Turkey, 1877 

Suleiman, Senova, Turkey, 1878 

Sullivan, sir A.; mus. com., b. 1842 

Sullivan, sir E.; chancellor (Ireland), 
1883 

Sullivan, Mr.; Lima, 1857 

Sully, J., pessimism 

Sulpicius, Servius; civil law, codes, 
53 B.C. 

Sumner, archbp., J. B., 1780-1862 ; 
Chester, 1828; Canterbury, 1848 
Sumner, bishop, C. R., 1790-18774 5 
Llandaff, 1826 ; Winchester, 1827 

Sumner, C.; United States, 1856 

Sunderland, earl of; administrations, 
1684 ; libraries 

Surajah Dowlah; Black-hole, India, 
Plassey, 1757 

Surr, Mrs.; Paul’s school 

Surrey, earl of; Flodden, 1513; Ro- 
man catholics, 1829 

Susarion and Dolon; 
B.C. 

Suso, H.; mystic, 1300-65 


comedy, 562 


972 


Sussex, Aug. Fred., duke of, 1773- 
1843; marriage, 1793; Royal So- 
ciety 

Suter, Mr., Turkey, 1881 

Sutter, capt.; California, 1847 

Sutton; air-pipe, 1756 

Sutton, abp.; Canterbury, 1805 

Sutton, C. M.; speaker, 1817 

Sutton, Thos.; charter-house, 1611 

Suwarrow, marshal, 1730-1800; Ales- 
sandria, Ismaél, Novi, Parma, Po- 
land, Praga, Warsaw, Trebia, 1799 

Swan, Mr., M.P.; bribery, 1819 

Swan, J. W., electric light, 1880 ; 
Savoy 

Swete, H.; cottage hospitals 

Sweyn; Denmark, 985; England 

Swift, Dean J., 1667-1745; Drapier, 
Scriblerus, Mars 

Swindlehurst, C. ; trials, 1877 

Swynfen ; trials, 1858 

Sydenham, Floyer, d. 1788; literary 
fund 

Sydenham, lord; Melbourne adminis- 
tration, 1834 

Sydenham, Thos., physic, 1624-89 

Sydney, Henry, viscount; Ireland, 
lord-lieutenant, 1690 

Sydney, see Sidney 

Sykes and Rumbold, Messrs. ; 
bery, 1776 

Sylla; Rome, Athens, 86 B.c. 

Sylvester, prof. J. J. ; motion 

Symington ; steam-engine, 1789 

Symonds, rev. Symon; Bray, 1533-58 

Symons, G. J.; rainfall 

Synge, Mr. and Mrs., Turkey, 1880 


bri- 


iv 


Tainter, 8., photophone 

Tacitus, M. C., Latin hist., about 
62-117; Rome, emp., 275 

Tait, bp.; London, 1856; abp. Can- 
terbury, 1868 

Talbot, Miss Augusta; trials, 1851 

Talbot, H. F.; photography, calo- 
type, &., 1840 

Talfourd, sir T. N., poet, judge; 1795- 
1854 

Tallard, marshal; Blenheim, 1704 

Talley, Wm. ; trials, 1875 

Talleyrand, 1754-1838; Benevento - 

Tallis, Thos., musician, d. 1585 

Talma, Fr. actor, d. 1826 

Tamerlane, d. 1405; India, Damascus, 
Tamerlane 

Tanered, sir T.; Forth bridge; Asia 
Minor 

Tandemus; Adamite 

Tankerville, Ford, earl of ; adminis- 
trations, 1699 

Tanner, Dr., abstinence 

Tantia Topee ; India, 1857 

Tarquin; Rome, kings ; 
books 

Tarquinius Priscus ; 
cloaca, 588 B.C. 


Sibylline 


Rome, kings, 


Tasman, Abel ;  circumnavigator, 
Australia, 1642; New Zealand, 


Van Diemen’s Land 

Tasso, Torquato; It. poet, 1544-95; 
Jerusalem Delivered 

Tate, Nahum, d. 1715 ; poet-laureate 

Tatian, about. 170; aquarians, encra- 
tites 

- Tattersall, R. 

Tauler, J. ; mystic, 1290-1361 

Tavernier ; ” pearls, 1633 

Tawell, J ohn ; trials, 1845 

Taylor, es - trials, 1882 

Taylor, I.; alphabet 

Taylor, Mrs.; bells, 1882 

Taylor, bp. Jeremy, 1613-67 

Taylor, gen. Zachary ; vaestcente 
United States, 1849 


; races, 1766 


“a 


; 
d 


INDEX. 


Taylor, Messrs. ; oil-gas 

Taylor, Dr. Brook; acoustics, 1714 

Taylor, rev. Robert ; atheism, trials, 
1827, 1831 

Taylor, cal T. E. (after. 1d. Ardgillan) 
Disraeli adm. 1874 

Taylor, rev. W.; blind, bells, 1855-6 

Taylor, sir W. T.; Andrew’s, St., 
1883 

Tchernayeff; Turkey, 1876; Russia, 
1882 


Teba, countess; (empress) France, 


1853 

Telekt : Austria, 1860; Hungary, 
1861 

Telesphorus ; Lent, 130 


Telford, T. 1757-1834; chain-bridges, 
1819 


Tell, William ; Switzerland, 1307 


Tempel ; planets, 1861 
Temple, earl; Newcastle adm., 1757 
Temple, sir R.; ‘India, 1869-72; 


Bengal, 1874 

Teniers, D. (two), 1582-1694 

Tenison, abp. ; Canterbury, 1694 

Tennant, Mr. ; bleaching, 1798 

Tennent, sir J. Hi. ; 1864-69 ; Ceylon 

Tenniel, John, 0. 1820; Punch 

Tennyson, Alfred, b. 1809 ; poet-lau- 
reate 

Tenterden, lord; king’s bench, 1818 

Terence, 195-159 B.C. ; drama 

Terentius Varro ; Cann, 216 B.C. 

Terry v. Brighton aquarium comp., 
trials, 1875 

Terry, Mr.: boat (tricycle) 

Tertullian Writes 197; cross, Monta- 
nists 

Teucer; Troy, 1502 B.C. 

Tewfik, Egypt, 1879. 

Texier, F. ; drowning 

Teynham, lord; trials, 1833 

Thackeray, W. M., novelist, 1811-63 

Thakombau, Fiji, 1859-74 

Thales, Miletus; globe, 640 B.C. 
Ionic sect, moon, water, world 

Thalestris ; queens 

Thanet, earl of ; riots, 1799 

Theela ; Alexandrine codex 

Themistocles; Marathon, 
80 B.C. 

Theobald ; civil law, 1138 

Theocritus ; verse, 265 B.C. 

Theodore; Corsica, 1736; 
keys, lathe 

Theodore, emperor, 1818-68; 
sinia, 1855-68; Magdala 

Theodoric ; Spain, Goths, 553 

Theodosius; Eastern emp., 
Aquileia, Ostrogoths, 
paganism 

Theodosius, the younger ; academies, 
Bologna 

Theophilus ; Antioch, chronology 

Theophrastus, nat. ph., 370-287 B.C. 

Theopompus; Ephori, funeral ora- 
tions, Sparta, 353 B.C. 

Theseus; Athens, 1235 B.C. 

Thesiger, sir F.; solicitor-general, 
1844; attorney-general, chanc., 
lord high, 1858; trials, 1850; d. 
1878 

Thesiger, gen. ; Kaffraria, 1878 

Thespis ; drama, 536 B.C. 

Thevenot, M. ; coffee, 1662 

Thiebau, Burmah, 1879 

Thierry ; Holland, 936 

Thiers, A., 1798-1877; France, 1836, 
1871-8 ; Bordeaux 

Thirleby ; Westminster, 1541 

Thirlwall, bp., Connop, 1797-1865 ; 
St. David’s, 1840-74 

Thomas, Cl. ; France, 1871, 1876 

Thomas, col. ; duel, 1783 

Thomas & Gilchrist, steel 

Thomas, Mrs., Richmond 

Thomé de Gamniond, tunnels, 1867 

Thompson, capt. ; deep sea, 1874 


Salamis, 


Samos, 


Abys- 


379 > 
massacre, 


| 


| Timoleon ; 


t 


Thompson, E. ; life-raft, 1874 

Thompson, Eliz.; scientific assoc. 

Thompson, sir H.; burning dea 
1873 

Thompson, Miss; trials, 1821 

Thompson, major; suicide, 1832 

Thompson, William; lord mayt 


1828 
Thoms, W.J.; folk lore, longevit 
notes and queries, wills 
Thomson or Thomas ; dynamite, 18 
Thomson, sir C, Wyville, 1830-8 
* deep sea, 1868-76 
Thomson, Mr. Poulett; Melbour 
administration, 1835 ; calico 
Thomson, R., road steamers, 1868 
Thomson, Jas. (the ‘‘Seasons’ 
1700-48 ; Richmond, Rule Britani 
Thomson, J. B.; bleaching 
Thomson, sir William; electricit 
tides 
Thomson, Joseph, Africa, 1880-2 
Thornton, Abraham ; appeal, 1817 
Thornton, sir E.; Turkey, 1884 
Thorpe, William de; bribery, 1351 
Thorpe, John T. ; lord mayor, 182¢ 
Thorwaldsen, Alb., sculp., 1777-18 
Thoth ; mythology, 152 B.C. 
Thouvenel, HE. A., Fr. statesmé 
1818-66 
Thrasybulus ; Athens, 403 B. C. 
Thrupp, G. ; carriages, 1877 
Thucydides, Gr. hist., 470-404 B.C. 
Thurlow, lord ; chancellor, lord his 
1778: great seal 
Thurtell, J. ; executions, 1824 . 
Thwaites, sir John, 1815-70; metr¢ 
board of works‘ 
Thyra, Dannawerke 
Tiberius, g03 B.C. ; 
emp. 14 
Tiberius Gracchus; 
132 B.C. 
Tibullus, Lat. poet, 50-18 B.c. 
Tichborne, trials, 1871-3 
Ticknor, G., amer. hist. 1791-1861 
Tieck, L., Ger. poet, 1773-1853 
Tierney, George; duel, 1798; 
rich 
Tighe, Mr. ; trials, 1800 
Tigranes ; Armenia, 93 b.c.; Pont 
Tilden, Mr. ; United States, 1876 
Tildesley, sir Thomas; Wigan, 165 
Tilghman, B. C. sand-blast, 1871 
Tilloch, Mr. ; ; Stereotype 
Tillotson, abp. ; ; Canterbury, 16¢ 
universalists 
Tilly; Magdeburg, 1631; Palatina 
‘Lech 
Times newspaper ; Times, trials, 1; 
Syracuse, 343 B.c. 
Timour; see Tamerlane 
Tindal and Coverdale ; Bible, r52¢ 
Tippoo Sahib; Arikera, Madr 
Seringapatam, Mysore, 1792 
Tissandier and others ; balloons, 18 
1883 
Tisza ; Hungary, 1875-8 
Titian, painter, 1477-1576 
Titus, Rome, emp. 7g; Jerusale 
Tyre, arches 
Todd v. Lyne ; trials, 1873 
Todhunter, I. ; math.-. 1820-84 3 Pp 
bability 
Todleben, gen., 1818-84; Sebastop 
Plevna, 1877: Russo-Turkish 
II, ete., 1877-8 
Tofts, Mary ; impostor, 1726 
Toler, Mr. ; m., trials, 1853 
Tolly, Barclay de: Smolensiaan 181 
Tolmidas ; Coronea, 447 B.C 
Tomline, bp. ; Lincoln, Winchest 
1820 
Tolstoi, count ; Russia, 1882: 
Tom Thumb; dwarfs, 1846 
Tompion, Thos. ; clocks, 1695 “ 
Tone, Theobald W. ; trials, 1798. 


Capri, Ron 


agrarian la 


Go 


| Tonson, Jacob, bookseller, d. a 


| 
it 
wf 


A ee 


mti, Laurence; Tontines 

Joke, J. Horne, 1736-1812; ‘‘ diver- 
sions of Purley,” 1786 

Joke, W. ; prices 

oth, rev. A, ; public worship, 1876 
pete, adm., Spain, 1868-73 
ro, M. M., Colombia, 1872 
rpey, trials, 1870 

rence, Mrs. ; trials, 1821 
rrens, lieut. ; duel, 1806 
res; Australasia, 1606 
mricelli; d. 1647; air, 
scopes 

rrington, Herbert, lord; Walpole 
admin., 1727 

selli, diving, 187x 

tila ; Italy, 54x 

urgéeniff, T. §., 1818-83 ; Rus. nov. 
nihilists 
ussaint, 1794; Hayti, St. Do- 
mingo 

wer, Mr. ; volunteer, 1803, 1860 
wnley, G. V.; trials, 1863 
wushend, lord; duel, 1773; Ire- 
land 4 
wnshends ; Rockingham, Chat- 
ham, and Grafton admins., 1765-7 
ain, G. F.; street railways, 1860; 
[reland, 1868 

ajan; Rome, emp., 98; Trajan’s 
pillar, Dacia 

augott, R.; Poland, 1864 

avers, Samuel; poor knights of 
Windsor 

sby, George ; Walpole, 1721 
esylian; king’s bench 

svelyan, sir C. ; Madras, 1859-60 
svelyan, G. O. } household suffrage 
Hadstone adm., 1880; Ireland, 
1882 

avelyan, W. C. ; phonography 
svethick ; steam engine, 1802 

vor, sir John ; speaker, 1694 

be, A. ; copper-zine couple, 1872 
as ; Troy, 1374 B.C. 

chu, gen., France, 1870-1, defence 
lope, A.; nov., &¢., 1815-82 
lope, Messrs.; tapestry 

span, France, 1869 

ubridge, sir T. ; wrecks, 1807 

le Sun, prop. of ; trials, 1834 
unan, Hanbury, & Co.; porter, 


micro- 


815 

mbull, Jonathan 

iro, lord ; chancellor, lord, 1850 
ng, marquis, China, 1879-80 
cker, E. ; vine disease, 1845 
ckett, capt. Harvey ; duel, 1840 
fnell, E. C., training schools 

ite, murderer ; trials, 1813 

ke, W. ; lunatics, 1792 

Hl, William ; posting 

loch, col. ; Sebastopol, 1855 

lus Hostilius ; Alba, saturnalia 
nstall, bp. ; administrations, 1529 ; 
rithmetic, privy seal 

renne, marshal, 1611-75 

mer, Joseph Mallord William, 
775-1851 ’ 

mnerelli, T., people’s tribute 
mbull, Dahomey, 1876 

nbull, W. B. ; trials, 1861 

ner, J. W. ; painter, 1775-1851 
ner, Miss ; trials, 1827 ° - 

ner, Richard ; teetotaller, 1831 
ner, rev. Sydney; 1814-79; refor- 
1atory schools, 1849 

ner; trials, 1817 

‘pin, or Tilpin, bp. ; writes, 818 
‘ton, bishop ; Ely, 1845 

ser: agriculture, 1562 

yeross v. Grant ; trials, 1876 

e, John ; taffety, 1598 

ho Brahe, 1546-1601 ; astronomy, 
latonic year, globe 

er, John; United States presi- 
ent, 1841 

er, Wat ; killed, 138r 


INDEX. 


Tyndale, Wm. ; martyred, 1536 

Tyndall, J. ; Roy. Inst., 1853; mag- 
netism, Mont Blanc, 1857; calor- 
escence, sound, dust, Niagara, 
United States, 1872, spontaneous 
generation, germ theory 

Tyndarus ; Sparta, 1490 B.C. 

Tyrconnel, earl of ; Ireland, 1687 

Tyrone ; rebellion, 1590 

Tysias, or Stesichorus ; 


choruses, 
epithalamium, 536 B.c. 


U. 


Uchatius, gen. von ; cannon, 1875 
Udine ; stucco-work, 1530 

Ufzul ; Afghanistan, 1863 
Ugolinus, B. ; thesaurus 

Ulfilas, bp. ; Bible, about 373 
Ulloa, Antonio; platinum, 1741 
Ulpian (lawyer); slain, 228 
Ulysses ; Trojan war 

Union Bank ; trials, 1875 

Upton, colonel ; Sebastopol, 1830 
Urban ; popes, 223 

Urban IJ.; communion, crusades, 


1094 

Urban VIIL, pope, ‘‘ Eminence,” 
1630 

Urich, gen. ; Strasburg, 1870 

Ursula, St. ; Cologne, Ursulines, 


1537 
Uriarte, H.; Paraguay, 1877 
Usher, abp. ; articles, 1614 
Usher, H. T, Labuan, 1875 


We 


Valens ; eastern 
empire, 864 

Valentia, lord; duel, 1798; trials, 
1796 

Valentia cause ; trials, 1772 

Valentine, B. ; antimony, 1410 

Valentinian ; western empire, 364 

Valerian ; persecutions, 257 

Vallaret, Foulques de ; Malta, 1310 

Valli¢re, madame de la; midwifery, 
1663 

Valverde, gen. ; Hayti, 1858 

Van Artevelde ; Ghent, 1379-83 

Vanbrugh, sir J. ; 1670-1726, Claren- 
don printing office, opera 

Van Buren (president) ; United 
States, 1837 

Vance & Snee ; trials, 1876 

Vancouver ; north-west passage, 
Vancouver, 1790 

Van de Weyer, M. ; Belgium, 1874 

Van der Heyden ; fire engines, 1663 

Van der Heydt; Prussia, 1862, 1874 

Van der Weyde; photography, 1876 

Vandyck, painter, 1599-1641 

Vane, sir Henry ; administrations, 
1640 

Vanes ; trials, 1876 

Van Eyck ; painting, 1366 

Van Horn ; buccaneer, 1603 

Van Leyden ; engraving on wood, 1497 

Van Marum ; electricity, 1785 

Van Mildert, bishop; Llandaff, Dur- 
ham, 1826 

Van Praagh, W.; deaf and dumb, 


empire, western 


1871 

aia aecrt Nicholas ; Liverpool 
adm., 1812 

Van Tromp ; Holland, naval battles, 
Portland Isle, 1653 

Varley, C. F., 1828-83; electricity, 
telephone, 1870-7 

Varley, John ; water colour painter, 
1778-1842 


973 


Varley, Cornelius, ; 
1873 

Varole, M, ; optic nerves, 1538 

Varro; writes ‘‘de Re Rustica,” 37 
B.C. ; grammarians, illuminated 
books 

Varus, Alfrenus; civil law, 66 B.C. ; 
code, digest 

Vasali, or Basil; Russia, 1270 

Vasco da Gama; Cape, 1497; India 

Vattel, E. de, publicist, 1714-67 

Vauban, 8., 1633-1707 ; fortifications, 
Cherbourg 

Vaughan, sir Thos. ; Pomfret, 1483 

Vaughan, Mackay, &e. ; trial, 1816 


nat. phil., 1781- 


Vauquelin ; chromium, glucinum, 
1798 

Vaux, Jane, Mrs. ; Vauxhall, 1615 

Vega, G. de, 1503-36 ;—Lope de, 


1562-1635, poets 

Velasquez, painter, 1599-1660 ; Cuba, 
I5II 

Venables, Wm. ; lord mayor, 1825 

Venner, T. : anabaptists, 1661 

Venn, J., logic 

Vergara, gen.; New Grenada 

Vergennes, M. de; notables, 1788 

Vermandois, count de; iron mask 

Vermuyden, Cornelius; levels, 1621 

Vernet, C; J., 1714-89; A> C. H., 
1758-1836; J. E. Horace, 1789-1863; 
painters 

Vernon, adm.; grog, Portobello, 1739 

Vernon, abp.; York, 1808 

Verres; Sicily, 70 B.c. 

Verrocchio, Andrea; plaster, 1466 

Vesalius, 1514-64; anatomy, surgery, 
physic 

Vespasian; Rome, emp. 69; amphi- 
theatres, Coliseum, Rhodes 

Vespucius, Americus, 1498; America 

Veuillot ; France, 1883 

Victor Amadeus; Sardinia, 1630 

Victor Emmanuel, 1820-78 ; Sardinia, 
1849; Italy, 1860 

Victor, marshal; Talavera, 1809; Bar- 
rosa, Witepsk 

Victor; pope, 193 

Victoria, queen, b. 1819; England, 
Scotland, Ireland, India 

Victory, Espartero, duke of; Spain, 
1840-72 

Vidil, baron de; trials, 1861 

Vieta, Francis; algebra, 1 590 

Vigilius; pope, 537 

Villars, marshal; Malplaquet, 1709 

Villeneuve, adm. ; Trafalgar, 1805 

Villeroy, marshal; Brussels, 1695; 
Ramilies, 1706 

Villiers, sir George: administrations, 


1615 

Villiers, bp.; Durham, 1860 

Vincent de Paul, 1576-1660; sisters of 
charity 

Vincent, B., Royal Inst. library cata- 
logue, 1857; bible index, 1848 

Vincent, C. W., electric light, 1879 

Vincent, H.; chartists 

Vincent, Howard ; police, 1884 

Vincent, Z. W. ; Cecilian society 

Vinoy, gen.; France and Franco- 
Pruss. war, 1870-71 ; d. 1883 

Virchow ; development, man 

Virgil, Lat. poet. 70-19 B.C. 

Virginia; killed. 449 B.c. 

Vitalianus ; pope, 537 

Vitellius, Rome, emp., 69 

Vitruvius, abt. 27 8.c.; ink 

Vivier; trials, 1842 

Volta, Alex.; 1745-1826; electricity, 
Volta 

Voltaire, F. M. A. de; 1694-1778 

Von Fuchs, Dr., d. 1856; water-glass, 
stereochromy 

Von der Tann, gen.; Franco-Prussian 
war, 1870-1; Coulmiers, Orleans ; 

Von Goeben, gen. ; Saarbriick, Franco- 
Prussian war, 1870-1 


974 


Von Groof; flying, 1874 

Von Mohl ; protoplasm 

Von Moltke, gen.; Franco-Prussian 
war, Sedan, 1870 

Von Miihler, Prussia 1872 

Von Stein, Prussia, 1807 

Von Swab; blowpipe 

Von Vincke; Prussia, 1874 

Vortigern; Wales, 447 

Voss, poet, 1751-1826 

Voysey, C.; trials, 1870; Voysey 
establishment fund 

Vyse, Mrs. A.; trials, 1862 


W. 


Waddington; trials, 1820: France, 
1877-8-9 

Wade, Sir T., China, 1875 

Wager, C.; admiralty, 1733 

Waghorn, lieut., 1800-50; Waghorn 

Wagner, R., 1813-83 ; music (of the 
future) 

Wainwright, Whitechapel; trials, 


1875 

Wattiaen! Robert; lord mayor, 1823; 
obelisk, bank 

Wake, abp.; Canterbury, 1715 

Wakefield, Eliz.; savings banks, 1804 

Wakefield, Ed. Gibbon; marriages, 
South Australia, trials, 1827 

Wakley, T., Lancet, 1823 

Waldegrave, earl of; trials, 1841 

Waldegrave, bp.; Carlisle, 1860 

Waldemar; Denmark, 1157 

Walden, abp.; Canterbury, 1398 

Wales, George, prince of, v. Times ; 
trials, 1790; regency 

Wales, Albert Edward, prince of ; 
England ; p. 270; Wales 

Walker, A. ; Liverpool, 1877 

Walker, Mr.; Vauxhall, congelation, 
ice, 1782 

Walker, George; Londonderry, Boyne, 
168 

Walker, gen. ; filibusters, Nicaragua, 
1855, executed, 1860 

Wall, governor ; trials, 1802, Goree 

Wall, Mr. Baring ; trials, 1833 

Wall, Jas. ; copying-machine 

Wallace, A. R. ; development, 1870 

Wallace, sir W.; exec. 1305; Fal- 
kirk, Cambuskenneth, 1297 

Wallace, D. M.; Molokani 

Wallaces ; trials, 1841 

Wallenstein, Albert, general, 1583- 
1634; Mecklenburg 

Waller, G., velocipede 

Waller, sir W.; Abingdon, 1644 

Wallis, circumnavigator; Otaheite, 
Wallis, 1766 

Wallon ; France, 1875 

Walpole, Horace, 1717-97 ; letters 

Walpole, sir Robert, 1676-1745 ; Wal- 
pole, adm. ; sinking fund 

Walpole, Spencer-Horatio, b. 1806; 
Derby adm., 1852-66 

Walsh, Mrs. ; murdered, trials, 1832 

Walsh, Nicholas; printing, 1571 

Walsingham, lord; att.-gen., 1766; 
farmers’ union, 1874 

Walsingham, sir F. 
tions, 1587 © 

Walter. E. ; commissionaires, 1859 

Walter, J., 1739-1812; Times, 1785; 
printing, 1872 

Waltheof; beheading, 1076 

Walton, Brian, 1600-61 ; polyglot 

Walton, Izaac, 1593-1683 ; angling 

Walworth ; Blackheath, mace, 1381 

Warburton, Eliot (lost), Amazon, 
1852 

Ward, Mr. ; forgery, 1726 

Ward, E. M., R. A., d. 1879 

Ward, N. B.; aquarium, 
cases, 1829 


administra- 


Ward’s 


INDEX. 


Wardle, col. ; impeachment, Wardle . 


v. duke of York ; trials, 1809 
Wardley, James ; shakers 
Warenne, earl of ; Dunbar, 1296 
Warham, abp.; Canterbury, 1503; 
administrations, 1509 
Warington, R. ; aquarium, 1850 
Warner, Mrs., d. 1854; theatre 
Warner, Messrs. ; bells, 1856 
Warren, admiral sir John Borlase ; 
naval battles, 1798 
Warren, Sam., novelist, 1807.77 
Warrington gang; trials, 1806 
Warsop, Geo. ; aero-steam engine, 
186 
Warton, Thomas ; poet-laureate, 1785 
Warwick, earl of ; Barnet, St. Albans, 
Wakefield, 1460 


Warwick, John Dudley, earl of ; ad- | 


ministrations, 1551 
Washington, George, 1732-99 ; United 
States, York Town, Virginia 
Wason, Rigby ; trial, 1867 
Waterhouse, Mr.; Paul’s school, St. 
Waterland, Dr. ; Athanasian Creed, 


1723 

Seaton) M. ; infanticide, trials, 1870 

Waterton, Chas.; naturalist, 1782- 
1865 

Wathen, capt. ; trials, 1834 

Watson, adiniral ; India, 1756 

Watson, J. UC. ; planets, 1862 

Watson, rev. J. S.; trials, 18713 d. 
188 

Watson, bishop ; 
phlogiston 

Watson, Thos., M.D., 1792-1882 

Watson, sir Win. ; electricity, 1740 ; 
lightning conductor ; trials, 1817 

Watt and Downie ; trials, 1794 

Watt, Jas., 1736-1819; lunar society, 
steam engine 

Watteau, Ant., French painter, 1684- 
1721 

Watts, H., 1815-84 ; chemistry 

Watts, Isaac, 1674-1748 ; hymns 

Waits ; theatres, trials, 1850; suicide 

Watts, T. ; newspapers, 1766 

Weare, Mr. ; trials, 1824 

Weathershed, abp. ; 
1229 

Webb, capt. ; swimming, 1875 

Webbe, Sam., music., 1740-1817 

Weber, Carl von, 1786-1826 ; music 

Webster, C., Richmond murder 

Webster, Daniel, d. 1852; United 
States 

Webster, Dr. ; trials, 1842 

Webster, sir Godfrey ; trials, 1797 

Webster, Mr.; aluminium 

Webster, T. ; painter, b. 1800 

Wedgwood, Josiah, 1730-95 ; earthen- 
ware, Wedgwood (porcelain) 

Wedgwood, T. ; photography, 1802 

Weed, Therlow; United States, d. 
1882 

Weekes, H., R.A., 1807-77 

Weld, Mr. ; trappists 

Weldon, Mrs.; trials, 1884 

Weldon, Walter; alkalies, 1877 

Wellesley, sir A. ; see Wellington 

Wellesley, marquis ; India, 1798 

Wellesley, Mr. Long; duel, 1828 

Wellesley, Pole, v. Misses Long; 
trials, 1825 

Wellesley v. Paget; trials, 1809; v. 
Mornington, trials, 1868 

Wellington, duke of, 1769-1852; 
Wellington; commander-in-chief, 
duelling, 1824; duels, 1829 ; trials, 


Llandaff, 1782; 


Canterbury, 


1830 
Wells, W.; dew, 1814 
Wells, lord Lyon ; Ireland (lord lieut.), 


1438 
Weltmann, poisoning, 1850 . 
Wemyss, see Echo 
Wenham ; heat 
Wensleydale, lord; lords, note 


Werdermann, electric light, 1878 

Werner, A. G., 1750-1817; geclog 
1775 

Werner, capt. ; Spain, 1873 

Weskett, John; commerce, chambe: 
of, 1782 

Wesley, J., 1703-91 ; Wesleyans 

West, Benj., 1738-1820; Royal Acad 
my, 1792 

Westbury, lord chancellor ; Palmer 
ton adm., 1861.; d. 1873 \ 

Westerton v. Liddell; trials, 1855 

Westmacott, sir R., sculpt., 177 
1856; R. 1799-1872 


| Westmeath, lord ; trials, 1796 


Westmoreland, earl of ; Ireland (lor 
lieut.), 1790 

Weston, E>P.; pedestrianism, 1874 

Weston, Richard lord; administr 
tions, 1628 

Wetherell, sir Chas. ; attorney-gen 
1826; Bristol 

Wetherell, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1845 

Weyland, Thomas de ; bribery, 128! 

Weymouth; North-West passag 


1602 
. Weymouth, visct. ; Grafton adm. 17é 


Whalley will case ; trials, 1883-4 

Wharncliffe, ld. ; Peel adm., 1834 

Wharton, Thomas, marquis of 
Halifax adin., 1714 


Wharton, Miss; marriages, 1690 


Whately, abp. R., 1787-1863; logic 
politicai economy, &e. 
Wheatstone, sir C., 1802-75; ery) 
tography ; stereoscope, electricity 
1834; electric telegraph, and cloe} 
microphone, telephone , 
Wheeler, sir Hugh ; Cawnpore, 185; 
Whewell, Rev. W., philosopher, 179. 
1866 ; international law 
Whistler v. Ruskin, trials, 1878; ini 
pressionists 
Whiston, W., theol., d. 1752 
Whitaker ; almanack, 1874 : 
Whitbread, Samuel; suicide, 1815 __ 
White, H. K., poet, 1785-1806 
White, Thos., Sion College, 1623 
mayor, 1876 
Whitefield, G., 1714-70; Whitefield 
ites, Wesleyans, 1741 
Whitehead, W. d. 1785 ; poet laureat 
Whitelock, gen. ; Buenos Ayres, 18¢ 
Whitgift, abp. ; Canterbury, 1583 
Whitney, Eli; cotton, 1793 | 
Whittall ; coins, 1884 . 
Whittington; lord mayor, 1405 
Leadenhall 
Whittlesey, 
1268 
Whitworth, sir Joseph; canno 
plane, Shoeburyness, 1861; Whi 
worth 
Whitworth, earl; Ireland, 1813 
Whymper, E., Andes ; Matterhorn 
Whyte, maj.-gen. ; Demerai 
6 


archbp.; Canterbury 


179 
Wickens, sir J.; vice-chancello 
1871 
Wickham, William of, 1324-140 
education, Oxford, Winchester — 
Wickliffe (Wycliffe), John, 1324-87 
Wickliffites, Bible 
Wicklow peerage, trials, 1870 
Wieland, C.; Germ. miscel., 17 
1813 
Wigram, bp. ; Rochester, 1860 
Wilberforce, bp. ; Oxford, 1846 
Wilberforce, W., 1759-1833; 
trade ; —- 8. Winchester, bp. 
Wilberforce, bp. E. R., Neweas 
on-Tyne, 1882 © 
Wild, Jonathan; executed, 1725 _ 
Wilde, sir James, b. 1816; proba 
court, 1863; see Penzance 
Wilfride, bp.; Chichester, 673 
Wilkes, capt. ; circumnavigation, 
1838; United States, 186r 


, 


a 


INDEX. 


ilkes, John; North Briton, obe- 
lisk, warrants; duel, 1763; trials, 
1764 

ilkie, sir D., painter, 1785-1841 
ilkins, Dr.; Wadham, 1613 
ilkinson, Catherine; baths, 1832 
ilkinson, sir John Gardner, Egyp- 
tologist, 1797-1875 

ilkinson, bp. G. H.,; Truro, 1883 
ilkinson, Is.; air (compressing), 


1757 
iio I., England, 1066; Battle- 
abbey, conquest, Domesday, castles 
illiam II.; England, 1087 

illiam III.; England, 1689, revolu- 
tion. Boyne, Enghien, Je muain- 
tiendrai, New Forest 

illiam IV.; England, kings, 1830; 
admiral 

illiam I. ; emperor,Germany, 1870-8 ; 
assassinations 

illiam; Holland, Scotland 

illiams, prof.; Indian inst. 

illiams, Ann; trials, 1753 

illiams, David, d. 1816; literary 
fand 

iNiams, Mr.; Manchester, 1882 
illiams, John, dean ; adminis., 1621 
illiams; see Burking 

illiams, Roger; America, 1635 
uliams, gen. W. F.; Kars, 1855 
illiamson, sir Joseph; administra- 
tions, 1629 

iloughby, sir Hugh; north-east 
passage, 1553 

Uloughby de Eresby, lord; cham- 
berlain, lord great, 1626 

iloughby, lieut.; Delhi, 1857 

is, gen.; Preston, 1715 

‘mot, lieut. E.; Ashantees, 1373 
Jmot, M. A., trials, 1881 
Imington, earl of; Wilmington 


as iy 
Ison, capt.; Pelew Islands, 1783 
Ison, sir A.; Delhi 1857 
Ison, sir James Erasmus, 1809-84; 
Aberdeen ; obelisks (Cleopatra’s 
reedle), 1877-8 ; Egypt expl. fund 
Ison, rev. Carlyle ; church army 
Ison, G., colour blindness 
tson, H. H.; Sanskrit professor, 
1832 
fon, sir C.; Soudan, 1883 
Ison, sir Robert; Lavalette, 1815 
Ison, prof. John, 1785-1854 
lson, sir John M., Hampstead 
Ison, Mrs. C.; poisoning, trials, 
86 rl 


862 
Ison, capt. W.;. United States, 
‘862, 20te 

ison, Dr.; sun 

Iton, earl of; trials, 1859 

mshurst, James ; electricity, 1882 
‘nehelsea, abp.; Canterbury, 1293 

nehester, gen.; Frenchtown, 1813 
nehester, Henry ; mayor, lord, 


834 

‘aochester, W., marquis of; adminis- 
ations, 1554 

achilsea, earl of; duel, 1829 
achilsea, earl of ; Wilmington 
dm., 1742; Bath adm., 1746 
adebank, sir Francis; administra- 
‘ions, 1635 

idham, general; India, 1857 
adham, W. F.; trials, 1861-2 
idham, Wm.; Grenvilleadm., 1806 
adischgratz, prince; Vienna, 1848 
sor, Charlotte; trials, 1865 / 
stanley ; Eddystone, 1696 


islow, E. D. ; extradition, 1876 
slow, Dr. F.; trials, 1884 


TS ES 


. 


Winter, T. ; boxing 

Winwood, sir Ralph; administra- 
tions, 1612 

Winzengerode, gen. ; Kalisch, 1813 

Wisé, prof. ; balloons, 1873 

Wiseman, cardinal Nicholas, 1802-65; 
ecclesiastical titles, papal aggres- 
sion, Rome, Ireland, 1358 

Withers, Dr. ; libel, 1789 

Witherings, Thomas ; post-office, 1631 

Witherington, W., painter, 1786-1865 

Withing, Richard ; Glastonbury, 1539 

Witikind (Saxon chief), d. after 793 

Wittgenstein, gen.; Polotsk, Witepsk, 
1812 

Witts, De; massacred, 1672 

Wodehouse, lord; Ireland (lord- 
lieut.), 1864 

Wodehouse, sir P. ; Bombay, 1872 

Woden ; Wednesday 

Wohler, F. ; aluminium, 1827 

Wolcot, Dr., alias Peter Pindar: 
trials, 1807 

Wolf, F. A. ; Homer 

Wolfe, gen. ; Quebec, 1759 

Wolfius ; anemometer, 1709 

Wollaston, Wm.; 1766-1828; eryo- 
phorus, camera, blow. pipe, pal- 
ladium, rhodium, hypsometer 

Wolseley, sir Charles ; trials, 1820 

Wolseley, sir Garnet (aft. 1d.) b. 1833; 
Hudson’s Bay, 1870; Ashantee, 
1873 ; Amoaful, 1874 ; West Africa, 
1873 ; Cyprus, 1878; Natal; Zulu- 
land, 1879; Egypt, 1882; Tel-el- 
Kebir, 1882 ; Soudan, 1884 

Wolsey, cardinal, 1471-1530 ; adms., 
1514; Hampton, Whitehall, York 

Wombwell ; zoology 

Wood, sir Charles (aft. lord Halifax) ; 
Russell adm., 1846; Palmerston 
adm., 1855 

Wood, col. sir Evelyn, Zululand, 1879; 
Egypt, 1882 

Wood, Matthew ; mayors of London, 
1815 

Wood, sir W. P., justice, chancellor, 
1868 

Wood ; Palmyra, 1751-53 

Woodford, bp. J. R. ; Ely, 1873 

Woodfall, Mr. ; trials, 1786 

Woodmason ; ruling machines 

Wooler, Mr. ; trials, 1817, 1855 

Woolley, Mr. ; trials, 1863 

Worcester, marquis of; steam, tele- 
graph, 1663 

Worcester, Edward, earl of; adms., 
1621 


laureate 

Wortley, col. H. Stuart; mansion- 
house fund, 1871 

Wotton, sir Edward ; sugar, 1546 

Wouvermanns, painters, 1620-83 

Wray, sir C. ; King’s Bench, 1573 

Wrede, gen. ; Hanau, 1813 

Wren, sir Christopher, architect, 
1632-1723; Chelsea, engraving, 
Greenwich, monument, St. Paul’s, 
Walbrook 

Wren, Matthew ; Royal Society 

Wrench, Mr. ; theatres, 1809 

Wright ; Mercator’s charts, 1556 

Wright, sir Rob. ; King’s Bench, 1687 

Wright and Doyle ; trials, 1851 

Wriothesley, lord; administrations, 
Bs 

Wares gen. ; Castiglione, 1796 

Wurtz, prof. K. A.,1817-84; chemistry; 
Faraday medal, 1878 

Wyatt, sir Thos. ; rebellions, 1554 

Wybrow ; aquarium, 1876 


THE END. 


973 


Ximenes, card., 1437-1517: polyglot 


| Wyld, S. ; globe, 1851 
Wynkyn de Worde; angling, 1496 
| _ printing 
| Wynn, W.; Canning adm., 1827 
| Wyon, W., medallist, 1795-1851 
| Wyse, L. A. B. ; Panama 


x 


Xavier, Francis; 1506-52; Jesuits 

Xenophanes, d. 465B.c. ; Eleatic sect, 
Pantheism 

Xenophon ; anatomy, couriers, cym- 
bals, retreat of the Greeks, 401 B.c. 

Xerxes; Persia, 485 B.c.; Mycale, 
Salamis 


pc 
Yakoob, Afghanistan, 1867-79 Kash- 
gar 
Yale, Elisha ; auctions, 1700 
Yates, E., noy.; trials, 1884-5 
Yeh, commissioner ; China, 1857 
Yelverton, major ; trials, 1860 
Yonge, sir Geo. ; Shelburne adm.,178 3 
Yonge, miss C.; names 
York, bishop; Ely, 178 
York, cardinal ; Scotland, 1807 
York, Fred., duke of, 1763-1827 
York 
York, James, duke of; Solebay, 1672 
Yorke, Charles, chancellor, lord high, 


1770 
Yorke, sir Philip; att.-gen.; king’s 
bench, 1733 
Yorke, Mr. Redhead ; trial, 1795 
Youl, J. A., salmon ova 
Young ; impostors, 1692 
Young, Brigham, 1801-77; Mormon- 
ites 
Young, major ; Prescott, 1838 
Young, Charles ; theatre, 1807 
Young, Edw., poet, 1684-1765 


| Young, Thos., 1773-1829; Royal In- 


stitution, colour, spectrum 
Youngman, W. ; executions, 1860 


Z. 
Zabala ; Spain, 1874 


| Zacharias ; pope, 741 


Zaleucus ; sumptuary laws, 450 B.c. 
Zamoyski, count ; Poland, 1862 
Zankofi ; Bulgaria 


| Zasulitch, V.; Russia, 1878 
| Zazel; Aquarium 
Wordsworth, Wm. ; 1770-1850; poet- | 


teense 


Zechariah prophesies about 520 B.c. 

Zeno (stoic), fl. 299 B.C. ; eastern 
empire, 474 

Zenobia ; Palmyra, 263 

Zenon ; Armenia, 18 

Zephaniah prophesies abt. 630 B.c. 

Zephyrinus ; pope, 202 

Zeuxis, fl. 455-400 B.C. ; painting 

Zimmerman ; physiognomy, 1776 

Zinzendorf, 1700-60 ; Moravians 

Ziska; Bohemia, 1417 

Zoh ; eastern empire, 1034 

Zola, E., naturalism 

Zollicofier, gen. ; U. States, 186: 

Zorilla, R.; Spain, 1872-3 

Zoroaster (supposed author of “‘ Zen- 
davesta”’); about 555 B.c., fire- 
worshippers 

Zosimus ; alchemy, 410 

Zukkertort, J. 8., chess 

Zumalacarregui (Carlist) ; killed near 
Bilbao, 1835 

Zumpie, M. ; pianoforte, 1766 

Zurbano, gen. ; Spain, 1844 


= ‘ 
> ’ v 


ae ‘ LONDON 
| BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO., PRINTERS, | 
: ae : av ee 


‘ omer 


‘ ee 


NOTE TO AMERICAN EDITION. 


This edition comprises the whole of the 13th English edition of Haydn’s 
valuable compilation, edited by Mr. B. Vincent of the British Museum, and 
imported in its original shape, with the addition of a Supplement relating 
chiefly to American affairs, and giving dates of recent events in Europe and 
the Hast. To this is added a Biographical Index, which will probably be 
found sufficiently copious and convenient for ordinary reference. 

Mr. Vincent’s edition of Haydn is wonderful for its comprehensiveness and 
accuracy, even on American topics; and this is a gratifying surprise to those 
who have had occasion to refer to other English works which have attempted 
to give American statistics. Bat the paragraphs which have been added in 
the American Supplement will be found in some cases to be essential to the 
usefulness of the volume as a book of reference in this country Absolute 
completeness in such a work is, of course, unattainable. The difficulty of 
obtaining accurately the details and dates of recent occurrences can only be 
appreciated by actual trial. But the reader will find in these pages all that 
can be reasonably expected in a single volume so compact and portable as this. 

LE ail a 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 
July, 1867, to July, 1877. 


BEING AN ALPHABETICAL RECORD OF IMPORTANT FACTS AND OCCURRENCES DURING THOSE 


YEARS; INCLUDING ALSO TOPICS OMITTED IN FORMER EDITIONS, 
——$—$ = 


ABATTOIR. December 28, 1871, was opened at Deptford, a market and 
slaughter-house, where all foreign cattle for London consumption must 
be landed and slaughtered. Cost, more than £194,000. 


ABYSSINIA. Theodore, the native King of Abyssinia, having imprisoned 
several English subjects, an expedition under Sir Robert Napier invaded 
the country, and on April 13, 1868, stormed Magdala, the king’s strong- 
hold, on which he killed himself. Cost of the war to England, £8,300,000. 
Napier was created Baron Napier of Magdala, with a pension of £2,000 
ayear. King John, or Johanni, a successor of Theodore, has, since his 
death, maintained a defensive war against the Khedive of Egypt, whose 
troops entered Abyssinia, but were surprised and defeated with much 
slaughter, in 1874 or 1875. In 1876, however, John was totally defeated, 
and treated for peace ; was again defeated after breaking truce ; but the 
later results of the war have been indecisive. 


ACCAD. Accad or Akkad, and Sumer or Sumir, are the names given to 
two pre-historic countries, whose people, called Accadians and Sumerians, 
are supposed to have used two differing dialects, found in the cuneiform 
inscriptions of Assyria. No dates are ascertained about them, but the 
former were in the southeast of Babylonia, while the Sumer were in the 
northeast. 

ACCIDENTS. (See also Collisions, Harthquakes, Explosions, Fires, Floods, 
Railroad Accidents, Shipwrecks, Storms.) From 1864 to 1874 inclusive, 
about 11,000 deaths by accident took place in England and Wales, a large 
proportion of them from coal-mine casualties. January 15, 1867, the ice 
broke under the skaters on the lake in the Regent’s Park, London, letting 
several hundred persons into the water. Forty were drowned. July 31, 1868, 
a false alarm of fire was raised in Lang’s Victoria Music Hall, at Manches- 
ter, England, and in the panic rush to escape, between twenty and thirty 
were killed. July 27, 1869, Rev. J. M. Elliott, an Englishman, lost his 
foothold, and fell from near the summit of the Schreckhorn, in Switzer- 
land, a distance of 1,000 feet or more, and was killed. October 1, 1869, a 
firework dealer’s shop, in Bayswater, London, blew up, killing seven out 
of thirteen persons then asleep in the house. August 2, 1870, on Mont 
Blanc, an English lady, Mrs. Marke, and her guide fell into a crevasse, 
and were killed. August 11,1871, at Stowmarket, England, an explosion of 
gun-cotton stored there killed 24 and wounded 72 persons. December 30, 

1 


THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 


1871, at Glasgow, a road locomotive, known as Yuille’s Traction Engine, 
used to drag heavy machinery for shipping, exploded its boiler, killing five 
persons and wounding some 40 more, mostly children, who had gathered 


round it out of curiosity. 
ADMINISTRATIONS. ENGLAND. 


(See pp. 71, 208-210.) Disraeli resigns, 


and Gladstone becomes premier, December 2, 1868; Robert Lowe, John 
Bright, G. J. Goschen, W. EH. Forster, and others becoming members of 


the Government. 


This ministry carried the disestablishment of the : 


Trish Church, in 1869, and the ballot in 1872. Mr. Gladstone, having 
lost his majority at the election of February, 1874, resigned, February 14, 
aud Mr. Disraeli resumed the premiership, his cabinet consisting of the Har! 
of Derby, the Marquis of Salisbury, etc. 


ADMINISTRATIONS. 


Ulysses 8, Grant, 
Schuyler Colfax, 
Hamilton Fish, 
Geo. S. Boutwell, 


A. E. Borie, 

Geo. M. Robeson, 
Gen. Schofield, 
Gen. J. A. Rawlins, 
Gen. W. W. Belknap, 
James Harlan, 

Gen. J. D. Cox, 
Columbus Delano, 
J. A. J. Creswell, 
E. R. Hoar, 

A. T, Akerman, 

G@. H. Williams, 


Grant’s SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 


Ulysses S. Grant, 
Henry Wilson, 
Thos. W. Ferry, 


Hamilton Fish, 
Wm. A. Richardson, 
Benj. J. Bristow, 
Lot M. Morrill, 

Wm. W. Belknap, 
J.D. Cameron, 

Geo. M. Robeson, 
Columbus Delano, 
Zach, Chandler, 
Geo. H. Williams, 
Edwards Pierrepoint, 
Alphonso Taft, 
John A. J. Creswell, 
Marshall Jewell, 
James N. Tyner, 


Rutherford B. Hayes, 
Wm. A. Wheeler, 
Wm. M. Evarts, 
John Sherman, 


Geo. W. McCrary, 
Richard W. Thompscn, 
Carl Schurz, 

Charies Devens, 

David M, Key, 


UNITED STATES. 


Illinois, 

Indiana, 

New York, March, 

Massachusetts, March, 

Pennsylvania, March, 

New Jersey, June 25, 
March, 

Tilinois, March, 

Iowa, Sept., 

Iowa, March, 

Ohio, 

Ohio, June, 

Maryland, March, 

Massachusetts, 

Georgia, 

Oregon, 


(See pp. 70, 205.) 


GRANT’s First ADMINISTRATION. 


March 4, 1869 
March 4, 1869 


President, 
Vice-President. 
Secretary of State. 
Secretary of the 
Treasury. 


1869 
1869 


Secretaries of Navy. 


Secretaries of Inte- 


1870 rior. 

1869 Postmaster General. 
1869 

1871 > Attorneys-General. 
1871 


1869 
1869 Secretaries of War. 


Tilinois, March 4, 1873 President. | 
Massachusetts, March 4, 1873 Vice-President. 
Michigan, President of Senate 
pro tem. 
New York, March 4, 1869 Secretary of State. 
entices wud Secretaries of Treas — 
Vermont, Wee : 
Towa, c 
Pennsylvania, t Secretaries of War. 
New Jersey, Secretary of Navy. — 
Ohio, } Regrebaciog of Inte- 
Michigan, rior. 
Oregon, 
New York, Attorneys-General. 
Ohio, 
Maryland, 
Connecticut, Postmasters-General, | 
Indiana, 
Hayes’ ADMINISTRATION, 
Ohio, March 4, 1877 President. 
New York, March 4, 1877 Vice-President. 
New York, Secretary of State. 
Ohio, Secretary of Treas 4 
ury. ‘ 
Towa, Secretary of War, 
{ndiana, Secretary of Navy, — 
Missouri, Secretary of Interior, 
Massachusetts, Attorney-General. 
Tennessee, Postmaster-Gereral k 


1867-77, | 3 


AFGHANISTAN. (See p. 213.) Runjeet Singh, a Sikh by race, and King 
of Lahore, conquered most of Afghanistan about 1818; Dost Mohammed 
became ruler of it, 1829; took Herat May 26, 1863; succeeded by his son, 
Shere Ali, June 9, 1863; who has had much trouble and warfare with 
divers of his fifteen brothers and his other relatives, and has only been 
maintained by English aid. 


AFRICA. (See pp. 72,2138.) Zambesi River explored by Livingstone, 1851-6 
and 1858-64; his book published November, 1865. Stanley, sent by 
Bennett of the New York /erald, reported having met Livingstone at 
Ujiji, November 10, 1871, and having remained with him until March 14, 
1872. Livingstone died at Itala, in Central Africa, May 1, 1873; his 
remains were brought to England and buried in Westminster Abbey, 
April 18, 1874; his last journals published December, 1874. Lieut. 
Cameron crossed Africa from Zanzibar westward to the Portuguese settle- 
ments on the west coast, arriving November 21, 1875. Stanley’s second 
expedition for the New York Herald and London Telegraph, 1875-6. 


AGRICULTURE. (See pp. 78,214.) Farm products of the United States, 
exclusive of live stock, year ending June 1, 1870, $2,445,000,000, A 
Union” of English agricultural laborers to secure better wages and 
social amelioration generally, was established mainly by the efforts of 
Joseph Arch, himself formerly a laborer, at Leamington, Warwickshire, 
March 29, 1872, and has attained some influence, 


ALABAMA CLAIMS. The Alabama rebel armed steamer, Raphael Semmes 
commander, was built by Messrs. Laird, of Birkenhead, England, for the 
Rebel States of America, and launched May 15, 1862, and sailed July 28, 
1862, one day before the English government telegraphed to detain her. 
She was destroyed and sunk in a sea-fight off Cherbourg by the U. 8. 
steamer-of-war Kearsarge, Capt. Winslow, June 19, 1864, after having 
done immense damage to American commerce. During 1865 the United 
States and English governments discussed the question of English respon- 
sibility for this damage; a convention was agreed upon on the subject 
November 10, 1868, which came to nothing; another, signed by Lord 
Clarendon and Mr. Reverdy Johnson, January 14, 1869, was rejected by 
the United States Senate April 13, 1869 ; a joint convention on this and 
other matters signed a treaty at Washington, May 8, 1871, providing 
a mode of settlement by arbitration; Arbitration Commission met 
formally at Geneva, December 18, 1871, and the American and British 
cases were presented December 20. Indirect claims and the whole 
attitude of the English Government caused much excitement in England ; 
indirect claims mutually resigned by supplementary treaty, appr ved by 
Senate May 25, 1872. The arbitration tribunal, composed of Count 
Frederic Sclopis, for Italy, President; Baron Staempfli, for Switzer- 
land; Viscount d’Itajuba, for Brazil; Sir Alexander E. Cockburn, for 
England; Mr. C. F. Adams, for the United States, met at Geneva and 
opened business June 15, 1872. After presentation of cases and argu- 
ment, the final meeting was held September 14, 1872, and damages 
awarded to the United States, unanimously for injuries by the Alabama, 
by four arbitrators for those by the Mlortda, and by three for those by 
the Shenandoah. Total of award, $15,000,000. The total of the United 
States claims, after dropping the indirect claims, was about three times 
as much. The English arbitrator, Sir A. E. Cockburn, refused to sign 
the j1dgment, mainly on the ground that the Mlorida and Shenundoah 


4 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


claims were improperly allowed. Adlarge proportion of this sum remained 
after ali the awards of the Court of Claims established by the Unitee 
States to decide who should receive the money, which as yet (August, 
1877), remains in the U. 8S. Treasury. 

ALASKA. Bought from Russia by the United States by treaty of Marck 
13, 1867, for $7,200,000, which was paid August 1, 1868. Principal 
settlement, Sitka. The United States military occupation discontinued 
in 1877. 

ALSACE. Alsace (German, Elsass), was anciently part of Austrasia; joined 
to the German empire in tenth century ; part recovered by France, 1648 ; 
the rest, 1697; conquered and occupied by the Germans, 1870-1; ceded 
by France to Germany by treaty of May 10, 1871; the law completing 
the annexation passed June 9, 1871. The people allowed to choose their 
nationality, and those preferring France to emigrate with their property 
before September 30, 1872. Many did so. Part of Lorraine (which see) 
including Metz and Thionville, was ceded and annexed with Alsace. 


ANILINE. Discovered. by Unverdorben in 1826, in distilling indigo; ob- 
tained from benzole by Bechamp, 1856; ‘‘ mauve” applied in dyeing by 
W. A. Perkin, 1856; since used to produce red, blue, violet, and green 
colors. 

ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO. (See p. 76.) The establishment of societies for 
preventing cruelty to animals in England and Europe was followed by the 
organization of a similar one, chiefly by the efforts of Mr. Henry Bergh, in 
New York City, incorporated April 10, 1866, and of one in Boston, incor- 
porated March 23, 1868, which have been efficient. 

ARCH. The arch was long supposed a Roman invention; but very ancient 
arches have been found in bridges in China, and in ‘temples and other 
structures in Egypt and Assyria. The arching in the Cloaca Maxima at 
Rome is thought the oldest in Europe, and dates to about 588 B.c.; and 
those found in the ruins of Assyrian cities are considered the oldest in the 
world. 

ARCHASOLOGY. (See Curium; Mycene ; Olympia; Pre-historic Man ; 
Troy.) 

ARCHAOPTERYX. (‘‘Primeval bird.”) Fossil remains found at Sol- 
enhofen in Bavaria, in 1861, by H. Von Meyer and Dr. Hiberlein. It had 
some reptilian traits in its structure—teeth in its jaws, and a tail with 
feathers radiating fromit. It was described by Owen in 1863. 


ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. (See pp. 78, 229.) Captain C. F. Hall’s first 
voyage of discovery was 1860-62; he ascertained that Frobisher’s so- 
called strait is a bay, and gained experience of Eskimo life. His second 
voyage, in the Monticello, began June 30, 1864; results not remarkable. 
His third, in the Polaris, began July 3, 1871, and he took his ship to 82° 
16’ north latitude, the northernmost point so far. He died in the Arctic 
regions, November 8, 1871. Polaris wintered at northernmost: point so 
far, 81° 38'; set out to return under Budington, August 12, 1872; in a 
panic in the ice, October 15, Tyson and nineteen more were left on a floe, — 
and were rescued April 30, 1873, after a remarkable drift. The ship re- — 
mained with the other fourteen persons a second winter; they left in 
boats built from her materials, June 3, 1873, and were picked up by a 
whaler. The ‘first German expedition,” under Capt. Karl Koldewey, of 
eleven men only, in the Germania, to the east coast of Greenland and — 


1867-77. 3 


Spitzbergen, set out September 80, 1868. The ‘‘second German expedi- 
won,” in the Germania and Hansa, under Koldewey, sailed from Bremer- 
haven, June 15, 1869. Hansa was lost in the ice, crew escaping; coal 
discovered in east Greenland; Germania wintered at Sabine Island; 
sledge parties reached 77° 1’ N. L. Expedition reached home September 
11, 1870. The ‘‘ Austrian expedition” in the Tegetthof’, under Wey- 
precht and Payer, by way of the seas between Spitzbergen and No- 
vaia Zemlia (Nova Zembla), left Tromsoe in Norway, July 14, 1872; dis- 
covered Franz Josef Land, in 79° 43’ N., August 30,1873; reached 79° 
d8' N.; left the Zegetthoff in the ice, May 20, 1874, and escaped in boais, 
reaching Hurope early in September, 1874. Captain (afterwards Sir George) 
Nares’s expedition, in the Alert and Discovery, left Portsmouth, May 29, 
1875. September Ist, she reached 82° 24’, and wintered in 82° 27’ north, 
the furthest point reached by any ship. That winter was noted the 
severest cold ever known in Arctic regions, reaching to 73:7 below 
zero; a mean for seven days of 58:17; for thirteen days of 58°9; and 
for five days of 66°29 degrees below zero. Ascertained that there is ne 
*“‘ open Polar sea.” but instead, a ‘‘ palaocrystic sea,” or ‘* sea of ancient 
ice,” which is, it was found, almost impossible to traverse. Sledge parties 
explored the coast eastward and westward, and another reached the 
northernmost point yet attained by man, being 83° 20’ 26", within 400 
miles of the North Pole. The expedition returned to England in October, 
1876. A sharp controversy followed as to the proper victualling of the 
expedition, and the responsibility for the severe attacks of scurvy which 
had been suffered by most of the party. 


ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. (See p. 79.) Don Domingo F. Sarmiento was 
elected President for six years, October 12, 1868; Dr. Avellaneda was in- 
augurated for six years, October 12, 1874; an msurrection under Mitre at 
Buenos Ayres was ended by his submission, December 2, 1874; the Na- 
tional Bank stopped and the government suspended specie payments, 
May 16, 1876. 


ARMY, ENGLIsH. (See p. 232.) In 1869, it was stated in the English 
Parliament that each regular soldier cost per year in Prussia, £33; in 
France, £37; in England, £100; being nearly $165, $185, and $500. By 
Order in Council, 1870, Queen Victoria surrendered the royal prerogative 
of governing the army, and the General-in-Chief, instead of continuing an 
agent of the crown, was formally declared subordinate to the Minister of 
War. November 1, 1871, the practice of buying and selling commissions 
in the British army was stopped by royal warrant, dated July 20, 1871. 
Appointment and promotion by examination, merit, and seniority were 
substituted. 


The English military force in 1876 was thus coustiiuted : 


SmI ME MINE RIM OONR Ls 72 ).. o ist ias oilbic D3 Se ol olbplesmd LuswdeGanes dace 96,275 
a ee GIES ig his only stpire dsbdiamaaion? week hd eae 32,850 
a isis ocr ne aie Ses mac dks ee Sec c aap Haasan d dea oe 274,175 
ices man mat Veneer er, MO STS Es SS Me SO Se ore 15,078 
eC oe yk v2). save Fille Kibet es hafdabla nts Tipo bbe <BNidee den 168,759 
Enrolled pensioners and army reserve......... 0.20.20 erences sem bipiiens 31,000 
Total men..... sy Alas Ae POR Bit eo DD. oth Ads Sats cae es Wes, 649,125 


The sum voted for military purposes for the year 1876-7, was £15,282,- 
000 ; that for 1855-6 (Russian war}, £32,006,603 ; and that for 1815 (last 
year of war with Napoleon), £59,150,000. 


§ THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


ARMY, EUROPEAN. Estimated total of European armies in 1863, six mil- 
lion men, one million horses, 11,000 cannon. European armies in 1876, 
were nearly as follows : 


PEACE WAR PEACE , WAR 
FOOTING, FOOTING. FOOTING. FOOTIN 

Austro-Hungary.... 278,470 $38, '(U0s), Russia 22. ares 765,872 3,300, O06 

Belgtant eaten ac 40,000 100;000"| Spain... serene 151,668 

Denmark tases. =. - 35,657 48.936 | Sweden............ 132,775 

Rance. saeco e430, 905 1,750,000 | (Norway)..... 2... 12,750: 

Germany. ...<..25. 419,738 2’ 300: 000 | Switzerland ....... 201,257 

Great Britain...... 288,781 148,128 | Turkey; seer eee 170,576 459,360 

Greece (nominal)... 14,061 Roumama.......... 34,647 

BABS rasta cas Woke i 9,557 750,000 | Servia..... 0.00 is 2G 4,000 

Meverenas 5g detetee %, 359 208,359 eer 

WPOTUUP RN dy cassie ait te 18,195. 68, 450 Totals 8,094,609 11,377,190 
Peace footings not carried forward..... PTT IA A ne ee 345, 8U8 

Total war armies of Europe more than... ../...2..s. es eens seein eennn an 11,723,082 

ARMY, U.S. (See p. 79.) Expenses of the War Department for 

ESOT, Wace cite clswe macremole artes $96, 224,415.68 [182 1o cc ies'e eel aisteeemeae epee $35,372, 157.26 

LS6S,, cst ae beet ane aeeeee 128, 246, 648.62. | T8783. Ove ee dece see eee 46, 323,138.33 | 

BBGD 2 fee hard alerol ab darceet etopeteneats 48,501, 990:61 } #874 Buen oe eee ae 42.313, 927.22 . 

I8(O. 0 At sees see 57, 655,675.40 1875 cciiss sie epamem = eee eee 41,120,645. 98 : 

DBT a ees ne Strato tecele a teameais 35,'799, 991.82 | T876.056: ee aiten ee eee 38, 070, 888.64 


Regular army in 1877 about 25,000 men, and this total in process of re- | 
duction. 

ARTILLERY. (See Ordnance.) 

ASHANTEE. The Ashantees defeated Sir Charles M’Carthy at Accra, 
January 21, 1824, and carried off his skull as a trophy. Col. Purdon 
totally defeated them August 7, 1826. War was begun against them 
again by the English in 1863, but suspended from sickness of troops. 
Expedition under Sir Garnet Wolseley sailed from England September 
12, 1873; English force, after a severe campaign, entered Coomassie, 
the Ashantee capital, February 4, 1874; the king, Koffee Kalcalli, re- 
fusing proposals, his palace and city burned February 6th; a treaty, 
prohibiting human sacrifices, and providing for 50,000 ounces of gold 
indemnity to the English, signed February 15th. The expedition cost 
about £900,000. 

ASSASSINATIONS. June 6, 1867, one Berezowski, a Pole, fired two 
shots at the Czar of Russia, then in Paris, but missed. He was trans- 
ported for life. Michael Obrenovitch, Prmce of Servia, was assassinated 
at Belgrade, June 10, 1868, as was believed in consequence of a con- 
spiracy to place Prince Karageorgewictz on the throne. March 12, 1868. 
in New South Wales, at a publie picnic, one O’Farrell shot the Duke of 
Edinburgh in the back, intending to killhim. O’Farrell, who avowed 
himself a Fenian, was hanged. April 7, 1868, Hon. Thomas D’Arecy M’Gee 
was shot dead from behind at. his own door, by one Whelan, a Fenian, in 
consequence of his opposition to the Fenians. December 28, 1870, 
Marshal Prim was shot by night in the streets of Madrid, the assassin 
escaping, and died in two days. September 20, 1871, at Calcutta, Mr. 
Justice Norman, acting Chief Justice. was murdered, being stabbed by 
a native. February 8, 1872, Lord Mayo, Governer- ‘General of India, 
assassinated at Port Blair, on the Andaman Islands, by a Moliammedan 
convict named Shere Ali. . 

ASSYRIA. (See pp. 234-2385.) The results of Mr, Layard’s investigations 


1867-77, ‘ 


at Nineveh were published in his ‘‘ Nineveh and its Remains,” 1848, and 
in his ‘‘Discoveries,” 1853. Botta’s explorations at Khorsabad began 
1843; his “‘ Monuments de Ninive” appeared 1849-50. Mr. George 
Smith’s ‘‘ Assyrian Discoveries” appeared 1875, and his ‘‘ Chaldean 
Account of Genesis” in 1876. Mr. Smith died at Aleppo, August 19, 
1876, while pushing further investigations. An Assyrian grammar (of 
the language of the cuneiform or arrow-headed inscriptions) was pub- 
lished by Mr. A. H. Sayce in 1875; an Assyrian dictionary by Norris, in 
aoe and eight volumes of (translated) Assyrian Texts, by Birch, in 
y: 


ASTRONOMY. (See pp. 81, 235.) The planet Neptune was discovered 
September 23, 1846; the moon was photographed by Bond, 1851; spec- 
trum analysis first used in astronomy in 1861; Warren De la Rue’s first 
large photograph of the moon was made in 1868. The transit of Venua 
of December 9 (astronomical day, December 8), 1874, was extensively 
observed at the expense of several governments, with good results. From 
April, 1868, to August 29, 1876, were discovered Nos. 98 to 167 of the 
asteroids. 


ATCHINESE WAR. Atchin or Acheen, a native state of Sumatra. The 
Dutch hostilities against it took place from April, 1873 to 1876, ending in 
victory by the Dutch. 


ATHANASIAN CREED. (See p. 236.) It is asserted in Lumby’s ‘* His- 
tory of the Creeds” (1874), that this creed was not composed by Athana- 
sius, but consists of two distinct parts; was put into its present form 
between A.D. 813 and 850, first imputed to Athanasius by any respect- 
able authority 809, and accepted by the Greek Church about 1200. Much 
opposition to the use of this creed in England, and efforts to stop com- 
pulsory reading of it in public, 1870 to 1873. 


ATOMIC THEORY. Dalton’s system of atomic weights assumes hydrogen 
as 1; that of Berzelius assumes oxygen as 100, and is that used on the 
continent of Europe. 


ATOMS. The number of ultimate atoms in one drop of water has been 
recently computed by Sir William Thomson, at 100,000,000,000,000, 000, - 
000,000,000, or one hundred trillions of quadrillions. 


“AUSTRIA. (See pp. 82, 239.) Francis Joseph, October 20,1860, issued a 
diploma,” which gave legislative power to the assemblies of the provin- 
cial states, constituting Austria, and also to the Reichsrath or Council of 
the Empire. Hungary was granted self-government February 17, 1867. 
By decree of November 14, 1868, Austria assumed the official name of 
‘*The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.” The population of Austria, Decem- 
ber 31, 1869, was: 


Cee ERTR DSO VUICOSS of) cies < siole Ac lce ss ieiswina cre cl gste be elete saat tore ¢ 20,394,980 
Sierra eae EO VATCORB es (26 sicds 6 a: sievesiass cle op sists nelssidvladee eyes 15,509, 455 
35,904, 435 


The Cis-Leithan provinces (viz., those reckoned. on the hither side of 
the river Leithe), are: Galicia, Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia, the two 
Austrias (Upper and Lower), Styria, the Tyrol and Vorarlberg, Salzburg, 
Carinthia, Carniola, Trieste and Istria, Dalmatia, the Bukovina. The 
Trans-Leithan are: Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia, and the 
sity of Fiume. The Reichsrath became a national representative assem- 
bly by reform bill of March 10, 1873. 


8 THE WORLD’S PROCRESS. 


B. 


BABISM. A Persian religious doctrine, first promulgated, 1843, at Shiraz, 
by Mirza Ali Mahommed, who called himself the Bab (gate) of knowl- 
edge, gave a new exposition of the Koran, and claimed to be an incarna- 
tion of the Holy Spirit. The ‘‘ Babis” were tolerated by Shah Mahow- 
med, but were nearly all killed by his successor, the present Shah, in 
1848-9, the Bib himself being exeouted, July 15, 1849. The sect is said 
to be now (1877) quite numerous again. 

BABY FARMING. September 23, 1870, in England, Margaret Waters was 
convicted of the wilful murder of a child entrusted to her. She had been 
in the baby farming business four years, and confessed to having received 
some forty children. She was condemned to death, and hanged October 
11, after having confessed that five others of the children in her care had 
died. 

BALLOONS. (See pp. 83, 243.) Used with a good deal of success during the 
siege of Paris by the Germans, September and October, 1870, for carrying 
mail matter out of the city, and for escapes by individuals. Up to April, 
1867, Mr. Coxwell is said to have made 550 successful ascents ; and Charles 
Green, who died March 27, 1870, aged 84, had made 600. In an ascent 
from near Paris, April 15, 1875, by Messrs. Tissandier, Croce, Spinelli, 
and Sivel, after having reached a height of 26,160 feet (nearly five miles), 
Croce threw out ballast and they ascended rapidly to an unknown height. 
But the latter two men died there of suffocation, and Tissandier only got 
down alive. Glaisher and Coxwell, at Wolverhampton, July 17, 1862, 
had ascended about 7 miles, but at 5% miles Glaisher became insensible, 
and Coxwell lost the use of his hands, and only escaped death by opening 
the valve with his teeth and thus bringing down the balloon. 

BALLOT. (See p. 83.) Secret ballot was adopted in Victoria (Australia), — 
1856; employed in electing school-board in nine districts in London, No- 
vember 29, 1870; recommended for general use in the Queen’s speech, 
February 9, 1871, and bill for it passed the Commons and rejected in the 
Lords, 97 to 48, August 10, 1871. Bill providing for its use until Decem- 
ber 31, 1880, became alaw July 18, 1872; Mr. H. E. Childers was chosen 
member of Parliament for Pontefract by ballot August 15, 1872, with no ~ 
difficulty; the method has worked well enough since. 

BAMPTON LECTURES. Delivered annually at Oxford, on theological 
subjects, and paid for by funds left for the purpose by Rev. John Bamp- 
ton, who died 1751. The first lecture was by Rev. Dr. Bandinel, in 1780. 

BANKRUPTCY. (See pp. 84, 245.) Bankrupt peers decided incompetent 
to sit in English House of Lords, February 10, 1871, and a law expressly 
so providing was passed July 13, 1871. In the United States and Canada 
there were failures and liabilities as follows: 


FAILURES, LIABILITIES. 
Year ending June 380, 1876. 8,776 $233,632.516 
Year ending June 30, 187%. 9,241 182,208, 435 


BATHOMETER, for deep-sea sounding without lead and line, invented and 
improved 1861-76, by Dr. C. W. Siemens. It operates by registering the 
lessening of the earth’s attraction of gravitation on the surface of the 
ocean from what it would be on solid ground, in consequence of the less 
density of water. 


oe 


* die? pie till 


1867-77. 9 


BATHYBIUS HAECKELII, found at the bottom of the sea in recent deep- 
sea soundings, and so named by Huxley ; a gelatinous substance, supposed 
the lowest form of animal life. Since believed to have been proved a 
mineral. 


BATTLES. (See pp. 84, 248.) 


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 


Saarbruck, French victorious,Aug. 2, 1870 | Metz, Germans victorious, Aug. 31, 187¢ 
Wissembourg, Germans  ‘ Aug. 4, 1870 | SEDAN, ; Aug. 31-Sep. 1, 1870 
oe 


Woerth, = Aug. * 6, 1870 | Before Paris.” -* victorious, Sept, 30, 1870 
Saarbruck or Forbach, Germans, Aug. 6, 1870 | Thoury, French ee Oct. 5, 1870 
Courcelles or Pange, ES Aug. 14, 1870 | St. Remy, Germans ‘“* Oct. 5, 1870 
Strasburg, Germans victorious,Aug. 16, 1870 | Chiateandun, MS ES Oct 18, 1870 


Vionville or Mars-la-Tour, Ger’s, Aug. 16, 1870 | Coulmiers,near Orleans, French. Nov.9-10,187 0 

Gravelotte, Germans victorious, Aug, 18, 1870 | Before Orleans, Ger’s victorious, Dec. 4, 18.¢ 

Beaumont, eg ee Aug. 30, 1870 | St. Quentin, ue at Jan, 19, 1871 

Carignan, rte “'s Aug. 31, 1870 | Paris (Trochw’s sortie), Germans, Jan. 19, 1871 
OTHER BATTLES, 


Oroquieta, Spain, Carlists defeated, May 4, 1872 | Abyssinians defeat Egyptiansin Nov., 1874 


Elmina, British defeat Ashantees, Irun, Spain, Laserna defeats Carlists, 
June 13, 1873 Novy, 10, 1874 

Elqueta, Spain, Carlists claim victory, Sorota, Peru, Pierota and insurgents 
Aug. 5-6, 1873 GETCRLEO Me cL oti tT bots foci Dec, 3, 1874 

Maieru, Spain, indecisive, Oct. 6, 1873 | Tolosa, Spain, Carlists repulse Loma, 
Abrakampra, Ashantees defeated Nov.5-6,1873 Dec. %-8, 1874 

Borborassie, of * Jan, 29, 1874 | Khokand, Russians defeat Khan of 
Amoaful, he bd Jan. 31, 1874 FOWL V fret sig.2h 0s das vs tad 8 Sep. 4-21, 1875 

Bocquah, st $f Feb. 1, 1874 | Assake, Russians defeat Khokand 
Fommanah, a ss Bete AoW et SS PONCE ons Nabi) Sater 4 ba oh «ohn « Jan. 380, 1876 
Ordahsa, es = Feb. 4, 1874 | Servian—Turkish war begins..... July 1, 1876 
Bilbao, Spain, several days; Concha Saitschar, Servians retreat ... July 2-3, 1876 

OSS ee ee ee ee ne May 2, 1874 | Urbitza, Montenegrins defeat Turks, 
Estella, Spain, Carlists retreat, but Con- July 28, 1876 

cuosmaed en...) 0s.55 5. June 25-27, 1874 


BAYREUTH. The Wagner Festival, or Biihnenfestspiel. The perform- 
ance of Wagner’s ‘‘ Ring des Nibelungen,” took place here on August 18, 
14, 16, and 17, 1876. The four successive portions of the work are: 1. 
Das Rheingold; 2. Die Walkiire; 3. Siegfried; 4. Gétterdammerung. 
Great difference of opinion as to the music by itself; but the whole rep- 
resentation very magnificent. All deficiencies in receipts made up by the 
King of Bavaria. 

BEHISTUN. The trilingual inscriptions here were deciphered and trans- 
lated by Sir H. Rawlinson in 1844-6, the first great step being thus made 
towazds interpreting the so-called cuneiform inscriptions. 


BELFORT. A strong fortified town in Alsace, invested by the Germans 
November 5, 1870; capitulated February 16, 1871; reserved to France at 
the cession of Alsace to Germany; and the Germans left it in August, 1873. 


BESSEMER STEEL. (See Stee!.) 


BIBLE. (See pp. 86, 257.) First meeting of the Convocation for Revising 
the English Bible, at Westminster, England, June 22, 1870. Among Bible 
Dictionaries should be mentioned McClintock and Strong’s ‘‘ Biblical and 
Theological Encyclopedia.” ‘‘ The Codex Sinaiticus,” a Greek MS. of the 
Bible, probably written in the fourth century, was found by Prof. Tis- 
chendorf at St. Catherine’s monastery on Mt. Sinai in 1844 and 1859, and 
procured by him forthe Czar of Russia, who caused it to be printed in 
1862. The first version of the Bible (the Syriac), is supposed to have 
been made in the first or second century; the Old Latin, early in the 
second, and revised by Jerome in 384 ; Jerome’s own version. the Vulgate, 


1* 


10 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


completed 405. First printed edition (Mazarin or Mentz Bible), about 
1455 or 1456, without date; and a copy of this, at the Perkins sale in Eng- 
land, June, 1873, brought about $16,000, the largest price ever paid for one 
printed book. 

BOKHARA. Ancient Sogdian Murder of the English envoys, Stoddart 
and Conolly, by the Khan, 1843. <A war with Russia began 1866, the 
Khan repeatedly beaten, and peace made July 11, 1867. There was more 
fighting in 1868; the Russians entered Samarcand May 26th; and in 
November, 1868, annexed it by treaty. A new treaty between Bokhara 
and Russia was published December, 1873. 

BLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT. First mentioned by Samuel Andrews 
Peters, a tory Episcopalian clergyman, of Hebron, Conn., ina ‘‘ History of 
Connecticut,” published at London, 1781. Peters built his story on the 
basis of the ‘actual laws, but with great additions invented by him. The 
text-book on the subject, by J. H. Trumbull, Hartford, Conn., 1876. 


BOOKS, Book TRADE. (See pp. 20, 208.) In Great Britain were pub- 
lished as follows : 


NEW BOOKS, NEW EDITIONS. 
1011 SS Pee cee 3,047: . 5). ee 1,288 
1BV2. «oc cccucsacascnn ne node van sByQ1@nufeue meet anna 1100 
1874... . vende dh anak sce be «deme RO aes aoe sae 
18757. vc. otic ee BB V8 ro. oh aed ct ee 1,331 


The number of publishers and booksellers in Germany is (in 1876), 3,473, in | 
786 towns. In Leipzig, the emporium of the German book trade, there | 
are 105 commission agents, who act for 4,202 booksellers, of whom 1,143 | 
are in Austria, France, Russia, Holland, England, and America. Number | 
of books published in the United States, about 2,500 a year. | 


_ BOSTON. (See pp. 88, 268.) Annexations to the city of Boston were: ] 
Roxbury, September 9, 1867; Dorchester, June 22, 1869; Charlestown, 
Brighton, and West Roxbury, October 7, 1873. Great peace jubilee, with 
over 10,000 voices, and 1,094 instruments, June 15, 1869. International 
peace jubilee, with chorus of about 20,000 voices, and orchestra of 1,000 
instruments, June 17 to July 4, 1872. Great fire, burning about eichty 
acres of buildings in the thickest business part of the city, November 9, 
10, 11, 1872; 959 houses, of which 125 dwellings, were destroyed, and 35 
persons killed. Boston Public Library has, in 1877, about 520,000 vol- 
umes; has six branches, and two ‘‘ delivery agencies,” besides the central 
collection, and circulates free of all expense about 1,500,000 volumes a 
year ; staff, about 130 persons; salaries, about $60,000 a year; annual 
cost, ‘about 8130, 000, of which ‘all but about $6,000 is paid by the city 
of Boston by an annual appropriation, the rest coming from trust funds 
of about £105,000. 


BOSNIA. Incorporated with Turkey, 1463. A rebellion broke out in 1849, 
was put down by Omar Pasha in 1851. In September, 1875, the Bosni- 
ans joined the Herzegovinian insurgents. Its area is 23,100 square miles; 
population, 1,357,984, of which about one-third only is Mohammedan. 


BRAZIL. (See pp. 89. 272.) The war with Paraguay was ended by the 
defeat and killing of Lopez, the Paraguayan dictator, at Aquidaban, 
March 1, 1870; treaty of peace with Paraguay, June "20, 1870. Dom 
Pedro, the emperor, and his empress visit Europe June, 1871, and Marck, 
1872. Gradual slave emancipation bill passed by the Brazilian senate, 
September 27-28, 1872. Dom Pedro and the empress were present at the 


1867-77. 1} 


opening of the Philadelphia Exhibition May 10, 1876, and afterwards 
travelled extensively in America and Europe. Population of Brazil, 1872 
(partly estimated), 9,448,233, besides about another million of savage 
natives. Number of slaves in May, 1874, 1,016,262. 


BRIGANDS. (See also Molly Maguires.) April 21, 1870, some English 
ladies and gentlemen, and an Italian, were taken near Athens by brigands, 
who demanded $125,000 ransom, which was ready ; but the Greek Gov- 
ernment, contrary to promise, sending troops against the robbers, the 
tourists were all murdered. In June, 1870, two Englishmen, of Gibral- 
tar, were seized by brigands, and made to pay £5,200 ransom, part of 
which was afterwards recovered, and some of the robbers killed, by the 
Spanish civic guard. The Mafia, an organized system of spying, murder, 
and brigandage got into possession of almost unlimited power in Sicily 
about 1860, and has since remained so. 


BRIDGES. (See pp. 89, 274.) The proposed New York and Brooklyn 
suspension bridge is to be 5,862 feet long, with a central span of 1,600 
feet, at 185 feet above high-water mark. The Victoria railway bridge 
over the St. Lawrence, at Montreal, about two miles long, an iron tubular 
bridge, begun May 24, 1854, formally opened August 25, 1860, and cost 
£1,700,000. 

BURIAL. (See Cremation.) The ‘ earth to earth” system of burial, ad- 
vocated by Mr. Seymour Haden, and wicker coffins, exhibited in 1875 at 
London. 


C. 


CANADA. (See pp. 91, 288.) The act creating ‘‘the Dominion of Can- 
ada” was passed March 29, 1867. The Dominion contains Ontario, or 
_Upper Canada, Quebec, or Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, 
Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island, and provision is 
made for admitting Newfoundland. Lord Monck, first Governor-General, 
opened the first session of the Dominion Parliament, at the capital, 
Ottawa, Nov. 7, 1867. Population by census of 1871: Ontario, 1,620,- 
851; Quebec, 1,191,516; Nova Scotia, 387,800; New Brunswick, 285, - 
094; Manitoba, 11,953 ; British Columbia, 10,586 ; Prince Edward Island, 
94,021 ; total, 3,602,321. 

CANALS. (See Suez Canal.) Recent surveys have shown that the ques- 
tion of a canal across the Isthmus of Darien, or that of Tehuantepec, is 
only one of cost, not of practicability. In April, 1870, a French company 
was empowered to cut a canal across the Isthmus of Corinth, to be done 
in six years. 

CANDIA, THE ANCIENTCRETE. (Sce pp. 289, 338.) Insurrections against: 
Turkish oppression, 1841; again, and quieted by conciliation, 1858. 
Christians persecuted, 1859; a general assembly rejects Turkish authori- 
ty and declares union with Greece, September 2, 1866; after obstinate 
contests the insurgents yield from exhaustion, and Turkish authority re. 
established March 8, 1869. 

CANOPUS. An ancient city of Egypt, on the sea-coast, east of Alexan- 
dria. The ‘‘ Decree of Canopus” was put forth B. c. 238, by Ptolemy 
Kuergetes, to constitute his deceased daughter, Berenice, a goddess, and 
to establish an annual festival and a service of priests in her honor. A 
copy of this, in hieroglyphics and Greek, was discovered at Tanis, 1866, 


} 


2 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


VWAPITAL PUNISHMENT. (See Death, Punishment of, pp. 108, 344.) Abol: 


ished in Saxony, April 1, 1868; abolition of it refused in Belgium, Janu- 
ary 18, 1867; in English House of Commons, by 127 to 238, April 21, 
1868 ; by 118 to 58, July 29, 1869; by 167 to 54, July 24, 1872; refused 
by French Senate, June 21, 1876. It was prohibited in Michigan, 1846 ; 
Rhode Island, 1852 ; Wisconsin, 1853; Iowa, 1872; Maine, February 18, 
1876, and is practically disused in some other States. The effect of such 
disuse on crime is undetermined. In thirteen years next after the repeal 
of the law inflicting it in Michigan, there were 30. convictions for mur- 
der, and in the next fourteen years, with a population 50 per cent. greater, 
only 26. Butin New York City, during 1871-6, only seven murderers were 
hanged, while there were 281 murders. And in 1871 there wereno hang- 
ings, but in the next year the murders increased from 41 to 55, and when 
in 1873. two murderers were hanged, the murders decreased in like man- 
ner from 53 to 39. 


CATHOLICS. (See Concordat ; Infallibility ; Old Catholics ; Romanism ; 


Vatican Council.) 


CENSUS. (See pp. 94, 299.) The English census, taken April 2, 1871, 


showed a population in the United Kingdom (England, Wales, Scotland, 
and Ireland), of 31,465,480. For Census of United States, 1870, see 
United States. ; 


CENTENNIAL. An immense number of Centennial celebrations took place 


in the United States during 1875 and 1876, beginning with that of June 
19, 1875, for the battle of Lexington. ‘The Centennial International Ex- 
hibition at Philadelphia was opened by President Grant, May 10, 1876, 
and closed November 10. 

Of the growth of the United States in the first century, the following 
figures show a few illustrations : 


1776. 1876. 
Population ccc. ckt dewalt. slalne hee eee p+ + ee 2,750,000 44,675,000 
Area square Miles. ..5 oc s access Heels eee ee 800,000 3,603,844 
Anntial tnanuiacturess 2s. o.see dese acee eae $20,000.000 $4,200,000,000 
BUST T S hac adilaaa.ch cs crete taneee catia ates 0 6,066 
Polleges ek ars she. Pride Fees coke «ee een cae 9 3874 


CHARITIES. (See pp. 90, 302.) George Peabody’s public charities were 


as follows: 


$2,500,000 for the poor of London. 
$2,000,000 for education in the South- 
ern States, 
300,000 for museums at Yale and Har- 


20,000 te Kenyon College. 

250,000 to the State of Maryland. 
$500,000 for a free library and educa- 

tional institute at Danvers (afterwards 


vard Colleges, named Peabody), Mass. 
$50,000 for a free museum at Salem, | $1,000.000 for the Peabody Institute, 
Mass. at Baltimore, Md. 


December 2, 1871, was opened at Dublin the Brown Institution, endowed 
by a bequest left for the purpose by a Mr. Brown, of Dublin, as a hospital 
for the study and treatment of the diseases of quadrupeds and birds useful 
to men. Mr. Vanderbilt had, during his life, endowed a college in Ten- 
nessee, with about $1,000,000, and supported the ‘‘ Church of the Stran- 
gers,’ in New York. Daniel Drew, a leading New York stock operator, 
endowed (nominally) Drew Theological Seminary in New Jersey, but 
afterwards losing his money, the funds were never paid over. A. T. 
Stewart left at his death, unfinished, a great hotel for working-women in 
New York, which was completed by his widow. 


1867-77. 1? 


CHICAGO. (See p. 95.) GREAT FIRE, October 8-11, 1871, About 250 
persons perished, about 98,500 were rendered destitute, and the loss was 
estimated at $290,000,000. Some 25,000 buildings were destroyed. 
Large contributions were made in American and English cities towards 
relieving the sufferers, and great energy was shown in rebuilding. 


CHILDREN. Under eight years old, forbidden to be employed in agricul- 
ture in England, by act of August 5, 1873. 


CHINA. (See pp. 95, 305.) Chinese emhassy, with Anson Burlingame (of 
Massachusetts) at its head, received at Washington, June 5, 1868; at 
Paris, January 24, 1869; Mr. Burlingame died at St. Petersburg, Feb- 
ruary 22, 1870. Massacre of French priests and about fifty others by a 
mob at Tientsin, June 21, 1870; the leaders were executed October 26, 
1870. Emperor Tsai tien (altered to Kwang-Sii), son of Chun and nephew 
of Prince Kung, succeeds Toung-Chi, February 4, 1875. First railway in, 
eleven miles long, from Shanghae to Oussoon, publicly opened June 30, 
1876. Chinese emigration to America began in 1850; and there are now 
(1877) supposed to be nearly 50,000 Chinese in San Francisco, and from 
125,000 to 150,000 in California, mostly males. In California this emi- 
gration, and the Chinese, after coming, are chiefly controlled by the “ Six 
Companies,’’ which are a kind of corporations, and whose names are Sam 
Yup, Yung Wo, Kong Chow, Ning Yeung, Yan Wo, and Hop Wo. 


CHURCH OF IRELAND. (See p. 310.) Royal assent to Mr. Gladstone’s 
bill disestablishing it, July 26, 1869, took effect January 1, 1871. 
CHURCH-RATES, (Seep. 97.) Compulsory church-rates in England were 


abolished by act of Parliament, introduced by Mr. Gladstone, and passed 
July 31, 1868. 


CiVIL SERVICH, Enewtsu. August 31, 1870, went into operation an 
English Order in Council that all entrance appointments to civil service 
except the Foreign Office and posts requiring professional knowledge, 
should be filled by open competition. Persons in the English Civil Service 
(treasury, home, foreign, colonial, post, revenue, etc., officers), about 
17,000; cost of same yearly, estimated for 1877 at £13,309, 100. 


CIVIL SERVICE REFORM, UNITED Starrs. Measure to secure, in- 
troduced into Congress by T. A. Jenckes, of Rhode Island, January 20, 
1867. Act for rules to be prescribed by the President for civil service 
examinations, passed March 3, 1871. Commissioners to prepare rules 
appointed by President, June 4th, met and G. W. Curtis chosen chairman, 
June 28,1871. Rules prepared, but less was accomplished by them than 
was expected. In the summer of 1877, President Hayes ordered that all 
national office-holders should resign any situations they might hold as party 
political managers, or else resign their offices, his purpose being ‘‘ to take 
the office-holder out of politics.” This order was promptly obeyed. 


CLOCKS AND WATCHES. (See pp. 97, 314, 646.) Imported into Great 
Britain in 1870, 258,628 clocks, 872,420 watches. The Boston Watch Com- 
pany, the first factory for making watches by machinery, was founded by 
Mr. Dennison in 1854; it failed 1856, and was bought by Mr. Robbins, who 
changed the name to American Watch Company, often called the Waltham 
Watch Co. In 1876 there were eleven such watch factories. That at 
Waltham, with 900 workmen, turns out about 425 movements a day; the 
next largest, at Elgin, Ill., about 300 movements. The effect of the 
American watch business on the importation of Swiss watches is shown 


14 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


as follows: Swiss watches imported into the United States in 1872, 
366,000; 1873, 204,000; 1874, 187,000 ; 1875, 134,000; 1876, 75,000. 


CLUBS. (See p. 97.) Recent London clubs were formed at following 
dates : Cobden Club (free trade), 1866; Scientific, Wanderers (travellers), 
Devonshire (Liberal political), Verulam (literary and scientific), 1874 ; 
Byron, 1875 ; Hanover Square (new Liberal), 1876. 


COAL. (See pp. 98, 815.) Consumption of anthracite from the Pennsyl- 
vania coal fields began with 365 tons, in 1820, and was in 1875, 18,082,294 
tons. By periods of ten years the production was as follows, inclusively : 


Ho LUSY |! in at tons £59,190: | 1850-09... css aveeme annuen tons 68,333,469 
MESO ee vm so ss Veen * 5,210,685 | 1860-69)... 0. ieee ee 6 106,883,488 
1840-49... 2... cece. ee. 6 18,954,678 | 1870-5 J. <0 S. aiaka ke pantera “ 105,627,240 


The anthracite east of the Mississippi is all in seven counties in Pennsy]l- 
vania, viz: Schuylkill, Carbon, Luzerne, Columbia, Northumberland, 
Dauphin, and Lebanon, and mostly in the first three of these. Estimates 
of the time when these anthracite deposits will be exhausted vary from 
77 years to 650 years. Tons of coal raised in Great Britain and the 
United States in 1870 and 1874: 


GREAT BRITAIN. UNITED STATES. 
TGVO Ps eS REO LG Set ete Os Ole een 113,000,000 82,000,000 
hy C Tl ee Re eeee yrr ade et oe Jsigtiabe O86 125,000,000 50,000,000 
Area of all coal fields in the United States estimated at 196,000 square 
miles. Proportions of anthracite and bituminous coal mined in the 
United States in 1870 and 1875: 


. ‘ 1870, 1875. 
Anthracite, tongs o's. ois cnn we setae e satel wisn come 18,985,960 20,654,509 
Bitominous, oF Vo. ss ec e's am clteelnenaeietene Gree eens 15,231,668 26,031,726 


COINAGE. (See pp. 99, 817.) Total coinage of United States to and 
including 1876: 


In 1876. 
GONG ihe oteig thiers Solniacte te ets «este Eee a ere $945, 477,022.30 $38,178, 962.50 
SUVEL. Fe vee sacar e Sere Coed ca peasietets ete eek. oe 180, 322,356.40 19, 126,502.50 
Conte" etay ti. oy ees oo) eee 12,822,538.55 260,850.00 
Total n  v.s achte'ecaisleguunieteste ateta lee $1,138,621, 917.25 $57,565, 815.00 


COLLEGES IN UNITED STATES in 1875, 355; schools of science (and 
collegiate departments), 75 ; theological schools (and departments), 123; 
law schools (and departments), 43; medical, dental, etc., schools (and 
departments), 106. 


COLOMBIA. (See p. 319.) General Salgar, President, 1871; M. M. Toro, 
April 1, 1872; S. Perez, April 1, 1874, Population in 1864, 2,794,473 ; 
in 1870, 2,910,329. 

COLONIES. (See pp. 99, 820.) Great Britain has sixty-nine colonies and 
foreign possessions, whose population was estimated in 1861 at 142,952, - 
248, all but about 7,500,000 being in the East Indies. Their revenue in 
1865 was about £51.497,000, and expenditures, £59,353,000. Ali slaves 
in all British colonies emancipated August 1, 1834. In recent times the 
English home policy towards the colonies has steadily become more com- 
plying and indulgent. The earliest ucquired of the present colonies was 
Newfoundland, about A.D. 1500; the latest, the Fiji Islands, October 25, 
1874. 


COLORADO proclaimed a State August 1, 1876. 


ci —aF 19a. - » 
a ec he we of 
i. 


1867-77. 1h 


COMETS. (See pp. 100, 321.) 17,500,000 comets estimated to be in the 
solar system. More than 600 recorded as havi ing been seen, Schiaparelli 
of Milan has discovered that the August meteors move round ihe sun in 
an orbit almost identical with that of the second comet of 1862-6. The 
great comet of 1861 had a nucleus of about 400 miles diameter, a long, 
bushy tail, and moved about ten million miles a day. On June 30, 1861, 
it was suggested that the earth was in this tail, as there was seen a 

‘phosphorescent auroral glare.” 


COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. General Sherman appointed, 1869. 
COMMERCE OF UNITED sb eae (See also Cotton, Failures, ete.) 


wports. Imports. 
Le US ee re 9394844 Saati Cae ib thes $414, 256,243 © 
Til Ooh A i BUD ich, CO an aatorucesta 5 Seaton 452,875,665 
LES «ts a 460,331,614 Soh Sine eiotun © oeetatarera 572,509,314 
URS Ae ieee 444A NT, BBS 2 eae a cosa cees 626,595,077 
USCS ie 216 a eeeegin Dera OL ie see peels Ane ote 692,136,210 
LC A ee 633, 339, BOS erences RODS 567,406,342 
US ifr 5 ee ae 658, 691, "291 SLRS AWA cre shajeietate tere 553,906,153 


Of the years 1874 and 1875, nearly half this commerce was with Great 
Britain, viz. : 


Exports to G. B. Imports from i. B. 
| a ee Ott ORE O40 5 case genistein ccs Se $180,042,813 
BEES Beane Ge sn cs sss 366, 799, COU Me eiwidsne s oc teaee 157, 047; 827 


Chambers of Commerce now exist in the chief commercial cities of Chris- 
tendom. ‘Twenty-seven of the English ones met for consultation, Febru- 
ary 21, 1865; the meeting became annual; in 1873 (February 18th), 46 
met. 


COMMUNE OF PARIS. Proclaimed March 28, 1871; ended at the cap- 
ture of the city by the government forces, May 28th, following. 


CONCORDANCE. (See pp. 100,324.) The first concordance to the Bible 
on which was based that of St. Caro, seems to have been made by An- 
thony of Padua. Cruden’s (the best), first published in London, 1737. 
Mrs. Furness’s Concordance to Shakespeare’s poems, 1874. Todd’s Verbal 
Index to Milton, 1809, ‘and Cleaveland’s Concordance to Milton, 1867. 
Brightwell’s Concordance to Tennyson, 1869 ; Abbott*s to Pope, 1875. 


CONCORDAT. (See p. 824.) The Concordat ae Rome and Austria, 
August 18, 1855, gave the former much authority over the Austrian 
Church, and thus excited great dissatisfaction in Austria. In 1868 the 
Austrian and Hungarian legislatures practically abolished it, and it was 
formally declared ‘suspended, July 30, 1870, in consequence of the procla- 
mation of papal infallibility. 


CONFESSION, AuRICcULAR. (See p. 825.) Introduced in England by the 
Puseyites, Tractarians, or Ritualists. Rev. A. Poole suspended for prac- 
ticing it, June, 1558 ; Rev. T. West tried to introduce it, causing much 
excitement, September, 1858; 485 Anglican clergymen petitioned convo- 
cation for its establishment, May, 1873, but the bishops were strongly 
opposed to it ; Archdeacon Denison’s letter against all who oppose it, 
August 22, 1873. A secret book used by the English ritualists, with 
shameful questions to be put to married women and young persons, dis- 
covered June, 1877, and great indignation aroused. 


CONSTELLATIONS. (See p. 327.) Now reckoned as 29 northern, 45 
southern, 12 zodiacal. 


me i. 


16 THE WORLD’S YROGRESS. 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. (See pp. 102,328.) The 
dates and subjects of the fifteen amendments were as follows; 1. Pro- 
posed 1789, Freedom of religion, press, assembling, and petition. 2. 1789, 
Right to bear arms. 38. 1789, Quartering soldiers on people. 4. 1789, 
Searches and seizures of persons, houses, etc. 5. 1789, Indictment, mar- 
tial law, legal process, eminent domain. 6. 1789, Criminal prosecutions 
to be speedy; privileges of accused. 7%. 1789, Jury trial for anything over 
$20, in common-law suits. 8. 1789, Bail, fines, cruel and unusual punish- 
ments. 9. 1789, Enumeration of rights in Constitution does not impair 
others. 10. 1789, State rights. 11. 1794, Judicial power of United 
States as against States. 12. 1803-5, Election of President. 18. Ratified 
December 18, 1865, abolishes slavery. 14. Ratified July 28, 1868, civil 
rights, representative basis, rebel disfranchisement, public and rebel debt. 
15. Ratified March 30, 1870, negro suffrage. 


CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACT. Providing for periodical medical examina- 
tions of women’s persons at military and naval stations, passed in English 
Parliament June, 1866. Great opposition has been made to it; a royal 
commission to inquire into it reported July, 1871. Alterations have been 
proposed, and repeal has been attempted, but failed by 126 to 308 June, 
1875, and 102 to 224, July, 1876. 

CONVENTS (for nuns; ‘‘ monasteries” are for monks). (See p. 828.) In 
1832 there were i¢ convents in England ; in 1870, 233, besides 70 monas- 
teries. A large Church of England convent opened at Bournemouth, 
October 3, 1875. 


CONVOCATION. The English Convocation consists of the upper house (of 
bishops), and the lower (of the inferior clergy). It formerly possessed 
power over various church matters, but was deprived of these by a statute 
of Henry VIII., and again in 1716, when it ceased meeting. Formal 
meetings of the Anglican clergy have been held since 1854, and attempts 
made in vain to regain power over church interests. In February, 1872, 
convocations were authorized to deliberate upon changes in the liturgy, 
and this was done in March following. 


CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES (for economical supply of goods to members) 
Rochdale Hquitable Pioneers’ Society began 1844. In 1862 there were 
332 in England; on December 31, 1866, 749. Annual congresses have 
been held, the seventh at London, March 29, 1875. Similar organizations 
in the United States have not been very successful. There were in 
Massachusetts in 1875, however, fifteen such, of which eight had a member- 
ship of 1,650, share capital $50,000, assets $100,000, and selling $500,000 
of goods yearly. These were at Fall River (organized 1866), Worcester 
(1867), New Bedford (1867), Lynn (1870), Wakefield (1866), Holyoke 
(1875), Gardner (1874), Natick (1869 ?). On the continent of Europe such 
organizations are numerous and eificient. 


COPYRIGHT. (See pp. 102,103, 330.) An international copyright bill 
brought into Congress, February 21, 1868, but could not pass. English 
House of Lords decided in Routledge vs. Low, in favor of the copyright 
of a foreign author. The Copyright Association of England was founded 
by leading London booksellers, March 19, 1872. 


CORNELL UNIVERSITY. Founded by Ezra Cornell in 1868. 


CORONERS. (See p. 382.) In consequence of abuses and annoyances from 
the ignorance and incompetence of coroners, they were suppressed in 


186%-7'7. 1 


Massachusetts by act of legislature, May 9, 1877, and ‘‘ medical exami- 
ners” substituted, to be appointed by the Governor and Council, and to 
be “‘able and discreet men, learned in the science of medicine.” 


COTTON MANUFACTURE IN UNITED STATES: 


Looms. In South, Spindles. In South, Mills 
gee i a en Posse S... BD, 8B2 5. oT TION 262991 3 968 
Ae Cy ae ASHI crete 20.945 ty, 20 OMI SBA s us 487,629) doi z 847 


Cotton mill first in India, built 1863; and the number had increased in 
1876 to reach a consumption of 3,000 bales cotton per week. Estimated 
consumption of cotton for manufacturing purposes in the world, for 1860 
and 1876, in bales of 400 pounds: 


1860. 1876. Increase. 
Great Britain........ saccs See Rca ALI Ste ah A i 370,000 , 
Continent of Europe............. DOA OOD Eee atom ts: 2,362,000 .... 0.0% 568,000 
UL OO a JOSS. 000M cage ee U4 O00 eck oan 353,000 
Bombarvankgd-restlot India... 0)... 0 <2. Peete AK... TGA QOL cade. 164,000 


This increase is about 13 per cent. for Great Britain, and 374 per cent. 
for the other manufacturing countries. 


COUNCILS, CHURCH. (See p. 885: also Vatican Council.) 


CREDIT FONCIER. Name given to organizations for advancing money to 
real estate owners on the security of their estates. Such a plan was set 
in operation by Frederick the Great in Prussia in 1763. Companies for 
the purpose have existed in Hamburg (1782), Prussia (1787), Belgium, 
(1841), France (1852), England (1863), and elsewhere. 


CREDIT MOBILIER. (See p. 104.) The original Crédit Mobilier at Paris 
failed, and the capital was said to have ‘‘ disappeared,” October, 1867. 
The Péreires, and other directors held liable August 1, 1868. ‘+ Credit 
Mobilier of America,” incorporated in Pennsylvania March 15, 1865 ; as- 
sumed a contract to build 100 miles of the Union Pacific R. R. westward 
from the Missouri River, in which Hoxie had failed. Improper distribution 
of its stock to members of Congress in December, 1867 and afterwards, was 
charged, and an investigation by a committee of the House of Representa- 
tives took place in 1872-73. 

CREMATION advocated, instead of burial, by Sir Henry Thompson and 
others in England, 1878. Societies for it established in London, Vienna, 
and Berlin in 1874. The body of Sir C. Dilke’s wife, burned at Dresden 
October 10, 1874; the ashes of the body and coffin together being about 
six pounds. Baron de Palm’s remains burnt in like manner in America 
in 1876, and Dr. Winslow’s in 1877. 

CRETE. Now Candia, which see. 

CRIME. (See pp. 105,338; also Ticket of Leave.) International Congress 
for Prevention and Repression of Crime, met at London, July 3, 1872. In 
England a great decrease in crimes of violence in proportion to the pupu- 
lation has been observed from 1861 to 1871. 

CRISPINS. (See St. Crispin.) 

CROWN. (See p. 340.) The crown of England contains 1 large ruby, 1 
large sapphire, 16 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 4 rubies, 1,363 brilliants (dia- 
monds), 1,273 rose-diamonds, 147 table diamonds, 4 drop-shaped pearls, 
273 pearis, 

CRUELTY TO ANIMALS. (See Animals.) 


18 {ILE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


CRYOLITEH, A fluoride of aluminium and sodium, found in quantities in 
Greenland, and used to manufacture metallic aluminium, 


CUBA. (See pp.J06,340.) Insurrection began soon after the Spanish revo- 
lution, September, 1868; checked, June, 1870; not suppressed, January, 
1872; still in full activity, August, 1877. 


CUMULATIVE VOTE. Under the English Reform Act of 1867, cumulative 
voting, to allow ‘‘ minority representation,” was allowed in London, Glas- 
gow, Manchester, Liverpool, and Leeds, and in such counties as returned 
three members each. In the counties, and in some of these cities, the 
result was to admit minority candidates. Used in electing members of the 
government of Harvard and Yale Colleges. 


CUNEIFORM LANGUAGES. (See Assyria.) 


CURIUM. General L. P. di Cesnola discovered in 1875, in the ruins of this 
very ancient city, in Cyprus, a treasure supposed to have been that of a 
temple, deposited in four subterranean rooms, and consisting of over 7,200 
ornaments, statues, and other articles of gold, silver, bronze, terra cotta, 
ivory, glass, etc., etc., which have been secured for the Metropolitan Art 
Museum in New York. 


CURRENCY, UNITED States. National bank notes outstanding, De- 
cember 31, 1876, $319,860,304 ; greenbacks outstanding, same date, $366,- 
911,000. 

CYCLONE. A circular hurricane, common in the tropics, In a cyclone at 
Calcutta, October 5, 1864, about 100 ships lost, and 60,000 persons per- 
ished. One at Nassau, in the Bahamas, October 1 and 2, 1866, destroyed 
over 600 houses and other buildings, dismasted many ships, and killed 
from 60 to 70 persons. August 21, 1871, a cyclone devastated Antigua, 
St. Kitts, and other islands, inflicting enormous damages. In a flood and 
cyclone in the Backergunge district, in India, near the mouth of the Gan- 
ges, 5,000 persons are supposed to have perished, October 31, 1876. 


CYPRUS. (See Curium.) 


CZECHS. Name of the natives of Bohemia and Moravia. In Bohemia there 
is a violent opposition between the Czechs and Germans. 


D. 


DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. (See Rowmania.) 
DARIEN CANAL. (See Canals.) 


DARWINISM. A ‘‘development” theory was put forth by Wolff, 1759; 
and one by Lamarck, 1809, and one in the ‘‘ Vestiges of Creation,” 1844. 
Origin of mammals from an egg, not a hundredth part of an inch diameter, 
proved by von Baer, 1827. Mr. Darwin’s doctrines are contained in his 
‘** Origin of Species,” 1859, and ‘‘ Descent of Man,” 1871. His follower, 
Haeckel, published a ‘‘ History of Creation,’ 1873, appeared in English, 
1875. Mr. A. R. Wallace’s ‘‘ Natural Selection” appeared 1870. 

DEACONESSES. Discontinued in the Western Church in the fifth and 
sixth centuries, and in the Eastern in the twelfth; recently revived in 


Germany. Pastor Fliedner’s Institution for training deaconesses at Kais- 
erswerth founded 1835. Advocated in England by the Bishop of Ely, 


1867-77. 


19 


1853, and some appointed. Di:cesan Deaconess Institution at London, 


established 1861. 


In 1866 the Kaiserswerth Institution had connected 


with it 139 stations and 491 sisters or deaconesses. 
DEATHS, noticeable, 1867-1877, in alphabetical order of names: 


Agassiz. L., naturalist, Dec. 15, 1873. 

Alford, Rev. H., critic, poet, and divine, Jan. 
12, 1871. 

Alison, Sir A., historian, May 23, 1867. 

Amberley, Viscount, Jan. 10, 1876. 

Antonelli, Cardinal, priest and statesman, 
Nov. 6, 1876. 

Appiegath A,, inventor of printing machinery, 
es peg aa bank notes, etc., Feb, 14, 

Vb, 


Aspinwall, Col. Thomas, Aug. 11, 1876. 

Auber, D. F. E., composer, May 13, 1871. 

Aubigné, Merle a’, clergyman and historian, 
Oct. 19, 1872. 

Austin, Mrs. Sarah, authoress, Aug. &, 1867. 

Babbage, C., mathematician, Oct. 18, 171. 

oon James, Scotch iron master, June 21, 

76. 
crepe Theodorus, admiral, U. S. N., Feb. 10, 
vt. 

Bedfovsd, Paul, actor, Jan. 11, 1871. 

Bentley, P.., publisher, Sept. 10, 1871. 

Berryer, P, A., French advocate and orator, 
Noy. 29, 1868. 

Blair, f P., senior, editor and politician, Oct. 
18, 18/6. 

Blitz, Auconio, “‘ magician,” Jan, 28, 1877. 

Bragg, B. L., rebel general, Sept. 27, 1876. 

Brewster, Sir D., physicist, Feb. 10, 1868. 

Brongniart, A. T., scientist and author, Feb, 
20, 1876. 

Brooke, Sir J., Rajah of Sarawak, June 11, 
1868. 


Brougham, Lord, advocate, orator, writer, phil- 
anthropist, May 7, 1868. 

Broughton, Lord (Sir J. C. Hobhouse), author 
and official, June 3, 1869, 

Brownlow, W. G., editor and politician, April 
29, 1877. 

Brownson, O. A., writer and jeurnalist, April 
17, 1876. 

Buchanan, J., ex-President, June 1, 1868. 

Burgoyne, Sir John, soldier, Oct. 7, 1871. 

Barns, Jabez, Methodist clergyman, Jan. 31, 
1876. 

Bushnell, Horace, clergyman and writer, Feb. 
17, 1876. 

Capponi, Marquis, author, Feb. 4, 1876. 

Cardigan, Lord, of Balaklava notoriety, March 
28, 1868. 

Chambers, Robert and William, publishers and 
authors, March 17 and 20, 1871. 

Clarendon, Harl of, diplomatist and statesman, 
June 27, 1870. 

Cousin, Victor, historian and philosopher, Jan. 
14, 1867. 

Cushman, Charlotte, actress, Feb. 18, 1876. 

Custer, Gen., July 2, 1876. 

Davies, C.. mathematician, Sept. 17, 1876. 

Davis, C, H., admiral U.S, Navy, Feb. 18, 1877. 

Deak, Francis, Hungarian statesman, Jan. 29, 

BS a A., mathematician, March 18, 


Derby, Earl of, statesman, Oct. 23, 1869. 

Dickens, Charles, novelist, June 9, 1870, 

Didot, A., publisher, Feb. 20, 1876. 

Dumas, Alexandre, novelist and dramatist, 
Dec. 5, 1870. 

oer g J. P., Methodist clergyman, Oct. 19, 
1876, : 

Hllenborough, Earl of, statesman and admin- 
istrator, Dec., 1871, 

Ellet, Mrs. Elizabeth F., authoress, 1877. 

Emerson-Tennent, Sir J., author and official, 
March 6, 1869. 

Evans, Sir De Lacy, soldier, Jan. 9, 1870. 

ett Bishop of (Henry Phillpotts), Sept. 8, 
869. 


Faraday, M., physicist, Aug. 25, 1867. 

Forrest, Edwin, actor, Dec. 12, 1872. 

Forster, John, author, Jan. 31, 1876. 

Freiligrath, F., poet, March 19, 1876. 

Galliera, Duke of, wealthy Italian nobleman, 
Nov, 24, 1876, 

Gough, Lord, soldier, March 2, 1869. 

Greenfield, Elizabeth T., the ‘black swan,” 
colored singer, March 31, 1876. 

Grisi, Giulia, singer, Nov. 25, 1869. 

Grote G., historian of Greece, June 18, 1871, 

Guizot, F., statesman and historian, Sept. 12, 
1873, 

Hall, W. W., medical writer and editor, May 
10, 1876. 

Harper, Fletcher, last of four brothers, pub- 
lishers, May 29, 1877. 

Hemmenway, A., merchant and capitalist, 
June 16, 1876. 

tote Sir J. F. W., astronomer, May 11, 

871. 


Howe, Dr. S. G., physician and philanthro- 
pist, Jan. 9, 1876. 

Hudson, George, the ‘ Railway King,” Dec. 
14, 1871, 

dee Andrew, ex-President, January 10, 
876. 


Johnson, Reverdy, lawyer and statesman, Feb. 
10, 1876. 

Johnston, Keith, geographer, July 9, 1871. 

Jones, Ernest, chartist, Jan. 26, 1869. 

Juarez, B., ex-president of Mexico, July 18, 
1872. 

Kean, Charles, Jr., actor, Jan, 22, 1868. 

Kerr, Michael C., politician, Aug. 19, 1876. 

Kock, Paul de, French novelist, Aug., 1871. 

Lahrbush, Frederick A., soldier, claiming te 
be 111 years and 25 days old, April 3, 1877. 

Lamartine, A. de, poet, historian, and states. 
man, Feb. 28, 1869, 

Landseer, Sir H., painter, Oct. 1, 1873. 

Lane, EH. W., Arabic scholar, Aug, 10, 1876. 

Lee, R. E., rebel general, Oct. 13, 1870. 

Lick, James, capitalist, Oct. 1, 1876. 

Lowenthal, J. J., chess-player, July 21, 1876 

Lytton, Lord, novelist, Jan. 18, 1873. 

Lemaitre, F., actor, Jan, 27, 1£76. 

Lemon, Mark. editor, May 23. 1870, 

Maclise, Daniel, painter, Apri 25, 1870. 


20 


Mansel, H. L., divine and metaphysician, J‘:ly 
31, 1871. 

Marochetti, Baron, sculptor, Dec. 29, 1867. 

Martineau, Harriet, writer, June 2%, 1876. 

Mayo, Lord, vov. gen. of India, assassinated, 
Feb. 8, 1872. 

Mayo, Dr. Thomas, physician and medical 
writer, Jan. 18, 1874. 
Maximilian iL; Emperor of Mexico, June 19, 
1867. 
Maxwell, 
14, 1877. 
Mazzini, G., Italian, republican agitator and 
conspirator, March 10, 1872. 

Melvill, Rev. Henry, divine, Feb. 9, 1874. 

Michael III., Prince of Servia, assassinated 
June 10, 1868. 
Milman, Dr. H. H., author and divine, Sept. 

2 T L868: 

Montalembert, Count de, author and states- 
man, March 13, 1870. 

Murchison, Sir R. I. , geologist, Oct. 22, 1871. 

Napoleon IIL., ex- Emperor, Jan. 9, 1873, 

Narvaez, Spanish soldier and ruler, April 23, 
1868. 

Neal, John, writer, June 20, 1876. 

Omar Pasha, soldier, April 18, 1871. 

Patteson, J. C., missionary, Bishop of Melan- 
esia, Sept. 20, 1871. 

Peabody, George, banker and public benefac- 

tor, Nov. 4, 1869, 

Péri an Oasimir, French statesman, July 6, 
1876. 

Poggendorff, J. C., physicist, 1877. 

Pollock, Sir Frederick, judge, Aug. 23, 1870. 

Préyost-Paradol, M., author, July 19, 1870. 

Prim, J., Spanish soldier and statesman, as- 
sassinated Dec, 28, 1870. 

Pugh, George H., lawyer and politician, July 
19, 1876. 

Putnam, George P., publisher, Dec. 19, 1872. 

Randall, H.8., agricultural and educational 
writer, Aug. 19, 1876. 

Rhett, R. B.. ’ politician, Sept. 14, 1876. 


DEVELOPMENT. 


Lady (Mrs, Caroline Norton), June 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


Robertson, T. W.. dramatist, Feb., 1871. 

Robinson, 'W. S., journalist, "March 11, 1876. 

Rosas, Manuel, ex-dictator of Buenos Ayres 
March 14, 1877 _ 

Rosse, Earl of, astronomer, Oct. 31, 1867. 

Rossini, G. A., composer, Nov. 13, 1868. 

Rothschild, Sir Anthony, capitalist, Jan. 4 
1876. 

Ryves, Mrs,, daughter of the self-styled ‘* Prin- 
cess Olive, of Cumberland,” Dee, 7, 1871. 

Sainte-Beuve, ©. A. literary critic, Oct., 1869. 

Saldanha, field marshal, Portnguese, soldier 
and statesman, Nov. at, 1 

Salt, Sir Titus, aise Dec. 29, 1876. 

Sand, George (Mme. Dudevant), June 8, 1876: 

Santa Anna, Antonio L., Mexican general and 
ruler, June 20, 1876. 

Schamyl, fircassian chief, April, 1871. 

Smart, Sir Gcorge, musician, Feb. 23, 1867. 

Smith, Alexander, poet, Jan. 5, 1867. 

Smith. F. O. J., telegraph capitalist, Oct. 14, 
1876. 

Smith, Geo., Assyrian scholar, Sept. 5, 1876. 

Smith, Henry B., presbyterian wa ben pro- 
fessor, editor, and author, Feb, 7, 187%. 

Smith, William, connoisseur and antiquary in 
engravings, Sept. 13, 1876. 

Smirke, Sir R., architect, April 18, 1867. 

Stanfield, Clarkson, marine painter, May 18, 
1867. 

Stewart, A. T., merchant, April 10, 18%6. 

Strangford, Viscount, diplomatist, Jan, 9, 1869. 

Strauss, yA theologian, Feb. 8. 1873. 

Sumner, C., statesman, March 11, 1873. 

Thompson, Jeff., rebel general, Sept. 5, 1876. 

Tischendorf, C., biblical scholar, Dec. 7, 1873. 

Vanderbilt, C., railroad owner and capitalist, 
Jan. 4, 1877 

Whittingham, C., printer, April 21, 1876. 

ti Charles, admiral, U. 8. N., Feb. 8, 

877. 

Wilson, Henry, vice-president, Jan. 20, 1876. 

Winship, G. B., strong man, Sept. 12, 1876. 

Wise, H. A., politician, Sept. 11, 1876. 


(See Darwinism.) 


DIAMONDS. The Kohinoor, reduced by its first unskilful cutting from 
nearly 800 carats to 279 carats, was recut in 1852 down to 1024 carats. 
The ‘‘ Star of the South,”’ brought from Brazil 1855, weighed 2044 carats, 
of which half was lost in cutting. Diamonds were found in Cape Colony, 
South Africa, in March, 1867, and one, the ‘‘ Star of South Africa,” 
found in 1869, weighed 463 carats, and was valued in June, 1870, at 
£25,000. Other diamond fields discovered near Vaal and Orange Rivers, — 
September, 1870 ; a great rush of diggers, November, 1870. The value of 
141 diamonds found in Africa, 1859, was £7,405; of 5,661 in 1870, © 
£124,910. Diamond drill for piercing stone, patented by Hermann in 
France, 1854; a subsequent improvement by setting the diamond in the 
rim of a tube to turn, and thus cut out a core, used in Mt. Cenis tunnel 
and at Hellgate mine. 


DISESTABLISHMENT. (See also Church of Ireland.) A conference was 
held at Birmingham, October 1, 1872, to promote immediate action for 
the disestablishment of the English and Scotch national churches. 


DRAMA. January 28, 1869, the Lord Chamberlain of England sent an offi- | 


1867-77. 21 


cial warning to all the London managers against ‘ the impropriety of cos- 
tume of the ladies in the pantomimes, burlesques, etc.,” usual on the stage. 
Dramatic College, for distressed actors and their children, founded at May- 
bury, near Woking, in England, June 1, 1860, and seven persons installed 
as beneficiaries, September 29, 1862, A somewhat similar institution was 
directed to be established by Edwin Forrest, the American actor, in his 
house at Philadelphia, but there appeared to be none to apply for the 
benetit of the asylum. 


DUALIN. (See Haplosives. ) 


DUELS. March 12, 1870, the Duke de Montpensier challenged Don Enri- 
_ que de Bourbon, for personalities having reference to the throne of Spain, 
and at the third shot killed him. The Duke was tried by court-martial, 
and sentenced to one menth’s banishment from Madrid and $6,000 fine, 
to be paid toe Don Enrique’s family. Duels are still (1877) frequent in 
France, but have become rare in England and America. A clumsy and 
unsuccessful one took place in 1877, between J. G. Bennett, the owner of 
the New York Herald, and one May, of New York ; neither was damaged, 
and Bennett went off to Europe, where he remained a number of months. 


DZOUNGARIA, ok SOONGARIA. A couniry north of China, inhabited 
by about two million warlike and fanatical Mohammedans. They were 
tributary to China, rebelled 1864, making Abel Oghlan sultan. In conse- 
quence of their depredations Russia attacked them, April, 1871, the Sultan 
surrendered himself July 4, and the country was annexed to Russia. 


E. 


EARTH. The estimated average density, 5;%; that of water ; weight, 
6,000,000/000,000,000,000,000 tons. ; 


HARTHQUAKES. (See pp. 112,358.) August 13-15, 1868, terrible earth- 
quakes totally destroyed Arica, Arequipa, Islay, Iquique, Pisco, and 
many other towns of Peru and Ecuador. Estimated lives lost, 20,000 ; 
estimated loss of property, £60,000,000, including many ships along the 
coast and at the Ciincha Islands. It was believed that more than 300,000 
persons were deprived of shelter and food. An earthquake on the Sind 
frontier of India, December 14 and 15, 1872, killed about 500 persons. May 
16-18, 1875, one on the Colombia frontier, near Santander, is said to have 
killed 14,000. From 1783 to 1857, the kingdom of Naples lost, out of a 
population of about six million, over 1,000 persons a year, in all 110,000. 
About 255 earthquakes, all slight, are known to have occurred in the Brit- 
ish Islands. 


HAST INDIA COMPANY. Its government of India ceased October 1, 
1858. Finally abolished June 1, 1874. 


ECLIPSES. August 17 and 18, 1868, there was an eclipse of the sun, visi- 
ble in many parts of the East, and very important for study, because its 
obscuration was for the longest period ever observed, reaching on the east 
coast of Bengal 5 minutes 49 seconds, and owing to the sun’s great dis- 
tance and the moon’s small distance from the earth, the obscuration was 
also very complete. Very important observations were made, especially 
spectroscopic ones, as to the material structure of the sun. August 7, 


22 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


1869, solar eclipse generally observed in North America. There is a sort 
of series of about 70 eclipses that comes round once every 18 years 104 
days. Except on August 12, 1889, no total eclipse of the sun will be visi- 
ble in England for 250 years from July, 1871. 


ECUADOR. Presidents: Gen. Franco, August 21, 1859; Dr. G. G. 
Moreno, January, 1861; G. Carrion, August 4, 1865 : - resigns December, 
1867; Dr. X. Espinosa, September 5, 1867 ; Dr. G. G. Moreno, end of 
1872; assassinated August 6, 1872 ; x Leon, Vice-President, September, 
1875. Population estimated at about 1,500,000. 

EDUCATION IN U. S. (See pp. 113,362.) A Department of Education 
created by Aci of Congress, approved March 2, 1867; afterwards made . 
a Bureau in the Department of the Interior. Commissioner, Henry 
Barnard; succéeded in 1870 by Gen. John Haton. In 1870, in the 
United States, were persons over 10 years old unabie to read, 4,528,084 ; 
unable to write, 5,658,144; school children, 7,209,938 ; schools, 141,629 ; 
teachers (127, 713 female), 221,042; income of schools, $95,402,726, of 
which public money, $61,746,039. The census of 1870 showed that the 
wealth of the country was owned where the education was highest, and 
that poverty and illiteracy go together. Compulsory free schools, and 
disfranchisement of all who cannot read and write English, by Federal 
authority, recommended by President Grant in his message, December 5, 
1876. 

EDUCATION In ENGLAND. (See p. 362) National Kiucation Leagues 
(for compulsory education) first met ie a 12 and 13, 1869; Metropolitan 
School Board (for London), elected November 29, 1870, Miss C‘arrett, M.D., 
being chosen member by a large majority. Elementary Edveation Bill of 
Mr. W. E. Forster became law August 9, 1870; amended 1872, 1873, 1876 ; 
Compulsory Attendance Bill of Mr. Dixon rejected, 320 to 156, July 1, 
1874, and again, 281 to 260, April, 1876. Primary schools in Grew 

3ritain in 1855. 4,80; in 1860, 7,272; in 1870, 10,949; annual partlia- 
mentary grant for same, in 1870, about $4,500,000. 

EGYPT. (See pp 113,362.) See also Suez Canal. June 6, 1867. the 
Khedive (viceroy) of Egypt arrived in London; his visit lasted until the: 
18th. He made a second visit in 1869, landing June 22, and remaining 
eight days. A controversy with the Sultan was adjusted December 18, 
1869 ; a firman makes the Khedive practically independent June 8, 1875; 
but he must not coin money, make treaties, or build iron-clad ships. The 
succession of the Khedives is: Mehemet Ali Pacha, abdicated September, 
1843; dies August 2, 1849; Ibrahim, his adopted son, September, 1848 ; 
dies November 9 or 10, 1848; Abbas, his son, succeeds; dies July 14, 
1854: Said, Abbas’s brother, dies January 18, 1863; Ismail, Said’s 
nephew, succeeds. Mr. Cave’s report to English Government (April, 
1876), calls Ismail ‘‘intelligent, industrious, hospitable, and frugal.” 
The principal points as to ancient Egyptian history settled thus far are: 
1. Hieroglyphics are partly pictorial (and of these some are special and 
some general or determinative) and partly alphabetic. 2. Menes was 
believed by the ancient Egyptians to be historical, the first known king of 
Egypt; and there is more evidence for his existence than for that of 
King Arthur. 3. The great pyramid dates from the 4th dynasty, say 300 
or 400 years after Menes. 4. Manetho’s dynasties were mostly consecu- 
tive, not contemporary. 5. Roving tribes from the East (the Hyksos) con- 
quered Lower Egypt and ruled in the Delta for centuries; they wera 


Ne 


cs: 


EE At a ir i Mc mi is 


eee eis 


1867-77. 23 


expelled by Aahmes, or Amasis I. Under the 18th dynasty, which began - 
with this king, Egypt was greatest. Thotmes III. was the greatest of its 
kings. Ramses II., or Sesostris, of the 19th dynasty, was, however, as 
great. 6. Important synchronisms have been determined of the later 
period of Egyptian empire, with Syrian and Persian history.—(Rev. J. P. 
Thompson.) 


ELECTORAL COMMISSION. The votes of Florida, Louisana, and &cuth 


Carolina in the Presidential election of November, 1876, were disputed, 
and were finally referred for adjudication to an Electoral Commission by 
Act approved January 29, 1877. The commission consisted of Justices 
Clifford, Strong, Miller, Field, and Bradley, of the United States Supreme 
Court; United States Senators Edmunds, Morton, Frelinghuysen, Thur- 
man, Bayard; United States Representatives Payne, Hunton, Abbott, 
Garfield, Hoar. The Commission began operations February ea toy ge 
acted on the three votes above named, the critical questions being mostly 
determined by a vote of eight to seven, corresponding nearly with the 
known political opinions of the members of the commission, and the 
deciding vote being usually that of Justice Bradley. The result of the 
Commission was the crediting of the votes in question to Hayes and 
Wheeler, who were in consequence elected President and Vice-President 
of the United States by one electoral vote majority, viz., by 185 votes to 
184. 


ELEMENTARY SUBSTANCES. The elementary substances now known 


are sixty-five in number, as follows; those after sulphur being in the 
order of their discovery from antimony, 1490 down to 1877. 


Gold, Platinum, Tungsten, Lithium, 
Silver, Nickel, Tellurium, Selenium, 
Mercury, Sodium, Uranium, Cadmium, 
Copper, . Potassium, Zirconium, Bromine, 
Iron, Lime (calcium), Titanium, Thorinum, 
Tin, Silex, Strontium, Vanadium, 
Lead, Alumina, Yttrium, Lanthanum, 
Carbon, Magnesia, Chromium, Didymium, 
Sulphur, Hydrogen, Glucinum, Erbium, 
Antimony, Fluorine, Tantalum, Ruthenium, 
Bismuth, Nitrogen, Cerium, Niobium, 
Zinc, Chlorine, Palladium, Caesium, 
Phosphorus, Oxygen, Rhodium, Rubidium, 
Borax, Manganese, Iridium, Thallium, 
Arsenic, Barium, Osmium, Indium, 
Cobalt, Molybdenum, Iodine, Jargonium, 
Gallium. 


ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. The electric telegraphs of the world are (in 


1877) 391,360 miles long. Of these, the United States contain 79,000 
miles; Great Britain and Ireland, 75,000; Russia, 31,459; France, 
28,784; Austro-Hungary, 28,148; Germany, only 19,152. 


EMIGRATION and IMMIGRATION. Immigration into United States 


since 1861 (by Government fiscal years) : 


in vas be eee 89,720 Ve TE ane ges 293,601 UY Cee ih a 437,750 
2 ae ee 89,005 TBs sald eacisie t 289,145 pay ts Been ay ae 422,545 
ho ee 174.523 Me ee rere 585, 287 LSC Ge awed a Yeiphs 260,814 
POOLE apne a 193,191 LO TO isles = taka « «- SO OGOS TS oo eis ace aba 191,281 
BUA Ee aig les ss 5 248,394 DS ieeetiete ta te 346,938 thor t adit ira gr 237,991 
ABO Aer chis se 3's 814,840 


Total in sixteen years, 4.331,278. Whole emigration into United States 
to end of 1875, including the estimated total of 250,000 before 1220, 
9,526,966. For Chinese immigration to California, see (hina. 


24 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


Emigration from Great Britain and Ireland for Ten Years. 


ats 7 veka To United States. | To Australia, Total. 
1866 13,265 161,000 24,097 204,882 
1867 15,503 159,275 14,466 195,953 
1868 21,062 155,532 12,809 196,325 
1869 33/891 203,001 14/901 258,027 
1870 35,295 196,075 17,065 256,940 
1871 32,671 *  7198°843 127927 952’ 435 
1872 32.205 233.747 15,876 295,213 
1873 37.208 533,073 26,428 310,612 
1874 95° 450 148,161 53,958 241.014 
1875 17,378 105,046 35,525 173,809 


ENCUMBERED ESTATES ACT, to provide for disposal of encumbered 
real estate in Ireland, passed July, 1849; proceedings under it October, 
1849, to July. 1858: 2,380 estates sold, and brought £22,000,000. The 
Irish Land Bill, passed 1870, further recognized the Irish customs as to 
tenure of land, and gave the tenant a right in his improvements, and 
damages for being wrongfully evicted. 

EOZOON CANADENSE. A foraminifer found by J. W. Dawson, of Mont- 
real, in the Laurentian limestone in 1858; asserted to be the earliest 
known form of animal life. 

EPHESUS. Mr. Wood’s search for the ruins of the temple of Diana began 
1863; he ascertained the site 1870, and shipped 60 tons of marble to the 
British Museum in 1872. 

EUROPE. Population (census years 1860 to 1875 in different countries), 
265,374,470; an estimate for 1872, for all these countries, gives 301,700, - 
000. 

EVOLUTION theory; includes the nebular theory, and the Darwinian theory 
of the descent of man and natural selection. 

EXECUTION. (See also Capital Punishinent.) The execution of Michael 
Barrett, for being concerned in the plot to blow up Clerkenwell Prison, 
December 13, 1867, at Newgate, London, May 26, 1868, was the last 
public execution in England. On September 8th following, the first 
private execution took place, inside of Newgate, being that of one 
Mackay, for murder. 

HXHIBITIONS, INTERNATIONAL. London (South Kensington), opened 
May 1, closed November 1, 1867; visitors, 6,117,450. Paris, opened April 
1, closed November 3, 1867. Vienna, opened May 1, closed November 2, 
1873. Philadelphia, opened May 10, closed November 10, 1876. The 
Philadelphia Exhibition (most single admissions, 274,919, on September 
28, 1876) compares with the other chief similar ones as follows: 


Place. Year. Days open. Admissions. _ Receipts. 
London. 2, 0 soos 1851 141 6,039,191 $2,530,500 
Ate Uta. eee aioe 5 1862 172 6,211,103 2, 042,650 
Parisi 22... ose ak 1855 200 5,162,330 ‘640,495 
SOC a) Accte ents oes 5 1867 217% 8,805,969 2,103,675 
VienbAS 0: meee 1873 186 6,740,500 1, "032, 385 
Philadelphia.......... 1876 159 oF 789, 392 3, "813,749, %5 


Exhibitors at Philadelphia, 30,864, from 50 countries ; whole outlay about 
$8,830,000. 


Se ws 


1867-77, 25 


EXPLOSIONS. (See Hellgate.) Explosion of steam on the ironclad Thun- 
derer, at Portsmouth, England, kills 77 persons. One Thomas, Thomas- 
sen, or Thomson, said also to be in fact named Alexander Keith, Jr., and 
a native of Halifax, N. S., sent a cask of dynamite to be shipped by the 
steamer Mosel, at Bremerhaven, and with it a clock-train set to run eight 
days and then explode the dynamite and destroy the ship, which would 
then be well out atsea. The machine, however, exploded on the dock 
December 11, 1875, killing over 80 persons and wounding about 200. 
Thomassen killed himself, after confessing that his object had been 
merely to obtain a small insurance. 


EXPLOSIVE BULLET TREATY, adopted in November 1868, at St. Peters- 
burg, by Bavaria, Belgium, Denmark, England, France, Greece, Holland, 
Italy, Persia, Portugal, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, 
Turkey, and Wiirtemberg, agreed not to use in any war amongst them- 
selves, by land or sea, any exrlosive missiles of any kind of less than 400 
grammes weight, viz., about 13 oz. avoirdupois. 


EXPLOSIVES. Dynamite (or giant powder), looks like rather fine brown 
sugar, and is made of powdered silex, silicious ashes or infusorial earth, 
mixed with three times its weight of nitro-glycerine. Dualin, made 
known by Carl Ditmar, a Prussian, in 1870, consists of cellulose, nitro- 
starch, nitro-mannite, and nitro-cellulose ; and the dualin invented by 
Nobel is composed of ammonia and sawdust, treated with nitro-sulphuric 
acid, WNitro-glycerine, an amber-colored fluid, discovered by Sobrero, 
1847; made by gradually adding glycerine to a mixture of one part nitric 
and two parts sulphuric acid. It explodes with thirteen times the force 
of gunpowder, besides a great gain in its speed of action. Gun-cotton, 
invented by Schénbein, and made known 1846 ; it is made by steeping 
cotton in mixed nitric and sulphuric acids (equal parts). Lithofracteur is 
a modification of dynamite, invented by Engels, of Cologne, 1869. Gly- 
oxyline, invented by F. A. Abel, in England, in 1867, is a mixture of gun- 
cotton, saltpetre, nitro-glycerine, and pulp. It was superseded by com- 
pressed gun-cotton. 


EXTRADITION TREATY between England and the United States, negoti- 
ated 1842; abrogated May 2, 1876, in consequence of England’s refusing, 
April 18, 1876, to surrender the forger Winslow, and of a disagreement 
about trying one Lawrence, delivered by England under the treaty, the Eng- 
lish position being that there were improper efforts to try him for offences 
other than that for which he was delivered; while the United States 
claimed that England had wrongly applied a home English statute of 1870, 
defining extradition offences, to this treaty, which was international. An 
extradition treaty between the United States and Spain was proclaimed 
Feb. 21, 1877. 


EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. (See pp.118, 373.) See Commerce. 


F. 


FAILURES (See Commercial Failures, W. P.,p.100,) in the United States, 
for the ten years 1867-76, were as follows: 


a 


26 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


Average 
Number. Whole Amount, Indebtedness, } 
LOR Ges ca eistessaiale ae aia aed 2,386 ao hee $86,218, 000 aes ction $36,134 
LEGS ese n csc cc a miicitee te 6 9 GUS saaasteee a 63, 74, O0Os. 2s 24,452 
TSOO MRS OA Me west se PA dake ses ycie "5, 054, 000% ciexc oe cree 26,814 
LOO ite Use eee ODORS Meese le 88,242,000 BPC 24,849 
ptrp Wee ee aS Shape ae 2,016%) Gases 85,252,000 cw. 29,245 
Ahoy erase 4. 2 ea ee 4. OG9 oie cote chad 121,056,000 ie were 750 
ASTOE SHEE See is ce clone Do Ss see eae 228,499. 000 so muetaerer 44,085 
1874 Som See... (S80 ee ee 185,239,000 mer ected 26,627 
1875 a ee ee coe, ue Ate Lindh 201,060,858 11... 25,978 
LOTG ip crattes Soles waccece ces 9,092 191,117 786 epee. een 21,020 


FAMINE. (See p. 375.) In Orissa, 750, 000 persons perished of famine, 
1865-6 ; very severe in Persia, 1871-2 in Bengal, from drought, 1874; 
in Asia Minor, 1874-5; in several parts of India, 1876-7. 


FENIANS. October 10, 1869, Edward Martin, a Fenian official, was buried 
in London, with a Fenian demonstration consisting of a funeral procession 
of various organized bodies, in all about 6,000 men. In 1870, Parliament 
amnestied the Fenian prisoners at Portland, but on condition of banish- 
ment for life from the United Kingdom. A Fenian force of some 2,000 
strong, under O’Neill, entered Canada from Vermont, May 25, 1870, but 
remained beyond the lines only ninety minutes, being repulsed and driven 
back by a few English and Canadian troops. Another company crossed 
the line at Malone, N. Y., on the 27th, and were driven back in asimilar . 
manner. One Fenian killed at each place was the whole loss on both 
sides. July 13, 1871, Head Constable Talbot, of Dublin, who had been 
vigorous and successful in breaking up the plans of the Fenians, was 
assassinated by a pistol-shot, dying on the 16th. One Kelly, who was sup- 
posed to have shot him, was acquitted, to the great joy of the Fenians. 


FIJI ISLANDS. Ceded to England, September 30, 1873; Sir A. H. Gordon 
first Governor, 1875. 


FILIOQUE. A word adopted into the Western creeds, in the Council of 
Toledo, 589; rejected by the Hastern churches since 662. It implies that 
the Holy Ghost proceeds both from the Father ‘‘and from the Son.” The 
old Catholic Conference, Bonn, August, 1875, debated its omission, but did 
not omit it. 


FIRES. (See pp. 120,378.) December 6, 1867, Her Majesty’s Theatre, Lon- 
don, was burned down. It was reckoned the best existing building of its 
class for hearing music in. June 5, 1870, a great fire in Pera, one of the 
suburbs of Constantinople, destroyed many houses, immense quantities of 
property of Armenian merchants, the English Embassy buildings, and (by 
estimate) 2,000 lives. January 12, 1870, the Star and Garter Hotel at 
Richmond, near London, for many years a favorite resort of pleasure- 
parties, was totally burnt; the manager, Mr. Lever, being burnt also. 
May 24, 1870, at Quebec, a "fire in the suburb of St. Roch destroyed 400 
houses, left 8, 000 persons homeless, and consumed $1,000,000 worth of 
property. March 10, 1871, a fire at Holker Hall, Devonshire, a seat of 
the Duke of Devonshire, "destroyed, among many other valuable and 
curious articles. seventy-two very fine paintings, by some of the best 
masters, ancient inl modern. June 17, 1871, the steam in an immense 
boiler, some thirty feet long, in the Trinity Work: in Sheffield, was found 
to continue to fill the boiler at night after the fires were withdrawn. On 
examination it was found that the boiler, which had been noticed to be 
sinking for some time, was kept hot by the slow burning of a seam of 


1867-77. 27 


shale and coal extending immediately under the building. The fire must 
have been long burning, perhaps for years, and was quietly at work under 
the street and under the houses opposite. It took a considerable time 
and a large force of men to put it out. December 3, 1871, a fire at War- 
wick Castle consumed the whole of the east wing and the centre, the 
west wing being saved with great difficulty. Many valuable works and 
historic pictures and relics were destroyed. December 14, 187 1, a fire 
at Rotherhithe, near London, in Bennett & Co.’s granaries, among the 
largest in England, destroyed to the value of £150,000. November 24, 
1876, fire at Tokio, Japan, destroys some 5,000 homes; about fifty per- 
sons killed; loss of property about $10,000,000. December 5, 1876, 
Brooklyn Theatre burned; 3815 lives lost. For Boston and Chicago fires, 
see Boston, Chicago. 


FLOGGING. Abolished in the English army (in time of peace) in the 
annual mutiny bills of 1868. The Act provides that ‘‘ no court-martial 
shall have power to sente’ ce any soldier or marine on shore to corporal 
punishment in time of peace.” 


FLOODS. (See Jnundations, pp. 132, 426.) Great floods in France in Sep- 
tember, 1866 ; in North of England, November 16 and 17, 1866 ; at Rome, 
December 28 and 29, 1870; in Northern Italy, October, 1872 ; at Toulouse, 
in France (1,000 lives lost), June 23, 1875 ; in midland and western coun- 
ties of England, July, October and Novemeer, 1875; in India, September 
22-24, 1875; in Holland and France, March, 1876. Reservoir at Mill 
River, Mass., burst, destroying several villages and about 150 lives, May 
16, 1874. A flood in the rivers gf Western Pennsylvania, July, 1874, 
drowns about 220 persons. The Worcester, Mass., reservoir burst Mareh 
30, 1876, but_ having been expected, no lives were lost, though great 
damage was done. 

FLORENCE, oR FIRENZE. (See p. 378.) People vote for annexation to 
Sardinia, March 11 and 12, 1860, and on April 7, the King enters Flor- 
ence: it is made the capital of Italy until Rome shall be acquired, De- 
cember 11, 1864, and the King and Court established there May 15, 1865. 
600th anniversary of Dante’s birth celebrated May 14, 1865; first Italian 
parliament November 18, 1865; government removes to Rome, July, 1871. 
400th anniversary of Michael Angelo, September 12, 1875. 

FLUORESCENCE. The luminousness which takes place in uranium- glass, 
and in solutions of quiniue, horse-chestnut bark, or stramonium datura, 
when the invisible chemical rays of the blue end of the solar spectrum are 
sent through them. Discovered and named by Stokes, 1852. 

FRANCE. (See, for events, etc., in the Chronological Tables, following the 
** Dictionary of Dates.”’) 


G. 


GAMING. Gaming-houses licensed in Paris until 1838. Betting-houses 
suppressed in London, 1830. Public gaming-tables suppressed at Wies- 
baden, Hamburg, and other European watering-places, leaving Monace 
the only such place of resort, December 31, 1872. Pool-selling forbidden 
by law in New York, 1876. 

GATLING GUN. Invented in America; patents 1861-1865; exhibited at 
Paris 1867; rejected in England as inferior to a field-gun firing shrapnel : 


238 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


a similar machine, the mitrailleuse, tried at Vincennes, 1869, and used by 
the French in the war of 1870-1871. 


GENEVA. (See p. 388.) The ex-Duke of Brunswick dies here August 
18, 1873, and leaves all his property (over £764,000) to the city. 


GENEVA CONVENTION, on care of wounded, etc., in war, of delegates 
from fourteen governments, met October 26, 1863; their code adopted by 
all civilized powers except the United States, August, 1864. The Inter- 
national or ‘‘ Red Cross” Society, established in consequence, did much 
in relieving the sick and wounded in the Franco-Prussia war, 1870-1871, 
some 13,000 volunteers attending them at a time. 


GERMANY. (See pp. 124,390.) The Germanic Confederation, succeeding 
Napoleon’s ‘‘ Confederation of the Rhine,” was formed June 8, 1815; its 
first diet was at Frankfort, November 16, 1816; announced dissolved by 
Prussia, June 14, 1866, but continued; was, however, given up by Austria 
at the peace of Nikolsburg, after Sadowa, July 26, and the last meeting 
of the diet, August 24, 1866. Instead was established the North German 
Confederation, without Austria and the other South German States, Au- 
gust 18, 1866. North German Parliament met at Beriin, February 24, 
1867; the confederation ceased on the re-establishment of the German 
Empire, January 1, 1871. Population of the Empire, December 1, 1875, 
42,726,844. 


GOLD. (See pp. 125,395.) Of 98,000,000 sovereigns coined in England 
from 1850 to 1869, 44,000,000 had in the latter year disappeared from 
circulation; and it was computed that in 1869 314 per cent. of the sov- 
ereigns and 40 per cent. of the half-sovereigns circulating were of light 
weight. Estimated value of gold extant in the world, in 1848, about 

~,800,000,000 ; in 1875, about $5,000,000,000. 


GOOD TEMPLARS. A secret society of total abstinents. The first Eng- 
lish lodge formed at Birmingham, May, 1868; in 1874 said to be 3,743 
lodges and 210,255 members in the United Kingdom. 


GOTHENBURG SYSTEM. Introduced with excellent results at Gothen- 
burg, Sweden, for controlling the use of intoxicating liquors. It consists 
of a monopoly of the sale by a company of reputable citizens, under care- 
ful restrictions, and without any gain beyond usual wages, to the sellers, 
who must live by their other business as victuallers, etc. 

GRANGERS. (See Patrons of Husbandry.) 

GREAT BRITAIN. (For principal occurrences, see in Ohiedanenan 
Tables, following the Dictionary of Dates.) 

GREEK CHURCH. Patriarch of Constantinople declines the Pope’s invita- 
tion to an cecumenical council, October, 1868. A Greek church at Liver- 
pool consecrated by an archbishop, January 16, 1870. 

GRETNA GREEN. Here Scotch marriages (an acknowledgment before 
witnesses was a valid marriage in Scotland) used to be celebrated for run- 
aways. An Act of Parliament in 1856, however. destroyed the business, 
by providing that one party to such marriage must have lived in Scotland 
twenty-one days. 

GUATEMALA. (See p. 126.) Recent Presidents: Vincent Cerna, succeeded 
Carrera, May 3, 1865, to 1869; M. G. Granedos, December, 1872; R. Bar: 
rios, May 7, 1873. Population, about 1,180 000. 


1867-77. 29 


GYPSIES. Esther Faa crowned Queen of the Gypsies at Blyth, in York- 
shire, November 18, 1860. 


H. 


HAYTI, on St. Domineo. (See pp. 127, 406.) Hayti and St. Domingo are 
used as names for the whole island. MHayti is the western or French 
part, and San Domingo (which see) the eastern or Spanish part. Gef- 
frard became President of Hayti, January 23, 1859 ; a military insurrection 
against him, under Salnave, broke out May, 1865; Geffrard beaten and 
banished. Salnave President, March 27, 1867; after one or two risings 
are put down, Salnave proclaims himself Emperor, August, 1868, but is 
defeated by insurgents, taken, tried, and shot, January 15, 1870, General 
Nissage Saget elected President, March 19, 1870; lives out his term. M. 
Domingue elected June 14, 1874; an insurrection expels him, April, 1876, 
and Boisrond Canal elected July, 1876. Population (estimated) 572,000. 


HEAT. Count Rumford, about the beginning of this century, asserted that 
heat consists in motion among the particles of matter. Tyndall’s book 
on the same theme appeared February, 1863, and this is at present the 
received doctrine. 


HELLGATE. The reef at Hallett’s Point, which was the principal obstruc- 
tion at Hellgate, in East River, near New York, was mined during seven 
years under the management of General Newton, of United States 
Engineers, by a system of galleries and pillars between, to an extent of 
4,857 feet of tunnelling and 2,568 feet of galleries, covering two an@ 
three-quarter acres of ground, leaving ten feet of rock above, supported 
by 173 piers of about ten feet diameter each, and the whole system 
radiating fanwise outward from the entrance-shaft at the shore. All 
these pillars were then drilled and charged with a total number of 3,680 
charges of dynamite, vulcanite, or rend-rock powder, and the whole were 
connected with a battery on shore by wires, so as to insure simultaneous 
discharge. This took place on September 24, 1876, with complete suc- 
cess, the final connection which exploded the whole mass being made by 
the finger of General Newton’s baby daughter pressing a battery-key. A 
smaller explosion was the blowing up of Blossom Rock, in the Golden 
Gate (San Francisco harbor), April 23, 1870, in which 43,000 pounds of 
gunpowder were used, packed in one large chamber in the rock. 


HEPTARCHY. Seven Saxon kingdoms in England, about a.p. 450-850, 
viz.: Kent; South Saxons (Sussex and Surrey); West Saxons (Berks, 
Hampshire, Wilts, Somerset, Dorset, Devon, part of Cornwall); East 
Saxons (Hssex, Middlesex, part of Herts) ; Northumbria (Lancaster, York, 
Cumberland, Westmoreland, Durham, Northumberland); East Angles 
(Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Ely); and Mercia (Gloucester, Hereford, 
Chester, Stafford, Worcester, Oxford, Salop, Warwick, Derby, Leicester, 
Bucks, Northampton, Notts, Lincoln, Bedford, Rutland, Huntingdon, 
part of Herts). 


HERAT. A strong city, called the key of Afghanistan, near the Persian 
frontier. The Persians failed to take it, 1838 ; took it, October 25, 1856. 
contrary to the treaty of 1853; were forced to restore it by the English. 
July 27, 1857. 


30 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


HERZEGOVINA. An insurrection against the Turks broke out December, 
1861; subdued September, 1862. Another broke out July 1, 1875, and 
the country has been in an unsettled state ever since (1877), sympathizing 
with its neighbors Montenegro, Bosnia, and Servia. 


HIEROGLYPHICS. (See p. 409; see also Hoypt.) The researches of 
Champollion and others, greatly assisted by the discovery of the Rosetta 
Stone (see p. 103), have now made the Egyptian hieroglyphic language a 
reasonably well-understood one, with dictionaries and grammars. 


HOLLAND. (See p. 410.) William III. succeeded his father, William IJ., 
March 17, 1849. A Roman Catholic hierarchy re-introduced, 1853. 
Slavery abolished in Dutch West Indies (to take place July 1, 1863), 
August 6, 1862. Canals begun to connect Amsterdam and Rotterdam 
with the North Sea, 1865. Population (December 31, 1875), 3,809,527, of 
which over 1,200,000 is in cities having more than 20,000 inhabitants. 
The town population of Holland is proportionately larger than in any 
other European country. 


HOME RULE (for Ireland). The Home Government Association, estab- 
lished at Dublin, 1870, with both Catholic and Protestant members; Mr. 
Isaac Butt, a leader, elected to Parliament from Limerick, September 20, 
1871; agitation in and out of parliament from that time, without much 
result ; parliamentary ‘‘ filibustering,”’ with much inconvenience to busi- 
ness, carried on by Home Rule members, July, 1877. 


HORSE. (See p. 413.) Rarey’s mode of training horses shown by him 
in England with great success, 1858-9-60. Horseflesh used as food in 
Paris, 1866, and since. Goodenough’s American machine-made horse- 
shoes (patented 1860), to put on cold, adopted by the London General 
Omnibus Co., 1870. A horse epidemic, called the epizedtic, coming from 
Canada, caused much inconvenience in Northern States, October, 1872. 


HUNGARY. (See pp. 129, 414.) The Emperor and Empress of Austria were 
crowned king and queen of Hungary, at Pesth, June 8, 1867. The 
‘* Act of Grace ” issued on the occasion annulled all sentences and stopped 
all proceedings for political offences, restored forfeited estates, and al- 
lowed the banished to return. Croatia united with Hungary, May 27, 
1868. 


HURRICANE. (See also Cyclone.) Oct. 29, 1867, a violent hurricane 
struck St. Thomas (W. I.) and vicinity. At St. Thomas alone, some 80 
vessels were sunk or driven ashore, 100 lives lost on the island by fall of 
houses, etc., and several times as many on the shipping. March 11, 
1868, a hurricane at Mauritius drove ashore 20 ships, destroyed or un- 
roofed many buildings, destroyed immense quantities of growing sugar, 
cane and stored sugar, blew down a railroad bridge, etc. 


I, 


[CE-MACHINE. Machines for making ice act either: 1, by rapid evapora- 
tion, as in Carré’s, Harrison’s, Twining’s, etc., patents; or 2, by lique- 
faction of a freezing mixture, as in the common way of making ice-cream 
with ice and salt; or 3, by use of vacuum and absorption of heat in conse- 
quence from the article to be frozen. Several of these machines have 
been commercially successful. 


1867-77. 31 


ICELAND. (See p. 417.) A new constitution, granted and put in opera- 
tion at King Christian’s visit, Aug. 1, 1874, when the 1000th anniversary 
of the settlement was celebrated at Reykjavik. Cleasby’s Icelandic-Eng- 
lish dictionary, published 1869-74. A volcanic eruption March 29, 1875, 
devastated much pasture-land. 


IMPEACHMENT. ‘The House of Representatives voted (126 to 41) to im- 
peach President Johnson, Feb. 24, 1868, of high crimes and misdemean- 
ors, in having violated the Tenure of Office Act, and in other doings. 
After trial before the Senate, he was on May 16th acquitted on one ar- 
ticle (the 11th), only 35 Senators voting for conviction (one less than the 
two-thirds requisite), to 19 for acquittal. On the 26th he was acquitted 
on the remaining articles. 


. INCOME TAX, Unirep States. Expired by limitation, end of 1871. 


Receipts from it,1867, $27,418,000 ; 1868, $23,390,000 ; 1869, $27,353,000; 
1870, $26,150,000. 


INDIA. (See pp. 131, 421.) Order of the Star of India established June 25, 
1861. Growth of cotton greatly increased in consequence of American 
civil war stopping the supply, 1862. Government support of heathen 
religion stopped December, 1863. Indo-European telegraph opened, 
March 1, 1865. About 1,500,000 persons die of famine in Orissa, August 
to November, 1866. The Brahmo Somaj, a sect holding tenets much 
like the Unitarian, appear in 1869, and open a house of worship August 
24. Their leader, Keshub Chunder Sen, afterwards (1870) visits London, 
and preaches in a Unitarian chapel. Mr. Dall, a Unitarian missionary to 
India, joins the Brahmo Somaj. Much distress from famine in Bengal, 
spring of 1874, but only a few lives lost. Estimated expense of relief 
operations £6,500,000. Prince of Wales’s visit; he sails from England 
October 11, 1875, reaches Bombay, November 8; grand reception of Indian 
rulers, December 24; sails from Bombay to return, March 13, 1876. Queen 
Victoria proclaimed Empress of India in London, May 1, 1876; at Delhi, 
January 1,1877. British India (immediate and feudatory states inclusive) 
contains about 1,500,000 square miles, and population (census 1871-2) 
about 240,000,000. 


INDIANS. (See pp. 131,422; also Modocs.) Gen. Custer ambushed, de- 
feated and killed, and his command of 17 officers and 315 rank and file 
utterly exterminated by the Indians under Sitting Bull, at Little Horn 
River, July 2, 1876. Hostilities continue against the Indians, who, under 
Sitting Bull, flee into British territory at end of campaign of 1876. In 
the summer of 1877 Joseph, an Idaho chief, and a small band commence 
hostilities in that State. 


INFALLIBILITY of the Pope alone, voted by the Vatican Council, July 18, 
1870. Dr. von Dillinger excommunicated for opposing it, April 18, 1871 ; 
and chosen rector of the University of Munich, July 29,1871. The Bava- 
rian government protests against the doctrine, September 27, 1871; an 
‘* Old Catholic” church opened at; Munich, in September, 1871. 


INSOLVENCY. (See Bankruptcy.) 


INSURANCE. First fire insurance company in United States, the Phila- 
delphia Contributionship, 1752. First state insurance department in 
Massachusetts, 1854; next in New York, 1860. Capital in fire insurance 


$9 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


business in United States in 1860, $32,358,000; in 1866, $44,410,000; in 
1876, $55,883,000. Lost by the great fires of 1871 and 1872, over $15,- 
000,000. Comparison of the business in years 1865 and 1875: 


1865. 1875. 
Property Wmsgored. 2). acne see pees $3, 428,000,000 $6,273,000,000 
Préeminmnrece pts. :...... deswadtewe see 29,529, 000 900, 
LOSSesiDEIGSOVET.... :..<,ite b aetieanee 17,265,000 31,960,000 


Whole losses by fire in United States in 1875, $78,000,000, of which in. 
sured, $39,000,000. 


INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. (See Copyright.) 


INTERNATIONALISTS. An organization of a communist or socialist 
nature, first established by some German socialists in London, 1847; 
definitely organized at London, September 28, 1864, George Odger first 
president. Professes to operate for the emancipation of labor from the 
tyranny of capitalists. It has had congresses, sometimes ludicrously dis- 
orderly, at Geneva, September, 1866; Lausanne, September, 1867; Brus- 
sels, September, 1868; Basle, September, 1869; Barcelona, June, 1870; 
Hague, September, 1872. This last was particularly quarrelsome, and 
the political part seceded from the trade part, and adjourned to New 
York. At this time the society reported failing in England. Geneva 


meeting September, 1873, and at Brussels again, September, 1874. Has_ 


claimed the absurd number of 2,500,000 members, and to be affiliated 
with the Fenians and other secret societies. 


INTEREST. (See pp. 132,426.) In England was 8 per cent. by law of 
1623; 6 per cent., 1651; 5 per cent., 1718; and law totally repealed 1854, 
leaving interest a matter of agreement. 


INUNDATIONS. (See loods.) 

IONIAN ISLANDS. (See pp. 188, 427.) Declare for annexation to Greece, 
in March, 1861, and April, 1862. England acquiescing, annexation takes 
place accordingly, May 28, 1864, and the British troops leave June 2. 
Population about 200,000. 


IRELAND. (Seep. 428; see also Church of Ireland; Hneumbered Hs- 
tates Act; Henians; Home Rule.) Queen Victoria visits Ireland, Au- 
gust, 1849; again, August, 1853. Agitation against national school 
system, 1859. Agricultural distress and agrarian murders, 1862 and 18693 ; 
emigration very extensive, 1860-1864. Prince and Princess of Wales 
visit Ireland, April, 1868. Agrarian murders, 1869 and 1870. 


IRON. (See pp.133, 428.) The iron and steel production of the United 
States for three years, 1874-5-6, was as follows: 
1874. 1875. 1876. 


Pir iron, tong (of:2, 000 0b.) meres seen eee 2,689,413 2,266,581 2,093, 236 
All rolléd'irony/tonsys s.. Hiatesse ee cee hacia one 1,839,560 1,890,379 1,921,730 
Rails vali ykindestons;.4: 25. cece sveuaciee seis Cea ieee 729,413 192,512 879,629 
Rails, Bessemer steel, fons, sn... Pace. desir ota 144,944 290,863 412,461 


Cut nails and spikes (included in ‘ rolled iron”) kegs 4,912,180 4,726,881 4,157,814 
Iron produced in Great Britain in 1875, tons, 6,566,451. 


IRON SHIPBUILDING. (See also Navies.) This industry began in the 
United States in 1868, and up to 1877 have been built 251 iron vessels of 
a total capacity of 197,500 tons. Present annual value (1877) of iron 
vessels built in United States, from twelve to fifteen million dollars. Ip 
1876 were built 25 vessels as follows: 


: 


& 


1867-77. 30d 
Place. Number, Total Tonnage 
about, 

PAMEBIO gerseee So eo ns en. dee « Fs Se ae 140 

RS TUSOIS EIEN clisneyos.2 bic Ua wviet's oo A ee : 13 

Delaware, (State) .j..2.........- {i ate. oe 8,298 

INGw. Onlaa here ues. el ae, ote tents 5 ‘ 

JS}aS ETC) saat: Ws Reeahan = | ainsi era Llbeagy re Hele: 11,981 


Besides 9 other large vessels and a considerable number of smaller ones 
building. 

ITALY. (See pp. 133, 429.) September 23, 1867, Garibaldi, persisting in his 
march upon Rome, was arrested by the Italian authorities at Sinalunga, 
near Siepna, as he was about entering the Papal territory. He was im- 
prisoned in Alessandria, but afterwards sent to his island of Caprera and 
watched by ships of war. He escaped, however, resumed his enterprise, 
and was at Monte Rotondo, near Rome, in the end of October, and on the 
point of advancing, when (October 28) a French fleet reached Civita Vec- 
chia, and October 30, a French force occupied Rome, to prevent the pro- 
posed revolution. November 3, Garibaldi was decisively beaten at Mentana 
by the French, and he was again arrested and imprisoned. In September, 
1870, the Italian troops marched upon Rome, under Gen. Cadorna, and 
on the 20th, after four hours’ cannonade, entered and occupied the city. 
October 2, a popular vote was held in the States of the Church, on the 
question of uniting them and Rome with Italy, and making Rome the 
capital. The vote was 133,681 affirmative, and,1,507 negative. Decem- 
ber 5, the Italian Parliament at Florence voted 192 to 18 to remove the 
capital to Rome. Victor Emanuel made a formal public entrance into 
Rome, December 31, 1870. 


J. 


JAMAICA. (See p. 431.) Negro rising, October 11, 1865, put down with 
much bloodshed and many punishments, by Gov. Eyre, October and No- 
vember, 1865, Gov. Eyre suspended ; a government commission reported, 
April 9, that great, wanton and unnecessary cruelty and violence had been 
used. Hyre was afterwards indicted in England, and sued for damages; 
but the grand jury threw out the bills, and an act of indemnity gave him 

_ the suit. In 1878 the island was reported more prosperous. Population, 
1871, 506,154. 

JAPAN. (See pp. 134, 432.) Jeddo (now called Tokio) and other places 
opened to trade according to treaty, April 25, 1867; Osaka and Hiogo the 
same, January 1, 1868. Insurrection of the daimios, or provincial princes, 
1868, ending in their overthrow in 1869. This left the government sub- 
stantially an absolute monarchy under the Mikado, who, however, had 
first to overcome also the Tycoon, or spiritual sovereign. This was accom- 
plished December, 1869. An embassy of distinguished Japanese reached 
Washington March 4, and London, August 17, 1872. First railway in 
Japan opened October, 1872. New constitution, arranging a form of 
government somewhat like the imperial French Government,.April 14, 
1875. The present Mikado, or Emperor, Moutsu or Mutsu Hito, born 
1852, succeeded his father, Komei Tenno, in 1867. Population in 1875 
(estimated), 32,794,897. 

JERUSALEM. (See p. 483.) Population estimated (in 1877) as follows: 
Jews, 10,600; Christians, 5,300; Mohammedans, 5,000; total, 20,900. A 
Protestant bishopric was established here under protection of England and 

* 


34 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


Prussia, 1846; Wilson and Warren’s excavations, ascertaining many pointa 
of interest about the ancient city, 1867-71. 


JESUITS. (See pp. 134,483.) Expelled from Belgium, 1818; Russia, 
1820; Spain, 1820 and 1835; France, 1831 and 1845; Portugal, 1834; 
Sardinia and Austria, and some other States, 1848; Italy and Sicily, 1860; 
Empire of Germany, 1872; Italy again, 1873. In 1866 whole number 
of Jesuits reported to be 8,167, of which in France 2,422. 


JEWS. (See pp. 134, 434.) Oppressive Austrian laws against them annulled 
January, 1860; Hungary emancipates, 1867; Disraeli, a Jew, English 
premier, 1868; "Jews admitted into Spain, 1868; Sir G. Jessel, a Jew, 
English solicitor- general, 1871; master of the rolis, 1873, Jews in 
Great Britain (estimated) in 1876, 51,520, and in London, 39,833. Jews 
in the world, 1869, estimated at 7,000,000. 


JUTE. Fibre from two plants cultivated in Bengal (viz., chonch, or cor- 
chorus olitorius, and isbund, or ©. capsularis). Used for mats, gunny- 
cloth, and other coarse textile fabrics. Imported into the United King- 
dom in 1871, 3,454,120 cwt.; 1874, 4,270,164 cwt.; in 1875, 3,416,617 
cwt. 


Le 


KARAITE JEWS. A kind of Protestant sect, who adhere to the Hebrew 
Scriptures alone, rejecting the Talmud and Rabbinical tradition. They 
are found mostly in Turkey, Poland, and the Crimea. 

KEET, Rev. Mr. (See Reverend.) 


KHEDIVE. (See Hoypt.) The title is supposed to mean something more 
than vali or viceroy. It was given to the ruler of Egypt, May 14, 1867. 
KHIVA. The Czar Nicholas sent an expedition against it, which perished 
in the cold of the winter of 1840. Another, 1873, took Khiva after de- 
feating the Khan, who became subordinate to the Czar. The country has 

since been pretty much made a Russian province. 


KHOKAND entered by Russian troops, February, 1876, and the khanate 
annexed to Russia by the name of Ferghana. 


KINEMATICS. A recent subdivision of physical science, being the science 
of motion. Professor Reuleaux’s Kinematics of machinery, an important 
work on the application of this science, published in Germany ; a transla- 
tion appeared in London, 1876, 


KU-KLUX KLAN. A secret organization in the Southern States to oppose 
the ruling party, or Republicans, by threats and violence, particularly 
against such colored persons as should vote the Republican ticket. Their 
operations were very efficacious, 1868-1871, when, under the pressure of 
legal and military measures, they disappeared, other forms of the same 
kind of activity being adopted. . 


L. 


LABOR. (See Jnternationalists ; Strikes ; Workingmzn.) 


LAMBESSA. An island on the coast of Algeria, used as a prison for some 
of the victims of Napoleon III., of December 2, 1851, and for other po- 
litical exiles. 


1867-77. 35 


LATIN UNION, to maintain a uniform coinage, 1865 to 1880, consists of 
France, Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland. 


LEONINE CITY. That part of Rome assigned to the Pope at tae entrance 
of the Italian troops, in Sept., 1870. It includes the castle of San Angelo, 
the hospital ef San Spirito, the Vatican palace and gardens, and St. 
Peter’s, 


LIBERIA. (See pp. 1386, 451.) Presidents: D. B. Warner, 1864; J. S. 
Payne, 1868; BE. J. Roy, 1870 (deposed Oct., 1871); J. J. Roberts (the 
first President), 1872 and 1874; he died 1876. Population about 720,000, 
of which about 19,000 are of American birth or descent. In July, 1877, 
it was reported that 30,000 negroes in South Carolina were enrolled to go 
to Liberia, in consequence of apprehensions from the white supremacy in 
that State. 


LIBRARIES. (See pp. 136,451.) The great Report of the Education 
Bureau on Public Libraries in the United States for 1876, gives a list of 
3,469 public libraries in the United States having over 300 volumes (not 
including common or district school, parish, and Sunday-school libraries). 
In these were reported in all: 


SUSLIWRLUD «2, 6.2) Sepak ee Pen eR se a a 12,276,964 
In common school, etc., libraries, additional, more than.............. 1,865,407 

EINER cect Set eee Art te fo oe 13,642,371 
Add pamphlets, only part reported, up to about..............0. 0.008: 1,500,000 


Of these, 1,510 libraries report 434,339 volumes annually added ; 742 re- 
port 8,879,869 volumes, annual use; 1,722 report $6,105,501 permanent 
funds ; 830 report $1,398,756 total yearly income ; 769 report $562,407, 
annually spent for books, and 643 report $682,166 annually spent for 
salaries and incidentals. The Boston Free Public Library, the largest on 
the American continent, contained, July 1, 1877, about 333,000 volumes, 
besides about 150,000 pamphlets. 


LIFE-SAVING APPARATUS. Patent for life-boat to Wm. Lukin, 1785 ; 
H. Greathead, 1788, obtained reward of a South Shields committee for 
best life-boat ; also £1,200 from parliament. It first put to sea January 
30, 1790. Up to 1804, 31 life-boats built and 300 lives saved. Richard- 
son’s tubular life-boat, Challenger, patented 1852, in England. English 
National Life-boat Institution, founded 1824; in 1876 had 2,541 life- 
boats in operation, and lives saved, 1824-1875, inclusive, 23,789. An 
American ‘‘life-raft” of cylinders, filled with air and lashed together, 
navigated from New York to Southampton, June 4 to July 25, 1867. 
Manby’s apparatus for throwing a shot from a mortar over vessels in dis- 
tress, and thus getting a line to them, put in use February, 1808; in 20 
years it saved 58 vessels and 410 persons. Boyton’s life-preserving 
dress and signalling apparatus exhibited in America and Europe, 1874— 
1877; he crossed the English Channel in it in 23} hours, May 28 and 29, 
1875. The United States Life-saving Service, as organized 1871, is in 11 
districts on the ocean and great lakes. It has 108 stations, with mortar, 
shot-line, life-car, and ample equipments, and 24 of them with a life- 
boat besides. There is a superintendent for each district, and a keeper 
and six surfmen for each station. In five years, ending June 30, 1876, 
there were on these coasts 273 wrecks; property saved by the Life-sav- 
ing Service, $5,254,300 ; lives saved, 3,189; lest, 41. Ottinger’s shot- 
line gun will carry 631 yards. 


36 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


LIGHT. Velocity nearly 200,000 miles per second. Comes from the sun 
to the earth, therefore, in a little over eight minutes. The greatest prog- 
ress in the science of optics since Newton has been in this century, in- 
cluding the development of the undulatory theory, polarization, actinism 
or chemical action of light, spectroscopic investigations, ete. 


LCANS. (See pp. 137, 456.) French loan for Crimean war, for $150,000, - 
000, authorized by law, July 9, 1855; on the 30th, nearly five times the 
required amount had been taken in France, besides nearly the whole 
amount in foreign subscriptions, French loan of $£00,000,000, for the 
Italian campaign of 1859, raised without difficulty ; for that of $400,000, - 
000, in 1871, for German indemnity, and for subsequent one of $600,000, - 
000, to close out the same and end the German occupation, twice the 
required amount was promptly subscribed within France. ‘The success 
of these French loans arises from the small sums receivable, and the con- 
firmed habit of the people to hoard specie. 


LONDON. (See pp. 137,458.) Estimated area in 1860, 121 square miles, or 
eleven miles square. Total population, 1871, 3,885,641; in 1877, probably 
considerably over 4,000,000. The first charter of London, given by William 
the Conqueror, isstill preserved in the city archives. Itison aslip of parch- 
ment six inches long and one broad, beautifully written in Saxon, and is in 
English as follows: ‘‘ William the King greeteth William the bishop and 
Godfrey the portreve and all the burgesses within London friendly. And I 
acquaint you that I will that ye be all there law-worthy as ye were in 
King Edward’s days. And I will that every child be his father’s heir 
after his father’s days. And I will not suffer that amy man do you any 
wrong. God preserve you.” 


LONGEVITY. (See Old Age.) 


LORRAINE. Anciently, Lotharingia; German, Lothringen. United to 
France, 1766; about one-fifth of it, including Metz and Thionville, an- 
nexed to Germany, along with Alsace, at end of Franco-Prussian war, 
February 26, 1871. 


LUXEMBURG. According to treaty at London, by the great powers, May, 
1867, the Prussian garrison left the fortress, November, 1867; fortifica- 
tions dismantled, August, 1870, and transformed for civil purposes, 1874. 
The grand duchy was declared neutral by the treaty of 1867; its popula- 
tion, December 1, 1871, was 197,528; area, 1,592 square miles. 


M. 


MAFIA or MAFFIA. (See Brigands.) 

MAGDALA. A very strong Abyssinian mountain fastness, stormed by the 
British under Sir R. Napier (afterwards Lord Napier of Magdala), April 
18, 1868, when Theodore, the Abyssinian king, killed himself. The 
place was burned, April 17th. 

MAGNESIUM. The metal first obtained from magnesia, by Davy, 1808; 
produced in large quantities by Sonstadt, 1862-4, It burns easily, with 
a singularly brilliant flame, by which photographs can be taken, as was 
done in the interior of the Pyramids, 1875. 


MAN, ArtiquiTy oF. (See Pre-histortc Man.) 


a il? (See, 


1867-77. 37 


MANITOBA. Rupert’s Land made a province, and named Ma nitoba, 1870. 
One Riel and others (Catholics) resisted annexation to the Dominion of 
Canada, in January, 1870; proclaimed the ‘‘ Red River Republic,” and 
murdered one Scott, who opposed them. On the appearance of a mili- 
tary force from Canada, however, in July, Riel yielded without resistance, 
and ran away. The annexation was accomplished, and A. G. Archibald, 
the first Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba, arrived in September. An in- 
tended Fenian raid on this colony suppressed by United States troops, 
October, 1871. The Red River settlement is in the geographical centre of 
North America. 


MELANESIA. The South-west Pacific Islands. Their missionary bishop, 
Patteson, and his chaplain, Atkin, murdered by the natives at Santa 
Cruz, one of the Queen Charlotte group, September, 1871, as supposed in 
revenge for kidnapping, which the bishop had strenuously opposed. 


MENTANA. Garibaldi defeated, November 3, 1867. 


MERCURY. (See p. 477.) The new Almaden mine, in California, produced 
from July, 1850, to end of 1873, 351,897,055 pounds of quicksilver. From 
one to two pounds are lest fer every ton of the ore that is worked with it. 


MERY. A miserable town in Turkistan, just north of the Persian frontier, 
of noe importance except as a possible military station, on the line to India 
which might be followed by the Russians. 


METEOROLOGY. Meteorological Society established in England, 1850, 
chartered 1866. A department for this science, of the English Board of 
Trade, under Admiral Fitzroy, organized 1855; it has done much to- 
wards foretelling the weather for commercial and scientific purposes. 
The United States Signal Service department sent and received in the 
year 1873-4, 529,958 letters and documents; issued of all its publica- 
tions 4,494,520 cepies, of which 3,491,046 were ‘‘ farmers’ bulletins.” It 
had in that year 108 stations and 247 observers. It has been from the 
beginning under the able management of General Albert J. Myer, who or- 
ganized it. 


METEORS. The dates of the usual annual meteoric displays are; January 
2d, July 29th, August 3d and 9th to 12th, November 8th to 14th, Decem- 
ber 11th. Meteors are now supposed to be small bodies revolving around 
the sun in space, and the displays of them to be in consequence of the 
earth’s passing through a belt or group of them, when the swiftness of 
their motion through the earth’s atmosphere inflames them. 


METRIC SYSTEM. Based on the metre, one ten-millionth of a quarter 
of the earth’s circumference in latitude (2.2808 English feet). Unit of 
surface is the centiare or square metre. The are is 100 square metres. 
Unit of solidity is the stére, a cubic metre. Unit of capacity, the litre, a 
cubic decimétre. Unit of weight, the gramme. a cubic centimetre of dis- 
tilled water. Unit of money, the franc, weighing 5 grammes. Prefix to 
either of these (except franc) deca- for ten times; hekato-, 100 times; 
kilo-, 1,000 times ; myrza-, 10,000 times. Also, deci- for one-tenth ; céenti-, 
one-100th ; mitli- for one-1,000th. Adopted to more or less extent (be- 
sides being the only legal system in France) by convention, May 20, 1875, 
in the following countries: Austria, Germany, Russia, Italy, Spain, 
Portugal, Turkey, Switzerland, Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, United 
States of America, Argentine Republic, Brazil, Peru. 


38 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


METROPOLITAN MUSEUM or ART, New York, chartered April, 1870, 
a site in the Central Park and $500, 000. for a building granted by the 
State, April, 1871. First collection (of paintings) opened in temporary 
gallery, February 20, 1872. Greatly enlarged by the antiquities collected 
by General di Cesnola at Curium and elsewhere in Cyprus, 1875-5. 


METZ, Surrendered, October 27, 1870, by Bazaine, with 3 marshals, 66 
genetals, 6,000 officers, 173,000 men, 400 guns, 100 mitrailleuses, 53 
eagles. 


MEXICO. (See pp. 142,479.) French evacuated Mexico, March, 1867. 
Juarez (a full-blooded Indian), president until his death, July 18, 1872 ; 
Lerdo de Tejada, president; his government overthrown by Porfirio Diaz, 
November 16, 1876. 


MILK. Condensed milk process invented by Gail Borden, 1849, since paeh 
time a great business has grown up in it, both as supplied in bulk in cities 
and put up in sealed cans for voyages and store purposes. 

MINES, MINING. (See pp, 148,481.) Value of minerals and metals mined 
in the United Kingdom in 1874, £67,834,513; im 1875, £67,487,688. 
Coal, iron and lead were the three greatest mining products, coal being 
over two-thirds of the whole in value, and iron almost three-fourths of 
the other third. Mining products of the United States in 1870, $152,- 
598,994, of which just about half were from Pennsylvania alone. 

MINORITY REPRESENTATION. (See Cumulative Vote.) 


MISSISSIPPI RIVER. (See pp.144, 482.) Improvements to make the 
South Pass of the river navigable and to keep it so, by Capt. EHads’s plam 
of jetties carried out from the natural mouth of the pass so as to keep the 
main river stream together and thus scour a passage out to deep water, 
were begun in 1875. In 1877 a twenty-foot channel is secured and main- 
tained by the river itself, where there was before only eight. feet ef water, 
and the jetty plan is considered successful. Humphreys’ and Abbott's 
elaborate and valuable hydrographic and hydraulic survey of the river, 
published 1861. 

MITRAILLEUSE. (See Gathng Gun.) 


MOABITF STONE. Discovery announced January, 1870, having a ae 
nician or ancient Hebrew inscription, said to be by. order of Mesha, King 
of Moab, referred to in 2 Kings, iii., and to narrate his victories over Israel. 
Dr. Ginsburg has published an excellent monograph of it, second edition, 
1871. 

MODOCS defeated the United States troops, January, 1873 ; murdered Gen. 
Canby and about forty more by treachery, April 11; after long and des- 
perate fighting in almost impregnable volcanic ‘‘lava-beds,” the remaining 
Modocs were captured, and their chief, Captain Jack, was tried, and ex- 
ecuted October 3, 1873. 


MOLLY MAGUIRES. Said to be a branch of a secret society called the 
Ancient Order of Hibernians, but practically a murdering secret society 
among the miners of Hastern Pennsylvania. The name and the organiza- 
tion first came into notice about 1862, and for fourteen years they pur- 
sued a career of violence and murder in Carbon, Schuylkill, and the other 
neighboring mining counties, In December, 1862, they attacked Mr. 
Goyne’s mine in Cass township, stopped the works and beat those wha 
opposed them; June 14, 1862, they murdered F. W. 8S. Langdon, near 


1867-77. 39 


Audenreid, and in November, 1863, George K. Smith, in the same vicinity ; 
attacked Mr. Northall’s house, February 11, 1867, in order to kill him, he, 
however, being away ; July 5, 1875, shot and killed policeman Yost, of 
Tamaqua; September 1, 1875, murdered Sanger and Uren, two miners, 
at Raven Run; September 3, murdered John P. Jones at Lansford; and 
there were many other cases of murder and violence, usually in the nature 
of revenge for some action about wages or employment of which the order 
chose to disapprove. By means of detectives, a number of them were, 
however, seized and tried, and June 21, 1877, ten of them were hanged. 

MONEY. (See p. 484. See also Uoinage ; Currency ; Gold ; Silver.) 

MONT CENIS TUNNEL. (See 7'unnels.) 

MONTENEGRO rebelled against the Turks early in 17th century ; inde- 
pendent ever since, though without the consent of Turkey, and in spite 
of repeated furious Turkish attacks. Several of these, however, would 
have overwhelmed the brave little principality, without the intervention 
of the great powers. Area, 1,770 square miles; population in 1871, about 
195,600. 

MOODY AND SANKEY. (See Revivals.) 

MOORSOW’S METHOD of measuring the tonnage of merchant shipping 
was adopted in the English Merchant Shipping Act of 1854, and is the 
method used for ascertaining the tonnage on which dues are payable at 
the Suez Canal. 

MORMONS. (See pp. 145, 485.) One Lee, a Mormon bishop, tried and 
condemned to death in 1877, for having participated in the Mountain 
Meadows massacre, Sept. 18, 1858, of 186 emigrants, by order of the 
Mormon leaders. 

MOUNTAIN. Mount Everest, in the Himalayas, 29,002 feet high, is the 
highest mountain known in the world. 

MURDERS in England and Wales for ten years: 


Diemer ay det caw eh POMEL SOD 28 a clniclgnse's oss dig's'« BOLO Lae Gals iets oe o'y Sees 257 
Ue ee bee cee Bie VA ok ess San eed Je Fess RIOTS Jai ot Mae deo, TSS 223 
LON Creteia eases as sess 6 Pa i held Ad 6 ease on ’acictinicks Poe NURS 5 eeicicict oeneeaete even at ete 223 
TOR ers tad eta ain see 261 


MUSIC. (See pp. 146, 487.) Musical pitch fixed in France, 1860, the mid- 
dle C to be 522 vibrations in a second. Various different pitches have 
since been adopted, and ‘‘concert pitch’’ is now (1877) not a settled 
thing. Tonic sol-fa system invented by Miss Glover ; improved about 
1847 by Curwen. For Wagner’s Ring des Nibelungen, see Bayreuth. 

MYCENZ. 1874 to 1876, Dr. Schliemann explored the site of the Acro- 
polis of ancient Mycene, discovering five tombs, which he believes those 
of Agamemnon, Eurymedon, Cassandra, and their followers. In these was 
a great collection of golden and other precious articles of ornament and 
use, extremely ancient, interesting, valuable, and archzologically impor- 
tant. They are deposited with the Greek authorities at Athens. 


NN; 


NATIONAL DEBT oF UNITED States, (See pp. 147, 490.) Dedusting 
cash in the Treasury, Dec. 1, 1876, was $2,089,336,099.42. Increase of 
the debt in the month preceding, $457,662.64. Decrease since June 30, 


4() THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


1876, $10,103,245.57. Decrease since 1866, $683,900,074.27. State and 
territorial debts, June, 1876, estimated at $350, 000, 000. 


NATIONAL DEBTS. (See pp. 147, 490.) An estimate in the Westminster 
Review, of the national debts of the world in 1875, was as follows (at 
$9.00 to the pound sterling): 


Great’ Britain? e506 A. $3,875,000,000 | Australasia..............0ee- 200,000,000 
Europes; See 5 ee eee re a ls 13,865,000,000') Atricas 3. \yceadelcen een 375,000,000 
AM@nH Cady, a. aube. Si borravati a che 8,570,000, 000 —————_——-— 
ASIA cone oh ee EN re sp Sac 655,000,000 TOC oS. Dee ene $22,840,000, 000 


European national debts are about as follows (at $5.00 to the pound 
sterling) : 
Austro-Hungary (1876)........ $1,709,634,530 | Greece (partly estimated, Jan., 


Belgium (January 1, 1876).... 33,656,000 | 9; 1806). 2. Ee ee 106,800,515 
Denmark (March 31, 1875).... 51,620,005 | Italy (end of 1875, estimate)... 2, 000, 000,000 ~ 
France (January 1, 1875)...... 4,687,921,400 | Netherlands (beginning of 1875) 386, 353, 365 
German Empire, none, or a tri- Portugal (June 30, 1876)....... 395, 308, 900 
fling one, Russia (estimate, Jan. 1, 1876).. 1,254,810,000 
But Prussia (January 1, 1876). 229,852,375 | Spain (estimate, end June, 1875) 2,650,000, 
Bavaria (January 1, 1874). 156,688,045 | Sweden (January 1, 1876)..... 38, 929,68 
Wiurtemberg (May 10, 1874) %3,496,020 | And Norway (end of 1875)..... 13, "418, ho 
Saxony (end of 1876)...... 85,222,010 | Switzerland (beginning of 1876) 5.520, 000° 
etc., etc. Turkey (June,1876 ; much more 
Great Britain (March 31, 1876). 3.884,852,720 | since)........cecssecseaeeees 927,000,000 


NATURAL SELECTION. (See Darwinism.) 


NATURALIZATION. (See pp. 147, 490.) In 1870 there were about 9,500 
Americans in England, and about 2,500,000 British subjects in the United 
States. Under English laws passed May 12, 1870, and July 25, 1872, the 
latter were empowered to renounce their allegiance; and by the conven- 
tion of February 3, 1871, the nationality of British subjects was made 
dependent on choice, and not on birth. 


NAVIES. (See pp. 148, 495.) The English navy contains in all about 240 
vessels. Of iron-clad war-ships, there are, including those now (1877) 
building, about as follows in the world : 


Nation. Ships. Total tonnage. 
Kneland, ooo aenece cee nee SY GH ree Ps So Skee 317,000 
Krancel.. sete eae ts Die ee BS: | went .s Becta: Se ee 184,000 
Buse ag we penth hes coientpaeae 1 Pres a Be 89,000 
Tt Vs «athe hee eee 1G) en Sac eect oe ee ee 89,000 
TUPkey. Wreae  scenee ee 24 VIS eee 65,000 
Gerintanyi.2.7 oe tons Deets 13. 1714260) eee 61,000 
ETON ANG 2... ae paw eae LT < 68. cor sein igihis Serene 23,000 


Also, Austria, 14; Spain, 7; Denmark, 6; United States, 27; et 
and ‘Norway, 8; Portugal, 1: Greece, 2. Brazil, 17; Peru, 6; "Chili, 2 ; 
Argentine Confederation, 2; J apan, 2. Whole number ‘of iron-clad ships of 
war, 305; of these, England has 21 first-rates, thickest armor on any of 
them, 24 inches; and France, 23 first-rates. The thickest armor used by 
any German ship is 10 inches ; Russia and Turkey, 12 inches; Italy, 22 
inches (on the Duilio, launched May 8, 1876, and considered the most 
powerful war-ship ever built). The United States navy, besides 27 iron- 
clad ships, has 70 other steamers and 20 sail-vessels. 


NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS. Published by Sir William Herschel, 1811 In 
October, 1860, the ‘‘ dumb-bell nebula’ was reported by Lassell to show 
no signs of consisting of stars. In 1865, Huggins reported certain rebule 
shown by the spectroscope to be entirely gaseous. 


1867-77. 4} 


NEPTUNE (PLANET). First observed by Dr. Galle, at Berlin, September 23, 
1846, where Le Verrier told him to look for it, having calculated that the 
irregular motions of Uranus called for such a planet. Mr. J. C. Adams, 
of Cambridge, had made similar calculations about the same time. 


NETHERLANDS. (See Holland.) 


NEW CALEDONIA. Occupied by the French, September 20, 1853, and 
since used by them as a penal colony. 


NEWSPAPERS. (See pp. 149,500.) Newspapers in Great Britain, 1876, 
1,642. In the United States, 1875, 7.870 periodicals, of which 5,95? 
weeklies. In British America, 1,478, being in America, north of Mexico, 
8,348 periodicals. Among the remarkable enterprises of newspaper con- 
cerns within the last few years, are: Stanley’s expedition into Central 
Africa, for the New York Herald; Mr. George Smith’s explorations in 
Assyria, partly for the London Telegraph ; the destruction of the very 
powerful and wealthy criminal combination called the New York Rings” 
in consequence of revelations in the New York Times by Sheriff O’Brien. 
Works on the English periodical press: Andrews’ British J ournalism, 1855, 
and Hunt’s Fourth Hstate, 1850; on that of America, Hudson’s Journalism 
in the United States, 1873, which supersedes in most respects the infor- 
mation in Buckingham’s and Thomas’s works. 


NEW YORK CITY. (See pp. 150,499.) Barnum’s old museum burnt, July 
13, 1865; money panic in Wall Street, from the gold- buying operations of 
Fisk and Gould, September 22-26, 1869; revelations of the ‘* Tweed 
Ring” corruptions in the city government, August and September, 1871 ; 
Fisk murdered by Stokes, January 7, 1872; the Erie railway administra- 
tion, controlled by Fisk and Gould, breaks down, March, 1872; trouble 
from epizodtic, or horse disease, October, 1872; great panic in business 
throughout the country, begins with stoppage of Jay Cooke & Co., Sep- 
tember, 1873; Tweed convicted of embezzlement, and sentenced to 
twelve years’ imprisonment, November 19, 1873; escapes, December, 
1873 ; damages of $6,537,000 awarded against him in civil suit, March 8, 
1876; arrested at Vigo, in Spain, September 8, 1876, and returned to 
jail. 

NEW ZEALAND. Discovered by Tasman, 1642; recognized as belonging 
to Great Britain, 1814; first English governor lands, January 29, 1829; 
colony and bishopric established 1841; towns founded: Auckland, 1840, 
Nelson and Turanaki, 1841, Otago, 1848, Canterbury, 1850; native insur- 
rection from land troubles, March, 1860: suppressed, after much fighting 
and trouble, March, 1861; another native war, May, 1863, continued 
more or less until July, 1866. The New Zealand group is about 1,000 
miles long and 200 wide; area of land, about 102,000 square miles; white 
population, 1851, 26,707; December 381, 1876, about 375,856, besides 
about 45,470 natives or Maoris. 


NICSICS. .A strong Turkish fortress standing at that narrow neck of land 
which joins the two main portions of Montenegro, and therefore an im- 
portant military position. 

NILE. (See p. 502.) From the time of Bruce’s explorations in 1768 -70, na 
discovery of importance about the source of the Nile was made uatil 
Speke and Grant discovered the great lake Victoria Nyanza, 1863. Bake 
discovers the Albert Nyarza, March 14, 1864. Livingston’s letter from 


42 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


Ujiji, dated November, 1871, to Mr. Bennett, says the Nile springs are 
about 600 miles south of the Victoria Nyanza. 


NITRO-GLYCERINE. Explosion of, June 30, 1869. Two cart-loads of 
nitro-glycerine exploded in the vale of Llanberris, on the road to a quarry 

' there. Five persons were killed, they and the horses being so blown to 
pieces that only fragments were found, as a heart, a foot, a chin with the 
beard on it. Roofs, doors, and windows were destroyed everywhere for 
two miles around, and where each cart blew up was left a circular pit in 
the road, seven and a half feet across and seven feet deep. - 


NORFOLK ISLAND. (See p. 503.) After the English penal colony was 
removed, the descendants of the mutineers of the Bounty (198 souls) 
were in June, 1856, carried from Pitcairn’s Island and established here. 
In December, 1875, the new colony was prosperiug. 


NORWAY. (See Sweden.) 
O. 


OCEAN EXPLORATION. Deep-sea soundings and dredgings have been 
made by Sars, off the coast of Norway; by Carpenter and Thompson, near 
the Faroe Islands, 1868-9; by Carpenter, in the Mediterranean, 1870. 
The voyage of the Challenger, for ocean exploration, was December 21, 
1872, to May 25, 1876; she sailed about 80,000 miles. These investiga- 
tions have greatly added to knowledge. Deepest soundings thus far, 
3,875 fathoms (4 miles, 710 yards), in the Atlantic north of St. Thomas, 
March 24, 1875. Living creatures have been found at the depth of three 
miles. 


OLD AGE. (See Longevity, pp. 187,458.) Sir G@. C. Lewis, Prof. Owen, 
and W. J. Thoms (his ‘‘ Human Longevity” published 1873,) have dis- 
proved many alleged cases of old age, and few of over 100 years can be 
believed in. A few recent ones are as follows: Anthony Beresford died 
in England, aged 101, March 3, 1874—considered authentic; Count Wal- 
deck, traveller and artist, died aged 109, at Paris, April 29, 1875; Captain 
Frederic Lahrbush, soldier, died aged 111 years, (age disputed), April 3, 
1877, at New York. 


OLD CATHOLICS organized September, 1871, at Munich. Third annual 
synod at Bonn, in summer of 1876, 50,000: members and adherents were 
reported, but action on the question of clerical celibacy was declined. 
The movement grew out of opposition to the new dogma of papal infalli- 
bility ; but it does not now (1877) show signs of great success. 


OLYMPIA. Explorations at Elis, on the site of the Olympian games, planned 
by Curtius, begun by Hirschfeld and Béttiger, October, 1875. The Ger- 
man Government pays expenses, and has casts of objects found, the orig- 
inals to be the property of the Greek Government. Many interesting 
discoveries of statues, parts of the pediments of the great temple of 
Jupiter Olympus, etc., have been made. 


ORDNANCE. (See Cannon, pp. 92, 290.) The Rodman gun, a smooth- 
bore, 20-inch calibre, weighing 58 tons, and throwing a 1,000-pound round 
shot, cast at Pittsburg, 1864; a stream of cold water was kept running 
through the core during casting and cooling, so as to chill and harden the 
inside of the gun. Trials of Armstrong, Whitworth, and Horsfall guus 
at Shoeburyness, England, in 1862-3, against various targets representing 


cc. | 


1867-77. 43 


ironclad ships, up to an aggregate thickness of 15 inches (in three plates) 
of wrought iron. The Hercules target, 4 feet 2 inches thick, with 114 
inches of iron. Palliser’s patent for chilled metal shot (cast in cold iron 
moulds), dated May 27,1827. More experiments at Shoeburyness, 1867-8, 
where a 10-inch English gun is found better than Prussian and American 
guns, and a 23-ton gun, 12-inch bore, throwing Palliser shot, is resisted 
by a model fort defended by 15-inch iron plates. The ‘‘ Woolwich In- 
fant,” 35 tons, cast in 1870, 16 feet 3 inches long, to carry a 700-pound 
shot, with 120-pound charge. In 1875-6 an 81-ton gun tried, with a 1,250- 
pound shot and 190-pound charge. The shot penetrated 50 feet of sand. 
A charge of 370 pounds afterwards used. The Uchatius guns of ‘‘steel 
bronze,” used in the Austrian army, first made at Vienna, 1875. Suc- 
cessful trials of 100-ton Armstrong gun, throwing a 2,000-pound shot, at 
Spezzia, in Italy. The gun is for the Italian iron-clad Duilio. Rifled 
guus first used for siege purposes, Sebastopol, 1854-5. The Armstrong 
breech-loading rifled gun first used in China campaign, 1860. The Ger- 
man army is now supplied with breech-loading artillery. 


ORIGIN or SPECIES. (See Darwinism.) Book by Darwin published 
November, 1869. 


OXFORD UNIVERSITY. Total income of the University, 21 colleges and 
D halls, in 1871, £483,842, 16s. 6d. 


OXYGEN. The most abundant substance, being one-third of the earth, 
nine-tenths of the water, and one-fifth of the air. 


OZONE. (See p.153.) In 1872 Brodie showed that Odling’s suggestion 
was correct, viz.: that ozone is oxygen condensed into two-thirds the 
space it would naturally occupy. 


i 


PACIFIC RAILWAY, 1,700 miles long, from Omaha to San Franeisco, 
opened for traffic May 12, 1868. 


PALESTINE EXPLORATION. Fund established 1865 ; explorations under 
it began in 1866; a systematic trigonometrical survey begun December, 
1871; a similar fund established at New York, same year. 


PAMIR. A region sometimes called the roof of the world, being a very lofty 
water-shed in Central Asia, north of the Himalayas, at the west end of Lit- 
tle Thibet, and constituting a kind of focus from which diverge the chief 
Asiatic mountain ranges. It is the source of the Oxus and other rivers. 


PAN-ANGLICAN CONFERENCE of seventy-five bishops, English, Coloniai, 
and American, met at Lambeth, September 24, 1867, and issued an address 
and resolutions of a pretty general and safe character, Another is pre- 
posed for July, 1878. 

PANTECHNICON. A building in London used for storage. Burned Feb- 
ruary 18 and 14, 1874, when many valuable paintings and other cosiiy 
articles were destroyed. 

PAPAL INFALLIBILITY. (See Infallidility.) 

PARAGUAY. (See p.155.) Francis 8. Lopez succeeded his father as dic- 
tator, September, 1862. Brazil attacked Paraguay, December, 1864, in 
consequence of seizure of a Brazilian steamer, on November 11, 1864 ; de- 
feated Lopez in several battles, and he was killed at Aquidahan, Marci 1 


&4 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 


1870. Peace signed June 20, 1870. 8S. Jovellanos chosen president fot 
three years, December 12, 1871, and J. B. Gil for three years, November 
25, 1874. Population in 1857 returned at 1,357,439, and another return 
in 1873 indicated the devastation of the war by showing only 221,079 souls, 
of which men over 15 only 28,746, and women’ 106,254, the other 86,079 
being children, 


PASSION PLAY. A drama representing the passion of Christ, represented 
from time time at_ Oberammergau, in Bavaria; said to have been so rep- 
resented there ever since 16383. 


PASSPORT SYSTEM. Introduced iu the United States August 19, 1861, 
on account of the civil war. Abolished in Norway, 1809; Sweden, 1860; 
Italy, 1862; Portugal, 1863; in France, abolished as to British subjects. 
December 16, 1860; revived in the war, August 1, 1870; abolished again 
April 10, 1872. 


PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY. Popularly known as Grangers. A secret 
society in the United States professing to be for the promotion of agri- 
cultural interests. Said to have been first organized by one Saunders, 
who established the national ‘‘ grange” (or lodge) in December, 1867. 
Subordinate granges were established, 10 or 11, in 1868; 39 in 1869; 38 
in 1870; 125 in 1871; 1,105 in 1872; 8,400 in 1873; and fora year or 
two after this time the order had much political influence, and did some- 
thing to establish co-operative organizations for the supply of goods. Legis- 
lation in Iowa (1874) and elsewhere, at the requirement of the ‘* Grangers,”’ 
to fix transportation prices by railroad, has proved a mistake and a bad 
failure. 


PAUPERS. (See Poor Laws, p. 535.) Paupers and their cost in England 
and Wales for ten years (poor-rate only, and not including charity) : 


Paupers. Poor-rate, 
SOG 215.5 2 oiclos aves Ge csc a eipetee sie ote ne heron 916, 152° - cae so oeeerareeee £6, 439,517 
ASOT ES SOE S OSs Re hatte. cate tee 031,646) "tees cere ee 6.959, 840 
LBGS ees Woks cot ane leans wemine cmos 1,034,723): s.0. eee see 7,498,059 
LSGD si cee leneicie sob lewis ee ae eels eee 1,039,049) is eect eee 7,678,100 
DSO AE ee, ce SEA icetoee L070, 391 ole e ees tee 7,644,307 
AST KE SL eects ste leete tales bar eeae ee 1,071; 926-0. nce ee eee 7,886,724 
YOUR Ds clo Sere eta Ghue aie abearep alse RRR Oe aes OT ,064 i ost d ta eee 8.007, 4038 
LBs enserd sah Winey ox eka intevern scare lester 890,502... ca-seaten eee 7,692,169 
LO TAY Nee dos See ats peiee hate cla e/stenente aie 829, 281-5 Sea eee 7,664, 957 
OVD tens dosplen seid ee eine Lei cke Bre ee tig 815,587... «div. eal eee 


PAUPERS IN UNITED States, 1870, 116,102. 
PEABODY FUND. (See Charities.) 


PEABODY MEMORIAL, A statue of Mr. George Peabody was publicly 
inaugurated in London, July 23, 1862. 


PEACE JUBILEE. (See Boston.) 


PEERAGE. In 37 years, 1852-69, an average of 24 commouers a year were 
created peers in England. 


PERU. (See pp. 157,523.) Presidents: Canseco succeeds Pezet, Novem- 
ber, 1865. Prado subsequently appointed dictator, and February 15, 
1867, made president; resigns in consequence of an insurrection, and 
Gen. La Puerta succeeds him, January 18, 1868; Col. Balta next August — 
1, 1868; Gutierrez dictator, July 22, 1872, but killed 26th; Parda 
elected, August 2, and Prado succeeds him, August, 1876. The Peru- 
vian railways, in establishing which the American, Henry Meiggs, has been 


_ 


1867-77. 46 


prominent, at enc of 1876 open for trade, or in course of completion, were 
22 lines, 2,030 miles in length. 


PESSIMISM. A gloomy system of philosophy and belief put forth by 
Arthur Schopenhauer in Germany, 1819 to 1851, and which has found some 
acceptance. Its most eminent expositor is Hartmann. 


PITCAIRN’S ISLAND. (See p. 528; also Norfolk Island.) 
PLANCHETTE. (See Spiritualism.) 
PLANETS. (See Astronomy.) 


POLAND. (Seep. 532.) The separate government of Poland abolished, 
and administrative union with Russia perfected February 29, 1868. 
Polish language prohibited in public places, July, 1868; in courts of law 
and public offices, June, 1876. These measures followed a severe mili- 
tary repression of hopeless but determined military efforts against Russia, 
which had continued most of the time since 1830. 

POOR. (See Paupers.) 


POPULATION. (See pp. 161,537.) Total population of the world esti- 
mated at 1,377,000,000. Another estimate, by statistical authorities at 
Washington, 1874, made it 1,391,032,000. 

POSITIVISM. A philosophy put forth by Auguste Comte (born about 
1795, died 1852), which rejects metaphysics and claims to deal wholly 
with facts. Its chief historical principle is that there are three stages of 
human belief, the theological, the metaphysical, and the positive, the 
former two being erroneous, and the last the only valid one, at which 
Kurope is just now arriving. 


‘POST-OFFICE; Posran AFrFatrs. Book-post established in England, 


1855. Money-order office established 1792; little used until 1840, but 
very largely since. English electric telegraphs purchased by government 
and run as part of post-office system, 1869. Postal cards first issued 
October 1, 1870. Post-office savings-banks (Government responsible to 
depositors) established 1861; deposits in them, December 31, 1874, 
£23,157,469 18s. 10d. An International Postal Congress met at Bern, 
Switzerland, January 27, 1874, and signed a convention, October 9, for a 
universal international postage rate of 25 centimes, or 24 pence, or 5 cents 
for each half-ounce letter rate; 1 penny, or 2 cents, or 10 centimes for 
each newspaper rate; etc. In the United States Post-office Department : 
Postage stamps issued, year ending June 30, 1876, 700,089,437, worth 
$19,718,708.75 ; stamped envelopes (not official) issued, 147,021,500, 
worth $4,359,907.04 ; newspaper wrappers, 18,498,750, worth $273,723. - 
50; postal cards, 150,815,000, worth $1,580,150 ; official postage stamps, 
17,682,665, worth $663,831.50, and official stamped envelopes and wrap- 
pers, 19,690,155, worth $429,110.93. Total number'of these issues, 1,049,- 
797,507, worth $26,953, 421.72. 

PRAYER-GAUGE DEBATE originated in a proposition by Sir Henry 
Thompson, July, 1872, that some certain hospital ward or wards should 
be chosen, special prayers offered for the patients in them, and the result, 
as compared with other wards, to show whether prayer is efficacious to 
heal the sick. There was a long and energetic debate in print on this 
suggestion, 1872-3, but the experiment was not tried. 


PREHISTORIC MAN. Burnt bricks found in Egypt have been reckoned 
20,000 years old human bones found in Florida 30,000 years old, Recent 


46 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


discoveries of worked flints by Boucher de Perthes, near Abbeville, 1836, 
and similar ones and of various other articles in various parts of Europe, 
have led to the belief by many scientific men that human life has exetisd 
on the earth for many ages, The prehistoric period has heen divided 
into the stone, iron, and bronze ages. See Lubbock’s ‘ Prehistoric 
Times” (1865), Dawkins’s ‘‘ Cave-Hunting,”’ Evans’s ‘*‘ Ancient Stone Im- 
plements ” (1872), ete. An International Congress of Prehistoric Arche- 
ology meets annually and publishes transactions. 


PRE-RAPHAELITES. A school of painters that arose in England about 
1850, including Millais, Hunt, Rossetti, etc. Their peculiarity was a 
purpose to pursue real art by representing nature as they saw it, instead 
of following the antique. With some extravagance, their influence on art 
has on the whole been good. 


PRINTING-PRESS. (See p.164.) The Walter press, an English inven- 
tion, is said to print both sides of from 15,000 to 17,000 copies per hour 
of a newspaper. The Campbell press is said, however, to print 50,000 
such copies per hour. Copper-faced type introduced about 1850. Several 
machines for composing and distributing type invented, 1858-1875 ; some 
of them are in fact used for the more uniform kinds of work. <A Caxton 
celebration, with exhibition of many rare and curious books, on fourth 
centennial of establishment of his press in England, at London, July, 
1877, 


PRUSSIA. (See pp. 165,549.) North German Confederation (see Ger- 
many), formed August 1, 1866, King refuses to receive the French 
minister Benedetti in consequence of improper demands, July 13, 1870; 
French declaration of war delivered at Berlin, July 19; first hostilities 
at Niederbronn, July 26; first battle at Saarbriick, July 30 (for events of 
the war see Chronological Tables); capitulation of Napoleon and of McMa- 
hon’s army at Sedan, September 2, 1870; surrender of Metz by Bazaine, 
October 27; Paris capitulates, January 28, 1871; treaty of peace signed, 
February 26; King of Prussia proclaimed Emperor of Germany at Ver- 
sailles, January 18; imperial diet opened, Berlin, March 21, 1871. 
Prussian nationality and administration remain substantially intact, while 
it is a member of the new empire of Germany. 


PURCHAS CASE. February 23, 1871, the judgment of the English Privy 
Council was given on the charges of heresy against Mr. Purchas, the 
ritualist. He was found guilty of violating the ecclesiastical law ‘‘ by 
wearing the chasuble, alb, and tunicle during the communion service ; 
by using wine mixed with water, and wafer-bread in the administration 
of the communion ; and by standing with his back to the people, between 
the communion-table and the congregation, during the consecration prayer.” 
He was held to pay costs. 


PUSEYISM. (See Ritualism ; also Tractarianism, p. 191.) 


Q. 


QUEENSLAND. Made a separate colony, 1859. Governor, 1876, Sir A. 
E. Kennedy. Includes the northeast part of Australia and adjacent 
islands. Capital, Brisbane. First settlement (by convicts sent out), 1825. 
Population of European descent, May 31, 1876, 173,180, besides natives, 
Chinese, and South Sea Islanders. Area abcmt 678,600 square miles, or 
one-fifth as much as all Europe. 


; 


1867-77, 47 


R. 


RADIOMETER. A delicate vane with four fans, each black on one side, 
hung in a vacuum, usually in an hermetically sealed glass globe. In- 
vented by Wm. Crookes, 1873-6. When light falls on it the vane turns, 
and this movement was at first supposed to demonstrate the mechanical 
action of light. Further investigation indicated, however, that the 
motion was caused by heat acting on the small portion of air left in the 
approximate vacuum. 


RAGGED SCHOOLS. (See p. 167.) Average attendance at 226 Ragged 
Schools in London, in 1867, 26,000. The buildings exempted fam rates, 
1869. At present the London School Board Schools are gradually repla- 
cing these, 


RAILWAYS. August 21, 1867, a locomotive and two carriages passed over 
the whole length of the Mount Cénis Railway, 48 miles. This road 
crosses the mountain nearly in the track of the road built by Napoleon I. 


Railways in the world, end of 1876 : 


ENE Ce Millessar abl (VHuropOs.. ccets sc ce tec ee miles, 88,745 
LATS ge, Saco Ae nr a 9,643) NorthvAmerica 222 .ue0 ek ceed wt! 5; 
nS Cea ves a Gy) South America. .......... ee 8701 
Central Am. and W. Indies. * 559 


otal Ses alee eee. 183,370 
Another authority makes this total 194,836. 


Of the North American total, the United States contains 74,658 (another 
authority says 77,470) miles, Canada 4,484, Mexico 377. About one- 
fourth the railroads built’in the United States in 1876 were narrow-gauge. 
Steam on street railroads was successfully introduced in Philadelphia in 
the spring of 1877. Railways of upper Italy to be bought by the govern- 
ment; bill passed, 344 to 35, June 27, 1876. First narrow-gauge railway 
built as a tram-way for horse-power, at Festiniog, in Wales, 1832; loco- 
motives used on it, 1863. 


RAILWAY ACCIDENTS. August 20, 1868, the Irish day mail express 
train ran into a freight train with petroleum near Abergele, in Wales, and 
the oil taking fire from the engines, thirty-three persons were burned 
alive in the cars, having (apparently) been smothered in the smoke, as not 
a scream nor a word was heard from one of them. June 21, 1870, by the 
collision of two trains on the Great Northern Railway, near Newark, Eng- 
land, in consequence of a defective axle, 18 persons were killed and 40 or 
50 more or less injured. December 29, 1876, disaster at Ashtabula, on 
the Lake Shore Railroad, Ohio, by breaking of a bridge; 60 persons 
burned or frozen, 60 or 70 others injured. In 1866-8, one traveller on 
railroads out of each 12,941,170 killed by accident not his own fault. 


» RATTENING. Stealing and hiding a man’s tools because he opposes 
trades-unions or does not pay dues to them. An English practice ; much 
of it proved before the Commission of Inquiry, Sheffield and Manchester, 
June and September, 1867. (See Sheffield.) 


RECONSTRUCTION. Immediately after the rebel surrender, 186%, the 
Southern States began to pass laws discriminating in social and political 
affairs against the negroes. In 1868 Arkansas was readmitted into the 
Union overt President Johnson’s veto, on condition that the State should 


48 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


never deprive negroes of their right to vote. Another bill, passed in like 
manner over the veto, readmitted North Carolina, Scuth Carolina, 
Georgia, Louisiana, Florida, and Alabama, the provision being requisite 
in consequence of the discriminations aforesaid. July, 1868, President 
Johnson by proclamation pardoned all who had been in rebellion, except 
those actually under indictment for treason-felony. During President 
Grant’s administration, the Republican State governments, in Louisiana 
and South Carolina especially, were supported by national troops. Presi- 
dent Hayes withdrew these, with the result that these States at once 
passed under democratic administrations, 


RED RIVER. (See Manitoba.) 


> 
RELIGIONS IN THE WORLD. Estimating the population of the world 
at 1,377,000,000, the believers in its religions rank as follows in point of 
numbers: 1. Pagans; 2. Christians; 3. Mohammedans ; 4. Jews. Atheists 
not counted; there are very few. The numbers of the above four classes 
are estimated as follows : 


Pagans, viz. : 

Buddhists 25 Gy nh clwss oh one eee eee 455,000,000 

Obbiersig yy.) ase eod eee ua ae cat cits Mentone ene 425,600,000 880,600.000 
Christians, viz. : 

Roman .Catholicsivrccce sutele sawctete oe ei a crane 201,200,000 

Protestants, f.:5/s sais cee trentere Sa OTE ne eee 106,800,000 

Bastern Oburchea;. jeieese ede denne PP Pte At oA 81,900,000 889, 400,006 
Mohammedans (some say 165 millions),.............c0eeeeeees 100,000, 006 
JEWS cisdicls o. estilo mle’ < Sa thid daatete hides bh duldhere kanes oe 7,000,000 


—— —_____—. 


1,377,000,000 


REPUBLICAN PARTY. The following table of the popular and electoral 
votes for President will show the numerical history of the Republican 
party, 1856-1876: 


Popular Electoral ° Popular Hlectoral 
Vote. Vote. Vote. Vote. 

1856. Buchanan.... ... 1,838,169 174 1872." Grant. vases ects 8,597,070 1386 
Mremont..cacer = oh 1,341,264 114 Greeley (died be- 
MOL ewe sitar oe 874,534 8 fore the electoral 

1866; Mainicolns.; ee eee 1,866,852 180 vote)..... Re teats 2,834,079 3 

Ddnelas . Sse 1.375, 157 12 Hendricks. :...:: 42 

Breckenridge,..... 845,763 W2 Brown...... Behe Stee 18 

Poel tls @ as ephercaccin 589,581 - 389 Jenking:. eee oss 2 

1864."Lancoln..2 7). 5... 2,216.067 212 Davide. c-.ccctcmers 1 

McClellan. .......1,808,725 21 1876. Hayes..... SoSeE 4,033,295 185 

1868, Grant te essaces 8,015,071 214 Midens..Jce eee 4,284,265 184 

Seymours. seis ore 2,709,613 1 Gooper ten seeee 81,737 0 

Smith’: sae een ee 9,522 0 


By this table the successive proportions between the Republican party 
and its chief adversary, neglecting third parties and odd numbers, are as 
follows: 1856, 13 to 18; 1860, 18 to 13; 1864, 22 to 18; 1868, 30 to 27; 
1872, 35 to 28; 1876, 40 to 42 (Hayes having come in by a minority pop- 
ular vote). 


REPUDIATION. President Johnson, in his message of December 7, 1868, 
recommended a form of repudiation of the national debt, saying that 
‘*it would seem but just and equitable that the six per cent. interest now 
paid by the Government should be applied to the reduction of the princi- 
pal in semi-annual instalments.” In reply, the House of Representativec 
voted by 154 to 6 that all forms of repudiation of the national debt were 


: 
. 
| 
| 


Ree 
oie 


1867-77. 49 


odious to the American people, and that nothing less than was agreed 
would be offered to the national creditor. The States of Virginia, North 
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisi- 
ana, Texas, Arkansas and Tennessee, do not pay the interest on their 
debts. Some of them, and Minnesota also, have repudiated more or less 
of the principal of the same. Counties and towns in Missouri and TIIli- 
nois have also repudiated. The debt of North Carolina is (1877) about 
$39,000,000, and in a conference in that year between the creditors and 
the authorities of the State, the latter offered to fund $6,000,000 of the 
debt, at three and six per cent interest, to be in full. The creditors de- 
clined, but offered to accept half; but nothing was done. The whole debt 
of South Carolina was, in 1873, stated at $25,770,611.44, and in this 
year a law was passed rejecting a part of this as illegal, and repudiating 
half of the rest by settling with the holders at 50 per cent. The payment, 
‘even at this rate, has not been made. Turkey repudiates all payments on 
account of public debt until times shall be better, July 9, 1876. Penn- 
Sylvania, which used to be abused for repudiating, never did so, the only 
pretext being a delay upon certain payments, which were afterwards 
made in full. The United States has practically repudiated the French 
spoliation claims, having received, in 1803, the consideration paid by 
France for those claims, but having never paid the persons owning the 
claims. 


RESUMPTION. By Act of Congress, approved January 14, 1875, the 
Government of the United States is to resume specie payment January 
1, 1879. This purpose has been firmly adhered to notwithstanding vio- 
lent efforts in different parts of the country to rescind this action, which 
efforts are in more or less close connection with the attempt to keep up or 
enlarge the quantity of paper money, and even to keep the same irre- 
deemable. 

REVENUE. Revenue and expenditure of the United States for ten years 


1867-76 (items of total revenue other than customs and internal revenue 
are not specified, though included in ‘‘ total.”’) 


Customs. Intern, Rev. Total. Eapenditures. 
1S67)....zvicte $176, 417,810.88. ..... $266,027,537.43....... $462,846,679.92....... $346,729, 324.78 
FOG0 st a, 164, 464.599.56...... TOT087 589" 41 2... 876.484, 453.82....... 370, 339,133.82 
TSOne 180,048,426.63 ..... 158,356.460.86....... 857, 188, 255.64... 0... 321,190,597.7%5 
DSTO ree 194,538,374.44...... 184.899,756.49....... 895,959,833.87 ...... 293, 657,C05.'70 
BG oe 206, 270,408.05...... 148,098,153.63....... 374, 431,104.94....... 283.160,393.51 
ASR ec 216,370,286.77...... LeU G42. V7002 22. : 864,694,229.91....... 270,559.695, 91 
1873...... 188,089,522.70...... Mar (29 Sl4 14 4c... 922, 177,673.78. ...... 285,289,325 .34 
Le (Ab es pe ee 163,103,833.69......  102,409,784.90....... 299,941, 090;84.... ons 285, 738,800.21 
iG a ae EHO eis. « zee 110,007,498.58........ 284,020, 072.41... ot. 272,693,573, 84 
Lo Get rat. 14§,071,984.61.... 116,7000782.038 >). 2. oH 283,758,493.36....... 258, 459,797.10 


REVENUE and EXPENDITURE of Great Britain (United Kingdom), 
years 1868 to 1876, ending March 31: 


C 


Revenue. Expenditure. Revenue. Hupenditure. 
J BBOS J 606.40. £69,600,218........ rs Sof Clea (a R07 a By es Hp el SiG GOS. 1 1. ee ee £70,'714,448 
1000 Tor © HOC OOE. ca. ek 74,971,816 | Baye: Pe pate Pe! TV B86 CBT Oe 76,466,510 
ATO TE PA 15j/484,252 0000.0. 68; 864/752 | 18lhiscinvn YEAR OBE aa Gre 74,828,040 
1871; ehesay 69/945, 220% )..05- e322 69,548,539 | SOR eh ¥...5 Ht LODGOS at «ace 0x0 76,621,773 
SE Os a CG Setrag 2 eae 71,490,020 


REVEREND. The Bishop of Lincoln, 1874, refused to Rev. Mr. Keet, a 
Wesleyan clergyman, permission to put the title ‘‘ Reverend ” on the grave- 
stone of a dissenter. The Archbishop of Canterbury allowed it. On trial 
in the Ecclesiastical Courts, the Chancellor of Lincoln decided against Mr. 


3 


50 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


Keet; on appeal, Sir R. Phillimore, in the Court of Arches, July 31, 1875, 
sustained the refusal; but on appeal again, the Privy Council, January 21, 
1876, reversed both decisions, and gave judgment that the title is lauda- 
tory only, and that no law restricts it to ministers of the Church of 
England. 


REVIVALS. Moody and Sankey’s revival meetings in England, 1874-5. 
In March, 1875, in London, present about 15,000 persons ; farewell meet- 
ing, July 12, 1875. In New York city, February 7 to April 19, 1876; in 
Boston, March to June, 1877. Great results were asserted to have been 
obtained. 


RIOTS. (See pp. 170, 565.) Riots in various English towns, by Roman- 
ists, against the lectures of one Murphy, 1867-1871; at White Haven, 
April 20, 1871, he was cruelly beaten. Riots by artisans out of work at 
Greenwich and Deptford, England, Jan. 24 and 25, 1867; in November 
following, in the west of England, from dearness of provisions; Oct. 30, 
1868, at Blackburn, between Liberals and Tories ; June 2, 1869, a furious 
riotous attack by 2,000 Welsh on military and police in charge of some 
colliers convicted of assault; mob only dispersed by being fired on, from 
which 4 were killed and 26 badly wounded. August 7, and September 8, 
1872, much rioting at Dublin, in connection with a meeting in Phoenix 
Park to ask for relief of Fenian prisoners. April 20, 1876, agrarian riots 
break out, lasting some weeks, among the negroes in Barbadoes. Furious 
rioting by Romanists at Montreal, Sept. 1875, to prevent burial of one Gui- 
bord in a Romanist cemetery. The right to it being, however, proved at 
law, he was so buried under military protection, Nov. 16, 1875. 


RITUALISM. The Public Worship Regulation Act, for repressing ritualism 
in the Church of England, became a law August 7, 1874, to go into opera- 
tion July 1, 1875. The Ridsdale case was the first under the act, in 
which judgment was given in the ecclesiastical court against Rev. C. J. 
Ridsdale for ritualistic proceedings. In the cases of Rev. A. Tooth, and 
Rey. T. P. Dale, monitions issued to discontinue such practices. Rev. 
Arthur Tooth, vicar of St. James’s at Hatcham, in England, was lawfully 
commanded to desist from processions, tolling the bell, singing certain 
music, and other ritualistic and unlawful practices. Disobeying, he was 
on Dec. 17, 1876, inhibited from performing divine service or otherwise 
officiating in the parish. Disobeying again, he was imprisoned. Fora 
similar case before the act, see Purchas Case. 

ROMANISM. (See pp. 171, 566; see also Infallibility ; Old Catholics ; 
Vatican Council.) The ‘‘emancipation” of the Romanists has steadily — 
advanced in England during this century. Their priests might be chap- 
lains to gaols, by act July, 1863; Justice Shee, of the Queen’s Bench, ~ 
(Dec. 15, 1863) was the first Romanist judge in England since the Refor- 
mation. O’Hagan, Lord Chancellor of Ireland (Dec., 1868), was the first — 
Romanist in that office since 1688; the first Romanist master of arts 
since the test acts were abolished, was made at Oxford, June 22, 1871; 
Ecclesiastical Titles Act repealed July 24, 1871. Meanwhile Romanist 
bishops (at Dublin, Oct. 17, 1867) adhere to the policy of separate educa- 
tion under priests ; refuse a Romanist university to be endowed by the 
State, because they cannot have entire control, March, 1868, and October, 
1871. In Germany, the ‘‘ Falk laws,” to subject ecclesiastical affairs to 
a royal tribunal, passed May 11, 1873, and an obstinate though not noisy 1 
struggle between the German Empire and the Romanise hierarchy sets in, — 


1867-77, 51 


which is still (1877) in full activity, the State having fined, imprisoned, 
and banished various prelates, and the Pope having cursed various offi- 
cials. In the United States there is a regular policy by the Romanists to 
obtain a share of public money for their sectarian schools, which has not 
thus fur succeeded. For Romanist riots, see Riots. 


ROME. French enter, Oct. 30, 1867, They march out, August 21, 1870. 
Italian troops occupy, Sept. 20, 1870; united to kingdom of Italy along 
with Papal States, Oct. 9, 1870, and the Pope’s authority restricted to 
the Leonine City (which see). The vote on union with Italy was as fol: 
lows : Out of 167,548 votes: for union, 133,681; against, 1,507; the rest 
did not vote. The Pope has hitherto ( 1877) wholly refused the restricted 
sovereignty and guaranties offered him. 


ROSICRUCIANS. There appears to have been a genuine society of this 
name in the thirteenth century, a religious organization of some kind. 
The Rosicrucians of the seventeenth century, however, were a hoax, im- 
agined by one Andres or Andreas, who published a solemn pretended 
account of them, 1615. 


ROUMANIA. Union of Wallachia and Moldavia under this name acknowl- 
edged by Turkey, Décember, 1861; Alexander Couza, hospodar; he 
abdicates (by force) February 22, 1866; crown of Roumania declined by 
Prince of Flanders, February 8, and Prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sig- 
maringen elected hospodar, April 20, and recognized hereditary hospodar 
by the Sultan, October 24, 1866. Declared independent of Turkey, and 
title of king assumed by the hospodar during Russian invasion, summer 
of 1877. 


RUSSIA. (See pp. 173, 569.) Imperial serfs emancipated in part, July 
2, 1858. Decree for emancipation of all Russian serfs (twenty-three 
million) in two years, March 8, 1861. 1000th anniversary of foundation 
of Russian empire by Rurik, at Novgorod, celebrated September 20, 1862. 
Circassian war declared ended, June 2, 1864. War with Bokhara begun, 
1866. Samarcand taken, May 26, 1868. Circular of Prince Gortscha- 
koff, repudiating treaty clauses of 1856 as to the Black Sea, October 31, 
1870; clauses abrogated by London Conference, March 13, 1871. Com- 
mercial panic from failure of Strousberg, N ovember, 1875. Prosecution 
of the sect of Skoptzi, April, 1876. Khokand annexed as Ferghana, Feb- 
ruary 29, 1876. Southern Russian army mobilized by decree of Novem- 
ber 15, 1876; war with Turkey, having been declared, the Russians enter 
Roumania; cross the Danube, June 27, 1877; Gen. Gourkha, with a 
strong advanced guard, passes the Balkans, July 4. Result of the paral- 
lel Russian campaign in Armenia, however, up to August 1, 1877, only 
an advance to within a few marches of Erzeroum, a defeat by Mukhtar 
Pasha, and a retreat to Russian territory. 


8. 


SADOWA, or Koniggratz, in Bohemia. Decisive battle of the ‘Seven 
Weeks’ War,” or war of 1866, between Prussia and Austria, fought July 
3, 1866. About 400,000 men engaged; the Austrians lost 174 guns, 
40,000 killed and wounded, and 20,000 prisoners. The battle decided 
the war, gave Prussia the leadership in Germany, secured unity to the 
North German nations, gave Venetia to Italy, and led to the legislative 
independence of Hungary. 


52 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


ST. CRISPIN, Kyicuts or. This trade union of boot and shoe making 
operatives was first formed in Milwaukee, about 1870, and quickly spread 
into other States, having in 1873, in Massachusetts alone, 40,000 mem- 
bers. They have operated by strikes and the like means, with the general 
object of keeping up wages of operatives as against employers. 


SAN DOMINGO. (See p. 175.) Present name of the Spanish part of the 
island of San Domingo, or Hayti. For the French part, see Hayti. 
Dominican Republic proclaimed, February, 1844, after the deposition of 
President Boyer. Baez was President, 1849- 1853 ; Santana, 1853-6 ; 
Baez again, 1856-8; Valverde, March, 1858-May, 1861: reunion with 
Spain decreed by the Queen, May 20, 1861 ; insurrection ‘against Spain, 
August, 1861; insurgents generally defeated, but Spain renounces the 
colony, May 5, 1865; Cabral President, September, 1865; Baez, Novem- 
ber, 1865 ; Cabral again, June, 1867; San Domingo City nearly destroyed 
by a hurricane, October 30, 1867 ; Baez President again, March, 1868 ; 
Ganier d’ Aton, October, 1873 : Gonzalez ; Baez, December 10, 1876. 
Population estimated at about 250, 000. 


SAN JUAN ARBITRATION between Great Britain and the United States, 
for ownership of the island, which commands the strait between British 
Columbia and the United States territory. Decided by the Emperor of 
Germany, October, 1872, in favor of the United States, and the British 
troops left accordingly, November 22 following. 


SAN SALVADOR. One of the Central American republics, independent 
since its federal union with Honduras and Nicaragua was dissolved, 1853. 
Government, nominally republican; but there is most frequently some 
revolution. Population, variously estimated at from about 430,000. to 
600,000, all Indian, or mixed, except about 10,000 whites. 


SARAWAK. A territory on the north-west coast of Borneo, about 300 
miles along the sea and reaching 100 miles inland, with about 300,000 
population. Was under government of Rajah Brooke, an Englishman, 
1841-1868. 


SAVINGS-BANKS. (See pp. 176, 575.) Deposits in sayings-banks of Great 
Britain and Ireland, 1872, £40,088,548. For English postal savings, see 
Post-Office. In the savings-banks of New England, New York, New 
Jersey, and California together there were, in the year 1874-5, deposits 
amounting to $810,096,745, of which the bankers of New York held over 
$303,000,000, and those of Massachusetts over $217,000,000. 


SCHELDT DUES abolished for a compensation, 1867, and the navigation 
of the river made free. 

SEAMEN. On Mr. 8. Plimsoll’s motion, a commission of inquiry to investi- 
gate the practice of employing unseaworthy ships, appointed March 4, 
1873 ; reported July 2, 1874; a merchant shipping survey bill rejected, 
June 24, 1874; great excitement in and out of Parliament on the subject ; 
an act finally passed empowering the Board of Trade to stop unseaworthy 
ships, August 18, 1875, and a merchant shipping act, August 15, 1876. 

SECULARISM. A non-Christian, free-thinking system, ‘* seeking morality 
in nature, and happiness in duty,” and claiming to be ‘‘ not against Chris- 
tianity, but independent of it.’’ Advocated in England by Messrs. Hol- — 
yoake about 1846 ; subsequently by Mr. Bradlaugh. A small number of 
secularists are to be found in the United States. : 


\ 


1867-77. 53 


SEDAN. An ancient city, reckoned a very strong fortress in old times, on 


the Meuse, in the north-east of France, and the seat of a little principal- 
ity held by the Dukes of Bouillon, who were Princes of Sedan. Ceded ta 
the French crown, 1642. A Protestant university here abolished after re- 
vocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685. Here was taken, destroyed, or 
surrendered, August 29th to September 2d, the whole of the French 
Army of the North, 150,000 strong, with Napoleon III. himself in com- 
mand. Men actually surrendered, 83,000, with 70 mitrailleuses, 400 field- 
pieces, and 150 fortress guns. 


SERVIA. (See p. 178.) Alexander Karageorgevitch (2. ¢, son of Black 


George), the hospodar, forced to abdicate, and Milosch Obrenovitch (re- 
elected) prince in his stead, December 23, 1858; succeeded by his son, 
Michael Obrenovitch, September 26, 1860; movement begins about this 
time iter independence of Turkey ; disputes at Belgrade ; Turkish Pasha 
bombards the city, and is dismissed, 1862; on a conference of the powers, 
at Constantinople, the Porte makes concessions +o Servia, October, 1862. 
On further demands by Servia, Turkish garrisons withdrawn; Prince Mi- 
chael assassinated, June 20, 1868, and his nephew Milan Obrenovitch suc- 
ceeds; war against Turkey breaks out, J uly, 1876 ; complete subjection 
of Servia by Turks only averted by interference of the powers, November 
1, 1876. Area of Servia, about 16,000 square miles, and population, by 
census December 31, 1874, 1,352,522. 


SHEFFIELD, ENGLAND, An abominable practice of persecution by ‘‘ rat- 


tening,” or stealing tools, and other outrages, und even, in several in- 
stances, by murder and attempts to murder, at Sheffield and Manchester, 
all reduced to a system and paid for regularly, in order to punish oppo- 
nents of trade-unions, revealed before a parliamentary commission, June 
and July, 1867. The worst criminal was one William Broadhead, Secre- 
tary to the Saw-Grinders’ Union, who planned these proceedings and paid 
-for them. 


SHIPPING. (See also Navies.) Sail and steam vessels of Great Britain 


and Ireland, not including river steamers, in 1875: 


Men 

Vessels, Tonnage. employed. 
ere ESO SAO 1av044 504 6p Lb) 126,240 
rok. La V c ok, o PSO i ch seigh 22 Wy BST ABB esis ee 73,427 
cost) A) lacie Mapp ce Dj SOTO9 2 a alas 199, 667 
On June 30, 1875, the shipping of the United States were as follows 
Vessels, Tonnage. 
Se ooP a  lel E aa Dire: Nite Oster ree eee dd 2,257, 154,23 
PEPOML BIR. RIG. Be 2) COS) PRS PIR hl 1,116,425, 42 
Unrigged (barges, etc).......... Tp eA a nase ack Ad ee nh sd 890,858, 07 
anal-ponts, C66. <2... sc... cee Pa 2 RN RRS NT OR fe lg 331,445,74 
Bhs GAB ne ae ehlll care$ casrhgeris« Hj BOGSO88, 46 


June, 1376, the total tonnage was 4,853,752. 


SHIPWRECKS. (See Wrecks.) 
SIAMESE TWINS. (See p. 181.) They were exhibited a second time in 


London, February, 1869. They died in January, 1874, one about two 
hours before the other. A post-mortem examination showed that there 
‘was an actual communication of their nervous and circulating systems 
through the band that connected them. 


54 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


SILKWORM. (See p. 585.) In 1856 the French silk erop, which should 
have been worth about $25,000,000, was reduced to one-third that value 
by the destruction of the silk- -worms, which were killed off by a sort of 
epizootic called pébriné, which turned out to be parasitic. Scientific in- 
vestigations by order of the government resulted in a method, devised by 
Pasteur, which has nearly destroyed the disease. 


SILVER. (See pp. 181, 585. See Coinage ; Money.) Silver produced in 
the United States, 1848-1873, $156,050,000. In 1875, Nevada alone pro- 
duced $40,478,369 of the precious metals, of which nearly all was silver. 
In 1876 an important fall took place in the value of silver, since which 
time the question of the standard of money has been vigorously debated, 
with a tendency to make gold the only standard, thus leaving silver more 
a merchandise than a currency, except for small change. 


SINAI, MT. Ordnance survey by Wilson and Palmer, published 1872. 
SINAITIC MS. of the Bible, or Codex Sinaiticus. (See Bidle.) 


SKOPTZI, oR WHITE Doves. A South Russian fanatical sect, who prae- 
tice emasculation as the Shakers do celibacy. 


SLAVERY. Abolished by the Dutch in their West India colonies, from 
July, 1863; slave trade, by the Seyyid (or ruler) of Zanzibar, by treaty 
with England, June 5, 1878; on the Gold Coast, by agreement with several 
chiefs, November 3, and proclamation made by Goy. Strahan, December 
17, 1874; slavery, by the Sultan of Turkey, November 23, 1876. 


SLAVONIA, a province of Austria. The Slavonian family of languages in- 
cludes Bohemian, Bulgarian, Polabic, Polish, Russian, Servian, Slovak, 
and Wend. The Slavic races in Europe are estimated to number, in 1875, 
as follows: Russians and Ruthenians, 66,129,590; Serbo- Croats, 5,949,- 
539; Bulgarians, 5,123,952 ; Slovenes, 1,260, 000: Slovaks, 2 223, 830 ; 
Czechs (7. é., Bohemians), 4, 815, 154 ; Poles, He "492 162 ; total, 90, 360, 633. 
A so-called “Pan-Slavist ” movement has of late years been set on foot, 
with rather vague designs, and a congress of Slavonic deputies met at - 
Moscow, 1867, but with no distinct results. 


SOCIAL SCIENCE, or Sociology, has become a distinct department of study 
within fifty years, and especially since 1857. Annual meetings of the 
English Social Science Association have been held, beginning with that at 
Birmingham, October, 1857, and an annual volume of its transactions 
has been published. The American Social Science Association, whose 
headquarters are at Boston, Mass., has issued, besides a tract on emigra- 
tion and one on free libraries, annual numbers of its Journal, beginning 
with June, 1869. It holds annual meetings, where papers are read and 
debate is had. 

SOONGARIA. (See Dzoungaria.) 


SOUND DUTIES, levied by Denmark at Elsinore on all aie passing the 
Sound there, until 1855, when the United States decided to pay them no 
longer, and the Danish Government gave them up for a compensation. 


SPAIN. (See pp. 184, 591.) The Government, since 1867, has changed ag 
follows: Queen Isabella leaves Spain, September 30, 1868; Provisional 
Republican government established; Marshal Serrano regent, 1869; 
Queen Isabella abdicates January 25, 1870; crown declined by Leopold 
of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, July , 4 Prince Amadeo of Italy chosen 
king November 16, 1870 ; ‘abdicating, a republican government restored, 


1867-77. 5S 


1873 ; Marshal Serrano President, 1874; Alfonso XII., son of Queen Isa 
bella, king, 1875; the present constitution proclaimed June 30, 1876. 
An attempt by Don Carlos, calling himself Carlos VIL, to obtain the 
throne; he enters Spain, May, 1872, and maintains hostilities with more 
or less success against whomsoever it may concern until February, 1876, 
when, after many reverses, he leaves Spain and surrenders to the 
Governor of Bayonne, February 27, 1876. Don Carlos (born 1848), is son 
of Don Juan, who was brother of the Count of Montemolin, or Carlos VI., 
who was son of Carlos V., the brother of Ferdinand VII. Carlos VI. 
renounced his rights in favor of Don Juan, and the present Don Carlos 
therefore claims under Carlos V. 


SPECIE PAYMENT. (See Resumption.) 


SPECTROSCOPE. First constructed and used by Kirchhoff and Bunsen, 
1861; since variously improved. Spectrum analysis, or the examination 
of light through the spectroscope, has resulted in many remarkable dis- 
coveries, particularly in astronomy, such as the determination of the sub- 
stances composing the sun, some nebule, fixed stars, comets, etc. ; and 
also in analytical chemistry, including the discovery of two new metals, 
cesium and rubidium. 


SPELLING REFORM. The Spelling Reform Association was organized in 
Philadelphia, August 17, 1876, for ‘‘the simplification of English ortho- 
graphy.” President, F. A. March, Lafayette College, Easton, Pa.; Cor- 
responding Secretary, D. P. Lindsley, Fernwood, Pa. Efforts in the same 
direction have for some years been made in England. 


SPIRITUALISM, or SPIRITISM. The so-called ‘spiritual manifesta- 
tions’’ began at Rochester, New York, about 1848; about 1851 much 
attention was given in England to the raps, ‘‘table-turning,”’ etc. Some 
time afterwards a little machine called ‘‘Planchette” was a leading 
topic of interest. Various sorts of ‘‘ test-mediums” and ‘‘ manifesta- 
tions” have appeared, and it is confessed, even by the most ardent 
spiritists, that a great share of the phenomena exhibited are fraudulent. 
The “Spiritual Magazine,” London, began January, 1860; the ‘‘ Spirit- 
ualist,” November, 1869. Many very intelligent people believe in some 
of the ‘‘ manifestations,” but Spiritism has not thus far (1877) been 
demonstrated either good morally, or true scientifically. 


STADE DUES. Levied on the Elbe by Hanover, on all vessels passing 
Stade. Resisted by the United States, 1855 ; abolished, 1861, for a sum 
of £3,000,000. 

STANDARD GOLD AND SILVER. English standard gold is 22 parts (by 
weight) gold, and 2 parts either silver or copper; standard silver, 37 of 
silver to 38 of copper. The old-established proportion of silver to gold 
was 154 of silver equal to one of gold by weight. 

STEEL. Bessemer’s process patented 1856. Tungsten steel made in 


Germany, 1859. Steel is very rapidly coming into use (1877) for railroad 
rails, cannon, and other purposes for which iron has heretofore served. 


STORM SIGNALS. (See Meteorology.) 


STORMS. (See Cyclones ; Hurricanes.) 


STRASBURG. Invested by the Germans, August 10, 1870; surrendered 
- by Gen. Uhrich with 17,500 men and 400 officers, September 27. The 


56 THE WORLE’. PROGRESS. 


ancient and very valuable library was destroyed during the siege, and 
the cathedral much injured. . 

STREET RAILWAYS, STEAM oN. (See Railways.) 

STRIKES. (See page 186 ; see also St. Crispins.) In 1824, combinations by 
workmen against masters ceased to be criminal by English law, and the 
history of workingmen since that time has been increasingly a history 
of strikes, which “have occurred in great numbers, especially in Great 
Britain and the~-United States. In March, 1867, the farm-laborers of 
Buckinghmshire struck for higher wages, and with some measure of 
success. Same month, the engine-drivers on the London and Brighton 
Railway struck for higher wages and some other concessions. Result, a 
compromise. April 10, the engine-drivers and others on the (English) 
Northeastern Railway struck in consequence of the refusal of indoor- 
work to some of them—in all, 1,100. The strike was defeated. April 
28, the London journeymen tailors struck for higher wages, but returped 
to work on the employers’ terms after a number of months. In a trial 
arising from this strike the practice of ‘‘ picketing” or watching for, fol- 
lowing, and abusing non-union men was exposed. September, 1868, the 
London cab-drivers and owners struck work, because certain so- called 
‘* privileged” cabs only were allowed upon the premises of the railways. 
The strike failed. January, and again March, 1870, the workmen of Schnei- 
der’s great iron and steel works, at Creuzot, in France, struck in conse- 
quence of a quarrel about a benefit fund and the dismissal of a troublesome 
workman. A military force put down the movement. In the same year, 
16,000 work-people struck at Mulhouse, and before the troops sent could 
restore quiet, a large factory was burnt. Other strikes had already 
taken place at Marseilles, Perpignan, and other places in the south oj 
France. December 8, 570 telegraph clerks of the Manchester, Dublin, 
Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Belfast, and some other post-offices struck by 
arrangement, in consequence of the removal by government of certaix 
clerks for joining a ‘‘ protective association.” The strikers were mostly 
reinstated after making written apologies and leaving the association. 
October 9, 1871, the monster strike of some 8,000 engineers and other 
workmen at Newcastle, England, having lasted since the end of May, 
ended by the reduction of working hours from ten to nine, the wages re- 
maining the same. The Newcastle strike of 1871 was of 9,050 engineers 
for nine hours instead of ten, at same wages. The trade-unions main- 
tained these 9,050 men for sixteen weeks, and did much to prevent 
others from taking their places. At one time during this year were on 
strike these engineers, the Newcastle police, the colliers of Northumber- 
land, Dean Forest, and Gloucestershire, the iron-workers of North Staf- 
fordshire, the dyers of Bradford, the quarrymen of Leeds, and the crate- 
makers of the potteries. The New York strike, in 1872, for the 
eight-hour working day, included 90,000 workmen. March 25, 1873, 
60,000 Welsh colliers struck against a 10 per cent. reduction in wages. 
Many strikes occurred in the United States about 1874, as wages began 
to be lowered from the high standard maintained since the war. Apri. 
12, 1876, 20,000 miners struck in Yorkshire. At Fall River, Mass., the 
mill-hands were on strike for several months in the summer of 1876, but 
ultimately in part resumed work without obtaining their demands. 
February 12, 1877, the engineers of the Boston and Maine Railroad, be- 
longing to a general ‘‘ Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers,” presided 
over by one Arthur, an Englishman, struck without notice. They were 


1867--77. 57 


not taken back, and the road in a few days obtained other men. Report 
of the Massachusetts Railroad Commissioners on this strike, recommend- 
ing penal statutes against such action in future, was published February 
21,1877. The success of the railroad, and some subsequent similar 
cases, pretty much broke the power of the ‘‘ Brotherhood.” Extensive 
series of riots and railroad and other strikes in the United States, begin- 
ning at Martinsburg, in West Virginia, on the Baltimore and Ohio Rail- 
road, July 16, 1877. The strikers were in many places joined by outlaws 
and criminals, who set fires, robbed, and committed violence of various 
kinds. State and National troops were called out in large numbers, and 
the trouble gradually ceased, but not without the destruction of vast 
amounts of property and great interruption of travel, transportation, and 
communication. It was reckoned that about 9,000 miles of railroad were 
blocked on this occasion, and no through line to the sea-coast within the 
United States was left open. Board of Arbitration for amicable settle- 
ment of questions between workingmen and employers, formed by Act 
of Parliament in Great Britain in 1866, after a great strike in that year, 
but its usefulness was only temporary. 


SUEZ CANAL. (See p. 186.) Work commenced 1858. First ship goes 
through, February 17, 1867. Canal formally opened, November 17, 1868. 
£4,080,000 voted by the House of Commons, for the purchase by England 
of the canal shares belonging to the Khedive of Egypt; purchase an- 
nounced, November 26, 1875. 


SUICIDES. (See p. 602.) Inquests on suicides in England and Wales in 
ten years : 


Tepe bills... 1,397 POTN, Bes aclMeric ah 1,517 
“ 1/360 ARTE ss a ee 13464 
G0et fel iter tals... 1,356 OER ROR eeter ya 1,455 
Too aa 1,546 19 i AP a at 1'481 
J) tae 1,562 | G7 OE ASU ARGS * 5 1,549 


SUN. (See p. 603.) Cycle of changes in number of sun’s spots fixed at 
11 years by Schwabe and others, 1826-51. Red flames at edge of sun 
during an eclipse, shown to be burning hydrogen by Janssen, August 18, 
1868. Unknown substance believed to exist in the sun, corresponding to 
line 1474 of the spectrum, 1870-71. Substances already shown by the 
spec'roscope to exist in the sun: Aluminium, barium, cadmium, calcium, 
cerium, chromium, cobalt, copper, hydrogen, iron, lead, magnesium, 
manganese, nickel, sodium, strontium, titanium, uranium, zinc—all fused 
into a liquid or even vaporous state. 


SUNDAY; SunpAy Laws. Scientific lectures with a bearing on natural 
religion were given in London in January, 1867, by Huxley, Carpenter, 
and others, with sacred music in the intermissions. On legal inquiry 
(ease of Baxter v. Baxter Langley, Nov. 19, 1868), held that this was not an 
infraction of the Sunday Act of 21, George III. The Boston Publie 
Library Reading-Room opened to the public on Sunday, after much op- 
position, February, 1873. 

SWEDEN AND NORWAY. (See pp. 169, 604.) Religious toleration to 
some extent (previously a rigid and exclusive state Lutheranism pre- 
vailed), 1860. New constitution, December, 1864. Charles XV. dies 
Sept. 18, 1872. Oscar II., his brother, succeeds. Population of Sweden, 
Dec, 31, 1875, 4,383,291, and Norway 1,817,287. 


SWIMMING DRESS, Boyton’s. (See Life-Saving.) 
Sha 


Sora THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


SWITZERLAND. (See pp. 189, 606.) Mermillod, papal nuncio, expelled, 
January 16, 1875, Revised federal constitution adopted, April 19, 1874. 
Swiss National Catholic Church (‘‘ Old Catholic”) established June, 1874 
Civil marriage law adopted, May 23, 1875. Population, 1870, 2,669,147. 


SYLLABUS of errors in modern times, issued along with an encyclical let: 
ter by Pope Pius IX., December 8, 1864, condemned heresy, modern 
philosophy, political liberalism, etc. Adopted by the Vatican Council, 
1870. 


TALMUD. (See p. 609.) The Talmud has been translated into Arabic, 
and parts of it into Latin and into modern languages. Raphall and de 
Sola translated eighteen treatises of the Mishna or text into English, Lon- 
don, 1847. 

TAXES, (See pp. 189, 610; also Revenue; National Debt ; etc.) National, 
State, and municipal taxes in United States, estimated in 1876 at $730,- 
000,000 a year, or about $19.00 for each soul. 

TEA. (See pp. 189, 610.) Importation into the United States, and value, 
1869-1876 : 


Lbs. Value. 
LOGO dare nceas si entie ete eet eee 39,141, %bo" Meee as $13,687,750 
ASO! oe ct SURE eA or ree 40; 812; 188i | Ao Pe eeee se 13,871,546 
TUL Po Sie0 eee eee een 4G OTR ST mo pers atte eee 17,254,617 
AST2 ac Ecc te co koiad aialets sae bless melee 66,974, LUC Meee tee os area 22,943,575 
Bi Bare cae et 4, Geese ck eee 57,870,700 SO a APE 24,466,170 
STAG: sfc disic nf tu ew ad leo epee ae 49.831 S00 asain cre aaa 21,112,234 
TEE ath te o aieincs ceiect cle acsiote ome oe eeaienons 64,856, 899 ESS Sees 22,673,703 
AS(6.2k oes called Sale See een G2,537, 103 et leteertcs eee 19,524,166 


Imported into England in 1875, 197,505,316 lbs. ; worth £13,766,961. 


TELEGRAPH. The English Government in 1869 bought out the English 
telegraph companies on the basis of paying twenty years’ profits for the 
property. The companies claimed £7,035,977; on a valuation this sum 
was reduced to £5,715.047, of which the profit item was £5,220,109. 
£700,000 were also paid to railroad companies for telegraph rights, and 
some other items carried the whole government expenditure to about 
£6,750,000, or $35,750,000. The government estimate of returns was, 


annual revenue expected, £673,838; expenses, £359,484; net profit, . 


£514,354; and deducting three and one-half or four per cent. interest on 
the government securities issued to buy with, there would remain a sur- 
plus of £77,000 or £44,000, as the case might be. The result, however, 
has been thus far (1877) a loss instead of a profit. February 16, 1871, at 
9.8 P.M., a telegram was received at London which was sent from Kur- 
rachee, in India, at 12.43 in the morning of the next day. 


TELEPHONE. bBell’s, Gray’s, and Edison’s telephones were brought before 
the public in 1876 and 1877. One was invented by Philip Reiss, a Ger- 
man, about 1862. Bell’s operates by means of talking and listening into 
a ‘‘funnel” or small drum-head (or an equivalent mechanism), which 
vibrates over an electro-magnet in an electric circuit. Gray’s acts by the 
vibrations of tuning-forks. They are all contrivances to convey sound 
along an electric circuit. 

TELESCOPE. (See p. 611.) Lord Rosse’s great telescope, fifty-two feet 
long, seven feet diameter, erected 1828-45, cost over £20,000. Newall’s 
telescope, with sbject-glass 25 inches aperture, set up at Gateshead, Eng- 
land, 1870. 


re 


z 
| 


1867-77. . 5S 


TENURE or OFFICE ACT. Passed March 2, 1867, in order to limit tha 
power of President Johnson. It required the consent of the Senate to re- 
move as well as to appoint officials. 


THOMASSEN. (See Haplosions. ) 


TICHBORNE CASH. May 11, 1871, this case, in which the claimant of 
the Tichborne estate, calling himself Sir Roger Tichborne, was asserted 
by the defendants to be a butcher named Arthur Orton, came on for trial. 
After occupying 103 days (the Attorney-General, Sir J. D. Coleridge, 
spoke twenty-six days), claimant nonsuited, and held for perjury and 
forgery; trial began April 23, 1872; verdict of perjury, February 28, 
1874. Longest trial known in England; sentence fourteen years at hard 
labor. ; 

TICKET oF LEAVE. A permit granted to convicts supposed likely to 
behave well. 2,666 persons thus liberated in England in 1856. In 1861-3 
the system appeared a failure, these liberated convicts committing many 
crimes, and the device was practically discontinued by the Penal Servitude 
Act, 1864. 

TORPEDO. For submarine warfare, invented by David Bushnell, of Say- 
brook, Conn., and tried on British vessels unsuccessfully, except that it 
greatly frightened them, 1777; much used in rebellion, 1861-5. Torpedo 
departments have, since the introduction of iron-clad war-ships, been in- 
troduced into all navy organizations. 

TRADES-UNIONS. (See Lattening ; Strikes.) National Federation of 
Employers formed in England, to counteract Trades-Unions, Parliamen- 
tary report on persecutions by the Saw-Grinders’ Union of Sheffield, and 
similar practices, dated August 21, 1867. Forty-five trades-unions in 
New York City in 1869 had 24,425 members; in 1876 many of them had 
been discontinued, and the membership was less than 15,000. The whole 
number in the United States in 1872-3 was estimated at 1,500, of which 
eleven had a national organization, and ten an international one. ‘The 
fifth annual Trades-Union Congress of Great Britain and Ireland, at 
Leeds, January 13, 1873, included representatives from ninety-nine socie- 
ties, one of which contained 140,000 members. 


TREASON-FELONY. Term applied in an English Act of 1848, to certain 
treasons mitigated to felonies, and made punishable by imprisonment or 
transportation. ‘The Fenians were tried under this act in 1865. 


TRIALS. (See pp. 191, 623; also Z%chborne Ouse ; Ritualism, and Purchas 
Case.) Saurin v. Starr, *‘ the convent case,’’ by an ex-inmate of a Roman 
Catholic convent at Hull, England, against the Superior and others, for 
conspiracy, etc., occupied three weeks in trying, in the year 1869. The 
plaintiff recovered £500. July 15, was tried at Carmarthen, Wales, the 
‘“ Welsh Fasting Girl Case.” The girls parents, Hvan and Hannah 
Jacobs, had made a show of their daughter, pretending that she had lived 
for months without food; and when some competent persons were sent 
from Gray’s Hospital to watch the child, the parents let her die. They 
were convicted, and imprisoned at hard labor, the father for twelve, and 
the mother for six months. November 26, 1870, Rev. Mr. Mackonochie, 
a ‘‘ ritualist,” incumbent of St. Albans, Holborn, London, was suspended 
for three months from clerical duty, and sentenced to pay costs, for dis- 
obeying the monitions of the Privy Council about elevating the paten and 
prostrating himself before the consecrated elements. February, 1870, 


60 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


the case of Lady Mordaunt, whose husband had sued for a divorce, re: 
sulted in a stay of proceedings on the ground of Lady Mordaunt’s insanity. 
The Prince of Wales had been reported concerned in the scandal, but 
denied it on the witness-stand. November 10, 1871, there was a curious 
libel suit at London. One John Hampden, who maintains that the earth 
is fat and not round, had bet £500 with a Mr. Wallace on this question, 
and the money had been paid to Mr. Wallace by the referee on deciding 
the bet, as agreed. Upon this Hampden began a system of sending 
about libellous. postal cards, accusing the referee of fraud. On trial 
he made an ample apology, and was let off. February 11, 1871, judgment 
was given by the judicial committee of the Privy Council in the Voysey 
case, in which Rev. C. Voysey was prosecuted for heresy in maintaining 
and teaching various alleged infidel doctrines, The tribunal found that 
he contradicted and impugned the thirty-nine articles in respect to original 
sin, the incarnation, the atonement, the trinity, the authority of scripture, 
and other points, and sentenced him to deprivation and payment of costs. 
By final decisions in 1877, Mrs. Gaines, after forty years’ litigation, 
obtains title to a great mass of real estate in New Orleans. ~ 


TRICHINA. A minute worm living in the muscles of hogs and other 
animals; transferred into those who eat the infected meat, and causes a 
disease, sometimes fatal, called tricbiniasis. First found in human mus- 
cle by Owen, 1832. Thorough boiling kills them. Much attention to the 
subject, 1865-6. 

TROY. Dr. Schliemann, 1872-8, discovered on the hill of Hissarlik re- 
mains of three different ancient cities, one over the other, and much an- 
cient treasure, part of which he called the ‘‘ treasure of Priam.” He be- 
lieved the site to be that of ancient Troy; his book translated and pub- 
lished in English, 1875. 

TUNNEL. Mont Cénis tunnel, seven and one-half miles long; began 
August 31, 1857; boring completed, December 25, 1870; cost about 
$13,000,000. A tunnel under the English Channel, from Dover to Ca- 
lais, proposed, August, 1869, by Bateman and Revy; plans by Thomé de 
Gamond shown in Paris, 1867; a convention in favor of it signed for 
France by M. Chevalier, January, 1875, and a thirty years’ monopoly 
granted ; French and English companies formed; experimental borings 
in the chalk at the sides of the channel indicate that the rock is such as 
to make the scheme practicable. Hoosac Tunnel, under Hoosac Moun- 
tain, in Western Massachusetts, begun 1856; completed, 1873; four and 
three-fourths miles long. Sutro Tunnel, to drain the Comstock Lode 
and other silver mines in Nevada, estimated cost, $8,000,000; to be 21,- 
178 feet, and with all branches and shafts, 45,088 feet. 


TURKEY. (See pp. 192, 626.) Insurrection in Herzegovina, June, 1875, 
extending more or less into Montenegro, Bosnia, and Seryvia. The ‘* An- 
drassy note,’’ suggesting reforms in Turkey, presented to the Sultan’s 
Government by the Austro-Hungarian, German, Italian, and Russian am- 
bassadors, January 31, 1876. On the 6th February, an answer promises 
religious liberty and other reforms. February 14, decree issued order- 
ing them. Risings in Bosnia, early in March, 1876. Insurgents in Herze- 
govina blockading Nicsics ; defeat Turks under Mukhtar Pasha, April 15, 
1876. Turks defeat insurgents at Prejeska, April 23. In May, 1876, 
risings in Bulgaria put down by the Turks with frightful cruelty and out- 
rages. Consuls of France and Germany assassinated at Salonica, by Mo- 


1867-77. 61 


-hammedan fanatics, May 6, 1876. May 11, 1876, the ‘‘ Berlin memo- 
randum,’’ agreed on by Russia, Germany, and Austria, at Berlin, requir- 
ing prompt fulfilment of the Turkish promises made in reply to the 
-Andrassy note. England refused to join in this demand, and it was 
dropped. May 12, 1876, riots at Constantinople, headed by the softas 
(students of law and religion), against the government. Abdul Aziz de- 
throned by his ministers, May 27th, and was found dead (said to have 
committed suicide), June, 1876. Murad, nephew of Abdul Aziz, made 
Sultan, May 30th; deposed, August 31, 1876, and succeeded by his 

_ younger brother, Abdul-Hamid II. June 12,1876, Prince Milan of Servia 
proclaims that the insurrections around him force him to put Servia under 
arms. June 15, 1876, Hassan Bey, a Circassian captain in the Turkish 
army, enters the ministerial council-room, shoots dead the Ministers of 
War and of Foreign Affairs, and killed or wounded six other officials be- 
fore he was secured. He was hanged two days afterwards. Prince of 
Servia and Hospodar of Montenegro jointly declare war against Turkey, 
July 2, 1876. Turkey announces that no payments can be made on the 
public debt ‘‘ until the internal affairs of the empire have become more 
settled,” July 9, 1876. Decisive defeat of the Servians by the Turks at 
Alexinatz, October 28, 1876, and Alexinatz occupied the 31st by the vic- 
tors. Mr. Gladstone’s powerful pamphlet on the Bulgarian atrocities, 
published September 6, 1876. Armistice for six weeks with Servia 
granted by Turkey, under pressure from the powers, November 1, 1876. 
Conferences of the powers at Constantinople to try to avert war begun 
December 11, 1876. Represented : Great Britain, Austro-Hungary, France, 
Germany, Italy, Russia, Turkey. A constitution, providing for represen- 
tatives, a legislative assembly, etc., proclaimed, December 24, 1876, in 
order to avert European intervention. For the war, see Russia. 


U. 


UNITED STATES. (See pp. 193, 631; also Centennial, etc.; Chronological 
Tables, p. 205, etc.) In 1870 there were in the United States, 3,603,844 
square miles or 1,942,000,000 acres, half of it public lands, and less than 
one-tenth of itcultivated. Population, 1870, without Indians, 38,558,371 ; 
estimated, June 1, 1876, 45,627,000; expected at census of 1880 to be 
fifty millions. Value of all real and personal property (1870), $30,068- 
518,507; paupers, 116,102; convicted of crime, 36,062 ; in prison, June 
1, 1870, 32,901; religious congregations of all kinds, 72,459; church edi- 
fices 63,082; sittings, 21,665,062, or 4 to every 7 souls. 


UNIVERSITIES. Students and professors, etc., in German ones, J une, 1876: 


Professors Professors 

and Teachers, Students. and Teachers. Students. 
SOREN irhaaechs sd LS ae ee tag 2,143 Ké6nigsberg ....... BB ie care tik oa j 
Bone ees Nleee UU Retueieke . £2 ot 07 Deipzie uns pel oe POG av ete seen 2,925 
Breslatyy. Chi gciak IPTG Ue 2 8 4,416\6 | oMarbare. 21,400). GCI, Mate 401 
Erlangen ......... DAP octet 565-9 429 NENNICH Saeed et PAG OSe  acaer 1,208 
OLOUPO SS Sa ictole 356 “Ts i a a 274 | Munster.... ..... DSU i: me ha 431 
KGLOSBEM pecera ales ¢ lo.ave RTRs iaa..0. ok 2 315 Rostotk.2.4e scutes SViea dete ee te: 153 
Gottingen ........ 1p ane 986 Strassburg ........ Walaa, ANGE a 67? 
Greifswald........ Life 0 an cata ea 444 Tibingen.. sees SAW rites s 823 
BAe eee nk he ce Up ee aa 870 Wiarzburgs....esee Cie Soa ee 984 
Heidelberg.....5... LOS 5 ee a ‘ 488 —— ai, 
UIGITE AN SAN apace ae J ts ie Repaeeapagn 440 21 ECU OM i hibit ¢ 16, 62% 


62 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


Add to these 2,377 unmatriculated, ‘‘ permitted to attend lectures” (of 
which 1,962 at Berlin alone), and there are 18,999 students; 14 universi- 
ties are Protestant; the theological faculty being Roman Catholic at Frei- 
burg, Munich, Mister, and Wiirzburg, and mixed at Bonn, Breslau, and 
Tiibingen. 


We 


VATICAN COUNCIL, called the Twenty-first Gicumenical or General 
Council, summoned by encyclical letter of September 8, 1868; met at 
Rome, December 8, 1869; present, 805 members; there were four public 
sessions, and from 90 to 100 ‘‘ congregations.” New canons issued April 
24,1870; the infallibility of the Pope affirmed by 547 to 2, and the 
doctrine promulgated July 18, 1870. 


VEDAS. Hindoo sacred books, consisting of hymns, prayers, and liturgies. 
There are three portions of them—the Rig-Veda, Yajur- Veda, and Atharva- 
Veda—the first being much the oldest and dating to 1,000 or more years 
B.C. Max Miiller’s edition (in Sanscrit) began to appear 1849; Wilson’s 
translation, 1850. 


VELOCIPEDE. One invented by Blanchard, the aéronaut, about 1779 ; 
one by Niepce, 1818; came into use again about 1861, and are still (1877) 
more or less employed. 


VENDOME COLUMN. Pulled down by the communists, May 16, 1871; 
restored August 31, 1874; statue of Napoleon replaced at top, December, 
1875. Courbet the painter was condemned to a fine of 30,000 francs for 
his participation in overturning it. 

VENEZUELA. (See p. 634.) Presidents: Falcon, March 18, 1865; Mo- 
nagas, June to November, 1865; Pulgar, December, 1865; Blanco, July, 
1870, and re-elected 1873, 1875. Conflict with Roman Catholic Church on 
civil marriage; papal authority renounced by the government, September, 
1876. Area about 403,261 square miles; population (1873), 1,784,194. 

VENUS, TRANSIT OF. (See Astronomy.) 

VESUVIUS. (See pp. 194, 636.) Recent eruptions: spring and sum- 
mer, 1860; December, 1861; February, 1865; November 12, 1867 to 
April, 1868 ; October 8 to November 20, 1869; April 23 to May 3, 1872. 

VICTORIA, IN AUSTRALIA. (See p. 194.) Capital, Melbourne. Popula- 
tion, estimated March 31, 1876, at 829,824. 

VISIBLE SPEECH. A universal system of delineating sounds in which 
each letter is a diagram of the position of the vocal organs in uttering it. 
Invented by A. M. Bell; explained by him, and a book on it published, 
London, 1866; introduced in America by him and his son, J. G. Bell, 
the inventor of a telephone, about 1872. ~ 

VIVISECTION. Efforts to prevent it have been made since 1859; gener- 
ally oppused by scientific physiologists and medical men. Bill to regulate 
it in Great Britain, August 15, 1876, by restricting it to licensed persons. 


W. 


WAGES. (See pp, 196, 640; also Strikes, Trades-Unions.) In New York, 


from 1870 to 1876, wages in fifty-eight trades fell from 10 to 20 per cent. 


1867-77. 63 


In England, wages were often raised by the strikes, 1874-75. Yearly 
total of wages paid in United Kingdom, 1866, estimated at from £250, - 
000,000 to £418,300,000, earned by 10,697,000 working people, between 
20 and 60 years of age. 


WAHABEES. Fanatical reforming Mohammedans, a kind of Puritans ; 
arose in Arabia about 1750; in 1803 seized Mecca and Medina; were 
defeated by Egyptian forces 1818; are at present prosperous in Arabia, 
and there are some of them in India. Palgrave’s J ourney in Arabia, 1865, 
is a good account of them. 


WAR. (See pp. 196, 643; also Army ; Battles ; Navy ; National Dedt ; etc.) 
An estimate from 1853 to 1877 shows the following deaths and expenses 
in one quarter-century of Christian war. 


Orimean war... .......<4%. $1,700,000,000 | Austro-Prussian war (1866) 330,006,000 


Italian war (1859) .......... 800,000,000 | Franco-Prussian,.......... 2,500.000,000 
U. 8, rebellion (North)..... 4,700,000,000 | Other wars, etc............ 200,000,000 
U. 8. rebellion (South),.... 4,300,000,000 — 
Schleswig-Holstein war.... 35,000,000 Motalicogt Mae ose cee $12,065,000,000 
And deaths (not complete). 
Crimean war.......... Mee hen tes 475,000 | Austro-Prussian war of 1866.... 45.000 
Munlian war 1859. 4. kc eee c us 45,000 | Franco-Prussian war........... 215,000 
Schieswig-Holstein war......... 3,00 oa 
Wieeerebouionee. 2.5. inc... . Cees 800,000 otal’ deaths.os. asses tcene- 1,183,000 


These deaths are nearly all of the strongest young men, from 25 to 35 
years old. 


WATCHES, (See p. 646; also Clocks and Watches.) 

WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Includes all New Holland west of 190° EB. 
longitude, being estimated at 978,000 square miles. The settled part is 
not more than one-eighth of this area. Population, March 31,°1870, in- 
cluding 1,470 convicts, 24,785. First settled 1829, and was then called 
the Swan River Settlement. - 


WOERTH. Defeat of the French under McMahon by the Germans under 
the Crown-Prince of Prussia, after most obstinate and bloody fighting, 
August 6, 1870. The French said to have charged the German line and 
broken it eleven times, always, however, finding fresh troops behind. 


WRECKS. (See pp. 198, 658; also Life-Saving Seamen.) Of 1803 casual- 


ties to vessels on the British coast in the year 1873-74, 346 were total 
wrecks, and 506 lives were lost. Lives (saved chiefly by life-boats), in 
1871, on British coast, 4,336. 


v: 


YACHT. (See p. 199.) July 4, 1870, an “‘ international” yacht race was 
begun, from Cork to New York, between the English yacht Cambria and 
the American one Dauntless, The Cambria won, arriving at 4 P.M. of 
July 27, the Dauntless, taking a more northerly route, came in two hours 
later. October 16, 1871, and six subsequent days, took place an inter- 
national yacht race between the English yacht the Livonia and the yachts 
of the New York Yacht Club. The Columbia and Sappho, of New York. 
won four out of the first five races, deciding the match. 


64 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


Z. 


ZANZIBAR. Set off from Muscat, 1806, for Majid, a son of the Seyyid 
(lord) of Muscat. At Majid’s death, October 7, 1870, Barghash, his 
brother, succeeded. Treaty with England abolishing slave trade, June 5, 
1873. 


ZEND AVESTA. The present Zend Avesta is said by the Parsees to be 
only three out of the original twenty-one nosks-or books. It consists of 
hymns, prayers, and liturgies, much as the Vedas do, and is in three 
parts, the Vispered, Vendidad, and Yacnas. The five Gdthas or hymns 
in the Vendidad are considered the oldest part. Their age is very doubt- 
ful, though in part unquestionably great.  Anquetil Duperron’s French 
version, 1771; Burnouf’s, 1829-43 ; Spiegel’s, in German, a later one, is 
the best ; and an English version ‘of. this by Bleeck was published at 
Hertford, England, 1864. 


_ 


BUREAU OF STATISTIOS, U. 8. TREASURY DEPARTMENT, 


For the following rtatistics w2are indebted to the courtesy of Hon. ALEXANDER DELEAD 


Director of the Bureau.] 
CUSTOMS JDourtirs RecEIvED In 1866. 


Le epouring the Quarter ending March 81, 1866 ........ $46,645,597.83 
June 80, BemeMer at Cacteroe 46,175, 132.83 


* Official. t Commercial and Financial Chronicle, March 30, 1867. 


SHIPPING Srartistics: TonNAGE oF THE Unirep Srartes. 


ae « Sept. 30, “ ........ 60,843,774.24 
+ “ «“ Dec. 81, “ ........ 37,803,027.54 
$181,467,531.94 


Registered. Enrolled and Licensed. Total. 
Year. Sail, Steam. Sail. . Steam. Tonnaye. 
1860, 2,448,941 97,296 2,036,990 770,641 5,353,868 
1861, 2,540,020 102,608 2,122,589 774,596 5,589,813 
1862, 2,177,253 113,998 2,224,449 596,465 5,112,165 
1863, 1,892,899 133,215 2,660,212 439,755 5,126,081 
1364, 1,475,376 106,519 2,550,690 853,816 4,986.401 
1865, old, i. 031 465 60,539 1,794,372 630,411 3,516,787 
1865, new, "482, 110 28,469 780,695 838,720 1,579,994 
1866, old, 341,619 42,776 443 635 114,269 942,299 
1866, } new, 953,018 155,513 1,489,194 770,754 3,368,479 


EXPORTS OF GOLD AND SILVER from New York during the year ending 


June 30, 1867 


Domestic. Foreign. Total. 
In Am. Vessels. In For. Vessels. In Am. Vessels. In For. Vessels. 

_ Gold Bullion,... 298,854 8,425,227 none. none, 8,724,081 
Gold Coin,..... 1,500,041 15,800,152 1,183,580 1,418,853  19,902,62€ 
Silver Bullion,. 706,081 8,186,837 none. 18,939 8,911,857 
Silver Coin,.... 248,978 1,581,753 307,181 1,521,062 3,658,974 

PE OTals ates’. sais 2,753,954 33,993,969 1,490,761 2,958,854 41,197,538 


COFFEE Sraristics. Statement exhibiting the consur. ption of coffee in the 


United States during the years ending December 31, }861, 1862, 1863, 1864, 
1865, and 1866: 


Year. Pounds. Yean. Pounds. 
1861, 187,046,008 1864, 109,087,008 
1862, 88,990,000 1965, 128,146,000 

63, 79,720,000 1866, 159,915,840 


66 UNITED STATES TREASURY STATISTICS. 


See page 68, Reports of Revenue Commission, 1865-66. The quantities given 
for the first five years are substantially those named in the Annual Report of the 
New York Chamber of Commerce for 1865-66. ; 

The quantity for 1866 is taken from the Supplement to HE. Moring’s Monthly 
Cojfee Circular, 1867. 


COTTON SratistIcs. 


Production. Exported. Average Price 
Year. Bales. Pounds Bales. per pound. 
1860-61, 38,656,086 3,126,622 17.42 cents. 
1861-62, est. 4,800,000 5,064,564 = say 12,000 4215 * 
1862-63, est. 1,500,000 11,384,986 = say 26,000 71.08 *8 
1863-64, est. 500,000 10,880,534 = say 25,000 $111.14 ‘ 
1864-65, est. — 300,000 6,607,186 = say 15,000 10.75 6 
1865-66, 2,214,476 1,554,744 44, " 
1866-67, est. 1,900,000 est. 1,500,000 825 ‘ 


The figures relative to production, except for 1866-67, were derived from 
Neil Bros. & Co.’s Cotton Circular for October 16, 1866. The receipts at all 
ports from September 1, 1866, to July 6, 1867, are given as 1,863,000 bales, and 
the total exports for the same period as 1,463,000 bales. Messrs. Cornwall & 
Zerega in their Circular give the receipts from September 1, 1866, to July 12, 
1867, as 1,809,500 bales. 

The number of pounds exported are taken from Table 19, page 349, Finance 
Report, 1866. The same table gives the exports for 1860-61, as only 307,528,- 
489 pounds, or say 720,000 bales. The Rev. Com. (see Report, p. 74), gives the 
*xports for 1860-61, ineluding stock on hand, as 2,812,346 bales. 


.EA Srarisrics. Statement exhibiting the conswmption of tea in the United 
States during the years ending December 31, 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, 
and 1866: 


Year. Green, Japan. Black. Total. 
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 
1861, 7,485,000 18,035,000 25,520,009 
1862, 13,871,600 13,597,000 27,468,600 
1863, 14,490,680 12,415,685 26,906,365 
1864, 18,564,295 9,573,251 23,187,546 
1865, 18,874,199 10,979,234 29,853,433 
1866, 29,643,187 


See Reports of Revenue Commission, 1865-66, pp. 58, 55. The above are 
estimates made from data furnished the Commission by parties in the trade in 
New York, except for 1866, which is taken from Messrs. Montgomery’s Yea Cir- 
cular. The Commission estimated the consumption for 1866 at 80,000,000 
pounds. _ 

The Pacific States are not included in the above, except for 1866, nor is any 
allowance made for smuggling. The estimated consumption in 1860, was one 
pound per capita. 


TOBACCO Statistics. 


Year. Production, Exported. 

Pounds. Leaf, pounds. Manuf’d, lbs. Toral. 
1861, est, 200,000,000 est. 160,000,000 14,783,363 174,783,368 
1862, 136,736,596 est. 107,000,000 4,071,968 111,071,963 
1862 276,850,870 est. 112,000,000 7,025,248 119,025,248 
1864, 197,460,229 est, 110,009,000 8,586,494 118,586,494 
1865, 185,316,953 est, 149,000,000 7,294,165 156,294,165 


TRAE est 330,501,500 190,876 248 6,515,709 197,341,957 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 67 


_ The production for 1862, 1863, 1864 and 1866 is given as found in the Re. 
ports of the Department of Agriculture. The estimated production for 1866 is 
taken from the Tobacco Circular of M. Rader & Son, 

The quantities of leaf tobacco exported are estimated from the returns of 
commerce and navigation for the years 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, and 1865. The 
quantities of leaf for 1866, and of manufactured tobacco for each year specified, 
are taken from the returns of commerce and navigation for those years. 

In 1862, the production of only twenty-one States is given, Kentucky and 
the disloyal States being omitted. In 1863, 1864, and 1865 Kentucky is included, 
and in 1866 all the States. 


WHEAT Statistics. 


Years, Production, Exported. Av. Frice per bu 
Bushels. Wheat, bushels. Flour, bbls. at Yew York. 

1861, 31,238,057 4,323,756 $1,18 to $1.45 
1862, 189,993,500 37,289,572 4,882,038 1.30 to 1.50 
1863, 191,068,239 36, 160,414. 4,390,055 1.33 to 1.58 
864, 171,695,823 23,681,712 8,557,847 1.48 to 1.83 

1865, 159,522,827 9,937,152 2,604,542 2.22 to 2.70 
1866, 151,999,906 5,579,103 2,183,050 1.85 to 2.75 


No returns of the production of 1861 are to be had, although inquiry was 
made at the Department of Agriculture. 

The figures relative to production in 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866 are 
taken from the Monthly and Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture, 
and embrace 22 States and Nebraska Territory, except 1866, which embraces 29 
States and Nebraska Territory. There being no returns from California in 1864 
and 1865, the crop for each year is estimated at 11,000,000 bushels, which is 
believed to be a low estimate, the crop for 1863 being 11,664,203 bushels. A 
barrel of flour is considered as equal to 5 bushels of wheat. 


STATISTICS, YEARS 1867-77, 


(From public documents and other standard sources, ) 


REVENUE of the United States from customs for ten years (to June 30), 
1867-1876. 


UN? a $176, 417,810.88 SO es a amteeitets eto n ce $216,370, 286.77 
EN aa slate 5 v's. s 164, 464,599.56 BN Gsiine rata arcane a 188, 089,522.70 
BU a te osc ces ss 180,048, 426.63 ID As een thee ae 163,103, 833.69 
PS 194,538,374. 44 gS ae i PAS | 157,167, 722,35 
Lh ES 206,270, 408. 05 FONG oes Sg sick oe e's 148, 071,984.61 


For the first five months of the years ending June 30, 1877 and 1876, the 
revenue from customs was as follows: 


q 1877. 1876. Decrease, 
$57,801,7'72.50 $68, 170,576.48 $10,368, 803,98 


COIN AnD BULLION exported from the United States for seven yearn, 
1868-9 to 1874-5, ending June 30. 


BOOM spree paivc'sisines! » «2 $42,915, 966 Dba Seat es oo siete te aes $73,905,546 
BPS aa ons i452 5 tne wigs 861 | Epo ae: Sb 4 59,699, 686 


US rar 84, 403,859 | ee CMP peas eee. 83,857,129 
MECC Toss visas» ve « 742,798, 240 


68 


UNITED STATES TREASURY STATISTICS. 


COTTON. Prodnction and exports of United States for nine years (ending 
June 30), 1868 to 1876. 


SHIPPING of the United States, nine years, 1867-1875. 


Production, bales 


of 440 bbs. 
1SEB Pot ae teen vat gs Loaner eee 2,593,993 
10650. si satiwam es ces'ss sisisiaieine @ esis Wi ole afi sta 2,439,039 
1870 eeroroscees @oeesee Seer ees oeresesseee 3,154, 946 
1871 eeoee @eessereooeoec® Oeeserrrrserrrsres 4,352,317 
pe a an SOO CCL Cromer te 2,974,351 
ISIS easee oF cccccee Sissies eieeiulans's'e oe isle= 8,980,508 
LST s Be etnle«  sleeicie elere alee Paleialeidte sys 4,170,388 
BS10 Oia ones ebeesdacns Sess sibel ws wea 3, 832, 991 
BOUGeuricles.cs es cocvevs uh peeicke deeds 4, 600, 000 


Sail, 


1,187,714 
1.310344 
1,353,170 


1,232, 982 
1,229, 865 
1,233,678 
1,262,188 


Registered (tons). 


Steam. 


165,522 
921,939 
913/252 
192,544 
180,914 
177,666 
198,423 
195,245 
191,689 


Enrolled 
and 
Licensed. 


Licensed 
under 
20 tons. 


Exported, pounds, 


784,163,633 
644,327,921 
958,558,523 

4,462, 928,024 
983,537,413 

1,200,063,530 

1,358,602;303 

1,260, 418,903 

1,491,405,335 


Total Merchant Marine (tons), 
Sait, Steam Ail. 
2,834,585 1,122,980 3,957,515 
8,118,895 1,199,415 4,318,310 
8,041,073 1,103,568 4,144,641 
4,171,412 1,075,095. 4,246,507 
8,194,970 4,087,637 4,282,607 
8,326,194 1,111,553 4,437,747 
5,539,584 1,156,443 4,696,027 
3,615,042 1,185,610 4,800,652 
8,685,064 1,168,668: 4,853,732 


TOBACCO. Product and exportation of United States, ten years, 1867- 
1876. 


-e4ee 


Production, Ibs. 


313,724,000 
320,982,000 
273,775,000 
250,628,600 
263, 196,100 
342,304,000 
372,810,000 
178,355,000 
379,347,000 


Exported, Leaf, lbs. 


213,995,176 
318,097,804 
923 901,718 
218,310,265 


WHEAT. Product and exportation of the United States, nine years, end 


ing June 30, viz., 


eereerecoes 


eer eres 


eeeee rere 


eeoeceeces 


Seeeescon 


Production. 


212,441,400 
224. 036,600 
260,146,900 
235,884,700 
230,722,400 
240,997,100 
28(),372,700 
308,102,704) 


1867-1875 (in bushels). 


As Wheat. 

6,146,411 
15,940,899 
17,557,836 
36,584,115 
34,304, 906 
26,423, 080 
89, 204. 285 
71,039, 928 
63,047,175 


Exports. 
As Flour. 
6,500,530 


BLOGRAPHIOCAL INDEX 


TO 


UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 


WN. B. This list of remarkable persons, from the earliest period, is not, of course, intended 
le mclude every name mentioned in history, but merely the most important in theiz 
seyeral departments. The names of Sovereigns are referred to occasionally only, as full 
lisvs are given in their proper place. 

This list may be useful in two ways, viz. . 

First, as an Index to the names mentioned in the Chronological Tables in 1 the 8 World's 
Pr ‘gress ;” and 

Secondly, to indicate, by reference to those tables, the chief political events and con- 
teraporary public characters during the life of each person in the list. 

Thus: Soorarss, the Greek philosopher, was born 470, and died 400 8. c. The tables 
on page 20 to 24 show who lived, and what happened, during the seventy years of Socrates’ 


_ life. 


MILtToN was born A. pb. 1608, one year after the first settlement at Jamestown, Virginia , 
six years after the East India Company was founded ; five years after James I. ascended 
the throi.e ; the same year that the Protestant Union was formed in Germany; one year 
before Gustavus Adolphus became king of Sweden; two years before Louis XIII, became 
king of France. He was 12 years old when the Puritans first landed at Plymouth; he 
was 17 when Charles L succeeded James, and he was 41 years old when Charles was be. 
headed. Ameng his contemporaries were Lord Bacon, Inigo Jones, Jeremy Taylor, 


_ Algernon Sydney, Sir C. Wren, Butler, Waller, Dryden, Henry More, Baxter, and Boyle, in 


England ; Peter Stuyvesant, Winthrop, Cotton,and Eliot, in America; Richelieu, Mazarine, 
Colbert, Rubens, Kepler, Descartes, Moliére, Corneille, Racine, Pascal, on the Continent, 
He died 4. ». 1674, nine years after the great piague in London, 14 years after Charles IT. 


- was restored, and 7 years after New York was ceded to the English. 


And thus, of any person mentioned in the Index, a great variety of particulars may be 


_ found at a glance, on referring to the tables. 


ABBREVIATIONS.—See list in the Introduction. Bar. (Barbarian) includes several different 
nations, some not entirely civilized. f. is used for flourished. The dates before Christ 
are indicated by B. C.; all others are A.D. In some cases the dates are necessarily left 
blank. 


NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED, 
Dan. Aagesend, Svind, historian . : * e . f. 1188 

Jew. Aaron, the first high-priest : ° - 8B. c. 1570 1453 

Gr. Aaron, of Alexandria, physician ~ ff 622 
; Egypt. Abbas, pasha, viceroy of Egypt (grandson of Mehemet-Aliy 1813 1854 
Eng. Abbot, George, archbishop of Canterbury and author . ° 1562 1623 
_ Amer. Abbott, Benjamin, distinguished educationist s 2 1763 1849 
_ Amer. Abbott Jacob, author of biographical and religious works . 1803 

Amer. Abbott, Jno. S. C., historian and biographer ., ° 1805 
Arab. Abd’el Kader, distinguished warrior } : ; 1806 1866 
Turk. Abdul Medjid, sultan of Turkey ; ° ° » 1823 
; Eng. A’Becket, Gilbert A., comic writer : ° ° 1810 1856 
_ Amer. Abeel, David, missionary and author of travels F : 1804 1844 

Wor. Abel, Nicholas H., mathematician “ ‘ , 1802 

927 


998 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED 
Sp. Abenezra, an ast:ono.er, philosopher, poet, philologist, &e. , 1119 1174 
Eng. Aberdeen, Har! of, statesman and antiquary . 5 1784 1866 
Scot. Abercrombie, John, author of ‘ IntellectualPowers’ s : 1781 1844 
Eng. Abercromby, Sir Ralph, military eommander : a 1738 1801 
Eng Abernethy, John, eminent physician and medical] writer » W464 1831 
¥r. Ablaxcourt, N. P. D., translator of the Classics . 4 1606 1664 
Fr, About, Ecemoud, novelist, traveller, &c. ; ‘ a 

Jew. Abral.ain, the great progenitor of the Jewish nation - 8c, 1995 B. co, 1821 
Fr. Abrantés, duchess a’, biographer 3 : - ‘ 1784 1838 
Dan. Absalom (real name Axcel) archbishop of Den., Sw., and Nor, 1128 1208 
Ara. Abubeker, father-in-law and successor of Mahomet . = 561 62.3 
Syr. <Abulfuda, the geographer ‘ ° ° 4 1273 1645 
Rom. Accius, or Attius, a tragic poet (works not extant) Z B. 0. 171 

Ital. Accursius, or Accorso, an eminent critic F ° 5 1229 
Ger. Accuin, Fred., operative chemist (in England) . . 1769 1833 
Pruss. Ackerman, Rudolpk, introduced gas-lighting and lithog. in London 1764 1834 
Gr. Achilles, one of the leaders in the Trojan war i f. B. c, 1100 

Gr. Achilles Tatius (of Alexandria), Christian bishop and author 3d cent. 

Ital. Achilli, Giovanni G., protestant preacher A . . 1803 

Gr. Acropolita, of Constantinople, statesman and historian 1220 1232 
Eng. Adum. Alexander, schoolmaster and author ‘; - 1741 1808 
Eng. Adam, Robert, an architectural author ‘ . a 1728 1734 
Amer, Adaris, John, patriot and statesman, 2d Pres. U. 8, 5 Pee es vhs 1826 
Amer. ——-—, John Quincy, diplomatist, poet, Pres. U. 8. . 1767 1848 
Amer. — , Samuel, one of the patriotic founders of the republic . 1726 1808 
Eng. Addison. Joseph, one of the ornaments of English literature 1672 1719 
Ger. Adelung, John C., philologist and lexicographer 3 x 4732 1806 
Eng. Adolphus, John, author of history of England, &e,. = 1766 1845 
Ire. Adrain, Robert, mathematician (at New York, &e.) . « 4776 1843 
Rom. Adrian, the 15th emp. (born in Spain) ; 16 138 
Eng. lfrie, archbishop of Cauterbury, author cf Augiofaxad walks —— 1075 
Gr. 46lixn, the historian and rhvtorician F 5 460 

Gr. ancas, son of Priam, king of Troy ,. ; f. B. 0. 1123 

Qr. 4ischines, of Athens, philosopher, disciple of Soorated - 

Gr. ——— oo , orator . ° B.O. 393 B. 0, 323 
Gr. 4isop, of Phrygia, the prince of fobulinta . ° of. B. 0. 600 

Rom. Atiius, military commander (defeated Attila) ; : 454 
Rom. Africanus, Julius, historian “ “ ‘ i 232 
Sp. Moor————, Leo, author of travels in Africa, ° » 1487 1526 
Gr. Agamemnon, “ the king of kings” ° 4 x B. 0. 90. 
Gr. Agathius, historian and poet 7 , ‘ ys a 565 
Swiss. Agassiz, Louis, naturalist : 1807 

Gr. Agesilaus II., king of Sparta (defeats the Per. Eeyph, and Greeks) B. 0. 361 
Scot. Aginhard or Eginhard, Hist. of Charlemagne A 971 239 
Gr. Agis IV., the greatest of the Spartan kings . ‘ B. 0. 251 
Eng. Aglionby, one of the translators of the Bible . . 1610 


Rom. Agricola, Cneius Julius, military commander . 


Ger. Agricola, John, a divine, founder of the Antinomians . . 
Rom. Agrippa, military commander, governor of Judea » ° 
Fr. ——, Cornelius, philosopher, &c. . ~ ° 
EK. Jew Aguilar, Grace, novelist ; e ; a x 
Pers. Ahasuerus, king of Persia (Artaxerxes Long.) ° . 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 929 


SATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. 
Eng. Aikin, John, M. D., an elegant writer, editor of poets, &c. 747 1629 
Eng. , Lucy, biographer and historian . ‘ 

Fr. Aimé-Martin, Louis, writer on education : . 1844 
Eng. | Ainsworth, Robert, grammarian and lexicographer ° oe a LooU 1748 
Eng. ————, Wn. Francis, traveller, geologist, &. , ® 1807 

Eng. ———-—, Wn. Harrison, novelist f : A 1805 

Eng. Airy, Geo. B., astronomer-royal . ° ° 1801 

Tartar. Akbar, Midtenmad, a great Mogul sovereign é i A 1555 1605 
Eng. Akenside, Mark, apopular poet ‘ . A 1721 1776 
Swe. Akenblad, philologist $ e ° e e 1819 
Bar, Alaric I,, king of the Visigoths A e - 411 
Span. Alberoni, Julius, cardinal statesman - 1664 175° 
Eng. Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, heir to the British throne ° 1841 

Ger, Albert, Prince, husband of the Queen of England ° « 1819 1861 
Ital. Alberti, an eminent writer, painter, sculptor, &c, . e 1398 1490 
Ger, Albertus-Magnus, philosophic writer, tutor of Aquinas e 1205 1280 
Bar. Alboin, the Lombard conqueror , A A 574 
ital, Alboni, Marietta, eminent contralto singer x ° e 1826 

Port, Albuquerque (the great) military commander . S 1452 1515 
Gr. Alceus, of Lesbos, a lyric poet < r 5 f.B. 0. 606 

Hea e Aiciati, of Milan, an eminent civilian and author - a 1492 1550 
Gr. Alcibiades, a famous Athenia~ general and statesman , B. 0. 450 B. Oo. 404 
Gr. Alciphron, author of Letters, &c, RG at F e f, 170 

Amer. Alcott, A. Bronson, philosopher aud educationist e A 1799 

Amer. -——, Wm. A., writer on education and philosopher - e 1798 

ang, Alcuinus, founder of schools at Paris, &c. ° ‘ 732 804 
Amer, Alden, John, one of the first Plymouth Colony . ; 1598 1687 
Eng. Aldhelm, St., an eminent scholar and poet ° A A T09 

Aldus, see Munutlius ° ; 

Fr. Alembert, John Le Rond @’, math., hist., and Pillscophes ° 1717 1783 
Eng. Alexander, A. H., claiming to be Earl of Stirling . A 1783 

Amer. ————,, Archibald, theologian and author = e 1772 1851 
Amer, —————., J. eiaivon, theologian and commentator e 1809 1860 
Amer. —————-, James W., theologian ; ; e m 1804 1859 
Rom, ——-—-, Severus, emperor 3 : ° 209 235 
Bar, ———— the Great, founder of the Macedonian Prnive B. 0, 356 B, Oo. 323 
Rus -— » Nevskoi, a saint and hero; def. of the Tartars, &&. . 1218 4262 
Rus. ————, I., emperor (coalition against Napoleon) Py 1777 1825 
ae —, II., (became emperor 1855) 5 e 1818 

qr. Alexius Commenus, emperor of the East . : 1048 1118 
Xtal, Alfieri, an eminent tragic poet . e ° 1749 1803 
Eng. Alfred, justly called the Great, king ‘ e 849 900 
Ital. Algarotti, a general, scholar, and critic “ ° . 1712 1769 
Bar. 4 i Bey, gov. of Egypt, revolted against the Turks ° 1728 17738 
Bar. Ali Tepe’ini, pasha of Jannina . 5 ° 1744 1822 
Scot. Alison, Archibald, rev., ‘ Essays on Taste’ ; e 1757 1839 
Scot, -, Archibald, sir, ‘ History of Europe,’ ‘ Essays? ° 1867 
amer. Allen, Ethan, an intrepid ofticer in the Revolution . e 1737 1789 
Amer. ——-, Wm., author of Amer. Biog. Dictionary - e 1784 

Eng. Alleyn, Edward, actor and manager (temp, Shakspeare) ‘ 1566 1624 
Amer. Allston, Washington, painter and poct ° « 1779 1844 


Sar. Almamon, ealiph, patron of learning : a ; 832 


930 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION, BORN. 
Sar. Almansor, caliph, patron of learning . ° e 712 
Eng. Almon, John, political writer : cs e e 1728 
Mex. Almonte, Juanet, general and statesman ° ° cht, 120) 
Span. Alphonso X., king of Castile, Leon, and author . e 1203 
Port. Alphonso I., Henriques, founder of the Portuguese monaehy . 1094 
Amer, Alsop, Richard, poet and linguist : - e 1761 
Eng. Altherp, Viscount, statesman and book-collector F 7 1758 
Span. Alva, duke of, celebrated and barbarous military commander 1508 
Mex. Alvarez, Juan, leader of Mexican Revolution . . e 1790 
Ger. Amalie, duchess of Saxony, dramatic poet ° e 1794 
Jew. Amaziah, king of Judah ° . ° ° . 
Ttal. Ambrose, St., bishop of Milan, author . e . 840 
Ital. Americus Vespucius (of Florence), explored the S. American 

coast . . : ° ° ye ° 1451 
Amer. Ames, Fisher, a statesman and orator A e . 1750 
Amer, , Nathan P., machinist and bronze founder 5 e 1803 
Eng. Arherst, Jeffrey, lord, mil. com. in America, &c e ° 1717 
Rom. Ammianus, Marcellinus, historian a ° e ° 
Ger. Ammon, Christ. F. von, Protestant theologian e ° 1766 
Gr. Ammonius, a peripatetic philosopher ° ° ° 
Eng. Amory, Thomas, humorous writer, ‘Jno. Buncle’ ° 1719 
Fr. Ampére, Jean J., traveller and essayist ° ° » 1800 
Fr. , Jean Marie, mathematician and nat. philosopher . 1775 
Fr. Amyot, James, bishop of Auxerre, translator of Plutarch o pelo te 
Bar ..nacharsis, a Scythian philosopher and disciple of Solon . 8.0. 592 
Gr. Anacreon, a celebrated poet ° ° . e 
Gr. Anastasius I., emperor of the East ° ° e 
Gr. Anaxagoras, a philosopher . . ° e B. 0. 500 
Gr. Anaxarchus, a philosopher, companion of Alexander the Great B. 0, 340 
Gr. Anaximander, of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher . e @6€©68B OO. 611 
Gr. Anaximenes, of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher e ° 
Fr. Ancelot, J. A. P. F., poet and novelist ‘ e ° 1794 
Pruss. Ancillon, J.P. F., historian and statesman e e 1V6T 
Dan. Andersen, Hans Christian, poet and novelist ° ° 1825 
Scot. h, Anderson, Adam, commercial writer . e e 1692 
Eng. » Sir Edmund, a judge and author fe an 
Swe. Andersson, Chas. John, explorerin Africa . e A 
Fr. Andral, G. A., writer on anatomy and medicine . e 1797 
Eng. Andre, John, British officerin American war . ° e 1751 
Eng. Andrews, Lancelot, bishop of Winchester ° e 1555 
Gr. Andronicus, of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher, z f. B. 0. 63 
A:ser, Angell, Jos, K., author of legal works : . ° 1794 
Frg. Anglessy, Henry W., marquis of, general at Waterloo . o 2368 
Fr. Angouléme, duchess d’, daughter of Louis XVI. . j 1778 
Ital. Anielo, Thomas (commonly called Masanielo), a fisherman of 

Naples, who rose to great power . ° . e «©: 1628 
Gr. Anna Commena, daughter of the Emperor Alexis L, historian 1083 
4ust. Anne of Austria, wife of Louis XIII. of France ° 3 1604 
"ng, Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIII. . e 1500 
Hing Annet, Peter, a deistical writer A ‘ 4 1703 
Car Annibal, or Hannibal, a celebrated Carthaginian general . 8.0. 247 
Fr. Anguetil du Perron, a classical scholar and author “ LIBS 


DIED 
778 
1808 


1284 
1185 
1818 
1834 
1582 


8. 0. 809 
387 


1517 
1808 
1847 
1797 
30 ' 
185., 
B. c. 24 
1783 
1854 
1828 

- 1593 


B. O. 474 
518 
B. 0. 428 


B. 0. 547 
B. O. 504 


1837 


1765 
1605 
1856 


1780 
1626 


1857 
1854 
1851 


1646 
1148 
1666 
1536 
1778 
B. Oo. 183 
ww 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX: 


IB31 


RATION, NAME AND PROFESSION, BORN. DIED. 
Eng. Anselm, archbishop cf Canterbury, a learned divine i 1033 1109 
Hng. Anson, George, lord, celebrated naval commander e ° 1697 1762 
mng. Anspach, Eliz., margravine of, author of memoirs . e 1750 1828 
Trish, Azster, Jno., translator of ‘Faust’  . a ° « 1798 
Amer, Anthon, Charles, classical scholar and author . ° 2797 1867 
Egypt, Anthony, St., the founder of monastic institutions ° ° 251 356 
{tal, —, of Padua, a divine ; - ‘ “ 3185 1231 
Mace. Antigonus, one of the generals of Alexander the Great ° B. oO. 301 
Mace. Antipater, one of the generals of Alexander the Great . ° B.C. 318 
Gr. Antisthenes, a philos., founder of the sect of Cynics . 8.0, 425 
Tial § Antonelli, Giacomo, cardinal, premier of Pius IX. ° - 1806 
Rom. Auntvninus Pius, emperor - 4 . ° 86 161 
Rom, , Marcus Aurelius, emperor, suriaz.ec the philosopher 121 180 
Rom. Antony, Mark, military commander and statesman ° BO. 86 3B. O. 30 
Pers. Anveri,a celebrated poet : . ° ° ° 1201 
Fr. Anville, Jean B.d’, geographer , ° e * 1687 1782 
Rom. Apicius, the name ofthree Romanepicures . ° . A. D. Ist cent. 
Egypt. Apion, a grammarian and bitter enemy of the Jews ° f. 80 
Gr. Apollodorus, the name of several writers and statesmen B. C. 5th to 2d cent. 
Gr. Apollonius, surnamed Rhodius, a poet . é : B. 0. 194 
Gr. » Pergamensis, a geometrician . ° . £3. 0. 242 
Gr. , Tyaneus, a Pythagorean philosopher . . 9% 
Gr, Appian, an historian ‘ ; ° A e f. 148 
Amer. Appleton, Jesse, president of Bowdoin College and theologian . 1772 1819 
Rom. Apulcius, a Platonic philosopher and writer 5 . A.D. 2d cent. 
Ital. Aquinas, St. Thomas, a celebrated theologian ; A 1224 1274 
Fr. Arago, Dom. Fr. Jeau, astronomer and statesman . ° 1786 1853 
Eng. Aram, Eugene, a learned schoolmaster, executed for murder ., 1705 1753 
Gr. Aratus, of Sicyon, mil. com. and statesman 3 e B. 0. 273 B.C. 213 
Scotch. Arbuthnot, John, Dr., a poet. ° ° ° . 1735 
Gr. Archelaus, lonie philosopher ° ° ° eo f. 3B. 0. 450 
Gr. Archius, a poet : . e ° s f..Bhoy.719 
Gr. Archilochus, a poet ° ° ° e e f. 3B. 0, 685 
Gr. Archidemes, a celebrated mathematician A ° B. 0. 287 8B. O. 219 
Gr. Archytas, a mathematician 7 , V¢ . BO. 408 3B. 240 
i el Aretino, Guid, inventor of the gamut of music ° ° 995 
Ital. ————, Leonard, an historian . . ° ° 1369 1414 
Ital. —_—,, Peter, a satirist : ° ° e 1492 1556 
Eng. _ Argall, ay early colonist and deputy- perenne of Virginia 1572 2.839 
Pruss. Argelander, F. W. A., astronomer ~ ° ° 1779 
Span. Argensola, Lupercio, letorian and poet e ° eo @«=.: 1565 1613 
Spun. —, Bartholomew, historian ° e ° 1566 1631 
Scotch. Argyle, duke of, chief of clan Campbell, statesman ° o 1678 1743 
Ital. Ariosto, Lewis, a celebrated poet . ° ° 1474 1533 
Mex. Arista, Mariano, generalunder Santa Anna , ° ‘ 1802 1855 
Gr. Aristarchus, of Samos, mathematician and philosopher - f. B. 0. 280 
Gr. ,grammarian andcritic . ° ° B. O. 160 
Gr. Aristides, an Athenian statesman . e ° ° B.Oo. 467 
Gr. , lius, an orator and sophist * ° ; 129 188 
Gr. , one of the fathers of the church . P f. 127 
Gr. Aristippus, of Cyrene, philosopher, founder of the Oyreniacs f. B. oO. 892 
Gr. Aristemenes, a warrior and patriot F é . f. B. Oo. 663 


932 


NATION, 


Gr. 
Gr. 
Gr. 
Span. 
Eng. 
Fr. 
Ger. 
Dutch. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
etal. 
¥Y. 
Eng. 
Gr. 
Pruss, 
Amet. 
Ital. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Scot. 
Gr. 
Eng. 
Bar. 
Bar. 
Bar. 
Flem 
Eng. 
Amer 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Bar. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Gr. 
Eng. 
Ger. 
Ger. 
Amer. 
Gr. 
Gr. 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIBB 
Aristophanes, an Athenian comic poet. e e B.C. 388 
Aristotle, philosopher, founder of the Peripatetics . B. oO. 384 
Arius, of Alexandria, the founder of the Arian sect ° 436 

, Montauus, Benedict, orientalist . e » 1527 2598 
Arkwright, Sir Richard, inventor of spinning jennies e 1732 1792 
Arlincourt, Victor, vicomte d’, novelist é . ote BS 1856 
Arminius, the deliverer of Germany A - e 20 

, James, a celebrated divine, founder ofa sect . 1560 1610 
Armstr2ig, John, M D., poet “ c ° pare ea (a T79 

, John, general, statesman, and historian ° 1758 1843 

Arnaud, Dantel, troubadour . e * 1220 
—, Francis Baculard, dramatist a pbes . ° 1718 1805 
Arne, Thovias Augustus, musical composer . « Pare vert 1778 
Arnobias, a defender of Christianity ° e e f. 803 
Arnim, L. A., poet and novelist ‘ : 5 Singh ek 1831 
Arnold, Benedict, major-general, the traitor to his country . 1740 1801 
-, of Brescia, a learned monk, disciple of Abelard 1555 
——, Matthew, poet, professor of poetry, Oxon. 1822 
, Thomas, D. D., theologian, historian, and philologist ° 1795 1842 
, Thomas K., SOLO of classical text-books . ° 1800 1853 
Araya itiel, Bounlae scientific writer. F e » RTRs 
Arrian, historian, disciple of Epictetus  . . e f. 140 
Arrowsmith, Aaron, constructor of maps and charts . x 1823 
Arsaces I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy . e f. 3.0, 250 
Artaxerxes I., king of Persia a : ° ° B. ©. 425 
—, founder of the new Persian kingdom , ° ° 
Artevelie, Philip van, revolutionary popular leader . @ 1832 
Arthur, a prince celebrated in fable ‘ ° ° 472 542 
Arthur, Timothy §., author of tales and essays j - 1809 
Arundel, ‘Thos. H., earl of, importer of the Arundelian marbles 1646 
Asbury, ¥rancis, first Methodist bishop in the United States . 1745 1816 
Aschan, .oger, a learned writer. ° ° ° 1515 1568 
Asdrubal, a Carthaginian general . ° ° ° B. 0. 220 
Ashburton, Alex. Baring, lord, statesman . e ° 1774 1848 
Ashmtn, John K., jurist, professor of law . e e 1800 1833 
Askew, Anne, protestant, burned at Smithfield , e 152% 
Aspusia, the accomplished wife (2) of Pericles . e - 
Assez, John, historian . 2 ° £09 
Ast, George A. F., philologist, ‘ Lexicon Pldtonienmay e 1778 1°41 
Astor, John Jacob, wealthy merchant at New York ‘ 1763 1848 
A‘chison, David _ 2., senator, United States, from Missouri Peeper Fi 
Athanasius, St., o.e of the fathers of the church . 296 371 
Athenagoras, philos >pher ‘ - : a ae | 
Athenais, Empress of the West and Sreictanes called also Eu- 
doxia 4 : : . . ° §) 
Athenzus, a celebrates grammarian, the Greek Varro . - £ 190 
Attalus, founder of the monarchy of Pergamus, inventor of 
parchment : - . . B.C. 14 

-, Rhodius, iatheputiniants ; . - £8. 0. 173 
AtterLury, Francis, bishop of Rochester, exiled for conspiracy . 1662 17381 
Atticus, a knight and author (works lost) é = B.C. 109 BO. 8% 
Auber, D. F. ¥., famous musical composer. ‘ 05 eee 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 


NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. EDRN. 
Swiss. Aubigné J. H. Merle d’, historian of Reformation , e 1794 
Eng. Auckland, William, lord, statesman ° r ° 
Fr. Audoin, J. F. zoologist : ° e ° 1797 
Fr. Augereau, Castiglione, duke of, mil. com 6 = 1757 
G. Jew, Auerbach, Berthold, novelist " é ° i412 
asudiins: St., a celebrated father of the chara ° . 3o4 
—, the Apostle of the Eaglish—1st archbishop of Cante:»2r7 
Rom. Augeatiine Romulus, the last emperor of the West . : 
Rom, Augustus, Caius Julius Cesar Octavius—Ist emperor etwas: Ox? 63 
Aurungzebe, last Mogul emperor in India . ° e 2618 
Rom. Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, poet as the e A 
Eng. Austen, Jane, novelist : 4 e ° r 1775 
Eng. , Sarah, essayist and trans'ator ° (abt) 1800 
Amer. Austin, Stephen F., founder of first American eolony in Texas . 
Fr. Auvergne, Theophilus—republican—military commander . 17.3 
Ara, Averroes, philosopher, physician, and author . “ e 
Ital. Avezzana, Joseph, patriot soldier, refugee in New York . 1797 
Ara. Avicenna, philosopher, physic'an and author . . fs 980 
Eng. Ayscough, Samuel, compiler of Index to Shakespeare, &e. 
Scot. Aytoun, Wm. E., professor, poet, and essayist . - 1813 
Fr. Azais, Pierre H. philosophic writer s - e 1786 
Ttal. Azeglio, Massimo T. marquis d’, statesman and author e 5 As 
B 
Eng. Babbage, Charles, mathematician and machinist = © TH 
Fr. Babeuf, Franc. N. agrarian and socialist author , ° 1734 
Port. Baccellar, a civilian, historian, and lyric poet . ° ‘ 1724 
Gr. Bacehylides,lyric poet . 2 ° f£2,0. 450 
Amer. Bache, Alex. D. scientific sineen and writer ° e 1806 
Amer. Bachman, John, naturalist and theologian = ° 1790 
Eng. Back, Geo, Capt. R. N., Polar navigatorand author ,. | eh 1796 
asmer. Backus, Isaac, a divine and historian ° e - 1724 
Amer. Bacon, Delia, writeron Shakespeare . 4 Ps i 
Amer. Bacon, Leonard, theological writer and preacher , 5 1802 
Eng. , Roger, a monk celebrated for his scientific knowledge . 1214 


Eng. , Francis, Lord Verulam, the celebrated philosopher and _ t- tw3- 
man ‘ 5 . A . e ©: 1561 
Dan. Baden, James,-one of the founders of Danish literature . 1735 
Eng. Baffin, Wm., navigator, discoverer of Baffin’s Bay i e 1584 
Ger. Bahr, John C. F., classical philologist . ° 1792 
Amer. Bailey, Jacob W., professor of chemistry, botany, Ae e . leit 
Eng. , Nathan, a grammarian and lexicographer , e 
Eng. ——, Philip James, poet, author of Festus . g ‘ 
Erg. , Samuel, metaphysician and political essayist . A 1787 
fr. Baillet, a learned theologian, historian, and miscellaneous writer 1649 
Eng. Baillie, Joanna, poet and novelist Z . e P 1762 
Boot, , Matthew, physician and anatomist . . 1761 
Fr, Bailly, John Silvain, a learned author, and a leader in the revoe 
lution s ° ° i ° 3 1736 
En*. Baily, Francis, astronomer oa mathematician , d 1774 


Amer. Bainbridge, William naval commander - (Princeton) 1774 


933 


LIZ’, 


1¢14 
304] 
1816 


430 
604 
476 
14 
1703 
394 
1815 


1836 
1806 
1197 


1087 
1804 
1864 
1846 
1866 


1797 
1806 


1862 


1806 


1292 


1626 
1804 
1624 


1857 
1742 


1708 
1353 
4323 


1794 
1344 
1338 


934 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS 

110K. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBN. 
Amer. Baird, Robert, D., D., author of travela = _ ; ; 1798 
Biot. , Sir David, military commander : ° - 1757 
Turk. Bajaxct, sultan—conquered by Tamerlane . ° ° 
Am2r. Baker, Edward D,, U 8. senator and general . (Ball’s Bluff) 1811 
Ival. Balti, Adrian, geographer aud ethnographer ° 1782 
Span. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, early navigator to South America ° 

Hr Baldwin, who became emperor of the East ° ° 

Irish. Balfe, \~m. Michael, musical composer ° ° e 1808 
Scot. Baliol, intriguing rival of Robert Bruce . ° ° 1259 
Scot. Ballantyne, Jas., printer, publisher for Sir Walter Scott e 

Amer, Ballou, Hosea, universalist minister and author . ° 1771 
Eng. Baltimore, Geo. Calvert, 1st lord, founder of Maryland e ©1582 
Fr. Balue, Jean de la, cardinal, premier of Louis XI. . e 

Fr. Balzac, Honoré de, novelist p ° 1799 
Amer, Bancroft, George, historian of the U. §., secretary of cane &c. . 1800 
Swe. Banier or Banner, a celebrated military commander , ° 1596 
irish. Banim, John, novelist ‘ . . e 1800 
Amer, Bangs, Naihan, D. D., minister of Methodist church ant author 1778 
Amer. Banks, Nath. P., speaker of House of Rep., U. S., gov. of Mass. 1816 
Eng Banks, Sir Joseph, navigator, president Royal Society e 1743 
Fr. Baraguay d’ Hilliers, Achille, marshal of France ° e 1795 
Fr. Barante, A. G. P. B., baron, historian . ‘ ° 1782 
Pruss. Baratier, a Hebrew lexicographer before ten years of age e 1721 
Eng. Barbauld, Anna Letitia, a popular miscellaneous writer . 1748 
Turk. Barbarossa, the eclebrated corsair, usurperof Algiers . ° 

Amer. Barber, Francis, officer in revolutionary army ° ° 1751 
Fr. Barbeyrac, John, miscellaneous writer e e - 1674 
Amer. Barbour, James, statesman and diplomatist . e Va. 1775 
Amer. Barbour, P. P., statesman and judge of Supreme Court . Va, 1783 
Eng. Barclay, Robert, the celebrated virdicator of the Quakers . 1648 
Ital. Baretti, Joseph, lexicographer—author of Travels, &c. ol eS 
Eng. Barham, Richard Henry, humorist— Ingoldsby Legends’ 1788 
Amer. Barker, Joseph, noted. financier ° ° ° e 179 
Amer. Barlow, Joel, a statesman and poet ° ° e 1756 
Amer, Barnard, Henry, distinguished educator ; e 5 1811 
<.mer. Barnes, Albert, theologian and commentator 9° ° 1798 
ng. -, Joshua, an eminent Greek scholar ° e e 1654 
Amer, -, Daniel H. a distinguished conchologist . e 

Dutch. Barneveldt, John, statesman, (beheaded) : A o |) 1547 
Amer. Barney, Joshua, a distinguished naval commander ° 1759 
¥r, Barras, Paul, count de, mem. of the direct. in the Revolution . 1755 
Ing.  Barré, Isaac, colonel, M. P., friend of America : ‘ 1726 - 
Yrish. Barrington, Sir Jonah, lawyer and author es : 1767 
Amer. Barron, James, commodore (in the affair of the Ghesapeatees - 1768 
Kng. -, Isaac, a divine and mathematician = . 1630 
Eng. , Sir John, traveller, author, secretary to Admiralty . 1764 
Tish. Barry, John, the first American commodore ., ‘ 1745 
Eng, , Sir Charles, architect of houses of parliament be 1795 
Ams , W. T., statesman and diplomatist, : ¢ Va, 1785 
Ger Barth, Henry, traveller in Africa : ; 1821 
fr. Barthelemy, John James, author of ‘ Anacharsis,’ as ‘ eentiase 
Amer. Bartlett, John R., author ot explorations, &c F : 1805 


DIED 
1868 
1828 
1418 
1861 


1517 
1206 


1314 
18383 
1852 
1632 


1850 


1641 
1842 
1862 


1820 


1740 
1825 
1518 
1783 
1728 
1842 
1841 
1690 
1789 
1845 


1812 


1712 
1818 
1619 
1818 
1829 
1802 
1834 
1851 
1667 
1848 
1803 
1866 
1835 


| 


BATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
Amer. Bartlett, Josiah, statesman, gov. N. H., &. . ° . 
Eng. ——, Wm. H., artist and author « ° . 
Amer. Barton, Benj. Smith, M. D., a learned physician and botanist . 
Eng. , Bernard, the Quaker poet ° . ° 
Amer. Bar oe John, an eminent botanist . ° ° 
Gr. Basil, St.,a celebrated father of the Greek Siaeoh ° ° 
Eng. Baskerville. John, eminent printer and publisher . e 
Fr, Basnage, de Beauval, James, historian - ; ° 
Fr. Bassano, H. B, M., duke of, political writer and statesman e 
Fr, Bastiat, Frederick, political economist : A ° 
Amer, Bates, Edward, statesman and jurist . . ° 2 
Amer. Bates, Joshua, banker, (Baring Bros.) in England, ° 
Eng. Bath, William Pulteney, earl of, statesman . ° e 
Eng. Bathurst, earl of, statesman, friend of Pope, &c. ° e 
Fr. Batteux, Charles, rhetorician and miscellaneous writer e 
Hung. Batthyani, Kasimir, count, statesman : ° ° 
Hung. —, Lajos, statesman, (shot by Haynan) ° ° 
Ger. Bauer, Bruno, an audacious opposer of Christianity ° 
Ger. Baur, Ferd. Christ., professor of theology and author , ° 
Eng. Baxter, Richard, an eminent divine and author : ° 
Fr. Bayard, Peter, military commander . - ° ° 
Amer, —, James A., 2 distinguished statesman andlawyer . 
Ger Bayer, ate: astronomer . c e 
Ger. , Theophilus, chronologist and Metorian! ° 
Fr, Ripe. Peter, an eminent philosopher and critic, (‘ Bayle’s Dic- 
tionary’) = e e . ° P 
ng. Bayly, Thos. Haines, poet ° ° ° ° 
Eng. Beattie, James, L.L.D., poet . ° ° ° 
F, Beauharnais, Hortense, ex-queen of Holland , ° 
Fr. ——, Eugene, son of the Empress Josephine, mil, com., 
viceroy of Italy, &c. . . . ° ° 
or Beaumarchais, P. A. C. de, an eminent dramatist . e 
Fr, Beaumont, Elie de, mineralogist and geologist . ° ° 
Eng. » Francis, dramatic writer < ° e 
Fr. Beauzée, Nicholas, an eminent grammarian . ° A 
Ital. Beccaria, John Baptist, an ecclesiastic and philosopher « 
Ital. ————, Marquis, professor of political economy and author 
Amer. Beck, Lewis C., chemist and mineralogist ° ° 
Amer. ——-, Theo. Romeyn, author of medical jurisprudence . ° 
Eng. Becket, Thomas a, celebrated prelate and statesman e 
Eng. Beckford, Wm., traveller and novelist (* Vathek’) e - 
Ger. Beckmann, Johann, ‘ History of Inventions,’ &c, . ° 
Fr. Becquerel, Antoine Czsar, natural philosopher ; , 
Brit. Bede, styled the Venerable, a learned Saxon monk and histcrian 
Amer. Bedell, Gregory T., D. D., eloquent pulpit orator 5 F 
Eng. Bedford, John, duke of, military commander ° “ 
Amer. Beecher, Edward, theologian, (sun of Lyman) . P - 
Amer, ,» Henry Ward, theologian and politician . ° 
Amer. ——-—, Lyman, theologian and preacher 2 Wille ° 
Eng. Beechey, Frederick W., admiral, Arctic voyager . § 
Pruss Beer, Michael, dramatic poct, (brother of Meyerbeer) 3 
Ger. Beethoven, Ludwig von, celebrated musical composer ‘ 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 


BORN. 


1729 
1809 
1768 
17:4 
Ve 

326 
1706 


1653 


1758 
1261 
1790 
17*8 
1652 
1684 
1713 
2307 
1800 
180) 
1792 
1615 
1476 
1767 


1694 


1647 
1797 
1735 


17:0 
1733 
1798 
155 
1)_4 
1716 
1735 
1800 
1791 
1119 
1760 
17389 
1788 
672 
1798 


1786 
1800 
1770 


935 


DIED. 


179é 
4854 
1813 
1844 
17M" 

375 
We 
172% 
1836 
185° 


1864 
1764 
1775 
1786 
1854 
1849 


1691 
1524 
1815 
1627 
1738 


1706 
1839 
18038 
1837 


1824 
1799 


1616 
1739 
1761 
178 
1858 
1855 
1170 
1844 
1811 


725 
1854 
1435 


1862 
1856 
1834 
1821 


936 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION, BORN DIBD 
Ger. Behaim, or Behem, navigator and geographer « e . 1459 1506 
Frg. Behn, Aphra, dramatic writer . : © 1640 168% 
Rvss. Behring, Vitus, Arctic navigator 5 e e = 1680 1741 
Gir. Bekker, Emmanuel, philologist - . ° « 1785 
‘Eng. Belcher, Sir Edward, admiral, Arctic navigator . a 1799 

Rem. Belisarius, a celebrated general and conqueror e 565 
I:ai. Belgiojoso, Christina, princess of, accomplished & philenthispie 1808 

Amer. Belknap, Jeremy, D. D., historian of New Hampshire . ony 144 1798 
Sect. Bell, Henry, first successful steam navigator in Europe ° 1767 1830 
Amer, ——, John, statesman ; : ° ° ° 1797 

Sco.. ——, John, surgeon, anatomist, and physiologist . s 1763 1825 
Scot, ——, Sir Charles, anatomist and physiologist . e e 1781 1842 
Awer, Bellamy, Joseph, D. D., a learned divine and author e 1719 1799 
Ita.  Bellarmin, cardinal, the champion of the Roman saps church 1542 1626 
Fr. Bellau, Remi, poet. z : ° e ot 243628 1577 
Fr. Beileisle, count de, military commander . ° * 1684 071 
Rog. Bellingham, Richard, royal governor of Massachusetts . e = 1634 1772 
Ital. Be lini, Vincenzo, musical composer - . e 1808 1°35 
Amer. Bellows, Henry W., Unitarian clergyman and author . e 1814 

Eng. Beloe, Wm., a divine and critic, translator of Herodotus, &c., . 1756 1817 
Fr. Belcn, William, naturalist and traveller . . 7) 1518 1564 
Eng. Belstam, William, historical, political and miscellaneous writer 1752 1827 
Ital, Belzcni, the celebrated traveller in Egypt 4 e > SARIS Sot 823 
Pol. Bem, Josef, general in Hungarian war against Austria ° 1795 145% 
Ital. Bem’ 0, cardinal, one of the restorers of literature e e 1470 1542 
Eng. Bemb-: 7, John, a gallant admiral . ° ° e 1650 1702 
Ital. | Benecict, St. one of the originators of monasteries . s 480 547 
Ital. —, XIII., pope, theological writer. e e 1649 1728 
Ital. —,XIV., ‘* # * e 1675 1758 
Fr, Benezet, ‘Atitony; philanthropist and historian, (diedin Achaea: 1713 1784 
Ger. Beng2l, Johann A., Lutheran theologian and philologist e 1687 1752 
Eng. SBengar, Elizabeth Ogilvy, author of historical memoirs . 1778 1827 
Amer. Benjemin, Park, poet, lecturer and journalist . . e 1809 1864 
Sp. Jew —--, of Tudela, rabbi, travellerin the East . e 1178 
Bar. Bentadad, king of Syria ° e e e ° B. 0. 895 
Scotch. Bennett, James Gordon, journalist ° ° ° 1800 

Fr. Benserade, Isaac, a wit and poet . e e ° 1612 1691 
Eng. Bentham, Jeremy, a politica] and philosophical writer ° 1742 1832 
Eng. Beutley, Richard, an eminent critic and scholar e e 1662 1742 
Amer. Benton, Thomas Hart, statesman and historian . e 1782 1858 
Fr, Béranger, Pierre Jean de, lyrical poet e ° oi Bie 1857 
Hr. Bérenger, A. M. M. F., statesman and jurist es e 1185 

gypt. Berenice, the name of seven different queens of Egypt and Syria B, 0. Ist to 8d cent 
Gor. Perghaus, Henry, mathematician and geographer . e 1797 

Swe. Bergman, professor of chemistry at Upsal ° e e 1735 1784 
Bel Beriot, Charles A. de, violinist and composer . ° 1802 

Ivica, Berkley, George, bishop, an eminent prelate and philosopher . 1684 1753 
£ mer. , Wliliam, governor of Virginia ° - . 1667 
Br. ection Hector, musical composer * 7°03 

Fr. Bernadotte, J. B. J., elected king of Sweden, as Charles XIV. on vina ait 1844 
Eng. Bernard, Edward, divine, astronomer and author . “ 1638 = 1697 
Amer. , Francis, governor of Massachusetts . ° e 1778 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 


RATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 
Dutch. Rernard, John Frederick, bookseller, editor andauthor ., 
Fr, —, St., preacher of Crusades and author : ot, 14091 
Fr, ————,, Simon, engineer and military commander e 1779 
Amer. Berrien, John McPherson, U. 8. Senator from Georgia . 1781 
Fr, Berruyer, a Jesuit, author of a carat of the People of God,’ 
in 11 vols. 4to. : : 1681 

Fr. Berry, Charles F., duke of, 2d son of Charles xs; ebsnaeihes cay 1778 
Fr. , Duchess of (wife of the above), intriguing politician 1798 
Amer, , Hiram George, general, war against secession (from Maine) 1814 
Fr. Berryer, Pierre A., statesman ., | . . 1790 
Fr. Berthier, Alexander, a distinguished military commander eo  ¥758 
Fr. Bertholett, Claude Louis, an eminent chemist “ e 1748 
Fr. Bertrand, Henri G., general in Napoleon’s army 1778 
Eng. Berwick, duke of, military commander (killed at Phillipsburg) 1670 
Swe. Berzelius, John James, chemist . : ° e 1772 
Ger. Bessel, Frederick William, astronomer ‘ ° ° 1784 
Fr, Bessiéres, duke of Istria, military commander, (killed at Lutzen) 1762 
Amer. Bethune, George W., D. D., theologian and poet ° Ste nALGUD, 
Eng. Betterton, Thomas, famousactor . 4 . ° 1736 
Ital. Bettinelli, Xavier, an elegant miscellaneous writer : 1718 
Ens. Betty, William Henry W., actor, the ‘ Young Roscius? e 1791 
Eng. Bewick, Thomas, naturalist and wood engraver ° e «1758 

Beza, Theodore, an eminent reformer ° e ° 1819 
Fr. Bezout, mathematician i; x z :  SPALIZO 
Ital Bianchini, Francis, mathematician and author 5 e 1662 
Gr. Bias, one of the seven sages . é ° ° f.B.c 606 
Fr, Bichat, an eminent anatomist and physiologist ° ° 1771 
Trish. Bickerstaff, Isaac, dramatist . : e “ : 1733 
Ens. Bickersteth, Edward, theological writer . ° 1786 
Amer. Biddle, James, # commodore in the United States aa e = 2788 
Eng. , John, an eminent Socinian writer . r5 2615 
Amer. ——, Nicholas, a captain in the United States Naty e . 1750 
Amer. * ar , financier and liitérateur . ° e 1786 

Biela, William, baron von, astronomer ° ° on trees 
Ar.-. Bigelow, John, medical writer . ° ° ° 187 
Mes Bignon, Louis E., historian , C C e . 2771 
Rar Bion, pastoral poet ° e ° 
Gr. —, of Borysthenes, philosopher, (Garenian ° ° ° 
Fr. Biot, Jean B., mathematician Z ° : e 1774 
Eng. Birbeck, George, M. D., founder of mechanics’ institutions a 1776 
Amer. Bird, Robert M., M. D., novelist . ° ° ° 1803 
Amer. Birm2y, James G., anti-slavery politician : e ° 3792 
Fr. Biro:, ke of, military commander, (beheaded for conspiracy) 1561 
Eng. ish 2, Sir Henry R., musical composer ° . e 1775 
Amer. Biscell, William 1g Meovernoe of Illinois, volunteer in Mexico 181°. 
Scot. Bisset, Robert, Siatociars and biographer . e e 1759 
Fr. Bissot, John, a revolutionist and author . ° ° 1757 
S.an, Bivar, Don Rodrigo, known in history and romance under the 

name of tho Cid ° ° 1040 

Bcot. Black, Adam, publisher M. P. eins of Edinburgh ° e «.:1784 
In.Am. Blac’ Hawk, Indian Chief : : ; 1768 ? 
fing. Blackstone, Sir William, an eminent seve and author e 1728 


938 


MATION 
Eng. 
Scot. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Scot. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Scot. 
Amer, 
Trish. 
Eng. 


Prus. 
Ger. 
Swe. 
Brit. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Fr. 
Fr. 
Eng. 
Ger. 
Ger. 
Dutch. 
Rom. 
Ger. 
Fr. 
Eng. 
Ital. 
Fr, 
Fr. 
ar, 
Fr. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Colom. 
Fre 


Fr. 
Fr, 
Jong 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Swiss. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Fr. 
Eng, 
Amer. 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


NAME AND PROFESSION. 
Blackwell, Eliz., first female M. D. in the United States . 
Blair, Dr. Hugh, a divine and rhetorician * e 
, Francis P., journalist and politician. ° ° 
——-, Francis P., jr., leader of Missouri free-soilers ,. 
—-, Robert, a divine and poet . . e e 
Blake, John L, Rev. author of Dictionary, &c, ° 
Blake, Robert, a celebrated admiral . e e 
Blanchard, Laman, essayist and journalist ‘ e 
Bleecker, Ann Eliza, poet and essayist ° e 
Blessington, Marguerite, countess, novelist and PP Ba pe 
Bloomfield, E. V., classical scholar ° e ° 
a » Robert, apoet . ° e e 
Blucher, a celebrated military commander e e 
Blum, Robert H, publicist and politician ° ° 
Blumenback, John Fred., naturalist . iz is 
Boadicea, the warlike queen of the Iceni e $ 
Boccacio, one of the great classic writers of modern Italy . 
Boccalina, a satirist . ° 
Bochart, Samuel, an eminent divine Be orientalist '. 
Bodin, John, alawyerand author. ° e 
Bodley, Sir Thos., founder of library - ‘° 
Boehmen, Jacob, a fanatic and author e - 
Boekh, Augustus, classical philologist is 
Boerhaave, one of the most eminent of modern phvaisians ~ 
Boethius, a statesman and philosopher = 
Bogatzky, Chas. Henry, theologian, (‘ Golden Sreaaury?) ° 
Bohemond, a Norman adventurer . : ~ 
Bohn, Henry G., publisher and editor . e 
Bojardo, Mathew M., poet, (* Orlando Thnisaento"s e 
Boileau, Nicholas, an eminent poet 2 o ° 
Boissard, Jean J., fabulist . 4 A ; 
Boissy, Louis de, ener of comedies ° 
, d’Angilas, F. A., count of, statesman and revolutioniae 
Boleyn, Anne, wife of Henry VIIL., : “ 
Bolinghroke, Henry St. John, poet and deistical writer e 
Bolivar, the heroic deliverer of his country . e 
Bonaparte, Jerome, ex-king of Westphalia A S 
——, Joseph, ex-king of Naples and Spain A 
— , Louis, ex-king of Holland . . g 
——_——., Louis Napoleon, Ist president republic of France and 
emperor ° ° ° ° ° 
» Lucien, Prince of Canino . : 
, Maria Letitia, mother of Napoleon 5 é 
, Napoleon, emperor of France A a 
Bond, William C., astronomer . ° e e 
Bonner, bishop, the persecutor of Protestants * 
Bonnet, Charles, a celebrated naturalist 5 ie 
Bonnycastle, Charles, mathematician i. . 
? John, Se ‘ td ® 
Bonpland, Aimé, traveller and botanist ° ee 
Booth, Junius Brutus, tragedian ° ° 
Boone, Daniel, the first settler in antics, A . 


BORN. 


1821 
1718 
1791 
1821 
1699 
1788 
1599 
1803 
1757 
1789 
1788 
1766 
1742 
1807 
1752 


13813 
1556 
1509 
1530 
1544 
1575 


1668 
455 
1690 


1434 
1636 
1743 
1694 
1756 
1507 
1678 
1785 
1784 
1768 
1778 


1808 
1775 
1750 
1769 
1789 


1720 


1796 
1730 


DIED 


- a 


NATION. 
Ger. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Ital. 


i Ital. 


Ital. 
Ttal, 
Eng. 
Fr, 
Eng. 
Ital, 
Fr. 
Fr. 
Fr, 
Scot. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Amer. 
Gr. 
Amer. 
Fr, 
Fr. 
Fr, 
Eng. 
¥F:. 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 


NAME AND PROFESSION» 
Bopp, Francis, Sanscrit scholar , ° e 
Bregli, philosopher and mathematician e ° 
Borghesi, Bartolomeo, count, antiquarian A 
Borgi, Giovanni, originator of ragged schools ° 


Borgia, Cesar, son of the infamous Pope Alexander VL. 


, Lucrezia, infamous daughter of Pope Alexander 
Borromeo, Cardinal, theological writer ° ° 
Borrow, George, author of ‘ Gipsies of Spain’ e 
Bosc, Louis A, W., naturalist ‘ ‘ ° 
Boscawen, Edward, brave and skilful admiral ; 
Boscovitch, mathematical and philosophica! writer ° 
Bossuet, Marie Jos., marshal of France , ° 
Bossuet, James B., a divine and historian ° ° 
Bossut, Charles, mathematician e ° 
Boston, Thomas, a divine and author . ° e 


Boswell, James, the biographer of Dr. Johnson ° 
Bosworth, Joseph, D. D., Anglo-Saxon lexicographer , 


Botta, Carlo G. G., historian p A ° 
Bottiger, archzologist and antiquarian ° ° 
Botts, John Minor, politician - - ; 
Bozzaris, Marco, a gallant leader in the new revolution 
Boudinot, Elias, a statesman and philanthropist ° 
Bougainville, Louis A., military commander and author 
Boufflers, Duke of, military commander . 
Boulainvilliers, Henry, count of, historian e A 
Boulton, Matthew, an eminent engineer . ° 
Bourcet, Peter J. de, an officer and topographer e 
Boucicault, Dion, dramatist e e ° 
Beurdaloue, a noted preacher ° e ° 
Bourdon, Pierre L. M. mathematician ; e 
Bourignon, Antoinette, a fanatical author ° 4 
Bourmont, L. A. V., count of, marshal of France 
Bourne, Vincent, an elegant Latin poet x ° 
Bourrienne, biographer of Napoleon e A 
Bousmard, M. de, a military engineer ° e 
Boussingault, Jean B. V. D., chemist . - 
Bouterwek, Fred., ‘ Hist. Spanish Literature’ e 
Bouvier, John, jurist and legal author . ° 
Bowilitch, Nath., astronomer, mathematician, &c. ° 
Bowdler, Thomas, editor Shakespeare, &c. ' 


Bowdoin, James, LL. D., philosopher and statesman , 


-—, John, (son of the last), ambassador to Spain 
Bowen, Francis, biographica! and metaphysical author 
Bewles, William Lisle, poet = ° x 
Bewring, James, statesman, poet and linguist 4 
Boy, Mark Alexander, a poet . ‘ e 
Boydell, John, alderman, art publisher e ° 
Boyer, Abel, lexicographer a i . 

, Jean Pierre, president of Hayti (died at Paris) . 
Boyle, Robert, an eminent philosopher. e 
Boylaton, Zabdiel, an eminent physician 


Bozman, John Leeds, historian and jurist . e 


939 
FORN. DIED. 
1721 
1507 
1781 
1736 1809 
1608 1679 
15th Cent. 
1588 1584 
1803 
1759 182t 
yy 1761 
1711 1787 
1810 186- 
1627 1704 
17380 i814 
1676 1732 
1710 1795 
1788 
1766 1837 
1835 
1802 
178C 1828 
1740 1821 
1729 1811 
1844 1711 
1658 1752 
1728 1809 
1700 1780 
1822 
1682 1704 
1799 1854 
1616 1680 
1773 1846 
1747 
1834 
1807 
1802 
1766 1828 
1787 1851 
1775 1838 
1754 1825 
1727 1790 
1752 1811 
1811 
1762 1850 
1792 
1562 1601 
1719 1804 
1667 1729 
1776 1850 
1626 1691 
1680 1776 
1757 1828 


940 


MATION 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Eng. 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Amer, 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Dan. 
Amer, 
Amer. 
N.A.In. 
Fr. 
Mez. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Amer. 
Cer. 
Swe. 
Bar. 
Scot. 
Amer, 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Amer, 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
er, 

Fr. 
Eng. 
Ger. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Fr. 
Eug. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Trish. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Fr. 
Eng. 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS 


NAME AND PROFESSION, BORN. 
Brace, Charles Loring, philanthropist and traveller ~ > 1826 
Brackenridge, Henry M., jurist and diplomatist . e 1786 
Braddock, Edward, general, defeated and killed in Virginia . 1716 
Bradford, Alden, author of ‘ History of Massachusetts’ , 1715 
—— , Andrew, printer and publisher of first newspaper in Phila. 1686 
» William, attorney-general ofthe U.S. . . 1755 
, William, first, printer in Pennsylvania ‘ . 1659 
— » William, second governor of Plymouth eolony' . 1588 
Bradley, Dr. James, astronomer and mathematician . ° 1692 
Bradstreet, Anne, poetess, daughter of Governor Dudley . 1612 
Bradwardine, mathematician and theologian , ° e 

Brady, Robert, physician and historian . . . 1709 
Brahe, Tycho, a celebrated astronomer ° e e 1546 
Brainard, David, misionary to the Indians e 7 1718 
——-,J.G.C.,apoet . o e 1697 
Brant, J. Sach (Thayendanega), a Mohawe chief ? a 1742 
Brantéme, Pierre de B., biographer and chronicler ° e 1540 
Bravo, Leonardo, a Pevahationake patriot . ° : 1692 
Bray, Aun Eliza, novelist 2 fe e « <abt.) 1800 
Breckinridge, John, D. D., theologian ae ° e 1797 
———,, John C., Vice-President U, 8 . 2 oo ABR 
oo , Robert J., D. D., Presbyterian theologian . 1800 
Breitk..cpf, John G. E.., an eminent printer and type-founder . 1710 
Bremer, Fredrica, novelist “ e 5 e 1802 
Brennus, the leader of the Gauls . ° e e f. B.0. 390 
Brewster, Sir David, natural philosopher , - ° 1785 
—_—-, W ‘liam, elder of the Plymouth Pilgrims . e 1560 
Bridgewater, ©. uke of, introducer of canals in England e 1736 
‘rancis H. E., duke of, founder of ‘ Treatiser’ e 1753 

Briggs, Guitise f., havea and journalist . ° ° 
-, Een y, mathematician : e ©1586 
Pipher “iiariah, writer on insanity and philaitheopiaé e 1796 
Bright, John, reform politician and M. P. . e e Weil 

Brinvi'liers, Marie, marchioness of, poisoner . ° 
Briscon, Mathurin James, naturalist . ; : e 1723 
Brittan, John, architectural and antiquarian writer 5 1771 
Brockhaus, Fried. A., founder of the publishing house . o PaAnT2 
Brodhead, John R., author of ‘ History of New York’ e 1814 
Brodie, Sir Benj. C., F. R. 8., surgeon and surgical author -' 1783 
Broglio, duc de, statesman . ° e ° e 1785 
Bronte, Anne, ‘Acton Bell.’ novelist e ° ° 1820 
, Charlotte, novelist . ° ° o=" 4816 
, Emily Jane, ‘ Ellis Bell,’ needs A . 1818 
eecice: Henry, miscellaneous writer . e : r, 1706 
, Sir James, rajah of Sarawak, and author . ake 1803 
Brooks, Charles T., author of ‘ Translations from German’? : 1813 
, Erastus, journalist and politician. . : e 1815 
——, James, journalist and politician A . 3 1810 
, John, LL.D., governor of Massachusette ie 1752 
» Maria, poet, (‘ Maria del Occidente ’) . 4 e 1795 
Brotier, G., a Jesuit, editor of ‘Tacitus’ . ° e 1723 
Brougham, Heary, lord, statesman and jurist e Pad Wik) 


1758 
175d 
1742 
1795 
1754 
1657 
1762 
1672 
1349 


1661 
1747 
1826 
1807 
1614 
1854 


1841 


1734 
1865 


16:4 
16C3 
1829 


1630 
1849 


1676 
1836 
1857 
1623 


1862 


1649 
1855 


i iN 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 94] 
BATICN. NAME AND PROFESSION, BORN. DIED 
frish, Brougham, John, actor and author k “ ° 1810 
Fr. Brougniart, Alexander, mineralogist and geologist ° ‘ 1770 
Fr. ———_—-, Adolphe T., botanist, ‘ : 2 ‘ 1801 
Fr. Broussais, F. J. V., medical and physiological writer ° 1772 183¢ 
Ir.Am. Brown, Alex., father of the eminent merchants ‘Brown Brothers’ 1764 
Amer. , Arthur, a distinguished scholar and barrister ° 1805 
Amer, ———, (Blackwell), Antoinette L., preacher and philanthropist 1825 
Amer. ———, Charles Brockden, a novelist > A e 177i 1810 
Amer, , Captain John, abolitionist and martyr . e o. 1800 1859 
Scot. ———, Dr. Thomas, metaphysician and poet e e 1777 1824 
Amer, , Goold, grammarian, s ° e anna Aol 1857 
Amer. ———, Henry Kirk, sculptor ‘ . ° e 1814 
Amer. » James, senator, minister to France ° ° ° 1766 1825 
Amer. ——-, James, eminent publisher (Boston). ~ ° 1800 1855 
Eng. , John, D. D., a miscellaneous writer - 4 e 1715 1766 
Eng. , John, a divine and author . * ’ e 1722 1787 
Amer. ——, Major-General Jacob, general in war of 1812 A e 1828 
Amer, , Nicholas, principal patron Brown University ° 1769 1841 
Eng. » Robert, eminent botanist ° ° ° op e2aSh 1858 
Scot. » Samuel, chemist and poet ° ° ° e 1817 1856 
Eng. ——,, Thomas, satirist, . - ° e ° 1663 1704 
Scot. » Thomas, metaphysician ° ° e 1778 1820 
Trish. Browne, George, count de, an officer in the Bias service 1698 1792 
£ng. ——-—, Sir Thomas, a physician, and philosophic writer a 1605 1682 
Eng. ———, William George, a traveller in Africa, &. a 1814 
Amer. Brownell, Thomas C., Prot. Episcopal Bishop of Connecticut . 1779 1865 
Eng. Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, poet, * e - 1809 1860 
Eng. ———-, Robert, poet, - . e 6 asl? 
Amer. fee ian, Orestes A., metaphysical ‘ariter e e 1363 
Scot. Bruce, James, a aetna traveller . F ° e 17380 179°. 
Scot. , Robert, the deliverer of his country ° ® 1329 
Fr, Brueys, Francis Paul, admiral E r e e 4750 1798 
Eng. Brummell, George Bryan, ‘ Beau Brummell’? . ° 1778 1840 
Fr. Brumoy, Peter, a jesuit and author - ~ e 168% 1742 
Fr. Brune, William Mary Ann, marshal and revolutionist e «©1768 1815 
Eng. Brunel, Isambard K., engineer of Great Eastern, &c. e 180: 1853 
Fr. Bruuel, Sir M, L, engineer of Thames tunnel, &c. ° e =—«176S 1848 
Fr. Brunet, Jacques Charles, ‘ Bibliographer’s Manual? ° 
Fr. Bruno, St., founder of the Chartusian order . e e 13877 1444 
Russ, Brunnow, Baron, diplomatist , ° ! ° 1797 
Ger. Brunswick, Ferdinand, duke of, military commander . e 1721 1792 
Ger. , Luneburg, Charles Wm. Fer., duke of, military com- 
mander . : ° os 1735 1608 
Eng. Brunton, Mary B., novelist, : Discipline, ? &, ° ot 1778 1818 
Rom. Brutus, Lucius Junius, founder of the republican government B. 0. 508 
Rom. -, Marcus Junius, conspirator against Cesar , is B. 05 43 
Fr, Bruyére, John de la, a celebrated writer e ° A 1644 109° 
Dutch. Bruyn, Cornelius de, traveller “ ° ° ° 1652 
Bryan, Michael, ‘ Dictionary of Painters’ e ° we rahyie “858 
Eng. Bryant, Jacob, a philologist and antiquary x . 1715 1804 
Amer. ———, William Cullen, poet, traveller " e e 1794 


Eng. Brydges, Sir Egerton, eccentric littérateur e ° 1762 1837 


942 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 
N° 1IGS, NAME AND PROFESSION. BOER. 
Fr. Buat Nanguay,; Louis G., count de, a learned writer * 
Fr. Bucer, Martin, one of the fathers of the Reformation 1491 
Ger. Buch, Lecpold von, geologist . : ° 1774 
Scot. Buchan, William, a physician and author. e 1729 
Scct. Buchsnan, Olaudius, a divine ‘ . e » F766 
Sect. » George, an eminent writer . 1506 
Amer. ————, James, 15th president of the United States . « X791 
gang. Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of, statesman ,. ° 4592 
fing, —, George Villiers, son of the former : » 5627 
Eng. , James Silk, travelier and author ? e 1784 
Amer, ——————,, Joseph T., journalist and author, . : 1779 
wng. Buckland, Wm., D. D., geologist. : e FS 1784 
Amer. Buckminster, Joseph, D. D., theologian - ° e 1751 
Amer. , Joseph 8., author of ‘ Sermons, &c,. . 1784 
“ng. Buckstone, John B., actor and playwright : ° - 1800 
Araer. Buel, Jesse, agricultural writer . A : : 1778 
Polish. Buffier, Claude, a Jesuit and miscellaneous writer C3 ° 1661 
fr. Buffon, George Leclerc, count of, celebrated naturalist * 1707 
Nt. Bugeaud, T. R., marshalof France . : : - 4784 
Ger. Buhle, J. G., ‘ History of Philosophy,’ &c. : e 1763 
Eng. Bull, Geo., Greek scholar and dramatist ° ° e 1786 
Erg. , Geo., Bishop of St. David's, theological writer ° 1634 
hor. ——=, Ole, famous violinist . : 2 4 Yo E816 
Swiss. Buillinger, reformer and author . : 1504 
£mer. Bullions, Peter, D. D., author of eanantiona Foika e “ 179% 
Eng. Bulwer, Sir Henry L. diplomatist and political writer ° 
Erg. ——, (now Sir Edward Lytton), novelist and dramatist e 1803 
Eng. , Lady Bulwer Lytton, novelist ° . ° 1807 
Aust. Buol-Schauenstein, K. F., count of, statesman. ° » 1797 
Russ. Buc on, ©. ©. J., chevalier de, diplomatist and historian . 1791 
Eng. Bunyan, John, author of ‘ Pilgrim’s Progress’ = - 1628 
Ger. Burckhardt, John Charles, mathematician . A < 1773 
Swiss. —— , John Louis, oriental traveller s e 1784 
Scot. Am. Burden, Henry, inventor and meehanie ry ; 1791 
Eng. Burdett, Sir Francis, politician = e 5 é 1770 
Ger. Bzrger, G. A., poet i A A a 1748 
Eng. Ffurges, Geo., Greek scholar and aramitiet ° : 2 1786 
Amer, Burges, Tristram, statesman and orator 4 1770 
Eng. Burgess, Thomas, Bp. of Salisbury, classical and theoléeleat author 1756 
Eng. Burgh, James, author ‘Dignity Human Nature’ , : 1714 
Eng. Burgoyne, John, military commander and author 4 5 
trish. Burke, Edmund, a great statesman and writer 5 re 1730 
Swiss. Burlamaqui, John James, writer on civil law . . A 1694 
Eng. Burleigh, William Cecil, lord, eminent statesman , ° 1520 
Bu'cth. Burman, Peter, critic and editor : i ; = 1668 
e.. Burmeister, He:man, naturalist . : A é 1807 
Amer. Burnap, George W., clergyman and author , . e 2802 
£Evot. Burnes, Sir Alex., ‘Travels in Bokhara, Cabool,’ &c. é 1805 
Scot. Burnet, Gilbert, a divine and historian, Bishop cf Salisbury 2 1642 
Amer. , Jacob, pioneer of Cincinnati and autho: . : 1774 
Eng. , John, engraver, painter, andcritie , é - 1784 
Eng. Burney, Charles, a doctor of music , F . 17% 


1860 
1688 
1815 
1815 


1844 
1794 
1864 
1855 
183" 
1775 


1792 


1797 
1748 
1598 


1741 


1359 
1841 
1725 


i hi i 


—— ee 


i) 


ee 


WATION. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Scot, 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
fing. 
Eng. 
Ger. 


_Amer, 


Amer, 
Mex. 
Eng. 
Trish. 
Amer, 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer. 


Fr, 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Port. 
Span. 
Ital. 
Eng. 
Scot. 
Fr. 


Amei 
Rom, 
Ttal, 


ba 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 


NAME AND PROFESSSON, dORN. 
Burney, Frances, (see Mme. d’Arblay), novelist ° 1752 
— » James, admiral and author A ° * 17389 
Burns, a popular and national poet . F ° 1759 
Barr, Col. Aaron, vice-president U. 8. 3 F 2756 
Burritt, Elihu, ‘the learned blacksmith’ and phitaniBrepiat on ESE 
Burroughs, Stephen, notorious adventurer ° 1765 
Burton, Robert, author of the ‘ Anatomy of Malanchaty? 1576 
—————me Win, E. , actor and author é ? . 804 
Busching, tho Frederick, philosopher and geological ia a 1721 
Bush, George, D.D., theelogieal and philosophical writer . 1796 
Bushpell, Horace, D.D., theological aud metaphysical author . 1802 
Bustamente, Anastasio, president of Mexico 4 “ 4782 
Bute, John Stuart, earl of, statesman, premier * Sak eis 
Butler, Alban, ‘ Lives of Saints’ 1710 
, Andrew P., United States senator fous Souths Oarotign “ 1796 
—, Benj. F., statesman and jurist, attorney-general U, 8. 
——,, Benj. F., major-general U.S. army in war for Union . 
——,, Charles, Catholic historian and jurist ‘< ‘ 1750 
, Joseph, bishop, an eminent prelate und author . : 1692 
, Samuel, bishop of Litchfield, editor of “ Aischylus,” &c. 1774 
——, Samuel, a humorous pvet : * ° ° 1612 
——,, Richard, colonel, an ofticer in the Revolution . 
——, Wm. Allen, poet r ° ° ° e 1825 
» Wm. O., statesman and general, ° e 1793 
Biifsan, Philip C., philologist e ° « L764 
Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, legisl. and tbat : ° 1786 
Buxtorf, John, a Hebrew end Chaldaic lexicographer . - 1564 
, John, (son of the preceding,) lexicographer ° 1599 
Byles, Mather, clergyman aid author ° ° » 1706 
Byng, Honorable John, admiral . ° e 1704 
Byron, George Gordon, lord, a popular poet . e 1788 
» Honorable John, admiral ,. ° ° 1723 
——, Lady Noel, wife ofthe poet . ° ° o 1793 
Go 
Cabet, Etienne, communist . ; ° e 1788 
Cabot, John, navigator and discoverer of North Aeiesion ° 
» Sebastian (son of John), navigator : one Bare 
Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, navigator : e ‘ 1500 
Cabrera, Don Ramon, military commander for Don Carlos e 1810 
Cadamosta, Louis da, navigator . ° 4 f. 1456 
Cade, the noted rebel, ‘Jack Cade’ . ° ° 
Cadell, Thomas, publisher of Scott’s works, eo, : 1742 
Cadet de Grassicourt, Charles L., chemist and philosopher ar LI69 
Cadmon, Anglo-Saxon poet " ° : 
Cadwallader, John, officer in the Revolution . ‘ » 1748 
Cesar, Caius Julius, warrior, statesman, and author eee. 100 
Cagliostro, Alex., count, swindling adventurer ° - 1743 
Cailliaud, Frederic, traveller i : ° F 1787 
Osill4, René, ‘Voyage 4 Timboucto,’ &e. e ° e 


943 


DIEC 
184¢ 
1826 
1794 
1836 


1840 
1639 
1860 
1898 
1853 


1851 
1792 
1773 
1857 
185* 


1&3? 
1752 
184. — 
168 | 
1791 


1823 
1845 
1629 
1644 
1788 
1757 
1823 
1786 
1860 


1856 


1557 


1450 
1803 
1821 
680 
1786 
B. 0, 44 
1795 


1838 


944 


NATION 
Ital. 
Gr. 
Eng. 
Span. 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Ttal. 
Amer, 
Rom, 
Gr. 
Ger. 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 
Cajetan, “ardinal, diplomatist and author . ’ 1510 
Calaber, s1intus =. : : A ° f 
Calamy, Erund, Presbyterian divine and author , Fgh 1600 
Calderon ce la Barca, Don Pedro, dramatist . ° e 1600 
Caldwell, Charles, eminent physician and author . ° 1772 
——, Rev. James, revolutionary patriot . ° e «©1734 
Calepino, Ambrose, autbor of a lexicon in 1i languages . 1435 
Calkcun, John €., senator of the United States ° . £182 
Caligula, Roman Emperor ‘ : ° ° 12 
Calippt;, astronomer and mathematician : ~ f. B. 0. 830 
Calixius, Geo., Lutheran theologian : e Fs 1586 
Callizzachus, a poet 7 : e ° f. B. Cc. 150 
Callisshenes, philosopher and historian . 9 ° 
Ca'met, Augustine, an erudite divine and author ° » 4672 
Ozogera, Angelo, a learned monk and author ° ° 1€99 
Celonne, Charles Alexander de, minister of state ° e «21784 
Calvin, John, of the Apostles of the Reformation . ° 1509 
Calvert, George Henry, belle-lettres author . ° e 1803 
—, Leouard, first governor of Maryland (see Baltimore) 
Cambacérés, John J. A., distinguished revolutionist . » 1753 
Cambridge, Duke of, sixth son of George III. ° ° 1774 
Cambyses, second king of Persia f ; : > 
Camden, William, an eminent antiquary and historian ° 1651 
Cameron, Richard, ‘ Covenanter,’ founder of Cameronians . 
—, Sir Evan, lord of Lochiel . : ° ° 
Camoens, Louis, the most emiment poet of his country ° 1517 
Campan, Jeanne L. H. J., educationist and author ° eo. Wktos 
Campbell, Alex., founder of a religious sect > ° 1792 
——, George, a divine and author : = Stan F< | 
———,, Johi, a multifarious writer, ‘Admiral,’ &c. . 1708 
————,, John, 2d duke of Argyle and Greenwich . ° 1678 
,Jobn, lord chancellor, jurist, ‘ Lives of Chaneellors’ 1778 
, Sir Colin, British com. in India, &c., Lord Clyde . 1791 
—, Thomas, poet, ‘ Life of Petrarch, &. . ° 1777 
Camper, Peter, an eminent naturalist . ° ° » 2722 
Campiston, John G. de, dramatist : ° ° 1656 
Cange, Charles Dufresne, sieur du, historian . Psi 2 2 ele 
Canning, George, statesman, orator, and poet 7 ° 1770 
Canrobert, Franc. C., general in Crimea 2 A 1809 
Cantu, Cesare, historian, poet, and philosopher , ° 1805 
Canute, King of Denmark and of England, ‘the Great? ° 995 
Carefigue, A. H. A., historian 2 : ° ° 1799 
Capell, Edward, editor of Shakespeare ° ° e §=©:1718 
Capmany, Don Antonio, historian A ° e 1754 
Capo @ Istria, president of Greece, 1827-81. ° - 2776 
Caracalla, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor . ° 188 
Caraccioli, Neopolitan admiral, hanged by Nelson 5 ; 1770 
Caractacus, prince of the Silures, a brave warrior, . (att. 100 
Carausius, usurper of Empire in Britain : A r 250 
Cardan, Jerome, philosopher, mathematician and physician 1501 
Cardigan, J. P. B., earl of, general of cavalry at Balaklava o) PRI 
Cardonne, Dennis D., an eminent orientalist : : 1320 


DIEB 

1598 
250 
1664 
1687 
1853 
178} 
1513 
1850 
4} 


1656 


B. ©. 828 
1757 
1768 
1802 
1623 


1676 
1824 
1850 
B. © 52k 
1623 
1680 
1719 
1579 
1822 


1796 
1775 
1745 
1861 
1863 
1844 
1789 
17238 
1688 
1827 


1036 


1781 
1810 
1831 

217 
1799 


293 
1576 


1789 


NATION. ; NAME AND PROFESSION, 

Fr. Caréme, Murk Antony, famous cook e ° 
Eng. Carew, Bamfylde Moore, ‘king of the beggars , e 
Eng. Oarew, Thomas, poet . a ° e ° 
Amer. Carey, Alice, author of poemsand tales . ° ° 
Eng. , Henry, earl of Monmouth, translator , e ° 
Amer. ———, Henry C., political economist ° ° : 
Amer. ——, Matthew, philanthropist, publisher, &o, e ° 
Eng. , William, missionary to India ‘ . 
Ital. Carissimi, James, musical composer ., ° 5 ey 
Irish. Carleton, Wm., novelist : ° 

Trishh —— , Sir Guy, military commander, and gover ver of Oncadn 
Ital. Carli, J Bs Rinaldo, count de, author . ° ° 
Eng. Carlisle, G. W. F., 7th earl of, statesman and author . A 
Eng. , sir Anthony, physician and medical writer - 
Span. Carlos, Don, son of Philip IL, (hero of Schiller’s tragedy) ° 
Span. , Don Maria Isidor, pretender to the throne . ° 
Ger. Carlotta, wife of Maximilian, emperor of Mexico - ° 
Scot. Carlyle, Rev. Alex, D. D., ‘Memoirs of his Times’. ° 
Scot. . Thomas, historian and metaphysician ° : 
Gr. Carneades, philosopher, founder of the 3d Academy, . &B. 
Fr. Carnot, Lazarus Nicholas, revolutionist - ° ° 
Eng. Uarpenter, Laut, Unitarian minister and author , ° 
Eng. , Wm. B., physiologist “ 5 : 
Fr. Carrel, had, historian and metaphysician ° ° 
Gua, Carrera, Rafael, ruler of Guatemala . ° ° e 
Amer, Carroll, Chas., last surviving signer of the Dec. of Indep. . 
Eng. Carter, Elizabeth, a learned translator é ° ‘ 
Amer. , Nathaniel H., a scholar and traveller ° ° 
Eng. Cartwright, Thomas, puritan divine . - . . 
Ger. Carus, C. G., writer on anatomy and physiology . : 
Amer, Carver, John, lst gov. Plymouth colony ° e . 
Amer. , Jonathan, traveller andauthor ., . 4 
Eng. Oary, Henry F., poet, translator of ‘Dante’? . ° ° 
Span. Casas, Bartholomew de las, philanthropist and historian . 
Amer. Cass, Lewis, statesman and diplomatist . - e e 
Amer, Cassin, John, ornithologist - “ * ° ° 

Ub Cassini, John Dominic, astronomer , e ° . 
Ital Cassiodorus, Marcus Aur. statesman and historian ° 
Rom. Cassius, Longinus Caius, conspirator against Casar . e 
Eng. Castell, Edmund, diyine and lexicographer ° ; 
Ital. Castiglione, Balthasar, statesman and author . ° e 
Port. Castro, Inez de, wife of Pedro, king of Portugal . x 
Ital. Catalini, Madame, eminent vocalist , ° e ° 
Eng. Catesby, Mark, naturalist ° ° ° 
Rus. Catherine I. wife of Peter the Great i. : . 
Rus. — II., empress the “ Great ” and the vicious ° 
Span.—E —— , of Arragon, wife of Henry VIII. . ° ° 
Span , of Braganza, queen of CharlesII. of England , 
Eng. Howard, queen of Henry VIII. 4 ° ’ 
[t. Fr. ———-—— de Medici, wife of Henry II. of France . e 
Eng. ——, Parr, 6th and last wife of Henry VIIL ° Py 
Rom. Catiline, Lucius Sergius, patrician conspirator ° e 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 


945 
BORN. “IED, 
1784 38e 
1662 1779 
1589 ? 1659 
1822 
1596 1661 
1792. 
1760 1639 
1761 1822 
1600 1643 
1798 
1724 1808 
1720 1795 
1802 1864 
1768 1845 
1545 1568 
1788 1856 
18— 
1721 1805 
1795 
. 218 BO. 128 
1753 1823 
1780 1849 
18— 
1800 1836 
1814 
1737 1832 
1717 1806 
1830 
1535 1603 
1789 
1732 1780 
1621 
1772 1840 
1474 1564 
1782 1866 
1813 
1625 1712 
470 516 
BO. 42 
1606 1685 
1468 1525 
1355 
1782 1849 
1680 1749 
1682 1727 
1729 1796 
1483 1536 
1638 1703 
1521 1542 
1519 1689 
1548 
BO. 62 


946 THE WORLL S PROGRESS. 


BATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DISD. 
Fr. Cat:uat, Nicholas, military commander ° . « 163? 1713 
Amer. Catlin, George, artist and traveller among Indians. ° 

Rom, Cuto, Mar3us Portius, the censor, statesman and author B. 0, 232 B. co. 147 
Rom, ——, Marcus Porcius, of Utica, statesman ° . BO 95 B.0. 46 
Rom. Catullus, Caius Valerius, poet . . ° ° B.O. S6 

Fr. Cauchy, Aug. Louis, mathematician “| ° e 1780 1857 
Fr. Caulaincourt, A. A., Duke of Vicenza, diplomatist ° ©.) eens 1807 
Fr. Caussin, Nicholas, a Jesuit, author of the ‘ Holy Court? e 1583 1651 
FY. Cavaignac, Louis E., general-in-chief of the republic, 1848 - ' 1802 1857 
Ital. E. Carallo, Tiberius, electrician, author Natural Philos. * 1749 180S 
Eng. Cave, Edward, printer, bookseller and author , ° . | 1601 1754 
Eng. Cavendish, Sir William, courtier and writer ° e 1505 1557 
Eng, ————, Thomas, navigator ° 3 : e 1564 1591 
Ital. Cavour, Camille di, count, Sardinian statesman 7 = 1809 1862 
Eng. Caxton, William, the introducer of printing into England . aat0 1492 
Fr. Caylus, A. C. P., count de, miscellaneous writer ° ° 1720 1765 
ay ot Cazales, James A. M. de, an eloquent orator , ° . 1752 1805 
Eng. Cecil, Rev. R., religious writer . ° ° ° 1748 1810 
Eng. , Robt., earl of Salisbury, statesman ° ° (abt.) 1550 1612 
Eng. , Wm., Lord Burleigh, statesman ° ° . 1520 1598 
Rom. Cecilia, a saint in the Roman Catholic Church, patron of music 2d cent. 

Gr. Cecrops, Ist king of Athens e ° ° (abt.) B. 0. 1500 
Ital.  Collini, Benvenuto, artist, jeweller, patron of musie . -' ' 1500 1570 
Rom. Ceisus, Aurelius Cornelius, a celebrated physician e f. 30 

Gr. , an Epicurean philospher ‘ . a ae en)! 

Ital, Cenci, Beatrice, Roman maiden, tragically famed . e 1593 
Rom. Censorius, a critic and grammarian . . Ps e f. 240 

Irish. Centlivre, Susanna, a dramatic writer ° ° ° 1667 1723 
Span. Cervantes-Saavedra, Michael, author of ‘ Don Quixote’ « 1547 1616 
Ital. Cesare, Giuseppe, cavaliere de, historian é = 1783 1856 
Ital, Cesarotte, Melchior, a voluminous author ° A e 1780 1808 
Eng. Chalmers, Alex., ‘General Biographical Dictionary, &c. . 1759 1854 
Scot. , George, miscellancous writer . h e 1744 1825 
Scot. , Thomas, D. D., theologian and political ‘ Senos ° 1770 1846 
Scot. Gneieote: Rover? t, RT a and author 2 . e 1802 

Eng, ———-, Sir William, an architect 4 4 ° 1726 1796 
Scot. ——, William, publisher and author ° . « 1800 

Fr. Chambord, H., count of, last scion of the house of Bourbon . 1820 

Ger. Chamisso, A, von, author of ‘Peter Schlemihl” &c. . © oe 

Fr. Champollion, the younger, ‘Monuments de Egypte, &c. 1790 1832 
Fr. -- . Figeac, historian andantiquary . ; = 1779 

Amer, Channing, Edw: ard T., essayist and reviewer ° 1790 1856 
Amer. ————, William Eller y, D. D., theologian and philanthrepiat 1780 1842 
Amet , William Henry, Vaieien minister and author . 1810 

Eng. Chantry, Sir Francis, sculptor - A . 1781 1841 
Amer. Chapin, Edwin H., eloquent clergyman and ornran ° 1814 

Eng. Chapman, George, poetical translator e e e 1557 1634 
Eng. Chapone, Hester, miscellaneous writer fe e A 1727 1801 
Fr. Chaptal, J. A.C.,chemist . = : e 1756 1832 
Fr. Charlemagne, Shion of the West idk King of France . 742 814 
Ger, Charles V. the Great, see Prescott’s History, &. e - 1500 1588 
Swe. Charles XII., king, a celebrated warrior . : ° 1682 176; 


~~ —— 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
NATION NAME AND PROFESSION. 
Eng. Charles Edward, grandson of James II. and Pretender ° 
Fr. ——,, J. A. C., natural philosopher y P § 
Fr. Charlevoix, Peter F. X., a Jesuit historian ° : 
Amer. Chase, Philander, bishop of Prot. Kpis. Church, Ohio . . 
simer , Sa.mon P., senator of United States and governor of Ohio 
Fr, Chasles, V. E. Philarete, miscellaneous writer . . 
Dutch. Chassé, David H., baron, military commander 3 e 
Hy Chastelet, Gabrielle, marchioness, scientific author , ’ 
Fr. Chasteilux, F. J., marquis de, general and author * 
Fr. Chateaubriand, F. R., vicomte de, poet, statesman and traveller 
Fr. Chatel. Abbe, Fer. F., theological reformer 3 
Fr. Chatele;, . aul du Hay, lord of, (Bertrand Duzireseliny’s ‘ 
Eng. Chatham, Wm. Pitt, earl of,statesman  . : 
Eng. Chatterton, Thomas, famed for precocious learning ° ° 
Eng. Chaucer, Geofirey, the father of English poetry J ° 
Amer. Chaun¢ez, Charles D. D., president of Harvard College . 
Amer, -—, Commodore Isaac, naval commander . F 
Amer, Chesebro, Caroline, novelist and essayist ; é . 
Amer Cheever, Geo. B., congregational clergyman and author ° 
Eng. Cheselden, William, an eminent anatomist : ‘ 5 
Eng. Chesterfield, Philip D. Stanhope, earl of, statesman and writer 
Ital, Cherubini, M. L. C., musical composer : A ‘ 
Fr, Chevalier, Michael, engineer, traveller and statesman 2 
Fr. Chevreul, M. E., chemist . ; 3 : ‘i 
Arer, Child, Lydia Maria, author of various works * e 
Eng. Chillingworth, Wm., theologian and author . ° : 
Ey, Chilo, Euphorus of Sparta, one of the seven wise men wa ty Bs, 0. 
-.mer. Chipman, Nathaniel, jurist and statesman é ; 
Eng. Chitty, Joseph, author of numerous works onlaw . ; 
Pol. Chiopicki, J., military commander, dictator of Poland . e 
«.mer. Choate, Rutos: advocate, jurist and senator 
Fr, Choiseul-Stainville C. A. G., duke of, statesrnan and sable ‘ 
Eng. Choules, John Overton, D. D., Baptist minister and author 
Swe. Christina, queen, (ibiabion of G. Adolphus) . ae ; 
Afric, Christophe, a slave, afterwards King of Hayti ° a 
ix: Chrysiphus, a stoic philosopher 2 ° B. 0. 
Gr. Chrysostom, John, Christian father and aie ; m 
Amer. Church, Benj., military commander and author ° - 
Eng. Churchill, Charles, a satirical poet . . ° 
Eng. Cibber, Colley, tragic and comic actor and poet ‘ . 
Rom. Cicero, Marcus Tullius, one of the greatest of orators - B. O. 
Ttal. Cimarosa, Dominic, dramatic and music composer ° 5 
Gr. Cimon, an Athenian general “ E 7 
Rom. Cincinnatus, Lucius Quintius, the patalots : oe hey OG, 
Rom. Cinna, Lucius, Cornelius, partisan of Marius < f, B, G. 
Ital, Cirillo, Dominic, a botanist and physician * 
Amer. Clair, Arthur S8t., a distinguished officer in the revol ation F 
Fr. Clairaut, Alexis Claude, geometrician : % n 
Amer. Clap, Thomas, president of Yale Coliege ° e 
Scot. Clapperton, Hugh, traveller in Africa . wre ‘ 
Eng. Clare, John, poet r 5 . ‘ 
Eug. Clarendon, G. W. F., Villiers, earl of, statesman ~ 2 


947 
BORN. DIED 
1720 1768 
1746 1828 
1682 1761 
17%5 1852 
1808 
1799 
1765 1849 
1706 1749 
1734 1788 
1769 1848 
1795 185% 
1693 7636 
1708 1778 
1752 1776 
1828 1400 
1671 
1240 
1807 
1688 1752 
1694 1773 
1760 1840 
1806 
1786 
1802 
1602 1644 
598 
1752 1843 
1776 1841 
1772 1854 
1799 1859 
1762 
1802 1856 
1625 1689 
176% 182¢ 
280 207 
84é 407 
1688 1718 
1731 1764 
167i 1757 
105 &.c. 43 
1754 1801 
BO. #40 
456 
Si 
1784 1799 
1819 
1713 1765 
1703 1767 
1788 1823 
1793 78Ad 
1860 


948 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION, BORN. PIB 
Amer. Clark, Louis Gaylord, editor of ‘Knickerbocker® , _e 1800 
Armes , Willis Gaylord, poet and essayist ° » 1810 1841 
Ar +r. , Wm., general, explorer of Rocky Mountains c 1770 1832 
Ex. Clarke, Dr. Adam, a celebrated theologian and commentator . 1760 1832 
Eng. -, Dr. Edward Daniel, traveller and mineralogist ° 1767 1821 
Amer. Clarke, James Freeman, clergyman and author : e 1810 
Eng. -, Mary Cowden, author of ‘ Concordance to Shaker nena &e. 1809 
Amer. » McDonald ‘the crazy poet,’ ° ° ° 1798 1843 
Eng. ——-, Rev. Samuel, ‘Annotations on the Bible’ ° ’ 1627 1701 
Eng. ——-, Samuel D., theologian and philosopher . ; 1675 1722 
His. -, Sir James, medical author . ° ‘ ‘ 
Eng, Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist : ° ° 1761 1846 
Ror:. Claudius, Appius, decemvir . e . . “ B. C. 450 
Eng. Claverhouse, John Graham of, Viscount Dundee . 1627 1701 
Span. Clavigero, Francis X., historian of Mexico . Par er paged 1793 
Amer. Clay, Cassius M., anti-slavery politician “ . 1810 
Amer, » Clement C., ex-senator of U. 8. from Alabama . ia 189 
Amer. ——-, Henry, statesman and diplomatist . ° . 177T 1852 
Amer, Clayton, John, an eminent physician and botanist ° or SM 2755 1773 
Amer, Clayton, John M., senator and secretary of state . e 1796 1854 
Gr. Cleanthes, a stoic philosopher A c e efit 260 
«mer. Cleaveland, Parker, mineralogist and chemist ° * 1780 158 
Amer. Clemens, Jeremiah,U. 8. senator from Alabama e - 1814 

Clement, the name of 14 popes and 8 antipopes 
Gr. —, of Alexandria, a ‘ father of the church? ¢ ‘ 220 
Gr. Clementi, Muzio, musical composer * ° 1882 
Gr. Cleobolus, one of the seven wise men e e . ff, 559 
Ital. Cleon, an Athenian politician and demagogue e e B. 0. 442 
Egypt. Cleopatra, a voluptuous queen ° ° ° ° B.C. 380 
Swiss. Clere, Jean le, theological writer : . e 1656 1786 
Fr. Ar. , Laurent, the oldest living teacher of deaf mutes . . 1785 
Amer, Clinton, Dewitt, governor and benefactor of New York ° 1769 18% 
Amer. -, James, general Amer. Rev. - : . “ 1736 181% 
Amer, -, George, governor of New York and vice-president of U. 8. 1739 78) 
Eng. live, Robert, lord, military commander : j : 1725 hes 
Fr. Cloquet, Hy ppolite, (brother of Jules), anatomist . 3 1787 
Fr. Clot, or Clot-Bey, surgeon and medical writer in Egypt « 1795 
Amer. Cobb, Lyman, lexicographer and author . ° 5 1865 
Eng. Cobbett, William, political writer - . ; < 1762 1835 
Eng. Cobden, Richard, statesman and reformer e ° 1804 1865 
Eng Cobham, Sir Jno. Oldcastle, lord, martyr é ° ~, 1360 1417 
Eng. Cochrane, Earl Dundonald, naval commander ° ° 1775 1860 
Eng. Codrington, Sir Edward, vice-admiral = é a 1770 1851 
Eng. Coffin, Sir Isaac. admiral, (b. in Nantucket) % ; 1759 1839 
Eng. Cogan, Thomas, physician and miscellaneous writer . « 1786 1818 
ng. Ccke, Sir Edward, a learned judge § : ° 1549 1634 
Fr. Solbert, John Baptist, an eminent statesman . e : 1619 1683 
Amer. Coiburn, Warren, mathematician, arithmetician, &c. . ’ 1798 1823 
amer. ————, Zerah, precocious arithmetician : ; 1804 1840 
4mer. Colden, Cadwallader, aneminent botanist, astronomer, é&c. CF 1688 1776 


Amer, ————, Cadwallader D., statesman, biographer of Fulton, &o, 1769 1834 
wng. Coleridge, Hartley, author and poet . Z b 1797 1849 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 949 


NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN, DIED, 
Eng. Ooleridge, Henry Nelson, Zittérateur F (sbt.) 1800 1844 
Eng. » Sarah, daughter of Samuel T,, author e e 1803 1853 
Eng. » Samuel T., poet and meta phyaiolass i 177? 1534 
Fr- Coligni, Gasctikt de, admiral . ' > orn ey 1573 
Eng. Collingwood, Cuthbert, lord, admiral e : 1748 1810 
Eng. Collins, William, a popular poet : ° e 1720 1754 
Eng. Coleman, Benjamin, a learned divine, (in Boston} ° 1678 1747 
Eng. ——., George, dramatic writer : ° “ ’ 1783 1784 
Eng. —-——, George, (the younger), dramatist * : 1762 1836 
Fr, Colombat, de l’Isére, medical writer . + ° (abt.) 1800 

Amer. Colton, Calvin, clergyman and political writer . “ 1789 =857 
Eng , ©. C., author of ‘Lacon’ ‘ % F - 18 1832 
Amer. ———-, George H., author of ‘Tecumseh,’ &c. P e 1818 1847 
Amer, ———-, Walter, Rev. author of voyages andtravela , . 1797 1851 
Ital. Columbus, Christopher, the discoverer of America Ps 1441 1506 
Scot, Combe, Andrew, medical and physiological writer ° ° 1797 1847 
Scot, ——-—, George, phrenologist and philosopher - - 1778 1858 
Fr. Comines, Philip de, statesman and historian . ° » 1445 7509 
Mex. Comonfort, Ygnacio, President of Mexico . 1812 

Amer. Comstock, John L., author of popular achool-books - e 1789 ~658 
aes Compte, Auguste, metaphysician, founder of “ Positiveism ” 1798 “857 
Amer. Conant, Thomas J., D. D., biblical scholar and critic , - 1802 

Span. Concha, José de la, captain-general of Cuba - ® 1800 

Fr. Conde, Louis IL. of Bourbon . “ ‘ 1621 1683 
Fr. Condillac, Stephen Bonnet de, metaphysical snpRe : 1715 2780 
Fr. Condorcet, M. J, A. N., Marquis of, metaphysician . te 1748 "794 
Amer, Cone, Spencer Houghton, baptist clergyman = , 1785 1855 
Chin, Confucius, a celebrated philosopher é B.C. 550 

Eng. Congreve, Sir William, inventor of the *‘ Congreve rocket . FPL E72 828 
Gr. Conon, an Athenian general ° ° ° ° 34 3. 390 
Amer. Conrad, Robert T., judge, politician and poet . - ° 182, 1856 
Fr. Considérant, Victor, socialist philosopher 180° 

Scot. Constable, Ar ehihald, publisher of Scott’s poems, biigenian; &c. 1776 1827 
Fr, Constant, Benjamin, statesman and metaphysician ; eens bay; 4830 
Gr. Constantine, (the Great), the first Christian emperor A 274 837 
Gr. , VIL. (Porphyrogenitus) emperor and author : 905 959 
Gr. , XII. (Paleologus), the last of the Greek emperors 1403 1453 
Ir. Am. Conway, Thomas, maj. gen. in Revolution a ‘ cabaler,’ &c. (abt, 1778 
Eng. Conybeare, Wiliiam D., clergyman and geologist 3 1787 1857 
Eng. ————-, William G. (son of the above), author of ‘ Life of St. Paul 1857 
Eng. Cook, Eliza, poetess é ° - 5 - 1818 

Eng, , James, a celebrated circumnavigator : . 1728 1776 
Eng. Gost George F., an eminent actor ° ° » 1756 1812 
Eng. , George Musgrove, ‘ History of Party’ ° ° 1814 186° 
Amer. , John Esten, novelist and poet ‘ e ‘ 1830 

Amer ——,PhilipP., poet . . ° ° ° 1816 1850 
Eng. ii. actor .. . ° e 1786 1854 
Eng. Ocoe: Bramsley, surgeon aha author , ° 1792 1353 
Amer, -, James Fenimore, novelist, traveller and historian , 1789 1851 
Amer, ——-, Peter, merchant and ets aiid nctetat founder of Instiiu+2 1791 

Amer. , Samuel, D. D., a divine and political writer . o -1725 1784 


Exg, Sir Astley Paxton, physician and medic2” #z'ter o 1768 184! 


950 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS, 
NAFION, NAME AND PROFESSION. EORN. 
Eng. Cooper, Thomas, chemist, jurist, and politician (in Amer.) e «=:1759 
Kng, - » Thomas A., actor. . . : - 1776 
Trish. Coote, Sir Eyre, commander in India . . » 1726 
Pruss. Copernicus, Nicholas, a celebrated astronomer, the reviver of the 
~ythagorean system of the universe : . 1473 
ing. Copley, John Singleton, Lord Lyndhurst (born in Busia, U.B.) 1772 
Pr Corday d’Armans, M, Charlotte de, guillotined in Bardinnaa ° 1768 
Ger. Corinna, a poetess, flourished in the fifteenth century before Christ 
Rom. Coriolanus, Caius Marcius, a warrior . . . ; 
Kr. Cormenin, L, M. de la Haye, vicompte de, political writer »  °1788 
Ital. Cornaro, Louis, a noble author of a book on temperance ° 1467 
Eng. Cornbury, Ed. Hyde, lord, governor of New York c 4 
Fr. Corneille, Peter, an eminent dramatic writer . : e 1606 
Fr. ———---, Thomas (brother of Peter), poet and dramatist 3 1625 
Fr. Cornelli, Mark Vincent, a Venetian geographer and historian , 
Eng. Cornwallis, Charles, marquis, military com. in Amer, and India 17388 
Span. Cortez, Fernando, the brutal conqueror of Mexico : . 1485 
Amer. Corwin, Thomas, statesman, sec. of treasury, gov. of Ohio e §=§ 1794 
Ital. Cosmo I. de Medici, grand duke of Tuscany . e ‘ 1519 
Ital. ara, st s ss . . 1590 
Ital. eee WL as a e ° e e 1642 
Ital. Costa, Paolo, littérateur . ° ° e ° L771 
Eng Costello, Dudley, author and journalist . . . 1803 
Irish, ——-——, Louisa Stuart, author of memoirs S ‘ 1815 
Dutch. Coster, John Lawrence, one of the supposed inventors of printing 1370 
Ger. Cotta, Baron F., publisher and statesman ° ° . 1764 
ling. Cottenham, C, J. Pepys, lord chancellor 4 $ 1781 
Fr. Cottin, Sophie, Madame, anovelist . e ° F 1773 
Eng. Cottle, Amos, versifier . ° é é 
Eng. — , Jos., publisher ‘ Recollections of Col eridge ® é ~ ae LFIO 
Eng. Costa Charles, humorist and poet ° e 1680 
Amer, -- ——-, John (of Boston), a learned divine. ° ° 1585 
Eng. —-—-, Sir Stapleton, Viscount Combermere, general e 1773 
Fr. Coulomb. Charles Augustine de, philosopher . ° e 1736 
Fr. Eng. Courayer, P. Francis le, Roman Catholic theologian ° 1681 
¥r. Courier, Paul Louis, poet and satirist . . ° ° 1772 
Fr. ———--, Paul Louis, political writer ; é 1774 
Pr Court ty Gébelin, Anthony, an antiquarian and en ° e 1725 
Fr, Cousin, Louis, historian . > : Py 1627 
Fr. ——-, Victor, statesman and Siiet wirautte eh 4 2 x 1792 
Eng. Coverdale, Miles, Bishop of Exeter, trans. Bible . e 1485 
Eng. Cowley, Abraham, poet : ° ° “ : 1618 
Zng. Cowper, William, lord chancellor . ° ° ° 1664 
Eng. —w—, William, poet A F s 5 1731 
‘Amsor (Comeithrdigr Olevelaal epi nalibieheasadaiacni * 1818 
Amer. ——--, Samuel H., presbyterian author and clergyman . . 1793 
Amer. Coxe, Tench, writer on political economy . J e 1756 
ing. —-, William, traveller and historian . 5 z 1747 
Amer. Cozzens, Fred 8., autiior of essays and poems = i 1818 
Eng. Crabb, George, philologist, author of synonyms : 4 1778 
Eng. Crabbe, Rev. George, poet : d 1754 
Ger. Cramer, John Andrew, miscellaneous writer ° e e =:1728 


DIED 


BO. 


1844 
1348 
1783 


1543 
1863 
1793 


488 


1564 
17238 
1684 
1708 
1718 
1805 
1554 


1594 
1621 
1723 
1836 
1865 


1440 
1832 
1851 
1807 
1800 
1853 
1687 
1652 
1865 
1806 
1776 
1825 
1825 
1784 
1707 
1867 
1565 
1667 
1728 
1800 


1824 
1828 


1854 
1832 
1788 


RATION, 


Eng. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Rom. 
Amer. 
Fr 
Ger, 
Fr, 


Eng. 
Trish. 
Trish. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Scot, 
Eng. 
Amer, 
Scot, 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Scot. 
Scot. 
Scot. 
Irish, 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Rom, 


Pers. 
Pers, 


Fr, 
Fr, 
Amer, 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 


NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Cramer, J. Baptist, musical composer : y 
——, Francis, ae se ° 
Cranch, Wm. jurist, judge U. 8. District Corirt D. C0. 
Cranmer, Thomas, a celebrated reformer : ° 
Crashaw, Richard, poet and divine ° ° 
Crassus, Marcus Lucinius, (the rich) military commander 
Crawford, William H., statesman and jurist A 
Crébillon, Prosper Jolyot de, tragic poet : ° 
Oreuzer, Geo. Fred., philologist and antiquary ° 
Crevier, John Baptist Lewis, historian ° ° 
Croesus, King of Lydia, famed forriches . ° 
Croft, Wm., musical doctor and composer ° ° 
Croker, John Wilson, statesman and author . 

-, Thos. Crofton, author of ‘ Fairy Legends, &e, 
Croly, Rev. George, poet and novelist . . 
Cromweli, Oliver, military commander and statesman , 


—-—-, Thomas, earl of Essex, successor to Wolsey 
Crowe, Catherine, author of ‘Nightside of Nature’ , 


Cruikshank, George, artist, chiefly caricature ° 

—— , Robert, humorous artist : 

Cruden, biestinaad author of a ‘Concordance to the Bible? 
Cudworth, Ralph, philosopher ° : ° 
Ouffee, Paul, philanthropic sea-captain , . 
Cullen, William, an eminent physician ° é 
Cumberland, Richard, a multifarious writer ° 


Cumming, John, popular preacher and theological author 


, Rouallyn W. G., sportsman, traveller, and author 


Cunningham, Allan, poet, biographer, &c. ° 
Curran, John Philpot, a celebrated barrister and orator 
Curtis, Benj. R., jurist and judge of Supreme Court U. 8, 
, Geo. Ticknor, political writer and jurist  . 


, Geo. Wm., essayist, traveller, and critic . 
Curtius, Rufus Quintus, historian. ° : 
Cushing, Caleb, statesman and jurist ° e 
Cushman, Charlotte 8., actress . ° 


» Robert, one of the founders of Hiymouth e 
Custis, ek W. Parke, adopted son of Washington 
Cuvier, George, baron, one of the greatest of naturalists 
, Fred., (brother of the baron) naturalist 3 


Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, an eminent father of the church 


° 


» William Augustus, duke of, military commander 


Cyril, of Alexandria, saint and patriarch, and theol. writer . 


, of Jerusalem, saint and archbishop, and author , 
, St., the apostle of the Sclavi . e 
Cyrus, the Elder, founder of the Persian empire ‘ 


Czartoryski, Adam, prince, head of the Polish nation . 


D 


Dacier, Anne, a celebrated classical scholar 4 
Daguerre, Louis J. M., inventor of daguerreotyping . 
Dahlgren, John A., a officer and author a 


, the Younger, (son of Darius Nothus) king of Persia . 


BORN, 
1771 
1772 
1779 
1489 


1772 
1674 
1771 
1693 


B, C. 


1657 
1780 
1798 
1780 
1599 
1490 


951 


DIED, 


1858 
1843 
1855 
2556 
1656 

5a 
1824 
1762 
1858 
1768 


6th Cent, 


1780 . 


1794 
1701 
1617 
1759 
1712 
1782 
1721 
1810 
1820 
1768 
1750 
1809 
1812 
1824 


1800 
1816 
1580 
1781 
1769 
1778 


3876 
315 


1770 


1651 
1789 


B. a. 
a O. 


1727 
2257 
1854 
1360 
1658 
*540 


1856 
1770 
1688 
3818 
1720 
1811 
1765 


1842 
18°% 


1615 
1857 
1832 
1838 
258 
444 
386 
822 
559 
400 
1866 


172¢ 
185. 


952 


NATION, 
Amer. 
Swe. 
Ainer, 
Swe. 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Eng. 
Ger. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Venet. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Ger. 
Ital. 
Fr. 
Ital. 
Ing. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Aust. 
By: 
Eng. 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Amer. 


Ital. 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Fr. 
Eng. 
Arner. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Amer 
Ame 
Fr. 
Swiss. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


NAME AND PROFESSION BORK. 
Dahlgien, Col. Uli'c, milit. officer . ° ‘ » 1842 
Dahlman, Fred C., historian : ° ° 1785 
Dale, Richard, commodore in Revol. war 4 ° e =: «1:756 
Dalin, Claus von, the father of Swedish poetry . . 1708 
Dallas, Commodore A, J., navalcommander . ° « 1791 
— , Geo., M., vice-pres. U. 8. and diplomatist , - 1792 
, John Alexander, secretary treasury U.8. ° » 1759 
Dalton, John, chemist and mathematician . e ° 1766 
Damm, Christian Tobias, Greek lexicographer e = 1699 
Dampier, William, an ethinent navigator . ° ° 1652 
Dana, James D., mineralogist, geologist, &e. is >» persis 
, Richard H., poet and essayist e ° cia 1787 
——,, Richard H. Jr., advocate and traveller ° e 1815 
,» Samuel L., agricultural chemist , e G)s 1795 
Dandolo, Enrico, doge of Venice ° . ° - 1110 
Dane, Nathan, jurist and legal author ° e . 1752 
Daniell, John F., chemist § ° - 1790 
, W., R. A., author of pictorial work on 1 India . 

(Raneaer: sculptor (* Ariadne,’ &c.) 5 e e 1758 
Dante Alighieri, the sublimest of the Italian poets e 1265 
Danton, Geo, Jacques, leading revolutionist . é ° 1759 
Da Ponte, Lorenzo, poet and dramatist (d. at N. Y.) ° 1749 
D’Arblay, Madame, (Fanny Burney) novelist . ° o adg62 
Darling, Grace, famed for rescue of nine persons wrecked , 1815 
Darlington, Wm., botanist and politician . : - 1782 
Daubeny, Chas. J. B., natural philos. and geologist Z ~ . 
Daun, Leopold Joseph Mary count de, military commander . 1705 
Daunou, P. C. F., statesman and Uittérateur . ° « 1761 
Davenant, Sir Wm., dramatist . - . F 1605 
Davidson, Lucretia M., a youthful poetess of uncommon genius. 1808 
Davidson, Margaret Miller (sister of above), poet ° - 1823 
Davies, Charles, mathematician . . ° ° 1798 

, Samuel, president of Princeton College, theol. writer . 1724 
Davila, Henry Catharine, an historian ° ° ° 1576 
Davis, Andrew J., clairvoyant and writer on spiritualism e  -1826 

, Charles H., mathematician and naval officer ° 1807 

, Jefferson, general and U. 8. senator from Mississippi - 1808 

, John, a navigator, discoverer of Davis Straits e 

, Matthew L., biographer of Burr, &e. . e e 1766 
Davoust, Louis N., one of Bonaparte’s generals = * 1770 
Davy, Sir Humphrey, eminent chemist a ; cote 378 
Day, Stephen, tle first printerin New England . ° 1611 
Dayton, Wm. Lewis, jurist and statesman P ° e 1807 
Deane, Silas, minister of the U. 8. to France e 1758 
Dearborn, Henry, a distinguished officer of the two Anetta wars 1751 
De Bow, J. D. B., journalist and statistician . “ 1820 
Debruce, William Francis, a bookseller and bibliographer » ap ibisl 
Decandolle, A. P., botanist 4 ° ° 4 1778 
Decatur, Stephen, a gallant commodore in the U. 8, navy « 1779 
Decker, Thomas, dramatic poet . “ . e- 

Dee, John, mathematician and astrologer P e e =—-:1527 
Defoe, Daniel, miscellaneous writer e yaye e 1661] 


DIED 
1864 


182- 
1753 
1844 


1817 
1844 
1778 
1711 


1205 
1835 
1845 
1837 
1841 
1321 
1794 
1838 
1840 
1842 


1766 
1840 
1688 
1840 
1838 


1761 
1631 


1605 
1850 
1823 
1829 
1668 


1789 
1829 


1782 
1841 
1820 
1638 
1618 
1731 


SATION. 
G. Am. 
Eng. 
Fr. 
Amer. 
Fr. 

Fr. 

ir; 
Swiss. 
Swisz. 
Pol. 
Gr, 
Maced, 
Gr. 
Eng. 
Gr. 
Eng. 
Ttals 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Fr. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Russ 
Fr. 

Fr. 

cr, 
Afric. 
Span. 
Fr, 
Dutch. 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 


WAME AND PROFESSION. 
DeKalb, John, baron, maj.-gen.in Am. revo army. 
De la Béche, Sir Henry T., geologist 
Delambre, John Baptist Joseph, astronomer 
Delancey, William H., Epis. Bishop West New York 
Delavigne, Casimir, dramatist . . 
Delille, James, a celebrated poet i ° 
Delisle, Joseph Nicholas, an eminent astronomer 


e 


Delolme, Jean L., author of a work on the English Constitution 


Deluc, Jean André, natural philosopher . 
Dembinski, Henry K., general in Hungarian revolt 
Demetrius Phalereus, Athenian orator and statesman. 


BORN, 
1782 
1796 
1749 
1797 
1794 
1738 
1688 
1740 
1727 
1791 


B. c. 345 


. Poliorcetes, one of the successors of Alex. the Great 
- B. 0. 460 


Democritus, a celebrated philosopher : ° 
De Morgan, Augustus, mathematician . e 
Demosthenes, one of the greatest of orators . 

Denham, Lieut.-Col. Dixon, an enterprising traveller 
Denina, Charles John Maria, an historian ° 

Denman, Thomas, lord chief justice of England e 
Dennie, author and editor of ‘ Portfolio, &ec. 
Dennis, John, critic, embalmed in *‘ Dunciad? 


D’Eon, Chevalier, equerry to Louis XV. a ° 
DeQuincy, Thomas, essayist and critic . e 
Derby, Edw. G. 8. Stanley, fourteenth earl of, statesmar. 
Derzhavine, Gabriel R., a poet and statesman ° 
Desaix, Louis Charles Anthony, military commander . 
Descartes, René, an eminent philosopher . ° 
Desmoulins, Camille, revolutionist and author ° 
Dessalines, John James, Emperor of Hayti ~ 

De Soto, Fernando, discoverer of the Mississippi A 
Destouches, Philip Nericault, dramatic writer . 


Deurhoff, William, founder of asect,andanauthor . 


Dan. Am. De Vere, Maximilian Schele, philologist and essayist 


Eng. 
Fr. 
Amer. 
Ger. 
Amer, 
Dutch. 
Port. 
Span. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Bcot. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Fr. 
Fr. 
Fr, 
Fr. 


Egypt. 


Devereux, Robert, third Earl of Essex, parliamentary generv. 


De Vigny, Alfred, count, poet and novelist 2 
Dewees, W. P., medical writer . 

De Wette, William M. L., theologian and biblical critic: 
Dewey, Orville, Unitarian divine and essayist : 
De Witt, John, an eminent statesman . - 


Diaz, Bartholomew, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope 
, del Castillo, Bernal, adventurer and chronicler 
Dibdin, Charles, a dramatic and musical composer . 


, Thomas Frognall, bibliographer A 
Dick, Thomas, author of ‘ Christian Philosopher’ ° 


Dickens, Charles, novelist é 3 
Dickinson, Daniel $., statesman : . . 
—_——-—,, John, author of ‘ Farmer’s Letters ’ ‘ 


Diderot, Denis, first editor of ‘ Encyclopédie Méthodique’ 
Didot, Francis A., a celebrated printer and type-founder 


, Firmin, publisher and mem ber of Deputies ‘ 
——, Amb. Firmin, publisher and traveller , 
Didymus, who wrote from 8,000 to 6,000 works * 


, Thomas (son of Charles), dramatist and song writer 


1806 


o B.C, 381 


° 


1786 
273 

alte 
1728 
1757 
1728 
1786 
1799 
1743 
1768 
1596 
1762 
1760 

1500 
1680 
1650 
1820 
1592 
1799 
1768 
1780 
1794 
1625 


‘abt ) 1560 


1748 
W771 
1770 
1772 
1812 
1806 
17382 
17138 
1730 
1764 
1790 


f. 2. c. 80 


953 


DIED. 
1786 
1855 
1822 
186- 
1843 
1813 
1768 
1806 
1817 
1864 

B. 0. 282 
B. 0. 283 


13. G, 3822 
1828 
1813 
1854 
1812 
1783 
1810 
1859 


1816 
1800 
1650 
1794 
1806 
1542 
1754 
1717 


1646 
1863 
1841 
1849 


1672 
1500 


1814 
1841 
1847 
2859 


1865 
1808 
2784 
1804 
L°B4 


954 


NATION. 


Pruss. 
Ger. 
Span, 
Eng. 
Ger. 


Maced. 


Rom. 
Gr. 
Swiss. 
Gr. 
Gr. 
Gr. 
Gr. 
Gr 
Gr. 
Gr. 
Gr. 
Gr. 
Gr. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Ger. 
Span. 
Rom, 
Scot. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Eng- 
Eng. 
Ital. 
Amer. 


Fr, En. 


Hind. 
Eng. 
Scot. 
Amer, 
Scot. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Amer. 


Amer. 
Gr. 
Rng. 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


NAME£ AND PROFESSION. BORN DIED 
Diebitsch-Zaba] kansky, count, military commander e 1785 1831 
Diffenbach, John Fred., surgeon and surgical author . e,) 1792 1847 
Diez, John Martin, a patriotic military commander « 1775 1825 
Dilke, Charles W., journalist, editor of ‘ Athenzum’ ‘ 1810 1864 
Dindorf, William, philologist 5 . e . 1802 
Dinocrates, an architect; built Alexandria, &c, . - f.B 0. 350 
Diocletian, Valerius, empcror " A e e 245 314 
Dio-Chrysostom, a rhetorician and philosopher ., - f.B.c.30 
Diodati, Giovanni, theologian, translator of Bible ° - 1576 1649 
Diodorus Siculus, a historian 5 - e - f.3B.0.10 
Diogenes, the cynic, philosopher. ‘ . . B. 0.413 2. 0, 3228 
——_——.-, Laertius, biographer ° ° e ° 
Dion-Cassius, author of ‘ Roman History’ , . ° 155 
Dionysius, a geographer . -  f,140 
————,, of Alexandria, saint and bishop of the Church ° _ 265 
—- , the Areopagite, learned Athenian Christian . A.D. Ist cent, 
— , the elder, tyrant of Syracuse . . B, 0. 430 B. 0. 367 
——_—_——, of Halicarnassus, critic and historian ° 7 j 52 
, the younger, tyrant of Syracuse ° » 8B. 0.367 B. Oo. 343 
Disraeli, Isaac, ‘ Curiosities of Literature’ * j o aired TCT 1848 
Dix, D«r thea L., philanthropist, founder of asylums ° 
—, John Adams, U.S. senator from New York, &c. ° 
Dikon, ¥‘lliam Pepworth, author and critic ° - 1821 
Doane, xeo. W., Prot. Epis, Bishop of New Jersey, poet, &, « 1799 1859 
Dobell, £+ dney, poet ; - * . ° 1824 
Dodd, Dr, \ illiam, miscellaneous writer (executed for forgery) 1729 
Doddridge, thvip, a gifted and pious divine and writer 1702 
Dodsley, Hubert, publisher and author “ ° « 1703 
Doebereimer, © W., chemist r 5 ° 1780 
Dominic De -tuzman, founder of preaching friars - « » o11o 
Domitian, emperor : ° ‘t e ° 52 
Don, Ravid, ootanist ; ° ‘ e - 1800 
Donatailo (.; cneto di BeHodi Bardi) sculptor ° ° 1383 
Donizetti, Gaetano, musical composer ° e ay? PERI 
Donne, John, poet and theologian ° ° 1573 
Donovan, <dward, writer on natural history . e oe Lane FLT OS 
Doria, Andrew, the deliverer of his country, (Genoa) e 1468 
Dorr, TEemas W., politician, elected (?) governorof RhodeTIsland 1805 
D’Orsay, Couct Alfred, author, artist, and ‘ beau’ e 1798 
Dost-Mohemmed, emir of Caboo . ° ° e =: 1785 
Douce, Ficncis, antiquarian and author . ° ‘athe 1762 
Douglas, Gawin, a poet and translator ° e - 1474 
—. Frederick, abolitionist, politician and editor e 1817 
———, Sir Howard, general, military and naval author - 1776 
-—, Stephen Arnold, United States senator from Illinois 1813 
Dow, Lorenzo, an eccentric preacher . . ° eo) ghia? 
Downes, John, commodore in the United States navy ° 1786 
Downing, Andrew J., author of works on landscape gardening ; 
and horticulture ‘ ‘ ° . . 1815 
Dowse, Thomas, a leather dresser, collector of a rare library 1772 
Draco, an Athenian legislator 3 ° ° f. 623 
Drake, Dr. Nethan, physician and essayist e e 1766 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 


NATION. NAME AND ?ROFESSION. 

Amer. Drake, Joseph Rodman, poet 5 r < 
Amer, , Samuel G., historian of the Tacdanss Boston, &c 

Eng. , Sir Francis, a celebrated circumnavigator . e 
H, Am. Draper, John W., chemist and physiologist . é 
Eng. Drayton, Michael, poet, ‘ Poly-olbion’ ; ; 
Dutch. Drebbel, Cornelius van, inventor of the Raeetaneh Geog e 
Eng. Drew, Samuel, methodist divine and theological author . 
Fr Drouyn de  Huys, Edward, statesman ‘a i 

Fr. Droz, Jozeph, historical and political writer . . 
Scot. Drummond, Captain Thomas, inventor of Drummond lights 
Eng. , Sir William, scholar, author and diplomatist . 
Scot. é ’ William, poet. é ° 
Rom, Drusus, Claudius Nero, general in Gaul and Germany . 
Eng. Dryden, John, aneminent poet . é ° 
Amer. Duane, William, poiitician and author of ‘Aurora’ . 

Fr. Ducange, Charles Dufresne, historian and philologist . 
Fr. Ducas, Michael, Byzantine historian , Bid 2 

Fr, Duchatel, C. M. T., count, statesman and author . ° 
Fr, Duchesne, Andrew, a historian " ° is 

Fr. Duclos, Charles Pineau, an historian ‘ . 

Amer, Duganne, Augustine J, H., poet, novelist and politician 
Eng. Dugdale, Sir William, antiquarian author. ° e 
Fr. Duguesclin, Bertrand, military commander . ° 

Br. Duhalde, Jean B., geographer B x . 
Fr. Dumas, ieenaar €, novelist, traveller, &c . 

Fr, ———., Alexandre, (the younger), novelist and deainatict ° 
Fr. -, J. B., chemist - P : i 

Fr. Dumont @Urville, J.8. C., cireumnavigator 7 A 
Fr. Dumont, John, traveller and political writer . ° 
Swiss. —— , P.S. L., writer on legislation . ° ° 
Fr. Domouriez, Charles Francis Dupérier, military commander 
Scot Duubar, George, professor at Edinburgh, ‘Greek Lexicon’ 
Scot. » William, poet . F - ° e 
Scot Duncan, Adam, viscount, successful admiral , 2 
Sect. —, William, logician and translator ° . . 
Scot. Dundas, Henry, Viscouit Melville, statesman ° 
Scot. Dundonald, Earl of, (‘Lord Cochrane’)admiral . 5 
Amer. Dunglisson, Robley, M. D., medical author ., ° 
Amer. Dunlap, William, painter and historian . - A 
Eng. Dunning, John, Lord Ashburton, lawyer ° . 
Scot. Duns Scotus, John, scholastic theo'ogian . F ; 
Eng. Duiustan, Saint, abbot of Glastonbury and politician . 

Mite Dupin, A. M. J. J., jurist and statesman . Z ; 
Fr. ———,, Charles, baron, jurist and statesman . . 

Fr, , Louis Elie, ai ecclesiastical historian ‘ 

Fr. tetidensee; P.8., philologist, jurist, &¢., (at Philadelphia) 
Amer. Dupout, Samuel Francis, admiral. ¥ be 

Fr. Dupuytren, surgeon and anatomist . : ? 

Fr. Duguesne, Abraham, « gallant admiral . 5 

Amer. Durand, Asher Brown, pain‘er and engraver , r 
Amer. Durbin, John P., methcdist divine and author * ° 
Ger. Durer, Albert, painter and engiaver . * 


Bc 38 


956 


KATION, 


Amer, 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Fr. 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Scot, 
Eng. 
Eng. 


Amer, 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Ger, 
Amer. 
Ger, 
Trish, 
fing. 
Amer, 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer. 


Ger. 
Flem. 
Ger. 
Ger. 
Eng. 
Scot. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Amer, 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amor. 
Eng. 
Amey. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
kung. 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


NAME AND PROFESSION. 
Durfee, Job, priest and author 
Durfey, Thomas, dramatic author 
Durham, J. G., Lambton, earl of, pivotdargeions of Oanadé 
Duroc, Michael, Duke of Friuli, military commander 
Dwight, Dr. Timothy, an eminent divine and writer 
—-———, Theo., author and journalist 
» Thee,, (son of the above), ethnologist and historian 
Duyckinck, Evert Aug., author and critic 
————-—, Geo. Long, author and critic 
Dyc3, Alex., author and critic 
Dyer, John, poet, ‘The Fleece ’? 
Dymond, Jona, writer on ethics and philanthropist 


4astburn, Manton, Episcopal Bishop of Mass. 
‘Eastlake, Sir Charles L., patnter and art-critic 
Eaton, Amos, botanist 
» Wm., military officer and consul in Africa 
Hekerican, John Peter, littérateur 
Eckford, “Lenry, eminent shipbuilder . 
Eckhard, John George, an antiquary and historian 
Edgeworth, Maria, novelist 
Edward, the Black Prince, a warrior 
, ola B,, theologian and miscellaneous author 
Edvwar it 3ryan, an historian 
«vhn W., jurist and writer on slsdtsabieen 
—--, F gonathend, an able divine and metaphysician 
———,, Milne, (son of W. F.,) naturalist 
. ., anatomist and physiologist (born at Jamaica) 
«c historian, biographer of Charlemagne 
Egmont, * amoral, count, patriot and martyr 
Ehrenberg, C. J., naturalist 
Eichborn, ¥ C., theologian and jurist 
Eldon, L.:d, lord chancellor of England 
Elgin, T., -3ruce, earl of, diplomatist—remover of ‘ Elgin’ marbles 
Elizabe th, queen 
Eliot, Samael, author of ‘ Edgtaes: of Liberty? 
Ellenboro:gh, Edw. Law, lord chief-justice 
-— —, Edw. L., earl of, governor-general of India 
., Signer of Declaration of Independence 
Ellesmere. Fr., Egerton, earl of, statesman and author 
Ellet, Eliza F., biographer and critic 
Elliot, John, ‘the apostle to the Indians’. 
Elliotson, John, physician and physiologist 
Elliott, Charles Loring, portrait painter 
Charles Wyllys, author of § History of New “England? 
Corn Law Rhymes’ 


——., Ebenezer, poet ‘© 
——,J. D., commodore ix American navy 


Ellis, Geo. E., Unitarian clergyman and author 
a -- Sir Henry, anticary and author 


(abt.) 


1842 
1811 
1852 
1852 
1730 
1849 
1376 


1800 


1757 


NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 
Eng. Ellis, Wm. Rey., missionary and author = 0 = (adt.) ~=—-1795 
Eng. Elliston, Robert W., actor ’ : < i774 
Amer. Ellsworth, Elmer E., military officer in Union army . ° 1837 
Amer, » Oliver, a distinguished chief-justice of the U. 8. 1746, 
Eng. Elmes, James, architect and author . : ’ oy  L18B 
Scot. Elphinstone, Mount Stuart, history of India ; 5 1778 
Fr, Eissler, Fanny, danseuse - e 1811 
Dutch, Elzevir, Louis M. G. B., and A, piittiors 16th Hae 17th centuries 
Amer. Embury, Emma E. Shoe : 2 ° 0 1806 
Amer. Emerson, Geo, B., educator and author : © ° 1797 
Amer, ——-——, Ralph Waldo, poet and essayist ° e » 1803 
Eng. William, a distinguished mathematician . ° . 1701 
Trish. Emmet, Robert, ‘ United Irishman’ (executed) : : 1780 
Trish. —, Thomas Addis, an eminent lawyer and orator . 1764 
Amer, Tan nons, Eben, geologist and author 1798 
Amer. -—, Nathaniel, D. D., theologian and authed e ° 1746 
Gr. Empedocles, a Pythatorsak philosopher ° ° ° 

Encke, John Francis, astronomer ; ° ° 1791 
Amer. Endicott, John, governor of Massachusetts ° e 1589 
Ger. Endlicher, Stephen L., botanist and linguist ° ° 1804 
Eng. Enfield, William, miscellaneous writer : bE e (1741 
Fr. Enghien, Louis H. de Bourbon, duke of, (executed) C 1772 
¥r. Eon du Beaumont, chevalier, an eccentric writer and .cldier 1728 
Gr. Epaminondas, an illustrious Theban general . ° 
Gr, Epictetus, a stoic philosopher ; r a fu 40 
Gr. Epicurus, founder of the Epicurean sect of phi.o. - shir » B. Oo. 342 
Dutch. Erasmus, Desiderius, a celebrated scholar and -vtl.:.> . ° 1467 
Ger. Erastus, Thomas, founder of ‘ Erastianism’ theo.wzy = 1524 
Gr. Eratosthenes, astronomer, geologist, poet and philosopher B. 0. 276 
Span. Ercilla, Don Alonzo, a poet ‘ - “ ° 1525 
Span. Hriccira, Ferdinand, a statesman and historian ° e 1614 
8. Am. Ericsson, John, inventor and engineerin America . : 1803 
Eng. Erigenus, John, a Jearned writer of the ninth century . ° 
Pruss. Erman, A. G., ‘Travels in Siberia, &c. . e ° 180€ 
Ger. Ernesti, John Augustus, aneminent critic . ° on PLOT 
Scot. Erskine, Ebenezer, theologian A e 3 e 1680 
Scot , Ralph, divine, ‘Gospel Sonnets? ° : - 1685 
Scot. —, Thomas, lord, a celebrated forensic orator ; 1750 
Assyr. Esarhaddon, son and successor to Sennacherib, kin,’ of Assyria. B.C. 
Span. Escobar y Mendoza, Anthony, a celebrated casuist ° 1589 
Span. Espartero, J. B., Duke of Vittoria, statesman and soldier o 1272792 
Amer. Eispy, James P., meteorologist and author , ° e 1785 
Fr. Esquirol, J. E. D., writer on insanity . ° ° ‘ 1772 
Ger. Ess, L. Van, theological writer . : ° © 1770 
Eng. Essex, Robert Devereux, earl of, a warrior 3 a “ 1567 
¥r. Estaing, Charles H., count d’, navalcommander , "i 1729 
Aust. Esterhazy, Prince Paul, wealthy statesman . e ‘ 
Eng. Etheredge, Sir George, comic author and dramatist e 1636 
Afric, Euclid, an eminent geometrician : ° f. B. 0. 300 
Fr. Eugene-Francis, prince, a great warrior in the German service 1665 
Bpan. Engénie, Marie de Gusman, Empress of France ‘ eh kdses 
Swiss Euler, Leonard, an eminent mathematician a 2 170" 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 


1863 


1782 
1863 
1827 
1863 
1840 


1865 
1665 
1849 
1797 
1804 
1816 
B. 0, 363 


B. oO. 87) 
13386 
1583 

B. 0 196 
1595 
1699 


1781 
1756 
1752 
1823 
7th cent. 
1669 


1860 
1840 
1847 
1601 
1794 
1694 
1736 


173 


958 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
RATION NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 
Gr. Huripides, a celebrated tragic poet. ° ° - BO. 480° 
Gr. Eur.ct/us, bishop of Caesarea, a learned father of the church, and 
seclesiastical historian ° ° e 
Rom. Eutrspias, an bistorian : : ° F - f. 860 
Rom. Eutychea, an ecclesiastic, founder of a sect e ° 
Amer, Evans, Oliver, inventor and engineer . P e » 1755 
Amer. Evarts, Jeremiah, (see Amer, B, C. for Missions) . e 1781 
. 1g. Evelyn, John, miscellaneous writer . . e « £620 
mer. Everett, Alex. H., essayist and diplomatist . . 1790 
Amer, ——, Eiward, statesman, diplomatist, and author . « 1794 
#'er, Ewala, Geo. H. A. von, orientalist and theologian . “ 18038 
“n.Am, Ewbank, Thos., writer on practical mechanics e e 1792 
Amer, Ewing, Th>s., statesman and jurist ° e ° 1789 
Eng. Exmouth, -dw. Pellew, viscount, admiral e ° °° L357 
¥F 
Eng. Faber, Gcorye Stanley, theological writer ° 1773 
ang. , Frederick Wm., Roman Catholic priest and shackdnical 
Rathore ° ° e ° e 
Rom. Fabius, Quintus M. V.,a skilful warrior . e ° 
Fer, Fabricius. Joho . Abert, a critic and bibliographer e e 
Ital —-—, Jobn Jhristian, a celebrated entomologist ° 
Ital. Fabroni, Angelo, a learned biographer ° e e 
Eng. Fabyan, Robs:t, chrorisler ° ° e ° 
Ital. Faceiolato, or “aecicl <i. Jac., philologist e 2 s 
Pruss, Fahrenheit, Gsoriel Daniel, an experimental philosopher . 
Hng. Fairfax, Edwacd, poet, svanslator of Tasso 3 : ; 
Eng, —-—, Thor.as, lord, a general in the civil war , e 
Kng. Faleoner, William,apoot . PA . sf 
ftal. Faliero, Marino, doge of Venice, (beheaded) fe E 
Eng, Falkland, Lucius ary, viscount, poliiician and author . 
Eng. Fanshawe, Sir Kicnard, poet and diplomatist e ‘ 
Trish. Faraday, Michael, chomist . . S 
Port. Faria y Souza, Manuel, an historian ia poet c - 
Hing. Farmer, Hugh, the -logian 2 ; 5 
Amer. Farnham, Mrs, Eli.a W., traveller ana philanthropist re 
Irish. Farquhar, George, % arti tink i - z A 
Amer. Farrar, John, metie —atician and author , A 3 
Kr. Faucher, Leon yur tical economist , 8 4 
Fr. Fauriel, Claude, historian and belles-lettres shitter A 
ter Faust, John, »ne of the inventors of printing . Q ; 
oT: Favre, J. C. Jules, lawyer and politician , A * 
Eug Fawkes, Francis, a poet and translator c - e 
Amer. Fay, Theo. 8., author and diplomatist C 2 . 
Fr. Fayette, Mary M., countess of, miscellaneous writer , ™ 
Eng. Fellows, Sir Charles, traveller in the East F rad 
Amer, Felten, Cornelius C., scholar and critic, president of Harvard 
College . ; e 5 
Fr. Fénéion, Francis de Salignac de la Motto de, an able writer and 
cne of the most virtuous ofmen . . _ . 
Ree. Ferber, John James, an eminent mimeralogist ~ F; 


1833 


. Field, Cyrus W., promoter of Atlantic telegraph 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 


NAME AND PROFESSION. 
Ferguson, Adam, an historian and moral philosopher . 
—, James, a self-educated astronomer, philosopher, &c, 
Fergusson, James, architect and writer on art ° 
Ferreras, John de, a celebrated historian . ‘ r 
Ferrier, Mary, novelist : F * ° 
Fesch, Joseph, senior, priest, cardinal, archbishop of Lyons . 
Fessenden, Thos. Green, author and journalist 
—, Wn. Pitt, U. 8. senator from Maine, ex sec, treas, 
Feuerbach, Ludwig, philosopher and author ° 
Feurbach, Paul John A. von, statesman and jurist 3 
Feyjoo y Montenegro, an able miscellaneous writer 
Fichte, John G., philosopher : - 
Ficino, Marsilius, a Platonic philosopher . ° 


Field, David Dudley, jurist and advocate . : 
——-, Henry Martyn, clergyman, journalist, and author , 
Fielding, Copley Vandyke, painter in water colors ° 
—-—, Henry, a humorous novelist and dramatist ° 
Fiesco, John Louis, the conspirator against Doria 
Fillmore, Millard, 13th president U. 8, ° 4 . 
Finney, Charies G., preacher and theological writer , 
Firdusi or Ferdusi, poet, author of 60,000 verses. 


. Fisk, Wilbur, president Wesleyan University, ‘ Travels,’ &, 


Fitch, John, inventor, pioneer of steam navigation . : 
Flaminius, Titus Quintus, general and consul , ° 
—--——, Caius, general, consul, and censor of tribune , 
Flamsteed, John, first astronomer royal n ° 
Flatman, Thomas, poet . a * 4 is 
Flavel, John, an eminent non-ccenfurmist divine > 
Fléchier, Esprit, a celebrated prelate - ~ . 
Fleischer, H. L., orientalist , ° ° ° 
Fleming, Jobn, naturalist 2 : ; 5 
Fletcher, Andrew, of Saltoun, statesman and author , 

-, Giles, poet : ° . ° e 
————-, John, a dramatist , ‘ és ; 
————--, Phineas, poet . e ° ° ° 
Fleury, Andrew Hercules de, a cardinal and statesman 

, Claude, a divine and historian ° J P 
Flint, Rev. Timothy, novelist and historian , A 
Florian, John Peter Claris de, miscellaneous writer Z 
Flugel, G. L., philolegist and historian i : 

, John G., lexicographer c j : 4 
Follen, C. T. C., theologian and philologist Gn U. 8.) . 
Fonblanque, J. 8. M., jurisprudence - . a 
Fontenelle, Bernard le Bouvier de, miscellaneous writer 
Foote, Andrew Hull, admiral and author , 4 2 
—-, Samuel, a comic writer and actor : 3 
Forbes, Iidward, naturalist and author . e 
——,, John, M. D., medical writer , 3 ; 
Force, Peter, journalist and historian E je z 
Forcellini, Giles, a Latin lexicographer ‘ = 
Ford, John, an early dramatic author . 5 


SORN. 

. 1724 
1710 

« 1808 
1652 

‘ 1782 
1763 
1771 

1806 
1804 

° 1775 
1701 

° 1762 
1433 

° 1819 
e 1805 
1822 

ry 1787 
1707 


1800 
° 1792 
940 
- 1792 
1743 
B. 0. 230 


° 1646 
1633 
e 1627 
1632 
: 1801 
1785 
° 1658 
1580 
° 1576 
1584 
° 1653 
1640 
e 1786 
1755 
1788 
° 1796 
1787 
e 1657 
1806 
° 1721 
1815 
eo §=©.11787 
1790 
. 1688 
1586 


1855 
1754 
1547 


1028 

1839 
1798 

Be O17 
BAC.) 
71S 

1658 
16.1 
1716 


1857 
1716 
1627 
1625 
1650 
1748 
1722 
1840 
1794 


1855 
1846 
1865 
1757 
1863 
1771 
1864 


Amer. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Ital. 


Ame, 
Ital. 
Savey. 
Trish. 
Amer. 
En;. 
Scot. 
l-2uss, 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Ger. 
Eng. 
Fer. 
Fr. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Amer, 
Eng. 
Amer, 
Amer 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Fr, 
Amer, 
Ger. 
Bwiss. 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS, 


NAME AND PROFESSION, 

Ford, Richard, author of works on Spain 4 . : 
Foresti, E. Felice, patriot and littérateur , e ° 
Forrest, Edwin, actor 2 ° ° ° 2 
Forster, John, journalist and author ° ° e 

—-, John R., traveller and naturalist 3 . “ 
Forsyth, John, diplomatist and statesman . ° > 
Fosbrooke, Rev. T. D., archeologist (Ency. Antiq.) eo - ° 
Foscari, Francesco, 45th doge of Venice . . ° 
Foscolo, Nicol Ugo, poet and musical author . ° ° 
Foster, John, essayist . ° ° 
Fouché, Joseph, Duke of Otrante.* a brutal revolutionist ° 
Fouqué, Fried H. L. de la Motte, author of ‘ Undine, &e, 
Fourier, Charles, founder of the ‘social’ system ° e 
———-, Franeis M. C., writer on social science ° ° 
Fowler, Orson 8., phrenologist A . ° 


Fox, Charles James, one of the greatest of skatemdied and «rators 
——, George, the founder of the society of Friends or Quakers . 


——, John, a divine, author of the ‘ Book of Martyrs’? ° 
——, Sir Charles, engineer, builder of Crystal Palace . ° 
Fra Diavolo (Michael Pezza), Neapolitan bandit . ° 
Francia, José G. R., dictator of Paraguay . . 
Francis, John W., physieian and author ° e e 
-, Saint, founder of ‘ Franciscans’ pri . 
———-, de Sales, saint and bishop : ° ° ° 
——-—-, Sir Philip, political writer : e ° 
Franklin, Benjamin, a celebrated philosopher and statesman . 
————-, Sir John, admiral and Arctic explorer . z 
Frazer, Simon, Lord Lovat, jacobite Jeader, beheaded . e 
Frederick I1., the Great, King, an able general and author . 
Freeman, James, D.D., first Unitarian minister in U. 8. ° 
Freli: eh aguen: VTheo., statesman . ° ° 
Fremont, John Charles, explorer and eaeernei ° ° 
Freneau, Philip, poet and journalist A ° ° 
Frere, John Hookman, poet and diplomatist . ° . 
Freytag, G. W. F., ‘ Arabie Dictionary,’ &c. e é 
Frobisher, Sir Martin, a celebrated navigator . e ° 
Froebel, Julius, traveller and author 5 ° ° 
Froissart, John, a chronicler and poet ‘ ° ° 
Frothingham, Richard, Jr., historian and journalist ° 
Fry, Elizabeth, philanthropist . . ° ° 
—, Wm. Henry, composer and journalist . ° ° 
Fuller, Andrew, an eminent Baptist minister . . ° 
———, Richard, D. D., Baptist preacher and author — . ° 
———,, Sarah Margaret, Marchioness d’Ossoli, littératewr . 
——, Thomas, a divine and historian 4 4 a 
Fullerton, Lady Georgiana, novelist 5 ° ° 
Furetiére, Anthony, a philosopher . . ° 
Furness, William Henry, D. D., Unitarian preacher and euinee 
Furst, Julius, orientalist and Piiligioptat ° “ ; 


Fuseli, Henry, painter and writeronart , e e 


— or 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 


G 

BATION, NAME AND PROFESSION, 
Amer. Gadsden, Christopher, revolutionary statesman ’ 
Amer. - , James, statesman and negotiator ° 
Eng. Gage, Thomas, last royal governor of Saaesabunatcs ° ° 
Fr. Gagnier, John, an orientalist and author . ° ° 
Hrs Gail, J. B., philologist $ - ° ° ° 
Fr, Gaillard, Gabriel Henry, miscellaneous writer and historian 
Amer, Gaines, Major-General E. P., military commander ° ° 
Rom, Gaius, or Caius, jurist and legal writer. ° ° 
Gr. Galen, Claudius, a celebrated physician é ° e 
En.Am.Gales, Joseph, founder of ‘ National Intelligencer ” ; 
Ital. Galileo, an illustrious philosopher and astronomer . 
Ger. Gall, John Joseph, a celebrated physiologist, and founder of ae 

science of phrenology ‘ ° ° ° 


Amer. Gallagher, William D., journalist and poet . 


8. Am. Gallatin, Albert, statesman, diplomatist, philologist, ani enna 


Amer, Gallaudet, Thomas H., founder of the first American asylum for 


deaf and dumb ; ° ° ° 
Russ. Gallitzin, the name of several dighingnisues princes . ° 
Russ. ————, Demetrius Aug.,a noble missionary priest ° 
Scot. Galt, J yin; novelist . ° . ° 


Ita. Galvani, Louis, a physician a guiatimartal philosopher, dis- 
coverer of galvanic electricity . 


Port. Gama, Vasco, navigator, first who doubled ite rags of Bom Hope 


Eng. Gell, Sir William, scholar and antiquary (Pomme and Parnes 
Ger. Gellert, Christian furchtegoit, a post and miscellaneous writer 
Rem. Gellius, Aulins, gra.nmarian . ° . 
Fr Genest, c: Gendt, dwar ©, diplomsnie: . . 


Jew. Gamaliel, a Pharisce, doctor of the law - z P 
Ger. Gans, Edward, jurist . e ° e ° 
Span. Garcia, Manuel, musical composer , A F re 
Span. Garcias-Lasso de la Vega, the prince of Spanish poetry ° 
Span. Garcilasso dela Vega, one of the conquerors of Peru . A 
Eng. Gardiner, Stephen, Roman Catholic prelate . ° 
Ital. Garibaldi, Giuseppe, patriotic general and leader : ~ 
Pre. Garnier, Count Germain, jurist . . F “ 
Eng. Garrick, David, a celebrated actor and dramatist a A 
Amer Garrison, William Lloyd, abolitionist politician : ° 
Eng. Garth, Sir Samuel, physician and poet > - 7 
Eng. Gascoigne, Sir William, the judge who imprisoned Henry, Prince 
of Wales, fora misdemeanor . ° . ° 
Eng. Gaskell, Elizabeth C:, novelist . 5 ° e ° 
Br. Gassendi, £eter, a pbtdbrated philosopner . ° ° 
Gaston de J*oix, duke of Nemours, general, A ° 
Amer. Gates, Horatio, a distinguished officer in the Revolution * 
Fr. “ Gavarni,” real name Sulpice Paul Chevalier, caricaturist . 
Eng. Gay, John,a popular poet . f - : . 
Fr. Gay-Lussac, N. F. chemist - ° - " 
Span. Gayangos, Pascal de, Oriental scholar and historian . f 
_Amer. Gayarre, Charles A., historian . < 


961 
BORN. DIED 
1724 180: 
1788 1858 
1787 
1672 1746 
1755 1829 
1728 1806 
1777 1849 
Ist cent 
131 
1786 
1564 1642 
1758 1828 
1808 
1761 i844 
1787 £851 
16th to 17th cent, 
1770 1840 
1779 1838 
1737 A79S 
1526 
8& 
1798 1841 
1779 183? 
1503 1434 
1554 
1483 1565 
1806 
1754 182] 
1716 17°59 
1805 
1718 
1350 1418 
1826 1865 
1692 1655 
1489 1512 
1728 1806 
1801 
1688 1782 
1778 1859 
1809 
1805 
17i7 1836 
1715 176$ 
A.D: 26 cent, 
1765 1834 


962 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS, 
NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION, 
Bar. Genghia-Khan, a celebrated conqueror A , 
Fr. Genlis, Stephania Félicité, Countess de, miscellaneous writer 
Eng. Geoffrey of Monmouth, an historian of the 12th century ° 
Kr. Geotfroy-Saint Hilaire Etienne, zoologist . % 5 
BS Gerando, Baron de, writer on education, &c. . . 5 
Fr. Gérard, Etienne Maurice, count, marshal of France ° 
Rom. Germanicus, Tiberius Drusus Caesar, military commander | 
Amer. Gerry, Elbridge, a distinguished patriot, vice-president U. 8. 
Fr. Gerson, John Charlier de, an ecclesiastic and author . 
Amer. Gerstacker, Fried, novelist and traveller : ° ° 
Ger. -iervinus, George Gottfried, historian and politician ° 
Ger.  esenius, Fred. Hein. William, orientalist and biblical critic . 
Swiss. Gessner, Conrad, an emivent naturalist . ° . 
Ger. , John Matthias, a philologist i ° ° 
Ital. Giannone, Peter, an historian : . ° ° 
Ame ‘zibbes, Robert Wilson, physician and author ° ° 
Eng. ‘Gibbon, Edward, one of the greatest of England’s historians 
Amer, Gibbs, Josiah W., philologist 3 - 
Amor. Gibson, Colonel John and Col. George, both officers in the Revo: 
lution . ° . ° ° ° ° 
Eng. » Thomas Milner, statesman ° ° ° 
Amer. Giddings, Joshua Reed, statesman ; ° ° e 
Eng. Gifford, William, a critic and poet : e ° 
Eng. -, John, an historical and political writer ° ° 
Ger. Gieseler, John K. L., church historian A ° ° 
HKng. Gilbert, James W., writer on banking : : . 
Hng. , Sir Humphrey, one of the earliest adventurers in Amer. 
Scot. Gilfillan, George, clergyman and author : ° ° 
Eng. Gill, John, a divine, oriental scholarand author . e 
Amer, Gillespie, Wim. M., professor and author on engineering ~ 4 
Scot. Gillies, John, ‘ History of Greece,’ &c. . © 
Amer. Gilman, John T., noted governor of New redhat e ° 
Amer. — openden. Unitarian clergyman and author . e 
Eng. Gilpin, Bakanka: ‘apostle of the North’ ‘ ° Sis 
Eng. , Wm., writer on the picturesque . ° e 
Eng. ‘ilray, James, engraver and caricaturist - ° ° 
Ital. (foberti, Vincenzo, philosopher, priest, and statesman e 
Ital. | Gioja, Melchior, writer on economical scieuces ° ° 
Sw. Am.Girard, Charles, naturalist : : . : 
Fr. Am, -, Stephen, merchant, banker, mitnonaire e e 
Fr. Girardin, Emil de, journalist 5 * : r 
Eng. Gladstone, Wm. Ewart, statesman and author ° e 
Eng. Glanvill, Joseph, divine, philosopher, and author . ° 
Eng. Gleig, Geo. Robt., clergyman and author : e e 
Welsh Glendower, Owen, chieftain ; 9 ¥ 
Eng. Gliddon, Geo, Robins, Egyptologist and Raehae e e 
Ger. Gluck, Christop W.von, musical composer ° ° 
Swe. Gmelin, John Frederick, chemist Ss 
Fr. Godfrey, of Bouillon, or Boulogne, a eaebente eet er in the 
Orusades : ° 
Amer. Godman, Jobn, M. D., a dictingitehod naturkiee ke. 4 
Eng. Godolphin, Sidney, aol of, statesman 2 ° ° 


BORN. 
1164 
1746 


1772 
1770 
1773 


1814 
1863 
1816 
1805 
1786 
1516 
1691 
1676 
1809 
1737 
1790 


1807 
1796 
1757 
1758 
1792 
1794 


1813 
1697 
1816 
1747 
1759 
1791 
1617 
1724 
1757 
1801 
1767 
1822 


1750° 


1802 
1809 
1636 
1796 
1349 
1809 
1714 
1748 


1794 
1640 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 


963 


NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. BORK, MED 
Span. Godoy, Manuel de, statesman, ‘ prince of the peace” ‘. 1767 1851 
Amer. Godwin, Parke, journalist and historian ° ° e 1816 
Eng. , William, novelist and metaphysician ‘ . 1755 1836 
Ger. Goethe, John Wolfgang, poet and novelist . . « 1749 1831 
{tal. Goldoni, Charles, the Italian Moliére ‘ . ° 1707 1793 
Irish. Goldsmith, Oliver, celebrated poet and miscellaneous writer . 1731 1774 
Dutch. Golius, James, orientalist and lexicographer e é 1596 1667 
Span. Gonsalvo, of Cordova, a celebrated warrior . « e 1443 1515 
Eng. Good, John Mason, physician and author . s . 1764 1827 
Amer. Goodrich, Chauncey A., scholar and divine . r - 1790 1860 
Amer. — , Frank B.,(son of Samuel G.,) author. A 1826 
Amer, , Samuel Griswold, ‘Peter Parley,’ voluminous author » 1793 1860 
Amer. Goodyear, Charles, inventor and India-rubber patentee - 1800 1863 
Scot. Gordon, ‘ lord George,’ political agitator , : « 1750 1793 
Eng. —, Wm., author of History of the United States ‘ 1730 1807 
Eng. Gore, Catharine G., novelist fs . « « — 1799 
Eng. Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, ‘lord proprietor of Maine’ ° 1647 
Hung. Gérgey, Arthur, general in the Revolution, (supposed traitor) . 1818 
Gr. Gorgias, an orator and sophist . ° f. B. o. Sth cent 
Russ. Gortchakoff, Michael, prince, general in Orinea, &o. ° * 1792 1861 
Russ , Alexander, prince, diplomatist ° . 1800 
Amer. Gorton, Brendel: enthusiast and author ° ° e 1600 1677 
En.Am. Gough, John B., lecturer on temperance . ° e 1817 
Trish » Hugh, viscount, general in India, &c. . ° ° 1779 
Amer. Gould, Augustus A., naturalist and physician ° ° 1805 
Amer. , Hannah F., poet F E ° (abt.) 1800 1865 
Eng. , John, naturalist and author “ ° e 1804 
A thie: Gourgaud, Gaspard, baron, one of Napoleon’s generals e 1783 1852 
Eng. Gower, John, one of the earliest English poets - 5 1402 
Rom. Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, a celebrated democrat ° B,C. 133 
Rom. , Caius Sempronius ; ° ; . B. 0. 121 
Ger. Graefe, < Graevius, an erudite classic writer . 1632 1708 
Scot, Grahame, John, viscount of Dundee, lord Grahame of Glaver. 

house, general . . A e ° e 1643 1689 
Scot. , dames, apoet . 4 ° . ° 1765 1811 
Scot. , James, author of * History of the United States’ Beavis 1842 
Fr. Grammont, Count Philibert, licentious author of ‘ Menoirs’ 1621 1707 
Fr. Grandville, J. 8, G., caricaturist and artist ‘. ° e 1803 1847 
Fr, Granier, Adolphe, journalist and historian ° . 1805 
Scot. Grant, Anne, (of Lagegan,) novelist, essayist, &c. ° . 1755 1838 
Scot. , James, journalist and author . ° ° 1806 
Scot , James, novelist 4 4 ° eit A822 
Span. Gicavulic. Ant, Pierre, cardinal de, a ateaetan . ° 1517 1586 
Eng. Granville, G. G. Leweson Gower, 2d earl of, statesman ° 1816 
Eng. , John Carteret, earl, statesman . ° x 1690 1793 
Ital. Gratian, a monk, compiler of the canon law “ ° f. 12th cent. 
Trish. Grattan, Henry, a distinguished orator and statesman , - 1750 182) 

—, Thomas Colley, novelist . ° ° 1796 1864 

Dutch. Gravesande, Wm. Jacob, a geometrician and philosopher é 1688 1749 
Amer. Gray, Asa, botanist, prof. in Harvard, author of ‘ Flora, &c, 1810 
Amer, , Henry Peters, painter. e e e 1819 
Eng. , John Edward, naturalist . ° ° ° (att. ) 1800 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


964 
RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 
Eng. Gray, Thomas, poet . 5 : 3 e 1716 
Amer, Graydon, Alex., author of ‘ Revolutionary Memoirs’ e 1752 
Amer. Greeley, Horace, journalist and politician : ° ot ASA 
Fr. Gregory I., the Great, pope, author f 544 
Ital. , VIL, the Great, pope Hildebrand, selene despot . 
Scot. ————, David, philosopher and mathematician . ° 1661 
Irishh -—————, George, D. D., miscellaneous writer . : e154 
Scot. , James, philosopher and mathematician . . 1648 
——-,, Nazianzen, St. Christian, writer ‘ e ° 328 
— of Nyssa, St. Christian, writer . . . 331 
Eng. , Olinthus, mathematician and religious writer oh « AE4 
Fr. wa ‘of Tours, historian $ k ° 544 
Amer. Green, Ashbel D. D., clergyman and eubhde = ° es > 
Amer » Horace, sun eintly author of medical works . 1802 
Amer, Gnetlile: Chas. G., journalist and politician ‘ r ° 1804 
Amer, -, Geo. Washington, scholar and critic . = 1811 
Eng. , Matthew, poet ° : e « 1696 
Amer » Nathaniel, maj. gen., distinguished in the Revolution 1741 
Amer, ———-, Nathaniel, author and journalist . . . 1797 
Eng. -, Robt., dramatist ° . . : 1560 
Amer. Greenhow, Robert, historical writer . e a 1800 
Amer, Greenleaf, Simon, jurist.and author ° e ° 1783 
Amer. Greenough, Horatio, sculptor and author “ ° e 1805 
Eng. Greville, Sir Fulke, (Lord Brooke), statesman and author . 1554 
Eng. Grey, Earl, statesman, whig premier for William IV. - 1764 
Eng. ——-, Lady Jane, the accomplished victim of another’s ambition 1537 
Ger. Griesbach, John James, an eminent theologian and philologist . 1745 
Amer. Griffin, Edward D., D. D., theologian = j . 1770 
Trish , Gerald, novelist 3 e e = « 1803 
Amer. Grimke, Thomas §., jurist ° > ° 3 1786 
Ger. Grimm, J. M. C., miscellaneous writer . . - 1785 
Amer. Griscom, John, educator, philanthropist . 1774 
Amer. Griswold, Alex, V., bishop Prot. Epis. Church, New England ; 1766 
Amer , Rufus Wilmot, author and critic 6 : 1815 
Dutch. Grdietins: James, an erudite critic . 4 : . 1645 
Eng. Grose, Francis, antiquary and author p . . 1731 
Amer. Gross, Samuel D., physician, surgeon, and author A ° 1805 
Eng. Grote, George, author of History of Greece : ‘ 1794 
Ger. Grotefend, G F., philologist é s P, Ps 1775 
Dutch. Grotius or DeGroot, Hugh, an eminent scholar s e 1583 
Fr. Grouchy, Emanuel, count, marshal of France . 1776 
Amer Grundy, Felix, senator of the U. 8. . e (Tenn.) 1777 
Ger. Gryph, Andrew, a dramatist Al j A 4 1616 
Ital Guarini, John Baptist, a poet e = e ' 1537 
Ger. Guericke, Otto, experimental philos., inventorof the air-pump . 1602 
Ital. | Guerrazi, Francesco D., author and politician ° ° 1805 
Ital. Gwuiceardini, Francis, an historian 4 : . 1482 
Fr. Guillotin, Joseph T.. benevolent physician, inventor of the guillotine 1738 
Fr. Guise, Charles of, cardinal, a bigoted and ambitious statesman 1525 
Fr. ———, Francis of Lorraine, duke of, celebrated warrior ° 1519 
Fr. —-——, Henry of Lorraine, duke of, an ambitious warrior . 1550 
Fr. Guizot, Francis, statesman, historian, and metaphysician , 1787 


1 
, 
; 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 


BATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. BORK. 
Nor. Gaiscard, Robert,a Norman warrior . ‘ ne 1016 
Eng. Gunter, Edmund, a mathematician, inventor of the Gunter scale 1581 
Eng. Gurney, Joseph John, philanthropist j (Soc. Friends) 1788 
Pol. Gurowsky, Adam de, count, publicist and author . : 1805 
Eng. Gurwood, John, Ool., editor of Wellington's Despatches « 1791 
Swe. Gustavus 1., (Gustavus Vasa) king of Sweden 4 ; 1496 
Swe. ————- il, Adolphus, king of Sweden ; able warrior é 1594 
Swe, III., king of Sweden ; ° ’ ° 1746 
Swe IV., Adolphus, king of Sweden : ° ° 1778 
Amer. Guthrie, James, secretary of the treasury to Pierce 1793 
Scot. ———,, William, author of a history of England, Scotland, “ke, 1708 
Ger. Gnttenberg, John, one of the inventors of printing : 1400 
Pruss. Gutzlaff, Charles, traveller and historian of China ; - 1803 
Fr. Guyon, Jeanne M., B., de la Motte, mystical teacher and writer 1648 
Eng. , Richard D., general in the service cof Hungary, &e. e 1813 
Sw.Am.Guyot, Arnold H., writer on physical geography . 3 1807 
Eng. Gwynn, Eleanor, (‘ Nell Gwynn’) mistress of Charles II. e 1650 
Hg. Au.Gyulai, Francis, count, commander of Austrian army in Italy 1798 
Eng. MHabington, Wm., pvet : . ° e ° 1605 
Amer. Hackett, Horatio B., biblical critic ° ° ° 1808 
Amer. ————, James H., actor Z 5 e ° e 1800 
Pers. Hafiz, Mohammed, the Anacreon of Persia ° ° 

Ger Hageubach, Karl L., ecclesiastical historian . 5 - 1801 
Ger. Hahn, August, theological writer . ° ° e 1807 
Ger, -, Simon Frederick, an historian . c ° ° 1692 
Ger. Hahveman, founder of ‘Homeopathy’ in medicine A 1755 
Ger. Hahn-Hahn, Ida, countess of, traveller and novelist ; : 1805 
Ing. Hakluyt, Richard, author of voyages, &c., of the English . 1553 
Scot, Haldane, Robert, philanthropist and theologian ° ° 1764 
Scot. Haldeman, §, S., naturalist and philologist ‘ ° 1812 
Amer. Hale, Benj., D.D., educator and author : e ° 1797 
Amer. , David, journalist, founder of N. Y. Journal of Commerce 1791 
Amer. ——-, Nathan, revolutionary patriot, executed as a spy ; 1758 
Amer. —-, eenhe. journalist, Boston Daily Advertiser ° « 1784 
Amer, ——-, Sarah J., poet and prose writer - o ° 1795 
Eng. —-, Sir Matthew, eminent and incorruptible judge . 5 1609 
Fr. Halévy, J. FH. C., musical composer : ¢ e 1799 
Eng. Halford, Sir Henry, physician and medieal writer e ° 1766 
Eng. Haliburton, Thos. C., humorous writer, ‘Sam Siick?® ° 1803 
Eng. Hall, Capt. Basil, author of Travels, &c. . ° e 1788 
Amer. ——, Gordon, first American missionary in Bombay ° 1784 
Amer. ——, James, jurist and author : : 2 e 1798 
Amer. ——, James, geologist and paleontologist . ° ° 1811 
Eng. —, Joseph, bishop of Norwich, theological author . | S574 
Eng. -——, Rey. Robert, theologian und pulpit orator . ° 1764 
Eng. Hallam, Henry, historian ; - pb ° A 1777 
Amer, Halleck, Fitz Greene, poet 5 ° : 1795 
Swiss Haller, Albert von, miscellaneous writer . . 1708 
Eng. Malley, Edmund, an eminent astror ymer and mathematician 1656 
Eng. Halliwell, James Orchard, archxologist and author . - 1820 
Scot. Halyburton, Thomas, theological writer . : ° 1674 
Carth. Hamilcar Rarca, a Carthaginian general : A ; 


965 


DIED. 
1088 
1619 
184 
1866 
1845 
1566 
1633 
1792 
1837 


1770 
1463 
1851 
1717 
1856 


1687 
"186¢ 
164 


1389 


1857 
1728 
1843 


1616 
1842 


1849 
1776 
1863 


167€ 
1862 
1844 
1865 
1844 
1826 


1656 
183] 
1859 


1771 
1741 


1713 
B. O. 229 


966 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. | 


NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN, DIEL 
Amer. Hamilton, Alexander, statesman, first secretary of treasury, U. 8. 1757 1804 
Trish. » Elizabeth, a talented miscellaneous writer . 1758 1816 
Amer, —————, James, statesman, U. 8. senator from South Carolina 1786 1857 
Scot. —————, Sir Wm., diplomatist and antiquary . : 1730 1804 
Scot. —m————,Sir Wm., metaphysician . i - - 1788 1856 
Trish, —————, Sir Wm. Rowan, mathematician and philosopher 1805 
Scot. ————, Thos., Capt., novelist, ‘Men and Mannersin America 1789 1842 
£ng. — , William Richard, archzologist . ° ° 1777 1859 | 
Ger. Hammer, Baron von, historian and orientalist. e o« 11% 1856 | 
Kng, Hammond, James, poet . x e 1710 1742 
Amer, ——, James H., U. 8. senator from South Carolina e 1807 
Eng. Himpntes John, a pate ited patriotic statesman P 1594 1643 
Amer. Hampton, Wade, general in revolution F ou AUTOS. 1835 
Amer. Haneock, John, a distinguished patriot, president of Congress 1787 1793 
Ger. Handel, Geo. Frederick, one of the greatest musical composers. 1684 1758 
Carth. Hannibal, or Annibal, general against Rome ° ° B. OC. 247 B. c. 183 
Carth. Hanno, navigator . : : : Ms . 8.0. 5th cent. 
-, the Great, general and statesman . P . B. C. 202 
Nor. Hanstein, G.. mathematician and astronomer . e 5 1784 
Amer, Harbaugh, Henry, author of religious works e ‘ 1817 
Ger. Hardenbergh, Karl A. von, statesman 2 < : 1750 1822 
Amer. Harding, Chester, portrait painter 5 ° 1792 1866 
Eng. —, James D., artist and authoronart . : - 1798 1863 
Eng. Hardinge, Henry, viscount, general and governor-general of India 1785 1856 
Eng. Hardwicke, Charles, theological writer : ‘ F 1821 1859 
Eng. Hare, Julius Charles, archdeacon, theological writer . . 1795 1855 
Eng. » Robert, chemist and physicist - - “ 1781 1858 
Amer. Harlan, Richard, M., D., naturalist ; . * e 1796 1843 
Eng. Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, celebrated statesman e 1661 1724 
Sar. Haroun Al Raschid, caliph, a patron of learning 808 
Amer. Harper, James, John, J. Wesley, and Fletcher, publishers ieee 1795, °7, 1801,4 
Eng. Harrington, James, political writer . ° . ° 1611 1677 
Eng. Harriott, Thos., mathematician and voyager to Virginia , 1560 1621 
Eng. Harris, James, compiler of the first Cyclopedia, &e, . e 1670 1719 
Eng. , John, theological writer . : ° ° 1804 1856 
Amer, ait cages Wm.,, naturalist , é eiiriet iGO 1856 
Amer Harri ves Gen. Wm. H., military commander and preskiont U.S. . 1778 1841 
Amer, Harvard, John, founder of Harvard College . ae 1688 
Eng. Harvey, William, discoverer of the circulation of the blood 1569 * 1658 
Ger. Hase, Henry, classical antiquary a ; ‘ ° 1789 1842 
Ger. ——-, Karl Aug., theological author 4 aie - 1800 
Ger. Hassenclever, John Peter, painter (Dusseldorf school) . - 1810 1853 
Eng. Haslam, John, writer on insanity . ‘; ° ‘ 1764 1844 
Eng. Hastings, marquis of, military commander . e Pp Naya ts* | 1825 
Eng. —-, Warren, governor-general of British India . 1733 1819 
Ger. Hauser, Casper, a mysterious ‘‘ wild boy ” : = A 1833 
Fr, Haussez, Baron, minister of Charles X., traveller . e 1778 
Eng. Hatton, Sir Christopher, lord chancellor _ s 1591 
Fr. Hany, René Just, mineralogist ° ° e 1742 1822 
Eng. Havelock, Henry, general in India e e ° 1795 1857 
Amer. Haven, Alice B., author of juvenile books ‘ e : 1828 1866 


Er & Haviland, Jobr, architect 2 e ° ° 1792 1854 


WATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORK, 
Amer, Hawes, Joel, Congregational clergyman and author 3 » 1789 
Eng. Hawke, Edward, lord, a brave and successful admiral ° 1713 
Eng, Hawksworth, Dr. John, miscellaneous writer . . 1715 
Eng. Hawkins, Sir John, a navigator, originator of the slave nae 1520 
Eng. —, Sir John, author of ‘ History of Music, &. . oh L719 
Amer. Hawks, Francis Lister, Episcopal divine and historian ° 1798 
Amer. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, novelist : : e e 1804 
Ger. Haydn, Joseph, a celebrated musical composer ° e 1732 
Eng. Haydon, Benj. A., historical painter . e ° o RTS 
Amer. Hayes, Isaac, Arctic navigator and author A ; 

Eng. Hayley, William, a poet and miscellaneous writer : ° 1745 
Amer, Hayne, Robert Y., governor of South Carolina and senator U. 9, 1791 
Amer. Haynes, Lemuel, colored preacher and patriot ° : 1758 
Eng. Haywood, Abraham, translator of ‘Faust’ ° ° 1800 
Eng. Hazlitt, William, essayist and critic . ° ° e 1778 
Eng. Head, Sir Francis B., author of Travels, &a ° ° 1793 
Eng. ——-—-, Sir George, author of ‘Rome,’ &c. , ° e 1782 
Amer. Headley, Joel T., author of biographies and histories ° 1814 
Amer. Heath, Wm., major-general in the revolution, author of Memoirs 1737 
Eng. Heber, Reginald, a divine and poet . . e 1783 
Eng. ——-, Richard, bibliomaniac and book colleetor ° e «1778 
Ger. - Hecker, Fred. K. F., politician . ' - e 1811 
Amer. , Isaac F., Roman Catholic clergyman and author e 1819 
Eng. Heckwelder, John, Moravian missionary and author e 1743 
Ger. Hederick, Benjamin, a lexicographer e ° e «©: 1675 
Amer. Hedge, Fred. H., clergymanand author , 4 “ 1805 
Ger Hedwig, John, a physician and botanist ° e 1730 
Ger. Heeren, A. H. L., historian : ° : J 1760 
Ger. Hegel, G. W. F., metaphysician rine = - e 1770 
Ger. Heine, Henry, poet and liiléru‘eur e e ° 1799 
Ger Heineccius, Jno. G.. juridical author . e ° 1681 
Rom. Helena, St., wife of Constantius Chlorus,emperor . - 247 
Gr. Heliodorus (of Emessa) the first romance writer . fl. 4th cent 
Fr. Heloise, abbess of the Paraclete, famed for intrigue with Abelard 1101 
Eng. Helps, Arthur, essayist and dramatist 2 . 1817 
re Helvetius, Claude A., philosopher - a neh. 1715 
Ger. Helvicus, Christopher, a chronologist e ~ : 1581 
Eng. Hemans, Felicia D., poetess . - e . 1794 
Eng. MHenfey, Arthur, botanist : ° e 1800 
Ger. Hengstenberg, E. W., metaphysician, antiqaiars and abvectdcrars 1802 
Eng. Henley, John, Bcreritian and author, ‘orator Henley’ : 1692 
Flem. Hennepin, Louis, missionary and explorer of N. A. * 1640 
Eng. Henningsen, Chas. Fred., author and soldier Pi r 1815 
Fr. Henry IV., anable and popular monarch , : A 1553 
Amer, , Caleb 8. clergyman and author = 4 1804 
Amen » Joseph, bpbyeiaths: director of Smithsonian Institute 1797 
Amer , Matthew, author of ‘Comment. on the Bible’ , ‘ 1662 
Port. , the Navigator, prince, 8d sonofJohnI. , 1394 
Scot. ——, Robert, an historian ° ° ° « 1718 
Amer, ———, Patrick, an orator and patriot 4 5 1736 
Amer Hentz, Caroline Lee, novelist é ‘ F é 

Rom. UHeraclius (born in Cappadocia), emperor of the East m 575 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 


967 


DIET 


186} 
178° 
1778 
1595 
1789 
1866 
1862 
1809 
1849 


1820 
1835 
1834 


1830 
1855 


1814 
1826 
1833 


1823 
1748 


1799 
1842 
1831 
1856 
1741 

327 


1164 


1771 
1617 
1835 


1756 
1699 


1610 


1714 
1463 
1790 
1799 
1854 

641 


968 THE WORLD’s PROGRESS. 
RATION, NAME AND PROFESSION, BORK. DIED 
Gr. Heraclitus, a philosopher . é f. B. o. 504 
Kny. Herbert, Edward, Lord of Cherbury, dintcpmta and philosopher 1581 1648 
Eug. Herbert, George, clergyman and poet ° . . 1593 1632 
Eng.Am --, Henry Wm. novelist and miscellaneous author « 1807 1858 
Eng. —-——,, Sidvey, statesman ‘ ° . 1810 
Eng. ———, Wm., (8rd Earlof Pembroke) siete . - 1580 1630 
ing. —, Wm., dean of Manchester, poet and philosopher . 1778 1847 
Ger. Herder, 7 ohn odie, a philosophical writer . e ©1744 1803 
Scot. Heriot, George, goldsmith, founder of school ‘ e 1563 1624 
Ger, Hermann, Ch, F., philologist, ‘ History of Philosophy’ &c, » 1804 
Ger, — ,»J.G.J., philologist . iy ° ° 1772 1848 
Gr. Hermogenes, a rhetorician . . . ° - f. 180 
Amer. Herndon, Wm. L., naval commander and explorer e 1813 1859 
Herod, Agrippa I, King of Judea, (grandson of Herod the Great) B.c. 7 a.D. 44 
, the Great, King of the Jews : . ob) B.C 4 
Gr. _Herodian, an historian : of ocee i, e aae 
Gr. Herodotus, the earliest of the Greek bistirtaae whose works are 
extant . ° ° ° e ° B. 0. 484 
Bri Herold, L. G. F., musical composer ° e ° 1792 1833 
Span. Herrera, Anthony, an historian : e 2 5 1659 1625 
Mex. ————, Jose J. de, president of Mexico e ° ° 1851 
Eng. Herrick, Robert, poet - : : ° e ° 1591 1674 
Eng. Herschel, Caroline L., astronomer % ° ° 1750 1848 
Eng. ——, Sir William, one of the greatest of astronomers ‘ 17388 1822 
Jew.  Herschell, Dr. Solomon, chief rabbi of the Jews in England 1760 1842 
Eng. , Sir J. F. W., astronomer and natural philosopher , 
Eng. Hervey, Jarnes, a pious and amiable divine and writer e 1713 1758 
Eng. , Thomas K., poet and prose writer . e e 1799 1859 
Russ. Herzen, Alexander, publicist,editorand author . e 1812 
Gr. Hesiod, a poet, contemporary of Homer ; * f. B. ©. 907 
Ger. Heyne, C. G., a learned critic and writer . ~ fe 1729 181z 
Eng. Heywood, Thomas, humorist and dramatist . 5 5 JGR 
Eng. Hickes, George, a theologian and philologist : ‘ 1642 1715 
Amer. Hickok, Laurens P., metaphysical author é ° » 1798 
Amer. Hicks, Elias, preacher of the Society of Friends . e 1748 1830 
Amer. Hildreth, Richard, author of History of the United States 50) 41 80F 1863 
Fr. Hilaire, Geoff. St., naturalist - Fi ° 1772 1844 
Eng. Hill, Rowland, author of cheap postage in fhelind Z e «©1795. 
Eng. Hill, Rowland, Rey., eccentric clergyman . - ° 1744 1833 
Eng. —, Rowland, wiscontity general in Spain and at Waterloo of STIS 1842 
Eng. ——, Sir John, a botanist and multifarious writer . -e 1716 1775 
Amer, Hillard, George S., author and journalist ° . 4 1808 
Jew. Hillel, the elder, compiler ofthe Talmud , A eo: BO 
Amer. Hillhouse, James A., poet . ; e . e ,1789 1841 
Eng. Hind, John Russell, astronomer . 4 18238 
Eng. Hinton, John Howard, author of History of United States « 1800 
Gr. Hipparchus, astronomer . . e : : B. O. 2d cent 
Gr Hippocrates, the father of medicine . e ° B. 0. 460 
Hippolytus, Saint, ecclesiastical writer e A. D. 3d cent, 
Amer, Hitchcock, Edward, D. D., theologian and peoiceiee F -- 1708 
——, Roswell D., thecloeian orator, and patriot 
Eng. Hoadley, William, A colebratdd prelate and author ° « £676 116] 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 


RATION NAME AND PROFESSION, BORN, 
Amer. Hobart, John Henry, bishop of New York » * 1776 
Eng. Hobbes, Thomas, a philosopher and translator. ° 1588 
Eng. Hobhouse, Jobn Cam., Lord Broughton, author and statesman 1786 
Fr. Hoche, Lazarus, a military commander. m ° 1768 
aimer. Hodge, Charles, Rev., theological writer ‘ . 1797 
Amer, Hoe, Richard M., an inventor of printing presses . e 1812 
Swiss. Hofer, Andrew, a Tyrolian patriot . ° ° 1765 
Eng. Hofland, Barbara, novelist F e ° ° 1770 
Eng. Hoffman, David, lawyer and author . e A 1784 
Amer. Hoffman, Charles Fenno, poet and novelist fe n 1806 
Scot. Hogg, James, ‘the Ettrick Shepherd,’ poet. ° 1772 
‘Hung. Hohenlohe, prince of, prelate, and alleged miracle worker , 1793 
Dan. Holberg, Louis, baron de, an historian A F 1685 
Amer, Holbrook, John E., naturalist = ° - x 1795 
Eng. Holcroft, Thomas, a dramatist and miscellaneous writer 1744 
Eng. Hole, Matthew, writer on the Liturgy < K 1640 
Eng. Holingshed, chronicler J . ° 
Amer, Holland, JosiahG., journalist, poet aoa essayist . e 1819 
Eng. , Lord, statesman and litiérateur e ° 1773 
Eng. —, Philemon, atranslator . e ° 1551 
Amer, Hollis, pines, benefactor of Harvard College ° 1659 
Amer, , Thomas, philanthropist (life, 2 vols., 4to) . ° 1720 
Eng. Midian: James, a blind traveller and author . e 1787 
Amer, Holmes, Abiel, D. D., ‘ Annals of America’ - 1763 
Amer. -, Oliver Wendell, physician, poet and naeerish . 1809 
Eng. Holt, Sir John, lord chief justice ‘ ‘a 1642 
Amer. Holyoke, Edward Aug., physician and Detaralat ‘ 1728 
Scot. Home, Henry, Lord Kaimes, ‘ Criticism’ ‘ 7 1696 
Scot. , John, a divine, dramatist and historian z 1724 
Gr. Homer, the greatest of poets, supposed to have flourished . 0. 907 
Eng. Hone, Wm., author of ‘Every Day Book,’ and political works 1779 
Eng. Hood, Samuel, viscount, anavalofficer . ° ° 1724 
Eng. , Thomas, poet and humorist e 7 A 1798 
Dutch, Hoogvliet, Arnold, a poet - 4 ° a 1687 
Eng. Hook, Robert, a mathematician ° : A 1635 
Eng. , Theo. E., novelist and humorist . ° ° 1788 
Eng. Hooke, Nathaniel, author of a Roman history 3 1690 
Eng. Hooker, Joseph D., physician and botanist . - 1816 
Eng. , Richard, an eminent divine , i x 1553 
Eng. , Sir W. J., botanist B a Z ” 1785 
Eng. Hoole, John, a poet and translator 7 z 2 1717 
Eng. Hooper, John, one of the first Protestant martyrs . ° 1495 
Eng. Hope, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer, “Anastasius” , 1770 
Amer. Hopital, Michel de I’, chancellor of France : A 1505 
Amer. Hopkins, Ezek., first fereticaain U.8. Navy . 1718 
Amer. , John i, protestant episcopal bishop of Vt. ae Are 1792 
Amer. ——~—, ‘Mork, Margyinan and author F ° 1802 
Amer. ————, Samuel, an eminent divine and author ., - 1721 
Amer. —, Stephen, signer of the Declaration of Independence 1707 
Amer. Hopkinson, Francis, signer of the Dec. of Independence and author 1737 
Amer. , Joseph, jurist and statesman - : 1770 
Rom. Horace, Quintus Flaccus, eminent poet . 2 4 


969 


DIED. 
183¢ 
1797 


1797 


.816 
1844 
1854 


1835 
1849 
1754 


1809 
1730 
1582 


1840 
1636 
1731 
1774 
1857 
1837 


1709 
1829 
1782 
1808 


1842 
1816 
1845 
1763 
1702 
1841 
1763 


1600 
1865 
1803 
1555 
1831 
1578 
1802 


1803 
1788 
~791 
1842 


B.0.65 BO. Wf 


970 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 

NATICN NAME AND PROFESSION, EORN. DIED. 
Flem. Horn, Philip de Mont, count of, soldier and statesman ° 1622 1568 
Eng. Horne, George, a learned prelate, bishop of Norwich 1730 1792 
Eng, ——, Richard H., poet and essayist : e e =: 1808 

Eng. , Thomas Hartwell, biblical critic and historian 1780 1862 
fing. Horner, Francis, statesman and essayist : e +! OLS 1817 
Eng. , Leonard, geological writer . ° > se 1785 1864 
Eng. Horsley, Samuel, a prelate and mathematician e « 1736 1806 
Rom. Hortensius, Quintus, orator ° B. 0.114 Bo. 50 
Amer. Hosack, David, M. D., medical and scientific wilten ° o) “1769 1835 
Heb. Hosea, prophet . , ° ° ° ° 8th cent. B.C. 
Fr. Houdin, Robert, conjurer : ° e e e 1805 

Er, Houdon, Jean Antoine, sculptor . ° e ° 1741 1828 
Fr. Houssaye, Arséne, miscellaneous writer ° . ‘ 1815 

Amer. House, Samuel G., physician and philanthropist . - 1801 

Amer. Houston, Sam., general, govervor, and ex-governor of Texas 17938 1862 
Eng. Howard, John, acelebrated philanthropist ° e 1726 1790 
Amer. , John Eager, revolutionary soldier and stateamie ° 1752 1827 
Amer. Howe, Elias, jr., inventor of sewing machines ° e- «1810 

Eng. , Geo. Aug., general in colonial war . ° e 1724 1758 
Eng. ——-, Richard, lord, earl,admiral . ° e e 1725 1799 
Eng. ——--, Sir Wm., commander-in-chief in America. Ps 1814 
Eng. Howell, James, author of ‘Letters’ . ° e - 1596 1666 
Eng. Howitt, Mary (wife of Wm.), novelist and poet e ° 1804 

Eng. -, William, traveller, essayist, &c. ° : oo 91796 

Eng. Howley, William, archbis! op of Canterbury e e 1765 1848 
Eng. Hoyle, Edmund, writer on games ° e ° « 1672 1769 
Swiss. Huber, Francis, naturalist ‘ . ° ° 1750 1831 
Fr. Huc, Evariste R., Catholic missionary and author ° o lGI8 1860 
Eng. Hudson, Henry, discoverer of Hudson river 5 ° 1611 
Fr. Huet, Peter Daniel, an erudite prelate and author . é.FR1650 1721 
Ger. Hufeland, Chris. W., medical author 2 - 1762 1836 
Fr. Hugh Capet, founder of the Capetian line of Freeh kings e 946 996 
Trish-Am. Hughes, John, Catholic Archbishop N. Y. . ° 1798 1864 
Fr, Hugo, Victor M., novelist, poet, and statesman . : 1802 

Amer. Hull, Commodore Isaac, naval commander (Const. and Guer.), &c. 1774 1845 
Amer. ——-, Wm., general in War of 1812 . ° ° - 1753 1825 
Ger. Humboldt, Karl Wilhelm, baron, statesman and author é oS ISR 1835 
Pruss. —, F. H. A., baron, traveller, geographer, and nat, phil. 1769 1859 
Scot. Hume, David, an historian and philosopher , e « eae 1776 
Eng. , Jos., statesman and reformer 5 5 A 1777 1855 
Amer. Humphrey, Heman, theologianand author . Pa ‘ 1779 1859 
Amer. Humphreys, David, poet and diplomatist . A $ 1753 1818 
Hung. Hunniades, John, a celebrated warrior : é >) 2°1400 1456 
Amer. Hunt, Freeman, author and journalist . é is 1804 1858 
Eng. » James Henry Leigh, poet and essayist , e o 84 1859 
Eng. —-, Leigh, poet and essayist . ° e ° 1785 1859 
Amer. —~, Thomas 8., chemist and geologist ° .e 1826 

Scot. Hunter, John, surgeon and medical author ; A 1728 "1792 
Amer, , Robert M. T., U. 8. senator from Virginia : 1809 

Eng. Huntington, Selina, countess of, patron of Methodists . 1707 1791 
Eng. » Wm., Antinomian preacher : ‘ - 1744 1818 
Amé?. 


—---—-, Jeded. V., poet and novelist , ‘ ° 1815 


¢ 


ate 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 971 
ATION. NAME AND PROFESSION, BORN, DIED 
Amer, Huntington, Fred. D., clergyman and author , . sun 1819 
Eng. Hurd, Richard, bishop of Worcester, &e, ° . 17 1808 
Eng. Huskisson, Rohon William, able statesman , ; a 1769 1830 
Ger. Huss, John, the great Bohemian reformer A i 1876 1416 
Trish. Hutcheson, Francis, a philosophical writer , : A 1694 1747 
Amer, Hutchinson, Anne, founder of N. E, Antinomians . A 1643 
Eng. , John, Colonel (Life by his widow) ns : 1617 1664 
Amer. ——, Thomas, a distinguished gov. of Mass. and historian 1711 178¢ 
Ger. THutten, Ulrich von, scholar and reformer “ z . 1488 1523 
Eng. Hutton, Charles, an eminent mathematician A e, 1737 1823 
Scot, , James, a geologist and philosopher , ii - 1726 1797 
Dutch. Huygens, Christian, a scientific author : . E 1629 1705 
Fr. Hyde de N euville, F. G., baron de, politician , 4 . 1776 1857 
Ind. Hyder Ali, a celebrated warrior s y x 1717 1782 
Gr. Hypatia, Neo, Platonic philosopher , 4 ‘ : 370 416 
Jew. MHyrcanur J. and IL, high priests ° ° e 1st and 2d cent. 
I 
Iamblichus, Neo, Platonic philosopher ; . a A. D. 4th cent. 
Turk. Ibrahim Pasha, viceroy of Egypt ; . . * 1789 1848 
Gr. Ibycus, a lyric poet 5 ‘ f.B.0. 650 
Span. Ignatius de Loyola, the founder of the J eanite. ° ‘ 1491 1556 
—, Saint, primitive father of the church ° “ 107 
—,S8t., patriarch of Constantinople . e ° 779 877 
Eng. Inchbald, Elizabeth, dramatist and novelist : ° - 1756 1821 
Port. Inez de Castro, queen of Portugal ° e e 1855 
Amer. Ingersoll, Charles J., statesman and historian ° e 1782 1862 
Amer, -—, Joseph R., statesman and lawyer e ° 1786 
Scot. Inglis, Henry D., traveller and author e e “ 1795 1835 
Eng. Ingram, Rev. Dr. James, Saxon scholar , ° e 1774 1850 
Ame. Inman, Henry, portrait and landscape painter ° e 1801 1846 
4A.mer, -, John, journalist and littérateur « ° ° 1856 
Innocent, the name of thirteen popes . ° ° ° 402 to 1687 
Ireneus, saint, a Gallic bishop, and author ° . 2d cent. 
Eng. Ireland, Samuel ‘Picturesque Tour’ , ° e 1750 1800 
Eng. , W. H., author of the ‘ Shakespeare Moryerica’ < 1777 1835 
Gr. Irene, a By Beetirie empress . ° a ° e 752 803 
Eng. _Ireton, Henry, son-in-law of Cromwell, and one of his generals 1610 1653 
Amer, Irving, John Treat, author of travels and novels e ©) yt 810 
Amer, , Peter, author (brother of Washington) ° ° 1771 1838 
Scot. , Rey. Edward, theological writer 3 e - 1792 1834 
Amer. ——, Theodore, author of ‘ Conquest of Florida’ ° 1809 
Amer, ——, Washington, historian and essayist e 9 1783 1859 
Amer, , William, one of the authors of Salmagundi . 7 1766 1821 
Span. Isabella, the Catholic, queen of Spain, patron of Columbus - 1451 1504 
Span II., queen of Spain ° ‘ ° . 1830 
Gr. Iszeus, an orator e ° ° ° B®. 0, 418 
Heb. Isaiah, the greatest of the Hehtawe prophets e ‘. B. 0. (vbt) 800 
Fr. Isambert, Franc A., politician and jurist ° ° pete arf. 1857 
Gr. Isocrates, an orator . ° ° € B, O. 486 
Span. Iturbide, emperor of Mexico ° e » 1784 1824 


972 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 


NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED 
Amer. Ives, Levi S., ex-protestant episcopal bishop of North Carolina 1797 
Amer. Izard, Ralph statesman (of South Carolina) . e » 1742 1804 
a 
Amer. Jackson, Charles T., chemist, mineralogist, geologist, e 1805 
Amer. —————,, James, eminent physician . s pn ie keira 
Amer. ————, Gen. Andrew, military commander, preditent U.S. 1767 1845 
Amer. ————, Patrick T., eminent merchant ° ° » 1780 1847 
Amer, ————-, Thomas Jonathan (‘ Stonewall’), rebel general. 1826 1862 
Eng. ————, William (‘ of Exeter’) musical composer e mess be 1803 
Heb. Jacob, the Patriarch : ° ° ° e 8B. 0. 1836 B. Oo. 1689 
Ger. Jacobi, Fred. H., philosopher, novelist, &c. . ° e 1743 1819 
Ger. Jacobs, Fred., classical philologist ° ° e 1764 1847 
Fr. Jacotot, Jean J., educational writer . ° ° ° 1770 1840 
Er; Jacquard, Jos. M., inventor of the Jacquard loom . ° 1752 1834 
Fr. Jacquemont, Victor, traveller and naturalist . ° « a80L 1832 
Dutch. Jacquin, Nicholas Joseph, a botanist ° e ° 1727 1817 
Ger. Jahn, John, an eminent oriental scholar ° ° » 1759 1817 
Eng. James, G. P. R., novelist and historian . ° ° 1801 1860 
Amer, » Henry, phiisenphienas writer e sy ae OLE 
Amer, , John Angell, congregational clergyman ata author 1785 1859 
——, St., the Elder, apostle ° ° ° e 44? 
, St., the Less, a : 7 4 66? 
Engz J acer Anne, essayist and ee, on art e ° ea eee 1860 
Scot. ————, Robert, naturalist and author . ° ° 1774 1854 
Pers. Jami, or Djami, poet A olds 7 . 1414 1492 
Scot. Jamieson, John, D. D., mvapartadiodus author e e 1759 18388 
Fr. Janin, Jules, Zittérateur $ : ° ; ° 1804 
Dutch. Jansen, Cornelius, founder of a sect : . ° 1585 1638 
Ital. Januarius, patron saint of Naples ° . . « © 272 805 
Amer, Jarves, James J., traveller and author S e e 1818 
Amer, Jarvis, Samuel F., D. D., historian and theologist 5 pay Wet 1851 
Fr, Jasmin, Jaques, barber-poet ; : ri ° 1798 1864 
Amer, Jasper, William, heroic soldier of the Revolution s - 1750 1779 
Amer. , John, a distinguished patriot and statesman e 1745 1829 
Amer. Jay, William, judge, anti-slavery philanthropist 5 1779 1858 
Eng. ——, Wiliam, D. D., religious writer ° ° ° 1769 1853 
Fr. Jeanne d’Are, ‘ Maid of Orleans,’ heroine 2 4 ° 1412 1431 
Ger. Jean, Paul, see Richter, novelist and metaphysician A 17638 1825 
Trish, Jebb, John, Bishop of Limerick, theological writer : . 1786 1775 
Amer. Jefferson, Thomas, a patriotic statesman, 3d pres. of the U. 8. 1743 1826 
Scot. Jeffrey, Francis, lord, essayist and critic ° . es bt 1850 
Eng. Jeffreys, George, infamous judge . ; 1648 1689 
Hind. Jejeebhoy, Sir Jamsetjee, Parsee merchant and phitannRepiee - 1783 1859 
Aust. Jellachich, de Buzim, baron, ban of Croatia ‘ « 1801 1859 
Eng. Jenkinson, B. B., earl of Liverpool, premier , ° : 1770 1828 
Eng. Jenkyns, William, non-conformist (‘on Jude’) . . 1612 1685 
Eng. Jenner, Edward, introducer of the vaccine innoculaticn e 1749 1823 
Eng. Jenyns, Soame, poet and miscellanoous writer ° 1704 1787 
Scot. Jerdan, William, journalist . A A 1782 


Heb. Jeremiah, prophet ; 5 ° e . B. 0, 678 57¢@ 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 


RATION NAME AND PROFESSION, 


BURN. 
Jerome, St, one of thefathers ofthe church . . ° 

Ger. —, of Prague, reformer, companion of Huss , A 
Eng. Jerrold, Douglas, essayist : : - Pee Me iy 
Eng Jervis, sir Jolin, earl St. Vincent, ween 4 1774 
Eng. Jewell Jobn, learned prelate and author ° a a...) . 1822 
Eng, Jewsbury, Maria J., essayist ; ; A p 
Fr, Joan of Are, ‘the greatest of heroines? 4 ‘ - 1410 
Ital. Joanna, queen of Naples . ° e ° 
Heb, Joel, the prophet. : ° e A f. B. co. 800 
Hol. Johannes Secundus (Johannes Everard), poet i ° 1511 
Fr. Johannot, Tony, artist and designer . ° e e 1803 
Heb. John, the Evangelist ; e ° e 
Eng. , of Gaunt (or Ghent), duke of Lancaster ise Ae 621) 
Ger. , king of Saxony and author ° FA 1801 
Poh ——-, III., Sobieski, king of Poland, and Panerai > e 1629 
Eng. —-, Edward, historian of N. England ., ° ° 1600 
Eng. J Piisont Samuel, a divine and writer ia the cause of liberty . 1649 
Eng. ———, Samuel, ‘ the Colossus of English literature’ : 1709 
Amer. ————, Alex. B., philologist and miscellaneous writer » 1786 
Amer. ————, Andrew, president U. 8. oes ° e 1808 
Amer. ———, Reverdy, jurist and statesman ; ° 1796 
Amer. ———,, Richard M., general and statesman, vice-president U. g, 1780 
Amer. ———,, Samuel, first president Columbia College and author . 1696 
Amer. ————, Walter R.. physicist ° 1794 
Tr. Amer, Johnson, Sir William, general and governor in N orth Portes 1715 
Amer. Johnston, Albert Sydney, rebel general . a ° 1803 
Scot, ————, Alex, K., geographer e ° ° ° 1804 
Bcot. ———,, George, writer and naturalist rs 1798 
Scot. ———-, James F. W., chronicler and ecranrel author e 1796 
Fr. Poi iytlisy Jean, sire de, chronicler 3 ‘ e 1224 
Fr. ———, Frangois, prince de, third son of Louis Philippe - 1818 
Fr.Am. Jolliet, Louis, one of the discoverers of the Mississippi ° 
Ital. Jomelli, Nicholas, dramatic and musical composer ° Bian g | 
Swiss. Jomini, Henry, baron de, military writer , Q e 1775 
Heb. Jonah, the prophet P : . 4 a 
Amer. Jones, Anson, last president of the republic of Texas “ 1798 
Eng. , Lnigo, an eminent architect 5 P! - A 1572 
Amer. , Jacob, commodore in the U. 8, navy 5 1770 
Scot. , John Paul, captain in the navy of the United States e 17386 
Eng. ——~, Owen, architect and decorator p 8 i. 1809 
kng. ——, Thomas Rymer, writer on anatomy and physiology c 1810 
Eng. ——-, Sir William, an eminent poet, scholar, and lawyer . 1746 
Eng. , Rev. William, ‘ of Nayland,’ Hutchinsonian divine * 1726 
Eng. , William, divine and author é : ° 1726 
Eng. Jonson, Benjamin, celebrated poet and dramatist x B 1574 
Icel. Jonsson, Finnur, Icelandic historian P e m 1704 
Trish. Jordan, Dorothy, actress, mistress of William IV. ° Pee WY: 
Dan. Jorgenson, Jorgen, adventurer and author ° e 1779 
Eng. Jortin, Dr. John, learned theologian and author es e 1698 
‘Fr. Josephine, empress of the French (born in Martinico) ° 1761 
Jew. Josephus, celebrated historian and warrior . - se 37 
Heb, Joshua, successor of Moses as leader of the Israelites 5 


O74 


NAT.UN 
Heb. 
Heb. 
Br, 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 


NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 
Josiah, 17th king of Judah . ‘ e e B. 0. 645 
Jotham, king of Judah . . . ° «—-«B. 0. 783 
Jouffro7, Theo. 8., metaphysician and statesman _ ° e 1796 
Jourdan J. B., marshal of France ° ° ° 1762 
Jovianus, Flavius C., emperor ° e ° 
Juan, or Jobn, of Austria, don, warrior , Fs . 1546 
Juarez, Benito, statesman and president " ° > _ 2807 
Juba, king of Numidia . . e e 
, king of Mauritania and hissartan ° ° ° 
J inh, Hakkadosch, famous rabbi and Talmudist ° e 129 
Judas Maceabeus, patriot 7 ° . 
Judd, Sylvester, author of ‘ Marre! ee ° * 1813 
. dudson, Adoniram, missionary in India ° o - 1788 
, Ann Hazeltine, first wife of the above ° 1789 
» Emily Chubbuek, third wife of above, and alae 
& Tahiey Forester ’) : ° ° - 1817 
» Sarah Boardman, seeond wife of above ° e 1803 
duel, Nicholas, celebrated admiral . » ° - 1629 
Jugurtha, Numidian king 5 : és 
Julian, Flavius Claudius, Roman emperor and author, ‘ Apos- 
tate? .. : “ ‘ ° ° ° 331 
Julien, A. d., orientalist ; ‘ ° ° 1799 
Jullien, Louis G., musical composer, &c. ° ° e 1812 
Jung-Bahadoor, prime minister of Nepaul . ° + 1816 
Junge, Joachim, philosopher 3 * e @ hs  hOST 
Jung-Stilling, John H., mystie author ’ e ° 1740 
. Junius, Adrian, voluminous writer . ° e 1512 
Junot, Andoche, duke d’Abrantes, military Ne ee A 1771 
, Madame, duchess d’Abrantes, biography, &c. . e 1784 
Jussieu, A, L. de, botanist 5 " e 1748 
Justin Flavius, A. J. ‘ the Elder,’ feat emperor . . 450 
, Latin historian . s e fz. c. 200 
, Martyr, one of the fathers of the aeerer “ ° 91 
J iinians Fiavius A, J., ‘the Byzantine’ emperor e 482 
Juvenal, Decius Junius, the most vehement of satirists ° 
K 
Kaempfer, naturalist, traveller and historian ° ° 1651 
Kaestner, Abraham Gothelf, mathematician and astronomer , 1719 
Kalb, baron de, who generously aided the American cause 1717 
Kalm, Peter, traveller and botanist . ° 1715 
Kamehameha (or Famehameha) L first king of the Shapes. 
Islands . « (abt) 1800 
—— pals Ging, introduced Christianity . ° 1824 
——-—, III. introduced Constitution . 9 1817 
, LV. (Alex. Liholiho) A ° 1834 
Kames, Henry Home, lord, judge and author s 1596 
. Kane, Elisha Kent, arctic explorer and author e ° 1820 
Kant, Emanuel, metaphysician « 1724 
Karasmin, Nicholas M. sictorinora vier of the emp ne . 1765 
Karr, J. B Alphonse, miscellaneous author . e e «=: 1808 


DIED, 
B. 0, 608 
B. 0. 743 
1842 
1833 

364 

1578 


B, 0. 46 
B. 6. 18 
194 

B. O. 160 
1853 
1850 
1826 


1854 
1845 
1697 
B. 0. 106 


363 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 


NAME AND PROFESSION. 
Kater, Henry, mathematician , e . ° 
Kavanagh, Julia, novelist . ° ° e ° 
Kean, Charles John, actor ° ° e wt 
, Edmund, tragedian . - 2 - : 
» Hilen Tree, wife of C. J. Kean, actress . ° 
Kearny, Philip, Union general in war against rebellion ° 
Keats, John, a poet : ; e ° A 
Keble, John, divine and poet . ° ° : ° 
Keightley, Thos., miscellaneous author , ° “ 
Keith, Geo. K. Elphinston,admiral . a é 
, Jaies, an officer in the Russian and Prussian service 
» Thos., mathematician, (‘ Use of Globes ’) ° ° 
Kellerman, Frank ©., duke of Valmy, general - . 
————,, Franc Iitienne, son of above, general ° ° 
Kelly, Michael, composer and singer . ° ° 
Kemble, Charles, actor : : ° e ° 
——, Frances Aune, actress and author 3 i 
——, John M., scholar and historian 3 : 4 
, John Philip, celebrated tragedian F . 
Kemfelen, Wolfgang, baron, author of the automaton chess-player 


Eng. Kempis, Thomas 4, supposed author of the ‘Imitation of Christ? 
Eng. Ken, Thos., bishop of Bath and Wells, theological writer ° 
Ames, Kendall, Amos, statesman and author A ° : 
Amer, —, George W., journalist and author . é 5 
Amer, Kendrick Asahel C., Greek scholar and author - 4 
Scot. Kennedy, Grace, writer, (Father Clement) . ° ° 
Amer, Kennedy, John Pendleton, statesman ard novelist . ° 
Hng. Kennet, White, learned prelate and author ° = ° 
Eng. - Kennicott, Benjamin, a divine and Biblical critic , e 
fr.-Am.Kenrick, Francis P., Catholic prelate and author e e 
Kent, Edward, Aug., duke of, father of Queen Victoria ., 
Amer , James, jurist, chancellor of New York . e e 
Amer. » William, judge, esteemed jurist . ° ° 
Eng. Kenyon, Lloyd, lord, jurist . ° e ° e 
ing = — , John, poet ; ° ° ° ° 
Ger. Kepler, John, eminent astronomer. e ° ° 
Eng. Keppel, Aug., viscount, admiral . ° : ° 
Scot. Kerr, Rebert, miscellaneous writer . ° ° 
Amer. Key, Francis §S., author of ‘Star Spangled Barner ° 
Eng. Kidd, Wm., oled pirate, executed . . ° ° 
Eng. Killigrew, Henry, dramatist 2 ° ° 
Scot, Kilmarnock, Wm. 4th, earl, Jacobite, wenedade : ° 
Amer. Kimball, Richard B., author : : : - 
Amer. King, John A., ex-governor of New York ° 3 é 
Amer, ——-, Rufus, statesman and diplomatist . : A 
Amer, ——, Thomas §8tarr, author , . ° e / 
Amer, ——, William R., diplomatist, senator, and vice-president . 
Eng. Kinglake, Alex. Wm., M. F., author of ‘Hothen’ 3 
frish. Kingsborough, Lord, patron of great work on Mexican autiquities 
Eng. Kingsley, Charles, clergyman, novelist and poet 4 
Amer. Kip, Wm. Ingraham, Prot. Epis. bishop and author + 
Amer Kirkland, Caroline M. author of travels and essays , A 


BORN 
1777 
1824 
1811 
1787 
1805 
1815 
1796 
1790 
1800 
1746 
1696 
1759 
1735 
1770 
1762 
1775 
1811 
1807 
1757 
1754 
1380 
1637 
1789 
1810 
1809 
1782 
1795 
1660 
1718 
1797 
1767 
1763 


1732 
1783 
1571 
1726 


1779 


1612 
1702 
1818 
1789 
1755 
1824 
1786 
1802 
1795 
1819 
1811 


976 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. BCEN. DIEB 
Eng. Kitchine,William, writer on Cookery - : ° 1821 
Eng.  Kitto, John, biblical scholar and author ; ° 1804 1864 
Hung. Klapka, George, patriot, soldler and author ° ° 1820 
Pruss. Klaproth, Henry J., philologist and ethnologist “ 1784 1838 
Fr. Kleber, John Baptist, military officer ° e ° 1754 1806 
Ger. Klopstock, the ‘ Milton of Germany’ . ° : 1724 318038 
Ger. Knapp, Geo. Christ. theologian 3 As ° 17538 1826 
Ainer, -, Samuel .L., miscellaneous writer ° we Pees bf 1838 
Eng. Knight, Charles, publisher, editor, and author ° ° 1791 
Eng. -, Richard Payne, miscellaneous writer . - ° 1750 1824 
Trish. Knowles, Jas. Sheridan, dramatic author and actor . 784 1862 
Eng. Knox, Dr. Vicesimus, divine and miscellaneous author e 1752 1821 
Amer. , Henry, military officer and statesman ° ° 1750 1806 
Ger. Knyphausen, baron, general in British service ° A 1780 1789 
Ger. Koch, Christopher William, historian . > ° 1737 1812 
Fr. Kock, Charles Paul de, novelist and dramatist A i 1794 
Ger. Kohl, Johann George, traveller and author . ° ° 1808 
Dan. Koppen, Adolph Louis, historical writer and lecturer Ss 1804 
Ger. Korner, or Koerner, Charles T., poet . 1791 1813 
Pol. Kosciusko, Thaddeus, warrior and pxtriot, served in the ine 
ean army during the Revolution A a x 1746 1817 
Hung. Kossuth, Lajos (Louis), late governor of Hungary e e 1802 
Ger. Kotzebue, Augustus Frederick Fer. von, historian, &c. 1761 1819 
Hung. Kraitsir, Charles, philologist A 4 A e 1804 1860 
Pol. Krasinski, Valerian, count, author ° ° e 1780 1855 
Ger. Krummacher, Fred, Adolph., poet and theologian ° «. A108 1845 
Ger. , Fred. William, religious writer ° ° 
2uss. Krusenstern, Adam Jean, navigator . e A . 1770 1846 
Ger. Kugler, Franz Theodore, writer on art, &c. ° ° 1808 1858 
Ger. Kuhnoel, Christ. F., critic . . ° e e 768 1842 
Ger. Kunth, Charles 8., botanist ° A ° 6 1788 
Russ. Kutusoft, Michael L. G., field-marshal : A s 6 1745 1813 
Le 
Fr. Labat, Jean B., missionary and historian ° ° e 1663 1738 
Ital. Lablache, Luigi, renowned voealist ‘ ss rele 1794 1858 
Eng. lLaboucheré, Henry, Baron Taunton, statesman 3 2 1798 
Fr. Laborde, A. L. G., comte de, traveller, &c. - = 1774 1842 
Fr. Labruyére, see Bruyéere : fi 3 * 
Fr. Lacépéde, Bernard G. 8. Delaville, count de, naturalist ° 1756 1826 
Fr. Lacordaire, Jean B. H., Catholic theologian and author A 1802 
Fr. Lacretelle, Charles, traveller and littérateur ‘ a 1766 
Fr. Lacroix, Sylvestre F., mathematician « 1765 
Lactantius, a father of the Church styled the Christian One 
Rom, Laelius, Caius, publicist, tribune, pretorandconsul . B. p. 186 8. 3. 115 
Fr Laennel, an eminent physician , ° S 1782 
Fr. Lafarge, Marie C., notorious as a poisoner : . e 1816 
Fr. La Fayette, G. M., marquis, &c., military commandcr and states- 
man ° e ° . ° e ° 1757 
Fr, , George W., statesman 2 cs Be 
Fr. Lafitte, Jacques, wealthy banker and statesman = e L768 


Wr. ———-, Jean, corsair, privateer, or pirate ° e 178) P 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 


NAME AND PROFESSION. 

La Fontaine, Aug. J. H., author of 200 volumes miscellaneous 
Lafontaine, Jean de, an inimitable fabulist e 
Lagrange, Joseph Louis, able mathematician . 4 
La Guéronnieré, Louis E, A., viscount de, publicist 
Laharpe, John Francis de, dramatist, re &e, 
Laing, Malcolm, historian 
Lalande, Joseph J. le Francis de, Ms onomer 
Lamar, Mirabeau B., second president of the republic of Texas 
Lamarck, J. B. A. P., naturalist ; 
Lamarque, Maxim., general of the revolution of 1789 : 
Lamartine, Alphonse de, poet, historian, traveller, and states- 

man . Eth ° 


Lamb, Charles, poet and essayist . ° - A 
, Lady Caroline, novelist 4 F . ‘ 
Lamballe, Marie, princess of, victim of the revolution e 
Lambert, A. B., botanist A ° : ; A 
» Daniel, noted for corpulency, 789 pounds ° 
Lammenais, F. R., abbé de, theological and political writer ° 
Lamoriciére, Christ. L. J. de, general : J . 
Lamotte Fouqué, Fred., baron de, novelist ‘ Undine? e 
Lancaster, Joseph, founder of system of education , 7 
Lander, Fred. W., military officer (k. at Ball’s Bluff) . 4 
, Richard and John, travellers in Africa 4 “ 
Landon, ©. P., author of works on the fine arts 4 a 
» (Maclean), Letitia E., poet and novelist , ° 
Landor, Walter Savage, poet and essayist f ; 3 
Landseer, John, engraver and author ; . 
Lane, Edw. Wm., orientalist, author of ‘Modern Bey plans,” &c, 
, James, fecal, U.S. senator for Oregon . . 
Taras! commentator on scripture : is A i 
Langdon, gov. New Hampshire, U. 8. senator ° A 
Langfrane, learned archbishop of Canterbury . e A 
Langhorne, John, miscellaneous author , - 
Langton, Stephen, cardinal and archbishop of Canterbury ° 
Lannes, Jean, duke of Montebello, marshal of France e 
Lansdowne, Henry Petty, marquis of, president of Council 4 
» William Petty, marquis of, premier . ° 
Lanzi, Luigi, writeron art . ; A : 5 
La Pérouse, Jean F., count, navigator 2 3 ; 
Laplace, Peter Simon, marquis of, eminent astronomer and geo- 
metrician : e ° ° ° 
Lappenberg, Johann M., Hiioridn 4 ° ° 
Lardner, Dionysius, iter on physical science A 3 
, Nathaniel, a learned dissenting divine . . 
Larrey, Dominique J., barou, surgeon and author F f 
La Salle, Robt. C., sieur de, navigator and author , e 
Las Casas, Barth de, missionary and historian . 5 
— , biographer of Napoleon, &c. : 2 + 
Lassen, Chris., oriental philologist and historian m5 
Latimer, Hugh, a prelate, martyred for being a reformer 
Latham, Jobn, ornithologist . ‘ : 


— ——, Robert G., prilologist and dno logtat : 


978 


NATION, 


Eng. 
Scot. 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Fr. 
Fr. 
Swiss, 
Ris5 
Scot. 
Eng. 
Atoer 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Amer, 
Fr. 
Swiss. 
Amer, 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Fr. 
Amer, 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Fr. 
Amer. 
Fr. 
Amer, 
Ger. 
Eng. 
ling. 


Scotch, 


Amer. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Trish. 
Pol, 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS, 


NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN, 
Laud, William, prelate, famed for his tyranny and superstition . 1573 
Lauder, Sir Thos. Dick, writer on Natural History ° 1784 
Laurens, John, lieutenant colonel in Revolutionary war - 1756 
, Henry, patriot and statesman 4 ° ° 1724 
Lavaiette, M. C., count de, military commander e o,f, blo 
La Valliere, F. L., duchesse de, mistress of Louis XIV ° 1644 
Lavater, John Caspar, celebrated physiognomist e « 1741 
Lavoisier, Anthony L., celebrated chemist ° * 1743 
Law, John, financier of the ‘ Mississippi Bubble’? ° « 1671 
» Wm., religious and mystical author . e ° 1686 
Lawrence, Abbott, merchant and diplomatist . e au Lees 
——, Amos, merchant and philanthropist . - 1786 
——, James, captain in U. 8. Navy e _ eh phic 
Layard, Austen H., traveller and explorer of Nineveh P 18:7 
Lea, Isaac, naturalist and publisher . ° 1792 
Leake, Wm. M., traveller and philhellenist é < 1777 
Lear, Tobias, secretary to Washington, diplomatist e e 1760 
Lebrun, Pontius D. E., poet = e e e 1729 
Leclerc, John, eminent critic . ° e ° e 1657 
Le Conte, John, naturalist ° x 1784 
—, John L, M. D., naturalist, (son of cabana - 1825 
» John, M. D., natceaahy (Georgia) . ss 1818 
Ledru-Rollin, Alex a jurist and politician . e - 1808 
Ledyard, John, intrepid and enterprising statesman ° 1751 
Lee, Arthur, M.D., statesman . ° ° « 1740 
—, Charles, officer in the Revolution . e . 1730 (7) 
—, Eliza B., miscellaneous writer . ~ . (abt.) 1890 
—, Francis Lightfoot, signer Dec. Independence , ° 1784 
——, Harriet, Miss, (sister of Sophia), novelist . e e 1750 
——, Henry, general in Revolutionary War @ . 1756 
——, Robert E., commander in chief of rebel armies . '. 1808 
——, Richard Henry, pres. of Congress ,. e ‘ 1782 
——, Samuel, D. D., oriental scholar . ° ° <i hice 
——, Sophia, Miss, novelist . ; ° e 1750 
Teeah, John, humorous artist in Punch, &c. . . 1817 
Lefebvre, Frangois Joseph, duke of Dantzick, marshal of iranoe 1755 
Legare, Hugh &., jurist, statesman and littérateur e a: pe lige 
Legendre, Adrian M., mathematician 4 : e 1753 
Leggett, William, political and miscellaneous writer . - 1802 
Leibnitz, Godfrey William, able and learned philosopher . 1646 
Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl of, favorite of Queen Elizabeth . 1532 
Leicester, T. W. Coke, earl of, agriculturist . . op los 
Leighton, Robert, able prelate r a ° ° 1613 
Leisler, Jacob, political adventurer e ° e 
Leland, Charles G., essayist and humorist . ~ wo 1824 
, John, eminent divine and author . e e 1691 
-, Thomas, eminent divine and author . e e 1772 
Lelewel, Joachim, historian : . ; ° 1786 
Lemaitre, Fred., actor ‘ ‘ a ° i ative 
Lemon, Mark, humorist, editor of ‘Punch * e e 1809 . 
Lempriére, John, biographer and lexicographer ° e ©1824 
L’Enclos, Ninon de, noted courtezan 3 . ; 1615 


1788 
1782 
1782 


1797 
1824 
1816 


1794 
1852 
1824 
1864 
1820 
1843 
1833 
1840 


1716 


1588 
1842 
1684 
1691 


1766 
1785 


1683 


a 


RATION 
Dutch. 
Dutch, 
Eng. 
Fr. 


Tial, 
Ger, 
Gr. 
Ger. 
Ger. 
Ger. 
Ger. 
Rom, 
Ger. 
Russ, 
Fr. 
Fr. 
Fr. 
Eng. 
Scot. 
Scot. 
Fr. 
Ger. 
Amer, 
Eng. 
Fr. 
Fr. 
Trish, 
Amer. 
Fr. 
Amer. 
Scot. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Scot. 
Fr. 
Ger. 
Amer 
Ger. 
Russ. 
Eng. 
Dutch 
Ital, 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 


NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN, 
Lennep, David J. van, jurist and poet e ° ° 774 
—, Jan van, poet and novelist F 3 ‘s 1802 
Lennox, Charlotte, authoress, (bornin N.Y.) . ye. 1710 
Lenormand, Marie A., fortune-teller and biographer * 1772 
Leo, the name of twelve popes and six Byzantine emperors ; 
Leo X, pope (John de Medici), a patron of injustice and the arts. 1475 
Leo, Henry, historian 1799 
Leonidas I., king of Sparta, the Hejl of rots elie : f. B. co. 491 
Leopold I, king of the Belgians A m A ° 1796 
———- I,emperorofGermany . . ° ° 1640 
VI, ss too f | ° ° ° Jisl, dian 
——— Il, as s . e ° ° 1797 
Lepidus, noted Roman family 3 B. 0. 200 
Lepsius, Karl Rich., traveller and Egy prologint : i 1811 
Lermontott, Michael, poet. 4 2 ° 1811 
Leroux, Pierre, philosopher and posits ° ° . 1798 
Leroy de St. Aruaud, J. A., marshal of France, general in chief 1801 
Lesage, Alain Rene, sDrullét and dramatist, ‘Gil Blas’ 5 1668 
Leslie, Charles Robt., artist aud author, . ° 1794 
, John, bishop, theological writer ° ° ‘ 1570 
—,, John, mathematician and natural philosopher ° 1766 
Lesseps, Ferdinand de, diplomatist , ° ° » 1805 
Lessing, Gotthold E., criticand author , 5 ‘é 1729 
Lester, Charles E., miscellaneous author . e e 1815 
L’Estrange, Sir Roger, political writer ‘ < . 1616 
Leuret, Francis, anatomist . . : ° e 119 
Le Vaillant, Franc, traveller and ornithologist - e 1753 
Lever Chas, Jas., novelist . ° ° e 1806 
Leverett, Fred. P., classical scholar and author ° ° 1803 
Leverrier, Urbain J.J., astronomer , 5 A ey asl Olt 
Le Vert, Octavia W., Rue onan ; 4 £ 1820 
Levizac, Sir John, mathematician and natural philosopher : 
Lewes, George Heury, miscellaneous author A . 1817 
Lewis, Francis, sigier of the Declaration of Independence : 1713 
, Major-Gen. Morgan, military commander, jurist, &c, 1754 
, Matthew Gregory, misceilaueous writer, Monk Lewis . 1773 
, Meriwether, soldier, explorer, and author . e 1774 
, Samuel, educationist ° ° ° « 1799 
——,, Sir George Cornwall, author and statesman ° 1806 
, Taylor, classical scholarand author . ° e 1802 
euion: John, author . . ° ° 1775 
L’H6pital, Michel de, chancellor of France * a 1504 
Lichtenberg, George C., experimental philosopher ‘ 1742 
Lieber, Francis, a political philosopher (born in Berlin) 1800 
Liebig, Justus, baron, chemist rf e ° «a A808 
Lieven, Dorothea, princess of, diplomatist pe e 1784 
Lightfoot, John, learned divine and author ., : - 1785 
Ligne, Charles Joseph, military officer and author a 1735 
Liguori, Alfons M, de, saint and theological writer n 1696 
Lilly, George, dramatist . . . ‘ 1693 
, John, the Euphuist dramatic writer ° > « 16553 
foams William, astrologer ° e ° ° 16u2 


979 


980 


MATION. 
Dutch. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Swe. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Scot. 
Swe. 
Eng. 
Fr. 
Swe. 


Eng. 
Eng. 
Hung. 
Eng. 
Ger. 
Amer 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Scot. 
Rom. 
Span. 
Eng. 
Fr. 
Eng. 
Scot. 
Eng. 
Ind, 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Eng. 
[rish. 


Russ. 
Trish. 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Gr. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Fr. 
Amer, 
Amer. 
Span. 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


NAME AND PROFESSION. 
Limborch, Philip, theologian aud autho1 ° 
Lincoln, Abraham, statesman, 16th president of the U. 8. . 
—, Benjamin, major-general iu the Revolutionary War 


——~—, Levi, attorney-generai of the U. S. (from Mass.) . 
» Levi, governor of Massachusetts ° ° 
Lind, (Goldschmidt) Jenny, vocalist : ; 3 
Lindley, John, botanist : c ° 
Lindsay, Alexaiuder-W. Crawford, iota: author of Travels, &c. 
—, Sir David, poet e . e 
Lin Peter E., physiologist and hee ° ° 
Lingard, John. author of ‘ History of England’ 5 : 
Linguet Simon N. H., political writer aud historian ° 
Linnzeus, Charles von, the most celebrated of naturalists . 
Lipsius, Justus, critic . . . . 
Lister, Thomas Henry, novelist and biographer of Clarendon 
Liston, John, comic actor . ° e ° 
Liszt, Francis, performer on piano 2 ° A 
Littleton, Sir Thomas, jurist ° ‘ * 


Littrow, John J., writer on mathematics and astronomy 
Livermore, Abiel A., clergyman, journalist and author 


Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, earl of, premier e 
Livingston, Brocklolst, suldier and jurist : : 
—-, Edward, jurist, diplomatist, and statesman ° 
———,, Philip, signer of the Declaration of Independence 
a » Robert R., statesman and jurist ° ° 
, William, governor of New Jersey and poet 
Livingstone, David, traveller and missionary in Africa ° 
Livius, or Livy, Titus, celebrated historian . e 
Llorente, Don Juan, antiquary, historian, &c, e e 
Lloyd, Henry, soldier and author . e e 
Lobau, count, marshal of France . ° ° 


Locke, John, eminent philosopher and metaphysician . 
Lockhart, J. G., critic and novelist, editor of ‘ Quarterly’ . 
Lodge, Edmund, herald and antiquary, ‘ Portraits’ s 


Logan, English name of a famous Indian chief ° ° 

, dames, colonial statesman andauthor . ‘ 

, John A, major-general in Sherman’s campaign, M, C. 
Lofft, Capel, author . c ° A ° 
Lola-Montez, Maria, countess of Lansfeldt, adventurer * 
Lollard, Walter, Protestant martyr at Cologne ° 
Lomonozoff, Michael V., poet and historian ; : 
Londonderry, Robert Stewart, marquis of, statesman , 
Long, Stephen H., engineer, traveller, and author 5 
Longfellow, Henry W., poet and novelist 4 ° 
Longinus, Dionysius Cassius, critic and philosopher ‘ 
Longman, Thomas, founder of the publishing house ,. 
Longstreet, Aug. B., jurist and author ; e e 
— -, James, rebel general A ° e 
Longueville, Anne G., duchess, politician . ° e 
Longworth, Nicholas, extensive wine manufacturer . 
Loomis, Elias, physicist, astronomer : . ° 


Lope de Vega, Carpio Felix, poet and dramatist ° 


BORN. 
1633 
1809 
17383 
1749 
1782 
1821 
1799 
1812 


(abt) 1490 


1776 
1771 
1736 
1707 
1547 
1801 
1776 
1811 


1781 
1811 
1770 
1757 
1764 
1716 
1797 
1723 
1815 
B. OC. 59 
1756 
1729 
1770 
1632 
1794 
1756 


1674 


1751 
1824 


1711 
1769 
1784 
1807 


f. B. c. 250 


1699 
1790 


1619 
1782 
1811 
1562 


DIEB 
1714 
1863 
1816 
1824 


1678 


as 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 


981 


NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN DIED 
Fr. Lorraine, Charles de, cardinal and politician e 1524 1574 
Amer, Lossing, Benson J., historian and artist . A - 1818 
Scot, Loudon, J. C., voluminous writer on horticulture, agriculture, 
and ar eitestur ) ° ° ° ° 1783 1813 
Enz — , Mrs. Jane W., Rorheuttarat writer . “ A 1800 1858 
French.J.OUIS, ites name of Siekteon kings of France ° ° 
Louis L., the Debonnaire A . ° ° ° 778 840 
“ IX, Saint é . ° ° 1215 1270 
“ XL, 6th of house of Valois 5 es > - 13 1482 
RL. .7 SUL ig ae . e ° ° 1462 1515 
“ XIII., 2d Bourbon F =, : ° A 1601 1643 
SLY ., 50 <i C, 7 ° ° e 1638 1715 
MPVS V., th. * A ‘ e e eee yall 1774 
eo XVI. e ° ° ° ° 1754 1793 
ere a VL F ° ° ° ° ° 1785 1795 
eV. F ° ° ° ° 1755 1824 
Fr. Louis, baron, eminent surgeon . ° ° ° 2 1837 
Fr. Philippe, king of the French ° ° ° 1773 1850 
Fr. Napoleon. See Bonaparte. 
Scot. Lovat, Simon Fraser, lord, executed for treason . ° 1667 1747 
Amer. Lovejoy, Owen, statesman and abolitionist ° » 1811 1864 
Amer, , Rey. E. P., abolitionist journalist ° ° 1802 1837 
Irish. Lover, Samuel, novelist and song writer 2 ; Loe 
Irish. Lowe, Sir Hudson, general, jailor of Napoleon e ° 1769 1844 
Amer. Lowell, Charles, clergyman and author : e e 21782 1861 
Amer. ,» James Russell, poet and critic ° . 1819 
Amer. , John, lawyer and philanthropist - . - 1769 1840 
Amer, —, John, jr., founder of Lowell Institute ° ° 1799 1836 
Amer. -, Mary, Mrs. Putnam, of Boston, learned writer . on SLO 
Amer. Lowndes, Rawlins, statesman, opposed the Union ° 1722 1800 
Amer. - , William J , statesman <0 P ° AF age? 1862 
Eng. —-——, William Thomas, ‘Biblio-Manual’ , e ° 1843 
Eng. Lowth, Robert, eminent divine and author ° e 1710 1787 
Span Loyola, Saint Ignatius de, founder of the Jesuits ° 5 ees 1556 
Eng. Lucan, G. C. Bingham, earl of, generalin Crimea ,. ‘ 1800 
Rom. -, Marcus Annzus, Latin poet. e e ° 37 
Gr. Lucian, bdlébrated writer 4 ° ° 120 210 
Rom. Lucilius, the earliest Roman satirint ° e e B. 0. 148 B. 0. 191 
Ger. Lucke, Gott C. F., theologian ‘ A A e 1792 1855 
Rom. Lucretius, Caius Titus, eminent poet ° e B.c. 95 
Rom. Lucullus, wealthy warrior e pe esis Mile lad Shag BE Hw (9 
Eng. Ludlow, Edmund, republican shes of Ghacles Ls e - 1620 169% 
Span. Lully, Raimond, ‘ the enlightened doctor’ FA 1235 131h 
Amer. Lundy, Benjamin, abolitionist ° ° ° - 21789 183¢ 
Amer, Lunt, George, poet, essayist, and journalist - : 
Ger. Luther, Martin, the parent of the Protestant reform ation e 1484 1546 
Trish. Luttrell, Henry, poet 3 . : - - 1851 
Fr. Luxemburg, duke of, military officer . ° A - 1628 1698 
Gr. Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator e ° o = BB. 0. «898 
Eng. Lydgate, John, poet (Benedictine monk) e . e 1375 146] 
Scot. Lyell, Sir Charles, geologist and traveller 1797 
Amer. Lynch, Thomas J., signer of the Declaration of In ieensenee o «©1749 1°77 


982 


NATION, 


Amer. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Aner, 
Gr. 


Fr, 
Scot. 
Irish. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eug. 
Scot. 
[rish, 
Irish. 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Scot. 
Scot. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Scot. 
Scot. 
fr, 
Amer. 


Amer, 
Amer, 
Scot. 
Scot. 
Ital. 
Scot, 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Scot. 
Irish. 
Amer. 
Scot. 
Trish. 
Scot. 
Aust, 
Amer. 
Scot. 
Amer. 
Eng. 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 
NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 

Lynch, William P., captain U. 8. navy, author of ‘ Dead Sea, &. 1805 
Lyndhurst, lord, statesman and jurist (born in Boston) éy ldte 
Lyon, Mary, teacher and philanthropist . , ° 1797 

» Matthew, politician . ° ° * eee 93) 

, Nathaniel, Union general, fell at Wilson’s Creek . 1819 
Lysander, famous Spartan general . e ° ° 
Lysias, orator . - . ° ° - B,O. 459 
Lysimachus, one of Alexander’s generals . ° B. C. 360 
Lyttleton, George, lord, poet and historian e e 1709 

Mi. 

Mabillon, Jean, ecclesiastical author . - ® e 1632 
Macadam, John, originator of Macadamized roads . e 1756 
Macartney, Geo., earl of, diploumatist . s 1787 
Macaulay, T., Babington, essayist, historian, critic and statenmian 1800 
Macaulay, Pacha anti-slavery statesman , e o. 4 4068 
Macauley, Catherine, miscellaneous writer ° ° 17383 
Macbeth, chieftain of the lith century . ° e 
MacClintock, Sir F. L., Arctic navigator ° ° as ia Ode 
MacClure, Sir R. J., discoverer of North-west passage ° 1807 
Macconnell, John L., novelist fs * ° e 1826 
Maccorst, David J., political writer " . ° 1797 
Maccosh, James, clergyman and author ° ° «  .A8lO 
Macculloch, J. R., political economist and statistician e 1789 
McClellan, Geo. B., commander-in-chief Union armies . - 1826 
McCook, father and three sons from Ohio, generals in Union Army 
McCulloch, John, M. D., geologist, && . ° ° 1773 
Macdiarmid, John, author. : ° ° e . 1779 
Macdonald, Flora, adventurous heroine , e e 1720 
Macdona'd, 8. T, A., marshal of France ° ° <p oe 
Macdonough, Thos., commodore in U.S. Navy, victor on Lake 

Champlain é “ 4 ; 1783 
McDowell, Irwin, commander Union renee . ° eo 41818 
Macduffie, Geo., U. 8. senator from South Carolina . ° 1788 
Macgillivray. Wm., naturalist a a aes Kee 
Macgregor, John, satistinal and poke suthor - e 1797 
Machiavel, Nicholas, celebrated writer on politics ° - 1469 
Mackay, Charles, poet and miscellaneous writer . ° 1812 
Mackean, Thos., jurist, statesman, signer of Dec. of Ind. 1734 
Mackenzie, A. Slidell, naval commander, author of travels . 1803 
Mackenzie, Henry, the Addison of the North . . « 1745 
Mackenzie, Robt. §,, journalist, &c. ° . e 1809 
Mackintosh, Maria J., novelist > ; (abt ) 1810 
Mackintosh, Sir ares celebrated literary Sharer e ° 1766 
Macklin, Charles, actor and dramatist . 5 . 1690 
Macknight, James, divine and author . : 2 ° 1721 
Mack von Liebenich, Karl, baron, general ¢ 1752 
MacLane, Louis, statesman and diplomatist , P on cy LisG 
Maclaurin, Colin, mathematician . . < 1698 
Maclean, John, statesman, judge of U. 8S, Supreme rere ° 1785 
MacLean, L. E. L., (Mise Landon), poet and novelist . 1804 


1849 
1822 
1861 
B, 0. 395 


B. ©. 281 
1763 


1707 
1836 
1806 
1859 
1838 
1793 


1855 


1864 


1835 
1808 
1790 
1840 


1825 | 


1851 
1852 
1857 
1527 


1817 
1849 
1831 


1832 
1796 
1800 
1828 
1857 
174¢ 


1838 


NATION. 
Trish. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Scot. 
Fr. 
Scot. 
lrish. 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Scot. 
Amer, 
Eng. 
Scot. 
Eng. 
Ger. 
Amer, 
Welsh. 
Span. 
Rom. 
Ital. 
Amer. 
Irish. 
Port. 
Fr. 
Trish, 
ir: 
Amer, 
Sar. 


Turk. 
Fr. 
Jew. 
Fr. 
Ital. 
[tal. 
Eng. 
Heb, 
Swiss. 
Amer. 
Scot. 
Fr. 
Fr, 
Ital. 
Fr, 
Scot. 
Swiss. 
Eng, 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Ital, 
Eng. 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 


NAME AND PROFESSION. 
Mac.1se, Daniel, historical painter 
Macleod, Alex., clergyman and author A e c 
Macleod, Xavier Donald, miscellaneous writer . 
Maclure, William, Destouuer & . 
MacMahon, M. E. P., duke of Magenta, ira tatial 
MacNab, Sir Allan, Canadian Statesman , 
MacNeven, Wm. J., patriot and physician, (died 48 N. Y.) 
Macomb, Meat GciGerieral Alex., military commander - 
Macon, Nathaniel, member of paibdis for N. Carolina 87 years 
Macpherson, James, miscellaneous writer , 
Macpherson, Jas. B., Union general in rebellion 
Macready, Wm. Chas. , tragedian . ; 
Macrie, Thomas, D.D., clergyman and eathor; biographer of Knox 
Madden, Sir Fred., antiquarian author . 
Maddler, Johann Hates: astronomer , 
Madison, James, 4th president of United States ° ° 
Madoc, prince, said to have discovered America ° 
Madoz, Pascuale, statesman and author . é A 
Mecenas, Caius C., minister of Augustus and patron of literature 
Maffei, France 8., marquis, author of 21 vols, . 
Mafiitt, John Newland, noted Methodist preacher 


° ° 


Magee, Wm., arcnbishop Dublin, (on Atonement) e e 
Magellan, Ferdinand, celebrated navigator “ - 
Magendie, Francis, physiologist = E : ‘ 
Maginn, William, classical and miscellaneous writer and critic 
Magnan, Bernard Pierre, marshal of France F ° 
Magoon, Elisha L., clergyman and author ° 
Mahomet, or Mohammed, founder of the religion which bears his 
name . . ° 
Mahomet IL., 7th Turkish Sitter; conqueror of Scmetansineghs 
Maimbourg, isisss) historian “| : ; = 
Maimonides, Moses, celebrated rabbi 4 : * 
Maintenon, Frances @ Aubigné, queen j ‘ é 
Maio, Angelo, discoverer and editor of Latin classics ° 
Maistre, Joseph de, statesman and author , e F 
Maittaire, Michael, bibliogravher, &c. . ; C 
Malachi, the prophet ° . e e ° 
Malan, Caesar H. A., theologian and author A A 
Malcom, Howard, clergyman and author ; - 
Malcolm, Sir John, ‘ History of Persian and India? ,. : 
Malebranche, Nicholas, metaphysician < ; rs 
Malesherbes, C. G. de, statesman, (executed) ° iy 
Malibran, M. F., Madame, vocalist ° A ° A 
Malherbe, France de, poet : ° e " 
Mallet, David, miscellaneous writer . 3 S - 
Mallet, Paul Henri, historian 7 : ° 
Malmesbury, Jas. Harris, earl of, diptonianint b ; 
, Jas, H. H., (son of above), statesman , ° 
, William of, historian. ° ° . 
Malone, Edward, dramatic commentator . A ; 
Malphighi, Marcellus, naturalist and anatomist . 4 


Maltby, Edw., bishop of Durham, philologist ; : 


983 
BORN. DIED 
1811 
1774 1832 
1821 
1763 1844 
1807 
1798 
1763 1841 
1782 1841 
1757 1837 
738 1796 
1828 1864 
1793 
1772 1835 
1801 
1794 
1751 1836 
12th cent 
1806 
B.C. 9 
1675 1755 
1794 1850 
1765 1831 
1521 
1783 1855 
1793 1842 
1791 1864 
1810 
569 632 
1430 1480 
1610 1686 
1131 1204 
1635 1719 
1753 1821 
1668 1747 
B. c. 5th cent. 
1787 1864 
1799 
1769 1833 
1638 1715 
1721 1794 
1808 1836 
1555 1628 
1702 1768 
1730 1807 
1746 1826 
1807 
1148 
1741 1819 
1628 1694 
1770 185$ 


984 THE WORLD’S PROGRGSS. 
NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION, BORN. 
Ger. Malte Brun, Conrad, poet and geographer ; Pe vi) 
Ger. , M., geographer i ° : “ 
Eng. Malthus, T. R., political economist . ° e e 1766 
Ital. Mamiani, Terenze, count, statesman and author 5 ° 1799 
Eng. Mandeville, Sir John, traveller and author 5 - e 1800 
_ Pers. Manes, or Munichzus, fuunder of the Manichean sect rs 239 
Ital. Manfred, prince of Tarentum, king of Two Sicilies ° (abt.) 1231 
Ital. Manin, Daniele, Venetian statesman . re 5 4 1804 
Amer. Mann, Horace, statesman and educutionist . J = 1796 
Eng. Manning, Henry E., clergymanand author , ° ‘ 1812 
Erg. Mansel, Henry L., metaphysician and theologian ,. A 1815 
Ger. Mansfeld, Ernest of, warrior . ° ° 6 - 1585 
Amer, Mansfield, Jos. K., Union general . ‘ Fs 1803 
Scot. -—, Wm. Vee Karl of, jurist and itadeetsion = 3 2oT05 
Eng. Mantell, G. A., geologist . : e ° 1790 
Ttal. Manutius Aldus, celebrated printer and author o, < 1447 
Ital. ——, the Younger, printer and author , = 1547 
Ital. , Paulus, (son of Manutius), printer . ° ; 1512 
Ital. Manzoni, author of T. Promessi Sposi ° ~ ‘ 1784 
Fr. Marat, John Paul, infamous revolutionist e ® 1754 
Rom, Marcellus, Marcus Claudius, general ° ; ota BO R67 
Ttal. Marco Polo, Venetian traveller ‘ ° . é 1256 
Amer. Marey, Wm. Learned, statesman . ° ° ° 1786 
Pu~s. Mardonius, Persian general in Greece e ° e 
Fy. Margaret of Angouléme, queen of Navarre e ° 1492 
SP, Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI. of England ° oie 20 
Ger. Margaret of Austria, daughter of Maximil. I. and Mary of Burgundy 1480 
Dan. Margaret, queen of Denmark, &c., ‘Semiramis ofthe North’ . 13853 
Fr. Margaret of Valois, queen of Henry IV. of France . ‘ 1552 
Aust. Maria Louisa, empress of France, afterwards Duchess of Parma 1787 
Span. Maria Christina, queen dowager of Spain, (born at Naples) * 1806 
Ital. Varia de Medici, queen of Henry IV. of France . e 1574 
Span. Mariana, John, celebrated historian . ° e e =—:1537 
Ger. Maria Theresa, empress of Germany F e 1717 
Fr, Marie-Amélie, queen of the French, (Louis Philippe) ° oa) e782 
Fr. Marie Antoinette, queen of France, (Louis XVI) . . 1755 
Fr. Mariette, Aug. E., Egyptologist and explorer . ° e 1821 
Ital. Mario, Giuseppe, marquis of Candia, vocali:’ . ° 1810 
Amer. Marion, Francis, distinguished officer in the Revolution e 
Rom. Marius, Caius, famous general and demagogue ° e BO 153 
Eng. Marlborough, John Churchill, duke of, able warrior . e 1650 
Fr. Marmont, A. F. V., duke of Ragusa, marshal of France and 
traveller . ° : - e e 1773 
Fr. Marmontel, John Francis, celebrated writer . e ° 1723 
Eng. Marlowe, Christ. or Kit, dramatic poet e e e 1564 
Amer. Mapes, James J., agriculturist 2 > 5 A 
Fr. Marquette, Jacques, early explorer of the Mississippi e 1637 
Fr. Marrast, Armand, journalist and politician e e ° 1800 
Fr, Mars, Mademoiselle, actress : e e 1778 
ng. Marsden, oriental traveller and historian . ° - 1755 
Eng. Marsh, Anne, novelist . Z e  (abt.) 1800 
Amer. Marsh, Geo. Perkins, phile\ogist and diplomatist ° - 1801 


DIED. 
1826 


183- 


1372 
27 


1857 
1859 


162¢ 
1862 
1793 
185- 
1517 
1597 
1574 


1793 
B. c. 208 
13823 
1857 
B. 0. 479 
1549 
1481 
15380. 
1412 
1612 
1847 


1642 
1624 
1780 


1793 


9 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 


BATION. NAME AND PROFESSION, BORN, 
Eng. Marsh, Herbert, bishop of Peterborough, theological writer 1758 
Amer. Marsh, James, metaphysician : . e 1794 
Amer. Marshall, John, chief-justice of U. S., aeaiior r « 1755 
Eng. Marshman, Joshua, missionary in Taal and author ° 1767 
Eng. Marston, John, poet and dramatist “ ° > (abt.) 1570 
Rom. Martial, Marcus Valerius, epigrammatist ° ‘ 4 40 
Eng. Martin, Benj., optician and author ° ° ° 1704 
Fr. Martin, Bon Louis Henry, historian . A e e 1704 
Amer, Martin, Francis Xavier, jurist and historian e ms 1810 
Eng. Martineau, Harriet, miscellaneous authoress . ° » 1764 
Eng. , James, (brother of Harriet), clergyman and author 1800 
Prus. Martos, Ivan P., sculptor “ = : F 1753 
Span. Martinez dela Rosa, don Frane, statesman and Itttérateur A 1786 
Ger. Martius, OC. F. P. von, botanist and traveller ¢ s 
Eng. Martyn, Henry, missionary in India and Persia e e 1781 
Martyr, Justin, Christian apologist ° ° : 103? 
Ital , Peter, reformer and theologian e ° e 1500 
Eng. Marvell, Andrew, author and statesman ,. ° ° 1621 
Eng. Mary L., first queen regnant of England . ° « 1515 
Eng. —-, I. , queen regnant with Wm. of Orange ° ° 1662 
Scot. —— Stuart, queenof Scots . 3 ° e 1542 
Eng. Marryatt, Captain, novelist and traveller . ° ° 1792 
Eng. Maseres, Francis, ‘baron,’ mathematician e 4 e 1781 
Eng. Maskeleyne, Nevil, astronomer . ; ° ° 1732 
Amer. Mason, George, statesman. : ° » 1726 
Amer. , Jeremiah, lawyer and statesman ° ° ° 1768 
Amer. ———, John, maj. gen. Connecticut colonial forces ° . 1600 
Eng, ——-, John,divine and author . ° : ° 1706 
Amer. ———, John M., eminent divine ‘ F ° ol T70 
Amer. ———, John, M., senator from Virginia, rebel : ° 
Amer. ——, John Y., statesman and minister to France © 1795 
Amer. ———, Lowell, musical teacher and composer x . 1792 
Eng. , William, divine and poet 5 : ° a 1725 
Ind. Massasoit,sachem of the Wampanoags . : 
Fr, Massena, Andrew, one of the ablest of Napoleon’s marnhale selos 
Eng. Massey, Gerald, poet . ° ° ° ° 1828 
Fr. Massillon, John Baptist, eloquent divine . e d 1663 
Massinissa, king of Numidia . ° e (abt)B.0o. 240 
Scot. Masson, David, biographer and enenyiat ° e e 1823 
Eng. Maunder, Samuel‘ Treasury of Knowledge’? . ° oO 
Amer. Mather, Cotton, divine and author ; : A 1663 
Amer. , Increase, clergyman and author a e ; 1639 
Irish. Mathew, Theobald, ‘ Apostle of Temperance’ P . 1790 
Eng. Mathias, Thomas, author of ‘ Pursuits of Literature’ . o  tekz50 
Eng. Matthew of Westminster, historian : ° 2 18t} 
Eng. Matthews, Charles, actor and humorist A ° 1776 
Amer. ‘Matthias’ (Robert Matthews), religious impostor . ° ‘abt; » 1790 
Fr. Matter, Jacques, philosopher and historian ° apyeebnol 
Irish. Maturin, Charles Robert, divine, dramatist and poet ° 1782 
Eng. Maundrell, Rev, Henry, traveller inthe East . . : 1650? 
Fr. Maupertuis, Peter L. M., geometrician and astronomer. . 1698 
Hol. Maurice, Count of Nassau, and Prince of Orange, stadtholder . 1667 


1849 
1728 
1723 
1856 
1835 
n cent. 
1835 
183- 


1825 
1716 
1759 
162 


GS6 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 
WATIOS, NAME AND PROFESSION. 
Eng. Maurice, Jno. Fred. D., clergyman and author 3 e 
Eng. -——, Thos. Rev., historg of Hindostan, &c. e -, 
Mauricius, Flavius Tib., Byzautine emperor = : 
Amer. Maury, Matthew F., naval officer, astronomer, rebel, &c. e 
Fr. -, John Siffrein, cardinal and statesman A + 
Eng. Mavor, Rev. Wm., writer and compiler, voyages, &c. . : 
Ger. Sieiocsoripka Paatsbrnbe is i 
Eng. Mawe, Joseph, mineralogist and oonebeleetss e 4 3 
Ger. Maximilian I., emperor of Germany 2 Z A 
Ger, » prince, emperor of Mexico . e (shot } 
Rom. Maximinus, Caius J. V., emperor of Rome ? 4 
Eng. Maxwell, Wm. R., ‘Life of Wellington, &. . ° . 
Amer. Mayer, Brantz, lawyer and historical writer é : 
Ger. Mayer, Johann T., astronomer A : : 
Eng. ivhew, Henry, Edward, Thomas, and Horace, brothers, hu: 
morous and miscellaneous writers . : e (abt) 
Amer —, Jonathan, clergyman and author A e 4 
Fr, Mazarin, Julius, cardinal, able statesman . 5 +5 
Mazeppa, John, prince of the Cossacks ; ; ; 
Ital. Mazzini, Giuseppe, democratic politician (Genoa) . e 
Amer. Meade, Geo. G., commander army of Potomac ; . 
Amer. , Wm., episcopal bishop of Virginia and author e 
J. Amer.Meagher, Thos. F., gen. in Union armies, gov. Idaho = 
Eng. Medhurst, Walter H., oriental scholar and missionary A 
Ital. Medici, Hippolytus, cardinal . ° : “ 
Ital. -, Cosmo de, the Great, first Gd Duke Tuscany ° 
Ital. ——— ‘pater patrie,’ Florence —. : 
Ital. ——--, Lorenzo ies poet, gov. of Fiorence, and patron of arts 
Ital. -, Pietro, successor of Cosmo, patron of arts ° e 
Turk. Mehemet-A li, pasha of Egypt é 4 - Ps 
Ger. Meiners, Christopher, historian ° : 5 F 
Ger. |Melanchthon, Philip, celebrated reformer . : A 
Eng. Melbourne, Wm. Lamb, Viscount de, statesman . . e 
Amer. Mellen, Grenville, poet - . : r 
Eng. Melmoth, Wm., ‘Letters, translation of Cicero, &c. . 5 
Eng. —-— , ' Religious Life’ e rs 
Eng. Melville, Andrew, religious reformer . e e 
Amer. -—-——, Herman, author of travels, romances e ° 
Scot. —-——, Sir Jas., soldier, statesman, and author e e 
Gr. Menander, comic poet 5 . . . (Bro 
Ger. Mendelssohn, Bartholdy Felix, musical composer 5 A 
Ger. -- Moses, Jewish scholar and philosopher : 
Port. Mendez-Pinto, Fernam, adventurer, unjustly famed for lying . 
Span. Mendoza, Diego H. de, scholar, author, and statesman ; 
Ger Mengs, Anton Rafael, painter and writer on art : ° 
Ger. Meninski, Francis M., learned orientalist . 2 J 
Russ. Mentchikoff, Alex., prince, statesman - y 
Buss. » Alex.,S., admiral . e e fe 
Ger. Menno-Simonis, reformer, founder of ‘Mennonites’ , Cs 
Ger. Menzel, Wolfgang, critic and historian ° ° 
Dutch. Mercator, Gerard, geographer ' A ’ 
Aire. Mercer, Hugh, general in the Revolutionary war . e 


BORN. 
1805 
1755 

539 
1806 
1746 
1758 
1790 
1755 
1459 
1834 


1795 
1809 
1723 


1812 
1720 
1602 


1809 
1815 
1789 


1796 
1611 
1519 
1389 
1448 


1769 
1747 
1497 
1779 
1799 
1710 
1666 
1545 
1819 
1535 

342 
1809 
1729 
1510 
1503 
1728 
1623 
1672 
1789 


1798 
1512 
172¢ 


“DIED 


1822 
604 


1817 
1837 


1828 
1519 
1867 

233 
1851 


1762 


1766 
1661 
1709 


1867 
1857 
15385 
1574 
1464 
1492 
1469 
1849 
1810 
1560 
1848 
1841 
1799 
1743 
1622 


1607 
B. Cc. 290 
1847 
1786 
1580 
1575 
1779 
1698 
1769 


1561 


1594 
1771 


er 


RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION, BORN. IER, 
Amer, Meigs, Return J., revol. officer ‘ e ; 1740 1823 
Amer. Meriam, Eben, statistician and metcorologist e 1794 1864 
Fr. Mérimée, Prosper, novelist . ° e ° e 1800 

Eng. Merivale, Charles, historian e e ms . 

Eng. — , Joun Herman, poet . e e A 1779 1844 
Swiss. Merle d’Aubigné, J. H., D.D., historian , e 4 1794 

Fr, Meroveeus, founder Merovingian dynasty ° ° ° 411 457 
Fr. Méry, Joseph, poetand novelist . - e ° 1798 

Ger. Mesmer, Fred. A., founder of ‘Mesmerism’® , e «5 1784 1815 © 
Ital. Metastasio, Peter B., celebrated poet ‘ ‘ 1698 1782 
Eng. Metcalfe, Charles T., baron, gov. in India and Canada. + Li8a 1846 
Rom. Metellus, the name of several famous plebeians . « B.O. 250 69 
Aust, Metternich, Prince, statesman, and diplomatist e ° 1773 1859 
Dutch. Meursius, John, erudite critic . : ° e 1579 1639 
Ger. Meyerbeer, musical composer : e e A 1791 

Eng. Meyrick, Sir Saml. R., antiquarian author ° ° 1783 1848 
Fr. Mezerai, Francis de, historian x e e ° 1610 1682 
Ital. Mezzofanti, Cardinal, celebrated linguist . ° e 1774 1849 
Gr. Miaulis, naval commander . ° e ° e 1772 1835 
Heb. Micah, the Prophet - e e e ° f. B, Oo. 750 
Ital. Micari, Guiseppe, historian . ° ° ° 1839 
Ger. Michaelis, John David, learned defediialint and critic . oon th 1791 
Pr Michaud, Joseph, historian - > ° : ° 1767 1839 
Fr. Michaux, Andre, botanist, (‘Sylva Americana’) . ° e 1746 1802 
Fr. Michel, Francisque, archzologist : : ° 1809 

Fr. Michelet, Jules, historian : x e ° 1798 

Ger. Michelet, Karl Ludwig, mitiied Bice! heriten - ° e 1801 

Pol. Mickiewicz. Adam, poet : - ° e e 1798 1855 
Eng. Mickle, William J. poet, translator of ‘ Lusiad,’ &o, . 1734 1788 
Eng. Middleton, Conyers, divine and elegant writer . ° ° 1683 1750 
Amer, , Arthur, patriot and statesman . e e 1743 1787 
Eng. , Thomas, dramatist ° ° ° 1627 
Amer. Mifflin, i icmas: general in evolutionary. w: war ° ° 1744 1800 
Fr. Mignet, F, A., historian - 1796 

Port. Miguel Don, rival of Don Carlos to the throne of Portugal 1802 

Amer, Milburn, William Henry, ‘blind preacher’ and author 1823 

Scot. Mill, James, historian of British India and political economist 1775 1836 
Eng. —, John Stuart, political philosopher ° ° . 1806 

Eng. Millais, John Everett, ‘ pre-Raphaelite’ painter : : 1829 

Amer. Miller, James, general at Chippewa, &c., (‘I'll try, sir’) oye hae 1851 
Eng. , Joseph, comic actor, putative parent of jests ‘i 1684 1738 
Scot. » Hugh, geologist : = a : ° ° 1802 1856 
Amer. ———, William, founder of the ‘ Millerites,’ or second adventists 1781 1849 
Fr. Milleroye, Charles Hubert, poet = ks - . ° . 1782 1816 
Fr. Millin, Aubin Louis, naturalist, &e : . 3 ) 1759 

Eng. Millman, Henry Hart, Rev., poet andhistorian . . 1791 

Fr. Millot, Claude Francis Xavier, historian ! rn é 1726 1785 
Eng. Mills, Charles, historian * ‘ A of 21788 1826 
Fr, Milne-Edward, Henri, Saparalist r $ e e 1800 

Eng. Milnes, Richard Monckton, poet and statesman , ° 1809 

Eng. Milner, Joseph, author of ‘Church History’ e e 1744 1797 
Amer. Milnor, James, D. D., episcopal clergyman e e 1778 1844 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 


987 


988 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


MATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN, DIE, 
Gr. Miltiades, illustrious Athenian general 5 ° : B, 0. 489 
Eng. Milton, John, the Homer of Britain : , e 1608 1674 
Fr. Minié, Claude E., inventor of the Minié rifle-bullet e ° 1810 
Amer. Minot, George R., historian . : e e o eLYBS 1802 
Rom, Minutius-Felix, Marcus, christian writer : e e 3d cent. 
Mex. Miramon, Miguel, military leader : ° e e (abt. 1830 1867 
Span. Miranda, Francis, revolutionary general ‘ F 1750 1814 
Fr. Mirabeau, H.: G@. Riquetti, count de, celebrated chapioted in the 
Revolution and author é 3 - ° ° 1749 1791 

Fr. Mirbel, Charles F. B. de, naturalist ‘ . ° . 1776 1854 
Amer. Mitchel, Ormsby M., astronomer and patriotic general ° 1810 186- 
Amer. Mitchell, Donald G., essayist : : . ° e 1822 
Amer. ——-——, Maria, astronomer : ° ° ° ° 1818 
Amer. ————, Samuel L., celebrated physician and naturalist: serio liGS 4433631 
Eng. —-——, Thomas, classical scholar and critic - z 1783 1845 
Eng. Mitford, Mary Russell, novelist and essayist ° : e  =—:1786 1855 
Eng. ————, Rev. John, editor of poets, : e e * 1781 1859 
Eng. ——, William, historian and philologist e ° - 17384 1827 

Mithridates, king of Pontus, warrior . ° e e 8B.O. 128 BO. 64 
Ger. Mitscherlich, E., chemist = . : : An 1794 1868 
Ger. Mittermaier, Karl J. A., jurist and statesman ° : 1787 


Turk. Mohammed-Ali, Pasha of Egypt, (See Mahomet and Mehenibt) 1769 1850 
Sar. —_————--Ben Abd Al Wab, sheik, founder sect Wahabites  f. 1650 


Ger. Mohler, Johann Adam R., catholic theologian . e 1796 

Ger. Mohs, Frederick, mineralogist 4 = t ° e 1774 1839 
Scot. Moir, David Macbeth, miscellaneous writer é A 1798 1851 
Fr. Mollé, M. L., comte, statesman S e 5 ys 1781 1855 
Hol. Moleschott, Jacob, physiologist and favarsise * e 1822 

Eng. Molesworth, Sir William, statesman and author ° - 1810 

Fr. Moleville, Anthony F. de Bertrand, count de, historian . 1754 

Fr, Moliére, John Baptist, celebrated dramatist . F: ; 1622 

Span. Molina, Luis, Jesuit theologian and author x 5 : 1585 

Scot. Monboddo, lord, judge and philologist ; < ie 5 1714 

Eng. Montfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester, statesman : ~ 

Eng. Monk, George, duke of Albemarle, military officer ° e 1608 

wiss Monod, Adolphe, ‘reformed pastor’ and author : . 1802 

Swiss. , Dr. Frederick, ‘reformed pastor’ at Paris . ; : 1794 

Amer. Monroe, James, statesman, 5th president Uritod States £ 1759 

Ger. Monse, Gaspar, eminent geometrician 2 “ : 1746 

Fr. Monstrelet, Enguerrand de, chronicler “ ° ° 1390 

Eng. Montagu, Basil, lawyer and author < : : 3 1770 

Eng. -—, Elizabeth, author of ‘ dialogues,’ &c, A : 1720 

Eng. —-, Lady Mary Wortley, elegant writer : ; - 1690 

Eng. Montague, Charles, earl of Halifax. statesmanand poet . 1661 

Fr. Montaigne, Michel de, eminent essayist A 2 é 1533 
‘Fr. Montalembert, Charles F., count, statesman and author : 1810 

Fr, Montcalm, Louis, marquis de, general in Canada . e 1712 

Fr. Montebello, John Lannes, duke of, marshal . a ie 1769 

Ger. Montecuculi, Raimond, warrior 7 : ut ba e 1609 

Fr. Montespan, Franc, marquise de, mistress Louis XIV. e 1641 

Fr. Montesqieu, Charles baron de, able writer x F 4 1689 


Montez, Lola, female adventurer ° e e « 1824 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 989 
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORY, DIED, 
Mex. Montezuma I, the greatest of Mexican sovereigns . - 1473 
Mex. -——-—— IT, last Atzec emperor e e 1480 1520 
Fr. Montfaucon, Bern. de, archeologist and maihoe ° ° 1655 1741 
Eng. Montgomery, James, poet . : 7 0m Grd 1854 
Amer, —————--—,, Richard, intrepid alee officer . ° 1737 1775 
Eng. —., Robert, poet - ° ° ° 1807 1855 
Fr. Montholon, comte, secretary and pider apher of Napcleon . 1783 1853 
Fr. Montmorenci, Anne de, constable of France . - 1493 1567 
Ital. Monte, Vincent, poet ; . ° 5 ‘ 1753 1828 
Fr. Montmorency, noble family of France . ° ° 10tb to 19th century 
Fr. Montpensir, Madame, author of Memoirs &6 ; e 1627 169? 
Scot. Montrose, Jas. Grahame, marquis of, military leader , ° 1612 1651 
Amer. Moore, Geo. H., author . “ ° A = 
Amer. , Frank H, author : « ° e 2 
Amer. ———, Clement C., writer of verses, &c. . ° e 1779 1863 
Amer, , Jacob Bailey, journalistand author . ° Ru wee 1853 
Scot. , John, miscellaneous author ; - 1728 1802 
Scot. , Sir John (son of above,) general, killed at Goria ° 176% 1808 
Ital. ets Olympia, Prot. writer . H ° ° 1526 1558 
Eng. More, Hannah, poet, essayist and moralist, . e ° 1744 1833 
Eng. , Henry, mystical divine and philosopher ; ° 1614 1687 
Fe. Moreau, John Victor, celebrated general ° o. 16s 1813 
Amer. Morfit, Campbell, chemist and author ; ; ° 1820 
Amer. Morgan, Daniel, brig. gen., in revolutionary war e ° 1736 1802 
Amer. —, Jno. Henry, rebel fillibuster genera] . e 
Eng. , Lady Charles, author of novels, travels &c. . » 1780 1858 
Eng. —, Sir Henry J., buccaneer A ° 1637 1690 
Eng. Morier, James. novelist, ‘ Hajji Baba’ &c. . . 1780 1849 
Eng. Mornington, G. Wellesley, earl of, musical composer ° 1720 1784 
Fr. Morny, Chas, A. count of, minister of Napoleon III. . e 1811 1865 
Amer. Morphy, Paul Charles, famous chess-player 5 e 1837 
Eng. Morrell, Thos., lexicegrapher and classical writer e o,) (hile 1784 
Amer. Morris, Geo, P., poet and journalist 2 ° e 1802 1864 
Amer. , Gouverneur, distinguished statesman . ° © 1752 1816 
Amer. ———-, Lewis, signer of the Declaration of Independence . 1726 1798 
Amer. -, Robert, signer Declaration Independence and financier 1703 1806 
Eng. Morrison, Robert, Chinese traveller and philologist : 1782 1834 
Eng. — , Robert D. D., missionary and philologist , 5 1782 1834 
Amer. Morse, Jedediah, geographer and statistical writer 5 1761 1827 
Amer, , Samuel F, B., artist and inventor of telegraph . . 1791 
Amer. , Sidney E., journalist and geographer ° ° 1794 
Er. Mortier, marsbal of France, killed by Fieschi . ° Pope? bits: 1835 
Scot. Morton, Jas. Douglas, earl of, regent ‘ ° p 1530 1581 
Amer. —, John, signer of Declaration of Independence . (Penn) 1724 1777 
Amer. , Samuel Geo., anatomist and ethnologist 1799 1851 
Amer. , Wm. T. G. dentist, discoverer of the use of ether @) . , ,1819 
Ueb. Moses, ee ire of the Jews . 5 ° - BO. 1571 Bo. 1451 
Ger. Mosheim, John Lawrence, ecclesiastical historian ° - 1695 1758 
Scot. Motherwell, William, poet : : ; “ 1797 1835 
Amer. Motley, John Lothrop, historian - . 4 ° 1814 
Amer. Mott, Lucretia, minister of ‘ Friends’ and philanthropist . 1793 
Amer. ——., Va'entine, surgeon and author ° ° 1785 1869 


990 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS 


NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORE. 
Fr. Motte, Cadillac, Ant dela, founder of Detroit , é 1660 
Ger. Moschus, bucolic poet ‘ ° ° - £3.06. 160 
Amer. Moultrie, Wm., generaland stateeman =, - «) te 

Mouradgea, D’Ohason, Armenian historian ° , 1740 
Amer. Mowatt (Ritchie), Anna Cora, actress and authoress e (abt) 1826 
Ger. Mozart, C. W. T., eminent composer ; ° - 1756 
Eng. Mudie, Robert, author of various works on Natural History, &c. 777 
Ger. Muller, C. O., historian, archeologist classical scholar . © i Rae, 
Swiss. Muller, John von, celebrated historian, ‘Universal History’ 1752 
Ger. —--—, John, physiologist . ° e « _ 180 
Ger. Munchhausen, J. C. F., proverbial for ‘stories’ ° 1720 
Eng. Munden, Jos. 8., sineaiad A ° ° e 1758 
Fr. Murat, J piehiin, intrepid marshal ond king of Naples s 1771 
Ital, Muratori, Louis Anthony, historian . ° : « 1672 
Irish, Murphy, Arthur, dramatist and translator ° - 1727 
Scot. Murray, Alex., self-taught linguist . e ° e 1775 
Scot, —--—, Hugh, geographer (Encyclo) ‘. e ° 1779 
Scot. —, or Moray, Jas. Stuart, earl of, regent . e e 631 
Eng. , John, the elder, eminent publisher ° ° 1778 
Amer, ———--, Lindley, grammarian ‘ ° ° e 1745 
Amer, ———--, Wm., Vans, statesman . 5 ° ° 1761 
Gr. Musaeus, Athenian poet ° e ° e f.B.0. 1248 
Fr, Musset, Louis ©. A, de, poet a e ° ° 1810 

Ne 

Assyr. Nabonassar, first king of the Chaldeans e 3 fi. B. 0. 747 
Assyr. Nabopolassar, king of Babylon . e fil, B. 0. 626 
Vers. Nadir Shah, or Thamas Kouli Kahn, warrior and king ° - 1688 1747 
Heb. Nahum, prophet : : . ° ° f. B. CO. 7th cent, 
Irish. Napier, Chas. Jas., general in India, &c., . e e 1782 1853 
Scot. , John, baron, inventor of logarithms e A 1550 1617 
Eng. -, Sir Charles, admiral . : « ° 2 veh anee 1860 
Fr, Hapeicon I., (Bonaparte) e e 1769 1821 
Fr. _—, IL , king of Rome, (see Bonaparte} . e oun Pole 1832 
Fr. , III, GLonis Napoleon), emperor . - e 1808 
Eng. WNares, J ames, musical doctor, composer : ° eo Sau 1783 
Eng. , Rev. Edmund, ‘ Thinks I to myself’ : e 1762 1841 
Pers. Narses, warrior in the service of Justinian I., the emperor ° 567 
Span. Narvaez, don Ramon, duke of Valentia, statesman . e 1795 
Eng. Nash, Richard, styled ‘Bean Nash’ . : ° e 1674 1764 
Dutch, Nassau, prince Maurice of, able general . - e 1567 1625 
Pers. Nassir Eddyn, celebrated astronomer . ° ° e 1201 1274 
Span. Navarrete, Martin F, de, ‘ Collect of Voyages’ ° e 1765 1844 
Eng. Neal, Daniel, author of the ‘ History of the Puritans,’ &e o 1678 1743 
Amer. ——, John, novelist f : . e 1794 
Amer. ——, Joseph C., littérateur . . e e e 1807 1848 
Ger. Neander, J. W. Augustus, ecclesiastical historian . ° 1789 1850 
Gr. Nearchus, admiral and voyager e ° ° e 8. o. 4th cent, 
Chald. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. ° e B. O. 462 
Fr. Necker, James, eminent financier and statesman . a 1732 1804 
Swiss. , Madame J. C., wife of James, essayist e 1739 1794 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 99] 


paTioN, NAME AND PROFESSION, BORN. LIED. 
Eng. Neele, Henry, pozt and miscellaneous writer ,. ‘ e 1798 1828 
Swiss, Neff, Felix, apostle of the Alps. * ‘* 6 1798 1829 
Heb. Nehemiah, governor of Judea . * > . tBoo 444 

Eng. Nelson, Horatio, viscount, celebrated admiral e . 1758 1808 
Rom. Nepos, Cornelius, historian . ° ° ° ° B.C. 38C 
Rom. Nero, infamous emperor e . ° a 37 68 
Rom. Nerya, emperor c ° ° ° ° 32 98 
Russ. Nesselrode, Charles B., count, statesman and diplomatist : 1780 1862 
Gr. Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople, founder of Nestorians . 489 
Ger. Neukomm, Sig:sm. chevalier, composer ‘ 1778 1857 


Ger. Neuwied, Maximilian, priuce of, traveller in North cee &c. 1782 


Eng. Newton, John, Calvinistic divine and writer é y 1725. 1807 
Eng. —, Sir Isaac, the greatest of philosophers # - 1642 1727 
Eng. ———, Thomas, learned prelate, (on Prophecies). * 1704 1782 
Br. Ney, Michael, marshal, ‘ the bravest of the brave? - A 1769 1815 
Gr. Nicephorus, Greg., Byzantine historian . ° r 14th cent. 
Russ, Nicholas 1., emperor, (1825-55) - ° 4 - 1796 1855 
Eng. Nichols, John Bowyer, printer and archaeologist ,. ° 1807 1863 
Eng. Nicholson, Peter, architect and political mechanic rs 

Eng. — » William, writer on natural philosophy and chemistry 1753 1815 
Amer. Nicklin, P. H., bookseller and miscellaneous writer ° 1786 1842 
Ger. Nicolai, Chris. Fred, booksellerand author , e o . 1783 1811 
Eng. Nicolas, Sir Harris, antiquary - ° ° ° 1799 1848 
Ger. Niebhur, B. G., statesman and historian * 2 oxey Als 1830 
Ger. ———, Carsten, celebrated traveller ~ é 733 1815 
Pol. Niemcewiez, Julius U., military commander and author - 1756 1841 
Eng. Nightingale, Florence, practical philanthropist ° e 

Amer. Niles, Hezekiah, journalist ‘Register’ ° ° ee vey 1839 
Swe. Nilston, Sven, zoologist . , ° ° ° 1787 

Amer, Noah, Mordecai M., journalist, politician and author . ° 1851 
Ger. Noehden, G. H., grammarian and miscellaneous writer ° 1770 1826 
Fr. Nodier, Charles, novelist - ° ° . e 1783 1844 
Ger. Am. Nordheimer, Hebrew scholar and author . 

Eng. Normanby, ©. G. Phipps, marquis of, novelist and years ° 1797 186. 
Eng. North, Francis, 1st lord Guilford, ‘lord keeper’ . ° 1637 168: 
Eng. , Frederick, lord, prime minister of George IIL . ° 1732 179 
Eng. WN Bo yee James, artist and biographer A ‘ ° 1746 1837 
Amer. Norton, Andrews theological, Unitarian author a e 1790 1835 
Eng. , Hon, Mrs., poetess ; 2 

Amer. Nott, Biter Kingman, remarkable Baptist at ° ° 1834 1859 
Amer. ——, Eliphalet, D. D., president of Union College and author 1773 1866 
Eng. —, John, poet and translator 2 - ° oy Liok 1826 
Ger. Novalis, or Fred. von Hardenbverg, author ° e 1772 1801 
Eng. Novello, Vincent, musician (life by Mrs. Clarke) e « 1781 1861 
Amer. Noyes, Wm. Curtis, jurist and patriot . : ° 1805 1864 
Irish. Nugent, lord, author of ‘ Life of Hampden,’ &c, ° ° 1850 
Rom, Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome e . f,. 3.0, 714 
“Span. Nunez, Alya ©. de Vaca, explorer. ° ° ° 1564 

0. 
Eng. Oates, Titus, infamous pretender of the ‘ Popish plot” . » 1619 170% 


Ur. Oberlin, John Fred., philanthropist ° ° e 1740 189¢ 


992 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 


NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED 
Irish. O’Brien, Fitz-James, poet . : ° e 186% 
Irish. —, Wm. Smith, political agitator . ° e 1806 186- 
Irish. O’Connell, Daniel, political agitator . ; 4 ° 1775 184% 
Irish. O'Connor, Fergus, cbhartist orator , ° e ° 1795 1858 
Eng, Ockley, Simon, orientalist . C ° 4 o 1678 1726 
Arab. Odenatus, warrior, husband of Zenobia . ° ° 267 
Fr, Odilon-Barrot, C. H., statesman ° ° F « 2791 
Bar. Odoacer, Gothic king of Italy ° ° e 493 
Dan. Oersted, Hans Ch., discoverer of bibettounbenstians ° a Reee 1851 
Eng. Ogléthorpe, J. EH., founder of Georgia ° > ‘ 1698 1785 
Irish, O’Keefe, John, dramatist < < s A 1748 1833 
Ger. Oken, Louis, naturalist ° e e ° « Rag 1851 
Ger. Olbers, H. W.M., astronomer . n . ° 1840 
Eng. Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Cobham , ° e 360 1417 
Amer, Olin, Stephen, D. D., Methodist theologian ana author . 1797 1851 
Span, Olivan, don Aless., nahtiolee e . ° ° . 
Amer. Olmsted, Denison, professor, astronomer, é&c, = ° 1791 1859 
Ger. Olshausen, Hermann, protestant theologian , . e dI96 1839 
Arab. Omar I., caliph, captor of Jerusalem . e 5 581 644 
Irish. O’Meara, Barry, surgeon te Napoleon and author ° » 2778 1836 
Eng. Onslow, Arthur, speaker House Commons < ° 1691 1768 
Eng. Opie, Mrs. Amelia, writer on morals and education ° 177k 1853 
Gr. Oppian, poet . . ;. . F : f. 150 
Dutch. Orange, William I., of Nassau, prinee of, founder of Dutch republie 1533 1584 
Dutch. , William IL, prince of, stadtholder . : 1626 1650 
Duteh. -, William ite prince of, stadtholder, and king of mupiena 1650 4702 
Span. Orfila, M. J. B., ehemist and toxicologist ° e 1787 

Origen, one of the fathers of the church ° e e 185 2538 
Fr. Orléans, L. J. P., duke of ‘ Egalité, guillotined . 4 1747 1793 
Fr. -, Fer. P. L., duke of, heir of Louis Philippe ° 1810 1842 
Russ Orloff, Gregory, count, favorite Catherine II. . ° 0 @6©:17384 1783 
Eng. Orme, Robert, historian of India . s Py F 1728 1803 
Eng. Ormond, James Butler, duke of, statesman . e ‘ 1610 . 1682 
Gr. Orpheus, poet, sometimes styled the ‘ father of poetry’ e 
Irish. Orrery, Charles, 4th earl of, natural philosophy : 5 1676 1731 
Trish. , Roger Boyle, 1st earl of, statesman and author e 1621 1679 
Eng. Orton, Job, dissenting divine and author ° ° oR 1783 
Amer. Osgood, Frances, poetess . ° . 4 1812 31850 
Amer. -, Samuel, D. D., Unitarian divime and author . 4 1812 
Port. Osorio, Jerome, philosopher, historian, and theological writer 1502 1580 
Scot. Ossian, Gaelic bard, supposed to have livedin the 83d century . 
Egypt. Osymandias, king of Egypt : . ° - (abt.) 1500 
Amer, Otis, James, patriot and statesman . e e « «17925 1772 
Amer, ——, Harrison Gray, statesman and jurist . ° ° 1767 1848 
Ger. Otho L., king of Greece (born in Bavaria) . $ - ‘1815 1867 
Eng. Ottley, Wm. Young, writer on art . “ 4 1771 1836 
Eng. Otway, celebrated dramatist, ‘ Venice Preserved? ° e =: 1651 1685 
Fr. Oudinot, Charies N., marshalof France . ° ° 1767 1847 
Eng. Ouseley, Sir Gore, ciriceaatiat ‘ . 1769 1844 
Ger. Overbeek, Fred., founder of modern religiour eae of art 1780 
Eng. Overbury, Sir Thos. , (poisoned in the Tower) . ° PRY 6 1613 


Bom, Ovid, Pub lius N M0, ‘post es ° " ° . B. Cc, 43 1 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 


ATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 
Span. Oviedo, J. G., bishop of, author of *‘ Voyages inthe West Indies’ 
Amer, Owen, David Dale, geologist - ‘ e z 1807 
Eng. , John, independent theologian ; ‘ 1616 
Eng. , Richard, surgeon and naturalist . z 5 
Welsh. ———, Robert, political theorist : A é ous Lic 
Amer, , Robert Dale, statesman and author ° 7 
Eng. Oxford, Horace Walpole, earl of, author e ‘ eae Fh! 
P. 
Amer, Paine, Elijah, jurist . e e ° ° e «©1757 
Amer. ———, Elijah (son of above), jurist e ° ° 1796 
Amer. , John Howard, dramatist, ‘Home, Sweet Home’ e 1791 
Amer, ——, Robert Treat, lawyer and patriot . ° ° 1731 
Amer, , Robert Treat, son, poct, ‘ ° Sabre 
Eng. , Thomas, political and deistical writer ° e 1736 
Fr. Paixhan, general, inventor of guns bearing his name e e . 1782 
Ven. Paez, military commander and president Venezuela e 1787 
Ital. Paganini, Nicolo, famous Violinist . ° ° « 1784 
Eng. Paley, William, eminent divine and author ° . 1745 
Eng. Palgrave, Sir Francis, antiquarian author e e e 1788 
Fr. Palisset de Montenoy, Charles, satirist . é ° 1730 
Hr. Palissy, Bernard, ‘ the Potter’ . ° ® ° 1510 
Ital. Palladio, Andrew, architect . F A K 1518 
Pruss. Pallas, Peter Simon, traveller and naturalist . ° . 1741 
Eng. Palmerston, Henry Temple, viscount, statesman , ° 1784 
Ger. Panzer, G. W. F., bibliographer ° ° ° e 1729 
Ital. Paoli, Pascal, Corsican patriot and general e e 1726 
Can. Papineau, L. J, politician and patriot e e ° 1789 
Rom. Papinian, Amilius, civillawyer . e ° ° 145 
Swiss. Paracelsus, A. P. T. B. de H., alchemist e ° e  ~=—«i1498 
Eng. Pardoe, Julia, Miss, novelist F . 1812 
Fr. Paris, count of, Louis Ph. Al., grandson of Louis Philippe « ciey 838 
- Eng. , Matthew, historian é ° . _ 
Scot. Park, Mungo, celebrated traveller. . . aiey yes 
Amer. Parker, Theodore, Unitarian preacher and oriental scholar . 1810 
Eng. Parkes, Samuel, chemist and author . ‘ * 1759 
Ttal, Parma, Alexender Farnese, duke of, regent of the Re iiadenda 1546 
Trish. Parnell, Thos., poet and divine ‘ P. ° z 1679 
Eng. Parr, Samuel, learned divine and philologist r ° 1746 
Eng. —, Thomas, lived 152 years ; . « 1483 
Eng. Parry, Capt. Edward, Arctic navigator . e e 1790 
Amer. Parsons, Theophilus, jurist . « 4 e ° 1750 
Amer. , Theophilus (son), jurist . 7 = 
Amer, Parton, James, biographer, historian, and essayist ° e 
Amer. -, Mrs. Sarah, ‘ Fanny Fern,’ authoress C e 1811 
Fr. Pascal, Blaise, emineut geometrician and writer * 1623. 
Russ. Paskewitsch, Ivan F., prince of Warsaw, general . ° 1782 
Eng. Pasley, (ten. Sir Chas. W., engineer . ‘ e 3: -ohtRR 
Fr. Pasquier, Etienne D., Pontes chancellor of France . 1767 
Ger. Passow, Francis L. C. F., philologist and lexicographer (Greek lex.) 1786 
Rom. Paterculus, Caius Ve2eius, historian 5 > (abt.) B. 0. 20 


994 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. 
Eng. Patimore, Coventry, poet . ; x e 1823 
Irish. Patrick, St., apostle of Ireland . . Py 372 493 
Eng. —— Be, bishop of Chichester, Bible conitientaey e 1626 2705 
Faul, Tethers (see Sarpt) . . . ° 1552 1628 
Heb. , St., Apostle to the Gentiles “ ° FS > 65? 
Fr, , St. Vincent de, Catholic missionary . “ ‘ 1576 1669 
Amer. Paulding, James Kirke, novelist and essayist . ° oe LD 1860 
Rom. FPaulus-Aimilius, Lucius, fellat Canne . ° e B.C. 216 
Gr. Pausanias, spartan commander Fs eo e BO. 470 
Gr. — » topographical writer ° ° ° . f, (abt.) 120 
Eng. Paxton, Sir Joseph, horticulturist and architect , 4 1802 1865 
Eng. Payne, Roger, noted book-binder * ° e o 2739 1797 
Amer, Payson, Edward, D. D., congregational divine - ; 1783 1827 
Amer. Peabody, Eliz P., educational writer e . e 1802 
Amer. ———,, O. W. B., reviewer and biographer i ° 1799 1848 
Eng. Peacock, George, dean of Ely, mathematician é ° 1858 
Eng. Pearson, John, bishop of Chester, ‘On the Creed’ ° 1613 1686 
Port. Pedro, V., king of Portugal, (son of Donna Maria IL) 5 1837 186- 
Port. , don, claimant to the throne of Portugal : ° 1834 
Eng.: Peel, Sir Robert, lst baronet, cotton manufacturer e e 1750 1836 
Eng. ——-, Sir Robert, 3d baronet, statesman ° 3 >, 1850 
Eng. Peele, George, poet, (Life by Dyce) « . ° e 1552 1598 
Brit. Pelagous, monk, founder of a sect i z ; $54 
Span. Pelayo, first king of Asturias : e <4 J 757 
Fr. Pélissier, A. J. J., duke of Malakoff, marshal ° ° 1794 1864 
Ital.  Pellico, Silvio, poet and patriot . ° ° - 1789 1854 
Gr. Pelopidas, illustrious Theban general 3 A 5 BO. 364 
Fr. Pelouze, Theodore Jules, chemist e e ° e 1807 
Eng. Pembroke, Mary Sidney, countess of “ e - 1621 
Eng. Penn, Granville, author ° : e ° 1761 ~—s«1844 
Eng. ——-, William, admiral, father of founder of Pennsylvania 1621 1670 
Eng. —--, William, founder and legislator of Pennsylvania 3 1644 1718 
Eng. Pennant, Thomas, naturalist and antiquary 5 e 1726 1798 
{tal. Pepe, William Florestan, general ° e o 1780 1855 
Amer. Pepperell, Sir William, general e : A e 1697 1759 
Ital. Pepoli, Charles, dittérateur . ° = e 1801 
Eng. Pepys, Samuel, secretary to Admiralty, author of ‘ Diary’ e 1632 1703 
Eng. Perceval, Spencer, prime minister, assassinated . e 1762 1812 
Amer. Percival, James Gates, poet, geologist and critic . cy SLee 1857 
Eng. Percy, Thomas, bishop of Dromore, ‘ Religious Ant, Poetry’ 1728 1811 
Fr. Péréfixe, Hardouin de Beaumont de, historian = < 1605 1670 
Eng.  Pereirea, Jonathan, M. D., ‘ Materia Medica’? e e 1804 1853 
Ital. Pergolese, John B., musical composer ° 3 ie 1710 1736 
Gr. Pericles, able Athenian orator and statesman 5 e  ©6©©B.c. 490 B Oo. 429 
Amer. Perit, Pelatiah, merchant and philanthropist “ oe atT8S 1864 . 
Eng. Perkins, Hugh, eccentric preacher and roundhead (executed) 1599 1660 
Amer. —, Jacob, inventor of steam-gun, &c. : Fs ; 1766 1849 
Eng. —, Thomas H., eminent merchant and philanthropist 1764 1854 
Fr. Pérouse, John F, Galaup, circumnavigator A e 1741 1788 
Fr. Perrier, M. Casimir, statesman “ . : 6 Lae 1832 
Amer, Perry, Matthew G., commodore, (‘ Japan’) ° e 1795 1858 


Amer. ———, Oliver Hazard,commodor U. 8. navy e o = 1785 1818 


SATION 
Fr... 
Rom. 
Ger, 
Rom, 
Swiss. 
Russ. 
Fr. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Ger. 
Amer. 


{tal. 
Fr. 
Ger. 
Rom. 
Fr, 


Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Jew. 
Gr. 

Eng. 
Gr. 


Amer, 
Tial. 
Fr. 
Fr. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Swiss. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Rom. 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Gr. 
Scot. 
Span. 
Amer, 
Hrs 
Gr. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Gr. 
Ital. 


BIOGR«PHICAL INDEX. 


NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN, DIER, 
Persigny, Jean G. V., politician and Siplomatet a 1808 
Persius, Flaccus Aulus, satirist 4 7 8 34 62 
Perthes, Christian Frederick, bookseller, (life ae son) 1972 1848 
Pertinax, emperor . a z . 4 . 126 193 
Pestalozzi, Henry, introducer of a new system of education 1745 1827 
Peter L., the great, statesman and warrior : Fi * 1672 1725 
—-the Hermit, first mover of the crusades e ° 1050? 1115 
Peters, Hugh, ‘ fanatic’ P . » 1699 1660 
Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, earl of, warrior . ye 1658 1735 
Petermann, August H., geographer . e ‘ 
Petigrew, James Petia. of 8. C., Union athe Pomme * e 1789 1863 
Pétion, Alexander, mulatto, president Hayti . i 1770 1818 
Petrarch, Francis, one of the four greatest of Italian “eer a 1304 13874 
Peyronnet, Pierre D., count de, minister of Charles X. andhistorian 1778 —«- 1854 
Pfeiffer, Ida, traveller and author ° fs 1795 1858 
Pheedrus, fabulist . ° ° ° - £. 380 
Philidor, Andrew, writer on ohare ‘ e ‘ 1726 1795 
Philip II, king of Macedon, warrior . ° ° B. 0. 383 B. 0. 336 
—— 8&t., of Neri, founder of the Oratory e e 1515 1595 
Phillimore, John G., author on law . e « 1809 1865 
Phillips, Ambrose, poet and dramatist . < * 1749 
———,, John, poet ‘ Splendid Shilling’ a e @ ti 1708 
, Sir Richard, bookseller and compiler “ ° 1768 1840 
Philo-Judzus, learned Jewish writer of Alexandria , e f. aD. 40 
Philopemen, celebrated general - on? e . B.C. 253 B, c, 183 
Phipps, Sir William, colonial governor Massachusetts el God 1695 
Phocion, eminent Athenian general 3 ° ° B. 0. 400 BO. 318 
Photius, learned patriarch of Constantinople ° - 815 891 
Physic, Philip Syng, M. D. ° * ° ° 1768 1837 
Piazzi, Joseph, astronomer - ° ° ° 1746 1826 
Picard, Louis Benedict, dramatist and novelist . ° 1769 1824 
Pichegru, Charles, eminent general . < ° iol 1804 
Pickering, Timothy, distinguished statesman ° ° 1746 1829 
, John, philologist . 5 ° ee yy 1846 
Pictet, Benedict, theological and historical writer . 1655 1724 
Pictou, Sir Thomas, general . ° ° 1815 
Pierce, Franklin, general, 14th peeled U. 8, ° ° 1804 
Pilate, Pontius, Roman governor of Judea . . ° 38? 
Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, general and diplomatist ° 1825 
, William, distinguished orator and diplomatist » .. 1765 1822 
Pindar, tie greatest of lyric poets ° « 8B.O. 522 Bo, 442 
Pinkerton, John, fertile and eccentric euthor ° - 1758 1826 
Pinzon, Vincer.t Yanez, navigator, dovered Brazil ° f. 1500 
Piozzi, Hester L., miscellaueous writer, friend of Dr. Johnson 1789 1821 
Piron, Alexis, poet dramatist, and wit ° . ° 1689 1773 
Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens : ° ° ° B.C. 527 
Pitkin, Timothy, historian and statistician ° e 1765 1847 
Pitt, Christopher, poet and translator , ° e 1699 1748 
—, William, lst earl of Chatham, statesman 5 ° 1708 1778 
—, Wil iam, celebrated statesman, son of Lord Chatham e 1759 1806 
Pittacus, of Mitylene, one of the seven sages . - 38.0. 650 B.C 670 


Pius TX., pope, (Giov. Mastai Ferretti) 4 i - 1792 


996 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS 
NATION NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED 
Bpan. Pizarro, Francis, conqueror of Peru . ° 1475 1541 
Eng. Platcche, James R., dramatist and miscellaneous refit » 1796 
Gr. Plato, illustrious philosopber, founder ofthe Academic sect B. 0. 430 B.C. 347 
Rom, Plautus, comic poet : 5 B. 0. 227 B. 0.184 
Eng. Playfair, John, eminent maAthematiotan and na bate philosopher 1749 1819 
Eng. —, Lyon, chemist, (born jn Bengal) . : 3 1819 
Rorn, Pliny, the elder, or C. P. Secundus, author of natural history 23 78 
Rom. -——-, the younger, warrior and author : f e 61 115 
Egypt. Plotinus, Platonic philosopher : ° ° e 203 270 
Trish. Plunket, W. C., lord chancellor of Ireland ° ° « 1765 1854 
Gr, Plutarch, celebrated biographer ‘ e e 50 120 . 
Ind. Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan, of Va. . e ° 1617 
Eng. Pocock, D. E., learned critic and commentator e e 1604 1691 
Eng, -, D. R., learned prelate and traveller . e « ©1704 1765 
Amer. Poe, Edgar A., poet, critic and novelist . — = 1811 1856 
Ger. Poggendorf, John Chris., physicist and chemist e o © 1796 
Amer. Poinsett, Joel R., statesman, diplomatist, and author e 1778 1851 
Fr, Poisson, D. 8., mathematician . Veh oe 1840 
Eng. Pole, Reginald, cardinal archbishop of Cniiterury . 1500 1558 
Fr. Polignac, J. A. M., prince, minister of Charles X, ° a1 780 1847 
Fr. ——_——,, Melchior de, cardinal and statesman > : 1611 1741 
Amer, Polk, Jas. Knox, president U.S. = e or aoa 1849 
Amer ; Leonidas, Bp. of La., and rebel deetal: i: e 1806 1864 
Eng. Pollok, Robt., poet, ‘ Course of Time’? - 5 cc 1799 1827 
Ital. Polo, Marco, celebrated Venetian traveller e “ 1250 1323 
Gr. Polybius, eminent historian : ° B,C. 205 3B. O. 123 

Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, Christian martyr and author ° 169 
Port. Pombal, Seb., marquis of, statesman . 5 ° ° 1699 1782 
Eng. Pomfret, John, poet . . ° F 4 1667 1703 
Fr. Pompadour, J. A. P., Marchioness of . ° ° o ATT 1764 
Rom. Pompey, Cneus, statesman and warrior . (‘The Great.’) B.0. 106 B.o. 48 
Span. Ponce de Leon, discoverer of America : ;  SaeeD 1521 
Pol. Poniatowski, Joseph, prince, general, marshal of Wiatio’ “ 1763 1818 
Pol , Stanislaus Aug., last king of Poland ° « £ aiez 1798 
Ind. Pontiac, Theta chief —% : e ° ° 1712 1769 
Eng. Poole, John, author of ‘ Paul Pry,’ &c, ; 3 s 
Eng. , Matthew, able divine and author . : ° 1624 1779 
Eng. Pope, Alexander, celebrated poet ; . ° . “1685 1744 
Amer. ——, John, Union general, com. army Potomac aud 4th mil. dist, 1823 

Porphyry, Platonic philosopher - : ° : 233 804 
Eng. Porson, Richard, eminent hellenist and critic ° e 1759 1808 
Ital. Porta, John Baptist, natural philosopher e e e 1540 1616 
Eng. Porter, Anna Maria, novelist E P 4 . 1781 1832 
Amer, , David, commodore, U. 8. Navy “ : . 1780 1843. 
Amer , David D., rear-admiral 5 e . é 1776 1850 
Eng. » Jane, novelist, . : e ° e why 
Eng, , Sir Robert Ker, author of ‘Travels, &o. . até 1780 184% 
Eng. Pores, Beilby, eminent prelate 3 : 1731 1808 
Amer. Potter, Alonzo, D.D., epis. bp. of Pennsylvania, ans eauaae 

tional author : : F 1800 1863 

Amer, Horatio, D. D., episc. biahep of New York a . 


Eng. —-, John, archbishop of Canterbury. ‘Gr, Antiq.? F 1674 1744 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 99% 


RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION, BORN, DIED | 
Eng. Potter, Robert, divine, poet, and translator . of wikis 1804 
Eng. Pottenger, Sir Henry, diplomatist ‘ : : 1787 1858 
Irish, Power, Tyrone, comicactor . , j % eo #1795 1841 
Russ. Pozzo di Borgo, diplomatist , P < x 1768 1844 
Eng. Praed, Winthrop Mackworth, poet . : ‘ eS vheeoe 1839 
Amer, Pradt, Abbé Dominique de, political writer ; 1759 1837 
Amer, Preble, Edward, commodore in the U. 8, Navy . « 1761 1807 
Amer. Prentiss, Sargent 8S, lawyer and politician, famed foreloquence 1810 1850 
Amer, Prescott, Wm. Hickling, historian. x ° ova tiaG 1859 
Amer. Preston, Wm. C., U.S. senator for South Carolina . « 1794 1860 
Eng. Price, Dr. R., writer on civil liberty z A AS ee 1791 
Eng. , Sir Uvedale, writer on the Picturesque . e 1747 3329 
Eng. Prideaux, Humphrey, learned divine. ° ° « 1648 1724 
Ger. Priessnitz, Vincent, founder of Hydropathy ° P 1799 1851 
_ Eng. Priestley, Joseph, eminent philosopher and writer ° e =1788 1804 
Amer, Prince, Rev. Thos., historian of N. England ° ° 1687 1758 
Eng. Pringle, Thos., poet and traveller é ° ° » 1789 1834 
Eng.  Prinsep, Chas. R., political economist . ° ° 1788 1864 
Eng. Prior, Mathew, poet and statesman 4 ; « 1664 1722 
Eng. Pritchard, J. C., ethnologist, ‘Natural History of Man® , 1785 1848 
Rom. Probus, Marcus Aurelius,emperor . é ° ° 232 282 
Ital. Procida, John of, patriot : - : ° 1225 1303 
Gr. Pro*lus, a Platonic philosopher ° ° ° e 410 487 
Prog ius, historian ° . ° e ° 410 487 © 
Rom. —, Anthemius, emperor ° e e ° 472 
Eng. Proctor, Miss Ade aide A., poetess ° ° 1864 
Eng. ———, Bryan W. (‘Barry Cornwall’), poet and critic = OO RTET 
Rom. Pieintine, Sextus Aurelius, poet ° ° BO. 52 Bo. 12 
Fr, Proudhon, Pierre Jos., political theorist and socialist . « 1809 1865 
Eng. Prynne, learned lawyer, political writer, and antiquary e 1609 1669 
i thes Psalmanamr, George, literary impostor A 3 proled (eTty 1763 
Egypt. Ptolemy, Claudius, eminent astronomer and geographer . 70 
Ger, Puckler-Muskan, H.L. H., prince of, author of Travels, &o, . 1785 
Ger. Puffendorf, Samuel, baron de, publicist and historian “ 1632 1794 
Eng. Pugin, Augs. Welby, architectural writer ; ° *  Aont 1852 
Pole. Pulaski, Casimir, count, genl. in the U.S. service . ° 1747 1779 
Stal. Pulci, Louis, poet. é . ° e e 1482 1487 
Hung. Pulszky, Franz, politician and author : e J 1814 
Eng. Purcell, Henry, musical composer F ° ° e ©«=.: 1658 1695 
Eng. , Thos., musical composer . . . ° 1682 
Eng. Purchas, divine, editor of Voyages and.Pilgrimage e of #3677 1628 
Amer. Pursh, Fred., botanist . ° 1774 1820 
Eng. Pusey, Edward Bour, D.D., $endet of ‘ Puseyites? ° e 1800 
Amer, Putnam, Israel, distinguished officer in the Revolution . 1718 1790 
Amer. ————, Rufus, pioneer settler of Ohio 5 reat ele Vite. 1824 
Eng. Petaiaa George, poet and critic, ‘ Art of Eng. Posie? é 1600 
Eng. Pye, Henry James, poet laureate 5 ° . e 1745 1813 
Eng. Pym, John, republican politician . ° ° 1584 1643 
Amer Pynchon, Wm., founder of Springfield, Rinta a - 159)? 1662 
Gr. Pyrrho, philosopher, founder of Sceptic Sect . - f, B.o. 300 
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus . : Ps ° . B. 0. 272 


Gr. Pythagoras, celebrated philosopher : e » 38.0, 586 Bc. 497 


NAT L0N. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Fr. 


¥r. 


Belg. 


Fr. 
Fr 
fr 
Eng. 
Aust. 
Hing. 
ring. 
Amer. 
Dan. 
Kreg. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Eng. 


Hind. 
Scot. 
Amer. 
Span. 
Amer, 
Amer 
Ger. 
Fr. 
Heb. 
Fr. 


Dan. 
Fr, 
Prues. 
Ger. 
Amer. 


YHE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


q 


NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN, 
Quain, Jones, M. D., anatomist ° ° ° ° 
Quarles, Francis, poet, author of ‘Emblems’ ° e 1592 
Quatremere, E. M., orientalist ° e ° Pemeee Wi-)4 
Quekett, John, microscopist : e ° ’ 1815 
Quesne, Abraham du, admiral ° ° e . 1610 
Quesnel, Peter, ‘History of Jesuits’ . e F 1699 
Quetelet, L, A., mathematician and statistician e e 1796 
Quevedo de Villegas, Francis, poet e e e 1580 
Quin, James, actor . ; : F e 1693 
Quinault, Philip, lyrical dram ater 2 . 1635 
Quincy, Josiah ex-pres. Harvard Univ., and patnor ° ~ 1772 
» Josiah, Jr., ex-mayor of Boston, and financier e 1802 
; Ontiee Hégar, litiérateur . A : e 1808 
Quintana, Jose Manuel de, poet and historian ° . 1772 
Quintilian, Marcus Fabius, celebrated orator . . - 4 
Quintus-Curtius, historian: . : .  f. time Vespasian 
Quitman, John A., general and gov. of Mississsipi ° - 1799 
R 
Rabelais, Francis, wit and satirist . e . « «©1488 
Racine, John, eminent dramatist ° ° ° 1589 
Rachel, Eliza Rachel Felix, actress . e ° e 1820 
Radcliffe, Anne, romance writer, ‘Mysteriesof Udolpho’ . 1764 
Radetzky, Joseph, count, commander in Italy = 1766 
Raffles, Rev. Thos., independent minister and collector ° 1788 
, Sir Thos. Stamford, author of ‘ History of Java,’ &c. . 1781 
Rafinesque, 8. C. J., botanist : 4 : F 1784 
Rafn, ©. C., historian and antiquary . - e 1795 
Raglan, J. i. Fitzroy Somerset, lord, general in Crimea 1788 . 
Raguet, Condy, political economist . A - Cue Line 
Raikes, Robt, printer, founder of ‘ Sundzy schools’ e 1785 
Raleigh or Ralegh, Sir Walter, ‘a man illustrious in arms and 
literature’ . ° ° ° ° 1552 
Rammobun, Roy, philanthropist ° . ° - 1776 
Ramsay, Allan, poet ° A e ° 1685 
, David, historian ,. e ° e 1749 
Ramusi o John Bapt, ‘ Collect. of ener? ' e 1485 
Randolph, John, of Roanoke, eccentric statesman ~ °. 1773 
——, Peyton, first president of Congress . e 172é 
Ranke, Leopold, historian , ° ° ° ©. ek 90 
Raoul, Rochette, archzologist and traveller . . 1790 
Raphall, Morris J., learned rabbi and preacher ° . 1798 
Rapin de Thoyras, author of ‘ History of England’ ° 1661 
Rapp, Geo., founder of ‘Sect of Harmonisis . ° e 1770 
Rask, E. C., philologist and lexicographer ‘ 5 1784 
Raspail, F. V., chemist and radical statesman e « 1794 
Rauch, Fred. A., metaphysician ° e e 1806 
Raumer, Fred. L. G. von, historian . e e e 1781 
Rawle, William, jurist . . ° ® ° 1759 


. 


1868 
1644 
1857 
1861 
1688 
1774 


1645 
1766 
1668 
1864 


1857 
122 


lst Cent. 


1858 


1553 
1699 
1858 
1823 
1858 
1863 
1826 
1842 


1855 
1842 
1811 


1618 
1833 
1758 
1812 
1557 
1833 
1775 


1725 
1847 
1832 
184] 


1834 


—s_  . 


BIOGRAPIIICAL INDEX. 


NAME AND PROFESSION. 
Rawlinson, Sir Henry C., geographer and orientalist . ° 


Eng. Ray, John, naturalist and author 
Fr. Raynal, William Thomas Francis, historian and pidlona pied ° 
Scot. Reach, Angus B., journalistand author . ° ’ 
Amer. Read, Geo. Campbell, admiral ° = ° ‘ 
Eng, Reade, Charles, novelist . ° ; ; 4 
Fr, Récamier, Mme Jane F. A. . Z p ; z 
Eng. Redding, Cyrus, journalist and author , -° H ° 
Amer, Redfield, William C., meteorologist . ° ° ° 

Red Jacket, Thayendanega, Indian Chief . : ° 
Amer, Reed, Henry, metaphysician and essayist . : ° 
Eng. -——-, Isaac, critic and editor : A Z ° 
Amer, , Joseph, general in revolution . ; 5 ‘ 
Amer, ,» Wm. B., politician and author : X = 
Eng. Rees, Dr. Abraham, editor of an encyclopmdia&e, , P 
Eng. Reeve, Olara, novelist, ‘Old English Baron’ e ‘ 
Eng. ——, John, comic actor : ; 4 * = 
Eng. » Lovell A., conchologist and publisher - ° 
Fr. Regnard, John Francis, comic writer ° ° . 
Fr. Regnault, Henry Vict., chemist . e 5 ° 
Ger. Reichenbach, Charles, baron de, naturalist . ° ° 
Irish. Reid, Capt. Mayne, novelist ; j Z A 
Bcot. —-, Col., Sir Wm., engineer and metereologist, ‘ Use of Storms’ 
Amer, ——-, Samuel U.,navalecommander . ° ° . 
Scot. -——-, Thomas, celebrated metaphysician , ‘ ° 
Ger. Reinhard, Francis V., (founder of Christ.) 2 ‘ ‘ 
Fr, Rémusat, J. P. A., historian and linguist . - “ 
Fr. René, duke of Anjou, kingof Sicily . : é 1 
Eng. MRennel, Major J., geographer and traveller ‘ . 
Scot. Rennie, John, eminent engineer and architect e ° 
Amer. Reno, Jesse L., generalin Unionarmy . e ° 
Eng. Repton, Humphrey, landscape gardener ° ° . 
Turk. Reschid Pasha, statesman, premier of Turkey ° 
Fr. Retz, John F. P., de Gondi, cardinal de, minister of Louis xv. é 
Ger. Retzsch, Fred., A. M., printer and designer 3 . 
Amer, Reynolds, J Stn F., Union general, killed at Gettysburg r 
Eng. Ricardo, David, writer on political economy and finance ° 

—, Joseph Lewis, (on International law) ° ° 

Fr. Ricaut, Sir Paul, traveller and historian «6 e ° 
Eng. Rich, Obadiah, bibliographer ° ° e ° 
Eng. Richard I, Coeur de Lion, king of England ° e 
Eng. —— III, king, killed at Bosworth ° ° ° 
Eng, Richardson, Charles, philologist (Eng. Dict.) - e 
Scot. , James, traveller in Africa ' e e 
Eng. -——, Samuel, eminent novelist . ° ° 
Scot. —, Sir John, naturalist and Arctic explorer 
Fr. Richelieu, A. J., du Plessis, cardinal and duke, statesman ° 
Ger. Richter, John Paul Frederick, novelist &ec, ° ° 
Eng. Ridley, Nicholas, bishop and prot. martyr id : m 
Span Riego y Nunez, Raphael de, patriot ° ° e 
Ital Rienzi, Nicholas Gabrino de, political reformer x F: 
Ital. Ristori, Adelaide, actress 4 ' ° 


BORY 
1810 
1628 
1713 
1821 


1777 
1785 
1789 
1759? 
1808 
1742 
1748 


1743 
1723 
1799 
1814 
1647 
1810 
1788 
1818 
1791 
1783 
1710 
1753 
1788 
1409 
1742 
1761 
1825 
1752 
1802 
1614 
1779 
1820 
1772 
1812 


1157 
1450 
1775 


1689 
1787 
1585 
1763 
1500 
1783 
1313 
1821 


999 


DIED, 


170! 
1796 


1862 
1849 


1857 
1830 
1854 
1807 
1785 


1825 
1803 
1838 
1865 
1709 


1000 


AATYON, 
Eng. 
Amer, 
Eng. 
Amer, 
Ger. 
Ger. 
Span. 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Amer. 
Scot. 
Scot 
Fr. 
Amer, 
Scot. 
Fr. 
Fr, 
Fr. 
Amer, 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Amer, 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Fr. 
Fr. 
Fr. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Rom. 
Ger. 
Eng. 
Span. 
Span. 
Rom. 

_ Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Ger. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Ital. 
Amer 
Ger. 


Ger. 
Ital, 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng 
Ital. 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS, 
NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ritchie, Leitch, journalist and autbor . ’ ° 
Ritchie, Thomas, journalist, ‘ Richmond Enquirer’ . 
Ritson, Joseph, lawyer, antiquary and critic . ° ° 
Rittenhouse, David, philosopher and astronomer e e 
Ritter, Aug. H., ‘History of Philosophy’ . ° 

, Charles, geographer ° e ° ° 
Rivas, Angel de Saavedra, duke of, soldier, statesman, poet 
Rives, M. C.(of Va.) statesman and diplomatist “ = 
Rives, John C., journalist, ‘ Washington Globe’ e ‘ 
Rivington, Jas., royalist printer of N. Y. ° e 
Roberts, David, landscape painter and author e e 
Robertson, William, celebrated historian ° ° 
Robespierre, F. M. J. L., ‘the terrorist’ of the revolution ; 
Robinson, Edward D. D., biblical geographer and philologist 


Rob Roy (Robert Macgregor) highland freebooter e (abt) 


Rochambean, J. B. D., count de, marshal ‘ 4 
Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, F. A. F., duke de la ir ° 
Rochejacquelin, H. de la, royalist leader . ° ° 
Rodgers, John, commodore U. 8. navy e e e 
Rodney, Geo. Brydges, lord, able admiral e e 
Roebuck, John Arthur, statesman . e ° ° 
Rogers, Henry, theologian and critic ° e e 
-, Henry Darwin, naturalist, professor in Glasgow ° 
» Samuel, poet . e ° 
Roget, Peter Mark, physiologist a philologist ° » 
Roland de la Platriere, J. M., revolutionist and author ° 
, M.J. P., Madame, martyr of the revolution ,. e 
Rollin, Charles, celebrated historian 4 e * 
Romaine, William, divine and author . ° e ° 
Romilly, Sir Samuel, jurist and statesman ° : 
Romulus, founder and first king of Rome 4 4 4 
Ronge, Johannes, educational and religious reformer e 
Rooke, Sir George, admiral . F . ° 
Rosa, don Francisco Martinez de la, statesman, poet, laatien &e. 
Rosas, don Juan, Manuel de, ruler of Buenos Ayres . e 
Roscius Quintus, actor of proverbial talent é é 
Roscoe, Henry, biographer . ° ° ° : 
——--—, William, biographer and miscellaneons writer ° 
Roscommon, Dillon Wentworth, earl of, poet . " 
Rose, Gustave, chemist . F e ° = 
—-, Hugh James, ‘ Biograph. Dict,’ e ® z 
» Wm. Stuart, translator of Ariosto . ‘ 
Rosellini, Hypolito, author of ‘Monuments of Ragnts &e. ° 
Rosecrans, W. §., gen.in Union army . é 3 
Rosenkranz, Jonas K. F., metaphysician and professor of phil- 
osophy e e . ° ° e 
Rosenmuller, E. F. C., orientalist : A . P 
Rosetti, Gabriele, poet, artist and critic . e ‘ 
Ross, Admiral Sir John, Arctic navigator “ 2 é 
——,, Sir James Clark, Arctic explorer ° Py * 
Rosse, Wm. Parsons, earl of, astronomer ° e e 


Rossini, Joachim, musical composer e e e 


1855 


1793 
1793 
1741 
1795 
1818 
B.O. 716 


1708 


B.O. 61 


1836 
1831 
1684 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 1001 


RATION. HAME AND PROFESSION. BORK, DIED 
Ger.J w.Rothschild, Meyer Anselm, founder of the great banking-house _—1780 182) 
——, Anselin at Frankfort, Nathan at London (d 1836) and 

Solomon, sons ot Meyer Anselm Rothscbild 


Ger, Rotteck, Chas. W. R. von, historian . . X if 1775 1849 
Fr. Rousseau, John Baptist, poet é : ; 1670 . 1741 
Fr. ————, John James, eloquent and paradoxical col ye e 1712 1778 
Eng. Rowe, Nicholas, poet laureate and dramatist ; : 1673 1718 
Ital, Rubini, Jno. Baptist, tenor vocalist , ° . ° 1795 1854 
Ger. Ruckert, Frederick, poet ; Z : 1789 
Amer. Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, count; officer (in foreign pedicles and 

philosopher ° . ° ° : 1753 1814 
Amet. Rumsey, James,inventor ., ° ° ° e «©1748 1792 
Ger. Rupert. prince, warrior . e e : ° 1619 1689 
Amer. Ruschenbezrger, W. 8. W., author of voyages and scientific works 1807 
Amer. Rush, Richard, diplomatist . . ° 2 1780 
Eng. Rushworth John, ‘ Historical Collections’? 3 R c 1607 1690 
Amer. Rusk, Thos, J., U. 8. senator trom Texas . 7 A 1803 1857 
Eng. Ruskin, John, writer on art . 4 1819 
Eng. Russel, Lady Rachel (wife of lord Wm.), stnae of $ Pere ’ 1636 1723 
Eng. , Lord William, one of the martyrs of liberty . e 1641 1683 
Scot. Ryasell, John Scoit, engineer, builder of ‘Great Eastern’? . 1808 
Eng. ——-, Lord John, now Ear! Russell, statesman and author . 1792 
Scot. » William, historian of modern Europe : ° 1746 1794 
Trish. » William H., Times correspondent and author . ° 1821 
Amer. Rutledge, Edward, statesman . F ° ° 1749 1800 
Amer, —, John (brother of above), statesman . ° e 1739 1800 
Dutch, Ruyter, M. A. de, admiral “ - ° ; 1607 1679 
Eng. Rymer, Thomas, antiquary, ‘Federa’ ° ° e 17138 

Se. 

Eng. Sabine, Major-General Edward, physicist e e om gl (90 
Eng. Sacheverell, Henry, tory divine, impeached for sedition ~ 1672 1724 
Fr. Sacy, Louis Isaac, Jansenist, translator of Bible : e 16138 1684 
Fr, ——,, Sylvester, baron de, orientalist ° ° ° 1758 1838 
Pers. Sadi, or Saadi, poet . : e ° e 1175 1296 
Eng. Sadler, Sir Ralph, diplomatist and hisiorian ° ° 1567 1587 
Turk, Said Pasha Mohammed, viceroy of Egypt ° ° ¢wotee 1863 
Fr. Saint-Arnaud, J. A. Leroy de, marshal , e e 1798 1854 
Amer, St. Clair, Arthur, general in Revolution . - s 1785 1818 
Fr. St. Hilaire. Auguste de, botanist . ° ’ 4 1799 1861 
Fr. ————, Geoff. S., naturalist and anatomist ° outils 1844 
Fr. St. Pierre, Marmitdi de, author of ‘Paul and Virginia,’ &c. 1786 1814 
Ital. St. Real, Cesar Vichard abbi de, historian 2 ° . 1639 1683 
Fr. _—_‘8t. Simon, Claudius, count de, philosopher 4 “ 1760 1823 
Eng. St. Vincent, John Jervis, ear! of, admiral e ° spect 1823 
Fr. Saintine, Xavier B., writer of tales ° ° ° 1790 
Eng. Sala, Geo. Augustus, journalist and author . F o eeksed 
Sar. Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria, celebrated warrior A 1137 119% 
Eng. Sales, George, historian and translator of the Koran . ° 1680 1736 
Eng. Salisbury, Robert Cccil, earl of, statesman < ° 1650 1619 


Rom. Saliust, Caius Crispus, historian e ° : f.B.O. 868.0. 38 


1002 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION, BORN. DIED 
Fr, Salmasius, Claudius, scholarand author . e ° 1588 1654 
Fr. Salvandy, N, A., comte de, statesman . F e e 4795 1856 
yr. Salverte, miscellaneous writer . ; e e 1771 1839 
Heb. Samson, judge of Israel ° ° e e . B.C. 12th Cent. 
Heb, Samuel, last judge of Israel ; e fe ° B. Oo. 11th Cent. 
Phe, Sanconiatho, philosopher and historian . ° . f. B. 0. 760 
Fr. Sand, George (Madame Dudevant), novelist e e 1804 
Amer. Sanderson, John, littérateur . . ° e - 1785 1844 
Amer. Sands, Robt. C., poet and littérateur 2 Pi F 1790 1832 
Eng. Sandwich, Edward Montague, earl of, naval officer . - 1623 1672 
ithe Sanson, Nicholas, geographer and engineer ° ° 1600 1667 
Mex. Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de, general and ex-president « 1798 
Gr. Sappho, poetess - . ° ° . f. B. 0. 606 
Chald, Sardanapalus, king of Nineveh ° ° “ B. 0. 8765 
Ital, Sarpi, Peter, better known as Father Paul, patriot and historian 1522 1623 
Heb. Saul, Ist king of Israel ° - ° ° p B. ©. 1055 
Fr. Sauley, Louis F. J., count de, antiquarian e ° 1807 
Fr. Saumarez, James, lord de, admiral . . ° Wee 2h 1836 
Fr, Saurin, divine and sermon-writer . ; ° e 1677 1730 
Fr. Saussure, H. B. de, naturalist and traveller . e » 1740 1799 
Fr. ————-, Nich. Theo. de, chemist, geoloe &. . . 1767 "1845 
Eng. Savage, Richard, poet ° « 1697 1748 
Fr. Savary, Nicholas, ‘ Life of Mahomet,’ ‘ Teiters on Egypt? ° 1750 1788 
Ger. Savigny, Fred. C. von, historian of Roman law ° - 1779 1861 
Ital. Savonarola, Jerome, monk, famed for zeal and eloquence , 1452 1498 
Pole-Fr. Saxe, Maurice, count de, celebrated general in the French service 1696 1750 
Ger. Saxe-Weimar, Bernard, duke of, warrior A ° . 1600 1639 
Dan. Saxo-Grammaticus, historian c “ * : 1134 1208 
Fr, Say, Horace Emile, political economist, son of J. B. Say - 1794 
Fr. —, Jean Baptiste, writer on politicaleconomy . ° 1767 1832 
Amer, —-, Thomas, naturalist . “ . ° o, Lili 1824 
Ital. Scaliger, Joseph Justus, critic and historian ° o  * 1640 1609 
Ital —-—, Julius Cesar, learned critic . . ° - 1484 1558 
Scandenberg (real name Geo. Castriot), Albanian prince and warrior 1404 1467 
Ger. Scapula, John, lexicographer ° “ ° - 1540 1600 
Eng. Scarlett, James, lst lord Abinger, jurist . ° ° 1769 1844 
Fr. Scarron, P., comic poet and satirist . > + e 1610 1660 
Ger. Schadow, Julien Gottfried, sculptor A . e 1764 
Swe. Scheele, Charles Wm., eminent chemist e e - 1742 1786 
Ger. Schelling, Fred. Augs., novelist . e . 7 1766 1839 
Ger. —m——-, Fred. W.d., philosopher . ° e «1775 1854 
Amer. Schenck, np bert CO, statesman and general, (Ohio) : “ 
Pruss, Schill, Ferdinand von, intrepid and patriotic officer . eee iy: 1809 
Ger. Schiller, John Frederic C., eminent historian and dramatist 1759 1805 
Schimmelpenninck, Mary A., ‘Mem. Port Royal’ . oe 1856 
Ger. Schlegel, A. W. vor, critic and essayist . 3 1767 1845 
Ger, ——-—, Fred. C. W. von, critic and historian Spa yh 1829 
Ger. Schliermacher, F. D. E., classical philologist and iliaglociah 1768 1834 
Ger. Schlosser, M.S. F., historian i e e oo ae 186. 
Ger. Schmidt, Michael Ignatius, historian 2 e ries 1786 1794 
Amer, Schofield, major-genera! and governor Virginia 8 A 
Ger. Scholl, historian , ° ° ° e . 1766 1839 


J 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 


MATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN, 
Dutch. Schomberg, Armand Frederick, warrior x e ; 1619 
Ger. Schomburgk, Sir Robert H., vaturalist and traveller : 1804 
Amer, Schoolcraft, Henry R., traveller and historian of the Indians 1793 
Ger. Schopenhauer, J. F., novelist : ° “ . 1770 
Dutch. Schrevelius, Cornelius, lexicographer F A 4 1615 
Ger. Schullembourg, John Matthias, warrior ° : ; 1661 
Dutch. Schumacher, H. C., astronomer , “ 1780 
Ger. Schu.z, C. G., critic and littérateur , ° a ox el kaee 
Amer. Schuyler, Philip, general officer in Revolution . ° 1731 
Ger. Schwartzenberg, Chas. Ph., prince, general , 6 A 1771 
Ger, —————-—_,, prince F.., premier of Austria , ° 1800 
Ger. Scioppius, Gaspar, philologist and grammarian ° 7 1576 
Rom. Scipio, Aimilianus Publius, able warrior, (minor) - 
Rom. , Publius Cornelius, surnamed Africanus, able warrior, (major) 
Scot. Scott, Oielinel, philosopher, supposed magician . . 
Eng. —-, Thomas, divine and bible commentator x e . 1747 
Scot. » Sir Walter, one of the most eminent, voluminous and popular 
writers of nodern times . ° . i771 
Amer. , Winfield, lieutenant general commander-in-chicf U. S.army 1786 
Fr. Seribe, Eugene, dramatist ° ° ° ° 1791 
Fr. Sebastian, count Horate, marshal of France, statesman . 1775 
Eng. Secker, Thomas, eminent prelate ‘ . _ 1693 
Dutch. Secundus, John, Latin poet e o. 2 151t 
Amer. Sedgewick, Cathari ine M., Miss, novelist and ibanihroriat 1790 
Amer. -, John, (of Pe Union general ° « 1815 
Amer. , Theodore, statesman and political economist , 1780 
Amer. , Theodore, (son) lawyer and writer A e 1811 
Eng. Sedley, Sir Charles, poet e 3 e e 16389 
Fr. Ségur, cout Louis de, diplomatist and writer P A 1753 
Eng. Selden, John, antiquary and historian - . ‘ 1584 
Scot. Selkirk, Alexander, seaman and adventurer ® e 
Scot. Selwyn, George Augustus, (Life by J pe) A > 
Chald, Semiramis, queen of Assyria ; f. B. o, 1250 
Rom. Seneca, Lucius Annzus, philosopher, Became and moralist B.o. 2 
Eng. Senior, Nassau W.., political economist cee 90 
Ger. Sennefelder, Aloys, of Munich, inventor of lithography - 1771 
Span. Sepulveda, John Ginez de, historian A : P 1499 
Amer. Sergeant, John, jurist and statesman i a . 1779 
Rom. Sertorus, Quintus, warrior and naval commander ° A 
Span. Servetus, Michacl, polemical writer against Calvin 5 1509 
Egypt. Sesostris, king of Egypt 4 - e f. B. 0. 1500 
Fr. Sévigné, Mary de, marchioness of, epistolary hs ° 1627 
Eng. Berens Anna, poetess, (Letters) e “ Ayo ey: 
Amer. » William H., statesman, U.S. senator from N. Y., sec of state 1801 
Eng. Shadwell, T., poet laureate 4 ° ° 1640 
Eng. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, oe of, statesman ae ge 262) 
Eng. , Anthony A. Cooper, 38d ear!, ‘ Characteristics? 1671 
Eng. Shakespear e, Jokn, orientalist . . . e 1774 
Eng. » William, the greatest of dramatic poets e 1564 
Eng. Sharp, Granrille, philanthropist . : ee 
Scot. , James, archt, St. Andrews, assassinated , . 1618 
Eng. Shaw, George, naturalist . ° ° « 1761 


1003 


DIED 
1694 
186% 
1864 
1838 
1667 
1747 
185 


1804 
1826 
1852 
1649 


B. 0. 128 
B. O. 189 


B. OG. 


1291 
1821 


1832 
1866 
1861 
1851 
1768 
1536 
1867 
1864 
1839 
1859 
1701 
18380 
1654 
1723 


65 
1864 
1834 
1572 
1852 ° 

73 
1553 


1696 
1809 


1692 
1683 
1713 
1858 
1616 
1813 
1679 
181% 


1004 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 


MATION. NAME AND PROFESSION, BORN. DIED 
Amer. Shays, Daniel, leader in Shay’s rebellion > . 1740 1823 
Amer. Shedd, W. G., D. D., theologidn, historian, and critic ° 
Eng. Sheepshanks, John, founder of picture gallery ° e 1787 1863 
Eng. Shelley, Mary W. widow of P, B., the poet, novelist . » 1798 1851 
Eng. , Percy Bysshe, eminent poet and atheist . ° 1792 1822 
Eng. Shenstone, William, poet - : ; “ ‘ 1714 1763 
Amer. Sheridan, Philip H. general, and governor military department 
Eng. —-—-, Richard Briusley, dramatist and orator ° ¢ UAT6) 1816 
Eng. ———-, Thomas, actor, and author ° ° e 1722 1788 
Eng. Sherlock,. Thomas, bishop of London é oT 1678 1761 
Amer, Sherman, Roger, patriot and self-taught statenian - ° 1721 1793 
Amer. ————-, John, U.S senator from Ohio . ° ‘ 
Amer. —, William T., general ° e e ° 
Eng. Sherwood Mrs., novelist ° ° i ° » 1775 1852 
Irish. Shiel, Richard Lalor, statesman and dramatist e . 1792 1851 
Eng. Shirley, James, dramatist . ° ° ° ° 1594 1666 
Eng. Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, able naval officer ° e 1650 1705 
Amer. Shubrick, John Templar, naval officer e e e ° 1778 1815 
Amer, —— , William B., rear admiral 3 . ° 
Eng. Shuckford, Rev. Samuel, ‘ Connect. Oldand New Tesament’ 1754 
Eng. Sibbes, Richard, theologian, ‘ Bruised Reed’ ° rege iy ks 1635 
Eng. Siddons, Sarah, the most eminent of tragic actresses : 1755 1831 
Eng. Sidmouth, viscount, (H. Addington) statesman ° e 1757 * 1844 
Eng. Sidney, Algernon, martyr of liberty and author , “ 1620. 1683 
Eng. -, Sir Philip, accomplished officer and author . eo ~-1554- ~~ 1586 
Ger.  Siebold, Ph, F. Von, naturalist and botanist ° e 1796 
Amer. Sigel, Franz, general in Union army, war 1861-65 e o7 -1824~ . 
Amer. Sigourney, Lydia H., poetand essayist . ° *s » L791 . 1865 
Amer. Silliman, Benjamin, chemist and geologist . . » 1779 1864 
Amer, ———, Benjamin (son), chemist and geologist 6 e 
Eng. Simeon, Rev. Charles, theological writer and editor e - 1759 . 1886 
-, Simon Stylites, Syrian Ascetic ° ° eo ) (892% 461? 
Amer, Simms, William Gilmore, novelist and poet ° ° 1806 
Gr. Simonides, of Amorgus, Iambic poet ° e B. 0, 660? 
Gr. -——, of Eos, lyric poet e e oy ste 650? 
Scot. Simpson, Robert, mathematician ° e ° - 1687 1768 
Eng. ——, Thomas, ee, ° ° ° 1710 1761 
Eng. Sinclair, Oatharite, authoress ¥ e 1800 1864 
Hind. Sing, M, rajah Runjeet, chief of Latins and Cachet ° 1779 1839 
Swiss. Sismondi, J. 0. L., historian A ° ° 1773 1842 
Eng. Skelton, Jolin, poet laureate to Beary, VIilI e é 1450 P 1529 
Ger. Sleidan John Philipson, historian  . ° e e 1506 1556 
Eng. Sloane, Sir Hans,.eminert naturalist . ° 1660 1752 
Scot. Smith, Adam, celebrated writer on morals and political bende 1728 1790 
Scot. ——, Alex, oer ° e ns 5 ‘ 1830 
Eng. ——, Charlotte, poet : A : : . 1749 1806 
Amer, , General Samuel, military commander and statesman 1752 1839 
Eng. » Horace, poet, ‘Rejected Suahgatsy &e. ‘ eas 1848 
Eng. , James, poet, af ° ° 1775 183¢ 
Eng. ——, John, ‘ History Viginia A . o 1579 1631 
Eng. , John Pye, theological writer * A 2 1774 1851 
Amer. , Joseph, Mormon prophet e “ é « 1805 1844 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 1005 


NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED, 
Eng. Smith, Rev, Sidney, essayist, critic and moralist ‘ 1768 1848 
Eng. ———, Sir James E., botanist and naturalist . ° e 1759 1828 
Eng, , Sir William Sidney, military commander , 1764 184¢ 
Eng. ——, T. Southworth, writer on sanitary reform - » 1790 1861 
Eng. ———, William, ntl scholar and author : 1814 
Eng, - Sinithson, James, founder of the Smithsonian Institute (U 8.) 1835 
Scot. Smollett, Dr. Tobias, novelist and historian ° . 1721 1771 
Eng. Smyth, Wnm., Pr. of History at Cambridge, author, lecturer - 1764 1849 
Eng. » Wm. Henry, admiral, scientific writer : ° 1788 1865 
Eng. Soane, Sir John, architect and virtuoso : . ae ios 1837 
Pol, Sobieski, John IIT., king of Poland, warrior : 4 1629 1696 
Ital. Socinus, Faustus, founder of the Socinian sect = « 1539 1594 
Gr. Socrates, one of the greatest of ancient philosophers e B.C. 470 3. ¢.400 
Gr. —, ecciesiastical historian : “ ° - _ 5th cent., a. v. 
Span. Solis, Antonio de, historian of Mexico . ° ° 1610 1686 
Heb. Solomon, king of Israel and author of Proverbs . ° B. 0. 975 
Gr. Solon, the illustrious legislator of Athens . ° ° f. B. c. 598 
Eng. Somers, Lord John, chancellor and political writer . » 1650 1716 
Eng. Somerville, Mrs. Mary, astronomer ~ A e 1790 
Eng. — ,» Wm., poet, ‘The Chase’ , ° ° e 1692 1743 
Ger. Sontag, Henrietta, countess de Rossi, vocalist —§ . z 1804 1854 
Gr. Sophocles, eminent tragic poet ° ° B. 0. 495 B. 0.404 
Fr. Sorbonne, R. de, theologian, founder of the 8. Caters at Paris, 1201 1274 
Amer. Soulé, Pierre, U. 8S. senator from Louisiana, and diplomatist ., 
Fr. Soulié, Frederick, novelist and dramatist , ‘ . 1800 =: 1847 

Soulouque, Faustin, ex-emperor of Hayti ° 1789 
Fr. Soult, Nicholas J. de D., duke of Dalmatia, marshal of Pennie 

and statesman ° . . . 1769 1851 

Eng. — South, Robert, eminent divine ‘ - 1638 1716 
Amer. Southard, Samuel L., sec. navy, and senator U. 8., N. Y. ° 1787 1842 
Eng. Southcott, Joanna, fanatic, (her sect not yet extinct) . Aye aL 1814 
Eng. Southerne, J., dramatic writer and poet . ° ° 1662 1746 
Eng. Southey, Mrs. Robt., (Caroline Bowles), poet . ° Hen Wich) 1854 
Eng. , Robert, poet, historian, biographer . a 1775 1843 
Fr. Souvestre, Emile, essayist F f ° ° « 1806 1854 
Fr. Soyer, Alexis, famous cook and writer on Cookery . ; 1800 1858 
Gr. Sozomen, ecclesiastical historian é ° e . 450 
Amer. Sparks, Jared, historian and biographer . . - (abt.) 1794 1866 
Eng. Speke, Capt. John H., explorer, discov. source of Nile . «+1827 1864 
Eng. Spelman, Sir Henry, historian and antiquary -~ . A 1561 1643 
Eng. Spence, Wm., entomologist . ° ° ° » 1783 1860 
Amer. Spencer, Ambrose, chief-justice of New York ° ° 1765 1848 
Eng. , earlof, statesman . vf e e « 1758 1835 
Amer. ———-, John C., jurist and sec, navy he, e 1788 1855 
Eng. , Wm. R,, translator . ° ° ° « 1770 1834 
Eng. Saanner.: Se alsand, eminent poet . e ° ° 1553 1598 
Span. Spinola, er yone. marquis de, warrior ° ° e, 1571 1636 
Dutch. Spinoza, Bened., metaphysician, (atheist?) . ° ° 1633 1677 
Ger. Spohr, Louis, musical composer 5 © e e 1783 
Amer. Spooner, Shearjashub, (Diet of Painters) . ° 
Ger. Sprengel, Kent, botanist . ° - 1586 1883 
Eng. Spurgeon, Rey. Charles, popular Baptist Fc a 1832 


1006 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
Ser. Spurzheim, Dr., celebrated phrenologist, (died at Bostony - 
Amer. Sprague, Charles, poet . ° . « 
Amer, , Wm. B., D. D., Presbyterian clergyman and historian . 
Amer. Squier, E, Geo., aeiiee and antiquary . ° . 
Eng. Stackhouse, Thomas, divine and author, ‘ Hist. Bible’ . s 
Fr. Stael-Holstein, Anne L, G., baroness de, authoress e 
Fr. ——, Madame, talented writer : . ° ° 
Eng. Standish, Miles, military leader PilgrimsinN. E. . ° 
Eng  Stanfteld, Clarkson, marine painter . ° e e 
Eng. Stanhope, Charles, earl, politician and inventor : . 
Eng. Stanhope, Lady Esther, eccentric traveller , ss 
Eng. —, Phil., Hon., earl of, known as Lord Mahon, nhetociate 
Amer. Stanton, Edwin ae etary of war . ° ° ° 
Amer, Stark, John, distinguished officer in the Revolution ° 
Rom, Statins, Publius Pepinus, poet ° ° ° 
Eng. Staunton, Sir Geo, L. ‘Embassy to China’. ' e 
Irish. Steele, Sir Richard, essayist and dramatist Fi ° e 
Eng. Steevens, Geo,, ‘Comment. on Shakespeare’ ° ° 
Eng. Stephen, Henry, Prof. Hist., statesman and author . ° 
Fr. Stephens, Anthony, Charles, Robert and Henry, printers . 
Amer, —-, John L., traveller and author ° e ° 
Eng. Stephenson, George, engineer . ° e e 
Eng. , Robert, ~ ° e ° ° 
Scot. Sterling, Wit M. P., bibliographer sind critic e ° 
Ger. Sternberg, ater Leron von, miscellareous author ° e 
Trish, Sterne, Lawrence, miscellaneous writer . e ° 
Kng. Sternhold, Thos., versifier of Psalms . ° ° ° 
Pruss, Steuben, Fred. W. A, baron, who generously aided the American 
cause . ° ° ° ° . 
Amer, Stevens, Robt. Livingston, inventor . ° e 
Amer. Stevenson, Andrew, of Va., minister to England ° ° 
Amer. Stewart, Charles S., Rev., chap!ain in the U. 8, Navy and author 
Scot. , Dugald, eminent philosopher and writer e e 
Amer. Stiles, Ezra, theologian and historian ; rf * 
Eng. Stillingfleet, Dr. E., bishop of Worcester and author - 
Amer, Stone, Wm. L., historian of ‘ Six Nations,’ ‘ Brandt,’ and ‘ Red 
Jacket? e . ¢ e e 
Russ. Storch, Henry F., political economist . A : A 
Amer, Story, Joseph, jurist and writer on jurisprudence , ° 
Eng. Stow, John, antiquary and historian . e - os 
Amer. Stowe, Calvin E., biblical critic A é - 
Amer. , Harriet Beecher, Mrs., novelist . - ‘ 
Eng. Stowell, lord, jurist * ° ° e e 
Gr. Strabo, eminent geographer . . e e . 
Eng. Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, statesman . e 
Eng. Stratford de Redcliffe, viscount, diplomatist . e - 
Ger. Strauss, Dav. Fred., author of sceptical ‘ Life of Jesus’ ‘ 
Ger. , Ger. Fred. Alb., prof. of theology and author , : 
Eng. Strickland, Agnes, historian of ‘Queens of England’ - 
Eng. Stryp*, John, theologian, biographer and historian ° ‘ 
Russ. Struve, Fred. Geo. Wm., astroncmer - e 7 
Beot. Stuart, Gilbert, historian . e . e e 


BORN. pet Bi) 
1776 1838 
1791 
1795 
1820 
1680 1753 
1766 1813 
1693 1750 
1584? 1656 
1798 1867 
1753 1816 
17716 1839 
1805 
1728 1822 

61? 96? 
1737 180t 
1671 1729 
17386 1800 
1789 1859 

16th rent. 

1805 1852 
1788 1848 
1803 1859 
1806 1844 
1806 
1718 1768 

1549 

1794 
1749 1838 
1784 1857 
1798 

1753 1828 
1727 1795 
1633 1698 
1793 1844 
1766 1835 
1779 1845 
1525 1605 
1814 
1746 1836 

19 ' 

1593 1641 
1788 
1808 
1786 
1806 
1643 1787 
1793 1864 
1742 1784 


BATION , NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 
Eng. St art, James, architect and author " is * 1713 
Amer. ——, James E. B., Confederate general * 1832 ? 
Amer, » Moses, Peoria and philologist , % é 1780 
Eng. Sturge, Joseph, philanthr opist ‘ “ . 
Ger. Sturm, Christopher C., theol. writer, ¢ Refigetions,? Oris x 1740 
Dutch-Amer. Stuyvesant, eared ino Dutch gov. N. Netherlands » 1602 
Fr, Suchet, Louis Gabriel, celebrated marshal , i J 1772 
Eng. Suckatne: Sir John, poet and dramatist . is r 1613 
Fr, Sue, Eugene, novelist : ° 2 - 1808 
Rom, Suetonius, Paulinus, warrior . ‘ ~ 4 37 
Rom. , Tranquillus Caius, Matatian Pp a s €. 100 
Dan. Suhnm, Peter Fr ed., eminent historian A ‘3 : 1728 
Gr. Suidas, Greek lexicographer ; ° e f. abt 1000 
Amer. Sullivan, Jas., gov. Mass., political writer ° ° = 1744 
Amer, —, John, revolutionary general P ° F 1740 
Amer, —, Wm. LL. D., political writer - ° ‘ 1774 
Fr. Sully, Maximilian de Bethune, duke of warrior and statesman 1560 
Amer. » Thomas, portrait painter : é ° 1783 
Amer, Gumaiaerielts John, eloquent Methodist preacher ¥ 1798 
Amer. Samuner, Charles, U. 8. sen. from M: i8s., orator and philanthropist 1811 
Amer — Edwin Vose, Union general : 7 seeali06 
Bing. John Bird, archbishop of Cante en and eile " 1780 
Amer. Sumter, Thomas, Reyolutionary gen. of S. C. 4 e 1734 
Eng. Sunderland, Robt. Spencer, 2d earl, ee e e 1641 
Eng. Surrey, Henry Howard, earl of, poet. . ° e 1515 
Eng. Surtees, Robt., antiquary aud poet r . . 1779 
Hog. Sussex, Aug, Fred., duke of, son of Geo. IIL . ‘ oth 2PB 
Eng. Sutton, Chas. Manners, arch. of Canterbury ° 1755 
Russ. Suvaroff, or Suwarow, prince Alexander, celebrated and reel war- 

rior . ° ‘ ° ‘ ° < 1730 
Eng. Swain, Charles, poet ‘ ‘ ° e ° 1803 
Dutch, Swammerdam, John, naturalist and anatomist . e ° 1637 
Swe. Swedenborg, Emanuel, founder of asect . e ° 1689 
Trish. Swift, Jonathan, celebrated satirist , 7 ° e 1667 
ng. Swinburne, hs ea poet ‘ a ° 
Amer, Swinton, Wm., critic and historian, ‘ Army of Svar ot wits 
Eng. Sydenham, OC. W. Poulett, lord, gov. gen. of Canada, &, . 1793 
Rom. Sylla, Lucius Cornelius, warrior and brutal usurper . B. ©. 137 
Eng. Syms, Michael Col., ‘Embassy to Ava’ , - ° 
Afric. Syphax, Numidian prince . ° ° ° ‘ 

T 

Rom. Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, eminent historian ° ° 56 
Rom. , Marcus Claudius,emperor . A ‘ ° 200 
Swe. Taglioni, Marie, dansuese z ° ° ° 1804 
Eng. Talbot, Jno., Ist earl of Shrewsbury, gen.in France . 7 1373 
Amer, , Silas, mil. and naval officer in Revolution . ° 1750 
Kng. Talfourd, Thomas Noon, jurist, dramatist, and essayist o «=: 1995 
Fr. Talleyrand, prince, statesman, and diplomatist . P 1754 
Eng. Tallis, Thos,, musical composer , ° ° «1528 
Amer. Tallmadge, Benj., Revol, officer . “ 1754 
Fr. Talma, Francis J oseph, one of the proniaet: of stars : © 1763 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 


1008 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 
Tartar. Tamerlane, Timur Beg or Timoor, celebrated Tartar prince 
and conqueror ° ° g e 
Amer. Taney, Roger B., chief-justice U. 8, . ° ° ot OMT 
Scot. Tannahill, Robt., poet . ° ° ° ° 1774 
Span. Tapia, Eugenio, miscellaneous writer e ° ° 
Eng. ‘Tarleton, Bannastre, royalist officerin America . ° 1754 
Ital. Tasso, Bernardo, poet, author of Amadis de Gaul e - 1493 
Ital, , Lorquato, one of the greatest of Italian poets ° 1544 
Ger. Tauchnitz, Bernard, publisher at Leipsic 2 ° ° 
Ger. ——, Karl, eminent publisher at Leipsic e ° 
Amer. Taylor, Bayard, traveller, poet, and lecturer . ° «31825 
Eng. , Isaac, essayist . e ° 1787 
Eng. , Jeremy, prelate and Sonos s writer . ° - 1613 
Heng. , John, ‘the Water Poet’ . 5 ° ° 1580 
Eng. . Sir Robert, sculptor and architect ° e ° 1714 
Eng. ——, Thomas, editor of Plato and other classics . ° 1758 
Eng. , Lom, dramatist . ° - e « 1827 
Eng. ——, Wm., miscellaneous writer. ° ° ° 1800 
Amer, , Zachary, major-general U. 8 Army, victor in Mexico, 
pres. U.S. 2 . ° ‘ 1784 
Tecumseh, Ludian chief (k. at Tippecsnssy ° = ° 
Eng. Telford, Thomas, eivil engineer . ° ° 1757 
Swiss. Tell, William, one of the champions of eel liberty . ° 
Eng. Temple, Sir William, statesman and writer . ° 1628 
Amer. Tennent, Gilbert, clergyman and writer ° e « 1703 
Amer. —, Rev. Wm., famous for ‘ France’ . ° ° 1705 
Eng. ———-, Sir Jas. Emerson, statesman and writer x - 1804 
Ger. Tennyman, William T., ‘ Hist. of Philosophy’ ° ° 1761 
Ring. Teniyson, Alfted, edt! laureate : ° ° 1810 
Eng. Tenterden, Chas. Abbott, lord, jurist, chief-justice KB. 1762 
Rom. ‘Terence, or Terrentius, comic writer . B. 0. 192 
Tertullian, Q. S. F., one of the most learned of the Fathers of 
the Church ° 160 
Amer, Terry, Alfred H., of Ct., Union Sipered, victor at Fort Fisher ° 
Eng. Thackeray, Wm. A aksansagae writer and essayist . ; 1811 
Ger. Thaer, Albert, writer on agriculture . . ° » 1752 
Ger. Thalberg, Sigismund, pianist : . ° Fy 1812 
Ger. Thales, one of the seven sages, founder of the Tonic school of 
Philosophy . ° ° e B, 0. 639 
Gr. Themistocles, eminent Aibabian e ° ° e 8B. 535 
ipo Thénard, chemist and statesman . . ° ° . 
Gr. Theoeritus, pastoral poet . e ° - f. B. 0. 285 
Eng. ‘Theobald, Lewis,comment.onShakspeare . 2 ° 
Gr. Theodoret, ecclesiastical historian ° e ° 386 
Rom. Theodosius, Flavius, Roman emperor and warrior ‘ i 346 
Gr. Theophrastus, celebrated philosopher F : o «) B. 02 37k 
Span. Theresa, St., Carmelite nun and mystical writer a e 1515 
Eng. Thesiger, Sir Fred., attorney-general of England . E 1794 
Gr. Thespis, poet, said to be the inventor of tragedy ‘ B. 0. 576 
Fr. Thibaudeau, A. C., count, historian . . A; a 
Fr. Ihierry, Jas. Nich. Augustine, historian . . e 1795 
Fr. —, Amédée 8. D., historian ji « e e 1797 


1863 
1828 


B. 0. 543 
B.C. 470 


1744 
457 
898 


1584 


1856 


ee 


SATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 
Fr. Thiers, Adolphe, historian and statesman . : ° 1798 
Ger. Thiersch, F. W., Greek philologist, &c, : : » 1784 
Ger. Thirwall, Dr. Conop, bishop of St. David's, historian ° 1797 
Ger. Tholuck, Fred. Aug., theologian ° t ° ‘ 1799 
Amer. Thompson, Benj. See Rumford . ° : ° 
—-, Col. Thos. Peyronnet, political reformer and author 1782 
Scot. Thomson, Anthony T., medical and misc. writer ; of 1378 
Amer, , Chas., president of Congress . ° ‘ 1729- 
Scot. , Dr. Thomas, chemist e e ° ° 1773 
Scot. , James, popular poet » e 1700 
Amer. Thoreau; Henry D., naturalist, geologist and pastel 4 <> SLT 
Dan. Thorwaldsen, abort: sculptor . 3 ‘ ei 1771 
Gr. Thrasybulus, Athenian general = - - . 
Gr. Thucydides, historian . . ° ° ° 8B. 0, 459 
Eng. Thurlow, Edward, lord, lord chancellor ° ° e 1732 
Rom. ‘Tiberius, Claudius Drusus Nero, warrior and emperor ° B. 0. 84 
Bom. Tibullus, Aulus Albius, elegiac poet . . e f. B. Cc. 30 
Eng. ‘Lickell, Thomas, poet and essayistin Spectator , é 1686 
Amer, Ticknor, George, historian of Spanish literature “ < 1791 
Ger. Tieck, Ludwig, poet and essayist . ° ° e 1773 
Eng. ‘Tighe, Mrs. Mary, poetess, ‘Psyche’ . ° ° . 1774 
Tillotson, John, eminent prelate and archb. Canterbury . 1630 
Ger. Tilly, John F., count de, military commander. ° - 1559 
Gr. Timoleon, of Corinth, liberator of Syracuse . . 
Tart. Timour Beg. See Tamerlane Fi " A 4 
Hind, Tippoo-Saib, sultan of Mysore, Indian warrior ° “ 17389 
Swiss. Tissot, arEROH A. medical writer : “ ° 1728 
Rom. Titus, Sabinus Vespasianus Flavius, emperor, father of his people 40 
Eng. Tobin, John, dramatist,‘ Honey Moon’ , : e 1770 
Fy, Tocqueville, Alexis de, publicist and statesman A 4 1805 
Eng. Todd, Robt. B., ‘Medical Cyclopedia’ &c, ° ° 1810 
Russ. ‘Todleben, Fr. Raw. ., gen, of engineers . * 1818 
Eng. Tomline, Geo., prelate and writer, bishop of Muinahertee 4 1750 
Amer. Tompkins, Daniel D., vice-pres. U. 8S, ° : omen Luge 
frish. Tone, Theobald Wolfe, gen. in Irish rebellion e ° 1763 
Eng. Tooke, John Horne, politician and philologist . ° ° 1736 
Eng. , Thos., ‘History of Prices’ . e 1774 
Eng. ,» Wm., miscellaneous writer 6 ° ° % 6 1744 
Eng. Toplady, Augustus M., eminent divine . “ . 1740 
Span. Torquemada, Thos. de, Inquisitor general : K Pi 
Trish. Torrens, colonel, novelist and political economist . ° 1783 
Amer, Torrey, John, botanist and chemist . : 4 
Torricelli, Evangelista, mathematician, inv. of barometer e 1608 
Totila, king of the Ostrogoths, captor of Rome . : ‘ 
Amer. Totten, Joseph G., military engineer , * “ 1788 
Amer. Touro, Judah, Hebrew philanthropist _ % 1776 
Toussaint Ouverture, negro, pres. of Hayti y x 1745 
Eng. Townsend, Geo., prebendary, ‘Comment.on Bible? . 
Fr. Tracy, A L. C. Destutt, comte de, writer on Education and Phi- 
losophy . ° e e 1754 
Eng. Traill, Thos, J., editor Fin ovale Britannica’ A A - 1781 
Rom. ‘Trajan, Marcus U. C., able emperor and warrior , . 62 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 


1009 


DIED 


1860 


1849 
1824 
1853 
1748 
1862 
1844 

B. 0. 389 
BO. 400 
1806 

37 


1740 


1853 
1810 
1694 
1632 
B. ©. 337 


1799 
1797 

81 
1804 
1859 
1866 


1787 
1825 
1798 
1812 
1858 
1820 
1778 
1498 
184¢ 


1647 
852 


1854 
180d 
1857 


1836 
1862 
117 


1010 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


NATIUN, NAME AND PROFESSION. BDRN. 
Eng. Tredgold, Thos., civil engineer and author ; A 1788 
Eng. ‘Trench, Rev. Rich. Chenevix, poet, philologist and (iealngsite 1807 
Ger. Trenck, Fred., baron de, celebrated for his adventures . 7 1726 
Eng. Trimmer, Mrs. Sarah, misc. writer é ° % 1741 
Rr Tristan, P Hermite, Francis, poet Z 4 é e 1601 
Eng. ‘Troliope, Mrs. Frances, novelist and traveller ; ° 1778 
Dutch. Tromp, Martin H. van, celebrated admiral ° ° . 1597 
Amer, ‘Trovert, Gerard, chemist and yeologist F ° e 1776 
Amer. Trumbuii. Col. John, statesman und hist. painter ° e 1756 
Amer. —— , Benj., historian of Connecticut . ° A 1785 
Amer, ———-——, Jonathan, statesman, gov. Connecticut ° - 1740 
Amer ——, John, poet, born in Ot. ‘ a ° 1750 
Eng. ‘Truro, Thos., baron (Sir T. Wilde), ex-lord-chancellor . . 6atee 
Amer. Truxton, Thos., naval commander A 5 1755 
. Eng. Tucker, Abraham, metaphysical writer 3 . : 1705 
Amer , Beverley, lawyer and novelist 5 e e 1784 
Amer. Tuckerman, Henry T., critic and essayist Z “ ° 
Amer. , J08., writer and philanthropist . ° 1778 
Amer. Tudor, Wm., editor N. Amer. Rev. and biographer : PBN i 
Eng. Tupper, Martin Farquhar, poet and essayist ° e 1810 
Fr. Turenne, Viscount de, eminent warrior A ° o, — $GLe 
Fr. Turgot, Anne Robt. Jas., statesman é e e 1727 
Eng. Turner, Dawson, botanist and antiquary ° ° e 
Eng. -, Edward, ‘Elements of Chemistry’ e . 1798 
Amer. , Samuel H., Rev., theologian and critic ° eo, a IGE 
Eng. , Sharon, ‘ History of England’ ° ° ° 1768 
Amer. -, Wm. W., printer and philologist ° ° 5 1810 
Turretin, Benedict, theologian, (Prof. at Geneva) . e 1588 
——, Francis, (son) net ay ve e « 1623 
——, John A. (son) eormnee “6 > 1671 
Eng. Tusser, Thos., author of ‘500 points of Good Husbantey? - 1500 
Amer. Twiggs, David E., rebel general . > . ‘ 1790 
Eng. Twining, Rev. Thos. ., translator of Aristotle . ° « 1784 
Amer. ‘Tyler, John, ex-pres. U. 8., and rebel A 1790 
Eng. Tyndale, Wm., reformer and first translator of the Bible mto 
English ° 4 . ° - 1500 
Amer. Tyng, Stephen H., D. D., epis. divine ae author , e 1800 
Eng. ‘Tyrrell, James, historian 7 F ° e . 1642 
Gr. Tyrtzus, poet ° . ° - f. B. 0. 668 
Scot Tytler, Alex. Fraser, historical and misc, rites . ° 1747 
Scot. , Patrick Fraser, historian, ‘ Life Mary Queen of Scots’ 1790 
Scot. ———, Wm., historical and misc, writer ° e rs 1711 
OU 
Ger. Uhland, Ludwig, poet ° 3 ° e o 1787 
Span. Ulloa, Don Anthony de, navigator and author e e 1716 
Uncas, North American Indian chief (Mohegans) e 1680 
Eng. Upcott, William, autograph collector and historian e 1779 
Amer, Upshur, Abel P., of Va., judge and secretary of state . e 
Scot. Ure, Andrew, M. D., chemist and author e e 1778 
Lrish. Usher, James, learned divine and historian * 5 1680 


DIEB 
1829 


1794 
1816 
1658 
1863 
1652 
1850 
1848 
1820 
1809 
1831 
1853 
1822 
1774 
1851 


1840 
1830 


1675 
1781 
1858 
1839 
1861 
1847 
1859 
1631 
1687 
1737 
1536 
1862 
1804 
1862 


1536 
1718 
1813 


1849 
1792 


179 


1845 
1844 
1854 
1654 


NATION, 
Fr. 
Dutch, 
Fr. 


Rom. 
Rom. 
Rom. 
Ital. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Dutch. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer, 
Rom. 
Ital, 
Ger. 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 


Vv 
NAME AND PROFESSION, 
Vailliant, Sebastiat, eminent botanist ‘ 


Valcknenaer, Louis Gaspar, able philologist and critio x 
Valdo, Peter, founder of the sect of Waldenses 


1011 

BORN. DIED 
1669 1722 

1715 1785 


f. 12th cent. 


Valentia, George A., viscount, ‘ Voyages and Travels? e 61770 1844 
Valerian, emperor ‘ ‘ ‘ ° 260? 
Valerius Flaccus, poet : ° e e ° 887 
Maximus, historian . ° ° ° f. 30 
Valla, Laurence, eminent philologist e e 1406 1457 
Van Buren, Martin, president of the United States ° 1782 1864 
Vancouver, George, navigator ° ‘ Fi e | 1750 1798 
Vandenhoff, John, actor F ° ° - 1790 
Vanderlyn, John, historical painter . ° ° e 1776 1852 
Van Diemen, Anthony, governor of India ° e 1593 1645 
Van Dorn, Earl, confederate general ° e ° 1823 1863 
Vane, Sir Henry, advocate of republicanism ° ° 1612 1662 
Van Ness, Cornelius P., jurist and diplomatist 4 ae ee 1853 
Van Reisselaer, Stephen, ‘ the Patroon’ ° ° 1764 1839 
Varro, Marcus T., the most learned of the Romans 3 B.0. 116 B.C. 27 
Vasari, George, architect and biog., ‘ Lives of the Painters’ Pome ie 4 1574 
Vater, John Severinus, eminent physiologist : ° 1771 1826 
Vattel, F. de, jurist, author of Law of Nations ° ° 1714 1767 
Vaughan, S. le P. de, marshal, military engineer . ° 1633 1707 
Vauban, Rev. Robert, D. D., ‘ dissenting’ divine and historian 
Vega, Garcilasso de, poet = ° ° ° 1503 1536 
, Lopez de, dramatic poet . ° ° e 1562 1635 
Velpeau, Alfred A. L. M., eminent surgeon ° ° 1795 
Venddéme, Louis Joseph, duke of, warrior Fi e “ 1654 1712 
Veun, Rey. Henry, ‘Whole Duty of Man’ ° ° 1725 1797 
Verdi, Giuseppe, musicalcomposer . ° ° e 1814 
Vere, Sir Aubrey de, dramatic poet ° e ° 1846 
Vernet, Horace, historical painter . ‘ . - 1789 1864 
Vernon, Edward, admiral ° ° ° 1684 1759 
, Robert, founder of Vernon Qallery . ° « 1774 1849 
Véron, Louis Désiré, author and journalist ° ° 1798 
Verplanck, Gulian C., scholar and critic e ° e 
Vertét, Réné Hubert, abbé de, historian . ° ° 1655 1785 
Vertue, George, engraver and antiquary ° ° o 1684 1756 
Vespasian, Titus Flavius, warrior and emperor ° ° re!) 
Vespucius, Americus, navigator, whose name was unjustly giver 
to the new world - ° ° ° « 1451 1516 
Vestris, Madame(Mrs. Mathews), actress ° ° 1797 1858 
Victor Emanuel II., king of Italy . ° e - 1820 
Victoria Alexandrina, queen of Great Britain ° e 1819 
Vicars, Hedley H., capt. - : ° ° e 1826 1855 
Vida, Mark Jerome, Latin poet . e e 1490 1566 
Vidocq, Eugene, French chief detective ite e e «61775 1850 
Vieuxtemps, Henri, violinist ; ‘ a ° 1820 
Vigny, Alfred, count de, poet and critie ~ : e 1799 
Villars, Louis Hecter, duke of, able genera! é P 1653 1734 
Villemain, Abel, Fr. politician and author e e - 1791 


1012 


WATION, 


Eng. 
Fr. 
Rom, 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Russ, 
Dutch. 
Dutch. 
Ger. 
Fy, 
Ital. 
Fr, 


Ger. 


Ger. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Ger. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Fr. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Scot. 
Trish. 
Ger. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Amer, 
Eig. 
Amer, 
Scot. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Amer. 
Amer. 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 
Vince, Samuel, eminent mathematician and astroncmer ° 
Vinet, Alex. R., theologian . a Sele 
Virgil, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the erations of Roman poets 8B. c. 70 
Visconti, Phil. Aur., antiquary . ° e ° 
Vitruvius Pollio, Srarone architect . a ° f, B. 0. 27 
Vittoria Colonna, scholar : . e ° 1490 
Viadimir the Great, grand duke ° e ° . 
Voet, John, jurist at Leyden ‘ ° ° ° 1647 
——, Paul, jurist at Utrecht . . ‘ 4618 
Vogel, Dr. Edward, botanist ; . “ “ 1829 
Volney, count, celebrated writer 1 ° : ot TOT 
Volta, Alexander, natural philosopher (Battery) . < 1745 
Voltaire, Francis Marie Arouet, celebrated poet, philosopher, 
and historian : ° 2 . ° 1694 
Voss, J. G., historical painter . ° ° « MORIBTF 
w 
Waagen, Gustave Fried., art critic : Cc ; 1794 
Wadsworth, James, wealthy philanthropist . > - 1768 
—————,, James 8. (son), patriotic general - A 1807 
Wagner, Birdaigtt; physiologist 4 - 1805 
Wainwright, Jon. M., epis. bishop of New York ° e 1792 
Wakefield, Edward Gibboa! political economist ° oe) a0 
——, Gilbert, scholar and critic ; ° : 1756 
Waldo, Daniel, rev., centenarian ° e ° ° 1762 
Walewski, Florian, count, statesman ° ° ° 1810 
Walker, John, lexicographer ° ° ° 1732 
_ —, Robert J., politician, ex-secretary of treasury e 1801 
» William, ‘ filibustering’ adventurer ; : 1824 
Wallace, Horace Binney, scholar and essayist ° A 1817 
——, William, patriot and hero ., . ° . 1276 
» William Vincent, musical composer ° e 1815 
Wallenstein, A. E, V., celebrated general e = . 1583 
Waller, Edward, elegant poet 4 ‘i 2 1603 
, Sir William, parliamentary general . e e. wloes 
Walpole, Horace, earl of Oxford, author a ; 1718 
———, Robert, earl of Oxford, statesman . * e 1676 
Walsh, Robert, author and journalist : 2 4 1784 
Walsingham, Sir Francis, statesman . e 1536 
Walworth, Reuben H., jurist, ex-chancellor of New York : 1815 
Walton, Brian, divine and orientalist . ° ° «2000 
—-—,, Izaak, angler and biographer ° 15938 
Waltorth, Reuben H., jurist, ex-chancellor of N. Y. ° ° 1789 
Warburton, William, eminent prelate and writer . e 1698 
Ward, Artemas, officer in the Revolution - 5° ° 1748 
Wardlaw, Rev. Ralph, theologian : . ° 1780 
Ware, Henry, rev., Unitarian theologian and author , 1764 
, Henry, rev., jr., Unitarian theologian and author . 1794 
» William, novelist, ‘ Zenobia,’ &c, ° : ‘ 1797 
Warren, John Collins, emmept surgeon. . . 1778 
———-, Joseph, patrivtic general, fell at Bunker Hill e 4741 


DIED 
182] 
1844 

B, 0. 19 
1831 


1547 
1016 
1714 
1667 
1856 
1820 
1826 


1778 
1649 


1844 
1864 


1854 
1862 
1801 
1864 


1807 


1860 
1852 
1805 
1865 
1634 
1687 
1688 
1797 
1745 
1858 
1590 
1865 
1661 
1683 


1779 
1890 
1853 
1845 
1843 
1852 
1856 
1778 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 1013 

BATION. NAME AND PROFESSION, BORN. DIED, 
Amer, Wa.:en, Mrs. Mercy, historian, *‘ American Review’? 1728 18i4 
Eng. ———, Samuel, jurist and novelist, ‘10,000a Year’ $ 1807 
Eng. Sir John Borlase, naval officer. . ° 1754 1822 
Eng. Warton, Joseph, poet and critic ° 3 e720 1806 
Eng. --, Thomas, poet and critic F i 1728 1796 
Eng. -Waliiek, R. Neville, earl of, general and petweraie ‘ king-maker’ 1471 
Amer. Washington, Bushrod, justice of supreme court of U. 8, « 1759 1829 
Amer, , George, the father of his country . Q 1782 1799 
Amer, ——, Wm. Aug. officer in the Revolution A ol EL TBS 1810 
Eng, Waterland, Rey. Dr., theological and polemical writer ° 1683 1740 
Amer, Watson, Elkanah, merchant, agriculturist, and historian o . 168 1842 
Scot. Robert, historian : A 1780 1780 
Eng. , Richard, eminent prelate and writer . ° e 8 =6:1787 1816 
Scot, Watt, James, celebrated natural philosopher and engineer . 1736 1819 
Scot. ——-, Robert, bibliographer 3 - ATTA 1819 
Eng. Watts, Alaric Alex., poet and Journalist ° 1799 1864 
Eng. Dr. Isaac, divine, poet, aiid miscellaneous riibt : 1674 1748 
Amer. Wayland, Francis, D. D., metaphysician, theol. and polit. econ. 1796 1868 
Amer. Wayne, Anthony, distinguished officer in Revolution te) AL T45 1796 
Eng. Weale, John, publisher and editor, engineering, &o., e 1792 1862 
Amer, Webber, Charles W., naturalist and author - e  18i9 1856 
Ger. Weber, Carl Maria yon, eminent composer ‘ t 1786 1826 
Eng. Weber, Henry William, antiquary and critic ° e 1783 1813 
Eng, Webster, John, dramatic poet F ‘ e A 17th cent. 
Amer. » Daniel, statesman . ° e 1782 1852 
Amer, , Noah, author of English Extiitonaiy A eo 1758 1843 
Scot. Wesdérburn, Alex., earl Rosslyn, lord chancellor , P 1783 1805 
Eng. Wedgewood, J., scientific manufacturer of porcelain , « 1781 1798 
Amer. Weems, Rey. Mason L., author of school biographies ° 1826 
Amer. Welby, Amelia B., of Kentucky, poetess , . . 1821 1852 
Irish, Wellesley, marquis of, governor-general of India, and lord-lieut, 

of Ireland . = JM 1760 1842 | 
Eng. Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, duke of, mil. com. and statosatian 1769 1852 
Amer. Wells, David A., editor, statistician, and author ° ‘ 
Eng. , Edward, theologian and scholar a ’ “ 1663 1727 
Amer. ——-, Horace, dentist, discoverer of anzsthesia a e 1815 1848 
Scot, Welsh, David, D. D., founder of North British Review . F 1794 1845 
Eng-Am, Wentworth, Sir John, gov. of N. Hamp., also gov. of Nova Scotia 1736 182v 
Eng. ———, Sir Thomas, Earl of Stafford ‘ ° 1593 1641 
Ger. Werner, Abraham Theophilus, mineralogist - ° 1750 1817 
Ger. -, Fred. L. Z., poet and dramatist ‘ ° . 1768 1823 
Eng. Wesley, Rev. Charles, ‘Hymns’ . c ° 1708 1788 
Eng. , John, founder of Methodist society . > We: teh 108 1791 
Eng. Westall, Richard, historical painter . 1765 1837 
Eng. Whaiteley, Richard, archbishop of Dublin, declogienl and isan, 

cational writer . ° ° ° . 1787 1863 
Amer. Wheatley, Phillis, negro poetess . . ° 1753 1794 
Eng. » Rev. Charles, on ‘ Book of Common Prien? ° 1686 1743 
Amer. Wheaton, easy; jurist, diplomatist and law commentator , 1785 1848 
Eng. Wheatstone, Oliarles, electrician . z 1802 
Amer. Wheelock, Eleazar, D. D. founder of Sawn College , 1711 1779 
Eng. Whewell, Rev. William, theol., scientific and educations writer 1795 1886 


1014 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


NATION. WAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIES 
Amer, Whipple, Edwin P., critic and essayist ‘ e e 1819 
Amer. Whistler, George Wm., engineer of Russian railways 1800 184§ 
fng. Whiston, Wm., divine, mathematician and translator . ol 5. G67 1751 
Eng. Whitby, David, learned divine, commentator of New Testament 1638 1726 
Eng. White, He ry Kirke, poet. “ : F 1785 1806 
——-—, Rey. Joseph Bianco, priest and English ‘aatiioe é 1775 1841 

Eng. , Wiliiam, one of the two first bishops of the P. E, church 

in Dhited States é 1747 1836 
Eng. Whitefield, George, founder of the Calvaniatlo Mathediate e 1714 1770 
Amer, Whitney, Eli, inventor of cotton gin . ° ° - 1765 1825 
Amer. Whittier, John Greenleaf, poet and essayist . : 1808 
Amer. Whittingham, Wm. R., epis. bp.of Maryland and author - 1805 
Eng. Whittington, Sir Richard, lord mayorof London ,. ° 1419 
Eng. Wickliffe, or Wicklif, John, the morning starofthe Reformation 1324 1884 
Ger. Wieland, Christopher, able and fertile writer . ° 1733 1813 
Eng. Wiffen, J. H., poet and historian : ° ° avi L192 1836 
Eng. Wilberforce, Samuel, bp. of Oxford and author f ° 1805 
Kng. ————, William, statesman and philanthropist . e 1759 1853 
Amer, Wilde, Richard Henry, poet and Jittérateur 5 e 1789 1847 
Eng. Wilkes, John, celebrated political character -. ° C 1717 1797 
Seot. Wilkie, Sir David, historical painter - : 1785 1841 
Eng. Wilkins, John, bp. of Chester, mathematician and tuesloging e 1614 1672 
Eng. ————., Sir Charles, oriental philologist id e ‘ 1836 
Amer. Wilkinson, James, general in Revolution andauthor . eo’ seTOTa YP 51835. 
Eng. ——, Sir John Gardner, Egyptologist g ° 1703——~ 
Eng. Williams of Wykeham, arch-ecclesiast and statesman e 1824 1404 
Amer. Williams, Eleazar, rev., alleged to be Louis XVIL ° 1787 49 1858 
Eng. ———, Helen Maria, miscellaneous writer . e e 1762 1827 
Eng. ———, John, missionary and author r e e 1796 1839 
Eng. —-——, Major-gen. Sir Fenwick, defender of Kars e e 1800 
Amer. ————, Otho H., general ; : e le 1748 1794 
En.Am.——_——, Roger, colonizer of Rhode Island ‘ ; o + rale06 1683 
Amer. Williamson, Hugh, physician and historian of N. Carolina . (1735 1819 
Amer. Willis, Nath. Parker, poet, novelist, essayist, critic and jour- 

nalist . ° ‘ e e 1807 1867 
Seot. Wilson, Alex., celebr: aioe naturals H ° ° 1766 1813 
Eng. ———-~, Daniel, bishop of Calcutta . 3 e e 1778 1858 
Eng. , Horace H., orieutalist, professor of Sanscrit ie 1808 1860 
Scot. , John (Christopher North), poet, critic and essayist «> ARISS 1854 
Eng. ———, Mrs. Cornwall Barron, author : 3 ° 1846 
Ger. Winckelman, John Joachim, ‘ History of Art’ . et NTL 1768 
Aust. Windischgratz, Charles Alfred, prince de, generalissimo ° 1787 1862 
Eng. Windham, William, statesman : : e 5 1750 1810 
Ger. Winer, George Bened., prot. theologian . e ° 1789 1858 
Swiss. Winkelried, Arnold von, patriot é i e ° 1886 
En.Am. Winslow, Edward, governor of Plymouth colony . e 1595 1655 
Eng. —————, Forbes, physician and writer on insanity . ° 1810 | 
Amer. ——~———, Hubbard, D. D., editor and author F ° 1800 1864 
Amer. —————, Miron, D. D., missionary and orientalist é * 1789 1864 ! 
Eng. Winterhalter, Franz Xavier, ‘ court painter’ ‘ e 18038 b 
&n.Am.Winthrop, John, governor of colony of Mass. . e 4 1588 1649 


Be Am —-—--—, John (son), governor of Connecticut . e 1606 1674 ; 


RATION. 


Amer. Wirt, William, attorney-general U. 8. and biographer ° 
Eng. Wiseman, Nicholas, cardival, Roman catholic theol. and author 
Amer. Wistar, Caspar, eminent physician and anatomist 2 
Eng. Withers, George, poet . - : ‘ 

Amer. Witherspoon, John, able divine and patriot . . 
Dutch. Witzius, Herman, theologian . ai i A 
Scot. Wodrow, Robert, ecclesiastical historian ; - 
Irish. Woflington, Margaret (Peg W.), actress . e ° 
Eng. Wolcott, John, known as Peter Pindar, poet . 2 
Amer, ———, Oliver, patriot, signer of Declaration of Independence 
Amer. ————-, Roger, colonial governor of Conn. a 
Eng. Jew. Wolf, Dr. Joseph, missionary and traveller 3 A 
Ger. —-, Fred. Aug., classical author and critic . - 
Eng. Wolfe, James, distinguished general é . f 
Eng. , Rev. Charles, poet, ‘Sir Juhn Moore’ . 7 
Ger. Wolff, John Christian, philosopher aud mathematician ‘ 
Eng. Wollaston, William Hyde, experime:ita! philos. e 
Eng. Wolsey, Thomas, cardinal, celebrated statesman , . 
Eng. Wollstonecroft, Mary (Mrs. Godwin), author . e 
Eng. Wood, Anthony, antiquary and biographer A A 
Eng. , Robert, archeologist and secretary of state ° 
Amer. Woodbury, Levi, statesman and jurist f = x 
Eng. Woodfall, William, newspaper publisher (Junius) 3 
Eng. Woodhouse, Robert, mathematician aud astronomer e 
Scot. Woodhouselee, Alex. Fraser Tytler (see 7yt/er) historian 
Amer. Woods, Leonard, theologian e - J 
Eng. Woodville, Elizabeth, queen of Edward ly. “ . 
Amer. Woodworth, Samuel, poet, ‘Oaken Bucket’ . 4 
Amer. Wool, John E., major-general U. 8. army a Se 
Amer. Woolman, John (Quaker), philanthropist » £ 
Amer Wooster, David, Revolutionary general H : 
Eng. Worcester, Edward J., marquis of, ‘Century of Inventions * 
Engy. — ~, Joseph E., geographer and lexicographer °* 
Eng. Wordsworth, Rev. Christ., ‘ Ancient Greece’ A A 
Eng. ————-, William, poet laureate . . é 
Amer. Worth, William J.,major-general U. 8. army : 3 
Eng. Wortley, Lady Emeline C. E., travelleraud author . 
Eng. Wotton, Sir Henry, statesman and poet . a , 
Eng. Wraxall, Sir Nathaniel W., traveller and historian. 
Eng. Wren, Sir Christopher, celebrated architect A - 
Eng. Wright, Fanny (Madame Darusmont), ‘ Social Reformer’ 
Amer. , Silas, governor of New York and senator U. 8, ~ 
Eng. , Thomas, antiquarian author - ; 
Aust. Wurmeer, D. §., field-marshalin Austrianarmy . A 
Eng. Wyatt, Matthew Digby, architect and author ; 
Eng. —-—, Sir Thomas, poetand statesman . e H 
Eng. Wycherley, William, dramatic poet . 4 C 
Eng Wycliffe, see Wicklife, reformer 

Eng. Wykeham, M., bishop of Wirchester, gitecian “ep philanth 


Eng. 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 


NAME AND PROFESSION. 
Winthrop, Major Theodore, novelist and patriot 


Wyndhan, Sir William, statesman i : , 


1015 


DIED, 


1861 
1834 
1863 
1818 
1667 
1794 
1708 
1734 
1760 
1818 
1797 
1767 
1862 
1824 
1759 
1823 
1754 
1828 
1530 
1797 
1695 
1771 
1851 
1822 
1827 
1813 
1851 
1486? 
1842 


1773 
1777 
1667 
1865 
1850 
1850 
1849 
1855 
1689 
1831 
1723 
1853 
1849 


1794 


1546 
1715 
1404 
1404 
1746 


1016 


NATION, NAME AND PR( FESSION,. BORN. 
Eng. Wyse, Sir.Thomas, M. P., writer on education e ° 
Amer. Wytke, George, eminent lawyer, statesman and patriot ° 
x 
Fr. Xavier, St. Francis, ‘Apostle to the Indies’ . ryote - 1506 
Gr. Xenocrates, philosopher ° 3 ° « B.o, 406 
Gi. Xenophanes, philosopher, founder of the Eleatics ‘ f. B. 0. 540 
Gr, Xenophon, celebrated philosopher, historian and er o, 3B 0. 446 
Pers. Xerxes L, king of Persia : ° . e 
Pers. - I. , king of Persia - ° e e 
Span. Ximenes, Francis, cardinal, eminent statesman 6 e 1457 
Y 
Amer. Yale, Elihu, early patron of Yale College ° e e 1648 
Eng. Yarrell, William, naturalist and author, Py e 1784 
Eng. Youatt, William, author of works on the horse » Pee ome enh 
Amer. Young, Alex., D. D., historian of Pilgrims e e 1800 
Eng. , Arthur, agricultural writer - é F 5 1741 
Aner. » Brigham, leader ofthe Mormons ., ° ° 1801 
Eng. ——-, Charles, actor - 2 ° a A 1777 
Eng. -——, Edward, poet and miscellaneous writer ° e 1681 
Eng. , Thomas, physician and philosopher. . . eps 
Gr. Thalluntl prince Alexander, leader in the Greek modern rev, 1792 - 
Span, Y riarte, don Thomas de, eminent poet ° . * 1750 
vA 
Ital. Zaccaria, Francis A., voluminous writer ° ° - 1714 
Heb. Zechariah,thé prophet . “ rs e . £. 8B. 0. 520 
Ital Zeno, Apostolo, eminent wnter . e e e 1668 
Gr. Zeno of Elea, philosopher . e e ° B. 0. 462 
Gr. ——, founder of the sect of Stoics °, 8, Os abe 
Zenobia, Septimia, queen of Palmyra, eohaweror, aud patroness of 
the arts C e ° ° e ° 
Heb. Zephaniah, the prophet . wee “ ° - £38. 0. 520 
Ger. Zimmerman, E. A. W. von, naturalist Aa e e 1743 
Swiss. ————-—, John George, miscellaneous writer . e 1728 
Ger. JZinzendori, N. L., count, chief of the Moravians e 5 1700 
Swiss. Zolikofer, G. J., theologian : ‘ e ° 1730 
Zoroaster, famous Eastern philosopher ° e e 
Eng. Zouch, Thomas, theologian and biographer : . 1737 
Gr, Zozimus, historian . : ° f. 400 
Ger. Zschokke, John Henry D., writetinneous wrens ‘Tales® . 1771 
Swiss, Zuinglius, Ulric, eblightened reformer “ “ « 1484 
Ger. Zumpt, Karl, author of Latin Grammar , e e 1792 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


Dia» 


1804 


1552 
BC. 3814 


B ©. 860 
B O, 465 
B. Ce 425 

1517 


1721 
1856 
1847 
1854 
1820 


1856 
1765 

. 1829 
1828 
1790 


1793 
1750 
B. 0. 264 
300 

1815 
1795 

- 1760 
1788 

- 1818 
1848 


1581 
1859 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.—ARTISTS. 


Joc dared Wed by od bates 


1017 


PAINTERS—ENGRAVERS—SCULPTORS—ARCHITEOTS. 


NATION. 


@r. 
Gr. 
Gr. 
Ital. 
Ital, . 
Ital. 
Gr. 
Scot. 
Amer, 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Gr. 
Gr. 
Ttal. 
Gr. 
Fr. 


Ital. 


Eng. 
Amer. 
Flem. 
Ital. 
Eng. 
Dutch. 
Trish. 
Irish. 
Eng. 
Ital. 
Ital, 
Ital. 
Ital. 
[tal 
Ger. 
‘Eng. 
Amer, 
Eng. 
Ital. 


NAME AND PROFESSION. 
Agatharcus, inventor of perspective scenery in theatres. Painter. 
Ageldas ° . . Sculptor. 
Agesander, sculptor of ‘ haeneon and his Children? Sculptor. 
Albano, Francis, ‘the painter of the Graces’ ; Painter. 
Alberti, Leo Baptist, a Florentine . Pa, 8c., and Archit. 
Albertinelli, Mariotto . . ° . Painter. 
Alcarmenes (pupil of Phidias) : e Sculptor. 
Allan, Sir William - : Z A Painter. 
Allston, Washington . : Port. and Histor. Painter. 
Andrea del Sarto ° - Painter. 
Angelo, Michael (Buonarotti), a pre-eminent Pa., Sc., and Arch. 
Angelo, Michael (Caravaggio) . ke « Painter. 
Apelles, the most celebrated of ancient painters - Painter. 
Apollodorus, an Athenian . e : Painter. 
Appiani, of Milan ° * : . Painter. 
Aristides, of Thebes . e Fy ' Painter. 
Audran, Gerard, celebrated e « Histor. Engraver. 


BORN. 


DIED. 
B. Cc. 48¢ 


f. B. 0. 5¢h Cent. 
B, oc. 5th Cent, 


(Eight painters and engravers named Audran nearly contemporary.) 


B 

Baccio-Della Porta, known as San Marco (Fra Bartolo- 

meo) e e > ° e Painter, 
Bacon, John é e ; 3 Sculptor. 
Baker, Geo. A. (N: Y¥.) e ar) . Port. Painter. 
Balen, Henry van e ° ° - Painter. 
Bandinelli, Baccio . ° e ° Sculptor. 
Banks, Thomas e ° ° “ Sculptor. 
Barents, Dietrich 2 ° ° Histor. Painter. 
Barker, Robert, inventor of pte ih . - Painter. 
Barry, James . ° e ° Painter, 
Barry, Sir Chas. e ° ° - Architect. 
Bartolini, Lorenzo Kier ° ° Sculptor. 
Bartolozzi, Francesco e ° ' Engraver, 
Bartolomeo, Fra di San Marco. . Painter. 
Bassanio, Jas., Fran., Jerome, John, and Leatder Painters. 
Batoni, Pompey . : ° ° - Painter. 
Bauer, Ferdinand . ‘ ° Botanical Painter. 
Beechy, Sir William ° . . Landscape Painter, 
Beard, Wm. H. (N. Y.) ° 2 ° Painter. 
Beaumont, Sir George H. ° e Painter, 


Bella, Stefano Della, Florentine e ° Engraver. 


1578 1660 
1400 149¢ 
152¢ 

f. B. o. 450 
1781 1850 
1779 1843 
1488 1530 
1474 1668 
1569 1609 
f. B. 0. 330 
f.B.0. 408 
1754 1817 
f.B. co. 240 
1640 1703 
1469 1517 
1740 1799 
1560 163% 
1489 1559 
1745 1805 
1584 1582 
1740 1806 
1741 1805 
1795 1860 
1777 1850 
1730 1813 
1469 1517 
16th Century. 
1708 1787 
1826 

1758 1839 
1753 1827 
1610 1684 


1018 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 
NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. 
Ital Bellimi, Giov., founder of the Venetian school ; Painter. 
Ital.  Rellini Gentine . ° ° .  Portre*t Painter. 
ital. Benini, Giovannil. . Painter, Sculp’r, and Arch’t. 
Flem  Berchem, Nicholas : ‘ Engraver. 
Eng.  Bewick, Johu, publisher of various orks with wood- 
cuts : Fi : . Wood Engraver, 
Amer. Bierstadt, Albert (N. Y.) : . Landscape Painter. 
Eng. Bird, Edward . “ e ° “ Painter, 
Eng. Blake, William 4 5 e Painter and Engraver. 
Flem, Bologna, John of (in Italy) e Seulptor and Architect. 
Eng. Bone, Henry ° e ° Enamel! Painter. 
Ttal, Bordone, Paris . -, A ~ m4 Painter. 
Dutch. Both, John and Andrew ° : ae Painters. 
Fr, Bourdon, Sebastian i e Painter and Engraver, 
Swiss. Bourgeoise, Sir Francis (born in London). ° Painter. 
Eng. Boydell, Jno, (printseller and lord mayor of London) Engraver. 
Dutch, Brentel, Francis e . . e Painter, 
Ital | Bramante D’Urbino, Francis Is, (1st of St Peter's 
Church) . : ° e Architect, 
Amer, Brevoort, J. R. (N. ¥.) . . Landscape Painter. 
Dutch. Brill, Matthew ' * . : Painter. 
Dutch. Brill, Paul ‘ ne A Landscape Painter. 
Amer. Brown, Geo. L, ; ; A . Painter. 
Amer, Brown, Henry Kirke ‘a A ; e Sculptor, 
Flem, Bruges, John of,or John Van Eyck . e Painter. 
Ital. Brunelleschi, Ph., Pitti Palace at Florence e Architect. 
Ital. Buonarotti, see Angelo , 
Eng. Burnett, James e « e Landscape Painter, 
© 
Ital. | Cagliari, Paul, known as Paul Veronese, celebrated Painter. 
Ital. Cagliari, Benedict, Carlotto, and Gabriel, brothers and 
sons of Paul 
Eng. Calcott, Sir A. W. e e Landscape Painter, 
Ital, | Caldara, or Polydore Caravaggio . ° e Painter. 
Gr. Calimachus ° P - Sculptor and Architect, 
Ital. Cambiaso, Lucus, a Genoese i A : Painter. 
Ital, Canaletto, or Canale, Anthony, a Venetian Lands. Painter. 
Ital. Canova, Antonio. A “A ; Sculptor. 
{tal. | Caracci, Ludovico “ . e e Painter. 
Ital. Caracci, Agostino i ° P ° Painter. 
Ital. Caracci, Annibale A A e * Painter. 
Ital, Caracci, Anthony - - ; Painter, 
Ital, Caravaggio, see Angelo , ; 
Ital. Carpi, Ugo da, discoverer of the art of pr tition in Chiar e-oscuro 
witk three plates to imitate drawings ° 
Fr. Casas, Louis Francis > . Painter Se Architect, 
Amer. Casilear, John W. (N. Y.) ° A Lands, Painter, 
Span. Castilio y Saavedra, Anthony ° ° Painter, 
Ital. OCavendone, James 4 - B Fresco-Painter. 
Ital, Cellini, Benvenuto, Florentine artist, author of auto- 
biography ° e ° » Painter. 
4 


BORN. D118 
1462 1513 
1421 1501 
1598 168¢ 
1624 1689 
1760 179¢ 
1772 1819 
1757 1826 

* 1524 1608 
1755 1884 
1503 1588 
1610 1650, 56 
1616 1671 
1756 1811 
1719 1804 

f. 1635 
1444 1514 
1550 1584 
1556 1626 
1814 
1870 1441 
1377 1444 
1788 1816 
1532 1588 
1779 1844 
1495 1543 

f, B.C. 540 — 
1527 1587 «/ 
1697 1768 
1757 1822 
1555 1619 
1558 1601 
1560 ° 1609 
1583 1618 
1486 1530 
1756 1827 
1603 1667 
1577 1508 
1500 1570 


OO 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.—ARTISTS. 


BATION, NAME AND PROFESSION, 
Span. Cespedes,Paulde . ° Painter, Sculptor, Architect. 
Flem, Champuague, Philipde . - x : Painter, 
—, John Baptist ° ° . Painter. 
Eng. Chantry, Sir Francis ° ° ° - Sculptor. 
Amer, Chapman, JohuG . ° e - Hist, Painter. 
Gr. Chares . ° ° ° . Painter. 
Fr. Chaudet, amheky Denis ° e Painter and Sculptor, 
Amer. Church, Fred. E. ° e ° Lands, Painter. 
ftal. Cignani, Carlo : e e : Painter, 
Ital. Cimabue, Giov., Florentine ° ° « Painter. 
Ital. Claude Gelée—called Claude Lorraine , ° Painter. 
Gr. Cleomenes, an Athenian, (the Medicean Venus) . Sculptor, 
Amer. Clevenger, Shobal Vail . . Sculptor. 
Amer. Cole, Thomas . ° Lands. and Hist. Painter. 
Eng. Oollins, William . - Lands, and Fam. life Painter. 
Amer. Colman, Saml.(N.¥.) . ° ; Lands. Painter. 
Eng. Constable, John , ‘ ° . Painter, 
Eng. Cooper, Samuel . ; - Miniature Painter. 
Amer. Copley, John Singleton (born in Boston) F Painter, 
Ger. Cornelius, Peter von c: 4 Painter, 
Ital. Correggio, Ant., founder of the Tanibaed sshibol Painter. 
Duatck. Cort, Cornelius . ° F . e Engraver. 
Ital, Cortona, Pietro da, Tuscan . 5 e Painter. 
Eng. Cosway, Richard F . ° - Painter. 
Fr. Courtois, James, known as Il Borgognone ° Painter, 
Fr. ———-—, William (brother) : . « fainter. 
Fr. Couture . : : Painter. 
Fr. aaa Nicholas talig his Reaiteg William) . Sculptor, 
Fr. » William ~ : Seulptor and Architect, 
Fr, Conein! i. ohn Py ° ° Paint., Sculp., etc. 
Eng. Cox, David é * ° . Lands. Painter. 
Ger. Cranach, Lucas A - : “are Engraver, 
Amer. Cranch, Christr, P. e e ° . Painter, 
Amer, Crawford, Thomas , “ ; ; Sculptor, 
Amer. Cropsey, Jasper F, (N. Y.) ° : Lands, Painter, 
Dutch, Cuyp, Jacob G. ° e Lands, and Cattle Painter. 
Dutch. , Albert (son of Jacob) e Lands. and Cattle Painter. 
Dutch. » Benjamin e ° e e Hist, Painter. 
D 
Eng. Danby, Francis e ° ° e Painter. 
Eng. Danie], Thomas . e e F Lands. Painter. 
Eng. » Wm, " 4 A « Lands, Painter, 
Ger. Dannecker, John Henry, ‘ Adriadne,’ &c, ° Sculptor. 
Amer, Darley, F.0.CQ,  . A ; Painter and Designer. 
Fr, David, James Louis . ° ° ° Painter, 
Fr. — —, Peter John, of Angers (founder of recent French 
school) ; e . e e Sculptor. 
Fr. Delacroix, F, V. E. . ° ° ° Painter. 
Fr, Delaroche, Paul . . ° Hist. Painter. 


1019 


BORN. DIED. 
15388 1608 
1604 1674 
1643 168% 
1781 1841 

f. Bg. 0. 300 
1763 1810 
1628 1719 
1240 1300 
1600 1682 

f, B. Go. 180 
1812 1844 
1802 1848 
1788 1847 
1776 183) 
1689 1776 
1737 1815 
1787 
1493 1534 
1586 1578 
1596 1669 
1740 1828 
1621 1673 
1628 1679 
1658 173) 
1716 1777 
1500 1590 
1723 1859 
1470 1553 
1814 1857 
1568 1649 
1606 1667 
1650 
17938 1861 
1749 1840 
1769 1837 
1758 184] 
1822 
1750 1825 
1788 1856 
1798 1863 
1794 1854 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 


NAME AND PROFESSION. 
Denner, Balthasar . ‘ . - Port. Painter. 


. De Witt, James 3 Painter. 


Dinocrates, a Araeedonian (builder of Aleeandgin &c.) Architect. 


Ital Dolci, Carlo : , : Scripture Painter. 
Ital. Domenichino, Dominic Zampieri (excelled in expression) Painter. 
Ital. Donatello, or Donato ° . Florentine Sculptor. 
Fr, Doré, Gustave : ‘ Painter and Designer. 
Amer. Dougbty, Thomas . - ; Lands, Painter. 
Dutch. Douw, or Dow, Gerard ° ‘ Familiar Life Painter. 
Fr. Dubuffe, ‘ 4 5 Hist. Painter. 
Fr, Dufresnoy, Charles Aiphone ; Painter. 
Amer. Dunlap, William . 5 Hist. Painter. 
Amer. Durand, Asher B, (N. Y.) Painter and Engraver. 
Ger. Durer, Albert (and uuthor) Pairt., Eng., Sc., and Arch. 
E 
Eng Eastlake, Chas. L. : ° - : Painter. 
Ger. Eberhardt, Conrad . “ - Sculptor. 
Eng. <Eginton, Francis, restorer of the ae of painting on 
glass : : ° : Painter. 
Amer. Ehninger, John W. (N. ae x : A Painter. 
Amer. Elliott, Chas, L. (CN. a)? ‘ ; . Port. Painter, 
Eng. Etty, Wm. “ : : Painter. 
Gr. Eupompus (founder of school at aes : Painter. 
Dutch. Eyck, John van (said to have invented painting in oil) Painter. 
EF 
Ita].Am.Fagnani, G. ; ° A Port. Painter. 
Eng. Fielding (Copley Vandvieye 5 - Lands, Painter. 
ng. Flaxman,dohn. a “ - Sculptor and Artist. 
Eng. Finden, Wm. ° ° . : Engraver, 
Amer. Forbes, Edwin . . : ° -. Painter. 
Scot. Forrest, Robert . ° ° : Sculptor. 
Fr. Frére, Edouard ° ° Genre Painter. 
Swiss. Fuseli, Henry aaa in England “ ‘ Painter. 
Swiss. , John G. ° ° ° ° Painter. 
G 
Eng. Gainsborough, Thomas : ° . Lands, Painter. 
Fr. Gerard, Fran. P. 8., baron . 5 : Painter. 
Fr, -, John I. (Granville) . : . Caricaturist. 
Ital. Ghiberti, Lawrence 3 F . Florentine Sculptor. 
Eng. Gibbons, Grinling, famed for carvinginoak . Sculptor. 
Eng. Gibson, John . 5 . ° 5 Sculptor. 
Amer, Gifford, Sanford R. . ° ° . Lands. Painter. 
Fr.An:. Gignoux, Regis : Lands. Painter. 
Ital, Giordani, Luke (the ‘protens of Palatine’ ; Painter. 
Ital. Giorgione, Barbarelli ° A ~ Painter. 
{tal. Giotto (one of the earliest modern) . Paint, Sculp. and Arch. 
Fr. Girardon, Francis - : ° Seulp. and Arch. 
Er. Girodet, Trioson Aimé Louis : 4 Painter. 


BORN. DIED 
1685 174% 
1695 1743 

f. 8. 0. 330 
1616 1684 
158i 1641 
1383 1464 
1793 1856 
1618 1674 
1611 1665 
1766 1839 
1471 1528 
1793 1865 
1768 1859 
1737 1805 
1787 1849 
1370 144: 
1755 1820 
1787 1859 
1790 1852 
1741 1826 
1706 17381 
1727 1788 
1770 1837 
1803 1847 
1878 1456 
1648 1721 
1791 1867 
1629 1704 
1477 1511 
1276 133@ 
1630 1716 
1767 1824 


a 


BIOGRAPHILAY, INDEX.~—ARTISTS. 


MATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

ital. Giulio Romano (Pippi) . 3 5 Painter. 
Fr. Goujon, John, the French Phidiag ; ° Sculptor. 
Amer. Gray, Henry Peters 2 . Port. and Hist. Painter. 
Amer. Greenough, Horatio . : Sculptor, 
Amer. Greene, E. D. E. . ; : Port, Painter, 
Fr. Greuze, Jean Baptiste . “ ‘ Painter 
Ital. Guercino, real name Francis Barbieri s “ Painter. 
Ita. Guido, Reni (excelled in beauty of expression and grace) Painter. 


Eng. 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Eng, 
Eng. 
Amer, 
Eng. 
Amer, 
Amer. 
Eng. 
¥lem. 
Eng. 
Swiss. 
Ger. 
Amer, 
Flem. 
Amer. 


Dutch. 


Fr. 
Fr. 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Eng. 


Dutch. 
Dutch, 


Dutch. 


Amer. 


Amer. 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Fr. 
Fr. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Amer, 


Hi 
Harlow, Geo, Henry . e 5 ° Painter. 
Hart, Wm., b. in Scotland ° - Z Painter. 
Hart, Jas. M. os ‘ ° ° : Painter. 
Haseltine, W. Stanley e ° Landscape Painter, 
Haviland, John A e ‘ . Architect. 
Haydon, R. B. ° 4 ° Historical Painter. 
Healy, Goo. P. : ° ° s Painter, 
Heath, Charles . f é : Engraver, 
Hennessy, W. L . ° . - Painter. 
Hicks, Thos. A * “ : Painter. 
Hilton, William . F 1 Historica] Painter, 
‘Hobbema, Mynderhout ° c Landscape Painter. 
Hogarth, William : . . - Painter. 
Holbein, Hans ° Portrait and Historical Painter. 
Hollar, Wenceslaus, executed 2,400 plates - Engraver. 
Homer, Wirslow : “ Painter, 
Honthorst, ‘serard (called Gher arda ne Notte) : Painter, 
Hosmer, Harriet : 2 : Sculptor. 
Houbraken, Jacob (600 portr. ia ° . Engraver, 
Houdon (executed statue of Franklin) ‘ Sculptor. 


Houel, John, Travels, &c. Picturesque Painter and Engraver. 


Hubbard, Rich. W.. . e A : Painter, 
Hughes, Ball (b. in England) ° 5 . Sculptor. 
Huntington, Dan. 5 A Painter, 
Hunt, Wm. H. (Pre-Raphaelite) ‘ : Painter. 
Huysum, John van (flowers and fruit) : Painter, 
, Justus (The Old) A ; “ Painter, 
-———————- (The Young) . ‘ Painter. 
I 
Inman, Henry ie Portrait and Landscape Painter. 
mf 
Jarvis, J. W. ° 7 . Portrait Painter, 
Johnson, Kastman (N. Y.* j H : Painter, 
————, David (N. Y.) ° - Painter, 
Johannot, Chas, H. A, : Painter and Designer. 
—, Tony (brother) aaa Painter and Designer. 
Jones, Alfred, N. Y. . : : Engraver. 
, Lnigo ; . ‘ ‘ Architect. 


—-~, Thos. D. P ; : Sculptor. 


BORN, 


1492 
1516 


1805 


1726 
1590 
1574 


1787 
1823 
1828 


1792 
1786 
1808 


1823 
1786 
1611 
1697 
1498 
1607 


1592 
1831 
1698 
1746 
1786 


1806 
1816 
1827 
1682 
1659 
1684 


1801 


1800 
1803 


1572 


1021 


DIED 
1546 
1574 


185% 
1808 


1606 
1642 


1819 


185% 
1846 


1849 


1839 
1698 
1764 
1554 
1677 


1660 
1780 


1828 
1813 


1749 
1716 
1706 


846 


1834 
1853 


165% 


1022 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 
WATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
Flem. Jordaens, Jacob > ° c C Painter, 
{tal, Julio, Romano F ' - Painter and Architect, 
K 
Swiss. Kauffman, M. A, Angelica OC. (in seers Poetical Painter. 
Amer. Kensett, John F, - > - Painter. 
Ger Kiss, August ; ‘ Sculptor. 
Ger Kneller, Sir Godfrey (resided in England) . Painter. 
5; 
Dutch. Lairesse, Gerard (excelled in expedition) Painter and Engraver. 
Fr. Landon, C. P. : : Writer on Art and Painter. 
Eng. Landseer, Chas, . - 4 Painter of Genre, 
Eng. —, John ° ¢ e 4 Engraver, 
Eng. , Sir Edwin . P ° . Painter. 
Amer. Lang, Louis (b. in Germany) ° : - Painter, 
Eng. Lawrence, Sir Thos. . : Painter. 
Fr. Lebrun, Charles (painter to Louis XIV. Jas . Painter. 
Eng. Leech, John A ° Humorist Artist. 
Gr. Lely, Sir Peter (painter to Gharies II. of England) Painter. 
Fr. Le Sieur, Eustace (the French Raphael) . - Painter. 
Amer. Leslie, Chas. R. (residedin England) . : Painter. 
Ger. Lessing, Carl Fred. “ : ° . Painter. 
Amer. Leutze, Emanuel (b. in Germany) s Painter. 
Fr. Leyden, Lucas Dammesz . ° Painter and Engraver 
Eng. Juiverseege, Henry : . ° : Painter. 
Gr. Lysippus (made 600 statues) P ° Sculptor, 
NE; 
Amer. Malbone, Edward G@ . . « Miniature Painter. 
Scot. Marshall,Wm.0. . ° ° ° Sculptor, 
Amer —, Wm.C. . t 5 5 Engraver. 
Eng. Martin, John ; ° ° : Painter. 
Ital Masaccio - ° ° ° Painter. 
Flem. Matsys, Quintin . : ° . - Painter. 
Ger. Mayer ; . ° ° ° Sculptor. 
Ital. Mazzuolo, Francis . ; oe fy - Painter. 
Amer. McEntee, Jervis : ° Painter. 
Fr. Meissonier, Justus A. - Painter, Seulptor, and Architect. 
Fr. —, JeanL, : Painter. 
Ger. Mengs, Anthouy R. (the Raphael of Germany) . Painter. 
Dutch. Metzu, Gabriel . ° - Familiar Life Painter. 
Dutch. Mieris, Francis . A Familiar Life Painter. 
Fr. Mignard, Peter : 4 + ~ Painter. 
Amer. Mignot, Louis R. ° e : ‘ Pajnter. 
Amer. Mills, Clark . e F ° ; Sculptor. 
Swiss. Mind, Gottfried . ° . e - Painter. 
Ital. Morghen, Raphael . ; : : Engraver. 
Amer. Morse, Samuel F. B. 3 ; - Painter. 
Amer. Mount, William Sidney ° . ° Painter, 
Eng. Moreland, George : e A ; Painter. 
Span. Murillo, Bartholomew & ° : ‘. Painter. 


BORN, DIEE 
1595 1676 
1492 1546 
1747 18c" 
1818 
1802 1866 
1648 1723 
1640 1711 

1826 
1769 1852 
1808 
1814 
1769 1830 
1619 169¢ 
1816 
1618 1686 
1617 1656 
1794 1859 
1808 
1816 
1494 1582 
1803 1832 
f. B, 0. 824 
1777 1807 
1813 
1789 1854 
1402 1427 
1460 1529 
1503 1540 
1695 1756 
1815 
1729 1778 
1615 1669 
1635 1681 
1610 1695 
1815 
1768 1814 
1758 1833 
1807 
1764 1804 
1618 1682 


BIOGKAPHICAL INDEX.—ARTIST& 1023 

N 
RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. ’ BOEN, DIED 
butch. Neefs, Peter . s Architectural Painter. 1570 165} 
Eng. Newton, Gilbert (Stuar t) A ° Historical Painter. 1785 1833 
Eng. Nollekins, Joseph a. e 2 ° Sculptor. 1737 1822 
Eng. Northcote,James . . ° ° Painter. 1746 1831 

oO 
Eng. Opie, John e e ° - Painter. 1761 1807 
Dutch. Ostade, Adrian van (interiors) . Familiar Life Painter. 1610 1685 
Dutch. Ostade, Isaac (winter scenes) e ° Painter. 1617 1671 
Eng. Owen, William . e ° ° Painter. 1769 1825 

P 
Amer. Page, Wm. e ° e ° . Painter. 1811 
Fr. Pajou, Augustin : a e e Sculptor, 1780 1808 
Ital. Palladio, Andrew A 5 e Architect. 1518 1580 
Span. Palomino de Castro y Velasco A. ve : . Painter. 1653 1726 
Ital. Pannini, Giov. Paolo ° - Architectural Painter. 1691 1764 
Gr. Parrhasius, of Ephesus e A Painter, f. B. Oo, 420 
Améty. Peale, Charles W. . Historical and Portrait Painter. 1741 1827 
Amer, , Rembrandt r - Painter. 1778 1860 
Ey. Ponsa? Claudius (designed the ey of the Louvre) Architect. 1618 1688 
Ital. Perugino, Peter (the master of Raphael) | . Painter. 1446 1524 
Swiss. Fetitot, John (excelled in enamel) ° j Painter. 1607 1691 
Bel. Peters, Bonaventura . . ° Marine Painter. 1614 1652 
Bel. , Francis Lucas 5 e © iE Painter. 1606 1654 
Bel. , John A ° . Marine Painter. 1635 1677 
Gr. Phidias (the most famous of ancient sculptors) . Sculptor. B. 0.498 B. co. 43h 
Eng. Phillips, Thomas, R.A. . ° ; Port. Painter. 1770 1848 
Fr. Picart, Bernard ‘ p . A Engraver. 1663 1733 
Er Pigalle, John Baptist F ° ° : Sculptor. 1714 1785 
Ital. Pietro, da Pietre ; A Hist. Painter of Rome. 1671 1716 
Fr. Piles, Roger de - -  Authorand Painter. 1635 1708 
Ital. _—‘ Piranesi, John Baptist (16 volumes folio) : Engraver, 1707 1778 
Ital Polidors, da Caravaggio - ° “ Painter. 1495 1548 
Gr. Polycletus (statue of Juno at Argos) ° Sculptor. B. c. 480 
Ital. | Pordenone, Regillo da ; ° ‘ Painter. 1484 1540 
Dutch. Potter, Paul (unequalled in animal painting) . Painter. 1625 1654 
Fr. Poussin, Nicholas (excelled in landscape painting) Painter. 1594 1665 
Ital. Poussin, Gaspar (Dughet) . Landscape Painter. 1618 1675 
Ital. | Piombo, Sebastiano del i “ ; Paiuter. 1485 1547 
Amer. Powers, Hiram . F F : Sculptor, 1805 
Fr. Pradier, Jacques ° 3 i 3 Sculptor. 1798 1852 
Amer, Pratt, Mathew _ : , - Painter. 1784 1808 
Gr. Praxiteles H é 4 A Sculptor. f. 3. c. 880 
Eng. Prout, Samuel ; r ° Water-colorist. 1783 1852 
Fr. Prudhon, of Cluny ° ° . Painter. 1760 1823 
Fr. Puget m : Sculptor, Painter and Architect. 1622 1694 
Eog. Pugin, Augustus A.W. . ; ; . Architect 1811 1883 


1024 


NATION, 


Ital. 
Ital, 
Ger, 


Dutch, 


Ger, 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Ger. 
fr, 
Scot. 
Fr. 
Eng. 
Flem. 
Ital. 
Amer. 
¥r. 
Fr, 
Eng. 
Fiem. 
Scot. 


Dutch. 
Dutch. 
Dutch. 


Dutch. 


Dutch. 


Eng. 


Ttal. 
Ital. 
Ttal. 
Ital, 
Eng. 
Ital. 
Pruss, 
Ger. 
Ger. 
Dutch, 
Ger, 
Ital, 
Gr. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Eng, 
Eng, 
Amer, 
Amer, 
Amer. 


THE WORLD’S PROGRESS, 
B® 
WAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIBD 

Raphael, @’ Urbino (real name Sanzio) A prominent Painter. 1488 1526 
Raphael da Rhegio (Raffaelino) Hist. and Port. Painter. 1552 158¢ 
Rauch, Christian David 4 ° f Sculptor, 1781 1859 
Rembrandt van Byn, Paul Geritz . : 1606 1669 
Retsch, Moritz - e e e Art Designer. 1779 1859 
Reynelds, Sir Joshua ; . ‘ . Painter 1723 1792 
Richardson, Jonathan P Writer on Art and Painter. 1665 1745 
tiedinger, John Elias é . Animal Painter. 1695 1767 
Rober, Fleury e . ° ° Painter. 1797, 

Roberts, David, ° ° e Painter. 1796 1864 
Roland, Philip (Homer in the Louvre) e Sculptor. 1746 1816 
Remoen George . “ = e Painter, 17384 1802 
Roos, Philip Peters e ° ° e Painter. 1655 1705 
Rosa, Salvator ° ° ° ° Paintes, 1614 1673 
Rossiter, Thomas P, e ° . e Painter. 

Roubilliac, L. F. : ° e Sculptor. 1695 1762 
Rousseau, James ‘ : Painter. . 1630 1693 
Rowiliadaon} Th. (ecaricature—Dr. Beate? &o.) Paint. and Eng. 1756 1827 
Rubens, Peter Paul “ j : ° Painter, 1577 1646 
Runciman, Alexander ¢ > . Painter, 1736 1785 
Buysdael, Jacob ‘ . Landscape Painter. 1636 1684 
Ruysdael, Solomon ° 4 . : Painter. 1616 1679 
Byckaert, David ° ° = ° Painter. 1615 1677 
Ryckaert, Martin é ° Landscape Painter. 1591 1636 
Rysbraeck, Ieter ° Landscape Painter, 1657 1716 
Rysbrach, John M. (works in Westaineter Abbey) Sculptor. 1694 1770 

8 

Salvi, John Baptist (Sassoferrato) ; = Painter, 1605 1685 
Salvi, Nicholas ° ° . - Architect. 1699 752 
Sanmicheli, Michael . ° e - Architect. 1484 1559 
Sarto, Andrea del, see Vanwcchi ° e 

Savage, James - . ° ° Architect. 1778 1852 
Seamozzi, Vincent - ° e Architect. 1550 1616 
Sehadow, J. G. . . ° ° Sculptor. 1764 1850 
Schadow, Godenhaus F. W. - A Painter. 1789 
Schadow, Rudolf ° ° ° ° Sculptor. 1786 1822 
Schalken, Godfrey (Candlelight Scenes) ° Painter. 1643 1706 
Scheffer, Ary . ; : , ° Painter 1795 1858 
Schidone, Bartolomeo t ‘-, 2 Painter, 1560 1616 
Scopas ° ° ° . - Sculptor. B. co. 460 B. Cc. 353 
Sharp, William ° 5 ° e Engraver. 1740 1824 
Shattuck, Aaron D. . : Painter, 

Shee, Sir M. A., president Royal iS deiny. . Painter. 1795 1850 
Sherwin, John Keyse’ . . ° « Engraver. 1761 1798 
Smillie, James e e ° ° Engraver, 

———-, George EH. e s e ‘Painter. 


-,dJamesD. . S : e Painter. 


MATION. © 


' Amer. 
Flem, 
Fr. 
Dutch. 
Span. 
Dutch. 
«mer, 
Scot. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Amer, 
Ger. 


TtaL 
Flem, 
Flem., 
Scot. 
Eng. 
Dan. 
Ger. 
Gr. 
Ve ERS 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Fr. 
Amer, 
Eng. 


Eng. 


Amer. 
Eng. 
Amer. 
Dutch. 
Dutch. 
Dutch. 
Dutch. 
Dutch. 
Flem. 


Duter. 


Duich, 
ital. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Bic. 


BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.—ARTISTS. 


NAME AND PROFESSION, 

Smybert, John(b. in Scotland) . ° Painter. 
Snyders. Francis L: doen aud Animal Painter. 
Souiflot, J. G. (church of St. Genevieve at Paris) Architect, 
Spaendonck, Gerradvan : e Flower Painter. 
Spagnoletto, Giuseppe Riberala . 4 - Painter, 
Steen, Jan . ° F ‘4 Painter. 
Stone, William O. e 2 ° Portrait Painter. 
Strange, Robert s ° ° Engraver, 
Strickland, William > ° ° ° “Architect, 
Strutt, Joseph, . ° ° . Author and Painter. 


Stuart, James, author of the Antiquities of Athens Architect, 
Stuart, Gilbert, pupil of Benjamin West : Port. Painter. 


Sunder, Lucas (see Cranach) . ° . Engraver. 
of 
Tenerani, Pietro ; A Sculptor. 
Teniers, David, the elder (pupil of Rubens) . . Painter.’ 
Teniers, David, the younger (pupil of Rubens) ° Painter. 
Thom, Jas. (Tam O’Shanter, &c.) : . Sculptor. 
Thornhill, Sir Jas. . : e Historical Painter. 
'Thorwaldsen, Albert . is é . Sculptor. 
Tieck, Christ Fried . : ‘ Sculptor. 
Timanthes (contemporary with Parrhasius) - Painter. 
Tintoretto (Venetian—pupil of Titian) : : Painter. 
a , 11 (James Robusti) . Y : Painter. 
Titian, the greatest of the Venetian school ° Painter. 
Troyon, Constantine “ . e z Painter. 
Trumbull, Jobn e ° e Historical Painter. 
Turner, J. W.M. . ° e : - Painter. 
U 
Uwins, Thomas, R. A, ° ° e Painter. 
Vv 

Van Beest (b. in Holland P) ° ° Marine Painter, 
Vanbrugh, Sir John (Blenheim and Castle Howard) Arch’t. 
Vanderlyn, John ° . . Historical Painter. 
Vander Neer, Arnold e e Landscape Painter, 
Vandervelde, Adrian . ° . Landscape Painter. 

, the younger . . : . Puinter. 

Wn, marine and battle ° - Painter. 
Vanderwerf, asian Historical Painter, 
Vandyke, Sir Anthony, the ereatant of portrait Painter. 
Vaneyck, Hubert A f Painter. 
Vaneyck, John, brothers Globu of Brusca) «Painter. 
Vannucchi, or Andrea del Sarto . : . Painter. 
Van Vitelli, Louis, a Neapolitan : “ Architect. 


Vasari, George, biographer of artists Architect and Painter. 
Vasi, Joseph - ; Designer and Engraver. 


BORN. 


1684 
1679 
1714 
1746 
1589 
1636 


1721 


1749 
1713 
1756 


1789 
1582 
1610 
1790 
1676 
1772 
1776 


f. 


1480 
1512 
1480 
1813 
1756 
1775 


1783 


B, 


1025 


Cc. 


DIED 
1763 
165? 
1783 
1823 
1656 
1689 


1792 ? 
1854 
1802 
1788 
1828 


1649 
1694 
1850 
1732 
1844 
1851 

240 
1579 
1594 
1579 
1865 
1843 
1851 


1857 


1726 
1852 
1688 
1672 
1707 
1698 
1718 
1646 
1426 
1441 
1530 
1773 
1574 
3782 


1026 THE WORLD’S PROGRESS. 

NATION NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. ED 

Span. Velasquez, Jas. R. de Sylvia y ° - Painter. 1599 1666 

fFlem. WVerboeckhoven, Eugene ; , Cranes of animals. 1799 

Amer. Ver Bryck,C. . : - Landscape Painter. 1813 1844 

Fr. ° Vernet, Horace : ; 2 Historical Painter. 1789 1868 

Fr. Vernet, Joseph . : : : . Painter. 1714 178? 

Ital. | Veronese, Paul (see Cagliari) 

Ital. Verrochio, Andrew, inventor of the method of taking 

features ina plaster mould ° ° Sculptor. 1422 1488 

Eng. Vertue, George (500 plates) . Engraver. 1684 1756 

Ital. Vignola, Jas., Caprarola palace and st. Peter's Architect. 1507 1575 

Ital, Vinci, Leonardo da A : ; Painter. 1452 1519 

Gr. Vitruvius, contemporary of Augustus . Architect. fB.c. 30 

Ital. Volpato, John . s : Engraver. 1733 1802 

Fr. Vouet, Simon, founder of French school, contenipetas ; 

ry of CharlesI. ~. . . . Painter. 1582 1649 

Ww 

Fr. Wailly, Charles de . . " . Architect. 1729 1798 

Amer. Ward, J. Quincy A. : F : Sculptor. 

Eng. Warren, Charles, perfector of engraving on steel Engraver. 1828 

Fr. Watteau, Antoine : . : o Painter. 1684 1721 

Amer. Weir, Robt. W. . ‘ : ‘ - Painter. 1803 

Amer. , James ¥, . ° : Painter. ‘ 

Dan. aParteatline (P) (painted in ‘Aimerica) “ Port. Painter. 

Amer. West, Benjamin : : ‘ Painter. 1738 1820 

Eng. Westall, Richard . . - Historical Painter. 1781 1836 

Eng. , William R, A. br. ° : 4 Designer. 1781 1856 

Amer. White, Edwin 5 5 5 Painter. 

Amer. Whittredge, Worthington A ° Landscape Painter. 

Scot. Wilkie, David F ° - Familiar Life Painter. 1785 1841 

Eng. Wilson, Richard . 5 ; Landscape Painter. 17138 1782 

Eng. Woollett, William . : - . Engraver. 1735 1785 

Dutch. Wouverman, Philip : - Painter. 1620 1668 

Eng. Wren, Sir Christopher (St. Paul’s, &e.) : . <Architect. 1632 1723 

Eng. Wyatt, James (Pantheon, Kew Palace, &.) . Architect. 1743 1813 

Eng. Wyatt,R.J. . . ‘ ° - Sculptor. 1795 1850 
x 

Bpan. Ximenes, Fran. . ° : ; Painter. 1598 1666 
Y 

Fliem. Yples, Charles de A ; . ‘ Painter. 1510 1563, 
yA 

Ital. Zablia, Nicholas 5 : : Architect. 1674 1650 

Gr. Zerzis, celebrated ancient 4 A . Painter. B. 0. 490 B. o. 400 

Ger. Zincke z ; Enamel Portrait Painter. 1684 1769 ¥ 

ital. Zucearo, or Zucchero, Predetine 5 3 . Painter. 1539 1639 | 

ital. | Zuccaro, or Zucchero, Taddeo , P : Painter. 1529 1566 


Lal. Zuccarelli . F = 7 Painter. 1710 1788 


es 


Soke. 


., 


es 
a 
saa 


X 


Poy 


ah 


i 


Fait) 


| APR tT 7 


Orville B. Gorin Library 
Millikin University 
Decatur, Illinois 


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